Class. £ t jT 
Book . . 



I 




) 



CLASSICAL DICTIONARY 



OF GREEK AND ROMAN 

BJOGKAPHY, MYTHOLOGY, AND GEOGRAPHY 

BASED ON THE LARGER DICTIONARIES 

■4- 

BY THE LATE 

SIE WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D. 

Editor of the Latin-English and English-Latin Dictionaries 



REVIHEU THROUGHOUT AND IN PART REWRITTEN BY 

G. E. MAEINDIN, M.A. 

FORMERLY FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRWUF. 



WITH NUMEROUS MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



I 

• ! 

( 
I 



NEW YORK 

1). APPLETON AND CO. 

I, 3 and 5 BOND STREET 
1894 



PEE FAC E 



IHE Classical Dictionary, published more than thirty years ago, of 



X which this book is a revision, was designed by the late Sir William 
Smith to include in a single volume as much of the information 
contained in his larger Dictionaries of Biography and Mythology, and 
of Ancient Geography, as would be serviceable for the upper forms of 
schools, and might make it useful also as a compendious book of 
reference for somewhat more advanced students. 

It was intended chiefly to elucidate the Greek and Roman writers 
usually read in schools, and to the characters and subjects dealt with 
in their works the greatest space was accordingly allotted ; but a large 
number of shorter articles not included within those limits were added, 
as it was not considered expedient to omit any names connected with 
antiquity of which it is expected that some knowledge should be 
possessed by every person who aspires to a liberal education. 

The book has for many years been found useful for the object for 
which it was written, and it is hoped that a revision with the ad- 
vantages of the new light thrown by the writings of more recent 
scholars and explorers will be no less serviceable at the present time. 

The design of this revised edition, projected by Sir William Smith 
more than two years ago, is much the same as that of the older work. 
It is intended for the use of the same class of students, as an aid in 
reading those Greek and Latin authors which will usually be studied 
by them. Hence the old limits are for the most part observed, and, 
as was then said, ' the historical articles include all the names of any 
importance which occur in Greek and Roman writers from the earliest 
times down to the extinction of the Western Empire in the year 470. 
Very few names are inserted which are not included in this period ; 
but still there are some persons who lived after the fall of the Western 
Empire who could not with propriety be omitted in a Classical 
Dictionary. Such is the case with Justinian, whose legislation has 
exercised such an important influence upon the nations of Western 
Europe ; with Theodoric, at whose court lived Cassiodorus and 
Boethius ; and with a few others.' Among the literary articles has 
been included some notice, necessarily brief in many cases, of all 
Greek and Latin authors whose works are extant, and others who 
exercised an important influence upon literature, but whose writings 
have not come down to us. For those, however, who wrote only on 




vi 



PREFACE 



ecclesiastical subjects, the student is referred to the Dictionary of 
Christian Biography. It has been thought that it would be service- 
able, and likely to encourage wider reading, to insert the more 
important ancient authorities (in literature) for each article : fuller 
references are generally to be found in the larger Dictionaries named 
above. 

Since the publication of the older edition so much additional 
knowledge has been acquired in most branches of classical study that it 
has been found necessary, not merely to alter, but practically to rewrite 
many of the articles : this applies particularly to the articles on 
Mythology, and to many of those on Topography. Several new plans 
and maps have been inserted to illustrate the articles on those places 
which are most important in Greek and Roman literature. Among 
these are the map of the Troad and that of Syracuse, which is based 
upon one in Freeman's Sicily. For the alterations in the map of 
Athens, and for the description of the city, much help has been derived 
from Miss Harrison's Mythology and Monuments of Athens, from Dr. 
Lolling's treatise, and from Professor Gardner's New Chapters in 
Greek History, from which book also the plans of Tiryns, Eleusis, 
•and Olympia, with much valuable information, have been taken. In 
altering the maps and plans of Rome, as well as in describing the 
topography, the Editor has been guided chiefly by Professor Middle- 
ton's Remains of Ancient Borne : for the alterations in the map of the 
Roman Wall in Britain, and for other kind help, he is indebted to 
Mr. Haverfield. Several new cuts also have been substituted for 
those which were intended to illustrate the articles on mythology or 
on art. 

Considerations of space have made it impossible to give any refer- 
ences to the modern authorities for each article, but it is thought that 
those who wish to make a fuller study of any matter which is here 
concisely treated will sometimes find useful a short Appendix which 
has been added to give a few of the more important and more accessible 
works in different branches of classical study. It must also serve to 
express obligations to the writers which the Editor could not acknow- 
ledge under the separate articles. 

Throughout the progress of the work Sir William Smith, con- 
stantly directed and supervised it with all his knowledge and patient 
carefulness up to the time of his death : the last part of the book has 
been deprived of the great advantage of his guidance. 

G. E. Marindin. 



January 1894. 



A CLASSICAL DICTION AEY 



BIOGRAPHICAL, MYTHOLOGICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL 




ABA 

Aba. [Abus.] 

Abacaenum ! 'A&aKatvov or ra 'AfSaKziva: 
'A0aKatv7vos : nr. Trijii, Ru.), a town of the 
Siculiin Sicily, 
about 4 mile.-> 
from the X. 
coast, between 
Tyndaris and 
Mylae. The 
Coin of Abacaenum in Sicily, boar and acorn 
Ol.r., head of Zeus ; ivr., boar and acorn. qh coins of 

Abacaenum refer to the forest of oaks covering 
the neighbouring mountains and affording pas- 
ture to herds of swine (Diod. xix. 65, 110 1. 

Abas i"A/?ot: 'A&aTos: nr. ExarchC, Ru.), a 
town in the N.W. of Phocis, said to have been 
founded by the Argive Abas. [Abas, Abantes. 
It possessed a temple and oracle of Apollo 
(Soph. Oed. T. 899), hence surnamed Abaeus. 
Tlie temple was destroyed in the invasion of 
Xerxes, and a second time in the sacred war : 
it was rebuilt by Hadrian iHdt. i. 46, viii. 27, 
33, 184 ; Paus. x. 85). 

Abalus, said by Pytheas to be an island in 
the northern ocean, where amber was found, 
probably a portion of the Prussian coast upon 
the Baltic (Plin. xxxvii. «s 35 ; Diod. v. 23 1. 

Abantes fAQavresi, the ancient inhabitants 
of Euboea (Horn. II. ii. 586), hence called Aba li- 
tis and Abantias lEur. Hire. Far. 185; Plin. 
iv. ^ 641. Hence Abantius, Euboean (Stat. S. 
iv. h, 46). The Abantes are said to have first 
settled in Phocis, where they built Abae, and 
afterwards to have crossed over to Euboea. The 
Abantes of Euboea assisted in colonising several 
Ionic cities of Asia Minor iHdt. i. 146). 

Abantiades, Abantias. Visas.] 

Abantidas i'A 3avTi5asi, murdered Clinias, 
the father of Aratus, and became tyrant of 
Sicyon, B.C. 264 (Plut. Arat. 2; Paus. ii. 8, 2). 

Abaris, idis, acc. Abarim ("A/Sapis, iSoi). 
1. A Hyperborean priest of Apollo who came 
to Greece, while his own country was visited 
by a plague, about B.C. 570. His history is 
mythical: he is said to have taken no earthly 
food, and to have ridden on his arrow, the gift 
of Apollo, through the air. He cured diseases 
by incantations, and delivered t- 1 1 ■ ■ world from 
a plague. Oracles and charms under his name 



ABDERA 

passed current in later times (Hdt. iv. 36; 
Plat. Charm, p. 158; Paus. iii. 13, 2i. — 2. Or 
Avaris, the fortified camp of the Hykscs during 
their occupation of Egypt, on the E. of the Pe- 
lusiac branch of the Nile (Joseph, c. Apion. i. 
14 1. Hence Abarltanus (Plin. xvi. 172'. 

Abarais i v A/3apm or "A&apvos : 'Afiapvevs), a 
town near Lampsacus on the Asiatic side of 
the Hellespont (Xen. Hell. ii. 1, 29). 

Abas, antis ( J A&as, avros), twelfth king of 
Argos, son of Lynceus, grandson of Danaus, 
and father of Acrisius. When he informed his 
father of the death of Danaus, he was rewarded 
with the shield of his grandfather, which was 
sacred to Hera. This shield performed various 
marvels. It was gained by Aeneas ('magni 
gestamen Abantis,' Verg. Aen. iii. 286). Abas 
is described as a successful conqueror and the 
founder of Abae in Phocis. [Abae.] Hence (i.) 
Abanteus, adj. lOv. M. xv. 164). (ii.) Aban- 
tiades i 'A/3avTia57js), a descendant of Abas : his 
son Acrisius (Ov. M. iv. 607), his great -grandson 
Perseus, by Danae, daughter of Acrisius (Ov. 
M. iv. 673, Am. iii. 12, 24). liii.) Abantias, 
adia ('AQavTias, dSosj, a female descendant of 
Abas, i.e. Danae. [Danae.] 

AbatOS, i, /. ("A&aros, i.e. inaccessible), a 
rocky island in the Xile, near Philae (Sen. 
Q. .V. iv. 2, 7 ; Luc. x. 323). 

Abbassus, a town of Phrygia (Liv. xxxviii. 15). 

Abdera (to 'ABSripa, Abdera, ae, /., ai.d 
Abdera, orum, n. : ' ABi^pirris, Abdcrites and 




Coin of Abdera in Thrace. 
Ohm., a griffin, as symbol of Apollo's worship ; 'Callldn- 
not*,' as the magistrate of the year ; rev., A/SiyptTtw sur- 
rounding a square. 

Abderita, ae, to.). 1. A town of Thrace, rear 
the mouth of the Nestus. According to inytho- 

B 



ABDEBUS 



ABUS 



logy, it was founded by Heracles in honour of 
Abdebus ; but according to history, it was 
colonised first by Timesius of Clazomenae about 
B.C. 656, and a second time by the inhabitants 
■of Teos in Ionia, who settled there after their 
own town had been taken by the Persians 544 
(Hdt. i. 168). Abdera was a nourishing town 
when Xerxes invaded Greece (Hdt. vii. 120), 
and continued a place of importance under the 
Bomans, who made it a free city. It was the 
birthplace of Democritus, Protagoras, and An- 
axarchus ; but in spite of this its inhabitants 
passed into a proverb for stupidity ( Juv. x. 50 ; 
Mart. x. 25, 4; Cic. Att. iv. 16 (17), vii. 7). 
Hence Abderitanus, stupid (Mart. I. c). — 
2. (Adra), a town of Hispania Baetica on the 
■coast, founded by the Phoenicians (Strab. p. 157; 
Plin.iii.§8). 

Abderus ("A/38?jpos), a favourite of Heracles, 
torn to pieces by the mares of Diomedes 
(Apollod. ii. 5). [Abdeea.] 

Abdolonymus or Abdalonimus, also called 
Ballonymus (Diod. xvii. 46), a gardener, but of 
royal descent, made king of Sidon by Alexan- 
der the Great (Curt. iv. 1, 19 ; Just. xi. 10, 8). 

Abella or Avella (Abellanus : Avella vec- 
chia), a town of Campania, not far from Nola, 
founded by the Chalcidians in Euboea (Just, 
xx. 1), afterwards an Oscan town, was celebrated 
for its apples, whence Virgil (Aen. vii. 740) calls 1 
it malifera, and for its great filberts (of. Sil. 
viii. 545), nuces Avellanae (Plin. xv. § 88). 

Abellinum (Abelllnas : Avellino), a town of 
the Hirpini in Samnium (Plin, iii. § 63). Pliny 
(iii. § 105) speaks of two towns of this name : 
'Abellinates cognomine Protropi' and ' Abelli- 
nates .cognominati Marsi.' 

Abelox, Abelux, or Abilyx (A/3i'Av|), a Spa- 
niard of noble birth, who betrayed the Spanish 
hostages at Saguntum to the Boman generals 
(Liv. xxii. 22; Pol. iii. 98, &c). 

Abeona (from abeo) and Adeona, Boman 
goddesses who protected children in their first 
attempts to walk (Aug. Civ. Dei, iv. 21, vii. 3). 

Abgarus, Acbarus, or Augarus ("A&yapos, 
'AK&apos, Avyapos), a name common to many 
rulers of Edessa, the capital of Osroene in 
Mesopotamia (Tac. A. xii. 12). Of these rulers 
one is supposed by Eusebius (H. E. i. 33) to 
have been the author of a letter written to 
Christ, which is believed to be spurious. 

Abia {ri 'AySi'cs : nr. Zarnata), a town of Bles- 
senia, on the Messenian gulf, said to have been 
the same as the Ire of the Iliad (ix. 292), and 
to have been called Abia after Abia, the nurse 
of Hyllus, a son of Heracles. Subsequently it 
belonged to the Achaean League, and existed 
in the time of Hadrian (Paus. iv. 30; Pol. 
xxv. 1). 

Abli CA/3ioi)i a Thracian tribe mentioned by 
Homer (II. xiii. 6) as the justest of men (Strab. 
p. 296). At a later time they are described 
as a Scythian people in Asia (Curt. vii. 6, 11 ; 
Arr. An. iv. 1 ; Amm. xxiii. 6, 53). 

Ablla (to. ''Afiika : 'A@i\r)v6s). 1. A town of 
Coele-Syria, on the eastern slope of Anti- 
Libanus, afterwards called Claudiopolis, the 
capital of the tetrarchy of Abilene. — 2. A town 
in the Decapolis. 

Abisares ('AjSnraprjs), also called Embisarus 
(Diod. xvii. 90), an Indian king beyond the 
river Hydaspes, sent embassies to Alexander 
the Great (Curt. viii. 43, 13, ix. 1, 7, x. 3, 20 ; 
Arr. An. v. 8, 3, 20, 5). 

Abnoba Mons, the range of hills covered by 
the Black Forest in Germany, in which the 
Danube rises (Tac. (?. 1 ; Plin. iv. § 79). Hence 



Abnoba Diana, or simply Abnoba, the goddess 
of this mountain (Orelli, Inscr. 1986, 4974). 

Abonitichos {'Afiwvov reixos), a town of Pa- 
phlagonia on the Black Sea, with a harbour, 
afterwards called Ionopolis (?lt»v6-wo\is), whence 
its modern name Ineboli, the birthplace of the 
pretended prophet Alexander, of whom Lucian 
has left us an account (Strab. p. 545). 

Aborigines, the original inhabitants of a 
country, equivalent to the Greek avr6xSoves. 
But the Aborigines in Italy are in the Latin 
writers an ancient people who originally dwelt 
in the mountain districts round Beate, and 
drove the Siculi out of Latium, where they 
took the name of Latini from their king Latinus 
(Dionys. i. 9, 60; Liv. i. 1,2; Sail. Cat. 6; 
Varr. L. L. v. § 53; Cic. Hep. ii. 3). We find, 
in the neighbourhood of Beate, a district called 
the Cicolano, vestiges of ancient cities which, 
from the polygonal style of their construction, 
have been referred to a very early period. 

Aborrhas. [Chaboeas.] 

Abradatas {'AfipaSdras), a king of Susa and 
an ally of the Assyrians against Cyrus, whose 
history and that of his wife Panthea are told in 
Xenophon's Cyropaedia (v. 1, 3, vi. 1, 31, &c.) 

Abrincatui, a Gallic tribe (Plin. iv. § 107), 
whence the modern Avranches. 

Abrocomas ['AflpoKdfias), a satrap of Arta- 
xerxes Mnemon, sent with an army to oppose 
Cyrus on his march into Upper Asia, B.C. 401. 
He retreated before Cyrus (Xen. An. i. 3, 20, &c). 

Abrocomes, son of Darius, slain at Thermo- 
pylae (Hdt. vii. 224). 

Abronichus {'Afip&vixos), an Athenian served 
in the Persian war, B.C. 480, subsequently sent 
as ambassador to Sparta with Themistocles and 
Aristides^ (Hdt. viii. 21 ; Thuc. i. 91). 

Abrotonum, mother of Themistocles (Plut. 
Thern.l). 

Abrotonum ('AjSpdroiw), a Phoenician city 
on the coast of N. Africa, between the Syrtes, 
identified with Sabrata, though Pliny makes 
them different places (Strab. p. 835 ; Plin. v. § 27). 
It formed, with Oea and Leptis Magna, the 
African Tripolis. 

Absyrtides or Apsyrtides, sc. insulae {' App- 
rises : Cher so and Osero), two islands off the 
coast of Illyricum (Strab. p. 315 ; Plin. iii. 
§ 151). [Absybttjs.] 

Absyrtus or Apsyrtus (* ' Atyvpros), son of 
Aee'tes, king of Colchis, and brother of Medea. 
There are two accounts of his death. 1. According 
to one, Absyrtus was taken, when a small child, 
by Jason and Medea on their flight from Colchis, 
and was murdered by Medea, and his body cut 
in pieces, that her father might thus be detained 
by gathering them. Tomi, the place where this 
horror was committed, was believed to have de- 
rived its name from rifivw, 'cut' (Ov. Tr. iii. 
9, 5, Her. vi. 129, xii. 113 ; Cic. Leg. Man. 9, 
22). 2. According to another tradition, Absyrtus, 
when a young man, was sent out by his father in 
pursuit of Medea. He overtook her in certain 
islands off the Illyrian coast, where he was slain 
by Jason (Hygin. F. 23, 26). Absyrtus is 
called by some writers Aegialeus (Pacuv. ap. 
Cic. N.D. iii. 19, 48 ; Diod. iv. 45 ; Just. xlii. 3). 

Abulites ('A/3oi/An-7)s), satrap of Susiana, sur- 
rendered Susa to Alexander, who restored to 
him the satrapy ; but he and his son Oxyathres 
were afterwards executed by Alexander (Arr. 
An. iii. 16, vii. 4 ; Curt. v. 2; Diod. xvii. 65). 

Aburnus Valens. [Valens.] 

Abus (o "A,6oy) or Aba (Plin. v. § 83), a 
mountain in Armenia, identified with the 
Ararat of Scripture (Strab. pp. 527, 531). 



ABU 3 



ACANTHUS 



3 



Abus (Humber), a river in Britain. 

Abyderms {'AfSuSrivos), a Greek historian of 
uncertain date, wrote a history of Assyria in the 
Ionic dialect, valuable for chronology. The 
fragments are given by Miiller, Fragm. Hist. 
Grnec. iv. 278. 

Abydos ^ "A0u5os, Abydum, Plin. v. $ 141 : 
' Afiuowvos , Abydenus). 1. A town of the Troad 
on the Hellespont, and a Milesian colony (Thuc. 
viii. 61,i nearly opposite to Sestos, but a little 
lower down the stream. It is mentioned as an 
ally of the Trojans (II. ii. 836). The bridge of 
boats which Xerxes constructed over the Helles- 
pont, B.C. 480, commenced a little higher up 
thin Abydos, and touched the European shore 
between Sestos and Madytus (Herod, vii. 33). 
In 411 Abydus revolted from Athens (Thuc. 




Coin of Abydos. 
Ohr., Artemis; r*r., eagle. 



viii. 62). On the conclusion of the war with 
Philip i B.C. 196), the Romans declared Abydus, 
with other Asiatic cities, to be free I Li v. xxxiii. 
SO). The names of Abydus and Sestos are 
coupled together in the story of Hero and 
Leander, who is said to have swum across the 
channel to visit his mistress at Sestos. Hence 
Leander is called Abydenus (Ov. H. xviii. 1 ; 
Stat. S. 1, 2, 87). Abydus was celebrated for its 
oysters (ostrifer, Verg. G. i. 207 1. — 2. ( Xr. A rabat 
el Matfoon and El Birbeh, Ru.,i,a city of Upper 
Egypt, near the W. bank of the Nile ; once 
second only to Thebes, but in Strabo's time-(A.D. 
14) a small village. It had a temple of Osiris 
and a Meynnonium, both still standing, and an 
oracle. Here was found the inscription known 
as the Table of Abydos, which contains a list of 
the Egyptian kings (Strab. p. 813 sq. ; Plut. 
Is. et Osir. IS ; Plin. v. § 60). 

Abyla or Abila Mons or Columna CA&vKi) or 
'A0iKri <Tri]hr) or upos : Jebel Zatout, i.e. Apes' 
Hill, above Centa), a mountain in Mauretania 
Tingitana, forming the E. extremity of the S. or ; 
African coast of the Fretum Gaditanum. This 
and M. Calpe (Gibraltar), opposite to it on the 
Spanish coast, were called the Columns of 
liercule's, from the fable that they were origi- 
nally one mountain, which was torn asunder by 
Heracles (Strab. p. 829 ; Mel. ii. 6). 

Acacallis CAKaxaWis), daughter of Minos, 
by whom Hermes begot a son Cydon, and 
Apollo a son Miletus, as well as other children. 
Acacallis was in Crete a common name for a 
narcissus (Paus. viii. 52, 2 ; Athen. xv. p. 681). 

Acaceslum ('AKaK-omov : 'Ajcok^o-ioj), a town 
of Arcadia, at the foot of a hill of the same 
name (Paus. viii. 3, 2; 27, 4; 36, 10). 

Acacesins (Akok^o-ios), a surname of Hermes 
(Cnllim. Hym. in Dian. 143), for which Homer 
(77. xvi. 185; Od. xxiv. 10) uses the form 
a«ox7jTa (aKaff7)TT)$). Some derive it from the 
town of Acaccsium, others from kokos, the god 
who cannot be hurt, or who does not hurt. It 
is also given to Prometheus (Hes. Theoy. 614), 
whence it may be inferred that its meaning is 
deliverer from evil. 



I Acacetes. [Acacesits.] 
i Academia or la ('A/caSifjjueio; or 'AKah'ifila: 
also Academia in the older Latin writers', a 
i piece of land on the Cephissus, 6 stadia from 
Athens, originally belonging to the hero Aca- 
DE3TUS (Plut. Thes. 32j, and subsequently a 
gymnasium, adorned by Cimon with plane and 
olive plantations, statues, and other works of 
art (Diog. Laert. iii. 7; Plut. Cim. 13; Paus. i. 
29, 3). Here taught Plato, and after him his 
followers, who were hence called the Academici. 
or Academic philosophers (Cic. de Or. i. 21. 9S. 
Fin. i. 1, 1). When Sulla besieged Athens in 
B.C. 87, he cut down the plane trees in order to 
construct his military machines (Plut. Sull. 12 ; 
App. Mithr. 30); but the place was restored 
soon afterwards. Cicero gave the name of Aca- 
demia to his villa near Puteoli, where he wrote 
his ' Academica.' He had another Academia in 
his Tusculan villa (Cic. Tusc. ii. 3, 9, iii. 3, 7 ; 
ad Att. i. 4, 3). 
Academici. [Acadehia.] 
Academus {'AKo.h-qij.os), an Attic hero, who 
betrayed to Castor and Pollux, when they in- 
vaded Attica to liberate their sister Helen, that 
she was kept concealed at Aphidnae. For this 
the Lacedaemonians, whenever they invaded 
Attica, spared the Academy (Plut. Thes. 32 ; 
Theogn. 975 ; Hor. Ep. ii. i, 45). 

Acalandrus ' AKaXo.vh'pos : Calandro),& river 
in Lucania, flowing into the gulf of Tarentum 
(Plin. iii. 97 ; Strab. p. 280). 

Acamas (A«ouas). 1. Son of Theseus and 
Phaedra, accompanied Dioniedes to Troy to 
demand the surrender of Helen (Diod. iv. 62). 
He was one of the Greeks concealed in the 
wooden horse at the taking of Troy (Verg. Aen. 
ii. 262). The promontory of Acamas in Cyprus 
(Plin. v. § 129), the town of Acamantium in 
Phrygia, and the Attic tribe Acamantis, derived 
their names from him (Paus. i. 5, § 2). He was 
the tribe hero of the Ceramicus according to an 
inscription (Mitt. iv. 8). — 2. Son of Antenor 
and Theano, slain by Meriones (27. ii. 823, xii. 
100, xiv. 476, xvi. 342). — 3. Son of Eussorus, a 
leader of the Thracians in the Trojan war (77. 
ii. 844, v. 462), slain by the Telamonian Ajax ill. 
vi. 8). - 

Acanthus ["AkclvSos), a Lacedaemonian, victor 
in the Olympic games in 01. 15 (B.C. 720), the 
first who ran quite naked (Paus. v. 8, 3 ; Dio- 
nys. vii. 72 ; cf. Thuc. i. 0). 

Acanthus. 1. ("AnavSos : 'AkolvBios, Acan- 
thius : Erisso), a town on the isthmus connect- 
ing the peninsula of Acte with Chalcidice. and 
about 14 mile above the canal of Xerxes. 
[Athos.J It was founded by a colony from 
Andros. Xerxes stopped here on his march into 
Greece (B.C. 480). It surrendered to Brasidas 
424 and its independence was guaranteed in 




the treaty of peace made between Athens and 
Sparta. It afterwards became subject to Mace- 
donia. In the war between the Romans and 
Philip (200) Acanthus was taken and plundered 

B 2 



4 ACAENAN 

by the fleet of the republic. On the coin of 
Acanthus figured above is a lion killing a bull, 
which justifies the account of Herodotus (vii. 
125), that on the march of Xerxes from Acan- 
thus to Therme, lions seized the camels which 
carried the provisions (Hdt. vii. 115 seq., 121 
seq. ; Thuc. iv. 84 seq., v. 18 ; Xen. Hell. v. 2 ; 
Liv. xxxi. 45; Strab. p. 330).— 2. (Dashour), a 
city of Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, 120 
stadia S. of Memphis, with a temple of Osiris, 
so called from a sacred enclosure composed of 
the Acanthus (Strab. p. 809 ; Diod. i. 97). 

Acarnan ('AKapvdv, -aucs), one of the Epi- 
goni, son of Alcmaeon and Callirrhoe, and 
brother of Amphoterus. Their father was mur- 
dered by Phegeus when they were young, and 
Callirrhoe prayed to Zeus to make her sons grow 
quickly, that they might avenge their father's 
death. When they grew up, they slew Phegeus, 
and went to Epirus, where Acarnan founded 
the state called after him Acarnania (Thuc. ii. 
102 ; Apollod. iii. 3, 5; Ov. M. ix. 413). 

Acarnania (' ' AKapvavia : 'Aitapvav, -avos, 
Acarnan, anis, acc. ana, pi. anas, Liv. xxxvi. 
11,6; Epit. 53: adj.' A<apva.viKos, Acarnanlcus), 
the most westerly province of Greece, was 
bounded on the N. by the Ambracian gulf, on 
the W. and SW. by the Ionian Sea, on the NE. 
by Amphilochia, which is sometimes included 
in Acarnania, and on the E. by Aetolia. It con- 
tained about 1,571 square miles. Its chief 
river is the Achelous, hence called 'amnis 
Acarnan ' ( Sil. It. iii. 42) and ' amnis Acarnanum ' 
(Ov. M. viii. 569) : the river god is represented 
on the coins of Acarnania as a bull with the 




Coin of Acarnania. 
Obv., head of river-god Achelous ; rev., Apollo. 



head of a man. [Achelous.] The name of Acar- 
nania does not occur in Homer. In the most 
ancient times the land was inhabited by the 
Taphii, Teleboae, and Leleges, and subsequently 
by the Curetes, who emigrated from Aetolia and 
settled there (Strab. p. 465). At a later time a 
colony from Argos, said to have been led by 
Acarnan, the son of Alcmaeon, settled in the 
country. In the seventh century B.C. the Co- 
rinthians founded several towns on the coast. 
The Acarnanians first emerge from obscurity 
at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, 
B.C. 431, when they sided with the Athenians 
(Thuc. iii. 105 seq.). They were then a rude 
people, living by piracy and robbery, and they 
always remained behind the rest of the Greeks 
in civilisation and refinement. They were good 
slingers, and are praised for their fidelity and 
courage. They espoused the side of Philip in 
his war with the Romans (Liv. xxxiii. 16, 17). 
The different towns formed a League with a 
Strategus at their head in the time of war : the 
members of the League met at Stratos, and 
subsequently at Thyrium or Leucas. Under 
the Romans Acarnania formed part of the pro- 
vince of Epirus. 

Acastus (* Akcuttos), son of Pelias, king of 
Iolcus, one of the Argonauts (Apoll. Rhod. 
i. 224), also took part in the Calydonian hunt 



L. ACCIUS 

(Ov. M. viii. 306). His sisters were induced 
by Medea to cut up their father and boil him, 
in order to make him young again, whereupon 
Acastus drove Jason and Medea from Iolcus, 
and instituted funeral games in honour of his 
father (Paus. iii. 18, 9 ; Apollod. i. 9, 27 ; Ov. Jkf. 
vii. 297, seq. xi. 409). During these games 
Astydamia, the wife of Acastus, also called 
Hippolyte (called by Horace, Od. iii. 7, ll,Mag- 
nessa, from Magnesia in Thessaly, to distinguish 
her from the Amazon), fell in love with Peleus, 
who refused to listen to her addresses ; where- 
upon she accused him to her husband of having 
attempted her dishonour (Pind. Nem. iv. 56, v. 
25). Afterwards, when Acastus and Peleus were 
hunting on mount Pelion, Acastus took his 
sword from him when he had fallen asleep. He 
was in consequence nearly destroyed by the 
Centaurs ; but he was saved by Chiron or 
Hermes, returned to Acastus, and killed him 
together with his wife. 
Acbarus. [Abgabus.] 

Acca Larentia (not Laurentia), a mythical 
woman in early Roman story, connected with the 
legends of Romulus and Hercules, (i.) According 
to one account she was the wife of the shepherd 
Paustulus, and the nurse of Romulus and Remus 
after they had been taken from the she- wolf . She 
was the mother of twelve sons, and when one of 
them died Romulus stepped into his place, and 
took in conjunction with the remaining eleven 
the name of Fratres Arvales. Prom the play 
upon the words lupus and lupa, she was also 
represented as a prostitute (lupa), who left 
the property she gained in that way to the 
Roman people. A festival, Larentalia [or 
Larentinalia] was celebrated in her honour on 
the 23rd of December by the Flamen Quirinalis 
as the representative of Romulus in the Vela- 
brum, where she died (Gell. vii. 7, 7 ; Plin. xviii. 
§ 6 ; Ov. F. iii. 57 ; Macrob. i. 10, 11 ; Varr. 
L.L. vi. 23 ; Liv. i. 4). (ii.) According to an- 
other account, in the reign of Romulus or Ancus 
Martius a servant (aedituus) of the templa of 
Hercules invited the god to a game of dice, 
promising that if he should lose the game he 
would treat the god with a repast and a beauti- 
ful woman. When the god had conquered the 
servant, the latter shut up Acca Larentia, with 
the surname Fabula or Faula, a beautiful 
prostitute, together with a well-stored table, 
in the temple of Hercules. On the following 
morning the god advised her to gain the affec- 
tions of the first wealthy man she should meet. 
She succeeded in making Tarrutius or Carutius, 
an Etruscan, love and marry her. After his 
death she inherited his large property, which 
she left to the Roman people (Gell. vii. 7, 6; 
Macrob. i. 10, 12, 16 ; Plut. Bom. 4, 5, Qu. B. 
35 ; Lactant. i. 20, 5 ; August. CD. vi. 7). The 
name Acca probably signifies mother (of. Skr. 
akka), and the epithet Larentia probably refers 
to the 12 Lares or Arvales. 

L. Accius or AttlUS, an early Roman tragic 
poet, son of a freedman, born B.C. 170, lived to 
a great age. Cicero, when grown up, conversed 
with him (Brut. 28). His tragedies were chiefly 
imitated from the Greeks, but he also wrote 
some on Roman subjects (Praetextata) ; one, 
entitled Brutus, was probably in honour of his 
patron D. Brutus (Cic. Arch. 11, 27 ; Leg. ii. 21, 
54 ; Phil. i. 15, 36, ii. 3, 31 ; ad Att. xvi. 5). We 
possess only fragments of his tragedies, but they 
are highly spoken of by ancient writers (Cic. 
Plane. 24, 59, Sest. 56, 120; Hor. Bp. ii. 1, 56). 
He also wrote Annates in verse, containing the 
history of Rome ; and three prose works, ' Libri 



AC CO 



ACHAIA 



5 



Didascalieon,' apparently a history of poetry. 
The fragments of his tragedies are given by 
Eibbeck, Tragic. Lat. liehq.; and those of 
the Didascalica by Madvig, Hafn. 1831. 

Acco, a chief of the Senones in Gaul, induced ; 
his countrymen to revolt against Caesar, B.C. 53, | 
by whom he was put to death (B. G. vi. 4, 44). 

Accua, a town of Apulia (Liv. xxiv. 20). 

Ace. [Ptolemais.] 

Acerbas, a Tyrian priest of Heracles, who 
married Elissa, the sister of king Pygmalion 
(Justin, xviii. 4). In the narrative of Justin, 
Acerbas is the same person as Sichaeus, and 
Elissa the same as Dido in Virgil (Aen. i. 343 j 
sen.), of whom the same tale is told. [Dido.] 

Acerrae (Acerranus). 1. (Acerra), a town 
in Campania on the Clanius, received the 
Eoman franchise in B.C. 332. It was destroyed 
by Hannibal, but was rebuilt (Liv. xxiii. 17, 
xxvii. 3;. It suffered from the frequent inunda- 
tions of the Clanius (Verg. G. ii. 225 ; Sil. It. 
viii. 3571. — 2. (Gerra), a town of the Insubres in 
Gallia Transpadana on the Adda, a fortified 
place (Pol. ii. 34; Plut. Marc. G; Strabo, p. 
247l. — 3. A town of Umbria with the epithet 
Vatriae (Plin. iii. § 114). 

Acerronia, drowned in b.c. 59, when an at- 
tempt was made to drown Agrippina, the mother 
of Nero (Tac. Ann. xiv. 4: Dion Cass. lxi. 13). 

Cn. Acerronms Procllus, consul a.d. 37, in 
which vear Tiberius died (Tac. Ann. vi. 45; 
Suet. Tib. 73). 

Aces ('AK7js), a river in central Asia, E. of 
the Caspian iHdt. iii. 117). 

Acesas ['Axtaas), born at Salamis in Cyprus, 
famed for weaving cloth with variegated 
patterns. He and his son Helicon were the first 
who made a peplus for Athena Polias (Ath. 
p. 18), which is mentioned by Euripides (Hec. 
408) and Plato (Euthyphr. § 6). 

Acesines ( AkzHivus). 1. (Chenaub), a river 
in India, into which the Hydaspes flows, and 
which itself flows into the Indus (Arr. An. v. 
20, 13 ; Strab. p. 692 ; 'AkmtTvos, Diod. ii. 37 ; 
Plin. vi. § 71, xvi. § 102). — 2. tCantara), a river 
in Sicily, near Tauromenium (Thuo. iv. 25), 
called by Pliny (iii. § 88) Asixes. 

Acesta. [Segesta.J 

Acestes ( A/ce'<rT7js, Atyevros), son of a Trojan 
woman, Egesta or Segesta, sent by her father 
to Sicily, that she might not be devoured by 
the monsters which infested the territory of 
Troy. In Sicily the river-god Crimisus begot 
by her a son Acestes, who founded the town 
of Acesta or Segesta. Aeneas, on his arrival in 
Sicily, was hospitably received by Acestes (Verg. 
Arii. i. 550, v. 35 ; Ov. M. xiv. 83). Dionysius 
(i. 52) has a different legend. 

Acestor {' Axiarup). 1. Surnamed Sacas, on 
account of his foreign origin, a tragic poet at 
Athens, and a conteniporarv of Aristophanes 
(An. 31 ; Vrsp. 1210). — 2. A sculptor of Cnossus, 
about B.C. 452 iPaUB. vi. 17, 2, x. 15, 4). 

Achaei ('Ax<«oi') are represented as descen- 
dants of Achaeus, the son of Xutlius and 
Creusa, and consequently the brother of Ion 
and grandson of Hellen (Apollod. i. 7, 3 ; Strab. 
883; Pans. vii. 1, 2). There was no broad dis- 
tinction of race between them and the Hellenes, 
whose name afterwards prevailed. Like the 
Hellenes, they were confined to the western 
side of the Aegean, except that Od. xix. 175 
mentions them in Crete. [For the supposed 
Achaeans on Egyptian monuments of the 14th 
cent. b.c. see Axovi'Tcs.] In the heroic age they 
are found in the southern part of Thessaly 
[Achaia, 1], and also in the eastern port of Pelo- 



ponnesus, more especially in Argos and Sparta. 
Homer describes them as a brave and war- 
like people, and calls the Greeks in general 
Achaeans or Panachaeans (Uavaxaioi, II. ii. 
404, vii. 73, &c). In the same manner Pelo- 
ponnesus, and sometimeb the whole of Greece, 
is called by the poet the Achaean land 
('Axaiis yaia, II. i. 254, Od. xiii. 249). So 
also the Eoman poets use Achaia and the 
derivative adjectives as equivalent to Greece 
and Grecian (Ov. M. viii. 208, v. 300; Verg. 
Aen. ii. 402 ; Juv. iii. 61). On the conquest 
of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, after the 
Trojan war, the Achaeans were driven out of 
Argos and Laconia, and those who remained 
behind were reduced to the condition of a con- 
quered people. Most of the expelled Achaeans, 
led by Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, pro- 
ceeded to the northern coast of Pelopon- 
nesus, which was called simply Aegialus 
tAiyuz\6s) or the 'Coast,' and was inhabited 
by Ionians. The latter were defeated by the 
Achaeans and crossed over to Attica and Asia 
Minor, leaving their country to their conquerors, 
from whom it was henceforth called Achaia 
(Strab. p. 383 ; Paus. vii. 1 ; Pol. ii. 41 ; Hdt. i. 
143 1. [Achaia.] 

Achaemenes (Axai,ueV?js. 1. Ancestor of 
the Persian kings, who founded the family of 
the Achaemenidae ('Axai,uei/i5ai), which was 
the noblest family of the Pasargadae (Hdt. 
i. 125; iii. 75, vii" 11; Hor. Od. ii. 12, 21). 
The Eoman poets use Achaemenius in the 
sense of Persian (Ov. M. iv. 212; Hor. Carm. 
iii. 1, 44 1. — 2. Son of Darius I., governor of 
Egypt, commanded the Egyptian fleet in the 
expedition of Xerxes against Greece, B.C. 480. 
He was killed in battle by Inarus the Libvan, 
400 (Hdt. iii. 12, vii. 7, 97; Diod. xi. 74). 

Achaemenides, or Achemeuides, a com- 
panion of Ulysses, who left him behind in Sicily 
when he fled from the Cyclops. Here he was 
found by Aeneas (Verg. Aen. iii. 614 ; Ov. Mi. 
xiv. 101, Pont. ii. 2, 25 and 107). 

Achaeus t'Axai6s). 1. Son of Xuthus. the 
mythical ancestor of the Achaei. — 2. Of Eretria 
in Eubcea, a tragic poet, born B.C. 484. In 447, 
he contended with Sophocles and Euripides, 
and though he brought out many dramas, he 
only gained the prize once. In the satirical 
drama he possessed considerable merit (Diog. 
Laert. ii. 133 ; Athen. p. 451 ; Ov. Ib. 548). The 
fragments have been published by Urlichs 
(1834) and Eauch, Trag. Graec. Fragm. 
(1850). — 3. A later tragic poet, a native of 
Syracuse, wrote ten tragedies. — 4. Governor 
under Antiochus HI. of all Asia W. of mount 
Taurus, revolted against Antiochus, and was 
put to death, B.c 214 (Pol. iv. 51, 68, viii. 17, 
seq. ; Ov. Ib. 301). 

Achaia {'Axoia, Ion. 'Axaur] : 'Axai6s, 
Achaeus, Aahivri9,/etti. and adj. 'Axaias, Achil- 
las, Achais: Adj. 'AxaiKds Achaieus, Achaius). 

A district in the S. of Thessaly, in which 
Phtliia and Hellas were situated, the original 
I abode of the Achaeans, who were hence called 
Plithiotan Achaeans ('Axato't oi 4>8iwrai) to dis- 
tinguish them from t lie Achaeans in the Pclo- 
! ponnesus. It was from this part of Thessaly 
j that Achilles came ill. ii. 084). This district 
retained the name of Actinia in the time of 
Herodotus (vii. 173. 197 1. and the inhabitants of 
Phtliia were called Phthiotan Achaeans till a 
still luter period (Time. viii. 8}, — 2. A province 
in the X. of Peloponnesus, extended along the 
Corinthian gulf from the river Larissu-, n little, 
i S. of the promontory Araxus, which separated 



6 ACHAIA 

it from Elis, to the river Sytlias, wliicli sepa- 
rated it from Sicyonia. On the S. it was 
bordered by Arcadia, and on the SW. by Elis. 
Its greatest length along the coast is about 
G5 English miles : its breadth from about 12 to 
'20 miles. Its area was about 650 square miles. 
Achaia is thus only a narrow slip of country, 
lying upon the slope of the northern range of 
Arcadia, through which are deep and narrow 
gorges, by which alone Achaia can be invaded 
from the south. From this mountain range 
descend numerous ridges running down into 
the sea, or separated from it by narrow levels. 
The original inhabitants were Pelasgians, called 
Aegialeis (Aiyia^us), or the 1 Coast-Men,' from 
Aegialus or Aegialeia (Alyia,\6s, Alyia^ia, 
II. ii. 575, Paus. vii. 1, 1 ; Strab. p. 383), the 
ancient name of the country, though some 
writers sought a mythical origin for the name, 
and derived it from Aegialeus, king of Sicyonia 
(Hdt. vii. 94 ; Paus. vii. 1). The Ionians sub- 
sequently settled in the country, from which 
they were expelled by the Achaeans, whence the 
country was called Achaia. [Achaei.] TheAchaei 
settled in 12 cities : Pellene, Aegira, Aegae, 
Bum, Helice, Aegium, Rhypae, Patrae, Pharae, 
Olenus, Dyme, and Tritaea (Hdt. i. 145). 
Leontium and Ceryneia were afterwards substi- 
tuted for Ehypae and Aegae. These cities are 
said to have been governed by Tisamenus and 
his descendants till Ogyges, upon whose death 
a democratical form of government was esta- 
blished in each state ; but the twelve states 
formed a league for mutual defence and protec- 
tion. In the Persian war the Achaei took no 
part; and they had little influence in the 
affairs of Greece till the time of the successors 
of Alexander. In B.C. 281 the Achaei, subject to 
the Macedonians, renewed their ancient league 
to combine the states of the Peloponnesus for 
the purpose of shaking off the Macedonian 
yoke. This was the origin of the celebrated 
Achaean League. It at first consisted of only 
four towns, Dyme, Patrae, Tritaea, and Pharae, 
but was subsequently joined by the other towns 
of Achaia with 
the exception 
of Olenus and 
Helice. It did 
not, however, 
obtain much 
importance till 
monogram 251, when Ara- 
av and fish tus un it e d to 

it his native 
town, Sicyon. The example of Sicyon was 
followed by Corinth and many other towns in 
Greece, and the League soon became the chief 
political power in Greece. It was undoubtedly 
a misfortune that Aratus rejected a union with 
Sparta and sought the aid of Macedon (see 
further under Aratus, Cleomenes, Phieo- 
poemen.] In the following century the Achaei 
declared war against the Romans, who de- 
stroyed the League, and thus put an end to 
the independence of Greece. Corinth, then the 
chief town of the League, was taken by the 
Roman general Mummius, in B.C. 146. The 
different states composing the Achaean League 
had equal rights. The assemblies of the League 
were held twice a year, in the sj>ring and 
autumn, in a grove of Zeus Homagyrius near 
Aegium. At these assemblies all the business 
of the League was conducted, and at the 
spring meeting the public functionaries were 
chosen. These were : — 1. a Strategus ((TTpaTr t - 
*v6s) or General, and an Hipparchus (iWapx°s) 




Coin of Achaia 
Obv., head of Zeus ; rev., 
of AX. in laurel crown 
standing for Dyme. 



ACHELOUS 

or commander of the cavalry; 2. a Sfrorauary 
(ypaft/uaTevs) ; and 3. ten Demiurgi (Sri/j-iovpyoi, 
also called upxovres), who appear to have had 
the right of convening the assembly. — 3. The 
Roman province, including the whole of Pelo- 
ponnesus and the greater part of Hellas proper 
with the adjacent islands. It is usually stated 
by modern writers that the province was 
formed on the conquest of the Achaeans in B.C. 
146; but it is more probable that the south 
of Greece was first made a separate province 
by Julius Caesar : since the first governor of 
the province of whom any mention is made was 
Serv. Sulpicius, and he was appointed to this 
office by Caesar (Cic. ad Fam. vi. 6, § 10). In 
the division of the provinces made by Augus- 
tus, the whole of Greece was divided into the 
provinces of Achaia, Macedonia, and Epirus. 
Achaia was one of the provinces assigned to 
the senate, and was governed by a proconsul 
(Strab. p. 840 ; Dio Cass. liii. 12). Tiberius in 
the second year of his reign (a.d. 16) took it 
away from the senate and made it an imperial 
province (Tac. Ann. i. 76), but Claudius gave it 
back again to the senate (Suet. Claud. 25). In 
the reign of this emperor Corinth was the 
residence of the proconsul, and it was here that 
the Apostle Paul was brought before Junius 
Gallio as proconsul of Achaia (Acta Apost. 
xviii. 12). 

Achaicus, a surname of L. Mummius, who 
conquered Corinth. [Mummius.] 

Aeharnae (' Axa-pva.1: 'Axap«"s, PI. 'Axapvvs, 
Acharnanus, Nep. Them. 1 ; Adj. 'Axapvavinos), 
the principal demus of Attica, belonging to the 
tribe Oeneis, 60 stadia N. of Athens, near the 
foot of Mount Parnes, possessed a rough and 
warlike population, who were able to furnish 
3,000 hoplitae at the commencement of the 
Peloponnesian war. Their land was fertile, and 
they carried on a considerable traffic in char- 
coal. One of the plays of Aristophanes bears 
the name of the inhabitants of this demus 
(Thuc. ii. 13, 19-21 ; Pind. Nem. ii. 25 ; Paus. 
i. 31, 6 ; Athen. p. 234 ; Stat. Th. xii. 623). 

Acharrae, a town in Thessaliotis in Thessaly, 
on the river Pamisus (Liv. xxxii. 13j, apparently 
the same place as the Acharne of Pliny (iv. § 32). 

Achates, ae. 1. A Trojan, the faithful 
friend of Aeneas (Verg. Aen. i. 120 ; Ov. Fast. 
hi. 603).— 2. A river in the SW. of Sicily, remark- 
able for the clearness of its waters, in which the 
first agate is said to have been found (Sil. It. 
xiv. 208; Plin. iii. § 90 ; Theophr. Lap. § 31). 

Acheloides. [Achelous.] 

Achelous. 1. ('AxeA^ios, Ax^^'os in 
Horn. : Aspro Potamo), the largest river in 
Greece, rises in Mount Pindus, and flows 
southward, forming the boundary between 
Acarnania and Aetolia, and falls into the 
Ionian sea opposite the islands called Echi- 
nades, formed by the alluvial deposits of the 
river (Thuc. ii. 102). It is about 130 miles- 
in length. The god of this river is described 
as the son of Oceanus and Tethys, and as the 
eldest of his 3,000 brothers (Hes. Theog. 
340). He fought with Heracles for Deianira, 
but was conquered in the contest. He then 
took the form of a bull, but was again over- 
come by Heracles, who deprived him of one of 
his horns, which however he recovered by giv- 
ing up the horn of Amalthea, which became 
the horn of plenty (Soph. Track. 9, 510 ; Ov. 
M. viii. 880, ix. 1). This legend alludes appa- 
rently to efforts made to check the ravages 
of the river inundations, whence large tracts 
of land were gained for cultivation, which are 



ACHEMENLDES 

expressed by the horn of plenty (Strab. p. 4581. 
When Theseus returned from the Calydonian 
chase, he was hospitably received by Achelous, 
who related to him in what manner he had 
changed certain nymphs into the islands called 
Eehinades(Ov. Met. viii. 577-611!. The Achelous 
was regarded as the ruler and representative 
of all fresh water in Hellas. Hence he is 
called by Homer III. xx. 194) Kpeloiv 'Ax^^tiios, 
and was worshipped as a mighty god through- ! 
out Greece. He was regarded as the represen- ; 
tative of all flowing water, so that the name is 
often used by the poets as equivalent to water 
(Ephor. ap. Maerob. v. 18 ; Aesch. Pers. 869 ; 
Eurip. Bacch . 625 ; Aristoph. Lys. 381). Theroot 
ax- probably means water, and appears in aqua. 
. The river god is represented on the coins of 
Acarnania and Oeniadae as a bull with the 
head of a man. [See coins under Acarnaxia 
and Oexiadae.] — Hence Acheloiddes, contr. 
Achelo'ides, i.e. the Sirenes, the daughters of 
Achelous (Ov. Met. v. 552, xiv. 87): Achelo'ia 
Callirhoe, because Callirhoe was the daughter [ 
of Achelous (Ov. Met. ix. 413) : pocula Ache- , 
loia, i.e. water in general (Verg. Georg. i. 9) : 
Achelo'ius heros, that is, Tydeus, son of Oeneus, 
king of Calydon, Achelo'ius = Aetolian (Stat. ' 
pheb. ii. 142). — 2. A river of Thessaly, in the 
"district of Malis, flowing near Lamia (Strab. 
pp. 434, 450). — 3. A mountain torrent in Arca- 
dia, flowing into the Alpheus, from the north of 
Mount Lycaeus (Paus. viii. 38, 9). — 4. Also 
called Peerus, a river in Achaia, flowing near 
Dyme (Strab. pp. 342, 450). 

Achemenldes. [Achaeuexedes.] 

Acherdus \'Ax*p5ovs, ovvtos: 'Ax^pSovmosi, 
from ax^pSos, a wild pear-tree, a demus of At- 
tica of uncertain site, belonging to the tribe 
Hippothoontis. Aristophanes (Eccl. 362), in 
joke, uses the form 'Axpaftovtrios instead of 
'hx*p5ovoios (Aeschin. in Tim. § 110). 

Acherini, the inhabitants of a small town in 
Sicily, mentioned only by Cicero f Verr. iii. 431. 

Acheron I'Axep&x', also Acheruns, untis, 
Plant. Capt. v. 4, 2 ; Acheros, Liv. viii. 241, the 
name of several rivers, all of which were, at 
least at one time, believed to be connected with 
the lower world. It has the same root ax- as 
Achelous = ajMa, but was derived by the an- 
cients from oxos, 6 axv j>iuiv. — 1. A river in 
Thesprotia in Epirus, which flows through the 
lake Acherusia, and, after receiving the river 
Cocytus, flows into the Ionian sea, now Gurla, 
or river of Suli (Thue. i. 46 ; Strab. p. 324). On 
its banks was an oracle called vtuvofiavrtiov 
(Hdt. v. 92), which was consulted by evok- ' 
ing the spirits of the dead. — 2. A river in Elis 
which flows into the Alpheus (Strab. p. 344). 
— 3. A river in Southern Italy in Bruttii, on ■ 
which Alexander of Epirus perished (Liv. 
viii. 24; Strab. p. 256; Justin, xii. 2). — 4. The 
river of the lower world, usually identified with 
the Acheron in Thesprotia. [No. 1.] In the 
Iliad the Styx is the only river of the lower 
world, but in the Odyssey (x. 513) the Acheron 
appears as the river of the lower world, into 
which the Pyriphlegethon (Tlvpi<p\tyi8niv, Fire- I 
blazing) and Cocytus (Kwkvtos, Wailing), a tri- 1 
butary of the Styx, flow. Across the river the 
shades had to be carried to reach the lower 
world (Eurip. Ale. 440 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 295). 
Acheron is frequently used in a general sense 
to signify the whole of the lower world i Soph. 
Ant. M05 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 312; Hor. Od. i. 
8, 86; Nep. Dion. 10). The Etruscans too 
were acquainted witli the worship of Acheron 
(Acheruns). Their Acheruntici libri treated 



ACHILLES 7 

of the deification of the souls, and of the sacri- 
fices {Acheruntia sacra) by which this was to 
be effected. — Hence Adj. 'Ax*poi>(Tios, Ache- 
rusius; 'Ax^povrtios, Acheronteus, Acherontl- 
cus. Acherunticus. 

Acherontla \Acerenza), a town in Apulia on 
Mount Vultur, whence Horace (Od. iii. 4, 14) 
speaks of celsae nidum Acherontiae. 

Acherusia {' ' Ax^povaia \ip.vn or 'A-xtpovais), 
the name of several lakes believed to be con- 
nected with the lower world. 1. In Thesprotia. 
"Acheron.] — 2. (Lago di Fusaro) in Campa- 
nia, so called in consequence of its proximity 
to Avernus. [A versus.] (Strab. pp. 243, 245 ; 
Plin. iii. § 6.) — 3. Near Hermione in Argolis 
iPaus. ii. 35, 10). — 4. Near Heraclea in 
Bithynia (Xen. An. vi. 2, 6). — 5. In Egypt 
near Memphis iDiod. i. 96). 

Achilla or Acholla I "AxoWa : 'Axo\haios : 
Achillitanus : El Aliah, Ru.), a town on the 
coast of Africa, in the Carthaginian territory, 
above the N. point of the Svrtis Minor (Strab. 
p. 831 ; Liv. xxxiii. 48 ; B. Afric. 33-43). 

Achillas i'Axi*A5s), commander of the 
Egyptian troops, when Pompey fled to Egypt 

B. C. 48. He and L. Septinnus killed Pompey. 
He resisted Caesar, and was put to death by 
Arsinoe, the sister of Ptolemv, B.C. 47 (Caes. B. 

C. iii. 104 seq., B. Al. 4 ; Luc. viii. 538). 
Achilles |/Ax<AAeus, 'AxiAeOr, iws, Ep. 

t}os : Lat. is, &c, also gen. Achillel, Hor. Od. 
i. 15. 4 ; Achilli, Verg. Aen. iii. 87 ; acc. Achil- 
lea, Luc. x. 523 ; all. Achilli, Ov. Pont. iii. 3, 
43 : adj. 'Ax'^cos, Ion. 'Axi^V'os. Achil- 
leus), the great hero of the Jliad. — Homeric 
story. Achilles was the son of Peleus, king 
of the Myrmidones in Phthiotis. in Thessaly, 
and of the Nereid Thetis (II. xx. 206 &c). 
From his father's name he is often called 
Pelldes, Peleiades, and Pel'ton (UnXeiSTjs. Tlr)- 
\r)'idSr)s, YlT)\etu)v, II. xviii. 316 ; i. 1 ; i. 197 ; 
Verg. Aen. ii. 263), and from his grandfather 
Aeacides (AiaKiSrjs, II. ii. 860; Verg. Aen. i. 99). 
He was educated, along with Patroclus, his 
life-long friend (II. xxiii. 84), by Phoenix, who 
taught him eloquence and the arts of war (II. 
ix. 485, xi. 832), and by Chiron, the centaur, 
who taught him the healing art (xi. 232). 
His mother Thetis foretold him that his fate 
was either to gain glory and die early or to 
live a long but inglorious life (ix. 410). The 
hero chose the former, and therefore when 
Ulysses and Nestor came to Phthia to per- 
suade him to take part in the Trojan war 
he followed them willingly, though he knew 
he was not to return (xi. 765). Accompanied 
by Phoenix and Patroclus, he led his hosts 
of Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achaeans, in 
fifty ships, against Troy (ii. 681). Here the 
swift-footed Achilles was the great bulwark of 
the Greeks, and the worthy favourite of Athene 
and Hera. ^Iien, in the tenth year of the war, 
Agamemnon was obliged to give up Chryseis 
to her father, he threatened to take away 
Brisei's from Achilles, who surrendered her on 
the persuasion of Athene, but at the same time 
refused to take any further part in the war, 
and shut himself up in his tent. Zeus, on the 
entreaty of Thetis, promised that victory should 
boon the side of the Trojans until the Achaeans 
should have honoured her son. The Greeks 
were defeated, and were at last pressed so hard 
that an embassy was sent to Achilles, offering 
him rich presents and the restoration of Brisei's; 
but in vain. At last, however, he was per- 
suaded by Patroclus to allow the latter to 
make use of his men, his horses, and his ar- 



8 



ACHILLES 



mour. Patroclus was slain, and when this news 
reached Achilles he was seized with unspeak- 
able grief. Thetis consoled him, and promised 
new arms, to be made by Hephaestus, and Iris 
exhorted him to rescue the body of Patroclus. 
Achilles now rose, and his thundering voice 
alone put the Trojans to flight. When his new 
armour was brought to him, with the cele- 
brated shield described at length by Homer, 
he hurried to the field of battle. He slew num- 
bers of Trojans, and at length met Hector, 
whom he chased thrice around the walls of the 
city. He then slew him, tied his body to his 
chariot, and dragged him to the ships of the 
Greeks. After this, he burnt the body of Pa- 
troclus, together with twelve young captive 
Trojans, who were sacrifice! to appease the 
spirit of his friend ; but he gave up the body of 
Hector to Priam, who came in person to beg 
for it. ff'Achilles was slain at the Scaean 
gate, !%• Paris and Apollo, before Troy was 
taken. His death itself does not occur in the 
Iliad, but it is alluded to in a few passages 
(xxii. 35S, xix. 417, xxi. 278). It is expressly 
mentioned in the Odyssey (xxi v. 36), where it 
is said that his fall — his conqueror is not men- 
tioned — was lamented by gods and men, that 



his original name, Ligyron, i.e. the 1 whining',' 
into Achilles (Pind. Nem. iii. 51; Stat. Achill. 
i. 269 &c; Hor. JEpod. 13, 11). Chiron fed 
his pupil with the hearts of lions and the 
marrow of bears. According to other ac- 
counts, Thetis endeavoured to make Achilles 
immortal by dipping him in the river Styx, and 
succeeded with the exception of the heel, by 
which she held him (Stat. Achill. i. 269). "When 
he had reached the age of nine, Calchas de- 
clared that Troy could not be taken without 
his aid; and Thetis, knowing that the war 
would be fatal to him, disguised him as a 
maiden, and introduced him among the 
daughters of Lycomedes of Scyros, where he 
was called by the name of Pyrrha on account 
of his golden locks. Here he remained con- 
cealed till Ulysses visited the place in the dis- 
guise of a merchant, and offered for sale some 
female dresses, amidst which he had mixed 
some arms. Achilles discovered his sex by 
eagerly seizing the arms, and then accompanied 
Ulysses to the Greek army. During his resi- 
dence at Scyros, one of his companions, Dei- 
damia, became by him the mother of Pyrrhus 
or Neoptolemus. [For the events at Aulis and 
the pretext of marrying Iphigenia to him, see 




Achilles at Scyros. (From the Louvre.) 



his remains, together with those of Patroclus, 
were buried in a golden urn which Dionysus 
had given as a present to Thetis, and were de- 
posited on the coast of the Hellespont, where a 
mound was raised over them. Achilles is the 
principal hero of the Iliad ; he is the hand- 
somest and bravest of all the Greeks ; affec- 
tionate towards his mother and his friends ; 
formidable in battles, which are his delight ; 
open-hearted and without fear, and at the same 
time susceptible to the gentle and quiet joys 
of home. His greatest passion is ambition, 
and when his sense of honour is hurt he is un- 
relenting in his revenge and anger, but withal 
submits obediently to the will of the gods. — 
Later traditions. These chiefly consist of 
accounts which fill up the history of his youth 
and death. His mother, wishing to make him 
immortal, concealed him by night in fire, in order 
to destroy the mortal parts he had inherited 
from his father, and by day anointed him with 
ambrosia. But Peleus one night discovered 
his child in the fire, and cried out in terror. 
Thetis left her son and fled, and Peleus en- 
trusted him to Chiron, who educated and in- 
structed him in the arts of riding, hunting, 
and playing the phorminx, and also changed 



Iphigenia; for the healing of Telephus by 
Achilles, see Telephus.] In the war against 
j Troy, Achilles slew Penthesilea, an Amazon, 
but was deeply moved upon discovering her 
beauty ; and when Thersites ridiculed him for 
his tenderness of heart, he killed the scoffer 
by a blow with the fist. He fought with Mem- 
non and slew the young Troilus (Q. Smyru. ii. 
4H0 : Verg. Aen. i. 47-1). Both incidents are 
favourite subjects with vase-painters. In the 
former the mothers of" the combatants watch 
the fight, or Zeus is represented weighing the 
life of Achilles against that of Memnon. The 
accounts of his death differ much, though all 
agree in stating that he did not fall by human 
hands, or at least not without the interference 
of the god Apollo. According to soms tradi- 
tions, he was killed by Apollo himself (Soph. 
Ph iloct. 334 ; Hor. Od. iv. 6, 3), as had been 
foretold (II. xxi. 278). According to others 
Apollo merely directed the weapon of Paris 
against Achilles, and thus caused his death, as 
had been suggested by the dying Hector (Verg. 
Aen. vi. 57 Ov. M. xii. 601; It. xxii. 358). 
Others again relate that Achilles loved Poly- 
xena, a daughter of Priam, and tempted by the 
promise that he should receive her as his wife, 



ACMONTDES 
Aririlleum {'Ax'^eiov' 



ACHILLES 
if he would join the Trojans, he went without 

aruis in to the temple of Apollo at Ihymbra, and promontory Sigeum in^ the 
was assassinated there by Paris. His body was 
rescued by Ulysses and Aj ax the Telamonian ; his 
armour was promised by Thetis to the bravest 
among the Greeks, which gave rise to a contest 
between the two heroes who had rescued his 
body. [Ajax.] After his death. Achilles became 
one'of the judges in the lower world, and dwelled 
in the islands of the blessed, where he was united 
with MedC-a or Iphigenia. The fabulous island 




Death of Achilles. fRaoul Roch'tte. .Von. Ined 



town near the 
Troad, where 

Achilles was supposed to have been buried 
(Hdt. v. 94 ; Strab. p. 594; Air. An. i. 112). 

Acllilieus, assumed the title of emperor 
under Diocletian, reigned over Egypt, and was 
put to death by Diocletian a.d. 290 (Eutrop. ix. 
14, 15 ; Aur. Vict. Caes. 39). 

Achilleus Dromos l'Axi*Aeios hp6p.os : Ti u- 
dera or TcHf?ro),atongueof land iutheEuxine 
Sea. near the mouth of the Borysthenes, where 
Achilles is said to have 
made a race-course. Be- 
fore it lay the Island of 
Achilles {Insula Achil- 
lis) or Leuce (Aeujrf;), 
where was a temple of 
Achilles iHdt. iv. 55, 76: 
Eur. Iph. in T. 438; 
Pind. Ul. ii. 85; Strab. 
p. 300). 

Achilleus Portus 
('Ax'^eios Xifrr.v : Va- 
thy), a harbour in Laco- 
nia, near the promontory 
Taenarum (Paus. iii. 25, 
4). 

Achilhdes, a patro- 
nymic of Pyrrhus, son of 
Achilles lOv. Her. viii. 
3), also of Pyrrhus, king 
of Epirus, who traced 
his descent from Achilles 
(Ov. Ib. 303). 
Achillis Insula. [Ac n- 

ILLEl'S DROJIOS.] 

Achivi {gen. pi. Achivom, Verg. Aen. xi. 



of Leuce in the Euxine was especially sacred to | 

him. [Achilleus Dromos.] Achilles was wor- 1 220), another form of the Achaei, and used, like 



shipped in several places as one of the national 
heroes of Greece ; as at Pharsalus, Tanagra, 
and Sparta : in Epirus even as a god. The re- 
markable worship on the coasts of the Euxine 
mar have been spread by the Milesian settle- 
ment at Byzantium, perhaps combined with 
the worship of some local heroes. Various ex- 
planations of his name are given. Most of the 
ancients connect it with oxos, because Achilles 
gave pain to the Trojans. Some writers re- 
gard him as originally a river god, arguing that 
ox-, like the root in Achelous, may signify 
water, as in aqua. Others make him a sun- 
god, as they have attempted to make the whole 
Iliad a representation of the sun taking posses- 



Achaei. to signify the whole Greek nation 
(Hor. Ev. i. 2, 14 ; Ov. Pont. i. 4, 33, Her. i. 21). 
Acholla. [Achilla.] 
Acholoe. [Harpylve.] 
Achradina or Acradina. [Svracusae.] 
Acichorius ( Axix^pioj), one of the leaders 
of the Gauls, who with Brennus invaded 
Thrace and Macedonia in B.C. 280, and Greece 
in 279 (Paus. x. 19, 4 ; x. 22, 5 ; x. 23, 1). 

Acidalia, a surname of Venus (Verg. Aen. i. 
720 1, from the well Acidalius near Orchomenos. 

Acidinus, L. Manlius. 1. A Roman general 
in the second Punic war, served against Has- 
drubal in 207, and was sent into Spain in 200, 
where he remained till 199 (Liv. xxix. 1-3, xxxii. 



fiion of the east. There is certainly more con- 7). — 2. Surnamed Fi'Lviaxus, praetor B.C. 188 
nexion in the story of Achilles with water di- in Nearer Spain, and consul in 179 with his own 



vinities than with the sun : it is even possible 
that some part of his story may be borrowed 
from local rituals of river or sea deities ; but 
there is no valid reason why the reader of 
Greek poets should not see in the main story 
of Achilles the glorification in baiiads of a tra- 
ditional hero of war, in no degree suggested 
originally by nny phenomena of nature; still 
lens are we obliged to base his story on any of 
the supposed etymologies of his name. 

Achllle3 Tatius, of Alexandria, lived in the 
middle of the fifth century of our era, and is 
the author of a Greek romance in eight books, 
containing the adventures of two lovers, 
C'litophon and Leucippe, published by Fr. 
Jambs, Lips. 1821. He must be distinguished 
(torn Achilles Statins, or Tatius, who probably 
lived in the second century of our era, and wrote 
a work on the sphere (irepl atpaipas), a frag- 
ment of which, professing to bo an introduction 
to the Phnenomcna of Aratus, is printed iu 
Petaviu3, XJranologia, Paris, 1030. 



brother Q. Fulvius Flaccus. which is the only 
instance of two brothers being consuls at the 
same time (Liv. xxxviii. 35, xl. 34 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 
8 ; Cic. de Or. ii. 04). 

Acilia Gens, plebeian. See under the family 
names Aviola, Bai.uus. Glabrio. 

Acis CAkis), son of Faunus and Symaethis, 
beloved by the nymph Galatea, and crushed by 
Polyphemus the Cyclops through jealousy under 
a huge rock. His blood gushing forth from under 
the rock was changed by the nymph into the river 
Acis, at the foot of Mount Aetna (now Fiiimrdr 
Jaci). This story is perhaps only a fiction sug- 
gested by the manner in which the stream 
Springs forth from under a rock (Ov. M. xiii. 750 
seq., F. iv. 408 ; Sil. It. xiv. 221 seq.). Theocri- 
tus {Id. i. 69) speaks of the sacred waters of Acis. 

Acmonia {'Aiqxov'ia: 'AkhoWttjj, Arinimcn- 
sis), a citv of the Greater Phrvgia (Cic. Flucc. 
15. 34 ; Hin. v. § 100). 

Acmonides, one of the three Cyclopes in Ovid 
(F . iv. 288), is the some as Pyracmou in Virgil 



10 



ACOETES 



ACROPOLIS 



(Aen. viii. 425), and as Arges in other accounts 
of the Cyclopes. 

Acoetes ('Akoi'ttji), a poor Maeonian (Ly- 
dian), or Tyrrhenian, who served as pilot in 
a ship. The sailors, landing at the island of 
Geos, brought with them on board a beautiful 
boy asleep, whom they wished to take with 
them ; but Acoetes, who recognised in the boy 
the god Bacchus, dissuaded them from it, but in 
vain. When the ship had reached the open sea 
the boy awoke, and desired to be carried to 
Naxos, his native island. The sailors promised 
to do so, but did not keep their word ; where- 
upon the god disclosed himself in his majesty; 
vines began to twine round the vessel, tigers 
appeared ; and the sailors, seized with madness, 
jumped into the sea, and were changed into 
dolphins. Acoetes alone was saved and conveyed 
to Naxos, where he was initiated in the Bacchic 
mysteries. This is the tale related by Bacchus 
himself, in the form of Acoetes, to Pentheus 
(Met. iii. 582 seq.). The story is founded on the 
Homeric Hymn to Dionysus. 

Acontius ('Akovtlos), a beautiful youth of 
Ceos. Having come to Delos to celebrate the 
festival of Diana, he fell in love with Cy dippe, and 
in order to gain her he had recourse to a strata- 
gem. While she was sitting in the temple of D iana, 
he threw before her an apple upon which he had 
written the words ' I swear by the sanctuary of 
Diana to marry Acontius.' The nurse took up 
the apple and handed it to Cydippe, who read 
aloud what was written upon it, and then threw 
the apple away. But the goddess had heard 
her vow, and the repeated illness of the maiden, 
when she was about to marry another man, 
compelled her father to give her in marriage to 
Acontius. This story is related by Ovid (Her. 
20, 21), who borrowed it from a lost poem of 
Callimachus, entitled ' Cydippe.' 

Acoris ("A/copts), king of Egypt, assisted 
Evagoras, king of Cyprus, against Artaxerxes, 
king of Persia, about B.C. 385. He died about 
374, before the Persians entered Egypt in the 
following year (Diod. xv. 2-4, 8, 9, 29, 41, 42). 

Acra. [Aceae.] 

Acra Leuce ("AKpa Aeu/cr,), a city of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, founded by H£,milcar Barcas 
(Diod. xxv. 2), probably identical with the 
Castrum Album of Livy (xxiv. 41). 

Acrae ("Anpai). — 1. (Acrenses, Plin. ; Palaz- 
zolo), a city of Sicily, on a lofty hill 24 miles W. 
of Syracuse, was founded by the Syracusans 
70 years after its parent city, i.e. B.C. 063 (Time, 
vi. 5; Liv. xxiv. 36; Plin. iii. § 91). — 2. A town 
in Aetolia (Pol. v. 13). — 3. (or "AKpa). A town 
in the Cimmerian Bosporus (Strab. p. 494 ; 
Plin. iv. § 86). 

Acraea ('AKpaia), and Acraeus, surnames 
given to various goddesses and gods whose 
temples were situated upon hills, such as Zeus, 
Hera, and others (Liv. xxxii. 23, xxxviii. 2). 

Acraepheus. [Acraephia.] 

Acraephia, Acraephiae, or Acraephion 
('AKpaMp'ta, 'AxpaKpiai, 'AKpaupiov : ' AKpa'upios , 
' AKpaKpicuos' Kardliitza), a town in Boeotia, 
on the lake Copais, founded by Acraepheus, the 
son of Apollo. It contained an oracle of Apollo 
Ptous (Hdt. viii. 135 ; Strab. p. 410 ; Liv. xxxiii. 
29 ; Paus. ix. 23, 5 ; Plin. iv. § 26). 

Acragas. 1. [Agrigentum.] — 2. A celebrated 
engraver (Plin. xxxiii. § 154). 

AcratUS, a freedman of Nero, sent into Asia 
and Achaia (a.d. 64) to plunder the temples 
(Tac. Ann. xv. 45, xvi. 23). 

Acriae ('Aicpial, or 'Aiepcucu : 'A/cpiaTrjs), 
a town in Laconia, not far from the mouth of 



the Eurotas (Paus. iii. 21 ; Pol. v. 19 ; Liv.. 
xxxv. 27 ; Strab. p. 343, 363). 

Acrillae ("AKpi}.\aj, a town in Sicily between 
Agrigentum and Acrae (Liv. xxiv. 35). 

Acrisione, Acrisioniades. [Acrisius.] 

Acrisius (' Aicplcr ios) , son of Abas, king of 
Argos. He expelled his twin-brother, Proe- 
tus, from his inheritance ; but supported by 
his father-in-law, Iobates the Lycian, Proe- 
tus returned, and Acrisius was compelled to 
share his kingdom with him. Acrisius held 
Argos, and Proetus Tiryns. An oi'acle had 
declared that Danae, the daughter of Acrisius, 
would give birth to a son who would kill his 
grandfather. 'For this reason he kept Danae 
shut up in a subterraneous apartment, or in a 
brazen tower. But here she became mother 
of Perseus by Zeus, who visited her in a shower 
of gold. Acrisius ordered mother and child to 
be exposed on the sea in a chest ; but the chest 
floated towards the island of Seriphus, where 
both were rescued by Dictys. As to the manner 
in which the oracle was subsequently fulfilled, 
see Perseus (Hdt. vi. 53 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 372 ; 
Ov. M. iv. J307 seq. ; Hor. Od. iii. 16, 5).— 
Hence Acrisione ('A(cpi<na>v7)), Danae, daughter 
of Acrisius (IJ.xiv. 319). Acrisioniades, Perseus, 
son of Danae, grandson of Acrisius (Ov. M. v. 
70). Acrisioneus, adj. : arces, i.e. Argos (Ov. 
M. v. 239) ; coloni, niuri, referring to Ardea, 
supposed to have been founded by Danae 
(Verg. Aen. vii. 410; Sil. i. 661). 

Acritas ('AKpeiras, 'AKpiras: C. Gallo), the 
most southerly promontory in Messenia (Strab. 
p. 359; Paus. iv. 34, 12; Plin. iv. §15). 

Aero. [Acron.] 

Acroceraunia (ra 'AKpoKepavvia, sc. upt) : 
sing. Acroceraunium prom. Plin. iii. § 97 : C. 
Linguetta), a promontory in Epirus, jutting 
out into the Ionian sea, the most W. part of the 
Ceraunh Montes. It was dangerous to ships, 
whence Horace (Od. i. 3, 20) speaks of in- 
fames scopulos Acroceraunia (comp. Luc. v. 
652 ; Sil. viii. 632). Hence any dangerous place 
(Ov. B. Am. 739). 

Acrocorinthus. [Corinthus.] 

Acrolissus. [Lissus.] 

Acron. 1. King of the Caeninenses, whom 
Romulus slew in battle, and whose arms he 
dedicated to Jupiter Feretrius as Spolia Opinio, 
(Prop. v. 10, 7). Livy (i. 10) mentions the cir- 
cumstance, without giving the name of the king. 
— 2. An eminent physician of Agrigentum in 
Sicily, said to have been in Athens during the 
great plague (b.c. 430) in the Peloponnesian 
war, and to have ordered large fires to be 
kindled in the streets for the purpose of puri- 
fying the air. This fact is not mentioned by 
Thucydides (Diog. Laert. viii. 65 ; Plut. Is. et 
Os. 80). 

Acron Helenius, a Roman grammarian of 
uncertain date, perhaps of the second century 
A.D., wrote a commentary on Horace, on some 
comedies of Terence, and perhaps on Persius. 
His commentary on Horace does not exist ; that 
which bears his name is the work of another 
writer, perhaps Porphyrion. It is published 
with the other scholia on Horace by Paully (2nd 
ed. 1861), and Hauthal (1864, 1866). 

Acropolis (r; 'AkpSttoAis). The Acropolis of 
Athens, also called by the Athenians Polis 
(nrfAd), from the city being originally con- 
fined to the Acropolis (Thuc. ii. 15, v. 23, 5 ; 
cf. Aesch. Eum. 687), was a rock about 150 
feet high, 1,150 long, and 500 broad. Upon 
it, as a defensible site rising out of the river 
valley, the original settlement was made, 



ACROPOLIS 



11 



whose name Cecropia (Strab. 397; Eur. Suppl. 
658, El. 1289; expresses the belief, doubtless 
correct, that it existed before the union of 
Attica attributed to Theseus. — Traces of 
Buildings earlier than 500 b.c. Our know- 
ledge of the earlier buildings has been greatly 
increased by recent excavations. On some 
parts of the rock foundations of the rude dwel- 
lings of early inhabitants have been discovered, 
and graves of the same age, with primitive pot- 
tery of the type known as 1 Hycenaean.' To a 
very early period must be ascribed also the 
remains of what was called the Pelasgian 
Wall, i.e. a wall which was prehistoric to the 
Greek writers who mention it (Hdt. ii. 137, v. 
64), but still available in the age of Peisistratus. 
This wall did not surround the whole rock, 
since the natural precipice on the X. and XE. 
needed no fortification. In other parts portions 
of this wall have been discovered [see plan ]. 
It followed the edge of the rock and sometimes 
falls within the lines of the straighter wall of 
Cimon, which in other places absorbed it. It is 
necessary to distinguish the PelasgianWall from 
to Tle\a.<ryiKbi' or TlekapyiKhv (Thuc. ii. 117 ; 
Aristoph. Av. 851), which was a space of ground 
beneath the Acropolis at the SW., perhaps 



of the pediments and statues of more than three 
temples have been found under the floor, so to 
speak, of the Acropolis. It has been held by 
some that this older temple whose foundations 
we see was rebuilt and preserved after the 
Persian repulse ; but to this it is with justice 
objected that since it would have presented a 
blank wall within six feet of the porch of the 
newer Erechtheum it is impossible to admit 
that it was standing after that porch was built. 
— The Acropolis after the Persian War. The 
present form of the surface is due to Cimon. 
The natural rock surface sloped somewhat 
from the centre to the sides, and has been 
compared to a low-pitched gable roof. To level 
this sufficiently for the projected works, Cimon 
built up solid walls all round tne edge of the 
platform and filled up the space between these 
walls and the highest ridge with earth and 
rubble, composed in great part of the debris 
left after the Persians burnt the earlier build- 
ings. In this substratum many pieces of 
archaic sculpture and architecture, and many 
inscriptions, have been found. To the same 
Cimonian period belongs the great bronze 
statue of Athene Promachos, armed with spear 
and helmet, which dominated the city and was 




The Acropolis restored. 



extending from Pan's cave to the Asclepiacum, 
a space which was to be left vacant, since, as 
was said, a curse was laid upon its occupation. 
Probably the origin of its being considered 
unlucky was that for military reasons it had 
been held advisable from ' Pelasgian ' times to 
keep this ground clear from buildings which 
might shelter an approaching foe ; the cause in 
all probability of the similar prohibition against 
building on the Roman pomerium [Diet. Ant. 
s.v.] On the Acropolis the early chiefs and 
kings of Athens had their palace, the founda- 
tions of which have been recently found near 
the Erechtheum, as well as traces of stairs in 
the rock leading thence into the plain at the 
XE. corner. It is known from inscriptions 
that a temple of Athene called the Hecatom- 
pedon stood on the Acropolis before the Persian 
invasion, and of this the foundations have been 
found just S. of the Erechtheum. It had two 
treasuries behind the cella, one probably for 
Athene and the other for the other deities there 
worshipped. It is probable that there was also 
in the time of Peisistrates an earlier Parthenon 
and an earlier Erechtheum occupying part of 
the sites of the later temples ; indeed fragments 



seen far out to sea. — Acropolis in the Time of 
Pericles. The greatest works were carried out 
under Pericles. For the approach to the 
Acropolis the plan of Cimon was set aside, 
which gave only a narrow and defensible gate- 
way (defence being less necessary since the 
fortification of the whole city was completed!, 
and the magnificent Propylaea were designed 
by Mnesicles in B.C. 437. In the marble wall 
there were five gateways, the central being the 
largest, and admitting a sloping carriage-way ; 
the two gates on each side were reached by five 
steps ; beyond was a portico, and rising above 
this another portico. On each side of the 
entrance were wings, each intended to have a 
small outer and a large inner hall (in the 
smaller northern hall were paintings by Poly- 
gnotus, whence it was sometimes called the 
Pinakotheke) ; but the plan of making the wing 
on the right or south side symmetrical in size 
and form with the left wing was not carried 
out, probably because it would have encroached 
on sacred ground ; for in this part of the Acro- 
polis were the temple of Nike Apteros (Athena- 
Nike) and the sanctuary of Artemis Braurnnia. 
beyond it. To the right of the entrance to the 



12 



ACROPOLIS 



Propylaea is still visible the base of Agrippa's theson ; to the left or N. of the Parthenon 
statue [see Plan]. This was set up by the i the Ekechtheum [see the separate articles]. 
Athenians after Agrippa's third consulship, B.C. | Next in importance on the Acropolis tothewor- 




27. As each one passed through the upper ship of Athene was that of Artemis Brauronia, 

portico of the Propylaea he saw the great whose sanctuary was noted above as standing 

statue of Athene Promachos towering above next to the temple of Nike Apteros just to the 

his head ; to the right-front of this the Pah- south-east of the Propylaea, and whose rites 



ACROPOLIS 



ACTAEON 



13 



were probably the survival of an older religion ! walled in by the Greek commander Odysseus 
in this place than that of Athene. [Artemis.] in 1822 to secure his water supply. This'Bas- 
No remains of any temple of Artemis are dis- tion of Odysseus ' is now removed. A little to 
coverable, nor have we any warrant for assum- i the east of this, in the side of the northern 
ing its existence : the steps leading up to the 1 rocks, are the two caves of Apollo and Pan (Eur. 
sacred precinct are still visible. Between this : Ion, 492 ; Paus. i. 28, 4). The sculptures of 
precinct and the Parthenon are the foundations | the Gigantomachia, which Attalus sent, and 

from which a figure of Dionysus fell 
during a storm into the Theatre 
(Paus. i. 25, 2 ; Plut. Ant. 60), must 
have been on the south wall near 
the site of the modern museums. 

Acrorea {■)] ' Akpwpaa. : 'AKpwpewi) 
a mountainous tract of country in 
the north of Elis. (Diod. xiv. 17 
Xen. Hell. iii. 2, 30, vii. 4, 14). 

Acrotatus ('AKp6raTos |. 1. Son 
of Cleomenes II. king of Sparta, 
went to Sicily in 314 to assist the 
Agrigentines against Agathoeles of 
Syracuse. But at Agrigentum he 
acted with such cruelty that the in- 
habitants rose against him. He re- 
turned to Sparta, and died in 309 
before his father, leaving a son, 
Areus, who succeeded Cleomenes 
(Diod. xv. 70; Paus. iii. 6,1; Plut. 
Agis, 3 1. — 2. Grandson of the pre- 
ceding, and son of Areus I. king of 
Sparta, bravely defended Sparta 
5 (the Wingless Victory), on the Acropolis at Athens, against Pyrrhus in 272; succeeded 

his father in 265, but was killed in 
of a building, not a temple, and a portico ; this the same year in battle against Aristodemus, 
was probably the Chalcotheke, a building in tyrant of Megalopolis (Plut. Pijrrh. 26-28; 
which was stored all that was required for the Agis, 3; Paus. iii. 6,.*" 




Temple ol Nike Apterosti 



Acrothoum or Acrothoi ('AKpdBwov, 'Anf6- 
6aoi: 'AKp68wos, ' AKpoOoirri'is : Lavra), a town 
near the extremity of the peninsula of Athos 
iHdt. vii. 22; Thu'c. iv. 109; Strab. p. 331). 

Actaea ('Aktoh'oi, daughter of Ntreus and 
Doris (II. xviii. 41 ; Hes. Theog. 249). 

Actaeon I 'AktoiW). 1. Son of Aristaeus 
andAutonoe, a daughter of Cadmus, a celebrated 



service of Athene (C.I. A. ii. 61); some have 
imagined the remains to belong to a temple of 
Athene Ergane ; but we have no reason to 
suppose that there was any such temple. E. of 
the Parthenon, a little NW. of the modem 
museums, are the foundations of the small 
temple of Rome and Augustus, of which the 
fragment of the epistyle has been found with 
the dedication to the emperor under the title 
tt&arrrds, which he assumed in B.C. 27 (C.I.A. 
iii. 63). NE. of this, about 150 yards E. of the 
great statue and visible from it (if we assume 
that the old temple between the Erechtheuin 
and the Parthenon was not rebuilt), stood in 
the open air the great altar of Athene, of 
which the base is visible cut in the rock. To 
the N. of the Parthenon, midway between it 
and the foundations of the old temple is visible 
cut in the rock the inscription for the base on 
which stood the statue of ' Earth praying Zeus 
to send rain ' (Paus. i. 24) ; another base 
remains- to give us a fixed point — the base of 
the statue of Athene Hygieia, which is found 
by the southernmost column of the eastern 
portico of the Propylaea. This statue was 
dedicated by Pericles to commemorate the reco- 
very of a mason who fell from the Propylaea ; 
near it once stood the bronze lioness in honour 
of the mistress of Aristogeiton, the statue of 
Aphrodite by Calamis, of Diitrephes (of which 
the base has been found not in situ), and of 
Perseus by Myron. About 200 feet west of the 
N. porch of the Erechtheum are the remains in 
the rock of the steps leading down from the 
Acropolis to the cave of Aor.vui.os, in the 
temenos of which the oaths of the Ephebi were 
taken > Dict. Ant. s. v. Ephebi.} It lay near ! 
the base of the northern rocks of the Acropolis 
known as ' the long rocks ' (Moucpai'). The well huntsman, trained by the centaur Chiron. He 
called the Clepsydra (Aristoph. Lys. 911 1 has was changed into n sta„' by Artemis | Diana),and 
been identified at the NW. angle of the Aero- torn to pieces by his fifty dogs on Mount Cithae- 
polis outside the Cimonian walls. It was ron, because he had seen the goddess bathintf 




Actaeon. <13ritltih MuRcum.) 



14 



ACTAEUS 



with her nymphs, or because he had boasted that 
he excelled her in hunting. After the dogs had 
devoured him, they went whining in search of 
their master, till they came to the cave of 
Chiron, who appeased them by making an image 
of Actaeon (Ov. M. i. 131 seq. ; Callim. H. in 
Pallacl. 107 seq. ; Eurip. Bacch. 330 ; Apollod. 
iii. 4, 4). According to several modern writers 
the fifty hounds of Actaeon are the fifty dog- 
days, and the myth represents the plant-life 
destroyed by the heat of the dog-days ; for 
Actaeon was the son of the protector of plants 
(see Abistaeus). It is difficult, however, to ex- 
plain upon this theory why they were his own 
hounds. — 2. An Argive, son of Melissus, and 
grandson of Abron. He was a beautiful youth, 
whom Archias endeavoured to carry off ; but in 
the struggle which ensued Actaeon was killed 
(Plut. Narr. Am. 2). [Akchias.] 

Actaeus ('Aktcuos), son of Erisichthon, the 
earliest king of Attica, derived his name from 
Acte, the ancient name of Attica (Paus. i. 2, 6). 
He had three daughters, Agraulos, Herse, and 
Pandrosus, and was succeeded by Cecrops, 
who married Agraulos. 

Acte (A/crr/), properly apiece of land running 
into the sea, and attached to another larger piece 
of land, but not necessarily by a narrow neck. 
1. An ancient name of Attica, used especially by 
the poets (Eur. Hel. 1674; Strab. p. 391). Hence 
Aktcuos, Actaeus, adj., Attic, Athenian (Ov. 
M. ii. 720, ex Pont. iv. 1, 31, Her. xviii. 42). 
Also Actias, adis, a female Athenian, i.e. Ori- 
thyia, daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens 
(Verg. G. iv. 463) : also called Actaea (Ov. M. vi. 
711). — 2. The eastern coast of Peloponnesus near 
Troezen and Epidaurus (Pol. v. 91, 8 ; Diod. xv. 
31). — 3. The peninsula between the Strymonic 
and Singitic gulfs, on which Mount Athos is 
(Time. iv. 109). — 4. The concubine of Nero, 
originally a slave from Asia Minor (Tac. Ann. 
xiii. 12, 46). 

Actiacus. [Actium.] 

Actium ("Aktwv : Eth. "Aktws, Actius ; 
Adj. 'Aktkikos, Actiacus, also "Aktios, Actius: 
La Punta, not Azi o), a promontory in Acarnania 
at the entrance of the Ambraciot Gulf (Gulf of 
Aria) off which Augustus gained his celebrated 
victory over Antony and Cleopatra, September 




Plan of Actium. 
1. Ruins of Prevent ; 2. C.La Sen ra ; 3. Prom. Actium. La 
Punta ; 4. C. Madonna ; 5. Temple of Apollo. Fort La 
Punta ; 6. Azio; P. Bay of Prevesa. 

2nd B.C. 31. There was a temple of Apollo on 
this promontory (Time. i. 29 ; Strab. p. 325), 
whence Apollo was called Actius and Actiacus 
(Ov. M. xiii. 715; Verg. Aen. viii. 704; Prop, 
iv. 6, 67). There was an ancient festival named 
Actia celebrated here in honour of the god. 
Augustus after his victory enlarged the temple, 
and revived the ancient festival, which was 
henceforth celebrated once in four years (ludi 



ADHEEBAL 

quinquennales), at Nicopolis on the opposite 
coast, which Augustus founded in commemora- 
tion of his victory (Dio Cass. li. 1 ; Suet. Aug. 
IS, Tib. 6 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 280 ; Hor. Ep. i. 18, 
61 Ov. Her. xv. 166). Statius (<S. iii. 2, 120) 
gives the epithet of Actias to Cleopatra, because 
she was conquered at Actium. The annexed 
map shows the site of Actium, which has been 
the subject of dispute. The promontory of 
Actium was at La Punta (3), opposite Prevesa 
(1), near the site of the ancient Nicopolis. 
Others erroneously place it at C. Madonna (4), 
misled by the modern name Azio. The fleet of 
Antony was stationed in the Bay of Prevesa (P), 
and sailed out through the strait between 1 
and 3 into the open sea, where the battle was 
fought, not in the Bay of Prevesa, as some 
suppose. 

Actias. [Acte ; Actium.] 

Actisan.es ('AKTitravr)s), king of Ethiopia, 
conquered Egypt (Diod. i. 60 ; Strab. p. 759). 

Actius. [Attius.] 

Actor ("Aktcop). 1. Father of Menoetius, and 
grandfather of Patroclus (II. xi. 785 ; Pind. 
01. ix. 104). — 2. Father of Eurytus and 
Cteatus (Apollod. ii. 7, 2 ; Paus. v. 1, 11). — 
3. An Orchomenian, father of Astyoche (II. ii. 
513 ; Paus. ix. 37, 6). — 4. A companion of 
Aeneas (Verg. Aen. ix. 500). — 5. An Auruncan, 
of whose conquered lance Turnus made a boast 
(Verg. Aen. xii. 94, Juv. ii. 100). — Hence 
Actorides ('A/cTopiSijs), a descendant of Actor : 
Patroclus (Ov. M. xiii. 273, Tr. i. 9, 29 ; F. ii. 
39) : Erithos (Ov. M. v. 79) : Echecles (II. xvi. 
189) : Eurytus and Cteatus (Ov. M. viii. 308). 
Also, Actorion (' AKropiav), a descendant of 
Actor: Eurytus and Cteatus (II. ii. 621, xi. 750). 

Aculeo. 1. C. Furius, quaestor b.c. 187 (Liv. 
xxxviii. 55). — 2. C, an eminent Roman lawyer, 
who married the sister of Helvia, the mother of 
Cicero, was a friend of the orator L. Licinius 
Crassus (Cic. de Or. i. 43, 191 ; ii. 1, 2 ; Brut. 
76, 264). 

Acusilaus 'AKOval^aos), of Argos, an early 
Greek logographer, about B.C. 525, wrote in the 
Ionic dialect three books of Genealogies, chiefly 
a translation of Hesiod into prose. The frag- 
ments are published by Sturtz, Lips. 1824, and 
in Miiller, Fragm. Hist. Graec. i. p. 100. 

Ada ("Ada), sister of Maussolus, king of 
Caria, married her brother Idrieus, on whose 
death (b.c. 344) she succeeded to the throne of 
Caria, but was expelled by her brother Pixoda- 
rus in 340. When Alexander entered Caria in 
334, Ada, who was in possession of the fortress 
of Alinda, surrendered this place to him. After 
taking Halicarnassus, Alexander committed the 
government of Caria to her (Arr. An. i. 23 ; 
Diod. xvi. 42, 74; Plut. Alex. 10, 22). 

Adamantea. [Amalthea]. 

Adamantius ('ASa/xavTios), a Greek physi- 
cian, about a.d. 415, the author of a treatise on 
Physiognomy, borrowed from Polemo. Edited 
by Franzius, in Script. Phys. Vet. 1780, 8vo. 

Addua (Adda), a river of Gallia Cisalpina, 
rising in the Rhaetian Alps near Bormio, and 
flowing through the Lacus Larius (L. di Coino) 
into the Po, about 8 miles above Cremona 
(Pol.ii. 32; Strab. pp. 192, 204 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 40). 

Adherbal ('ArdpfSas). 1. A Carthaginian 
commander in the 1st Punic war defeated the 
Roman consul P. Claudius in a sea-fight off 
Drepana, B.C. 249 (Pol. i. 49-52).— 2. A Car- 
thaginian commander in the 2nd Punic war ; 
was defeated in a sea-fight off Carteia by C. 
Laelius in 206 (Liv. xxviii. 30). — 3. Son of 
Micipsa, and grandson of Masinissa, had the 



ADIABENE 

kingdom of Xumidia left to liim by his father 
in conjunction with his brother Hiempsal and 
Jugurtha. 118. After the murder of his brother 
by Jugurtha, Adherbal fled to Rome, and was 
restored to his share of the kingdom by the 
Romans in 117. But he was again stripped of 
his dominions by Jugurtha and besieged in 
Cirta, where he was treacherously killed bv 
Jugurtha in 112 (Sail. Jag. 5, 13, 14, 24, 25, 26). 

Adiabene ['ASiaBrivh, 'ASiaBrjvos) a district 
of Assyria, E. of the Tigris, between the river 
Lycus, called Zabatus by Xenophon, and the 
Caprus, both being branches of the Tigris. In 
the Christian era it was a separate kingdom, 
tributary to the Parthians (Strab. pp. 505, 745). 

Adimantus ('ASeiVavTos). 1. Commander of 
the Corinthian fleet, when Xerxes invaded 
Greece (b.c. 480), opposed the advice of The- 
mistocles to give battle to the Persians iHdt. 
viii. 5, 56, Sec). — 2. An Athenian, one of the 
commanders at the battle of Aegospotami, B.C. 
405 ; was accused of treachery in this battle, 
and is ridiculed by Aristophanes in the ' Frogs ' 
(Xen. Hell. i. 7, l,ii. 1, 30; Arist. Ban. 1513).— 
3. Brother of Plato (Apol. p. 34 ; Bep. ii. p. 367). 

Admete CAoTtfyrij). 1. Daughter of Oceanus 
and Thetys (Hes. Th. 349).— 2. Daughter of 
Eurystheus, for whom Heracles fetched the 
girdle of Ares, which was worn by Hippolyte, 
queen of the Amazons (Apollod. ii. 5, 9). 

Admetus {"AS^tos). 1. Son of Pheres, 
king of Pherae in Thessaly, took part in the 
Calydonian hunt and in the expedition of the 
Argonauts. Pelias promised him his daughter 
Alcestis (II. ii. 715), if he came to her in a 
chariot drawn by lions and boars. This Ad- 
metus performed by the assistance of Apollo. 
The god tended the flocks of Admetus when he 
was obliged to serve a mortal for a year for 
having slain the Cyclops. On the day of his 
marriage with Alcestis, Admetus neglected to 
offer a sacrifice to Artemis, but Apollo recon- 
ciled the goddess to him, and at the same time 



ADONIS 



15 



Adonis, -is, -idis, also Adon, -onis). 1. A 
beautiful youth, beloved by Aphrodite (Venus), 
a son of Cinyras, king of Paphos in Cyprus, 
and Myrrha (Smyrna). The gods changed 
Myrrha into a myrtle-tree, to save her from the 
wrath of her father, for whom she had an 
unholy passion ; and from this tree Adonis was 
born, the offspring of Myrrha and her father. 
Aphrodite, charmed with the beauty of the in- 
fant, concealed him in a chest, which she en- 
trusted to Persephone ; but the latter refused to 
give it up. Zeus decided the dispute by declar- 
ing that Adonis should have a third of the year to 




Horactea and AlccHtls. 
(From a. naH-reliei at Florence.) 

induced the Moirae to grant him deliverance 
from death if his father, mother, or wife would 
die for him. Alcestis died in his stead, but was 
brought back by Heracles from tin: lower world 
I Apollod. i. 9, 15; Eurip. Ale). — 2. King of the 
Molossians, to whom Themistoclf.s fled for 
protection when pursued as a party to the trea- 
son of Pausanias (Thuc. i. 130 ; Plut. Them. 
24: Nep. Them. 8). 

Adonis (,'AoWis , -iSos, "ASac, -vivos: Lat. 




Death of Adonis. 
(A Painting found at Pompeii.) 

himself, should belong to Persephone for another 
third, and to Aphrodite for the remaining third. 
Adonis, however, preferring to live with Aphro- 
dite, also spent with her the four months over 
which he had control. Having offended Ar- 
temis, he was killed during the chase. The 
spot on which his blood fell was sprinkled with 
nectar by Aphrodite, and from this sprang 
the anemone, as well as other flowers. So 
great was the grief of the goddess, that the 
gods of the lower world allowed him to spend 
six months of every year with her upon the 
earth (Apollod. iii. 14,3; Ov. M. x. 298 seq.; 
A. A. i. 75, 512 ; Verg. E. x. 18). The worship 
of Adonis, which in later times was spread over 
nearly all the countries round the Mediterranean 
was of Phoenician or Syrian origin, in which 
language Adon signifies lord. In the Homeric 
poems no trace of the worship occurs, and the 
later Greek poets changed the original symbolic 
account of Adonis into a poetical story. In the 
Asiatic religions Aphrodite was the fructifying . 
principle of nature, and Adonis appears to 
have reference to the death of nature in winter 
and its revival in spring — hence he spends six 
months in the lower and six in the upper world. 
His death and his return to life were celebrated 
in annual festivals (Adonia) at Byblos, Alex- 
andria in Egypt, Athens, and other places. A 
special feature in this worship was the' Adonis 
garden ' (' Ahwvihos i<r)iroi), or bowers of plants 
in flower surrounding his image. to show the 
revival of plant life, soon to die again. The 
Idyll of Theocritus called Adoniasuxae de- 
scribes the celebration of this festival at. Alex- 
andria. — 2. (Nahr el Ibrahim.) A small river 
of Syria, rising in Mount Libanus, which, after 
a sudden fall of rain, is tinged of a deep red bj 
the soil of the hills. Hence some have Bought 
to explain the myth of Adonis (Strab. p. 755; 
Lucian, Dea Syr. ; Plin. v. § 78). 



1G 



ADRAMYTTIUM 



ADRIA 



Adramyttium ('ASpaf^vrrnou or 'A8pa/j.vr- 
Tiov. 'A$pap.jTT7]j>6s, Adramyttehus : Adramyti, 
or Eclrern.it), a town of Mysia on the gulf of 
Adramyttium, opposite to the island of Lesbos, 
was a colony of the Athenians, and a seaport 
of some note (Hdt. vii. 42 ; Time. v. 1, viii. 108 ; 
Strab. p. GOG ; Liv. xxxvii. 19 ; Act. Ap. xxvii. 2). 

Adrana (Eder), a river of Germany, flowing 
into the Fulda near'Cassel (Tac. Ann. i. 56). 

Adranumor Kadranum ( J ASpavov," AZpavov ; 
'ASpafiT-qs, HadranitranuG, Plin. iii. § 91 : 
Ademo), a town in Sicily, on the river Adranus, 
at the foot of M. Aetna, built by Dionysius, 
the seat of the worship of the god Adranus 
(Diod. xiv. 37, xvi. 68; Plut. Tim. 12 ; Sil. xiv. 
250). 

Adranus ('A8pav6s). [Adbanum.] 
Adrastla ('Aopdareca : Lat. Adrastla, -ea). 1. 
Daughter of Zeus (Eur. Bhes. 312), identified 
with ~N4/xeais, also used as an epithet of Ne- 
mesis. She derived her name, according to 
some, from Adrastus, the ruler of Adrastia in 
Mysia, who built her first sanctuary on the 
river Aesepus, near Cyzicus. Others derive her 
name from a-Spavai (fr. SiSpacncoi), the goddess 
whom none can escape (Strab. p. 588 ; II. ii. 
828, seq. ; Aesch. Prom. 936; Verg. Cir. 239; 
Anna. xiv. 11, 25). She was probably originally 
a Phrygian goddess and the same as Bhea 
Cybele. — 2. A nymph, daughter of Melissens, 
king of Crete, to whom and her sister Ida, 
Ehea gave the infant Zeus to be reared 
(Apollod. i. 1, 6 ; Callim. Eijm. in Jov. 47). 
Originally the same as No. 1. 

Adrastus CASpaaros). 1. Son of Talaiis, 
king of Argos, was expelled from Argos by 
Amphiaraus, and fled to his grandfather Poly- 
bus, king of Sicyon, on whose death he became 
king of that city (II. ii. 578 ; Hdt. v. 67 ; Pind. 
Nem. ix. 9 seq.). Afterwards he was reconciled 
to Amphiaraus, gave him his sister Eriphyle in 
marriage, and returned to his kingdom of Argos. 
"While reigning there Tydeus of Calydon and 
Polynices of Thebes, both fugitives from their 
native countries, met at Argos before the palace 
of Adrastus. A quarrel arose between them, 




Adrastus and other heroes who fought against Thebes. 
(Gem found at Perugia.) 



and Adrastus, on hearing the noise, came forth 
and separated the combatants, in whom he 
recognised the two men who had been promised 
to him by an oracle as the future husbands of 
two of his daughters ; for one bore on his 
shield the figure of a boar, and the other that 
of a lion, and the oracle had declared that one 
of his daughters was to marry a boar and the 
other a lion. Adrastus therefore gave his 
daughter Dei'pyle to Tydeus, and Argeia to 
Polynices, promising to restore each to his own 



country. Adrastus first prepared for war 
against Thebes, although Amphiaraus, who 
was a soothsayer, foretold that all who engaged 
in it should perish, with the exception of 
Adrastus. Thus arose the celebrated war of 
the ' Seven against Thebes.' The seven heroes, 
according to Sophocles (Oed. Col. 1313 seq.) and 
Aeschylus (Theb. 377 seq.), were Amphiaraus, 
Tydeus, Eteoclus, Hippomedon, Capaneus, Par- 
thenopaeus, Polynices. (Adrastus, who escaped, 
is not counted one of the Seven.) Euripides 
(Phoen. 1104 seq.) has the same list, except 
that Eteoclus is omitted and Adrastus substi- 
tuted. The preceding drawing from an early 
Etruscan gem represents, with the true feeling 
of archaic art, a council of five of the heroes 
who fought against Thebes. The names are 
added : Phylnice (Polynices), Tate (Tydeus), 
Amphiiare (Amphiaraus), Atresthe (Adras- 
tus), and Parthanapaes (Parthenopaeus). On 
arriving at Nemea, they founded the Nemean 
games in honour of Archemorus [Akchbmo- 
eus]. On approaching Thebes, they sent 
Tydeus to the city to demand from Eteocles 
' the sovereignty for Polynices. In the palace of 
Eteocles he challenged several Thebans to com- 
bat and conquered them. In revenge they laid 
an ambush of fifty men on his return, but 
Tydeus slew them all, with one exception (II. 
iv. 384 seq., v. 802 seq.). The war ended as 
Amphiaraus had predicted ; six of the Argive 
chiefs were slain, Polynices by his brother 
Eteocles ; and Adrastus alone was saved by the 
swiftness of his horse Arlon, the gift of Heracles 
(Horn. II. xxiii. 346). Creon of Thebes re- 
fusing to allow the bodies of the six heroes 
to be buried, Adrastus fled to Athens, where 
he implored the assistance of Theseus, who 
' undertook an expedition against Thebes, took 
': the city, and delivered the bodies of the fallen 
heroes to their friends for burial (Aesch. Sept. 
c. Theb. ; Eur. Phoen. and Suppl. ; Stat. 
Theb.) Ten years afterwards Adrastus, with 
the sons of the slain heroes, made a new expe- 
dition against Thebes. This is known as the war 
of the 'Epigoni' ('Eiriyovoi) or descendants. 
Thebes was taken and razed to the ground. 
The only Argive hero that fell in this war was 
Aegialeus, the son of Adrastus : the latter- died 
of grief at Megara on his return to Argos, and 
was buried in the former city. He was wor- 
shipped in several parts of Greece, as at 
Megara, at Sicyon, where his memory was cele- 
brated in tragic choruses, and in Attica 
(Apollod. iii. 7, 3-4; Hdt. v. 61; Strab. p. 
325; Paus. i. 43, 1). The legends about 
Adrastus and the two wars against Thebes 
furnished ample materials for the epic as well 
as tragic poets of Greece. — 2. Ruler of Adrastia 
in Mysia (Strab. p. 5S8). [Adrasteia.] — 3. Son 
of Merope of Adrasteia, an ally of the Trojans, 
slain by Diomedes (II. ii. 828, xi. 32b).— 4. A 
Trojan, slain by Patroclus (II. xvi. 694). — 5. 
A Trojan, taken by Menelaus, and killed by 
Agamemnon (II. vi. 37, 64). — 6. Son of the 
Phrygian king Gordius, having unintentionally 
killed his brother, fled to Croesus, who received 
him kindly. While hunting he accidentally 
killed Atys, the son of Croesus, and in despair 
put an end to his own life (Hdt. i. 34-45). 

Adria or Hadria. 1. (Adria), a town in 
Gallia Cisalpina, between the mouths of the Po 
and the Athesis (Adige), now 14 miles from the 
sea, but originally a sea-port of great celebrity, 
founded by the Etruscans (Liv. v. 33 : Strab. 
p. 214). — 2. (Atri), a town of Picenum in Italy, 
probably an Etruscan town originally, after- 



ADRIA 

wards a Roman colony, at which place the family 
of the emperor Hadrian lived (Vit. Hadr. i.). 

Adria l<5 'ASpias, Ion. 6 ASpiV, Hdt. iv. 33), 
or Mare Adriaticum, also Mare Superom, so 
called from the town Adria [No. 1], was in its 
widest signification the sea between Italy on 
the W., and Dlyricum, Epirns, and Greece on 
the E. By the Greeks the name Adrias was 
only applied to the northern part of this sea, 
the southern part being called the Ionian Sea. 
The navigation of the Adriatic was much dreaded 
on account of the frequent and sudden storms 
to which it was subject: its evil character on 
this account is repeatedlv alluded to by Horace 
(Od. i. 3, 15 ; 33, 15 ; ii. li, 14 ; iii. 9, 23j. 

Adrianus. [Hadbiaxus.] 

Adrianus C~A8piav6s), a Greek rhetorician, 
born at Tyre in Phoenicia, was the pupil of He- 
rodes Atticus, and was invited by M. Antonius 
to Rome, where he died about A.D. 192. Three 
of his declamations are published by "Walz in 
Bhet. Gr. vol. i. 1832. 

Adrumetum. [Hadbuhetuii.] 

Aduatuca, a castle of the Eburones in Gaul 
(Caes. B. G. vi. 32), probably the same as the 
later Aduaca Tongrorum (Tongern). 

Aduatuci or Aduatici, a powerful people of 
Gallia Belgica (Caes. B. G. ii. 29, 83), were the 
descendants of the Cimbri and Teutones. Their 
chief town, perhaps the modern Falaise, must 
not be confounded with Aduatuca. 

Adula Mons (6 'ASouAas), a group of the Alps 
about the passes of the Splugen and S. Ber- 
nardino, and at the head of the valley of the 
Hinter Bhein (Strab. pp. 192, 204, 213;. 

Adfile or Adulis ('ASouKij, "ASov\ts : 'ASou- 
Klrns, Adulitanus : Thulla or Zulla, Ru.), a 
maritime city of Aethiopia, on a bay of the 
Red Sea, called Adulitanus Sinus ('ASovKiTutbs 
k6\itos, Annesley Bay). It was founded by 
slaves who fled from Egypt, and afterwards was 
the seaport of the Auxumitae (Plin. vi. 172 
seq.). Cosmas Indicopleustes (a. d. 535) found 
here the Monumentum Adulitanum, a Greek 
inscription recounting the conquests of Ptolemy 

11. Euergetes in Asia and Thrace. 
Adyrmachidae {'ASvp/mx'tScu), a Libyan 

people, W. of Egypt, extending to the Cata- 
bathmus Major, but were afterwards pressed 
further inland. In their manners and customs 
they resembled the Egyptians (Hdt. iv. 168; 
Sil. iii. 278, ix. 223). 

Aea (A7o, Akdv), the name of two mythical 
islands in the east and the west : in the eastern 
dwelt Aeetes, in the western Circe. The eastern 
land was afterwards identified with Colchis (cf. 
Hdt. i. 2) ; the western with the Italian pro- 
montory Circeii. The connection of Aeetes and 
Circe with the sun explains the double land of 
Aia in east and west. Aeaea is naturally the 
epithet of Circe and of Medea : in Propert. iii. 

12. 31 it denotes Calypso. This is explained by 
the fact that Ogygia, the island of Calypso, was 
sometimes confused with Aea (Mela, ii. 120). 

Aeaces (AijK7)r). 1. Father of Polycrates. — 
2. Son of Syloson and nephew of Polycrates. 
He was tyrant of Samos, but was deprived of 
his tyranny by Aristagoras, when the Ionians 
revolted from the Persians, b. c. 500. He then 
fled to the Persians, who restored him to the 
tyranny of Samos, B. c. 494 (Hdt. vi. 18). 

Aeaceum (AlaKaov). [Aegina.] 

Aeacldes fAi'axi'Sjjs), a patronymic of the 
descendants of Aeacus, as Peleus, Telamon, and 
Phocus, sons of Aeacus ; Achilles, son of Peleus 
and grandson of Aeacus; Pyrrhus, son of 
Achilles and great-grandson of Aeacus ; and 



AEDOX 



17 



Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who claimed to be a 

i descendant of Achilles. 

Aeacldes, son of Arybas, or Arybbas, king of 
Epirus, succeeded to the throne on the death 
of his cousin Alexander, slain in Italy, B.C. 326. 
Aeacides married Phthia, by whom he had the 
celebrated Pybehus. He took part in favour of 
Olympias against Cassander; but his subjects 
disliked the war, and drove him from the king- 

I dom. He was recalled in B.C. 313 ; but Cassan- 
der sent an army against him under Philip, who 
slew him in battle (Pans. i. 11 ; Diod. xix. 11 ; 
Liv. viii. 24 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 1, 2). 

Aeacus (Aiokos), son of Zeus and Aegina, a 
daughter of the river-god Asopus. He was born 
in the island of Oenone or Oenopia, whither 
Aegina had been carried by Zeus [compare 

I Sisyphus[, and from whom this island was after- 

| wards called Aegina. Some traditions related 
that at the birth of Aeacus, Aegina was not yet 
inhabited, and that Zeus changed the ants 
(jAvp/xriKes) of the island into men (Myrmidones) 
over whom Aeacus ruled. [For other versions 
of the myth see Mybmidones.] His wife was 
Endeis, daughter of Sciron of Megara. Aeacus 
was renowned in all Greece for his justice and 
piety (Plut. Thes. 10), and was frequently 
called upon to settle disputes, not only among 

j men, but even among the gods themselves, 
(Pind. Isthm. viii. 23 ; Paus. i. 39). Pindar alone 
relates that he helped Apollo and Poseidon to 
build the walls of Troy iXem. viii. 9). He was 
such a favourite with the gods that, when 

j Greece was visited by a drought, rain was at 
length sent upon the earth in consequence of 

■ his prayers. (The earliest mention of this is in 

j Isocr. Evag. § 14. It is noticeable as a pos- 

! sible origin of the story that, according to Theo- 
phrastus irepl cnj/ueiW, i. 24, a cloud appearing 
on the hill of Zeus Hellenios in Aegina was 
the recognised sign of coming rain.) Respect- 

I ing the temple which Aeacus erected to Zeus 
Panhellenius, and the Aeaceum, see Aegina. 

I After his death Aeacus became one of the 
three judges in Hades [cf. Minos, Rhadaman- 

| thus]. This office is only ascribed to him by 
writers later than Pindar (see esp. Plat. Gorg. 
p. 523 e). He held the keys of Hades, and 
hence is called KKeiSov\os in an inscription (cf. 
Aristoph. Ban. 465). The Aeginetans regarded 

' him as the tutelary deity of their island. They 
lent statues of Aeacus and the Aeacidae to their 
allies as a protection in dangerous wars (Hdt. 

| v. 81, viii. 641. 

Aeaea lAlala). [See Aea, ad fin.] 
Aebura iCuerva), a town of the Carpetani 
in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Aebutia Gens, patrician, was distinguished 
in the early ages of the Roman republic, when 
many of its members were consuls, viz. in B.C. 
499, 463, and 442. 

Aeca or Aecae (Aecanus), a town of Apulia 
on the road from Aquilonia in Samnium to 

i Venusia. 

Aeculanum or Aeclanum, a town of the Hir- 
pini in Samnium, a few miles S. of Beneventum. 

Aedepsus tAtSy^os: A'tS^tos : Dipso), a town 
on the W. coast of Euboea, N. of Chalcis, with 
warm baths sacred to Heracles, a watering- 
place well known to the Romans (Plut. Sull. 
26). 

Aedon (' Atfwv), daughter of Pandareus of 
I Miletus, wife of Zethus king of Thebes, and 
mother of Itylus. Envious of Niobe, the wife of 
her brother Amphion, who had six sons and six 
daughters, she resolved to kill Amaleus, the 
eldest of Niobe's sons, but by mistake slew her 

C 



18 



AEDUI 



AEGEUS 



own son Itylus. Zeus relieved her grief by 
changing her into a nightingale, whose melan- 
choly notes are represented by the poets as 
Aedon' s lamentations for her child. Such is 
the Homeric version (Ocl. xix. 518, and Schol. : 
cf. Aesch. Ag. 1143; Soph. El. 107; Paus. ix. 
5, 9). A later version, though existing before 
the time of Pausanias, makes Aedon the wife of 
Polytechnus, an artist of Colophon. They 
quarrelled from rivalry in work, and Polytech- 
nus outraged Chelidon the sister of Aedon. 
The two sisters revenged themselves by murder- 
ing Itys and serving his flesh as food to his 
father. Zeus, to stay the succession of horrors, 
turned all the family into birds — Polytechnus 
into a woodpecker, Chelidon into a swallow, 
Aedon into a nightingale, her mother Harmo- 
thoe into a halcyon, her father Pandareus into 
an osprey, her brother into a hoopoe. For 
further illustration of these bird-myths see 
Teeeus. 

Aedui or Hedui, one of the most powerful 
people in Gaul, lived between the Liger (Loire) 
and the Arar (Sadne). They were the first 
Gallic people who made an alliance with the 
Romans, by whom they were called ' brothers 
and relations ' (Caes. B.G. i. 10, 16, 31 ; Cic. ad 
Fam. vii. 10). On Caesar's arrival in Gaul, B.C. 
58, they were subject to Ariovistus, but were 
restored by Caesar to their former power. In 
B.C. 52 they joined in the insurrection of Ver- 
cingetorix against the Romans, but were at the 
close of it treated leniently by Caesar. Their 
principal town was Bibbacte. Their chief 
magistrate, elected annually by the priests, was 
called Vergobretus, i.e. Judge. 

Aeetes or Aeeta (Ai'tjtijs), son of Helios (the 
Sun) and Perseis, and brother of Circe, Pasi- 
phae, and Perses. His wife was Idyia, a 
daughter of Oceanus, by whom he had two 
daughters, Medea and Chalciope, and one son, 
Absyrtus. He was king of Colchis at the time 
when Phrixus brought thither the golden fleece. 
For the remainder of his history, see Absybtus, 
Argonautae, Jason, Medea. — Hence Aeetis, 
Aeetias, and Aeetine, patronymics of Medea, 
daughter of Aeetes. 

Aega (Alyn). [Amalthea.] 

Aegae (Alyai : Aiycuos). 1. A town in Achaia 
en the Crathis, with a celebrated temple of 
Poseidon, was originally one of the twelve 
Achaean towns, but its inhabitants subse- 
quently removed to Aegira.— 2. A town in 
Emathia in Macedonia, the burial-place of the 
Macedonian kings. — 3. A town in Euboea with 
a celebrated temple of Poseidon, who was hence 
called Aegaeus. — 4. Also Aegaeae (Alycucu : 
Alyed.Tr)s), one of the twelve cities of Aeolis in 
Asia Minor, N. of Smyrna, on the river Hyllus : 
it suffered greatly from an earthquake in the 
time of Tiberius (Tac. Ann. ii. 47). — 5. (Ayas), 
a seaport town of Cilicia. 

Aegaeon (Alyoiwv), son of Uranus by Gaea. 
Aegaeon and his brothers Gyges, or Gyes, and 
Cottus are known under the name of the Ura- 
nids, and are described as huge monsters with 
a hundred arms (6/caTdyx ei P 6J ) an & fifty heads. 
Most writers mention the third Uranid under 
the name of Briareus instead of Aegaeon, which 
is explained by Homer (II. i. 403), who says 
that men called him Aegaeon, but the gods 
Briareus. According to the most ancient tradi- 
tion Aegaeon and his brothers conquered the 
Titans when they made war upon the gods, and 
secured the victory to Zeus, who thrust the 
Titans into Tartarus, and placed Aegaeon and 
his brothers to guard them. Similarly in Homer 



(II. i. 396 ff.), when the Olympian deities rebel 
against Zeus, Thetis calls Aegaeon to oppose 
them. Other legends represent Aegaeon as 
one of the giants who attacked Olympus ; and 
many writers represent him as a marine god 
living in the Aegaean sea. Another, and 
probably later, story, followed by Virgil (A en. 
x. 565), makes him the opponent of Zeus. Other 
stories again make him a deity or a monster 
of the sea. He is called by some the son of 
Gaea and Pontus ; by others of Poseidon. 
His name connects him alike with the Aegean 
sea and with HocreiSuv Aiyaios. In Hesiod (Th. 
811) he is married to the daughter of Poseidon. 
Aegaeon and his brothers must be regarded as 
personifications of the extraordinary powers of 
nature, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, 
and the like. Boscher suggests that his shape 
with a hundred arms may have been imagined 
from the polypus of the sea (cf. Ov. Met. ii. 10). 
[For further portions of the myth see Titanes, 
Ubanus.] 

Aegaeum Mare (rb Alyatov ■netwyos, 6 
Alyatos ttSptos), the part of the Mediterranean 
now called the Archipelago. It was bounded 
on the N. by Thrace and Macedonia, on the W. 
by Greece, and on the E. by Asia Minor. It 
contains in its southern part two groups of 
islands, the Cyclades, which were separated 
from the coasts of Attica and Peloponnesus by 
the Myrtoan sea, and the Sporades, lying off the 
coasts of Caria and Ionia. The part of the 
Aegaean which washed the Sporades was called 
the Icarian sea, from the island Icaria, one of 
the Sporades. The origin of the name of 
Aegaean is uncertain ; some derive it from 
Aegeus, the king of Athens, who threw himself 
into it ; others from Aegaea, the queen of the 
Amazons, who perished there ; others from 
Aegae in Euboea ; others connect it with aiVra, 
atyis, a squall, on account of its storms : others 
take it to be a Phoenician word. 

Aegaeus (Alyalos). [Aegae, No. 3.] 

Aegaleos. 1. (Aiydtews, rb Alyd\eav iipos : 
Sharmanga), a mountain in Attica opposite 
Salamis, from which Xerxes saw the defeat of 
his fleet B.C. 480 (Hdt. viii. 90; Thuc. ii. 
19). — 2. High ground in the west of Messenia, 
above Pylus. 

Aegates, the goat islands, were three islands 
off the W. coast of Sicily, between Drepanum 
and Lilybaeum, near which the Romans gained 
a naval victory over the Carthaginians, and 
thus brought the first Punic war to an end, B.C. 
241. The islands were, Aegiisa (Alyovacra) or 
Caprilria (Favignana), Phorbantia (Levanzo) 
and Hiera (Maretimo). 

Aegerla. [Egebia.] 

Aegestus. [Segesta.] 

Aegestus. [Acestes.] 

Aegeus (Alyevs). 1. Son of Pandion and 
king of Athens. He had no children by his 
first two wives, but he afterwards begot Theseus 
by Aethra at Troezen. When Theseus had 
grown up to manhood, he went to Athens and 
defeated the 50 sons of his uncle Pallas, who 
had made war upon Aegeus and had deposed 
him. Aegeus was now restored. "When Theseus 
went to Crete to deliver Athens from the 
tribute it had to pay to Minos, he promised his 
father that on his return he would, hoist white 
sails as a signal of his safety. On approaching 
the coast of Attica he forgot his promise, and 
his father, perceiving the black sail, thought 
that his son had perished and threw himself 
into the sea, which according to some traditions 
received from this event the name of the 



AEGIAE 

Aegean. Aegeus was one of the eponymous 
heroes of Attica; and one of the Attic tribes 
(Aegeis) derived its name from him. [For 
further details see Theseus.] — 2. The epony- 
mous hero of the phyle called the Aegidae at 



AEGINA 19 

the third branch derived its name from Hyllus 
(Hylleans), the son of Heracles, who had been 
adopted by Aegimius. Pindar (fr. 4) makes a 
Dorian army under Aegimius and Hyllus occupy 
Aegina. There existed in antiquity an epic 



Sparta, son of Oeolycus, and grandson of poem called Aegimius, which described the war 

of Aegimius and Heracles against the Lapithae 
(see Epic. Gr. Fr. ed. Kinkel, i. 82 ; cf. Athen. 
p. 503; C.I.G. 5984 c). 

Aegimurus (Alyifiovpos, Aegimuri Arae, Plin., 
and probably the Arae of Verg. Aen. i. 108 ; 
Zowamour or Zenibra), a lofty island, surroun- 
ded by cliffs, off the African coast, at the mouth 



Theras, the founder of the colony in Thera 
All the Aegeids were believed to be Cadmeans 
who formed a settlement at Sparta previous to 
the Dorian conquest. — Hence Aegides (Ai'yei- 
Srjs), a patronymic from Aegeus, especially his 
son Theseus. 

Aegiae (Aiyetai, Aiyaiat), a small town in 



Laconia, not from Gythium, the Auglae of of the Gulf of Carthage 



Homer (II. ii. 583) _ 

Aegiale or Aeglalea (AlyidX-q, Alyid^eia), 
daughter of Adrastus and Aniphitheia, or of 
Aegialeus, the son of Adrastus, whence she is 
called Adrastine. She was married to Diomedes 
(II. v. 412), who, on his return from Troy, 
found her living in adultery with Cometes. The 
hero attributed this misfortune to the anger of 
Aphrodite, whom he had wounded in the war 
Against Troy (Verg. Aen. xi. 277) : when Aegiale 
threatened his life, he fled to Italy. [Diomedes.] 

Aeglalea, Aeglalos. [Achaia ; Sicyon.] 

Aegialeus (AiyiaXevs). 1. Son of Adrastus, 
the only one among the Epigoni that fell in the 
war against Thebes : a heroon, the AlytdXeiov, 
was consecrated to him at Pagae in Megaris 
<Paus. i. 44, 7). [Adrastus.] — 2. Son of 
Inachus and the Oceanid Melia, from whom 
the part of Peloponnesus afterwards called 
Achaia derived its name Aegialea : he is said to 
have been the first king of Sicyon. — 3. Son of 
Aee'tes, and brother of Medea, commonly called 
Absyrtvis. [Absybtus.] 

Aegicoreus (AiytKOpeus), son of Ion, and 
«ponym of the Attic tribe AiyiKopels (but see 
Tiubus, Diet, of Antiq.). 

Aegides. [Aegeus.] 



Aegina (Aiyiva: AryivjjTjjs : E'yhina), a 
rocky island in the middle of the Saronic gulf, 
about 200 stadia in circumference. It was 
originally called Oenone or Oenopia, and is said 
to have obtained the name of Aegina from 




Coin of Aegina. 
Rev., the Aeginetan symbol of a tortoise : obv., a square, 
with a dolphin in one quarter and part of the name 
Ac r iv*. 

Aegina, the daughter of the river god Asopus, 
who was carried to the island by Zeus in the 
form of an eagle, or, according to Ov. (Met. vi 
113), of fire, and there bore him a son Aeacus. 
As the island had then no inhabitants, Zeus 
changed the ants into men [Myhmidones], over 
whom Aeacus ruled. [Aeacus.] It was first 
colonised by Achaeans, and afterwards by 
Dorians from Epidaurus, whence the Doric 



Aegila (to. AryiAaj, a town of Laconia with a* dialect and customs prevailed in the island. It 



temple of Demeter, 

Aegilia (Ar/iAia : AlyiXitvs). 1. A demus of 
Attica belonging to the tribe Antiochis, cele- 
brated for its figs. — 2. (Ceriyotto), an island island 
between Crete and 
Cythera. — 3. An 
island W. of Euboea 
and opposite Attica. 

Aegimius (A171- 
fiios), the mythical 
ancestor of the Do- 
rians, whose king he 
was when they were 
yet inhabiting the 
northern parts of 
Thessaly. Involved 
in a war with the 
Lapithae, he called 
Heracles to his as- 
sistance, and pro- 
mised him the third 
part of his terri- 
tory, if he delivered 
him from his ene- 
mies. The Lapithae 
were conquered. 
Heracles did not 
take the ten itory 
for himself, bui left 
it to the king, who 



was at first closely connected with Epidaurus, 
and was subject to the Argive Phidon, who is 
said to have established a silver-mint in the 
[Phidon.] It early became a place of 




Temple of Athene ut Aegina, restored. 



was to preserve it for the sons of Heracles, great commercial importance, and its silver 
Aegimius had two sons, Dymas, and Pamphy- coinage was the standard in most of the Dorian 
lus, who migrated to Peloponnesus, and were states. [Diet. Antiq. Pondera.] In the sixth 
regarded as the ancestors of two branches of the century B.C. Aegina became independent, and 
Doric race (Dymanes and Pamphvlians), while for a century before the Persian war was a pro- 

c 2 



20 



AEGINETA 



AEGYPTUS 



sperous and powerful state. After a period of 
war witli Athens the two states were reconciled 
by the stress of the Persian war : the Aegine- 
tans fought with 30 ships against the fleet of 
Xerxes at the battle of Salamis, B.C. 480, and 
are allowed to have distinguished themselves 
above all the other Greeks by their bravery. 
Aftar this time its power declined. In B.C. 451 
the island was reduced by the Athenians, who 
in B.C. 429 expelled its inhabitants. The Aegine- 
tans settled at Thyrea, and though a portion of 
them was restored by Lysander in B.C. 404, the 
island never recovered its former prosperity. It 
belonged successively to the Achaean League, 
the Aetoiian League, and finally to the Eomans, 
who allowed the inhabitants a nominal self- 
government. In the NW. of the island there 
was a city of the same name, which contained 
the Aeaceum or temple of Aeacus, and on a hill 
in the NE. of the island was the celebrated 
temple of Zeus Panhellenius, said to have been 
built by Aeacus, the ruins of which are still 
extant. The sculptures which occupied the 
tympana of the pediment of this temple were 
discovered in 1811, and are now preserved at 
Munich. In the half century preceding the 
Persian war, and for a few years afterwards, 
Aegina was the chief seat of Greek art ; the 
most eminent artists of the Aeginetan school 
were Smilis, Gallon, Anaxagobas, Glaucias, 
Onatas, and Calliteles. 
Aegineta Paulus. [Paulus Aegineta.] 
Aegimum (Alyiviov : Aiyivievs : Stagus), a 
town of the Tymphaei in Thessaly on the con- 
fines of Athamania. 

Aegiochus (Alyioxos), a surname of Zeus, be- 
cause he bore the Aegis. 
Aegipan (Alylwav). [Pan.] 
AegiplanctUS Mons (rb Aly'mXay ktov opos), 
a mountain in Megaris. 

Aegira (A'iyapa : Alytipar-qs), probably the 
Homeric Hyperesia (II. ii. 573), a town in 
Achaia on a steep hill, with a sea-port about 12 
stadia from the town. [Aegae, No. 1.] 

Aegirussa (Aiyipdecrcra, Aiyipovira-a), one of 
the 12 cities of Aeolis (only in Hdt. i. 149). 

Aegisteas (Alyarreas), son of Midas, perhaps 
identical with Aeschurus, of whom a story like 
that of M. Curtius is told, that, when a chasm 
opened in Celaenae and the oracle told his father 
Midas that the most precious possession must 
be thrown in, he leapt in and the chasm closed. 
This may explain the proverbial use of AiyiaTeou 
iri]Srifj.a = & bold action. 

Aegisthus (A'iyurdos), son of Thyestes, who 
unwittingly begot him by his own daughter Pe- 
lopia. Immediately after his birth he was 
exposed, but was saved by shepherds and 
suckled by a goat (ail;), whence his name. His 
uncle Atreus brought him up as his son. When 
Pelopia lay with her father, she took from him 
his sword, which she afterwards gave to Aegis- 
thus. This sword was the means of revealing 
the crime of Thyestes, and Pelopia thereupon 
put an end to her own life. Aegisthus murdered 
Atreus, because he had ordered him to slay his 
father Thyestes, and he placed Thyestes upon 
the throne, of which he had been deprived by 
Ati-eus. Homer appears to know nothing of 
these tragic events ; and we learn from him 
only that Aegisthus succeeded his father Thy- 
estes in a part of his possessions. We may 
suppose that the story was developed by the 
later Epic poets and the Tragedians. Hyginus 
(Fab. 87), who relates it as above, seems to 
draw from the two dramas called Thyestes by 
Sophocles and Euripides, of which we have few 



fragments remaining ; Aeschylus (Ag. 1583) 
speaks of Atreus as banishing his brother Thy- 
estes with his youthful son Aegisthus, but does 
not give details. According to Homer Ae;>isthus 
took no part in the Trojan war, and during the 
absence of Agamemnon, the son of Atreus, 
Aegisthus seduced his wife Clytemnestra (Od. 
i. 35, iii. 263, iv. 517, xi. 409). Aegisthus mur- 
dered Agamemnon on his return home, and 
reigned 7 years over Mycenae. In the 8th Ores- 
tes, the son of Agamemnon, avenged the death 
of his father by putting the adulterer to death. 
[Agamemnon, Atreus, Clytemnestba, Obes- 
tes.] 

Aegithallus (AlyiOaWos ; C. di S. Teodoro), 
a promontory in Sicily, between Lilybaeum and 
Drepanum, near which was the town Aegi- 
thallum. 

Aegitium (Aiylriov), a town in Aetolia, on 
the borders of Locris. 

Aegium (AXyiov : Alyizvs : Vostitza), a town 
of Achaia, and the capital after the destruction 
of Helice. The meetings of the Achaean League 
were held at Aegium in a grove of Zeus called 
Homarium. 

Aegle (A17A7;), that is " Brightness " or 
' Splendour,' is the name of several mytho- 
logical females, such as, 1. The daughter of 
Zeus and Neaera, the most beautiful of the 
Naiads ; she married Helios and became mother 
of the Charites ; — 2. a sister of Phaeton ; — 3. 
one of the Hesperides ; — 4. a nymph beloved 
by Theseus, for whom he forsook Ariadne ; — 5. 
one of the daughters of Aselepius. 

Aeglctes (AtyAriT7)s), that is, the radiant god, 
a surname of Apollo. 

Aegocerus (AlyoKepais), a surname of Pan, 
descriptive of his figure with the horns of a goat, 
but more commonly the name of one of the 
signs of the Zodiac, Oapricomus. 

AegOS-Potami (Alybs irorafioi), in Latin 
writers Aegos flumen, the " goat's-river," a 
small river, with a town of the same name on 
it, in the Thracian Chersonesus, flows into the 




Coin of Aegospotami. 
Obv., Demeter ; rev., goat. 



Hellespont. Here the Athenians were defeated 
by Lysander, B.C. 405. 

Aegosthena (Aiy6<r8eva : Atyoadevevs, Alyo- 
aSev'iT7}s), a town in Megaris on the borders of 
Boeotia, with a sanctuary of Melampus. 

Aegus and Roscillus, two chiefs of the Allo- 
broges, who had served Caesar with fidelity in 
the Gallic war, deserted to Pompey in Greece 
(b.c. 48). 

Aegasa. [Aegates.] 

Aegypsus or Aegysus, a town of Moesia on 
the Danube. 

Aegyptus (AtyvirTos), son of Belus and An- 
chinoe or Anchiroe, and twin-brother of Danaus. 
Belus assigned Libya to Danaus, and Arabia to 
Aegyptus, but the latter subdued the country of 
the Melampodes, which he called Aegypt after 
his own name. Aegyptus by his several wives 
had 50 sons, and his brother Danaus 50 daugh- 
ters (the Danaides). Danaus had reason to fear 
the sons of his brother, and, having by advice of 
Athene built the first fifty-oared ship, fled with 



AEGYPTUS 



21 



his daughters to Argos in Peloponnesus. Thi- 
ther he was followed by the sons of Aegyptus, 
who demanded his daughters for their wives, 
and promised faithful alliance, Danaus pre- 
tended to forgive his wrongs, and distributed his 
daughters among them, but to each of them he 
gave a dagger, with which they were to kill their 
husbands in the bridal night. All the sons of 
Aegyptus were thus murdered, with the excep- 
tion of Lynceus, who was saved by Hyper- 
mnestra. [Lynceus.] The Danaids threw the 
heads of their murdered husbands into the 
marsh of Lerna, and buried their bodies outside 
the town. (Pausanias, ii. 24, reverses this order.) 
They were afterwards purified of their crime by 
Atliene and Hermes at the command of Zeus. 
Plutarch (de Fluv. 10) tells that Aegyptus, by 
order of an oracle, in time of drought sacrificed 
his daughter Aganippe, and in grief threw him- 
self into the river Melas (the Nile), which 
thence took the name Aegyptus. In later wri- 
ters Aegyptus is identified with a historical 
king : in Manetho with Sethos, in Eusebius 
with Barneses or Eamses. 

Aegyptus iv Atyvirros : Aiyvirnos, Aegyptius : 
Egypt), a country in the NE. comer of Africa, 
bounded on the N. by the Mediterranean, on 
the E. by Palestine, Arabia Petraea, and the Bed 
Sea, on the S. by Ethiopia, the division between 
the two countries being at the First or Little 
Cataract of the Nile, close to Syene {Assouan ; 
Lat. 24° 8'), and on the W. by the Great Libyan 
Desert. This is the extent usually assigned to 
the country ; but it would be more strictly cor- 
rect to define it as that part of the basin of the 
Nile which lies below the First Cataract. The 
native name for the country was Chemi or 
Katnit, ' the black land,' from the dark alluvial 
soil, by whicli it was distinguished from the 
neighbouring desert and from the ' red land ' of 
Arabia. The name Atyuwros was given first by 
the Greeks to the Nile — such, at any rate, is its 
Homeric use (Od. iv. 477, (fee.) — and afterwards to 
the country. The Semitic name was Mizir or 
Mizraim. — 1. Physical Description of Egypt. 
The river Nile, flowing from S. to N. through a 
narrow valley, encounters, in Lat. 24° 8', a 
natural barrier, composed of two islands (Philae 
and Elephantine) and between them a bed of 
sunken rocks, by which it is made to fall in a 
series of cataracts, or rather rapids (to Kara- 
tiovira, 6 pticpbs KarappaKTr)!, Catarrhactes 
Minor, comp. Catarrhactes), which have 
always been regarded as the southern limit 
assigned by nature to Egypt. The river flows 
due N. between two ranges of hills, so near each 
other as to leave scarcely any cultivable land, 
as far as Silsilis (Jebel Selseleh), about 40 miles 
below Syene, where the valley is enlarged by 
the W. range of hills retiring from the river. 
Thus the Nile flows for about 500 miles, through 
a valley whose average breadth is about 7 miles, 
between hills which in one place (W. of Thebes) 
attain the height of 1000 or 1200 feet above the 
sea, to a point some few miles below Memphis, 
where the W. range of hills runs to the NW., 
and the E. range strikes off to the E., and the 
river divides into branches (seven in ancient 
time, but now only two), which flow through a 
low alluvial land, called, from its shape, the 
Delta, into the Mediterranean. To this valley 
and Delta must be added the country round 
lake MoEltis, called Nomos Arsinoi'tes, lying 
NW. of Heracleopolis, and connected with the 
valley of the Nile by a break in the W. range 
of hills. The whole district thus described is 
periodically laid under water by the overflowing 



of the Nile from April to October. The river 
in subsiding, leaves behind a rich deposit of fine 
mud, which forms the soil of Egypt. All beyond 
the reach of the inundation is rock or sand. 
Hence Egypt was called the ' Gift of the Nile. 
The extent of the cultivable land of Egypt is in 
the Delta about 4500 square miles, in the valley 
about 2255, in Fay am about 340, and in all 
about 7095 square miles. The outlying portions, 
included in the Egyptian nomes after the begin- 
ning of the Greek period under the Ptolemies, 
consisted of the Greater and Lesser Oases (cul- 
tivable valleys so called from the Egyptian Uah, 
' settlement '), in the midst of the Western or 
, Libyan Desert, a valley in the W. range of hills 
j on the W. of the Delta, called Nomos Nitriotes 
from the Natron Lakes which it contains, some 
settlements on the coast of the Eed Sea and in 
the mountain passes between it and the Nile, 
and a strip of coast on the Mediterranean, ex- 
tending E. as far as Ehinocolura (El-Arish), and 
I W. as far as the Catabathmus Minor, Long. 
| about 25° 10' E. (Strab. 798). The only river of 
j Egypt is the Nile [Nilus]. A great artificial 
I canal {Bahr-Y ussouf, i.e. Joseph's Canal) runs 
parallel to the river, at the distance of about G 
miles, from Diospolis Parva in the Thebais to a 
point on the W. mouth of the river about half 
way between Memphis and the sea [see under 
Moeeis]. Many smaller canals were cut to 
I regulate the irrigation of the country. A canal 
; from the E. mouth of the Nile to the head of the 
Red Sea was commenced by kings of the 19th 
dynasty (about 1400 B.C.), resumed by Necho II. 
I about 600 B.C., and was opened by Darius, son 
! of Hystaspes. This canal communicated with 
the present head of the Red Sea through the 
' bitter Lakes.' It had so far sunk in the time 
of Aelius Gallus that it could only be used for 
floating wood down ; but it was deepened in 
Trajan's time, and was called Amnis Augustus. 
There were several lakes in the country, re- 
specting which see Moeris, Mareotis, Butos, 
Tanis, Sirbonis, and Lacus Amari. — 2. Ancient 
History. At the earliest period to which our 
records reach back, Egypt was inhabited by a 
highly civilised agricultural people, under a 
settled monarchical government. The first 
dynasty begins with Mena, probably between 
5000 and 4000 B.C. ; but he sprang from a 
settled city, the ancient Thinis, which h« 
inhabited before he founded Memphis. Some 
have imagined that the primitive seat of the 
Egyptian people was Ethiopia, and that their 
civilisation was imparted by priests from Meroe. 
Such was the Greek tradition : but the evidence 
from the relative antiquity of Egyptian archi- 
tectural monuments tends to show that, on the 
contrary, the earliest signs of a civilised race of 
builders is in lower Egypt, and that these arts 
were carried later southwards into Ethiopia. 
The kings, whose power was absolute, bore the 
title Fcr-ao, ' the Great House,' whence came 
the equivalent Pharaoh. The country wag 
administered by a governor and a deputy, under 
whom worked a vast number of scribes, some 
of whom were, by the king's favour or their own 
merit, promoted into the ranks of the nobles. 
Ordinarily the caste of the nobles was derived 
from royal descent. They held by hereditary 
right large provincial estate?, as well aB court 
offices. By merit they obtained from the king 
further titles of honour. It cannot bo doubted 
that, in spite of the high regard for justice 
evinced in Egyptian writings, the peasants suf- 
fered under heavy burdens and enforced labour. 
The priests, who were in. possession of all tho 



AEGYPTTJS 



22 

literature and science of the country and all 
the employments based upon such knowledge, 
formed a powerful caste. At their head, at any 
rate in the post-Memphite dynasties (after 1700 
B.C.), was the high priest of Amen-Ea, or Amun. 
One of the priests seized the sovereignty about 
1150 B.C. and founded a dynasty. It must be 
observed that the supremacy of temples and of 
the various orders or dynasties of gods was 
changed by the accession of some of the 
dynasties of kings and with the shifting of the 
capital. The religion of Egypt, which was mainly 
derived from sun-worship, but was also con- 
nected with a totemistic animal worship, cannot 
be discussed in this work. Those deities, how- 
ever, who are mentioned in Greek and Latin lite- 
rature will be noticed under their several names. 
Nor can Egyptian art or its relation to Greek art 
be treated here : reference may be made to the 
Diet, of Antiquities s.vv. Pictura, Statuaria 
Ars, Templum and Vas. The Egyptian 
alphabet is probably the oldest known. It 
originated with the priests, and was first taught 
with other learning in their schools, of which 
the great university or seminary at On (Helio- 
polis) was the development. This writing was 
first purely pictorial. Then an alphabet sprang 
from the conventional figures, but the picture was 
added to the word. From this ' hieroglyphic ' 
writing a ' hieratic ' running hand was formed 
in very early times (written from right to left), 
and by the 9th century a still farther abridg-' 
ment in the ' demotic ' writing common to the 
people. The Egyptians were mainly agricultu- 
rists, with little commercial enterprise, but they 
obtained foreign productions chiefly through 
the Phoenicians, and at a later period they 
engaged in maritime expeditions. The ancient 
history of Egypt may be divided for our pur- 
pose into 4 periods : — (1) From the earliest times 
to its conquest by Cambyses ; during which it 
was ruled by a succession of native princes, 
into the difficulties of whose history this is not 
the place to inquire. Those named by Greek 
writers are treated separately. The last of 
them, Psammenitus, was conquered and de- 
throned by Cambyses in B.C. 525, when Egypt 
became a province of the Persian empire. 
Until shortly before this date Egypt was but 
little known to the Greeks. It is a disputed 
point whether the inscriptions at Karnak of the 
time of Meneptah II. and Ramses III. (prob. 
about B.C. 1300) bear upon the question when 
Greeks first set foot in Egypt. Among the 
allies of the Libyan invaders appear the 
Aqauasha, Shardana, Shakalisha, Turisha, 
Liku, and, in the Hittite wars of Ramses II., 
the Masu, the Dardani and Danau. Some have 
read in these names the Achaeans, Sardinians, 
Sicilians, Etruscans, Lycians, Mysians, Dar- 
danians and Danaans. Brugsch has pointed 
out that these are represented as circumcised 
tribes ; it is cei'tainly unsafe to assume from a 
somewhat similar name that we are reading of 
Greeks or Sicilians. Still less is it as yet safe 
to accept the arguments of Mr. Petrie from the 
pottery which he has found, that Greek settle- 
ments in Egypt existed certainly in B.C. 1400, 
and possibly in 2000. From our present know- 
ledge, therefore, it can only be asserted that the 
Greeks knew something of Egypt in the 
Homeric age, and that their mariners at least 
touched upon its shores (Od. iv. 351, &c. ; cf. 
the Cyclic story of Helen), and that before the 
6th century B.C. Greeks were settled at Nau- 
cratis (see further under Nauceatis and 
Daphnae). In the latter part of the period 



learned men among the Greeks began to travel 
to Egypt for the sake of studying its institu- 
tions : among others it was visited by Pytha- 
goras, Thales, and Solon. (2) From the Persian 
conquest in B.C. 525, to the transference of their 
dominion to the Macedonians in B.C. 332. This 
period was one of almost constant struggles 
between the Egyptians and their conquerors, 
until B.C. 310, when Nectanebo II. (Nekt-neb-ef), 
the last native ruler of Egypt, was defeated by 
Darius Ochus. It was during this period that 
the Greeks acquired a considerable knowledge 
of Egypt. In the wars between Egypt and 
Persia, the two leading states of Athens and 
Sparta at different times assisted the Egyptians, 
according to the state of their relations to each 
other and to Persia ; and, during the intervals 
of those wars, Egypt was visited by Greek his- 
torians and philosophers, such as Hellanicus, 
Herodotus, Anaxagoras, Plato, and others, who 
brought back to Greece the knowledge of the 
country which they acquired from the priests 
and through personal observation. (3) The 
dynasty of Macedonian kings, from the acces- 
sion of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, in B.C. 323, 
when Egypt became a Greek kingdom, down to 
B.C. 30, when she became a province of the 
Roman empire. When Alexander invaded 
Egypt in B.C. 332, the country submitted to 
him without a struggle ; and, while he left it 
behind him to return to the conquest of Persia, 
he conferred upon it the greatest benefit that 
was in his power, by giving orders for the 
building of Alexandria. In the partition of the 
empire of Alexander after his death in B.C. 323, 
Egypt fell to the share of Ptolemy, the son of 
Lagus, who assumed the title of king in B.C. 
306, and founded the dynasty of the Ptolemies, 
under whom the country greatly flourished, and 
became the chief seat of Greek learning. But 
soon came the period of decline. Wars with 
the adjacent kingdom of Syria, and the vices,, 
weaknesses, and dissensions of the royal family, 
wore out the state, till in B.C. 81 the Romans 
were called upon to interfere in the disputes for 
the crown, and in B.C. 55 the dynasty of the 
Ptolemies came to be entirely dependent on 
Roman protection, and, at last, after the battle 
of Actium and the death of Cleopatra, who was 
the last of the Ptolemies, Egypt was made a. 
Roman province, B.C. 30. (4) Egypt under the 
Romans, down to its conquest by the Arabs in 
a.d. 638. As a Roman province, Egypt was one 
of the most flourishing portions of the empire. 
The fertility of its soil, and its position between 
Europe and Arabia and India, together with the 
possession of such a port as Alexandria, gave 
it the full benefit of the two great sources of 
wealth, agriculture and commerce. Learning 
continued to flourish at Alexandria, and the 
patriarchs of the Christian Church in that city 
became so powerful as to contend for supremacy 
with those of Antioch, Constantinople, and 
Rome, while a succession of teachers, such as 
Origen and Clement of Alexandria, conferred 
real lustre on the ecclesiastical annals of the 
country. When the Arabs made their great 
inroad upon the Eastern empire, the geogra- 
phical position of Egypt naturally caused it to 
fall an immediate victim to that attack, which 
its wealth and the peaceful character of its in- 
habitants invited. It was conquered by Amrou, 
the lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, in a.d. 638. 
— 3. Political Geography. — In the earliest 
times the country was divided into the ' land of 
the South ' and ' the land of the North ' : the 
former extended as far as Memphis, but did. 



AEGYS 



AENEAS 



23 



not include it, and was subdivided for adminis- 
tration into 22 nomes ; the latter contained 20 
nomes. But in Greek and Roman times the 
division was threefold : (1) the Delta or Lower 
Egypt (to AeAra, t) Kara x<^P a ) > (2) the Hepta- 
norais or Middle Egypt ; (3) the Thebais or 
Upper Egypt (fi avai x&P a )> °f which the chief 
town was Ptolemais. In Roman times the 
whole land was governed by a procurator, styled 
the Praefectus Aegypti [see Diet. Ant. s.v.], in 
Greek riyefuiv : each of the three great divisions 
was administered by an epistrategus (eV«rTpaT- 
riyos), who in Thebais was also called apaB- 
dpxvs from the greater Arab admixture in 
the population ; the subdivision into nomes 
(vofwi) was retained, but the total number was 
47 ; over each was a vofmpxi)S, in the Roman 
period usually called (TTparriy6s. Each nome 
was further subdivided into ronapx'o-^ and these 
again into kw.ucu and roiroi, who had their own 
officials /cojjUoypojU/uaTeTj and TOiroypa.j.iLa.Te'is, 
being administered by villages, not by cantons. 
For the special government of Alexandria, see 
that article. The Dodecarchy of 12 kings, of 
Herodotus, iv. 147, refers to the partition of 
Egypt, as an Assyrian province, into twenty 
satrapies by Esarhaddon after he defeated Tir- 
hahal, B.C. 672. It is probable that the mis- 
taken number was derived from the 12 courts 
in the Labyrinth. 

Aegys (KXyvs, Alyvrrjs : nr. Ghiorgitza), a 
town of Laconia on the borders of Arcadia. 

Aelana (AtKava : Ai'A.oi'ittjs), a town on the 
northern arm of the Red Sea. near the Bahr-el- 
Akaba, called by the Grteks Aelanltes from 
the name of the town. It is the Elatli of the 
Hebrews, and one of the seaports of which 
Solomon possessed himself. (Strab. p. 768 ; 
Joseph. Ant. viii. 5, 4.) 

Aelia Gens, plebeian, the members of which 
are given under their surnames, Gallus, Lamia, 
Paetus, Sejanus, Stilo, Tubero. 

Aelia, a name given to Jerusalem after its 
restoration by the Roman emperor Aelius 
Hadrianus. 

Aelianus, Claudius (" Sophista "), was bom ' 
at Praeneste in Italy, and lived at Rome about I 
the middle of the 3rd century of the Christian ! 
era. Though an Italian, he wrote in Greek. 
Two of his works have come down to us : one ! 
a collection of miscellaneous history {UoMiXn 
'laropia) in 14 books, commonly called Varia 
Historia ; and the other a work on the pecu- 
liarities of animals (rifp! Zdoiv ISiSttitos) in 17 
books, commonly called De Animalium Na- 
tura. The former work contains short narra- 
tions and anecdotes, historical, biographical, 
antiquarian, &c, selected from various authors, 
generally without their names being given, and 
on a great variety of subjects. The latter work 
is partly collected from older writers, and partly 
the result of his own observations both in Italy 
and abroad. There are also attributed to him 
20 letters on husbandry {'AypoiKitcal 'EmtnoKai), 
written in a rhetorical style and of no value. — 
Editions. Hercher, Paris, 1858; Teubner, 
Leips. 1866. 

Aelianus, Plautius, mentioned by Tac. Hist. 
iv. 53 as Pontifex in a.d. 71, when the Capitol 
was restored. His full name appears in an 
inscription as Ti. Plautius Silvanus Aelianus: 
he was consul in a.d. 47. 

Aelianus Tacticus, a Greek writer, who lived 
in Rome and wrote a work on the Military Tac- 
tics of the Greeks (nep! ZTpaT-qyiKwv fd^faiv 
EAAtju/ccSv), dedicated to the emperor Hadrian. 
He also gives a brief account of the constitution 



of a Roman army at that time. — Editions. By 
Franciscus Robortellus, Venice, 1552 ; Elzevir, 
Leyden, 1613 ; KSehly and Riistow, 1855. 
Aello, one of the Harpies. [Habpyiae.] 
Aemilia. 1. The 3rd daughter of L. Aemilius 
Paulus, who fell in the battle of Cannae, was 
the wife of Scipio Africanus I. and the mother 
of the celebrated Cornelia, the mother of the 
Gracchi. — 2. Aemilia Lepida. [Lepeda.] — 3. A 
Vestal virgin, put to death B.C. 114. (Plut. Q. 
j B. p. 284 ; Liv. Ep. 63.) 

Aemilia Gens, one of the most ancient patri- 
cian gentes at Rome, said to have been descended 
from Mamercus, who received the name of 
Aemilius traditionally on account of the per- 
suasiveness of his language (Si' aifj.v\iav \6yov) 
(Plut. Aemil. 2). This Mamercus is represented 
by some as the son of Pythagoras, and by others 
as the son of Numa. The most distinguished 
members of the gens are given under their sur- 
names Barbula, Lepidus, Mamercus or Ma- 
| mercixus, Papus, Paulus, Regillus, Scaurus. 

Aemilia Via, made by M. Aemilius Lepidus, 
] cos. B.C. 187, continued the Via Flaminia from 
' Ariminum, and traversed the heart of Cisalpine 
| Gaul through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, Pla- 
centia (where it crossed the Po) to Mediolanum. 
: It was subsequently continued as far as Aquileia. 

Aemilianus. 1. The son of L. Aemilius 
Paulus Macedonicus, was adopted by P. Corne- 
lius Scipio, the son of P. Cornelius Scipio Afri- 
canus, and was thus called P. Cornelius Scipio 
Aemilianus Africanus. [Scipio.] — 2. The go- 
vernor of Pannonia and Moesia in the reign of 
Gallus, was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers 




Coin of Aemilianus. Roman Emperor, a.d. 253. 
J?< laurel-crowned bust. with legend 1 Imperator Aemilia- 
nus Pius Felix Augustus ' ' obv.. Peace with olive-branch. 



in a.d. 253, but was slain by them after reign- 
ing a few months. — 3. One of the 30 tyrants 
(a.d. 259 — 268), assumed the purple in Egypt, 
but was taken prisoner and strangled by order 
of Gallienus. 

Aemilius Probus. [Nepos, Cornelius.] 

Aemodae or Haemodae, probably the Shet- 
land islands. (Plin. H. N. iv. § 103 ; Mel. iii. 6.) 

Aemona or Emona (Laibach), a fortified town 
in Pannonia, and an important Roman colony, 
said to have been built by the Argonauts. 

Aenaria, also called Pithecusa and Inarime 
(Verg. Acn. ix. 716), (Ischia) a volcanic island 
off the coast of Campania, at the entrance of 
the bay of Naples, under which the Roman poet 
represented Typhoeus as lying. The form of 
the name in Virgil is probably due' to a mis- 
conception of Horn. II. ii. 783. 

Aenea (AZVeia: AiV«i€V5, Aivetdrrts), a town 
in Chalcidice, on the Thermaic gulf, said to have 
been founded by Aeneas (Hdt. vii. 123 ; Liv. 
xl. 4, xliv. 10). See coin under Aeneas, p. 25. 

Aeneades (Alvaahi)%), a patronymic from 
Aeneas, given to his son Ascanius or lulus, 
and to those who were believed to be descended 
from him, such as Augustus, and the Romans 
in general. 

Aeneas (AiVtioj), the son of Anchises and 



24 



AENEAS 



Aphrodite, born on Mount Ida. On his father's 
side he was a great-great-grandson of Tros, and 
thus a cousin of Priam, who was great-grandson 
of Tros (Horn. II. xx. 230 f .) The story with which 
we are most familiar, adopted by Virgil from 
various sources, represents that Aeneas, after 
the fall of Troy, escaped with his father, his wife, 
and his son lulus, and, having gathered some 
followers, migrated westward, reaching Epirus, 
Sicily and Africa, and eventually settling in 
Latium, where he became the heroic founder of 
theEomans. [Dido; Latinus; Tubnus.] But 
this is the outcome of many different accounts, 
and it is necessary in treating of a character so 
important in legend to trace the development 
of the story. — 1. Homeric Story. He was 
brought up in the house of Alcathous, the 
husband of his sister [Xenophon, De Venat. 
1, 2, strangely makes him a pupil of Chiron]. 
He took no part in the Trojan war until Achilles 
attacked him on Mount Ida, drove away his 
cattle and captured Lyrnessus. Then he led the 
Dardauians to battle, and ranked thenceforth 
next to Hector as the bulwark of the Trojans. 



Aegean, Crete, the west coast of Greece and 
Epirus, Sicily [Acestes], Carthage [Dido]. 
From Carthage he returned to Sicily, and after 
celebrating there the funeral games in honour 
of Anchises, sailed to Cumae in Italy, where he 
consulted the Sibyl. Thence he went to Latium 
and was received into alliance by King Latinus, 
whose daughter, Lavinia, he married. The 
Aeneid closes with the defeat and death of 
Turnus, king of the Eutulians, which leaves 
Aeneas free to reign over the native races of La- 
tium and the Trojans united as one people. — 
Account in other post-Homeric writers. From 
the Cyclic poets we gather a different tradition 
of Aeneas in Asia Minor. Arctinus, in telling 
the story of Laocoon says, that Aeneas then 
(before the capture of Troy) withdrew with his 
family to Mount Ida [according to Dionys. i. 48 
the same story appeared in the Laocoon of 
Sophocles]. Quintus Smyrnaeus gives us from 
the Cyclic poets many details of the battles 
after Hector's death, including the narrative 
which is apparently the source of Verg. Aen. ii. 
440-476. He names the wife of Aeneas as 





sthopJad.s ,.A ( _ V ouaIos'T^s 



Walter &■ Boutall sc. 

Map of the Wanderings of Aeneas. (From Sir C. Bowen's Translation of the Aeneid.) 



It is noticeable that Philostratus (Her. 13) calls 
Hector the Hand, Aeneas the Mind of the 
Trojans ; and in the Homeric battles we never 
find Aeneas escaping dangers by his own 
strength of arm, but by the intervention of the 
gods. Thus Aphrodite carried him off when 
he was wounded by Diomede (II. v. 320), and 
Poseidon saved him in his combat with Achilles 
(II. xx. 75-352). It should be observed that 
this latter- passage is one of the so-called 
" greater interpolations," which are now gener- 
ally assigned to some date between 750 and 
600 B.C. It follows, therefore, that not only does 
Homer make no allusion to the westward migra- 
tion, but that even the story of Aeneas reign- 
ing over the Trojans after the capture of Troy 
by the Greeks, as stated prophetically in II. xx. 
307 (cf. line 180 and Hymn. v. 196), is (accord- 
ing to the majority of Homeric scholars) of a 
comparatively late origin. "We learn nothing of 
Aeneas from the Odyssey. — Virgilian Account. 
Virgil (for whose agreement with and diver- 
gence from other writers see below), makes 
Aeneas with his companions wander for seven 
years after the capture of Troy, by Thrace, the 



' Eurydice ' (cf. Paus. x. 26 ; Enn. ap. Cic. Div. 
i. 20, 40). Creusa first appears in Dionys. i. 
69. There is a curious statement in Dionys. 

1. 48, that he betrayed Troy and was therefore 
left as a ruler by the Greeks, which looks like 
an attempt to explain the Homeric tradition 
that he was to reign there in later times. The 
oldest source for his migration westwards is in 
the Iliu Persis of Stesichorus (b.c. 630-550). 
The Tabula Iliaca shows Aeneas embarking at 
Sigeum, leading Ascanius and carrying Anchises 
with the images of the gods ; Misenus the 
trumpeter is behind. Dionysius and Virgil 
agree mainly in the story of his visit to Thrace : 
by these and other writers he is brought to 
Aenea on the Thermaic gulf (Liv. xl. 4), to 
Samothrace and the Cabiri, to Delos, Crete, 
Cythera (Paus. viii. 12, 8; iii. 22, 11), Zacyn- 
thus, Leucas, Actium, Ambracia (Virgil omits 
Leucas and Ambracia), Epirus, Sicily (cf. Cic. 
Verr. ii. 4, 7). Dionysius, however, says nothing 
of Africa or Dido ; and, according to Macrob. v. 

2, 4, Virgil is here following Naevius. As to 
the landing in Italy, Virgil agrees with Diony- 
sius, except in the consultation of the Sibyl, 




AENEAS 

which seems to come from Naevius. The i 
journey to Etruria is not in Dionysius or 
Naevius, but appears in Lycophron of Alex- 
andria (B.C. 285-247). Pausanias (x. 17) takes 
him to Sardinia. It should be noted that the 
Trojan settlement in 
Latium is unknown 
to Stesichorus and 
first appears in Ce- 
phalon (4th cent. 
B.C.), who makes Ro- j 
mus, a son of Aeneas, ' 
the founder of Rome ; 
(Dionys. i. 72). The i 
death or disappear- 1 
ance of Aeneas takes 
place in the fourth 
year after the death 
Coin of Aenea, vnth the legend f Turnus and Lati- ' 

mis, during a war be- 
tween his subjects and the Rutulians, aided by 
Mezentius : in one story he is taken up to the 
gods ; in another he is drowned in the river Nu- 
micius. (See Liv. i. 2.) He becomes according 
to Livy the Jupiter Indiges ; according to Dio- 
nysius debs x^bvios. — A coin of Aenea [Aenea], 
which belongs to the middle of the sixth cen- 
tury B.C., represents Aeneas flying from Troy, 
carrying his father Anchises on his shoulders, 
and accompanied by his wife, who holds 
Ascanius by the hand. This subject is also ! 
frequently represented on Greek vases. 

Aeneas Gazaeus, so called from Gaza, his 
birthplace, lived in the latter half of the 5th 
century a.d. He was at first a Platonist and a 
Sophist, but afterwards became a Christian, 
when he composed a dialogue, on the Im- 
mortality of the Soul, called Theophrastus. — 
Editions. By Barthius, Lips. 1655 ; by Bois- 
sonade, Par. 1836. 

Aeneas Tacticus, a Greek writer of the 
middle of the 4th century B.C. Casaubon 
supposes him to be the same as Aeneas of 
Stymphalus, the general of the Arcadians, B.C. 
362 (Xen. Hell. vii.'3 § 1). He wrote a work on 
the art of war, of which a portion only is pre- j 
served, commonly called Commentarius Polior- 
crtici/s, showing how a siege should be resisted. 
An epitome of the whole book was made by 
Cineas. (Cic. ad Fain. ix. 25.) — Editions. By 
Emesti, Lips. 1763; by Orelli, Lips. 1818; by 
Hug, 1874. 

Aenesidemus (AtvT]<r'i$riftos), 1. a celebrated 
sceptic, born at Cnossus in Crete, probably 
lived a little later than Cicero. He differed on 
many points from the ordinary sceptics. The 
grand peculiarity of his system was the attempt 
to unite scepticism with the earlier philosophy, 
to raise a positive foundation for it by account- 
ing from the nature of things for the never- 
ceasing changes both in the material and 
spiritual world. None of the works of Aenesi- 
demus have come down to us. To them Sextus > 
Empiricus was indebted for a considerable part 
of his work. From him we learn the eight ' 
methods by which Aenesidemus shows fallacy 
in all a priori reasoning, as all arguments what- 
ever were confuted by the StKa rpo-rroi [Pybbho], 
viz. (1) Either the cause given is unseen and 
not proven by things seen. (2) Or if the cause 
is Keen it cannot be shown to exclude other 
hypotheses. (3) A regular and constant effect 
attributed to an irregular and fitful cause : e.g. 
the motions of planets to a sudden impulse. (4) 
In arguing from the seen to the unseen it is 
assumed that the laws are the same. (5) 
'Causes' only mean opinion of causes, in 



AEOLIS 



25 



conflict with other opinions. (6) Equally prob- 
able causes are accepted or rejected as the 
theory requires. (7) The causes given are at 
variance with phenomena. (8) Principles are 
uncertain because the facts from which they 
proceed are uncertain. — 2. [Theron.] 

Aeneus, son of Apollo and Stilbe, husband 
of Aenete and father of Cyzicus. 

Aeniaries (AiViSi^s, Ion. 'Evir/ves), an ancient 
Greek race, originally near Ossa, afterwards in 
southern Thessaly (Horn. II. ii. 749 ; Hdt. vii. 
198), between Oeta and Othrys, on the banks of 
the Spercheus. Chief town Hypata. 

Aenus. 1. (Aieor : AiVios, AiViaT7)s : Eno), 
an ancient town in Thrace, near the mouth of 
the Hebrus, mentioned in Horn. JZ. iv. 520. It 
was colonised by the Aeolians of Asia Minor. 
Virgil (Aen. iii. 18) supposes Aenos to have been 
built by Aeneas, but he confounds it with , 
Aexea in Chalcidice. Under the Romans 
Aenos was a free town, and a place of import- 
ance.- — 2. A town in Aetolia. — 3. Mountain in 
Cephallenia. 

Aenus (Inn), a river in Rhaetia, the boundary 
between Rhaetia and Noricum. (Tac. Hist . iii. 5.) 

Aeoles or Aeolii (AloAeis). One of the three 
great divisions of the Greeks at one time dwell- 
ing in the Tliessalian country south of the 
Peneus. [For their mythical origin see Aeolus.] 
In the colonisation of Asia Minor from Greece 
the Aeolians as a mixed body, uniting Locrians, 
Magnetes, Boeotians and Achaeans, started 
from Aulis. They were, however, mainly de- 
scendants of the Achaeans. Traditionally they 
were led first by Orestes, and after his death by 
his son Penthilus as far as Thrace, and thence 
by Archelaus son of Penthilus to Dascyleum 
in the country of Cyzicus, whence Gras son of 
Archelaus first advanced to the Granicus and 
then retired and occupied Lesbos. A second 
detachment under Cleuas and Melaus, de- 
scendants also of Agamemnon, founded Cyme 
(Strab. p. 582). It seems probable that the Aeo- 
lians first occupied Lesbos, that thence a second 
migration colonised Cyme and that from Cyme 
and Lesbos the Aeolian cities of the northern 
part of Asia Minor were founded [Aeolis.] 
Cyzicus was first colonised by the Milesians in 
756 B.C. [For Aeolian poets, see Ajlcveus, 
Sappho.] 

Aeoliae Insulae (at Ai6\ov vf/aoi : Lipari 
Islands), a group of islands NE. of Sicily, 
where Aeolus, the god of the winds, reigned. 
Homer (Od. x. 1) mentions only one Aeolian 
island, and Virgil (Aen. i. 52) accordingly speaks 
of only one Aeolia (sc. insula), where Aeolus 
reigned, supposed to be Strongyle (Strab. p. 
276) or Lipara (Diod. v. 'J). These islands 
were also called Hephaestiddes or Vulci'miae, 
because Hephaestus or Vulcan was supposed 
to have had his workshop in one of them called 
Hiera (Verg. Aen. viii. 415 seq.). They were 
also named Lipdrenses, from Lipara, the 
largest of them. The names of these islands 
were, Lipara (Lipari); Hiera (Volcano): 
Strongyle (Strom boli); Phoeniciisa (Felicudi) ; 
Ericusa (Alicudi); Euonymus (Panaria); 
Didyme (Salina) ; Hicesia (Lisca Bianco) ; 
Basilidia (Basilizzo) ; Osteodes (Ustica). 

Aedlides (Aio (Srjj), a patronymic given to the 
sons of Aeolus, as Athamas, Cretheus, Sisy- 
phus, Salmoneus, Arc, and to his grandsons, as 
Cephalus, Ulysses and Pbrixus, Aeolis is the 
patronymic of the female descendants of Aeolus, 
given to his daughters Can ace and Alcyone. 

Aeolis (AfoAifj or Ae51ia, a district of Mysia 
in Asia Minor, was peopled by Aeolian Greeks, 



26 



AEOLUS 



AESAR 



whose cities extended from the Troad along the 
shores of the Aegaean to the river Hermus. 
The northern group comprised the islands of 
Tenedos and Lesbos with its six cities, the 
southern group was formed into a league of 
twelve cities with a common religious festival 
(Panaeolium), viz. Cyme, Larissae, Neon- 
tlchos, Temnus, Cilia, Notium, Aegirusa, 
Pitane, Aegaeae, Myrina, G-rynea, and Smyrna ; 
but Smybna subsequently became a member 
of the Ionian confederacy. (Hdt. i. 149 seq.) 
These cities were subdued by Croesus, and 
were incorporated in the Persian empire on the 
conquest of Croesus by Cyrus. Magnesia (q. 
v.) on the Maeander is said to have also been 
founded by the Aeolians. 

Aeolus (AfoAos). 1. Son of Hellen and the 
nymph Orsei's, and brother of Dorus and 
Xuthus. He was the ruler of Thessaly, and the 
founder of the Aeolic branch of the Greek nation. 
His children are said to have been very 
numerous ; but the most ancient story men- 
tioned only four sons, viz., Sisyphus, Athamas, 
Cretheus, and Salmoneus : others represent him 
as the father also of Mimas and Macareus and 
of five daughters, one of whom, Canace, was 
seduced by her brother Macareus and slain for 
that reason by her father (Ov. Her. 11). 
Another daughter was Arne. The great extent 
of country which this race occupied probably 
gave rise to the varying accounts about the 
number of his children. — 2. Son of Poseidon 
and Arne, and grandson of the previous Aeolus. 
His story probably refers to the emigration of a 
branch of the Aeolians to the west. His mother- 
was carried to Metapontum in Italy, where she 
gave birth to Aeolus and his brother Boeotus. 
It is this Aeolus who figures in the story which 
supplies the plots for the two plays of Euripides 
called Melanippe. — 3. Aeolus, son of Hippotes, 
represented in the Odyssey as friend of the 
gods, dwelling in the floating western island 
Aeolia. Here he reigned as a just and pious 
king, taught the natives the use of sails for 
ships, and foretold them the nature of the 
winds that were to rise. In Homer (Ocl. x. 1 
seq.) Aeolus, the son of Hippotes, is neither the 
god nor the father of the winds, but merely the 
happy ruler of the Aeolian island, to whom 
Zeus had given dominion over the winds, which 
he might soothe or excite according to his 
pleasure ; wherefore he gives Odysseus a bag 
confining the unfavourable winds — a myth 
which is identical in the folk-lore of other 
nations, e.g. the Laplanders. This statement 
of Homer led to Aeolus being regarded in later 
times as the god and king of the winds, which 
he kept enclosed in a mountain (Ov. Met. 
xiv. 223; Verg. Aen. i. 52\ It is therefore to 
him that Juno applies when she wishes to 
destroy the fleet of the Trojans. The Aeolian 
island of Homer was in later times believed to 
be Lipara or Strongyle, and was accordingly 
regarded as the place in which the god of the 
winds dwelt. [Aeoliae Insulae.] The above 
distinction is by no means invariable, and we 
find the 2nd and the 3rd Aeolus in some authors 
confused. Diodorus (iv. 67, v. 7) connects the 
three by a regular genealogy: Mimas son of 
Aeolus I., Hippotes son of Mimas, Aeolus II. 
son of Hippotes, Arne daughter of Aeolus II. 
and mother of Aeolus IV. 

Aepea (Ar-n-em : Anrea-rrjs). 1. A town in 
Messenia on the sea-coast, afterwards Thtjria. 
— 2. A town in Cyprus, afterwards Soli. 

Aepy (Aliru), a town in Elis, situated on a 
height, as its name indicates. 



Aepytus (Aitti/tos). 1. A mythical king of 
Arcadia, from whom a part of the country was 
called Aepytis. He died from the bite of a 
snake and was buried near Cyllene. His grave 
is mentioned in Horn. II. ii. 603. His father 
was Elatos (Pind. 01. vi. 33) and his daughter 
was Evadne. — 2. Youngest son of the Heraclid 
Cresphontes, king of Messenia, and of Merope, 
daughter of the Arcadian king Cypselus. "When 
his father and brothers were murdered during 
an insurrection, Aepytus alone, who was with 
his grandfather Cypselus, escaped the danger. 
The throne of Cresphontes was in the mean- 
time occupied by the Heraclid Polyphontes, 
who also forced Merope to become his wife. 
When Aepytus had grown to manhood, he 
returned to his kingdom, and put Polyphontes 
to death. From him the kings of Messenia were 
called Aepytids instead of the more general 
name Heraclids. — 3. Son of Hippothous, king 
of Arcadia, and great-grandson of the Aepytus 
mentioned first. He was father of Cypselus 
(Paus. viii. 5, 5). 

Aequi, Aequicoli, Aequicolae, Aequiciilani, 
an ancient warlike people of Italy, dwelling in 
the upper valley of the Anio in the mountains 
forming the eastern boundary of Latium, and 
between the Latini, Sabini, Hernici, and Marsi. 
In conjunction with the Volsci, who were of the 
same Oscan race, they carried on constant 
hostilities with Rome, but their resistance 
became feebler at the end of the 6th century 
B.C., and though they joined the Samnite coali- 
tion they were completely brought under the 
Roman power in 304 B.C. Their chief towns 
were Alba Fucens and Caeseoli. 

Aequi Falisei. [Falebji.] 

Aequimaelium. [Maelius.] 

Aerope ('Aepdiri]). 1. Daughter of Catreus,king 
of Crete, and granddaughter of Minos. Her 
father, who had received an oracle that he should 
lose his life by one of his children, gave her and 
her sister Clymene to Nauplius, who was to sell 
them in a foreign land. Aerope married Pli- 
sthenes, the son of Atreus, and became by him 
the mother of Agamemnon and Menelaus. After 
the death of Plisthenes Aerope married Atreus ; 
and her two sons, who were educated by Atreus, 
were generally believed to be his sons. Aerope 
was faithless to Atreus, being seduced by Thy- 
estes, and according to some was thereupon 
thrown into the sea. Soph. Aj. 1297 may either 
refer to this or to the story followed by Euri- 
pides in the Kpr\ff(Tai, that she was seduced by a 
slave of her father's. In the latter play, how- 
ever, she is not drowned but is delivered by 
Catreus to Nauplius to be drowned and is spared 
by him, marrying Atreus afterwards. [Atreus ; 
Agamemnon.] — 2. Daughter of Cepheus and 
mother of Aeropos by Ares (Paus. viii. 44. 7). 

Aesacus (AicraKos), son of Priam and Arisbe 
(Apoll. iii. 12. 5), or Alexirrhoe (Ov. Met. xi. 763). 
He lived far from his father's court in the soli- 
tude of mountain forests. Hesperia, however, 
the daughter of Cebren, kindled love in his 
heart, and on one occasion while he was pur- 
suing her, she was bitten by a viper and died. 
Aesacus in his grief threw himself into the sea 
and was changed by Thetis into an aquatic 
bird. Apollodorus tells that Aesacus, having 
learnt the interpretation of dreams from his 
grandfather Merops, prophesied to Priam the 
evils which Paris would cause. 

Aesar, the name of a deity among the 
Etruscans. 

Aesar or Aesarus (Esaro), a river near Croton 
in Bruttii, in southern Italy. 



AESCHINES 

Aeschines (Al<rx' lv7 is)- 1- The Athenian ora- 
tor, born B.C. 389, was the son of Atrometus and 
Glaucothea. According to Demosthenes, his 
political antagonist, his parents were of dis- 
reputable character and not even citizens of 
Athens; but Aeschines himself says that his 
father was descended from an honourable 
family, and lost his property during the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. In his youth Aeschines appears 
to have assisted his father in his school ; he next 
acted as secretary to Aristophon, and afterwards 
to Eubulus ; he subsequently tried his fortune 
as an actor, but was unsuccessful ; and at 
length, after serving with distinction in the 
army at the battle of Tamynae (Aesch. F. L. 
§ 169), came forward as a public speaker and 
soon acquired great reputation. In 347 he was 
sent along with Demosthenes as one of the 10 
ambassadors to negotiate a peace with Philip : 
from this time he appears as the friend of the 
Macedonian party and as the opponent of 
Demosthenes. Shortly afterwards Aeschines 
formed one of the second embassy sent to Philip 
to receive the oath of Philip to the treaty which 
had been concluded with the Athenians ; but 
as the delay of the ambassadors in obtaining 
the ratification had been favourable to the in- 
terests of Philip, Aeschines on his return to 
Athens was accused by Timarchus. He evaded 
the danger by bringing forward a counter-accu- 
sation against Timarchus (345), and by showing 
that the moral conduct of his accuser was such 
that he had no right to speak before the people. 
The speech in which Aeschines attacked Tim- 
archus is still extant : Timarchus was condemned 
and Aeschines gained a brilliant triumph. It can 
hardly be doubted, however, that Aeschines had 
corruptly played into the hands of Philip, and had 
purposely misled his own countrymen. In 343 
Demosthenes renewed the charge against Aes- 
chines of treachery during his second embassy 
to Philip. This charge of Demosthenes (irepl 
irapairpea /3ei'as) was not spoken, but published 
as a memorial, and Aeschines answered it in a 
similar memorial on the embassy (irepl wapa- 
irpe<rfteias), which was likewise published. 
Shortly after the battle of Chaeronea in 338, 
which gave Philip the supremacy in Greece, 
Ctesiphon proposed that Demosthenes should 
be rewarded for his services with a golden 
crown in the theatre at the great Dionysia. 
Aeschines in consequence accused Ctesiphon ; 
but he did not prosecute the charge till 8 years 
later, 330. The speech which he delivered on 
the occasion is extant, and was answered by 
Demosthenes in his celebrated oration on the 
crown (ircpl o-THpdvov). Aeschines was defeated, 
and, being condemned to pay the fine of 1000 
drachmae, withdrew from Athens. He went to 
Asia Minor, and at length established a school 
of eloquence at Rhodes. On one occasion lie 
read to his audience in Rhodes his speech 
against Ctesiphon, and also the reply of Demo- 
sthenes : when his hearers expressed their ad- 
miration lie said: 'Your admiration would lie 
greater if you heard Demosthenes deliver his 
own speech ' (Cic. de Orat. iii. 56, 213 ; Plin. 
H.N. vii. § 110). Aeschines was undoubtedly 
not only a fluent, but a brilliant orator (he 
prided himself as needing less study than De- 
mosthenes) : but among the points in which his 
speeches rank far below those of Demosthenes 
may be noticed a want of that nobility in mind 
and purpose which add force and inspiration to 
the oratory of his rival. From Rhodes lie went 
to Sainos, where he died in 314. Besides the 
8 orations extant, we also possess 12 letters 



AESCHYLUS 



27 



which are ascribed to Aeschines, but are the 
work of late sophists. — Editions. In the edi- 
tions of the Attic orators [Demosthenes], and 
by Bremi, Zurich, 1823 ; Franke, 1873 ; Schultz, 
1865. — 2. An Athenian \ hilosopher and rhe- 
torician, and a disciple of Socrates. After the 
death of his master he seems (Hermod. ap. Diog. 
Laert. ii. 106, iii. 6) to have stayed with Euclid 
in Megara hi company with Plato and others : 
thence he went to Syracuse, but returned to 
Athens after the expulsion of Dionysius, and 
supported himself, receiving money for his in- 
structions. He wrote several dialogues, but the 
three which have come down to us under his 
name are not genuine (vepl 'Aptrrjs, Axiochus 
and Eryxias : see Hermann, de Aeschinis 
reliq. 1850).— Editions. By Fischer, Lips. 1786 ; 
by BSckh, Heidel. 1810; and in many editions 
of Plato. — 3. Of Neapolis, a Peripatetic philo- 
sopher, who was at the head of the Academy at 
Athens, together with Charmades and Clito- 
machusabout B.C. 109 (Cic. de Orat. i. 11). — 4. Of 
Miletus, a contemporary of Cicero, and a dis- 
tinguished orator in the Asiatic style of elo- 
quence (Cic. Brut. 95 ; Diog. ii. 64). 

Aeschrion lAiVxpiW). Of Syracuse, whose 
wife Pippa was one of the mistresses of Verres, 
and who was himself one of the scandalous 
instruments of Verres. — 2. An iambic poet, a 
native of Samos. There was an epic poet of 
the same name, who was a native of Mytilene 
and a pupil of Aristotle, and who accompanied 
Alexander on some of his expeditions. He may 
perhaps be the same person as the Samian. 
(What remains of his poems is printed in 
Bergk's Poetae Lyrici, 1866.) — 3. A native of 
Pergamum, and a physician in the second 
century after Christ, was one of Galen's tutors. 

Aeschylus (AiVx^os). 1. The great tragic 
poet, was born at Eleusis in Attica, B.C. 525, 
so that he was thirty-five years of age at the 
time of the battle of Marathon, aad contempo- 
rary with Simonides and Pindar. His father 
Euphorion was 
probably connec- 
ted with the wor- 
ship of Demeter, 
and Aeschylus 
himself was, ac- 
cording to some 
authorities, initia- 
ted in the mys- 
teries of this god- 
dess. At the age 
of twenty-five (B.C. 
499), he made his 
first appearance as 
a competitor for 
the prize of tra- 
gedy against Pra- 
tinas, without be. 
ing successful. His chief rival at this period 
was Phryniclius. He fought, with his brothers 
CynaegTrus and Aminias, at the battle of Ma- 
rathon (490), and also at those of Salamis (480) 
and Plataea (479). In 485 he first gained the 
prize ; and in 472 he gained the prize with the 
trilogy of which the Persae, the earliest of his ex- 
tant dramas, was one piece. About this time, as is 
generally supposed, ho went to the court of Hiero, 
and produced his play Aetneae to inaugurate the 
city Aetna [Catana], which Hiero had founded. 
It is said that the Persae was reproduced there. 
He remained in Sicily about three years and 
returned to Athens before the death of Hiero : 
for in B.C. 468 his play was defeated by the 
Triptolemus of Sophocles. At the same time 




Bust of Aeschylus. 



28 



AESCHYLUS 



there are reasons which may incline us to think 
that the first visit to Sicily was earlier. The 
city of Aetna, in honour of which he wrote his 
play, was actually founded in B.C. 476. Again, 
the subject of the play Olaucus Pontius, which 
formed part of the trilogy, is such as would 
more naturally be suggested after a visit to 
Sicily. Lastly, the tradition, though improbable 
in itself, that he went to Sicily because he was 
jealous of Simonides, is not likely to have 
arisen unless it was known that he quitted 
Athens before Simonides, i.e. before 477. On 
the whole we are met with fewer difficulties if 
we place the first visit between 479 and 472, and 
suppose that he returned to Athens in or 
shortly before the year in which he produced 
the Persae, which we shall then date after the 
Aetneae. In the year 477 he was victorious 
with the Septem c. Thebas. At some time 
later, probably after his victory with the Ore- 
steia in B.C. 458, he returned to Sicily, and died 
at Gela in 456, at the age of sixty-nine. Various 
traditions are preserved as to the cause of his 
quitting Athens for Sicily. Some said it was 
from mortification at a defeat by Sophocles. It 
may be remarked that the most probable dates 
for his two journeys to Sicily do not follow a 
defeat. Others said it was because he had been 
defeated by Simonides in an elegy on those 
who died at Marathon. Tf this was so, it is 
Strange that he should have gone to the court 
of Hiero only to meet 
Simonides there after 
all. Others said that 
it was because he 
had divulged the mys- 
teries ; others (and 
this, at any rate, must 
refer to his second 
visit to Sicily) because 
the alarm caused to 
women and children 
by the chorus of Fu- 
ries had raised bad 
feeling against him. 
Whatever may have 
been the cause of his 
earlier visit to Hiero, 
the most likely account of his final departure 
from Athens is that he was disheartened by 
the failure of his attempt to support the power of 
the Areopagus by his Eumenides, and uneasy 
at the growing power of the democracy, whose 
leaders, moreover, must have regarded him 
with ill will. The well-known story of his 
death, that an eagle, mistaking the poet's 
bald head for a stone, dropped a tortoise on 
it to break the shell, is represented on a gem, 
which Baumeister thinks was copied from a 
relief, and suggests that the story came from 
the relief and was fitted on to Aeschylus. 
It was held to fulfil an oracle by which Aes- 
chylus was to die by a blow from heaven. 
— Aeschylus so changed the system of the 
tragic stage that he has more claim than 
anyone else to be regarded as the founder 
of Tragedy. His great change consisted in 
introducing a second actor, which was done 
certainly before the Persae. Before this there 
can have been little real dramatic action and 
a dialogue merely between the single actor 
and the chorus was of far less importance 
than the classic odes. Aeschylus first made 
the dialogue more important than the chorus. 
He improved the masks and the costumes 
generally (see Diet. Antiq. s.v. Tragoedia) : 
it was said (Athen. p. 21, e.) that he in some 




Aeschylus. (From a gem 



AESIS 

degree imitated the splendid dress of the 
hierophant in the Eleusinian mysteries. It is 
stated by Vitruvius that Aeschylus first em- 
ployed Agatharchus to paint scenes : it is not 
quite easy to reconcile this with Aristotle, Poet. 
4, 16, where ffurivoypafyla. is mentioned as in- 
troduced by Sophocles. It is possible that 
Aeschylus first used it in a still ruder form, and 
that Sophocles so far developed it as to make it 
his own. The characteristics of the plays of 
Aeschylus are a sublimity and grandeur of 
feeling and expression, with less of the pathos 
which we find in Sophocles and Euripides. 
Prometheus is his most pathetic play, but 
we are made to feel that Prometheus is a 
deity and removed above mere human pity. 
The poet brings before us more forcibly, and 
more terribly, than the other tragedians the 
unseen powers working out the doctrine of re- 
tributive justice, and the mysteries of laws 
which control even the gods themselves. Not 
only are his hearers no men of common life, 
but behind all their actions and sufferings we 
are made to feel the supernatural power work- 
ing out the punishment of presumption. And 
the diction has been suited to the subject, so 
that Aeschylus is above all poets magniloquent, 
sometimes to a degree which in a lesser man 
would be called turgid, abounding in sonorous 
words and daring metaphors. It has been sug- 
j gested, not without reason, that the apparent 
influence of the philosophy of Pythagoras, as 
well as some remarkable Doric forms, may 
have been due to the poet's prolonged stay in 
Sicily on his first visit. We are told that 
[ Aeschylus wrote 70 tragedies besides satyric 
J dramas. The 'fable trilogy,' i.e. a succession 
, of three plays working out the successive chap- 
ters of some legend, belongs especially to 
Aeschylus. The trilogies of Sophocles more 
frequently, though not always, were discon- 
nected in story. Of the plays of Aeschylus 
seven only remain : 1. The Persae, produced in 
472, of the trilogy Phineus, Persae, Glaucus 
Pontius ; 2. the Septem c. Thebas (b.c. 468) of 
the series Laius, Oedipus, Septem, forming 
with the satyric drama Sphinx a tetralogy ; 3. 
the Supplices (b.c. 462), the middle play be- 
tween the Egyptians and the Danaids; 4. the 
Prometheus Vinctus (of uncertain date), the 
middle play between tlpofxriBevs nupepdpos and 
Up. Audjuei/os, and lastly (b.c. 458), the three plays 
Agamemnon, Choephoroe, and Eumenides, 
which form the trilogy of the Oresteia. — Edi- 
tions. Dindorf; Paley; Weil; Hartung : of sepa- 
rate plays, especially Miiller's Eumenides, and 
Sidgwick's Oresteia, Prickard's Prometheus. 
Aesculapius. [Asclepius.] 
Aesepus (fda-qiros), a river which rises in 
Ida, and flows by a NE. course into the Pro- 
pontis, which it enters W. of Cyzicus and E. of 
the Granicus. The river god was the son of 
Oceanus and Tethys (Hes. Theog. 342). 

Aesernia (Isemia), a town in Samnium, 
made a Roman colony in the first Punic war 
(Liv. xxvii. 10 ; Cic. ad Att. viii. 11). 

Aeserninus. 1. A surname of Maecellus, 
who was taken prisoner at Aesernia (Liv. Ep. 
lxxiii.). — 2. A Samnite gladiator of great strength, 
whence the proverb "Pacideianus cum Aeser- 
nino," for skill against brute force (Cic. ad Q. 
F. iii. 4), Pacideianus being the most skilful 
gladiator of his day. 

Aesis (Esino or Fiumesino), a river which 
formed the boundary between Picenum and 
Umbria, was anciently the S. boundary of the 
Senones, and the NE. boundary of Italy proper. 



AESIS 



AETHIOPIA 



29 



Aesis or Aesium (Aeslnas: Jesi), a town and 
a Roman colony in Umbria on the river Aesis, 
celebrated for its cheese, Aesinas caseus. 

Aeson. (Attraiv), son of Cretheus, the founder 
of Iolcus, and of Tyro, the daughter of Salmo- 
neus, and father of Jason and Promaehus. He 
was excluded from the throne by his half-brother 
Pelias, who endeavoured to keep the kingdom 
to himself by sending Jason away with the 
Argonauts. Pelias subsequently attempted to 
get rid of Aeson by force, but the latter put an 
end to his own life. According to Ovid (Met. 
vii. 162 seq.), Aeson survived the return of the 
Argonauts, and was made young again by 
Medea. His mother's name in Ov. Her. vi. 105 
is Alcimede. 

Aesopus (Aiffujiros). 1. The traditionary au- 
thor of Greek Fables. According to Herodotus 
ii 13-4, he lived about B.C. 570. He was origin- 
ally a slave, and received his freedom from his 
master, Iadmon the Samian. Upon this he 
visited Croesus, who sent him to Delphi, to 
distribute among the citizens 4 minae apiece ; 
but in consequence of some dispute on the sub- 
ject, he refused to give any money at all, upon 
which the enraged Delphians threw him from 
a precipice (cf. Aristoph. Vesp. 1446). Plagues 
'were sent upon them from the gods for the 
offence, and they proclaimed their willingness 
to give a compensation for his death to anyone 
who could claim it. At length Iadmon, the 
grandson of his old master, received the com- 
pensation, since no nearer connexion could be 
found. A life of Aesop is prefixed to a book of 
fables purporting to be his, and collected by 
Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th century, 
who represents Aesop as a monster of ugliness. 
It is clear that the Greeks even of the time of 
Herodotus knew little about Aesop's history; 
but it is probable that he was a real personage, 
and later traditions of his date agree with that 
given by Herodotus (cf. Plut. Sept. Sap. Conv. 
p. 152, c). The tendency to ascribe all fables 
to him appears from many passages (Aristoph. 
Pax, 127, Av. 471. 651 ; Plat. Phaed. p. 60, Sec). 
It was shown by Bentley that the fables which 
bear his name are spurious. They were, in fact, 
later prose versions of metrical fables. (See 
further under Babrius, Phaedkls.) — 2. See 
Julius Valerius. 

Aesopus, Claudius, or Clodius, was the 
greatest tragic actor at Rome, and a contempo- 
rary of Roscius, the greatest comic actor ; and 
both of them lived on intimate terms with 
Cicero (Cic. de Div. i. 37, 80 ; pro Sest. 58, 123 ; 
ad Q. F. i. 2). Aesopus appeared for the last 
time on the stage at an advanced age at the 
dedication of the theatre of Pompey (B.C. 55), 
when his voice failed him, and he could not 
go through the speech (Cic. ad Fam. vii. 1). 
Aesopus realised an immense fortune by his 
profession, which was squandered by bis son, 
a foolish spendthrift. It is said, for instance, 
that he dissolved in vinegar and drank a pearl 
worth about H0007., which he took from the ear- 
ring of Caecilia Metella (Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 239; 
Vat. Max. ix. 1. 2; Plin. ix. Sj 122). 

Aestii, Aestyi, or Aestui, a people dwelling 
on the sea-coast, in the NE. of Germany, prob- 
ably in the modern Kurland, who collected 
amber, which they called glessutn. Their cus- 
toms, says Tacitus (Germ. 45), resembled the 
Suevic, and their language the British. They 
were probably a Sarmatian or Slavonic race, 
and not a Germanic. 

Aesula (Aesuliinus), a town of the Aequi on a 
mountain between Praeneste and Tibur. " Ae- 



sulae declive arvum," Hor. Od. iii. 29 ; Liv. 
xxvi. 9.) 

Aesymnetes. [Eurypylus.] 

Aethalia (Ai'SaAia, Ai'0aA.7)), called Ilva. (Elba) 
by the Romans, a small island in the Tuscan 
sea, opposite the town of Populonia, celebrated 
for its iron mines. It had on the NE. a good 
harbour, "Argous Portus" (Porto Ferraio), in 
which the Argonaut Jason is said to have landed. 

Aethalides (Al6aKihr)s), son of Hermes and 
Eupolemia, the herald of the Argonauts. He 
had received from his father the faculty of 
remembering every thing, even in Hades, and 
was allowed to reside alternately in the upper 
and in the lower world. His soul, after many 
migrations, at length took possession of the 
body of Pythagoras, in which it still recollected 
its former migrations. (Apoll. Rh. i. 640 ; 
Hygin. Fab. 14.) 

Aether (Aitfv'.p), a personified idea of the 
mythical cosmogonies, in which Aether was con- 
sidered as one of the elementary substances out 
! of which the Universe was formed. Aether was 
regarded by the poets as the pure upper air, 
the residence of the gods, and Zeus as the Lord 
of the Aether, or Aether itself personified. 
(Cic. N. D. iii. 44, 53 ; Lucret. v. 498.) Hesiod, 
Th. 124, makes Aether son of Erebus and Nyx, 
and brother of Hemera. Verg. Georg. ii. 325, 
Lucr. i. 251, seem to identify him with Zeus and 
make him wedded to the Earth. 

Aethlces lAWi/ces), a Thessalian or Epirot 
people, near M. Pindus. 

Aethicus, Hister or Ister, a Roman writer 
of the 7th century after Christ, a native of Istria, 
the author of a geographical work, called Aethici 
Cosmographia. Edited by Gronovius, in his 
edition of Pomponius Mela, Leyden, 1722 ; 
Wuttke, Leips. 1854. 

Aethilla (AftJiAAa or AldvWa), daughter of 
Laomedon and sister of Priam, is said to have 
become after the fall of Troy the prisoner of 
Protesilaus, with whose history, however, this 
does not agree. 

Aethiopes I AifliWes, said to be from at8ui and 
but perhaps really a foreign name corrupted), 
was a name applied (1) most generally to all 
black or dark races of men ; (2) to the inhabit- 
ants of all the regions S. of those with which 
| the early Greeks were well acquainted, extend- 
ing even as far N. as Cyprus and Phoenicia ; 
13) to all the inhabitants of Inner Africa, S. of 
Mauretania, the Great Desert, and Egypt, from 
the Atlantic to the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, 
and to some of the dark races of Asia; and (4) 
most specifically to the inhabitants of the land 
S. of Egypt, which was called Aethiopia. The 
Aethiopes in Homer are the most distant of 
people (II. i. 423, Od. i. 22); in Hesiod, Th. 
985, their king bears the apparently Egyptian 
name of Memnon. 

Aethiopia (Aidiovia, Aid. iirep AlyvwTov : Al- 
flioij/, Al6iow(vs, Horn., fern. AiBtoirls, Acthiops : 
Nubia, Kordofan, Sennaar, Abyssinia), a 
country of Africa, S. of Egypt, the boundary of 
the countries being at Syene (Assouan) and the 
Smaller Cataract of the Nile, and extending on 
the E. to the Red Sea, and to the S. and S\V. 
indefinitely, as far apparently as the knowledgo 
of the ancients extended. The Egyptians knew 
it as the land of Cush. In its most exact politi- 
! cal sense the word Aethiopia seems to have 
denoted the kingdom of Meroe; but in its 
wider sense it included also the kingdom of the 
Axomitae, besides several otlier peoples, such 
I as the Troglodytes and the Ichthyophagi on Che 
J Red Sea, the Blemmyes and Megabari and 



30 



AETHLIUS 



AETOLIA 



Nubae in the interior. The country was wa- 
tered by the Nile and its tributaries, the Asta- 
pus (Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue Nile) and the Asta- 
boras (Atbara or Tacazze). Monuments are 
found in the country closely resembling those 
of Egypt, but of an inferior style, and the 
evidence from them is against the view that the 
Egyptians derived their civilisation from Meroe. 
[Aegyptus.] The kings of the 12th dynasty 
made successful expeditions against them and 
checked their encroachments by fortresses, but 
without permanent occupation, beyond Semneh 
at the 2nd Cataract, within which the ' Viceroys 
of Cush ' administered. But about 750 B.C. 
the Ethiopians not only recovered complete in- 
dependence, but gained possession of Thebes 
and established the 25th dynasty, which lasted 
till the defeat of Tirhakah by the Assyrians in 
672. Under the Ptolemies Graeco-Egyptian 
colonies established themselves in Ethiopia, and 
Greek manners and philosophy had a consider- 
able influence on the upper classes; but the 
country was never subdued. The Romans 
failed to extend their empire over Ethiopia, 
though they made expeditions into the country, 
in one of which C. Petronius, prefect of Egypt 
under Augustus, advanced as far as Napata, 
and defeated the warrior queen Candace (b.c. 
22). The submission of the country was, how- 
ever, nominal, at any rate south of Premis, where, 
as at Pselchis, there were Roman garrisons 
under Diocletian. 

Aethlius (Ae'0Aios), first king of Elis, father 
,of Endymion, was son of Zeus and Protogema, 
daughter of Deucalion, or son of Aeolus. 

Aethra (AWpa). 1. Daughter of Pittheus of 
Troezen, was mother of Theseus by Aegeus. 
[Theseus.] She afterwards lived in Attica, 
from whence she was carried off to Lacedaemon 
by Castor and Pollux, and became a slave of 
Helen, with whom she was taken to Troy 
(II. hi. 144). At the capture of Troy she was 
restored to liberty by her grandson Acamas or 
Demophon. — 2. Daughter of Oceanus, by whom 
Atlas begot the 12 Hyades and a son Hyas. 

Aetion ('AeriW). 1. A sculptor of Amphipolis 
about the middle of the 3rd century B.C. — 2. A 
celebrated painter, whose best picture repre- 
sented the marriage of Alexander and Roxana. 
It is probable that he lived in the time of Alex- 
ander the Great ; though some argue from 
Lucian, Herod. 4, that he lived about the time 
of Hadrian and the Antonines. 

Aetius. 1. A celebrated Roman general and 
patrician, defended the Western empire against 
the barbarians during the reign of Valentinian 
III. In a.d. 451 he gained, in conjunction with 
Theodoric, a great victory over Attila, near 
Chalons in Gaul, by which he saved the empire ; 
but he was treacherously murdered by Valen- 
tinian in 454. [See also Bonifacius.] — 2. A 
Greek medical writer, born at Amida in Meso- 
potamia, lived at the end of the 5th or the be- 
ginning of the 6th century after Christ. His 
work BijSAia iarpiKa eKicalSeKa, ' Sixteen Books 
on Medicine,' is one of the most valuable medi- 
cal remains of antiquity, as being a judicious 
compilation from many authors whose works are 
lost. The whole of it has never appeared in 
the original Greek, but parts are edited in Aneccl. 
Gr. Venice, 1816 ; Hebenstreit, Lips. 1757 ; and 
a Latin translation in Stephens, Meclicae Artis 
Principes, Paris, 1567. 

Aetna (A'irvri). 1. (Now Mongino = Monte 
Gibino, the original name being displaced by a 
mixture of two Latin and Arabic words, both 
meaning " the mountain ") a volcanic mountain 



in the NE. of Sicily between Tauromenium and 
Catana. It is said to have derived its name 
from Aetna, a Sicilian nymph, a daughter of 
Uranus and Gaea, or of Briareus. Zeus buried 
under it Typhon or Enceladus ; and in its in- 
terior Hephaestus and the Cyclopes forged the 
thunderbolts for Zeus. There were several 
eruptions of M. Aetna in antiquity. One oc- 
curred in B.C. 475, to which Aeschylus (Prom. 
363 ff.) and Pindar (01. iv. 10) probably allude, 
and another in B.C. 425, which Thucydides says 
(iii. 116) was the third on record since the 
Greeks had settled in Sicily. The form of the 
mountain seems to have been much the same in 
antiquity as it is at present. Its base covers 
an area of nearly 90 miles in circumference, and 
its highest point is 10,874 feet above the level 
of the sea. The circumference of the crater is 
variously estimated from 2J to 4 miles, and the 
depth from 600 to 800 feet.— 2. (Aetnenses : 
8. Maria cli Licodia), a town at the foot of M. 
Aetna, on the road to Catana, formerly called 
Inessa or Innesa. It was founded in B.C. 461, 
by the inhabitants of Catana, who had been ex- 
pelled from their own town by the Siculi. They 
gave the name of Aetna to Inessa, because 
Catana had been called Aetna by Hiero I. 

Aetnaeus (Alrvaios), an epithet of gods and 
mythical beings connected with Aetna — of 
Zeus, to whom a festival was celebrated there, 
called Aetnea ; of Hephaestus ; and of the Cy- 
clopes. 

Aetolia (AlruXia : AiVaiAfis), a division of 
Greece, was bounded on the W. by Acarnania, 
from which it was separated by the river Ache- 
lous, on the N. by Epirus and Thessaly, on the 
E. by the Ozolian Locrians, and on the S. by the 
entrance to the Corinthian gulf. It was divided 
into two parts, Old Aetolia from the Achelous 
to the Evenus and Calydon, and New Aetolia, 
or the Acquired (iwiKTriros), from the Evenus 
and Calydon to the Ozolian Locrians. On the 
coast the country is level and fruitful, but in the 
interior mountainous and unproductive. The 
mountains contained many wild beasts, and 
were celebrated in mythology for the hunt of 
the Calydonian boar. The country was origi- 
nally inhabited by Curetes and Leleges, but was 
at an early period colonised by Greeks from 
Elis, led by the mythical Aetolus. The Aeto- 
lians took part in the Trojan war, under their 
king Thoas. They continued for a long time a 
rude and uncivilised people, living in villages 
without a settled town, and to a great extent by 
robbery ; and even in the time of Thucydides 
(b.c. 410) many of their tribes spoke a language 
which was not Greek, and were in the habit of 
eating raw flesh (Thuc. iii. 94-98). Like the 
other Greeks, they abolished at an early time 
the monarchical form of government, and lived 
under a democracy. They were, perhaps, loosely 
united by a religious tie centring in the temple at 
Thermon (II. ii. 638, xiii. 217) ; but the first po- 
litical league was formed against Macedon after 
the battle of Chaeronea. It did not acquire 
much importance till after the death of Alexan- 
der, and somewhat later became a formidable 
rival to the Macedonian monarchs and to the 
Achaean League, from which it differed in being 
a league of tribes, not of towns : it had much 
less stability and coherence. The Aetolian 
League at one time included, not only Aetolia 
Proper, but Acarnania, part of Thessaly, Locris, 
and the island of Cephallenia ; and it also had 
close alliances with Elis and several towns in 
the Peloponnesus, and likewise with Cius on the 
Propontis. Its annual meetings, called Pan- 



AETOLUS 

aetolica, were held in the autumn at Thermon, 
and at them were chosen a General ((TTpar-qyos), 
who was at the head of the League, an fiipp- 
archus, or Master of the Horse, a Secretary, and 
a select committee called Apocleti (av6Khi)T0i). 
The Aetolians took the side of Antiochus III. 
against the Romans, and on the defeat of 
that monarch B.C. 189, they became virtually 
the subjects of Rome. On the conquest of 
the Achaeans, B.C. 146, Aetolia was included 
in the Roman province of Achaia. After the 
battle of Actium, B.C. 31, a considerable part 
of the population of Aetolia was transplanted to 
the city of Xicopolis, which Augustus built in 
commemoration of his victory. 

Aetolus (PJtw\6s) son of Endymion and 
Xels, or Iphianassa, married Pronol : , by whom 
he had two sons, Pleuron and Calydon. His 
father made him run a race at Olympia with 
his brother Epeius for the succession to the 
throne ; he was defeated, but, after the death 
of Epeius, became king of Elis. Afterwards 
he was obliged to leave Peloponnesus, because 
lie had slain Apis, the son of Jason or Sal- 
moneus. He went to the country near the 
Achelous, which was called Aetolia after him 
(Paus. v. 1, 2; Strab. p. 357).— 2. Son of 
Oxylus and Pieria, and brother of Laius. He 
died young, and was buried at the gate of Elis 
(Paus. v. 4, 4). 

Aexon§ (Ai|co</?) and hl&vrj'is : Al^aivevs), an 
Attic demus of the tribe Cecropis or Pandionis. 

Afer, Dorjutius, of Xemausus (Nismes) in 
Gaul, was the teacher of Quintilian, and one of 
the most distinguished orators in the reigns of 
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Xero, but he 
sacrificed his character by conducting accusa- 
tions for the government (Tac. Ann. iv. 52, 
66, xiv. 19 ; Dio Cass. lix. 19). He was consul 
suffectus in A. D. 39, and died in 60. Quintilian 
mentions several works of his on oratory, which 
are all lost (viii. 5, 16, ix. 2, 20, x. 1, 118.) 

Afranius. 1. L. A Roman comic poet, 
flourished about B. c. 100. He was the prin- 
cipal poet of the national comedy (Comoedia 
tor/ata), which did not borrow from the Greek 
but dealt with Italian scenes and manners. 
His subjects were greatly taken from the life of 
the middle and lower classes (Com. taber- 
nariae), and from the skill with which he 
described Roman life he was regarded as the 
Roman Menander (Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 57). He is 
praised by Cicero (Brut. 45, 105), and by Quin- 
tilian (x. 1, 10), but with a reservation on 
account of the immorality of his plots. The 
titles of more than forty plays are preserved. 
Fragments are edited by Ribbeck, Com. 1873. 
— 2. L. an adherent of Pompey, under whom 
he served against Sertorius and Mithridates, 
and was, through his influence, made consul 
B. c. 60. When Pompey obtained the pro- 
vinces of the two Spains in his second con- 
sulship (b. c. 55), he sent Afranius and Petreius 
to govern Hither Spain, while he himself re- 
mained in Rome. In B. c 49, Afranius and 
Petreius were defeated by Caesar in Spain. 
Afranius therefore passed over to Pompey in 
Greece ; was present at the battle of Pharsalia, 
B. c. 48; and subsequently at the battle of 
Thapsus in Africa, B. c. 46. He then attempted 
to fly into Mauretania, but was taken prisoner 
by P. Sitting, and killed. 

Africa ('A(f)piKT) : Africanus), or Libya (\i&(rr\), 
was used by the ancients in two senses, (1) for 
the whole continent of Africa, and (2) for the 
portion of N. Africa which constituted the 
territory of Carthage, and which the Romans 



AERICA 



31 



erected into a province, under the name of 
Africa Propria. — 1. In the more general sense 
the name was not used by the Greek writers ; 
and its use by the Romans arose from the 
extension to the whole continent of the name of 
a part of it. The proper Greek name for the 
continent is Libya (AijSutj). (Strab. 824-839.) 
Considerably before the historical period of 
Greece begins, the Phoenicians extended their 
commerce over the Mediterranean, and founded 
several colonies on the X. coast of Africa, of 
which Carthage was the chief. [Carthago.] 
The Greeks knew very little of the country 
until the foundation of the Dorian colony of 
Cykene (b. c. 620) [as regards the intercourse 
of Greeks with Egypt see Aegyptus], and even 
then their knowledge of all but the part near 
Cyrene was derived from the Egyptians and 
Phoenicians, who sent out some remarkable ex- 
peditions to explore the country. A Phoeni- 
[ cian fleet sent by the Egyptian king Pharaoh 
I Xecho (about B. c. 600) sailed from the Red Sea, 
j round Africa, and so into the Mediterranean 
I (Hdt. iv. 42) : : the authenticity of this story has 
been doubted without reason, not only by Strabo 
(p. 98), but by some modern writers. We still 
possess an authentic account of another expedi- 
tion, which the Carthaginians despatched under 
Han no (about B. c. 510), and which reached a 
point on the W. coast nearly, if not quite as far 
as lat. 10° X. On the opposite side of the 
continent, the coast appears to have been 
very little known beyond the S. boundary of 
Egypt, till the time of the Ptolemies. Li the 
interior, the Great Desert (Sahara) interposed a 
formidable obstacle to discovery ; but even 
before the time of Herodotus the people on the 
northern coast told of individuals who had 
crossed the Desert and had reached a great 
river flowing towards the E., with crocodiles in 
it, and black men living on its banks ; which, if 
the story be true, was probably the Kir/er in its 
upper course, near Timbuctoq. That the 
Carthaginians had considerable intercourse 
with the regions S. of the Sahara, has been 
inferred from the abundance of elephants they 
kept. Later expeditions and inquiries extended 
the knowledge which the ancients possessed of 
the E. coast to about 10 2 S. lat., and gave them, 
as it seems, some further acquaintance with the 
interior, about Lake Tchad, but the southern 
part of the continent was so totally unknown, 
that Ptolemy, who finally fixed the limits of 
ancient geographical science, recurred to the 
old notion, which seems to have prevailed before 
the time of Herodotus, that the S. parts of 
Africa met the SE. part of Asia, and that the 
Indian Ocean was a vast lake. The greatest 
geographers who lived before Ptolemy— namely, 
Eratosthenes and Strabo — had accepted the 
tradition that Africa was circumnavigable. 
The shape of the continent they conceived to 
be that of a right-angled triangle, having for 
I its hypotenuse a line drawn from the Pillars 
of Hercules to the S. of the Red Sea : and, as 
to its extent, they did not suppose it to reach 
nearly so far as the Equator. Ptolemy supposed 
the W. coast to stretcli X. and S. from the 
Pillars of Hercules, and he gave the continent 
an indefinite extent towards the S. There were 
I also great differences of opinion as to the 
boundaries of the continent. Some divided the 
whole world into only two parts, Europe and 
| Asia, and they were not agreed to which of 
these two Libya (i.e. Africa) belonged; and 
those who recognised three divisions differed 
j again in placing the boundary between Libya 



82 



AFEICA 



AGAMEDES 



and Asia either on the W. of Egypt, or along 
the Nile, or at the isthmus of Suez and the Red 
Sea : the last opinion gradually prevailed. As 
to the subdivision of the country itself, Hero- 
dotus distributes it into Aegyptus, Aethiopia 
(i.e. all the regions S. of Egypt and the 
Sahara), and Libya, properly so-called ; and 
he subdivides Libya into three parts, according 
to their physical distinctions — namely, (1) the 
Inhabited Country along the Mediterranean, 
in which dwelt the Nomad Libyans (oi 
irapadct\do~o~ioi ri>v i/o/idSwv Aifivcov : the Bar- 
bary States) ; (2) the County of "Wild Beasts 
(ti SrjpiclJSrjs), S. of the former : that is, the 
region between the Little and Great Atlas, 
which still abounds in wild beasts, but takes its 
name from its prevailing vegetation (Beled-el- 
Jerid, i. e. the Country of Palms) ; and (3) the 
Sandy Desert (t) ipdfj.fj.os : the Sahara), that is, 
the table land bounded by the Atlas on the N. 
and the margin of the Nile-valley on the E., 
which is a vast tract of sand broken only by a 
few habitable islands, called Oases. As to the 
people, Herodotus distinguishes four races — two 
native, namely, the Libyans and Ethiopians, 
and two foreign, namely, the Phoenicians and 
the Greeks. The Libyans, however, were a 
Caucasian race : the Ethiopians of Herodotus 
correspond to our Negro races. The Phoeni- 
cian colonies were planted chiefly along, and to 
the W. of, the great recess in the middle of the 
N. coast, which formed the two Sybtes, by far 
the most important of them being Carthage ; 
and the Greek colonies were fixed on the coast 
along and beyond the E. side of the Syrtes ; 
the chief of them was Cybene, and the region 
was ealled Cyrenaica. Between this and Egypt 
were Libyan tribes, and the whole region 
between the Carthaginian dominions and 
Egypt, including Cyrena'ica, was called by the 
same name as the whole continent, Libya. 
The chief native tribes of this region were the 
Adybmachtdae, Mabmabidae, Psylli, and 
Nasamones. The last extended into the Car- 
thaginian territory. To the W. of the Carthagi- 
nian possessions, the country was called by the 
general names of Numidia and Maubetania, 
and was possessed partly by Carthaginian 
colonies on the coast, and partly by Libyan 
tribes under various names, the chief of which 
were the Nujiidae, Massylii, Massaesylii, 
and Mauei, and to the S. of them the Gaetuli. 
The whole of this northern region fell succes- 
sively under the power of Rome, and was finally 
divided into provinces as follows : 1. Aegyptus ; 
(2) Cybenaica (for the changes in this province, 
see that article) ; (3) Africa Propria, the former 
empire of Carthage (see below, No. 2) ; (4) 
Numidia; (5) Maubetania, divided into (a) 
Sitifensis, (b) Caesariensis, (c) Tingitana : 
these, with (6) Aethiopia, make up the whole 
of Africa, according to the divisions recognised 
by the latest of the ancient geographers. The 
northern district was better known to the 
Romans than it is to us, and. was extremely 
populous and flourishing ; and, if we may judge 
by the list' of tribes in Ptolemy, the interior of 
the country, especially between the Little and 
Great Atlas, must have supported many more 
inhabitants than it does at present. Further 
information respecting the several portions of 
the country will be found in the separate 
articles. — 2. Africa Propria or Provincia, or 
simply Africa, was the name under which the 
Romans, after the Third Punic War (b. c. 146), 
erected into a province the whole of the former 
territory of Carthage. It extended from the 



river Tusca, on the W., which divided it from 
Numidia, to the bottom of the Syrtis Minor, on 
the SE. It was divided under Diocletian into 
three districts (regiones) : namely, (1) Zeugis or 
Zeugitana, the district round Carthage and 
Hippo, called also Africa proconsularis; (2) 
Byzacium or Byzacena, S. of Zeugitana, as far 
as the bottom of the Syrtis Minor — the former 
dioecesis of Hadrumetum ; (3) Tripolitana, the 
district of Tacapae, under a praeses. The 
province was full of flourishing towns, and was 
extremely fertile, especially Byzacena : it fur- 
nished Rome with its chief supplies of corn. 
With Africa Numidia was joined under a pro- 
consul from the time of Augustus until that of 
Septimius Severus, when Numidia was placed 
under the separate government of an imperial 
procurator. 

Africanus. 1. Sex. Caecilius, a Roman juris- 
consult, lived under Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138- 
161), and wrote Libri IX. Questionum, from 
which many extracts are made in the Digest 
(Gell. xx. 1). He was noted for the difficulty of 
his definitions, whence the proverb ' Africani 
lex ' for anything hard to understand. The 
fragments are collected by Hommel, Paling. 
pp. 3-26. — 2. Julius, a celebrated orator in the 
reign of Nero, is much praised by Quintilian, 
who speaks of him and Domitius Afer as the 
best orators of their time (x. 1. 118). He was 
probably son of Julius Africanus of Santoni in 
■ Gaul, whom Tacitus mentions as condemned 
to death a.d. 32 (Ann. vi. 7). — 3. An orator, 
grandson of No. 2 (Plin. Ep. vii. 6. 11). — 4. Sex. 
Julius, a learned Christian writer at the be- 
ginning of the third century, passed the greater 
part of his life at Emmaus in Palestine, and 
afterwards lived at Alexandria. His principal 
work was a Chronicon in five books, from the 
creation of the world, which he placed in 5499 
B.C., to a.d. 221. This work is lost, but part of 
it is extracted by Eusebius in his Chronicon, 
and many fragments of it are preserved by 
Georgius Syncellus, Cedrenus, and in the Pas- 
chale Chronicon. There was another work 
attributed to Africanus, entitled Cesti (KtaTo'i), 
that is, embroidered girdles, so called from the 
celebrated Cestus of Aphrodite (Venus). It 
treated of a vast variety of subjects — medicine, 
agriculture, natural history, the military art, 
&c. The work itself is lost, but some extracts 
from it are published in the Mathematici Ve- 
teres, Paris, 1693, and also in the Geoponica. 

Africus by the Greeks), the SW. or 
WSW. wind (between Auster and Favonius), 
so called because it blew from Africa, fre- 
quently brought storms with it (creberque pro- 
cellis Africus, Verg. Aen. i. 85 ; Hor. Od. i. 15; 
Sen. Q. N. v. 16. 6). 

Agamede ('AyafifiSy), daughter of Augeias 
and wife of Mulius. According to Homer (II. 
xi. 739), she was acquainted with the healing 
powers of all the plants that grow upon the 
earth. She is probably the same as Perimede 
(Theocr. ii. 16 ; Schol. ad Propert. ii. 48). 

Agamedes ('AyaixiiSris), commonly called son 
of Erginus, king of Orchomenus, and brother of 
Trophonius (Schol. ad Aristoph. Nub. 500). 
According to Pausanias, however, he was son of 
Stymphalus (viii. 4. 3). Agamedes and Tro- 
phonius distinguished themselves as architects : 
they built a temple of Apollo at Delphi, and a 
treasury of Hyrieus, king of Hyria in Boeotia 
i (Paus. ix. 37, 3 ; Strab. p. 421). The story 
j about this treasury resembles the one which 
i Herodotus (ii. 121) relates of the treasury of the 
i Egyptian king Rhampsinitus. In the con- 



AGAMEMNON 



33 



struction of the treasury of Hyrieus, Agamedes and in the second gathering at Aulis Agamemnon 
and Trophonius contrived to place one stone in killed a stag which was sacred to Artemis, who 
such a manner that it could be taken away out- in return visited the Greek army with a pesti- 
side, and thus formed an entrance to the trea- lence, and produced a cahn which prevented 
sury, without anybody perceiving it. Agamedes the Greeks from leaving the port. In order to 
and Trophonius now constantly robbed the appease her wrath, Agamemnon consented to 
treasury ; and the king, seeing that locks and sacrifice his daughter Iphigenla ; but at the 
seals were uninjured while his treasures were moment she was to be sacrificed, she was car- 
constantly decreasing, set traps to catch the ried off by Artemis herself to Tauris and 
thief. Agamedes was thus ensnared, and Tro- another victim was substituted in her place, 
phonius cut off his head to avert the discovery. The Tragedians follow this account, and so do 
After this Trophonius was immediately swal- j the Konian Tragedians (Ribbeck, Bom. Trag. 
lowed up by the earth. On this spot there was I 94, 104, 344). The calm now ceased, and the 
afterwards, in the grove of Lebadea, the cave of ' army sailed to the coast of Troy. Agamemnon 
Agamedes with a column by the side of it. alone had 100 ships, independent of 60 which 
Here also was the oracle of Trophonius, and j he had lent to the Arcadians. In the tenth 
those who consulted it first offered a ram to I year of the siege of Troy we find Agamemnon 
Agamedes and invoked him. A tradition men- involved in a quarrel with Achilles respecting 
tioned by Plato (Axioch. p. 807 c.) and Cicero j the possession of Brisei's, whom Achilles was 
(Ttisc. i. 47, 114) states that Agamedes and ] obliged to give up to Agamemnon. Achilles with- 
Trophonius, after building the temple of Apollo drew from the field of battle, and the Greeks were 
at Delphi, prayed to the god to grant them in visited by successive disasters. The danger of 
reward for their labour what was best for men. J the Greeks at last induced Patroclus, the friend 
The god promised to do so on a certain day, i of Achilles, to take part in the battle, and his 
and when the day came the two brothers died. ; fall led to the reconciliation of Achilles and 
Agamemnon CAyafid/xvuv), son of Plisthenes Agamemnon. [Achilles.] Agamemnon, al- 
and A'e'rope or Eriphyle, and grandson of Atreus, ! though the chief commander of the Greeks, is 
king of Mycenae : but Homer 
and others call him a son of 
Atreus and grandson of Pelops. 
Agamemnon and his brother 
Menelaus were brought up to- 
gether with Aegisthus and Thy- 
estes, in the house of Atreus. 
After the murder of Atreus by 
Aegisthus and Thyestes, who 
succeeded Atreus in the king- 
dom of Mycenae [Aegisthl's], 
Agamemnon and Menelaus 
went to Sparta, where Aga- 
memnon married Clytemnestra, 
the daughter of Tyndareus, by 
whom he became the father of 
Iphianassa (Iphigenia), Chryso- 
themis, Laodice (Electra), and 
Orestes. The manner in which 
Agamemnon obtained the king- 
dom of Mycenae is differently 
related. From Homer (II. ii. 
107) it appears that he had 
peaceably succeeded Thyestes, 
while, according to others, he 
expelled Thyestes, and usurped 
his throne. He now became 
the most powerful prince in 
Greece. In the above passage 
of Homer he is said to reign 
over ' all Argos,' but in the 
catalogue of ships (II. ii. 500 ff.) 
he rules Mycenae, Corinth, 
Sicyon, Cleonae, and cities of 

Achaia, while Diomede reigns at Argos, Tiryns, not the hero of the Iliad, and in chivalrous 
and Aegina. Thucydides (i. 9) reconciles the spirit, bravery, and character is altogether in- 
discrepancy by supposing that Agamemnon ferior to Achilles. But he nevertheless rises 
conquered Argos and the islands (cf. Strab. above all the Greeks by his dignity, power, and 
p. 377). There is a similar uncertainty in the majesty : his eyes and head are likened to 
Tragedians, who make him reign sometimes at those of Zeus, his girdle to that of Ares, and 
Mycenae, sometimes at Argos. Stesichorus, Si- his breast to that of Poseidon. The emblem of 
monides, and Pindar (Ncm. viii. 12), place him his power is a sceptre, the work of Hephaestus, 
at Spnrta. When Helen, the wife of Menelaus, which Zeus had once given to Hermes, and 
was carried off by Paris, and the Greek chiefs Hermes to Pelops, from whom it descended to 
resolved to recover her by force of arms, Aga- Agamemnon. At the capture of Troy he re- 
memnon was chosen their commander-in-chief, ceived Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, as 
After two years of preparation, the Greek army I his prize. On his return home he was murdered 
and fleet assembled in the port of Aulis in I by Aegisthus, who had seduced Clytemnestra 
Boeotia. According to the Cypria there was during the absence of her husband. Pindar 
first an unsuccessful expedition [see Telephus], and the tragic poets make Clytemnestra murder 




Agamemnon. f!~rom a bas-relief.) 



54 AMEMNONIDES 

Agamemnon with her own hand, and instead of 
the murder being at the banquet, as in the epic 
poets and in Livius Andronicus (Ribbeck, B. 
Tr. 28), the Greek Tragedians describe the 
murder in the bath. Her motive is in Aeschy- 
lus her jealousy of Cassandra, in Sophocles and 
Euripides her wrath at the death of Iphigenia. 
His tomb is said to be at Mycenae in Paus. ii. 
16. 6; but at Amyclae (Paus. iii. 19, 6) there 
was also a /xurnxa in a temple of Alexandra, who 
is said to be the same as Cassandra. He seems 
to have been worshipped not merely as a hero 
but in some places to have been a representa- 
tive of Zeus-. In Sparta a Zeus 'Aya/ie/xvcou was 
worshipped (Lycophr. 335, 1123, 1369, Tsetz). 
In art he appears as a bearded man as in the 
above drawing from a very ancient bas-relief 
from Samothrace, which represents Agamem- 
non seated, with his two heralds Talthybius and 
Epeus standing behind him. 

Agamemnonides (' Ayane^/oviS-ris), the son of 
Agamemnon, i.e. Orestes. 

Aganippe ('Ayavlirwrt), daughter of the river 
god Permessos (Paus. ix. 29 ; Verg. Eel. x. 12). 
A nymph of the well of the same name at the 
foot of Mount Helicon, in Boeotia, which was 
considered sacred to the Muses (who were hence 
called Aganippides),&n& which was believed to 
have the power of inspiring those who drank of 
it. The fountain of Hippocrene has the epithet 
Aganippis (Ov. Fast. v. 7), from its being sacred 
to the Muses, like that of Aganippe. 

Agapenor ('Aya-whvoip), son of Ancaeus king 
of the Arcadians, received 60 ships from Aga- 
memnon, in which he led his Arcadians to Troy 
(II. ii. 609). On his return from Troy he was 
cast by a storm on the coast of Cyprus, where 
he founded the town of Paphos, and in it the 
famous temple of Aphrodite (Paus. viii. 5, 2). 

Agarista ('Ayap'tcnri). 1. Daughter of CH- 
sthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, wife of Megacles, and 
mother of Clisthenes, the Athenian statesman, 
and Hippocrates. — 2. Daughter of the above- 
mentioned Hippocrates, grand-daughter of No. 
1, wife of Xanthippus, and mother of Pericles. 

Agasias ('Ayairias), son of Dositheus, a sculp- 
tor of Ephesus (about B.C. 100), sculptured the 




The so-called 'Borghese Gladiator,' by Agasias. 



statue known by the name of the ' Borghese 
Gladiator,' which is still preserved in the gallery 



AGATHINUS 

of the Louvre, and is a marvel of anatomical 
study. This statue, as well as the Apollo Bel- 
videre, was discovered among the ruins of a 
palace of the Roman emperors on the site of the 
ancient Antium (Capo d'Anzo). From the 
attitude of the figure it is clear that the statue 
represents, not a gladiator, but a warrior con- 
tending with a mounted combatant. In style 
this sculptor, like Menephilus and Dositheus, 
seems to follow the Greek traditions handed 
down from Lysippus to the so-called Hellenistic 
school, though in date he is contemporary with 
the Graeco-Roman schools (see Diet. Ant. s.v. 
Sculptura). 

Agasieles, Agesicles, or Hegesicles ('Aya<ri- 
K\yjs, ' Ay r\<riK\ris, 'HyijcriKAf/s), king of Sparta, 
succeeded his father Archidamus I., about B.C. 
600 or 590. 

Agasthenes (' Ay atx 8 cVtjs), son of Augeias and 
father of Polyxenus, king of Elis (Paus. v. 3, 
4 ; Horn. II. ii. 624). 

Agatharchides ('Aya8apxi$vs) or Agathar- 
chus ('Ayddapxos), a Greek grammarian, born 
at Cnidos, lived at Alexandria, probably about 
B.C. 130. He wrote a considerable number of 
geographical and historical works ; but we have 
only an epitome of a portion of his work on the 
Erythraean sea, which was made by Photius 
(printed in Hudson's Geogr. Script. Gr. Mi- 
nor xs), and some fragments (edited by C. Miiller). 

Agatharchus (' Ayddapxos), an artist, native 
of Samos, said to have invented scene-painting, 
in the time of Aeschylus. It was probably not 
till towards the end of Aeschylus's career-that 
scene-painting was introduced, and not till the 
time of Sophocles that it was generally made 
use of ; which may account for Aristotle's as- 
sertion (Poet. iv. 16) that scene-painting was 
introduced by Sophocles (see Diet. Ant. s.v. 
Theatrum). Some have asserted that it must 
be a different Agatharchus whom Alcibiades 
kept by force to work in his house, and who is 
mentioned as alive in the time of Zeuxis (Plut. 
Ale. 16 ; Andoc. in Ale. § 17) : but there is no 
difficulty in supposing the same man to have 
painted as early as B.C. 460 and as late as b.c. 
415. 

Agathemerus ('AyaOiifxepos). 1. The author 
of ' A Sketch of Geography in Epitome ' (tt)* 
yeaiypacpias virorvTrdtTeis iv iiriro/j.fj), probably 
lived about the beginning of the 3rd century 
after Christ. The work consists chiefly of 
extracts from Ptolemy and other earlier writers. 
It is printed in Hudson's Geogr. Script. Gr. 
Minores. — 2. A physician in the 1st cent, after 
Christ, born at Lacedaemon and a pupil of Cor- 
nutus, in whose house he became acquainted with 
Persius about a.d. 50. 

Agathias ('AyaOias), a Byzantine writer, born 
about a.d. 536 at Myrina in Aeolia, practised as 
an advocate at Constantinople, whence he ob- 
tained his surname Scholasticus (which word 
signified an advocate in his time), and died about 
a.d. 582. He wrote many epigrams (see Antho- 
logia Graeea), but his principal work was his 
History in five books, which is also extant, and 
is of considerable vaiue. It contains the his- 
tory from A.D. 553-558, a period remarkable for 
important events, such as the conquest of Italy 
by Narses and the exploits of Belisarius over 
the Goths and Bulgarians. — Editions. By Nie- 
buhr, Bonn, 1828 ; Dindorf, 1871. 

Agathinus, a Greek physician in the 1st 
cent, a.d., born at Sparta. He was tutor of 
Archigenes. He founded a medical school 
called the Eelectici: What remains of his 
writings is printed in Kuhn's Additamenta. 



AGATHOCLEA 

Agathoclea i'Aya66x\eia), mistress of Pto- 
lemy IV., king of Egypt, and sister of liis min- 
ister Agathoeles. She and her brother were put 
to death on the death of Ptolemy (b.c. 205). 

Agathoeles i'Aya&OKXris). 1. A Sicilian, raised 
himself from a humble station to be tyrant of 
Syracuse and ruler of Sicily, by his ability in 
handling mercenary troops and making them 
serve his purpose. Born at Thermae, a town of 
Sicily subject to Carthage, he is said to have 
been exposed when an infant, by his father, 
Carcinus of Rhegium, in consequence of a suc- 
cession of troublesome dreams, portending that 
he would be a source of much evil to Sicily. 
His mother, however, secretly preserved his 
life, and at 7 years old he was restored to his 
father, who had long repented of his conduct to 
the child. By him he was taken to Syracuse 
and brought up as a potter. His strength and 
personal beauty, and his prowess in military 
service, recommended him to Damas, a noble 
Syracusan, who drew him from obscurity, and 
on whose death he married his rich widow, and 
so became one of the wealthiest citizens in 
Syracuse. His ambitious schemes then deve- 
loped themselves, and he was driven into exile. 
After several changes of fortune, he collected 
an army which overawed the Syracusans, 
favoured as he was by Hamilcar and the Car- 
thaginians, and was restored under an oath that 
he would not interfere with the democracy, 
which oath lie kept by murdering 4000 and 
banishing G000 citizens. He was immediately 
declared sovereign of Syracuse, under the title 
of Autocrator, B.C. 317. In the course of a few 
years the whole of Sicily which was not under 
the dominion of Carthage submitted to him. 
In B.C. 310 he was defeated at Himera by the 
Carthaginians, under Hamilcar, who straight- 
way laid siege to Syracuse ; whereupon he 
formed the bold design of averting the ruin 
which threatened him, by carrying the war into 
Africa. He landed and burnt his ships. His 
successes were most brilliant and rapid. He 
constantly defeated the troops of Carthage, but 
was at length summoned from Africa by the 
affairs of Sicily, where many cities had revolted 
from him, B.C. 307. These he reduced, after 
making a treaty with the Carthaginians. He 
had previously assumed the title of king of 
Sicily. He afterwards plundered the Lipari 
isles, and also carried his arms into Italy, in 
order to attack the Bruttii. But his last days 
were embittered by family misfortunes. His 
grandson Archagathus murdered his son Aga- 
thoeles, for the sake of succeeding to the crown, 
and the old king feared that the rest of his 
family would share his fate. He accordingly sent 
his wife Texena and her two children to Egypt, 
her native country ; and his own death followed 
almost immediately, B.C. 289, after a reign of 28 
years, and in the 7'2nd year of his age. (For his 
mercenaries, the Mamertini, see Messaxa.] ■ 
Other authors speak of his being poisoned by 
Maeno, an associate of Archagathus. The 
poinon, we are told, was concealed in a quill 
which he used as a toothpick. (Diod. xix.-xxi. ; 
Justin, xxii. 1 ff.J— 2. Of Pella, father of Lysi- 
machus. — 3. Son of Lysimachus, was defeated 
and taken prisoner by Dromichaetis, king of 
the Getae, about B.C. 292, but was sent back to 
hig father with presents. In 287 he defeated 
Demetrius Poliorcetes. At the instigation of 
hig stepmother, Arsinoe, Lysimachus cast him 
into prison, where he was murdered (284) by 
Ptolcmaeus Ceraunus. (Plut. Demetr. 89 ff.) — 4. 
Brother of Aoathoclea. — 5. A Greek historian, 



AGAVE 



35 



of uncertain date, wrote the Cyzicus, which was 
extensively read in antiquity, and is referred to 
in Cic. cle Div. i. 24, 50 ; Athen. pp. 375, 515. 

Agathodaemon ('AyaBoSaifxav or 'AyaQus 
6e6s)- 1. The ' Good Deity ' or Genius, the im- 
personation of prosperity ; especially of natural 
fruitfulness, called by the Romans ' Bonus 
Eventus ' (Plin. H. N. xxxvi. § 23), and in Greece 
sometimes identified with Dionysus, as particu- 
larly giving increase of vineyards. Hence pro- 
bably the honour paid to him at banquets, 
where at the end of the banquet a libation of 
pure wine was poured for him, followed by the 
paean (Aristoph. Eq. 106 ; Athen. pp. 075, 692). 
Hence, too, he was represented as holding a 
patera in one hand and (as connected with 
Demeter) com and poppies in the other (Plin. 
JET. N. xxxiv. § 77) : or with the horn of Amal- 
thea (Paus. vi. 25, 4). It is noteworthy that his 
oldest symbol was a snake (Serv. ad Georg. iii. 
417 ; Lamprid. Elagab. 28). — 2. Of Alexandria, 
the designer of some maps to accompany 
Ptolemy's Geography. Copies of these maps 
are found appended to several MSS. of Ptolemy. 

Agathon i'AyaSaiv), an Athenian tragic poet, 
bom about B.C. 447, of a rich and respectable 
family, was a friend of Euripides and Plato, and 
a follower of Gorgias, by whom he was probably 
influenced in the rhetoric of his dramas. He 
gained Iris first victory in 417 : in honour of 
which Plato represents the Symposium to have 
been given, which he has made the occasion of 
his dialogue so called. In 407, he visited the 
court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where 
his friend Euripides was also a guest at the 
same time. He died about 400, at the age of 
47. The poetic merits of Agathon were con- 
siderable, and in reputation he came next to the 
three great Tragedians, but his poetry was cha- 
racterised by prettiness rather than force or 
sublimit}'. Aristophanes represents him as 
effeminate (Eccles. 100 ff.). His innovations in 
Tragedy were (1) that he composed choric odes 
unconnected with the subject which could be 
sung as orchestral interludes in any play 
(iftjlSAifxa.) ; (2) that he departed from the ex- 
hausted mythical subjects, and invented plots 
of his own, as in his play called "Av8os (Arist. 
Poet. 9, § 7 ; 18, §§ 17, 22). In the Thesmo- 
phoriazusae of Aristophanes he is ridiculed for 
his effeminacy, being brought on the stage in 
female dress. 

Agathyrna, Agathyrnum {' AyaBvpva, -ov : 
'Ayadvpvaios : Agatha), a Sikel town on the N. 
coast of Sicily. 

Agathyrsi ('Aya6up<roi), apeople in European 
Sannatia, with a mythical founder Agathyrsus, 
son of Heracles (Hdt. iv. 10), on the river 
Maris (Marosch) in Transylvania. From their 
practice of staining their 
skin with a blue dye they 
are called by Virgil {Aen. 
iv. 146) picti Agathyrsi. 
(Cf. Plin. H. N. iv. § 88 ; 
GsLoxn.) 

Agave I'Ayavt)), daugh- 
ter of Cadmus, wife of 
Echion, and mother of 
Pentheus. She is said to 
have accused her sister 
Semele of falsely repre- 
senting Zeus as the father 
of her child ; whence the 
subsequent revenge of Dio- 
nysus. When Pentheus 

attempted to prevent the women from celebrat- 
ing the Dionysiac festivals on mount Cithaeron, 

D 2 




Agave with head of 
Ponthoun. (Gem from 
IlritlBh Museum.) 



f 



36 AGBATANA 

lie was torn to pieces there by Agave, who in 
her frenzy believed him to be a wild beast. 
(Ov. M. iii. 725.) [Pentheus.]— One of the 
Nereids, one of the Dana'ids, and one of the 
Amazons, were also called Agavae. 

Agbatana. [Ecbatana.] 

Agdistis (AySt'oris), an androgynous deity, 
the offspring of Zeus and Earth, connected with 
a Phrygian worship of Attes or Attis. [See 
further under Attis and Cybele.] 

Agedincum or Agedicum (Sens), the chief 
town of the Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Ageladas ('AyeAaSas), an eminent statuary of 
Argos, the instructor of the three great masters, 
Phidias, Myron, and Polycletus. He seems to 
have worked from the end of the 6th century 
B.C. to the middle of the 5th. (See Diet. Antiq. 
s.v. ScuVpturd.) 

Agelaus (Aye'Actos). 1. Son of Heracles and 
Omphale, and founder of the house of Croesus. 
— 2. Son of Damastor and one of the suitors 
of Penelope, slain by Ulysses. — 3. A slave of 
Priam, who exposed the infant Paris on mount 
Ida, in consequence of a dream of his mother. 
— 4. Brother of Meleager. 

Agenor (Ay/jvcup). 1. Son of Poseidon and 
Libya, founder of the Phoenician race, twin- 
brother of Belus, and father of Cadmus, Phoenix, 
Cilix, Thasus, Phineus, and according to some 
of Europa also. The settlement of various 
nations is figured in the myth that these sons 
being sent in pursuit of their sister, when Zeus 
carried her off, settled down in the various 
lands which they reached. (II. xii. 93, xxi. 590.) 
Virgil (Aen. i. 338) calls Carthage the city of 
Agenor. — 2. Son of Iasus, and father of Argus 
Panoptes, king of Argos. — 3. Son and successor 
of Triopas, in the kingdom of Argos. — 4. Son of 
Pleuron and Xanthippe, and grandson of Aeto- 
lus. — 5. Son of Phegeus, king of Psophis, in 
Arcadia. He and his brother Pronous slew 
Alcmaeon, when he wanted to give the cele- 
brated necklace and peplus of Harmonia to his 
second wife Callirrhoe. [Phegeus ] The two 
brothers were afterwards killed by Amphoterus 
and Acarnan, the sons of Alcmaeon and Callir- 
rhoe. — 6, Son of the Trojan Antenor and The- 
ano, one of the bravest among the Trojans, was 
wounded by Achilles, but rescued by Apollo. 

Agenorides ('AyrivopiS^s), a descendant of an 
Agenor, such as Cadmus, Phineus, and Perseus. 

Agesander, a sculptor of Rhodes in the 2nd 
century B.C., who, in conjunction with Poly- 
dorus and Athenodorus, sculptured the group of 
Laocoon. This celebrated group was discovered 
in the year 1500, near the baths of Titus on the 
Esquiline hill : it is now preserved in the mu- 
seum of the Vatican. [Laocoon.] 

Agesilaus (Ayjjffi'Aaoy), king of Sparta. 1. 
Son of Doryssus, reigned 44 years, and died 
about B.C. 880. He was contemporary with the 
legislation of Lycurgus (Paus. iii. 2, 3). — 2. Son 
of Archidamus II., succeeded his half-brother 
Agis II., B.C. 398, excluding, on the ground of 
spurious birth, and by the interest of Lysander, 
his nephew Leotychides. From 396 to 394 he 
carried on the war in Asia Minor with success, 
and was preparing to advance into the heart of 
the Persian empire, when he was summoned 
home to defend his country against Thebes, 
Corinth, and Argos, which had been induced by 
Artaxerxes to take up arms against Sparta. 
Though full of disappointment, he promptly 
obeyed ; and in the course of the same year 
(394), he met and defeated at Coronea in Boeotia 
the allied forces (Xen. Sell. iv. 3). During the 
next four years he regained for his country 



AGIS 

I much of its former supremacy, till at length the 
fatal battle of Leuctra, 371, overthrew for ever 
the power of Sparta, and gave the supremacy 
for a time to Thebes. For the next few years. 
Sparta had almost to struggle for its existence 
amid dangers without and within, and it was- 
chiefly owing to the skill, courage, and presence 
of mind of Agesilaus that she weathered the 
storm. In 361 he crossed with a body of Lace- 
daemonian mercenaries into Egypt to assist 
Tachos against Persia. When Nectanebis rose 
against Tachos, he gained the throne chiefly by 
the help of Agesilaus, whom he rewarded by a 
gift of 230 talents. But Agesilaus died, while 
preparing for his voyage home, in the winter of 
361-360, after a life of above 80 years and a 
reign of 38. His body was embalmed in wax, 
and buried at Sparta. In person Agesilaus was 
small, mean-looking, and lame, on which last 
ground objection had been -made to' his acces- 
sion, an oracle, curiously fulfilled, having warned 
Sparta of evils awaiting her under a ' lame 
sovereignty.' In his reign, indeed, her fall took 
place, but not through him, for he was one of 
the best citizens and generals that Sparta ever 
had. His life is written by Plutarch and Cor- 
nelius Nepos. 

Agesipolis ('Ayncr'nroXis), king of Sparta. 1. 
Succeeded his father Pausanias, while yet a 
minor, in B.C. 394, and reigned 14 years. As 
soon as his minority ceased, he took an active 
part in the wars in which Sparta was then 
engaged with the other states of Greece. In 
390 he invaded Argolis with success ; in 385 he 
took the city of Mantinea ; in 381 he went to the 
assistance of Acanthus and Apollonia against 
the Olynthians, and died in 380 during this war 
in the peninsula of Pallene. — 2. Son of Cleom- 
brotus, reigned one year, B.C. 371. — 3. Succeeded 
Cleomenes in B.C. 220, but was soon deposed by 
his colleague Lycurgus : he afterwards took 
refuge with the Romans. 

Aggenus Urbicus, a writer on the science of 
the Agrimensores, may perhaps have lived at the 
! latter part of the 4th century of our era. His 
works are printed in Goesius, Bei Agrariae 
Auctores ; Scriptores Gromalici, ed. Lachmann. 

Aggrammes or Xandrames ('SavSpd^ris), the 
ruler of the Gangaridae and Prasii in India, 
when Alexander invaded India, B.C. 327. 

Agias ('Ayias), one of the so-called Cyclic 
poets, who wrote probably before B.C. 700. He 
was a native of Troezen, and wrote the Ndcrroi, 
or return of the Greeks. Proclus gives a sum- 
mary of the poem, which described the ad- 
ventures of Agamemnon and Menelaus after 
the fall of Troy, and the wanderings of other 
heroes. 

Aginnum (Agen), the chief town of the Nitio- 
briges in Gallia Aquitanica. 

Agis ("Ayis), kings of Sparta. 1. Son of 
Eurysthenes, the founder of the family of the 
Agidae. — 2. Son of Archidamus II., reigned B.C. 
427-398. He took an active part in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, and invaded Attica several 
times. (Thuc. iv. 2 ; Xen. Sell. i. 1, 2.) While 
Alcibiades was at Sparta he was the guest of 
Agis, and is said to have seduced his wife 
Timaea ; in consequence of which Leotychides, 
the son of Agis, was excluded from the throne 
as illegitimate. — 3. Son of Archidamus III., 
reigned B.C. 338-330, attempted to overthrow 
the Macedonian power in Europe, while Alex- 
ander the Great was in Asia, but was defeated 
and killed in battle by Antipater in 330. — 4. 
Son of Eudamidas II., reigned B.C. 244-240. 
He attempted to re-establish the institutions of 



AGIS 



AGRICOLA 



37 



Lycurgus, and to effect a thorough, reform in 
the Spartan state ; but he was resisted by his 
colleague Leonidas II. and the wealthy, was 
thrown into prison, and was there put to death 
by command of the ephors, along with his 
mother Agesistrata, and his grandmother Archi- 
damia. 

Agis, a poet of Argos, a flatterer of Alexan- 
der the Great (Curt. viii. 5; Arrian, Anab.v. 9). 

Aglala CAyXaia). 1. One of the Chakites 
or Graces. — 2. Wife of Charopus and mother 
of Nh-eus, who came from the island of Sime 
against Troy (II. ii. 671). 
Aglaopheme. [Serenes.] 
Aglaophon (' Ay\ao<puv). 1. Painter of 
Thasos, father and instructor of Polygxotus 
and Aristophon, lived about B. c. 500 (Plat. 
Gorg. p. 448 b). — 2. Painter, lived about B. c. 
420, probably grandson of No. 1. 

Aglauros ("AyAavpos) — less correctly Agrau- 
los. — 1. Daughter of Actaeus 1st king of Athens, 
wife of Cecrops and mother of Erysichthon, 
Aglauros 2, Herse and Pandrosos. — 2. Daughter 
of Cecrops and Aglauros 1. The legends con- 
cerning her must be carefully distinguished. 
a. Athene gave a chest in which was the child 
Erichtiioxius to the three daughters of 
Cecrops — Aglauros, Pandrosos and Herse — to 
preserve unopened. Pandrosos obeyed, but her 
two sisters opened the chest and saw the child 
with a snake twined round it. As a punish- 
ment, according to some they were killed by 
the serpent, according to others, they were 
driven mad and threw themselves from the 
rocks of the Acropolis. (Paus. i. 18; Eur. 
Ion, 267; Apollod. iii. 14.) b. According to 
Ovid, Met. ii. 710, no immediate punishment 
fell upon the sisters, but Athene filled Aglauros, 
as the more guilty, with jealous}-, so that she 
prevented Hermes from visiting her sister 
Herse, and was by him turned into stone, c. 
Aglauros is wedded to Ares and is mother of 
Alcippe [see Halirrhothios]. d. Aglauros 
was an Attic maiden who offered herself up as 
a sacrifice for the state in time of war : there- 
fore there was a temple to her on the Acropolis 
where the Ephebi on first assuming arms took 
an oath of loyal devotion to their country 
(Dem. F.L. p. 438, § 303 and Schol. ; Poll. viii. 
105; Diet. Ant. s. v. Ephebus). The origin of 
the legend in a and b cannot be traced with any 
certainty; it is suggested that it arose from the 
chest carried by the appT)<p6poi or {pari<p6poi.] As 
regards the legend in d, it must be observed 
that the three maidens represent the deities of 
dew fertilising the fields, and that they must 
have been at one time identified with Athene 
in her relations to the land of Attica. Hence 
we find both Aglauros and Pandrosos used as 
actual surnames for Athene. The temple of 
the oath must have replaced a shrine of Athene 
Aglauros, the protectress of Athens in war ; and 
when the name Aglauros alone remained it 
was necessary to suppose that she was no un- 
faithful maiden, but one who had saved the 
country. The story of the sacrifice and also 
that of the fall from the rocks in all probability 
point to an old human sacrifice, such as was in 
mot made to Athene Aglauros in the Cyprian 
Salamis. The connexion of Athene and 
Aglauros appears also in the festival of Plyn- 
teria. From the fact that Aglauros is joined 
with Ares as one of the iV-ropes (Poll. viii. 106, 
cf. Dem. p. 803) in whose names oaths were 
taken, it has been recently surmised that 
Aglauros was a transference from the Theban 
cult of Erinys Tilphossa, wife of Ares. 



Aglaus CAykaos), a poor citizen cf Psophis 
in Arcadia, whom the Delphic oracle declared 
happier than Gyges king of Lydia, on account 
of his contented disposition. Pausanias places 
him in the time of Croesus. (Plin. 3. N. vii. 
§ 151 ; Paus. viii. 33, 7.) 

Agnaptus, an architect who built the porch 
called by his name in the Altis at Olvrrpia 
(Paus. 15, 4, vi. 20, 7). 

Agnodice CAyvoS'iK-q), an Athenian maiden, 
was the first of her sex to learn midwifery, 
which a law of Athens forbade any woman to 
learn. Dressed as a man, she obtained instruc- 
tion from a physician named Hierophilus, and 
afterwards practised her art with success. 
Summoned before the Areiopagus by the envy 
of the other practitioners, she was obliged to 
disclose her sex, and was not only acquitted, 
but obtained the repeal of the obnoxious law. 
This tale, though often repeated, does not 
deserve much credit, as it rests on the authority 
of Hyginus alone (Fab. 274). 

Agnonides ( ' Ayvui-j'iS-qs), an Athenian dem- 
agogue, induced the Athenians to sentence 
Phocion to death (b. c. 318), but was shortly 
afterwards put to death himself by the Athe- 
nians. (Plut. Plioc.) Corn. Nepos calls him 
Agnon (Nep. Phoe.). 

Agoracritus (' AyopaKpnos), a statuary of 
Paros, flourished B. c. 440-428, and was the 
favourite pupil of Phidias (Paus. ix. 34). 
From a similarity of style and perhaps from 
direct help or partnership in work, it resulted 
that some statues were variously attributed to 
Phidias and to Agoracritus. Thus the Nemesis 
at Rhamnus is said by Pausanias (i. 33) to be 
the work of Phidias ; but by Pliny (H. N. xxxvi. 
§ 17) to be by Agoracritus. Pliny tells the im- 
probable tale that this statue was first an Aphro- 
dite for Athens, and was turned into a Nemesis 
by its author and sent to Rhamnus because 
the Athenians favoured Alcamenes, his rival. 

Agoraea and Agoraeus ('Ayopaia and 'Ayo- 
paios), epithets of several divinities who were 
considered as the protectors of the assemblies 
of the people in the agora, such as Zeus, 
Athene, Artemis, and Hermes. 

Agraei l Aypcuoi), a people of Aetolia on the 
Achelous (Thuc. iii. 106 ; Strab. p. 449). 

Agraule i'Aypavk-!} and 'Aypvk-q : ' Aypukevs), 
an Attic demus of the tribe Erechtheis, named 
after Aglauros, No. 2. 

Agraulos. [Aglauros.] 

Agreus (Aypevs), a hunter, a surname of 
Pan and Aristaeus. 

Agri Decumates, tithe lands, the name given 
by the Romans to a part of Germany, E. of the 
Rhine and N. of the Danube, which they took 
possession of when the Germans retired east- 
ward, and which they gave to Gauls and subse- 
quently to their own veterans on the payment 
of a tenth of the produce (decinna). About A.n. 
100 these lands were incorporated in the Roman 
empire. (Tac. Germ. 2d.) 

Agricola, Cn. Julius, born June 13th, a. d. 
37, at Forum Julii (Frejun in Provence), was 
the son of Julius Graecinus, who was executed 
by Caligula, and Julia Procilla. He received a 
careful education ; he first served in Britain, 
a. d. 60, under Suetonius Paulinus ; was quaes- 
tor in Asia in 68 ; was governor of Aquitania 
from 74 to 76 ; and was consul in 77, when he 
betrothed his daughter to the historian Tacitus, 
and in the following year gave h<-r to him in 
marriage. In 78 he received the government 
of Britain, which he held for 7 years, during 
which time he subdued the whole of the country 



f 



88 AGRIGENTUM 

with the exception of the highlands of Caledonia, 
and by his wise administration introduced 
among the inhabitants the language and civili- 
sation of Borne. He was recalled in 85 through 
the jealousy of Domitian, and on his return 
lived in retirement till his death in 93, which 
according to some was occasioned by poison, 
administered by order of Domitian. His 
character is drawn in the brightest colours by 
his son-in-law Tacitus, whose Life of Agricola 
has come down to us. 

Agrigentum ('Atcpdyas : 'AKpayavr7vos, Agri- 
gentlnus : Girgenti), a town on the S. coast of 



Map of Agrigentum. 

Sicily, about 2j miles from the sea, between the 
Acragas (Fiume di 8. Biagio), and Hypsas 
(Fiume Drago). It was celebrated for its 
wealth and populousness, and till its destruc- 
tion by the Carthaginians (b. c. 405) was one of 
the most splendid cities of the ancient world. 
It was the birthplace of Empedocles. It was 
founded by a Doric colony from Gela, about 
B.C. 579, was under the government 
of the cruel tyrant Phalaris (about 
560), and subsequently under that 
of Theron (488-472), whose praises 
are celebrated by Pindar. After its 
destruction by the Carthaginians, 
B.C. 406, it was rebuilt by Timoleon, 
but it never regained its former 
greatness. After undergoing many 
vicissitudes it at length came into 
the power of the Romans (210), in 
whose hands it remained. There are 
still gigantic remains of the ancient 
city, especially of the Olympieum, 
or temple of the Olympian Zeus. 

Agrinium ('Aypiviov), a town in Aetolia, per- 
haps near the sources of the Thermissus. 

Agrippa, Herodes. 1. Called ' Agrippa the 
Great,' son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and 
grandson of Herod the Great. He was educated 
at Rome with the future emperor Claudius, and 
Drusus the son of Tiberius. The cognomen 
Agrippa was given to him in compliment to 
M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Having given offence to 
Tiberius he was thrown into prison ; but Cali- 
gula, on his accession (a. d. 37), set him at 
liberty, and gave him the tetrarchies of Abilene, 



AGBIPPA 

Batanea, Trachonitis, and Auranitis. On the 
death of Caligula (41), Agrippa, who was at the 
time in Rome, assisted Claudius in gaining 
possession of the empire. As a reward for his 
services, Judaea and Samaria were annexed to 
his dominions. By his wife Cypros he had a. 
son Agrippa, and three daughters, Berenice, 
Mariamne, and Drusilla. — 2. Son of Agrippa I., 
was educated at the court of Claudius, and 
at the time of his father's death was 17 years 
old. Claudius kept him at Rome, and sent' 
Cuspius Fadus as procurator of the kingdom, 
which thus again became a Roman province. 
On the death of Herodes, king of Chalcis (48), his 
little principality was given to Agrippa, who 
subsequently received an accession of territory. 
Before the outbreak of the war with the. 
Romans, Agrippa attempted in vain to dissuade 
the Jews from rebelling. He sided with the 
Romans in the war ; and after the capture of 
Jerusalem, he went with his sister Berenice to- 
Rome, and died in the 70th year of his age, 
A. d. 100. [For both of the above see further in 
Dictionary of the Bible.'] 

Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, born in B.C. 63, of an 
obscure family, studied with young Octavius 
(afterwards the emperor Augustus) at Apollonia 
in Illyria ; and upon the murder of Caesar in 
44, was one of the friends of Octavius, who ad- 
vised him to proceed immediately to Rome. 
In the civil wars which followed, and which 
terminated in giving Augustus the sovereignty 
of the Roman world, Agrippa took an active 
part ; and his military abilities, combined with 
his promptitude and energy, contributed greatly 
to that result. In 41 Agrippa, who was then 
praetor, commanded part of the forces of Augus- 
tus in the Perusinian war. In 38 he obtained 
great success in Gaul and Germany ; in 37 he 
was consul. For his naval campaign against 
Sex. Pompeius he provided a harbour for his. 
ships in the course of the years 38 and 37 by 
cutting through the strips of land which separ- 
ated the lake Lucrinus from the sea and the- 
lake Avernus from the Lucrinus, thus forming 
the Portus Julius (Verg. Georg. ii. 161 ; Hor. 

A. P. 63 ; Veil. ii. 81 ; Dio Cass. xlix. 14 ; Plin. 

B. .N. xvi. § 7.) In B.C. 36 he defeated Sex. Pom- 
peius at Mylae and finally at Naulochus. In 
reward he received the naval crown. In 31 he 




commanded the fleet of Augustus at the battle i 
of Actium ; was consul a second time in 28, and 
a third time in 27. His greatness appears no- 
less in his public works from his aedileship in 33 
through a succession of years. Especially to be 
noticed are his restoration of aqueducts and 
sewers, the building of the Julian Aqueduct, 
the Porticus Neptuni in the Campus, his Ther- 
mae and the Pantheon, and in Gaul the mag- 
nificent aqueduct to supply Nemausus (Nimes) 
now called the Pont du Gard. He also comple- 
ted the survey of the Roman world begun by 




Wctlkir &■ Eoutall sc. 




Coin of Agrippa's third Consulship. 
Obv., Agrippa wearing the naval crown ; rev., Neptune. 



AGRIPPA 



AHENOBARBUS 



39 



Julius Caesar, from which he formed the map 
engraved on marble and afterwards placed in 
the Porticus Pollae. In 21 he married Julia, 
daughter of Augustus. He had been married 
twice before, first to Pomponia, daughter of 
T. Pomponius Atticus, and next to Marcella, 
niece of Augustus. He continued to be em- 
ployed in various military commands in Gaul, 
Spain (wherehesubduedtheCantabriansB.c.18), 
Syria (where he founded the colony of Berytus, 
Beyrout), and Pannonia, till his death in B.C. 12. 
By his first wife Pomponia, Agrippa had Vip- 
sania, married to Tiberius, the successor of 
Augustus ; and by his third wife, Julia, he had 

2 daughters, Julia, married to L. Aemilius Pau- 
lus, and Agrippina, married to Germanicus, and 

3 sons, Caius Caesar, Lucius Caesar [Caesar], 
and Agrippa Postumus, who was banished by 
Augustus to the island of Planasia, and was 
put to death by Tiberius at his accession, ajj. 14 
(Tac. Ann. i. 3, ii. 39, 40). In manner he is de- 
scribed as blunt, " vir rusticitati propior quam 
deliciis " (Plin. H.N. xxxv. §26), though of his 
good taste his works are sufficient proof. The 
" torvitas " is shown in the stern expression of 
his face as preserved to us in coins and busts. 

Agrippa, Postumus. [See above.] 
Agrippina. 1. Daughter of M. Vipsanius 
Agrippa and of Julia, the daughter of Augustus, 
married Germanicus, by whom she had nine 
children, among whom were the emperor Cali- 
gula, and Agrippina, the mother of Nero. She 
was distinguished for her virtues and heroism, 
and shared all the dangers of her husband's 
campaigns. On his death in a.d. 17 she returned 
to Italy ; but the favour with which she was re- 
ceived by the people increased the hatred and 
jealousy which Tiberius and his mother Livia 
had long entertained towards her. For some 
years Tiberius disguised his hatred, but at length 
under the pretext that she was forming am- 
bitious plans, he banished her to the island of 
Pandataria (a.d. 30), where she died 3 years 
afterwards, a.d. 33, probably by voluntary star- 
vation (Tac. Ann. i.-vi. ; Suet. Aug. 64, Tib. 53 ; 
Dio Cass, lviii. 22). — 2. Daughter of Germanicus 
and Agrippina [No. 1.], and mother of the em- 
peror Nero, was born at Oppidum Ubioruin, 
afterwards called in honour of her Colonia 
Agrippina, now Cologne. She was beautiful 
and intelligent, but licentious, cruel, and am- 
bitious. She was first married to Cn. Domitius 
Ahenobarbus (a.d. 28j, by whom she had a son, 
afterwards the emperor Nero ; next to Crispus 
Passienus ; and thirdly to the emperor Clau- 
dius (49), although she was his niece. In 50, 
she prevailed upon Claudius to adopt her son, 
to the prejudice of his own son Britannicus ; 
and in order to secure the succession for her 
son, she poisoned the emperor in 54. Upon 
the accession of Nero, who was then only 17 
years of age, she governed the Roman empire 
for a few years in his name. The young em- 
peror soon became tired of the ascendency of 
his mother, and after making several attempts 
to shake off her authority, he caused her to be 
assassinated in 59. (Tac. Ann. xii. xiii. xiv. ; Dio 
Cass, lix.-lxi. ; Suet. Claud. 43, 44 ; Ner. 5, 6.) 
Agrippinenses. [Colonia Agkippina.] 
Agrius CAypios). 1. Son of Porthaon and 
Euryte, and brother of Oeneus, king of Calydon 
in Aetolia : his six sons, of whom one was 
Thersites, deprived Oeneus of his kingdom, and 
gave it to their father ; but Agrius and four of 
his sons were afterwards slain by Diomedes, 
the grandson of Oeneus (II. xiv. 117 ; Paus. ii. 
25 ; Ov. Her. ix. 153 ; Hyg. Fab. 175).— 2. Son 



! of Odysseus and Circe, according to a doubtful 
, line in Hes. Th. 1013. 

Agroecius or Agroetrus, a Roman gramma- 
rian, probably lived in the 5th century after 
Christ, and wrote an extant work De Ortho- 
graphia et Differentia Sertnonis, which is 
printed in Putschius, Granimaticae Latinae 
Auctores Antiqui, pp. 2266-2275. 

Agron ("Aypuy). 1. Son of Ninus, the first of 
the Lydian dynasty of the Heraclidae. — 2. Son 
of Pleuratus, king of Hlyria, died B.C. 231, and 
was succeeded by his wife Teuta, though he 
left a son Pinnes or Pinneus by his first wife, 
Triteuta, whom he had divorced. (Dio Cass, 
xxxiv. 46, 151 ; Polyb. ii. 2.) 
Agrotera. [Artemis.] 
Agryle. [Agbaule.] 

Agyieus ('Ayvievs), a surname of Apollo, as 
the protector of the streets and public places. 

Agylla ("AyvWa), the ancient Greek name of 
the Etruscan town of Caeke. 

Agyrium ('Ayvpiov : ' Ayvptvalos , Agyrinensis : 
S. Filippo d'Argiro), a town in Sicily on the 
Cyamosorus, NW. of Centuripae and NE. of 
Enna, the birth-place of the historian Diodorus. 
The town was originally Sikel, but had adopted 
; the special worship of Heracles, perhaps re- 
placing some native deity. 
Agyrrhius ('Ayvppios), an Athenian, after 
j being in prison many years for embezzlement 
of public money, obtained about B.C. 395 the 
restoration of the Theoricon, and also raised to 
three obols the pay for attending the assembly. 
He was appointed to command the fleet in B.C. 
389. (Xen. Hell. iv. 8, 31 ; Dem. c. Timoc. p. 
742, § 134 ; Arist. 'Ad. Tlo\. 41.) 

Ahala, Servilrus, the name of several distin- 
guished Romans, who held various high offices 
in the state from B.C. 478 to 342. Of these the 
best known is C. Servilius Ahala, magister 
equitum in 439 to the dictator L. Cincinnatus, 
when he slew Sp. Maelius in the forum, because 
he refused to appear before the dictator (Liv. 
v. 9). Ahala was afterwards brought to trial, 
and only escaped condemnation by a voluntary 
exile. M. Brutus claimed descent on the 
mother's side from this Ahala (cf. Cic. Att. 
xiii. 40). 

Aharna, a town in Etruria, NE. of Volsinii 
(Liv. x. 25). 

Ahenobarbus, Domitius, the name of a dis- 
tinguished Roman family. They are said to 
have obtained the surname of Ahenobarbus, i.e. 
' Brazen-Beard ' or ' Red-Beard,' because the 
Dioscuri announced to one of their ancestors 
the victory of the Romans over the Latins at 
lake Regillus (b.c 496), and, to confirm the 
truth of what they said, stroked his black hair 
and beard, which immediately became red 
(Suet. Ner. 1 ; Plut. Aemil. 25). — 1. Cn., ple- 
beian aedile B.C. 196, praetor 194, and consul 
192, when he fought against the Boii. — 2. Cn., 
son of No. 1, consul suffectus in 162. — 3. Cn., 
son of No. 2, consul 122, conquered the Allo- 
broges in Gaul, in 121, at the confluence of the 
Sulga and Rhodanus. He was censor in 115 
with Caecilius Metellus. The Via Domitia in 
Gaul was made by him (Cic. Font. 4, 18 ; 12, 
36; Clu. 42, 119; Strab. iv. p. 191).— 4. Cn., 
son of No. 3, tribune of the plebs 104, brought 
forward the law (Lex Domitia), by which the 
election of the priests was transferred from the 
collegia to the people. The people afterwards 
elected him Pontifex Maximus out of gratitude. 
He was consul in 96, and censor in 92, with 
Licinius Crassus, the orator. In his censorship 
he and his colleague shut up the schools of the 



40 



AJAX 



AIUS 



Latin rhetoricians : but otherwise their censor- 
ship was marked by their violent disputes (Liv. 
Ep. lvii. ; Cic. pro Deiot. 11, 31). — 5. L., brother 
of No. 4, praetor in Sicily, probably in 96, and 
consul in 94, belonged to the party of Sulla, and 
was murdered at Home in 82, by order of the 
younger Marius. His cruelty is noticed in Cic. 
Verr. v. 3. — 6. Cn., son of No. 4, married Cor- 
nelia, daughter of L. Cinna, consul in 87, and 
joined the Marian party. He was proscribed 
by Sulla in 82, and fled to Africa, where he was 
defeated and killed by Cn. Pompey in 81. — 
7. L. (the friend of Cicero), son of No. 4, married 
Porcia, the sister of M. Cato, and was a staunch 
and courageous supporter of the aristocratical 
■party. He was aedile in 01, praetor in 58, and 
consul in 54. On the breaking out of the civil 
war in 49 he threw himself into Corfmium, but 
was compelled by his own troops to surrender 
to Caesar. He next went to Massilia, and, after 
the surrender of that town, repaired to Pompey 
in Greece : he fell in the battle of Pharsalia 
(48), where he commanded the left wing, and, 
according to Cicero's assertion in the second 
Philippic (11, 27), by the hand of Antony (Caes. 
B. C. i. 6, 16; iii. 99; cf. index to Cicero's 
letters). — 8. Cn., son of No. 7, was taken with 
his father at Corfinium (49), was present at the 
battle of Pharsalia (48), and returned to Italy 
in 45, when he was pardoned by Caesar. After 
Caesar's death in 44, he commanded the repub- 
lican fleet in the Ionian sea. He afterwards 
became reconciled to Antony whom he accom- 
panied in his campaign against the Parthians 
in 36. He was consul in 32, and deserted to 
Augustus shortly before the battle of Actium. 
— 9. L., son of No. 8, married Antonia, the 
daughter of Antony by Octavia ; was aedile in 
22, and consul in 16 ; and, after his consulship, 
commanded the Roman army in G-errnany and 
crossed the Elbe (Tac. Ann. iv. 44). He died 
a.d. 25. — 10. Cn., son of No. 9, consul a.d. 32, 
married Agrippina, daughter of Germanieus, and 
was father of the emperor Nero. [Agbippina.] 
Ajax (Afar). 1. Son of Telamon, king of 
Salamis, by Periboea or Eriboea, and grandson 
of Aeacus. In the Homeric legend, however, 
he is merely known as son of Telamon. There 
is no hint of the descent from Aeacus, and 
therefore from Zeus, nor of his being a cousin 
of Achilles. The assignment to him of the left 
wing in the fleet with his 12 Salaminian ships 
(while Achilles held the right) belongs to the 
later catalogue (II. ii. 557), and probably ori- 
ginated when Salamis was united to Athens. 
Homer calls him Ajax the Telamonian, Aj-ax 
the Great, or simply Ajax, whereas the other 
Ajax, son of Oileus, is always distinguished from 
him by some epithet. He is represented in 
the Iliad as second only to Achilles in bravery, 
and as the hero most worthy, in the absence of 
Achilles, to contend with Hector, as irvpyos 
'Axaiap, especially stui'dy and enduring in fight 
(II. ii. 768, vi. 5, vii. 182, xi. 545, xvii. 233) : but 
also wise in council (vii. 288), though a clumsy 
speaker (xiii. 824). There is no trace of the 
vfipis which later traditions attribute ; on the 
contrary, he appears as reverent in spirit and 
obedient to the gods (see especially II. vii. 194, 
xvi. 120, and his prayer, xvii. 64'5). Later than 
the Iliad came the story that in the contest for 
the arms of Achilles, which were to be given to 
the worthiest of the surviving Greeks, he was 
defeated by Odysseus. This is mentioned in 
the Odyssey (xi. 545). Further particulars are 
derived from later poets : that his defeat (upon 
the testimony of Trojan captives, who said that 



Odysseus had done them most harm) resulted 
in madness sent upon hinvby Athene, and that 
having slaughtered a flock of sheep, as though 
they were his enemies among the Greeks, he 
slew himself with the svvordAvhich Hector had 
given him. This story is given in the Aethiopis 
of Arctinus and the Ilias Minor of Lesches (of 
which fragments are preserved), as well as in 
the Tragedians. From his blood sprang the 
purple flower (Iris?) marked with the letters 
AI (Paus. i. 35; Theoc. x. 28; Ov. Met. xiii. 
394 ; Verg. Eel. iv. 107 ; Euphorion, fr. 36). 
Among other versions of his story preserved in 
post-Homeric poets and in works of art may 
"be noticed, that his mother Periboea was an 
Athenian ; that his wife Tecmessa was taken by 
him in the siege of a Phrygian town of which 
her father Teleutas was king (Soph. Aj. 20, 
487) ; that at his birth Heracles sought an 
omen for him to show that he would be as 
strong as the lion- skin which he himself wore, 
whereupon Zeus sent an eagle (Pind. Isthm. v. 
37) : hence he was vulnerable only in the side 
uncovered by the lion-skin. Ajax was wor- 
shipped at Salamis, where he had a temple and 
a festival (Diet. Antiq. s.v. Aianteia). After 
the union of Salamis with Athens, the Athenians 
adopted the Salaminian hero as iird!>uvfj.os for 
their own country. The tribe Aiantis was 
called after him ; he was summoned to the help 
of Athens before the battle of Salamis (Herod, 
viii. 64) ; his statue stood near the fiov\svTt)piov 
(Paus. i. 5) : he was regarded as ancestor of 
Peisistratus, of Harmodius, of Miltiades, and of 
Alcibiades. — 2. Son of Oileus, king of the Lo- 
crians, also called the lesser Ajax, sailed against 
Troy with 40 ships. He is described as small of 
stature, and wears a linen cuirass (\ivodiipr)Q, 
but is brave and intrepid, skilled in throwing 
the spear, and, next to Achilles, the most swift- 
footed among the Greeks. ^On his return from 
Troy his vessel was wrecked on the Whirling 
Rocks (Vvpal Trerpat) ; he himself got safe upon 
a rock through the assistance of Poseidon ; but 
as he boasted that he would escape in defiance 
of the immortals, Poseidon split the rock with 
his trident, and Ajax was swallowed up by the 
sea. This is the account of Homer, but his 
death is related somewhat differently by Virgil 
and other writers, who tell us that the anger 
of Athene was excited against him, because, on 
the night of the capture of Troy, he violated 
Cassandra in the temple of the goddess, where 
she had taken refuge, and that, his vessel being 
wrecked on the Capharean rocks, he was killed 
by lightning (Aen. i. 40). He was worshipped 
as a national hero both by the Opuntian and 
the Italian Lo:-rians. 

Aides ('A'i'Stjs). [Hades.] 

Aidoneus ('AiScvvevs). 1. A lengthened form 
of Aides. [Hades], — 2. A mythical king of the 
Molossians in Epirus, husband of Persephone, 
and father of Core. When Theseus and Piri- 
thous attempted to carry off Core, Aidoneus had 
Pirithous killed by Cerberus, and kept Theseus 
in captivity till he was released by Heracles. 

Aius Locutius or Loquens, a Roman divinity. 
A short time before the Gauls took Rome (b.c. 
390) a voice was heard at Rome in the Via Nova, 
during the silence of night, announcing that the 
Gauls were approaching. No attention was at 
the time paid to the warning, but the Romans 
afterwards erected on the spot where the voice 
had been heard, an altar with a sacred enclosure 
around it, to Aius Locutius, or the ' Announ- 
cing Speaker.' (Liv. v. 32; Cic. Div. i. 45, 101, 
ii. 32, 69 : Gell. xvi. 17.) 



ALABAXDA 



ALBIXOYANUS 



41 



Alabanda (rj 'AAdflavSa or to 'A\df}av8a : 
'A\a(Sai>8evs or 'AXdBavSos : Arabissar), an in- 
land town of Caria, near the Marsyas, to the S. of 
the Maeander, was situated between two hills. 
Under the Romans it was the seat of a con- 
ventus juridieus. Pliny speaks of a lapis Ala- 
hrindicus found here, fusible and used for glass- 
making ( 3. N. xxxvi. 62). 

Alabon f'AXa&uv) or Alabis, a river on the E. 
coast of Sicily, perhaps La Cantara (Diod. iv. 
78). It is probably the same as the Abolus of 
Plutarch {Tim. 34). 

Alagonia ('AKayovia), a town of the Eleu- 
thero-Laconians on the frontiers of Messenia. 

Alalcomenae ('AAaAjcouevai' : 'A\aAKOfieva7os.. 
'AKaAxo/jievievs : Sulinari), an ancient town 
of Boeotia, E. of Coronea, with a temple of 
Athena, who is said to have been brought up by 
its autochthonous founder Alalcomeneus (Paus. 
be. 33, 5; Horn. U. iv. 8; Strab. pp. 411, 
413), and who was hence called Alalcomeneis 
(AXaAKOjueyrjis, tSos). 

Alalia. [Aleria.] 

Alander. [Lalandus.] 

Alani ('AAavol, 'AAavvoi, i.e. mountaineers, 
from the Sarmatian word ala), a great Asiatic 
people, included under the general name of Scy- 
thians, but probably a branch of the Massagetae 
(Amm. Marc. xxii. 8, 30, xxxi. 2). They were a 
nation of warlike horsemen. They are first 
found about the E. part of the Caucasus, in the 
country called Albania, which appears to be | 
only another form of the same name. In the 
reign of Vespasian they made incursions into 
Media and Armenia ; and at a later time they 
pressed into Europe, as far as the bunks of the 
Lower Danube, where, towards the end of the 
5th century, they were routed by the Huns, 
who then compelled them to become their allies. 
In a.d. 40G, some of the Alani took part with 
the Vandals in their irruption into Gaul and 
Spain, where they became incorporated in the 
kingdom of the Visigoths. 

Alaricus, in German Al-ric, i.e. ' All-rich,' 
elected king of the Visigoths in a.d. 3i)S, had 
previously commanded the Gothic auxiliaries of 
Theodosius. He twice invaded Italy, first in 
a.d. 402—403, when he was defeated by Stilicho 
at the battle of Pollentia, and a second time in 
408-410; in his second invasion he took and 
plundered Rome, 24th of August, 410. He died 
shortly afterwards at Consentia in Bruttium, 
while preparing to invade Sicily, and was buried 
in the bed of the river Basentinus, a small tri- 
butary of the Crathis. (Jornand. de Beb. Get. 
80 ; Oros. vii. 29 ; Zosim. v. vi. ; Aug. Civ. 
Dei, i. 1 ; Procop. Bell. Vand. i. 2.) 

Alastor CA\d<Trwp). 1. ' The scarer ' or 
' driver ' : the avenging deity who follows up 
the sinner, and drives him to fresh crime, and 
so becomes an evil genius in his family after 
him (Aesch. Ag. 1465 ; Soph. O. C. 788 ; Eur. 
Or. 1556) : hence sometimes the man who is 
thus driven (Aesch. Eum. 237). — 2. A surname 
of Zeus and of the Furies as Avengers. — 3. A 
Lycian, companion of Sarpedon, slain by Odys- 
seus ill. v. 677). — 4. A Trojan name (II. iv. 295, 
xx. 463). 

Alba Silvlus. [Silvtcs.] 

Alba. 1. i . I bla), a town of the Biistitani in 
Spain. — 2. (Alvanna), a town of the Burduli in 
Spain. — 3. Augusta (Aulps), a town of the 
Elicoci in Gallia Xarboneiisis. — 4. Fucentia 
or Fucentia (Albenses : Alba or Albi), a town 
of the Marsi, and subsequently a Roman colony, 
was situated on a lofty rock near the lake 
Fuclnus. It was a strong fortress, and was 



used by the Romans as a state prison (Strab. 
p. 240 ; Liv.. xlv. 42). — 5. Longa (adj. Albani), 
the most ancient town in Latium, is said to 
have been built by Ascanius, and to have 
founded Rome. It was called Longa, from its 
stretching in a long line down the Alban Mount 
towards the Alban Lake. Alba was regarded as 
the primitive Latin town. It was the religious 
head of the Latin confederate 30 cantons. 
Here the Latins assembled for their festival 
' and offered sacrifice to Jupiter Latiaris. At 
j some time (traditionally in the reign of Tullus 
Hostilius) Alba was destroyed, and its inhabi- 
tants became part of the Roman people ; but 
the Alban clans retained their family shrines, 
and the Alban Mount continued to be the place 
for the Laiiar, or Feriae Laiinae (see Diet. 
Antiq. s.v.). The surrounding country was 
studded with the villas of the Roman ari- 
stocracy and emperors (Pompey's, Domitian's, 
&c), each of which was called Albanian, and 
out of these a new town at length grew, also 
called Albanum (Albanuj, on the Appian road. 
— 6. Pompeia i Albenses Pompeiani : Alba), a 
town in Liguria, founded by Scipio Africanus I., 
and colonised by Ponipeius Magnus, the birth- 
place of the emperor Pertinax. 

Albania ('AKfiavia: 'AK&apoL Albani ; Schir- 
wan and part of Daghestan, in the SE. part of 
Georgia), a country of Asia on the W. side of 
the Caspian, extending from the rivers Cyrus 
and Araxes on the S. to M. Ceraunius (the E. 
part of the Caucasus) on the X., and bounded 
on the W. by Iberia. It was a fertile plain, 
abounding in pasture and vineyards: but the 
inhabitants were fierce and warlike. They were 
a Scythian tribe, probably a branch of the 
Massagetae, and identical with the Alani. The 
Romans first became acquainted with them at 
the time of the Mithridatic war, when they 
encountered Pompey. (Strab. p. 501.) 
Albanum. [Alba, Xo. 5.j 
Albanus Lacus (Dago at Albano), a small 
lake about 5 miles in circumference, W. of the 
Mons Albanus between Bovillae and Alba 
Longa, is the crater of an extinct volcano, and 
is many hundred feet deep. The emissarium 
which the Romans bored through the solid rock 
(traditionally during the siege of Veil) in order 
to carry off the superfluous water of the lake, is 
extant at the present day (see Diet. Antiq. 
s.v. Emissarium). 

Albanus Mons (Mo)ite Cava or Albano), was, 
in its narrower signification, the mountain in 
Latium on whose declivity the town of Alba 
Longa was situated. It was the sacred moun- 
tain of the Latins, on which the religious 
festivals of the Latin League were celebrated 
(Latiar, or Feriae Latinae), and on its highest 
summit was the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, to 
which the Roman generals ascended in triumph, 
when this honour was denied them in Rome. 
The Mons Albanus in its wider signification 
included the Mons Algldus and the mountains 
about Tusculum. 

Albi Montes, a lofty range of mountains in 
the W. of Crete, 300 stadia in length, covered 
with snow the greater part of the year. 

Albici CAK&ioucot, 'A\f}it7s), a warlike Gallic 
people, inhabiting the mountains north of Mas- 
silia (Strab. p. 208 ; Caes. B. C. i. 84). 
Albingaunum. [Albium Ixoaunum.] 
Albinovanus, Celsus, ismenticmed by Horace 
(Ep. i. 8), as scriba of Tiberius Nero, and 
warned to avoid plagiarism. We have no record 
of his writings. It is surmised that he is the 
Celsus mentioned in Ov. Font. i. 9. 



42 



ALBINOVANUS 



ALBUNEA 



Albinovanus, C. Pedo, a friend of Ovid, 
who addresses to him one of his Epistles from 
Pontus (iv. 10). We have no warrant for attri- 
buting to Albinovanus the three elegies, Epi- 
cedium Drusi, de Maecenatis Obitu, and de 
Moribundo Maecenate, printed by Wernsdorf, 
in his Po'etae Latini Minores, vol. iii. iv., and 
by Meinecke, Quedlinburg, 1819. Their author- 
ship remains unknown. Only one genuine frag- 
ment of Albinovanus survives : the 23 lines 
de Navigatione Germanici, which are quoted 
by Seneca (Suas. i. 14) with approval. They 
seem to have formed part of an epic poem on 
contemporary history. He wrote also an epic, 
Theseis (Ov. I.e.), and epigrams. He is called 
by Quintilian (x. 1, 90) a poet ' non indignus 
cognitione.' 

Albinovanus, P. Tulllus, belonged to the 
Marian party, was proscribed in B.C. 87, but was 
pardoned by Sulla in 81, in consequence of his 
putting to death many of the officers of Nor- 
banus, whom he had invited to a banquet at 
Ariminum. 

Albinus or Albus, Postumius, the name of a 
patrician family at Rome, many of the members 
of which held the highest offices of the state 
from the commencement of the republic to its 
downfall. — 1. A., suvimmed Begillensis, dictator 
B.C. 498, when he conquered the Latins in the 
great battle near lake Regillus, and consul 496, 
in which year some of the annals placed the 
battle (Liv. ii. 19 ; Dionys. vi. 2 ; Cic. N. D. ii. 
2, 6). — 2. Sp., consul 466, and a member of the 
first decemvirate 451 (Liv. iii. 2, 31, 70). — 3, A., 
consul B.C. 464 (Liv. iii. 4). — 1 Sp. (son of No. 2), 
cons. trib. iu B.C. 432 (Liv. iv. 25). — 5. P., cons, 
trib. B.C. 411 (Liv. iv. 49).— 6. M., censor B.C. 403 
(Liv. v. 1; Fast. Cap.)— 7. A., cons. trib. B.C. 
397 (Liv. v. 16).— 8, Sp., cons. trib. B.C. 394 (Liv. 
v. 26). — 9. Sp,, consul 344, and again 321. In the 
latter year he marched against the Samnites, but 
was defeated near Caudium, and obliged to 
surrender with his whole army, who were sent 
under the yoke. The senate, on the advice of 
Albinus, refused to ratify the peace which he 
had made with the Samnites, and resolved that 
all persons who had sworn to the peace should 
be given up to the Samnites, but they refused 
to accept them (Liv. viii. 16, ix. 1-10 ; Appian, 
de Beb. Samn. 2; Cic. de Off. iii. 30.— 10. L., 
consul 234, and again 229. In 216 he was 
praetor, and was killed in battle at Litana by 
the Boii. His head was cut off, lined with 
gold, and used as a cup by the Boii (Liv. xxiii. 
24 ; Polyb. iii. 106, 118 ; Cic. Tusc. i. 37, 89.— 
11. Sp., consul in 186, when the senatuscon- 
sultum was passed, which is extant, for sup- 
pressing the worship of Bacchus in Rome. He 
died in 179. — 12. A., consul 180, when he 
fought against the Ligurians, and censor 174. 
He was subsequently engaged in many public 
missions. Livy calls him Luseus, from which it 
would seem that he was blind of one eye (Liv. 
xl. 41,xlii. 10,xlv. 17).— 13. Sp., brother of Nos. 
12 and 14, surnamed Paullulus, consul 174 (Liv. 
xxxix. 45, xli. 26, xliii. 2). — 14. L., praetor 180, in 
Further Spain, where he remained two years, 
and conquered the Vaccaei and Lusitani. He 
was consul in 173, and afterwards served under 
Aemilius Paulus in Macedonia in 168 (Liv. xl. 44, 
xliv.41). — 15. Sp., lieutenant of Paullus B.C. 168, 
consul 110, carried on war against Jugurtha in 
Numidia, but effected nothing. When Albinus 
departed from Africa, he left his brother Aulus 
in command, who was defeated by Jugurtha. 
Spurius was condemned by the Mamilia Lex, 
as guilty of treasonable practices with Jugurtha. 



— 16. A., consul 151, imprisoned by tribunes for' 
conducting the levies with too much severity 
(Liv. Ep. 48 ; Pol. xxxv. 3) ; accompanied 
Mummius to Greece as legate in 146 (Cic. Att. 
xiii. 30, 32). He wrote a Roman history In 
Greek, of which Polybius did not think highly 
(Pol. xl. 6). Cicero speaks of him as a learned 
man (Acad. ii. 45, 137, Brut. 21, 81).— 17. A, 
consul B.C. 99, with M. Antonitis, is said by 
Cicero to have been a good speaker (Brut. 25, 
94). 

Albinus ('AAjSij/os), a Platonic philosopher, 
lived at Smyrna in the 2nd century after 
Christ, and wrote an Introduction to the Dia- 
logues of Plato. — Editions. In the first edi- 
tion of Fabricius's Bibl. Graec. vol. ii., and pre- 
fixed to Etwall's edition of three dialogues of 
Plato, Oxon. 1771 ; Schneider, 1852 ; C. Her- 
mann, 1873. 

Albinus, ClodlUS, whose full name was 
Decimus Clodius Ceionius Septimius Albinus. 
was born at Adrumetum in Africa. The em- 
peror Commodus made him governor of Gaul 
and afterwards of Britain, where he was on the 
death of Commodus in A.D. 192. In order to- 
secure the neutrality of Albinus, Septimius 
Severus made him Caesar ; but after Severus. 
had defeated his rivals, he turned his arms 
against Albinus. A great battle was fought at 
Lugdunum (Lyons), in Gaul, the 19th of Feb- 
ruary, 197, in which Albinus was defeated and 
killed. (Dio Cass. lxx. 4 ; Vita Alb.) 

Albion or Alebion ('kX^iaiv, 'AA.e£iW), son of 
Poseidon and brother of Dercynus or Bergion, 
with whom he attacked Heracles, when he 
passed through their country (Liguria) with 
the oxen of Geryon. They were slain by Hera- 
cles. 

Albion, another name of Bbitannia, by 
which it was originally distinguished from Ierne 
(Plin. H. N. iv. § 102). 

Albis (Elbe), one of the great rivers in Ger- 
many, the most easterly which the Romans 
became acquainted with, rises according to 
Tacitus in the country of the Hermunduri. 
The Romans reached the Elbe for the first 
time in B.C. 9 under Drusus, and crossed it for the 
first time in B.C. 3 under Domitius Ahenobarbus. 
Tiberius reached the Elbe a.d. 5 ; but after 
that the legions were withdrawn from this part 
of Germany, whence the expression in Tac. 
Germ. 41, ' nunc tantum auditur.' 

Albium Ingaunum or Albingaunum (Al- 
benga), a town of the Ingauni on the coast of 
Liguria, and a municipium (Plin. iii. § 48; 
Strabo, p. 202, writes it 1 h\$iy/avvov). 

Albium Intemelium or Albintemelium 
(Vintimiglia) a town of the Intemelii on the 
coast of Liguria, and a municipium. (Strabo 
connects both this name and the preceding with 
the word Alp.) 

T. Albucius or Albutlus, studied at Athens, 
and belonged to the Epicui'ean sect ; he was 
well acquainted with Greek literature, but was 
satirised by Lucilius on account of his affecting 
on every occasion the Greek language and 
philosophy. He was praetor in Sardinia in B.C. 
105 ; and in 103 was accused of extortion 
by C. Julius Caesar, and condemned. He 
retired to Athens and pursued the study of 
philosophy. (Cic. Brut. 35, 131 ; de Fin. i. 38 ; 
Orat. 44, 149 ; Tusc. v. 37, 108.) 

Albula, an ancient name of the river Tibeb. 

Albulae Aquae. [Albunea.] 

Albunea (Albula, Stat. Silv. i. 3. 75 ; accord- 
ing to some, Albuna in Tib. ii. 5. 69), a prophetic 
nymph or Sibyl, to whom a grove was con- 



ALBURNUS 

seerated in the neighbourhood of Tibur 
(Tivoli), with a fountain and a temple (Verg. 
Am. vii. 81; Hor. Od. i. 7, 12). This fountain 
was the largest of the Albulae aquae, still called 
Acque Albule, sulphurous springs at Tibur, 
which flow into the Anio. Hence the story of 
the Anio bearing the oracular books unwetted 
in its stream to Tibur (Tib. ii. 5, 69). The name 
perhaps belonged to other sulphurous springs, 
for Probus (ad Georg. i. 10) mentions one so 
called in the Laurentine district. Near it was 
the oracle of Faunus Fatidicus. The temple is 
still extant at Tivoli. 

Alburnus Moris, a mountain in Lucania 
(Verg. Georg. iii. 146). 

Alcaeus I AA/calbs), 1. — Son of Perseus and 
Andromeda, and father of Amphitryon and 
Anaxo. — 2. A name of Heracles. — 3. Son of 
Heracles, ancestor of Candaules (Herod, i. 7). 

Alcaeus. 1. Of Mytilene in Lesbos, the 
earliest of the Aeolian lyric poets. He belonged 
to the nobles of Mytilene and fought both with 
sword and pen in the struggles of the oligarchs 
against those who usurped the sovereignty. 
About the year 612 B.C. Melanchrus, the despot 
of Mytilene, was slain by a faction in which the 
brothers of Alcaeus, Kilus and Antemenidas, 
were joined with Pittacus. Their party, how- 
ever, was overcome by Myrsilus, who made 
himself despot, and the brothers went into exile, 
Alcaeus to Egypt and Antemenidas to Assyria, 
where he seems to have taken service with Nebu- 
cadnezzar. One of the odes of Alcaeus tells of an 
ivory - hilted sword 
which his brother had 
worn in this service. 
Myrsilus was slain 
by the popular party, 
led by Pittacus ; and 
we find Alcaeus mak- 
ing war upon Pitta- 
cus in the interest of 
the oligarchic fac- 
tion. He was defeated 
and imprisoned, but 
soon pardoned by Pit- 
tacus. The only other 
event of which we 
have distinct notice, is that when the Athenians 
tried to colonise Sigeum, Alcaeus fought in the 
Mytilenaean army against them, and incurred 
the disgrace (as he himself tells) of leaving his 
shield in his flight from the battle (Hdt. v. 95 ; 
Strab. p. 600). His poetry, in ten books, in- 
cluded hymns to the gods and odes, the latter 
being divided into political (tTTiunwTiKa), scolia 
and erotica; all, however, practically of the class 
of scolia or drinking songs, and greatly inferior 
poetry to that of his younger contemporary 
Sappho. Among the few fragments remaining 
are the originals of Horace's odes ' Vides ut 
alta,' ' O navis referent,' and ' Nunc est biben- 
dum,' which last is a rejoicing over the death 
of Myrsilus. He has given his name to the 
Alcaic metre, and seems also to have been the 
earliest writer of Sapphics. — Editions. Bergk, 
in Poetae Lyrici, 1H67 ; Hartung, 1855. — 2. A 
comic poet at Athens belonging to the transi- 
tion between Old and New Comedy, about B.C. 
888. — 3. Of Messene, author of epigrums in 
Anth. Pal, about B.C. 200. 

Alcamenes ('AA/cojucVtjj). 1. Son of Tele- 
clus, king of Sparta, from B.C. 779 to 742. — 2. 
A sculptor of Athens, flourished from B.C. 
444 to 400 ond was the most famous of the 
pupils of Phidias. His greatest works were a 
statue of Aphrodite (Plin. xxxvi. 16 ; Lucian, 



ALCIBIADES 



43 




Alcaeus. 
(From a coin ol Mytilene.) 



Imag. 4), and a Dionysus. Vfe are told also by 
Pausanias that the west pediment in the temple 
of Zeus at Olympia was his work. It is thought 
that this belongs to an early period of his art, 
before he came under the influence of Phidias. 
[Cf. Agoracritus.] 

Alcander \"A\Kav8pos), a young Spartan, who 
thrust out one of the eyes of Lycurgus, when 
his fellow-citizens were discontented with the 
laws he proposed. Lycurgus pardoned the out- 
rage, and thus converted Alcander into one of 
his warmest friends. (Plut. Lyc. 11 ; Ael. V.H. 
xiii. 23.) 

Alcathoe or Alcithoe ('A\Ka66-n or 'AA/a9<S?)), 
daughter of Minyas, refused with her sisters 
Leucippe and Arsippe to join in the worship of 
Dionysus when it was introduced into Boeotia, 
and were accordingly changed by the god into 
bats, and their weaving-loom into vines (Ov. 
Met. iv. 1-40, 390-415). A somewhat different 
legend existed, apparently an attempt to explain 
a human sacrifice. The daughters of Minyas 
for the above reason being driven mad by Diony- 
sus, Leucippe gave up her son Hippasos to be 
torn in pieces. Hence, it was said, came the 
custom that the priest of Dionysus slew any 
maiden of the race of Minyas whom he found 
at the festival of Agrionia (Ant. Lib. 10 ; Plut. 
Q.G. 38; Ael. V.S. iii. 42; Diet, of Ant. s.v. 
Agrionia.) 

Alcathous {'A\xd6oos). 1. Son of Pelops and 
Hippodamla, brother of Atreus and Thyestes, 
obtained as his wife Euaechme, the daughter of 
Megareus, by slaying the Cithaeronian lion, and 
succeeded his father-in-law as king of Megara. 
He restored the walls of Megara, in which work 
he was assisted by Apollo. The stone upon 
which the god used to place his lyre while he 
was at work was believed, even in late times, to 
give forth a sound, when struck, similar to that 
of a lyre (Ov. Met. viii. 15). — 2. Son of Aesyetes- 
and husband of Hippodamla, the daughter of 
Anchises and sister of Aeneas, was one of the 
bravest of the Trojan leaders in the war of Troy, 
and was slain by Idomeneus (II. xiii. 427, 466). 

Alcestis or Alceste {"A\ktio-tis or 'AA.K60-T7)), 
daughter of Pelias and Anaxibia, wife of Adme- 
tus, died in place of her husband. [Admetus.] 

Alcetas lAA/ce'Taj), two kings of Epirus. 1. 
Son of Tharypus, was expelled from his king- 
dom, and was restored by the elder Dionysius 
of Syracuse. He was the ally of the Athenians 
in B.C. 373 (Demosth. Timoth. pp. 1187, 1190. 
§§10, 22 ; Paus. i. 11 ; Diod. xv. 13).— 2. Son of 
Arymbas, and grandson of Alcetas I., reigned 
B.C. 313-303, and was put to death by his sub- 
jects (Diod. xix. 88 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 8). 

Alcetas. 1. King of Macedonia, reigned 29' 
years, and was father of Amyntas I. — 2. Brother 
of Perdiccas and son of Orontes, was one of 
Alexander's generals. On the death of Alex- 
ander, he espoused his brother's party, and 
upon the murder of the latter in Egypt in 321, 
he joined Eumenes. He killed himself at Ter- 
messus in Pisidia in 320, to avoid falling into 
the hands of Antigonus. 

Alcibiades i'AA(fi/3ia5Tjs), son of Clinias and 
Dinomache, was born at Athens about B.C. 450, 
ami on the death of his father in 447, was brought 
up by his relation Pericles. He possessed 
a beautiful person, transcendent abilities, and 
great wealth, which received a large accession 
through his marriage with Hipparete,the daugh- 
ter of HipponlcuR. His youth was disgraced by 
his amours and debaucheries, and Socrates, 
who saw his vast capabilities, attempted to win 
i him to the paths of virtue, but in vain. Their 



44 



ALCIBIADES 



intimacy was strengthened by mutua. services. 
At the battle of Potidaea (b.c. 432) his life was 
saved by Socrates, and at that of Delium (424) 
lie saved the life of Socrates. He did not take 
much part in public affairs till after the death 
of Cleon (422), but he then became one of the 
leading politicians, and the head of the war 
party in opposition to Nicias. Enraged at the 
affront put upon him by the Lacedaemonians, 
who had not chosen to employ his intervention 
in the negotiations which ended in the peace of 
421, and had preferred Nicias to him, he induced 
the Athenians to form an alliance with Argos, 
Mantinea and Elis, and to attack the allies of 
Sparta. In 415 he was foremost among the 
advocates of the Sicilian expedition, which he 
believed would be a step towards the conquest 
of Italy, Carthage, and Peloponnesus. While 
the preparations for the expedition were going 
on, there occurred the mysterious mutilation of 
the Hermes-busts, which the popular fears con- 
nected in some unaccountable manner with an 
attempt to overthrow the Athenian constitution. 
Alcibiades was charged with being the ring- 
leader in this attempt. He had been already 
appointed along with Nicias and Lamachus as 
commander of the expe- 
dition to Sicily, and he 
now demanded an inves- 
tigation before he set sail. 
This, however, his ene- 
mies would not grant ; as 
they hoped to increase the 
popular odium against 
him in his absence. He 
was therefore obliged to 
depart for Sicily ; but he 
had not been there long, 
before he was recalled to 
stand his trial. On his 
return homewards, he 
managed to escape at 
Thurii, and thence pro- 
ceeded to Sparta, where 
he acted as the avowed 
enemy of his country. 
At Athens sentence of 
death was passed upon 
him, and his property 
Alcibiades. was confiscated. At 

Sparta he rendered him- 
self popular by the facility with which he adop- 
ted the Spartan manners ; but the machina- 
tions of his enemy Agis II. induced him to 
abandon the Spartans and take refuge with Tis- 
saphernes (412), whose favour he soon gained. 
Through his influence Tissaphernes deserted 
the Spartans and professed his willingness to 
assist the Athenians, who accordingly recalled 
Alcibiades from banishment in 411. He did 
not immediately return to Athens, but remained 
abroad for the next 4 years, during which the 
Athenians under his command gained the vic- 
tories of Cynossema, Abydos, and Cyzicus, and 
got possession of Chalcedon and Byzantium. 
In 407 he returned to Athens, where he was 
received with great enthusiasm, and was 
appointed commander-in-chief of all the land 
and sea forces. But the defeat at Notium, occa- 
sioned during his absence by the imprudence of 
his lieutenant, Antiochus, furnished his enemies 
with a handle against him, and he was super- 
seded in his command (b.c. 406). He now 
went into voluntary exile to his fortified 
domain at Bisanthe in the Thracian Cherso- 
nesus, where he made war on the neighbouring 
Thracians. Before the fatal battle of Aegos- 




ALCINOUS 

Potami (405), he gave an ineffectual warning 
to the Athenian generals. After the fall of 
Athens (404), he was condemned to banishment, 
and took refuge with Pharnabazus ; he was about 
to proceed to the court of Artaxerxes, when onb 
night his house was surrounded by a band of 
armed men, and set on fire. He rushed out 
sword in hand, but fell, pierced with arrows 
(404). The assassins were probably either em- 
ployed by the Spartans, or (according to Plu- 
tarch) by the brothers of a lady whom Alcibiades 
had seduced. He left a son by his wife Hip- 
parete, named Alcibiades, who never distin- 
guished himself. It was for him that Isocrates 
wrote the speech riep! tov Zevyovs. (Plut. Alcib.; 
Nepos, Alcib. ; Thuc. v.-viii. ; Xen. Hell. i. 11 ; 
Diod. xiii. ; Andoc. in Ale. de Myst.\ Isocr. de 
Bigis.) 

Alcidamas ('A^KiSdfias), a Greek rhetorician, 
of Elaea in Aeolis, in Asia Minor, was a pupil of 
Gorgias, and resided at Athens between B.C. 432 
and 411. His works were characterised by 
pompous diction and the extravagant use of 
poetical epithets and phrases (Quintil. iii. 1, 
10 ; Arist. Bhet. i. 13, 5, iii. 3, 8 ; Cic. Tusc. I 
48, 116). There are two declamations extant 
which bear his name, entitled Odysseus (in 
which Odysseus accuses Palamedes) and de 
Sophistis. These are generally thought by mod- 
ern critics to be the work of different authors, 
and it is possible that neither is by Alcidamas. 
In a fragment of a speech about Messene, Alci- 
damas seems to condemn slavery as contrary to 
natural law. — Editions of the two declamations 
ascribed to him, in Beiske's Orat. Gr. ; Bekker's 
Orat. Att. ; Blass, 1871. 

Alcidas ( AA/ci'Sas Dor. = 'AXKelSris), a Spartan 
commander of the fleet B.C. 428-427. In the 
former year he was sent to Mytilene, and in the 
latter to Corcyra. (Thuc. iii. 16, 26, 69.) 

Alcides (AAk.-i'Stjs), a name of Amphitryon, 
the son of Alcaeus, and more especially of 
Heracles, the grandson of Alcaeus. Alcaeus 
also seems to have been an early name of 
Heracles himself. 

Alcimede ('A^Ki/j.e8r)), daughter of Phylacus 
and Clymene, wife of Aeson, and mother of 
Jason (Ov. Her. vi. 105 ; Ap. Eh. i. 45). 

Alcimus (Avitus) Alethius, the writer of 
7 short poems, a rhetorician in Aquitania, is 
spoken of in terms of praise by Sidonius Apol- 
linaris and Ausonius. — Editions. In Meier's 
Anthologia Latina, 254-260, and in Werns- 
dorf's Poetae Lattni Minores, vol. vi. 

Alcimedon (' AXKijxifjuv), an Arcadian hero, 
father of Phialo, whom he cast forth upon the 
mountains with the child which she had borne 
to Heracles. Heracles, guided by a jay (la'ccra) 
discovered and saved them (Paus. viii. 12, 2). 

Alcinous ('AKkivoos). 1. Son of Nausithous, 
and grandson of Poseidon, is celebrated in the 
story of the Argonauts, and still more in the 
Odyssey. Homer represents him as the happy 
ruler of the Phaeacians in the island of Scheria, 
friend of the Immortals, who appear in visible 
form to him and his people. He has by Arete 
five sons and one daughter, Nausicaa. The 
way in which he received Ulysses, and the 
stories which the latter related to the king about 
his wanderings, occupy a considerable portion 
of the Odyssey (books vi. to xiii.). Pliny 
(iv. 52) identifies Scheria with Corfu, the in- 
habitants of which are said still to point out 
the rocky island of Pontikonisi, noticed by 
Pliny, in shape like a ship, as the rock into 
which the Phaeacian ship (Od. xiii. 160) was 
changed. The doom of the city of Alcinous, 



ALCLPHEON 



ALCMENE 



that it should be overwhelmed by a mountain 
is foretold as though to enhance the nobility of 
the character of Alcinous, but is not further 
related. [For the Argonaut story, which places 
Alcinous in the island of Drepane, see Argo- 
nautae ; Ap. Eh. iv. 990.] — 2. A Platonic philo- 
sopher, who probably lived under the Caesars, 
wrote a work entitled Epitome of the Doctrines 
of Plato, but he ascribes to Plato much that 
belongs to Aristotle, and some theories about 
transmigration, which are probably derived 
from Pythagoras. His Sai/xoves are not unlike 
the Gnostic Eons. —Editions. By Fell, Oxon. 
1667, and by J. F. Fischer, Lips. 1873, 8vo. 

Alciphron ('AAKifypaiv), the most distin- 
guished of the Greek epistolary writers, was 
probably a contemporary of Lucian, about a.d. 
180. The letters (118 in number, in 3 books) 
are written by fictitious personages, and the 
language is distinguished by its purity and ele- 
gance. The new Attic comedy was the prin- 
cipal source from which the author derived his 
information respecting the characters and man- 
ners which he describes, and for this reason 
they contain much valuable information about 
the private life of the Athenians of that time. — 
Editions. By Bergler, Lips. 1715 ; Hercher, 
1873 ; Meineke, 1853. 

Alcippe. [Halirrhothtus.] 

Alclthoe. [Alcathoe.] 

Alcmaeon i 'AAKfiaiW). 1. Son of Amphia- 
raus and Eriphyle, and brother of Amphilochus 
(Paus. x. 10, 2). His mother was induced by 
the necklace of Harmonia, which she received 
from PolynTces, to persuade her husband 
Amphiaraus to take part in the expedition 
against Thebes ; and as he knew he would 
perish there, he enjoined his sons to kill their 
mother as soon as they should be grown up, 
before they went against Thebes. Alcmaeon 
took part in the expedition of the Epigoni 
against Thebes. The oracle made his leader- 
ship in the expedition a condition of its suc- 
cess, and his mother, bribed by Thersander with 
the dress of Harmonia, overcame his scruples 
about starting without having avenged his 
father, wishing that her son also might die ; 
and on his return home after the capture of the 
city, he slew his mother according to the injunc- 
tion of his father, and urged also by the oracle 
of Apollo. For this deed he became mad, and 
was haunted by the Erinnyes. He went to 
Psophis, and was there purified by Phegeus, 
whose daughter Arsinoe or Alphesiboea he 
married, giving her the necklace and peplus 
of Harmonia. But as the lund of this 
country ceased to bear on account of its har- 
bouring a matricide, his madness returned ; he 
left Psophis and repaired to the country at the 
moutli of the river Achelous. Here in the allu- 
vial deposit of the river was ground which had 
not existed when his mother cursed him, and 
so he was healed from his madness. The god 
Achelous gave him his daughter Callirrhoe in 
marriage; and as the latter wished to possess 
the necklace and peplus of Harmonia, Alcmaeon 
went to Psophis and obtained them from Phe- 
geus, under the pretext of dedicating them at 
Delphi ; but when Phegeus heard that the trea- 
sures were fetched for Callirrhoe, he caused his 
sons to murder Alcmaeon. Alcmaeon was wor- 
shipped as a hero at Thebes, and at Psophis his 
tomb was shown, surrounded with cypresses. 
His sons by Callirrhoe avenged his death. 
(Paus. viii. 24; Time. ii. 102; Plut. de E.ril. 
p. 002 ; Apollod. iii. 7 ; Ov. Met. ix. 407.)— 2. Son 
of Megacles, was greatly enriched by Croesus, 



' as related in Hdt. vi. 125. — 3. Of Crotona in 
Italy. He is said to have been the first person 
who dissected animals, and he made important 
discoveries in anatomy and natural philosophy. 
There are traces of Pythagorean influence in 
his opinions. He wrote several medical and 

! philosophical works, which are lost. (Diog. 
Laert. viii. 83 ; Clem. Alex. Strom, i. 308.) 

Alcmaeonidae ( 'AhKixatwv'iScu), a noble family 
at Athens, members of which fill a space in 
Grecian history from B.C. 750 to 400. They were 
a branch of the family of the Nelldae, who were 
driven out of Pylus in Messenia by the Dorians, 
and settled at Athens, la consequence of the 
way in which Megacles, one of the family, 
treated the insurgents under Cylon (b.c. 612), 
they brought upon themselves the guilt of sacri- 

■ lege, and were in consequence banished from 
Athens, about 595. About 560 they returned 
from exile, but were again expelled by Pisistra- 

I tus. In 548 they contracted with the Amphictyo- 
nic council to rebuild the temple of Delphi, and 
obtained great popularity throughout Greece by 
executing the work in a style of magnificence 
which much exceeded their engagement. On 
the expulsion of Hippias in 510, they were again 
restored to Athens. They now joined the 
popular party, and Clisthenes, who was at that 
time the head of the familj - , gave a new consti- 
tution to Athens. [See also Clisthenes, Mega- 

; cles, Pericles.] 

Alcman {'A\k/j.o.v, also called ' A\K[ia'ioov), the 
chief lyric poet of Sparta, by birth a Lydian of 
Sardis, was brought to Laconia as a slave, when 
very young, and was emancipated by his master, 

| who discovered his genius. He lived in the 7th 
century B.C., and most of his poems were com- 
posed after the conclusion of the second Messe- 
nian war. Lyric poetry was chiefly used at 
Sparta for religious worship, and accordingly 
Alcman wrote paeans, wedding hymns and pro- 

I cessional hymns (prosodia), but he wrote also 

\parthenia (for girls to sing in chorus), and is 
said by some ancient writers to have been the 
inventor of erotic poetry. His metres were very 
various. The Cretic hexameter was named 
from him Alcmanic. His dialect was the Spartan 
Doric, with an intermixture of epic and Aeolic. 

I The Alexandrian grammarians placed Alcman 
at the head of their canon of the 9 lyric poets. 
The fragments of his poems are edited by 
Welcker, Giessen, 1815 ; Bergk, in Poetac Lyric i 
Graeci, 1867 ; Dramard-Baudry, Paris, 1870. 

Alcmene ('A\K/xr,fq), daughter of Electryon. 
king of Mycenae, by Anaxo or Lysidice. The 
brothers of Alcmene were slain by the sons of 
Pterelaus ; and their father set out to avenge 
their death, leaving to Amphitryon his kingdom 
and his daughter Alcmene, whom Amphitryon 
was to marry. But Amphitryon having unin- 
tentionally killed Electryon before the marriage, 
Sthenelus expelled both Amphitryon and Alc- 
mene, who went to Thebes. But here, instead 
of marrying Amphitryon, Alcmene declared 
that she would only marry the man who should 
avenge the death of her brothers. Amphitryon 
undertook the task, and invited Creon of Thebes 
to assist him. During his absence, Zeus, in the 
disguise of Amphitryon, visited Alcmene, and, 
pretending to be her husband, related in what 
way he had avenged the death of her brothers 
(Pind. Kern. x. 15, Islhm. vii. 5). Amphitryon 
himself returned the next day ; Alcmene became 
the mother of Heracles by Zeus, and of Iphiclcx 
by Amphitryon. [Heracles.] When Heracles 
was raised to the rank of a god, Alcmene, fear- 
ing Eurystheus, fled with the sons of Heracles 



46 



ALCYONE 



to Athens ; but when Hyllus died she returned 
to Thebes and, according to some, died there 
(Anton. Lib. 33) ; Pausanias (i. 41) says that 
she died near Megara, and was buried there. 
Pherecydes {ap. Ant. Lib.) relates that Zeus 
sent Hermes to conduct her to the Islands of 
the Blest, where she married Ehadamanthys. 
Prom this comes a variant, that she married 
Bhadamanthys while he was king of Ocalia. 
(Apollod. ii. 4, 11 ; Plut. Lys. 28.) 

Alcyone or Halcyone ('k\Kv6vri) 1. A Pleiad, 
daughter of Atlas and Pleione, and beloved by 
Poseidon. — 2. Daughter of the Thessalian 
Aeolus and Enarete, wife of the Malian king 
Ce5 : x. — 3. Daughter of the wind-god Aeolus and 
Aegiale, wife of Ceyx, the son of Hesperus. 
They lived so happily that they were presump- 
tuous enough to call each other Zeus and 
Hera, for which Zeus metamorphosed them 
into birds, alcyon and ceyx (Ap. Bh. i. 1087). 
Others relate that Ceyx perished in a ship- 
wreck, that Alcyone for grief threw herself into 
the sea, and that the gods, out of compassion, 
changed the two into birds (Hyg. Fab. 65 ; Ov. 
Met. xi. 410-750). It was fabled that during 
the seven days before, and as many after, the 
shortest day of the year, while the bird alcyon 
was breeding, there always prevailed calms at 
sea. Hence the term aAicvovlSzs rijxepai (Arist. 
H. A. v. 9; cf. Theocr. vii. 57). 

Alcyoneus ('A\Kvovevs), a giant killed by 
Heracles at the Isthmus of Corinth (Apollod. i. 
6, 1 ; Pind. Nem. iv. 27). He is called (iovfaras 
(Nem. vi. 36), because he was said to have 
driven off the cattle of the Sun from Erytheia. 
Later poets represent him as lying under Aetna. 

Alcyoniurn Mare (?) 'AXkvovXs BdAaffcra.), the 
E. part of the Corinthian G-ulf. 

Alea ('A\ea'j, a surname of Athene, under 
which she was worshipped at Alea, Mantinea, 
and Tegea. Her temple at the latter place was 
one of the most celebrated in Greece. It is 



ALESIUM 
Alebion. [Albion.] 
Alecto. [Eumenides.] 
Alemanni or Alamanni or Alamani (from 

the German alle Manner, all men), a con- 
federacy of German tribes, chiefly of Suevic 
extraction, between the Danube, the Bhine, 
and the Main, though we subsequently find 
them extending their territories as far as the 
Alps and the Jura. The different tribes of the 
confederacy were governed by their own kings, 
but in time of war they obeyed a common 
leader. They were brave and warlike, and 
proved formidable enemies to the Bomans. 
They first came into contact with the Bomans 
in the reign of Caracalla, who assumed the sur- 
name of Alemanicus on account of a pretended 
victory over them (a.d. 214). They were attacked 
by Alexander Severus (234), and by Maximin 
(237). They invaded Italy in 270, but were 
driven back by Aurelian, and were again de- 
feated by Probus in 282. After this time they 
continually invaded the Roman dominions in 
Germany, and, though defeated by Constantius 
I., Julian (357), Valentinian, and Gratian, they 
gradually became more and more powerful, and 
in the fifth century were in possession of Alsace 
and of German Switzerland. 

Aleria (AAepfa: 'AAaAi'a in Herod.), one of 
the chief cities of Corsica, on the E. of the 
island, on the S. bank of the river Bhotanus 
(Tarignano) near its mouth. It was founded 
by the Phocaeans b.b. 564, was plundered by L. 
Scipio in the first Punic war, and was made a 
Boman colony by Sulla. (Hdt. i. 165 ; Zonar. 
viii. 11 ; Diod. v. 13.) 

Alesa. [Halesa.] 

Alesia ('AAe<n'cs), an ancient town of the 
Mandubii in Gallia Lugdunensis, said to have 
been founded by Hercules, and situated on a 
high hill (now Anxois), which was washed by 
the two rivers Lutosa (Oze) and Osera (Oze- 
rain). It was taken and destroyed by Caesar, 



3occ aoco saoc 




Plan of the Environs of Alesia. 
A, the east end of the hill of Alesia, where Vercingetorix built his stone -wall ; B. hill partly occupied by Caesar ; C, 
ditto ; D, ditto ; E, ditto ; F, hospital of Alise ; a a, road from Monlbard and Auxcrre; b b, road to Dijon. 

said to have been built by Aleus, son of Aphl- in B.C. 52, after a memorable siege, but was 
das, king of Tegea, from whom the goddess afterwards rebuilt. (Caes. B. G. vii. 68-90; 
derived this surname (Paus. viii. 4, 4). j Strab. p. 191 ; Diod. iv. 19.) 

Alea ('AAe'a : 'AAeus), a town in Arcadia, E. Alesiae '('AAealai), a town in Laconia, W. 
of the Stymphalian lake, with a celebrated ; of Sparta, on the road to Pherae (Paus. iii. 
temple of Athene, the ruins of which are near 20). 

Piali (Paus. viii. 23). I Alesium ('AKdaiou), a town in Elis, not far 



ALESIUS 

from Olympia, afterwards called Alesiaeum 
(Strab. p. 341 ; Horn. II. ii. 617). 

Aleslus Mons (jb 'A\r)aiov upos), a mountain 
in Arcadia, with a temple of Poseidon Hippius 
-and a grove of Derneter. [Mantixea.] 

Aletes ('AA.rjTr;s), son of Hippotes and a de- 
scendant of Heracles, is said to have taken pos- 
session of Corinth, and to have expelled the 
Sisyphids, thirty years after the first invasion 
of Peloponnesus by the Heraclids. His family, 
called the Aletidae, maintained themselves atr 
Corinth down to the time of Bacchis. (Strab. 
p. 389; Paus. ii. 4 ; Veil. Pat. i. 3). According' 
to tradition he got his name, ' Wanderer,' be- 
cause his father had been banished for the 
murder of Carnus. It is not improbable that 
he may be under this name merely the repre- 
sentative of the migrating Dorians, who were 
spoken of as a\rjrai. Regarding the manner in 
which Aletes took Corinth, there are various 
stories. The historical account is that the 
conquerors entrenched themselves on the Solj-- 
gian hill, and from that basis got possession of 
the town (Thuc. iv. 42). Pausanias (ii. 4, 3) says 
that the two kings Doris and Hyanthidas made 
terms for themselves to remain in the land 
while their Aeolian subjects were driven out. 
From their names it might rather be imagined 
that they were eponyms of Dorian tribes. A 
more popular legend is that Aletes consulted 
the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and was told that 
he might take the city on a festal day if he 
could first induce a native of the place to give 
him a clod of earth. Aletes disguised himself 
and asked a Corinthian for bread ; the man 
churlishly gave him a clod, upon which he, 
recognising the omen, said, 5ex* Ta ' Ka ^ fiooXov 
'AAr]T7)j. As a festival of the Dead was going 
on, he contrived to accost the daughter of 
Creon the king, and promised to many her if 
she would open the city gates for him, which 
she did. He called the place Aibs KdpivSos, 
because he had gained it by the aid of Zeus : 
hence the proverb for an ' old story,' because 
this story was so often told. (Sehol. ad Pind. 
Nem. vii. 155.) The legend seems to have 
grown up somehow as an explanation of the 
proverb itself, and of the custom of asking for 
earth in token of submission. [For another 
Btory of the taking of Corinth see Hellotis.] 
Aletes also fought against Atreus when Codrus 
devoted himself [see Codrus]. He divided his 
people into eight tribes, with eight districts. 
From him the Corinthians are called iratSes 
'AKira (Pind. 01. xiii. 17). 

Alethea ('AK-qdeia), Truth personified, the 
daughter of Zeus (Pind. 01. xi. 6; Schol. ad 
foe). The Romans regarded her as daughter 
of Saturnus=Kp<Ws (Pint. Q. Ii. 11). Gellius 
apparently confuses Kp6vos and xP^ voi when 
he says (xii. 11) that she was the daughter of 
Tempus. 

Aletis. [Erigone.] 

Aletium f Aletinus), a town of Calabria (Strab. 
p. 282 ; Plin. iii. § 105). 

Aletrlum or Alatrium (Aletrlnas, itis : Ala- 
tri), an ancient town of the Hernici, subse- 
quently a municipium and a Roman colony, W. 
of Sora and E. of Anagnia (Liv. ix. 42 ; Cic. 
Clu. 10, 42 ; Strab. p. 237 ; C.I. L. i. 1106). It is 
especially remarkable for its remains of ancient 
walls in polygonal masonry. 

Aleuadae. [Aleuas.] 

Aleuas ('AA.fi/as), a descendant of Heracles, 
was the ruler of Larissa in Thessaly, and the 
reputed founder of the celebrated family of 
the Aleuadae (Pind. Pyth. x. 5 ; Theocr. xvi. 



ALEXANDER 



47 



34). In Ael. H. A. viii. 11 we have a story of a 
serpent falling in love with him while he tended 
cattle on Ossa. [For the history of the Aleu- 
adae see Thessalia.] 
Aleus. [Alea.] 

Alex or Halex (Alece), a small river in S. 
Italy, was the boundary between the territory 
of Rhegium and of the Locri Epizephyrii (Strab. 
p. 260 ; Thuc. iii. 99). 

Alexander CA\i^avSpos), the usual name of 
Paris in the Iliad. 

Alexander Severus. [Severus.] 

Alexander. I. Minor Historical Persons. 

1. Son of Aeropus, and son-in-law of Anti- 
pater, a native of the Macedonian district 
called Lyncestis, whence he is usually called 
Alexander Lyncestes. He was an accomplice in 
the murder of Philip, B.C. 336, but was pardoned 
by Alexander the Great. He accompanied 
Alexander to Asia ; but in 334 he was detected 
in carrying on a treasonable correspondence 
•with Darius, was kept in confinement and put 
to death in 330 (Arr. i. 25 ; Curt. viii. 8 ; Plut. 
Al. 10; Just. xii. 14). — 2. Son of Antonius, 
the triumvir, and Cleopatra, sumamed Helios, 
born with his twin-sister Cleopatra Selene, B.C. 
40. After the battle of Aetium they were taken 
to Rome by Augustus, and were generously 
educated by Octavia, the wife of Antonius, with 
her own children (Plut. Ant. 54, 87 ; Dio Cass, 
xlix. 40, li. 21).— 3. Eldest son of Aristobulus 
II., king of Judaea, rose in arms in B.C. 57 
against Hyrcanus, who was supported by the 
Remans. Alexander was defeated by the 
Romans in 56 and 55, and was put to death by 
Pompey at Antioch in 49 (Jos. Ant. xiv. 5; 
B. J. i. 8). — 4. Third son of Cassander, king of 
Macedonia, by Thessalonica, sister of Alexander 
the Great. In his quarrel with his elder brother 
Antipater for the government [Antipater], he 
called in the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus and De- 
metrius Poliorcetes, by the latter of whom he 
was murdered B.C. 294 (Plut. Pyrrh.; Dem.; 
Just. xvi. 1). — 5. Jannaeus, the son of Joannes 
Hyrcanus, and brother of Aristobulus I., king 
of the Jews B.C. 104-77. At the commencement 
of his reign he was engaged in war with Ptolemy 
Lathyrus, king of Cyprus ; and subsequently he 
had to cany on for six years a dangerous 
struggle with his own subjects, to whom he had 
rendered himself obnoxious by his cruelties and 
by opposing the Pharisees. He signalised his 
victory by the most frightful butchery of his 
subjects (Jos. Ant. xiii. 12), — 6. Suniamed Isius, 
the chief commander of the Aetolians, took an 
active part in opposing Philip of Macedonia 
(b.c 198, 197), and in the various negotiations 
with the Romans, including the embassy to 
Rome, B.C. 189, to obtain peace for the Aetolians 
on terms of submission after the victories oi 
Fulvius Nobilior (Liv. xxxii. 32 ; Pol. xvii. x viii. 
xxii. 9). — 7. Tyrant of Pherae, nephew of Juson, 
and also of Polyphron, whom he murdered, 
thus becoming Tagus of Thessaly, B.C. 369 (Plut. 
Pel. 29 &e.; Xen. Hell. vi. 4 ; Cic. tie Off. ii. 7, 
25). In consequence of his tyrannical govern- 
ment the Thessalians applied for aid first to 
Alexander II., king of Macedonia, and next to 
Thebes. The Thebans sent Pelopidas into 
Thessaly to succour the malcontents ; but 
having ventured incautiously within the power 
of the tyrant, lie was seized by Alexander and 
thrown into prison, B.C. 368. The Thebans sent 
a large army into Thessaly to rescue Pelopidas, 
but they were defeated in the first campaign, 
and did not obtain their object till the next 
ye>r, 367. In 364 Pelopidas again entered 



48 



ALEXANDER 



Thessaly with a small force, but was slain in 
battle by Alexander. The Thebans now sent a 
large army against the tyrant, and compelled 
him to become a dependent ally of Thebes. 
We afterwards hear of Alexander making pira- 
tical descents on many of the Athenian de- 
pendencies, and even on Attica itself. He was 
murdered in 367, by his wife Thebe, with the 
assistance of her three brothers, when, as it 
is said, he was planning to murder her and 
marry the widow of his uncle Jason. Reference 
to the anecdote in Plut. Pel. 29 will show that 
Shakespeare in all probability took some sug- 
gestions for the plot of Hamlet from what is 
related of Alexander of Pherae, especially as re- 
gards the 'play-scene.' — 8. Son of Polysperchon, 
the Macedonian, was chiefly employed by his 
father in the command of the armies which 
he sent against Cassander. Thus he was sent 
against Athens in B.C. 318, and was engaged in 
military operations during the next year in 
various parts of Greece. But in 315 he became 
reconciled to Cassander, and we find him in 
314 commanding on behalf of the latter. He 
was murdered at Sicyon in 314 (Diod. xviii. 65 
&c, xix. 11, 53, 60, 66).— 9. Ptolemaeus. 
[Ptolemaeus.J — 10. Tiberius, born at Alex- 
andria, of Jewish parents, and nephew of the 
writer Philo. He deserted the faith of his 
ancestors, and was rewarded for his apostasy 
by various public appointments. In the reign 
of Claudius he succeeded Padius as procurator 
of Judaea (a.d. 46), and was appointed by Nero 
procurator of Egypt. He was the first Roman 
governor who declared in favour of Vespasian; 
and he accompanied Titus in the war against 
Judaea, and was present at the taking of 
Jerusalem. (Jos. Ant. xx. 4, B. I. ii. 11 &c. ; 
Tac. Ann. xv. 28, Hist. i. 11, ii. 74, 79.) 

II. Kings of Epirus. 
1. Son of Neoptolemus and brother of 
Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great. 
Philip made him king of Epirus in place of his 
cousin Aeacides, and gave him his daughter 
Cleopatra in marriage (b. c. 336). In 332, 
Alexander, at the request of the Tarentines, 
crossed over into Italy, to aid them against the 
Lucanians and Bruttii. After meeting with 
considerable success, he was defeated and slain 
in battle in 326, near Pandosia, on the banks of 
the Acheron in Southern Italy. (Just. viii. 6, 
xii. 2 ; Liv. viii. 17, ix. 17). — 2. Son of Pyrrhus 
and Ianassa, daughter of the Sicilian tyrant 
Agathocles, succeeded his father in b. c. 272, 
and drove Antigonus Gonatas out of Mace- 
donia. He was shortly afterwards deprived of 
both Macedonia and Epirus by Demetrius, the 
son of Antigonus : but he recovered Epirus by 
the aid of the Acarnanians. (Plut. Pyrrh. 9; 
Just. xxvi. 2, xxviii. 1.) 

III. Kings of Macedonia. 
1. Son of Amyntas I., distinguished himself 
in the life-time of his father by killing the 
Persian ambassadors who had come to demand 
the submission of Amyntas, because they 
attempted to offer indignities to the ladies of 
the court, about B. c. 507. He succeeded his 
father shortly afterwards, was obliged to submit 
to the Persians, and accompanied Xerxes in his 
invasion of Greece (b. c. 480). He gained the 
confidence of Mardonius, who sent him to 
Athens to propose peace to the Athenians, 
which was rejected. He was secretly inclined 
to the cause of the Greeks, and informed them 
the night before the battle of Plataeae of th,e 



intention of Mardonius to fight on the following 
day. He died B. c. 454, and was succeeded by 
Perdiccas II. (Hdt. vii. 173, viii. 136, ix. 44 ; 
Just. vii. 3.) — 2. Son of Amyntas II., whom he 
succeeded, reigned B. c. 369-367 (Plut. Pel. 
26 ; Diod. xv. 60 ; Dem. F.L. p. 402, § 195). A 
usurper, of the name of Ptolemy Alorites, 
having risen against him, Pelopidas, who was 
called in to mediate between them, left Alex- 
ander in possession of the kingdom, but took 
with him to Thebes several hostages; among 
whom was Philip, afterwards king of Mace- 
donia, and father of Alexander the Great. 
Alexander was shortly afterwards murdered by 
Ptolemy Alorites. 

3. Alexander 1 The Great,' Son of Philip II. 
and Olympias, was born at Pella, B. c. 356. 
His early education was committed to Leonidas 
and Lysimachus, who taught him to compare 
himself with Achilles ; at the age of 13, he was 
also placed under the care of Aristotle, who ac- 
quired an influence over his mind and character 
which was manifest to the latest period of his 
life. At the age of 16 Alexander was entrusted 
with the government of Macedonia by his 
father, while he was obliged to leave his king- 
dom to march against Byzantium. He first 
distinguished himself, however, at the battle of 
Chaeronea (338), where the victory was mainly 

j owing to his impetuosity and courage. On the 
murder of Philip (336), to which he was con- 
sidered by some, though probably with injus- 
tice, to have been privy, Alexander ascended 
the throne, at the age of 20, and found himself 
surrounded by enemies on every side. He first 
put down rebellion in his own kingdom, and 
then rapidly marched into Greece. His un- 

' expected activity overawed all opposition; 
Thebes, which had been most active against 
him, submitted when he appeared at its gates ; 
and the assembled Greeks at the Isthmus of 
Corinth, with the sole exception of the Lacedae- 
monians, elected him to the command against 
Persia, which had previously been bestowed 
upon his father. He now directed his arms 
against the barbarians of the north, marched, 
(early in 335) accross mount Haemus, defeated 
the Triballi, and advanced as far as the 
Danube, which he crossed ; and on his return 
subdued the Illyrians and Taulantii. A report 
of his death having reached Greece, the 
Thebans once more took up arms. But a 
terrible punishment awaited them. He ad- 
vanced into Boeotia by rapid marches, took 
Thebes by assault, destroyed all the buildings, 
with the exception of the house of Pindar, 
killed most of the inhabitants, and sold the rest 
as slaves. (Arr. i. 7 ; Just. xi. 2; Plut. Al. 11.) 
Alexander now prepared for his great expedi- 
tion against Persia. Philip having been nomi- 
nated leader of the war against Persia by the 
Greek States, whose best policy in the interests 
of their own freedom would have been to pre- 
serve the balance of Persia against Macedon, 
Alexander now succeeded to the enterprise. 
In the spring of 334, he crossed the Hellespont^ 
with about 35,000 men. Of these 30,000 were 
foot and 5000 horse ; and of the former only 
12,000 were Macedonians. At Ilium he offered 
sacrifice to Athene, placed garlands on the 
tomb of Achilles and himself ran round it. 
Alexander's first engagement with the Persians 
was on the river Granicus in Mysia (May 334), 
where they were entirely defeated by him. 
This battle was followed by the capture or 
submission of the chief towns on the W. coast 
of Asia Minor. Halicarnassus was not taken 



ALEXANDER 



49 



till late in the autumn, after a vigorous defence \ 
by Memnon. the ablest general in the Persian 
service, whose death in the following year (333) 
relieved Alexander from a formidable opponent. 
He now marched along the coast of Lycia and 
Pamphylia, and then N. into Phrygia and to 
Gordium, where he cut or untied the celebrated 
Gordian knot, attaching the yoke to the pole of 
the waggon (traditionally that of Gordius), 
which, it was said, was to be loosened only by 
the conqueror of Asia. In 333, he marched 
from Gordium though the centre of Asia Minor 
into Cilicia, where he nearly lost his life at 
Tarsus by a fever, brought on by his great 
exertions, or through bathing, when fatigued, ' 
in the cold waters of the Cydnus. Darius 
meantime had collected an army of 500,000 or 
600,000 men, with 30,000 Greek mercenaries, 
whom Alexander defeated in the narrow plain 
of Issus. Darius escaped across the Euphrates 
by the ford of Thapsacus ; but his mother, wife, 
and children fell into the hands of Alexander, 
who treated them with the utmost delicacy and 
respect. It was a fortunate capture for Alex- 
ander, since Darius for a long time abstained 
from opposition in hopes of ransoming the 
captives, and so lost valuable time. Alexander 
now directed Ins armies against the cities of 
Phoenicia, most of which submitted ; but Tyre 
was not taken till the middle of 332, after an 
obstinate defence of seven months. Next 
followed the siege of Gaza, which again delayed 
Alexander two months. His cruelty towards 
Batis its defender, whom he fastened to the 
chariot and dragged round the walls, in imita- 
tion of Achilles, is unlike his previous 
character. Afterwards, according to Josephus, 
he marched to Jerusalem, intending to punish 
the people for refusing to assist him, but he was 
diverted from his purpose by the appearance of : 
the high priest, and pardoned the people. 
There is no doubt that this story, which rests 
on the authority of Josephus alone, should be 
rejected. Alexander next marched into Egypt, 
which willingly submitted to him, for the Egyp- 
tians had ever hated the Persians, who treated 
their national religion and customs with con- 
tempt, while Alexander's policy was exactly the 
opposite. At the beginning of 331, Alexander 
founded at the mouth of the W. branch of the 
Nile, the city of Alexandria, and about the 
same time visited the temple of Jupiter 
Ammon, in the desert of Libya, and was saluted 
by the priests as the son of Jupiter Ammon. — In 
the spring of the same year (331), Alexander set 
out to meet Darius, who had collected an- 
other army. He marched through Phoenicia 
and Syria to the Euphrates, which he crossed at 
the ford of Thapsacus ; thence he proceeded 
through Mesopotamia, crossed the Tigris, and at 
length met with the immense hosts of Darius, 
said to have amounted to more than a million 
of men, in the plains of Gaugamela. The 
battle was fought in the month of October, 331, 
and ended in the complete defeat of the 
Persians. Alexander pursued the fugitives to 
Arbela iErbil), which place has given its name 
to the battle, though distant about 25 miles 
from the spot where it was fought. Darius, 
who had left the field of battle early in the day, 
fled to Ecbatana (Hamadan), in Media. Alex- 
ander was now the conqueror of Asia, and began 
to adopt Persian habits and customs, by which 
he conciliated the affections of his new subjects. 
From Arbela. he marched to Babylon, Susa, and 
Persepolis, all of which surrendered to him. At 
Susa he found a treasure of 40,000 talents, and, 



among other spoils carried off by Xerxes, the 
statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, which he 
sent back to Athens. Here he received a rein- 
forcement of 15,000 men from Greece. He is said 
to have set fire to the palace of Persepolis, and, 
according to some accounts, in the revelry of a 
banquet, at the instigation of Thais, an Athenian 
courtesan (Curt. v. 6 ; Arr. iii. 19 ; Diod. xvii. 
70 ; Pint. Al. 42). The treasure found at Per- 
sepolis is said to have amounted to 120,000 
talents. — At the beginning of 330 Alexander 
marched from Persepolis into Media, to Ecba- 
tana, in pursuit of Darius, whom he followed 
through Rhagae and the passes of the Elburz 
mountains, called by the ancients the Caspian 
Gates, into Parthia, where the unfortunate king 
was murdered by Bessus, satrap of Bactria, and 
his associates. Alexander sent his body to 
Persepolis, to be buried in the tombs of the 
Persian kings. Bessus escaped to Bactria, and 
assumed the title of king of Persia. Alexander 
was engaged during the remainder of the year 
in subduing the N. provinces of Asia between 
the Caspian and the Indus — namely, Hyrcania, 
Parthia, Aria, the Drangae and Sarangae. It 
was during this campaign that Philotas, his 
father Pakmenion, and other Macedonians, 
were executed on the charge of treason. The 
proceedings in this matter were both cruel and 
unjust, and have left a stain upon Alexander's 
memory. In 329 Alexander crossed the moun- 
tains of the Paropamisus (the Hindoo Koosh), 
and marched into Bactria against Bessus, whom 
he pursued across the Oxus (which he crossed 
upon pontoons formed of inflated skins) into 
Sogdiana. In this country Bessus was betrayed 
to him, and was put to death; From the Oxus, 
after occupying Maracanda (Samarcand), he 
advanced as far as the Jaxartes (the Sir), which 
he crossed, and defeated several Scythian tribes 
N. of that river. After founding a city Alex- 
andria on the Jaxartes, called also Alexandria 
Eskate, as the northern limit of his march — it 
is probably either Khojend or Kokan — he re- 
traced his steps, and returned to Zariaspa or 
Bactra, where he spent the winter of 329. It 
was here that he killed his friend Clitus in a 
drunken revel. — In 328, Alexander again crossed 
the Oxus to complete the subjugation of Sog- 
diana,' but was not able to effect it in the year, 
and accordingly went into winter quarters at 
Nautaca, a place in the middle of the province. 
At the beginning of 327, he took a mountain 
fortress, in which Oxyartes, a Bactrian prince, 
had deposited his wife and daughters. The 
beauty of Roxana, one of the latter, captivated 
the conqueror, and he accordingly made her his 
wife. This marriage with one of his Eastern 
subjects was in accordance with the whole of 
his policy. Having completed the conquest of 
Sogdiana, he marched S. into Bactria, and made 
preparations for the invasion of India. While 
the army was in Bactria another conspiracy was 
discovered for the murder of the king. The plot 
was formed by Hermolaus with a number of the 
royal pages, who were all put to death. Alex- 
ander found, or pretended to find, that the 
philosopher Callisthenes, whose freedom of 
speech he resented, was an accomplice and put 
him also to death, at the same time uttering a 
threat against the absent Greeks (i.e. Aristotle) 
who had sent Callisthenes to him (for the com- 
ment of Theophrastus, see Cic. Tunc. iii. 10, 21). 
Alexander did not leave Bactria till late in the 
spring of 327 : he recrossed the Paropamisus 
mountains ( Hindoo Koosh), and, marching by 
Cabul and the Cophen (Cabul river), crossed 



50 



ALEXANDER 



the Indus, probably near the modem Attock. 
He met with no resistance till he reached the 
Hydaspes (Jehim), where he was opposed by 
Poms, an Indian king, whom he defeated after 
a gallant resistance, and took prisoner. Alex- 
ander restored to him his kingdom, and treated 
him with distinguished honour. He founded 
two towns, one on each bank of the Hydaspes : 
one called Bucephala, in honour of his horse 
Bucephalus, who died here, after carrying him 
through so many victories ; and the other Ni- 
caea, to commemorate his victory. From thence 
he marched across the Acesines (the Chinab) 
and the Hydraotes (the Eavi), and penetrated 
as far as the Hypbasis (Gharra). This was the 
furthest point which he reached, for the Mace- 
donians, worn out by long service, and tired of 
the war, refused to advance further ; and Alex- 
ander, notwithstanding his entreaties and 
prayers, was obliged to lead them back. He 
returned to the Hydaspes, where he had pre- 
viously given orders for the building of a fleet, 
and then sailed down the river with about 8000 
men, while the remainder marched along the 
banks in two divisions. This was late in the 
autumn of 327. The people on each side of 
the river submitted without resistance, except 
the Malli, in the conquest of one of whose towns 
(probably MooHan), where he was the first to 
scale the wall, Alexander was severely wounded. 
At the confluence of the Acesines and the 
Indus, Alexander founded a city, and left Philip' 
as satrap, with a considerable body of Greeks. 
Here he built some fresh ships, and continued 
his voyage down the Indus, founded a city at 
Pattala, the apex of the delta of the Indus, and 
sailed into the Indian ocean, which he reached 
about the middle of 326. Nearchus was sent 
with the fleet to sail along the coast to the Per- 
sian gulf [Neabchus] ; and Alexander marched 
with the rest of his forces through Gedrosia, in 
which country his army suffered greatly from 
want of water and provisions. He reached 
Susa at the beginning of 325. Here he allowed 
himself and his troops some rest from their 
labours ; and anxious to form his European and 
Asiatic subjects into one people, he assigned to 
about 80 of his generals Asiatic wives, and gave 
with them rich dowries. He himself took a 
second wife, Barsine, the eldest daughter of 
Darius, and according to some accounts, a third, 
Parysatis, the daughter of Ochus. About 10,000 
Macedonians followed the example of their 
king and generals, and married Asiatic women. 
Alexander also enrolled large numbers of 
Asiatics among his troops, and taught them the 
Macedonian tactics. He moreover directed his 
attention to the increase of commerce, and for 
this purpose determined to make the Euphrates 
and Tigris navigable, by removing the artificial 
obstructions which had been made in the river 
for the purpose of irrigation. The Mace- 
donians, who were discontented with several 
of the new arrangements of the king, rose in 
a mutiny, which he quelled with some diffi- 
culty. Towards the close of the same year 
(325) he went to Eebatana, where he lost his 
great favourite Hephaestion. From Eebatana 
he marched to Babylon, subduing in his way 
the Cossaei, a mountain tribe ; and before he 
reached Babylon he was met by ambassadors 
from almost every part of the known world. 
Alexander entered Babylon m the spring of 324, 
about a year before his death, notwithstanding 
the warnings of the Chaldaeans, who predicted 
evil to him if he entered the city at that time. 
He intended to make Babylon the capital of 



his empire, as the best point of communication 
between his eastern and western dominions. 
His schemes were numerous and gigantic. His 
first object was the conquest of Arabia, which 
was to be followed, it was said, by the subjuga- 
tion of Italy, Carthage, and the West. But his 
views were not confined merely to conquest. He 
ordered a fleet to be built on the Caspian, in 
order to explore that sea. He also intended to 
improve the distribution of waters in the Baby- 
lonian plain, and for that purpose sailed down 
the Euphrates to inspect the canal called 
Pallacopas. On his return to Babylon he was 
attacked by a fever, probably brought on by his 
recent exertions in the marshy districts around 
Babylon, and aggravated by the quantity of wina 
he had drunk at 
a banquet given 
to his princi- 
pal officers. He 
died after an ill- 
ness of 11 days, 
in the month 
of May or June 
B.C. 323, at the 
age of 32, after a 
reign of 12 years 
and 8 months. 
He appointed 
no one as his 
successor, but 
just before his 
death he gave 
his ring to Per- 
diccas. Boxana 
was with child 
at the time of 
his death, and 
afterwards bcre 
a son who is 
known by the 
name of Alexan- 
der Aegus.— Por- 
traits of Alexan- 
der were made 
by Lysippus the 
sculptor, Apelles the painter, and Pyrgoteles 
the gem-engraver. His successors introduced 
his portrait upon their coins, as in the accom- 
panying one of Lysimachus, where he is re- 
presented as Zeus Ammon. — The history of 




AAEEANAPQZ 

<J>iAinnaY 



Alexander, by Lysippus. 




Alexander as Zeus Ammon, on a coin of Lysimachus. 

Alexander forms an important epoch in the 
history of mankind. Alexander himself must 
rank as one of the most remarkable men of 
all ages and countries. It would be difficult 
to name any one whose career was more re- 
markable, especially when we remember that 
all his achievements were crowded into twelve 



ALEXANDER 



SI 



years, and that he died before he reached middle 
life, younger iu fact at the time of his death 
than Julius Caesar was when he began his 
career. As a general he has no proved superior 
in history. It is true that, as the Romans were 
glad to remark, his Asiatic opponents were, like 
other Asiatics, bad and untrustworthy troops 
such as have in other ages been defeated by 
forces small in number; but he had had to 
defeat Greek troops before he started for Asia, 
and in Asia itself Greeks were opposed to him : 
at Granicus 20,000 Greeks fought in the Persian 
army, and at Issus 30,000. When we consider 
his uniform success under these circumstances, 
we cannot set it down to the fact that his foes 
were a mob of unwarlike Asiatics. But a 
stronger evidence of his rank as a pre-eminenc 
military commander is afforded by his strate- 
gical greatness and the absence of all failure 
in his provision for long and difficult marches 
arranged long beforehand, and for drawing 
reinforcements from Greece into the heart of 
Asia. His marches through such country as the 
defiles of the " Susian Gates" and the Hindoo 
Koosh. alone are evidence of marvellous skill. 
Of his power to organise and control the vast 
empire which he had conquered, it is more 
difficult to speak positively. The proof was to 
come in the following 20 or 30 years which he 
never saw. But his dealings with Greece, with 
Egypt, and so far with Persia give reason to 
believe that he had political capacity also, such 
as rarely has been surpassed. His character, 
which seems to have been naturally chivalrous 
and generous, however liable to fits of passion, 
had, it must be admitted, suffered by his Eastern 
conquests. His treatment of Batis, of Philotas 
and Parmenio, and of Callistheues, and his 
affectation of Asiatic dress and manners, seem 
to show that, except as regards mere personal 
bravery, little of the early chivalry remained. 
His importance in history is due not merely to 
his traversing and opening up countries un- 
known to the Western nations. In spite of the 
break up of his plans and the general confusion 
which ensued from his premature death, it is 
not easy to overestimate the importance of the 
results to history from his policy of founding 
cities to mark his conquests, and planting in 
them Hellenising populations which spread so 
widely the Greek language and, in some cases, 
the Greek learning. And, as he initiated this 
policy, which his successors followed, it is not 
unfair to ascribe to him cities such as Antioch, 
hardly less than Alexandria. — 4. Aegus, son 
of Alexander the Great and Roxana, was born 
shortly after the death of his father, in B.C. 323, 
and was acknowledged as the partner of Philip 
Arrhidaeus in the empire, under the guardian- 
ship of Perdiccas, Antipater, and Polysperchon 
in succession. Alexander and his mother Roxana 
were imprisoned by Cassanxler, when he obtained 
possession of Macedonia In 310, and remained 
in prison till 311, when they were put to death by 
Cassander. i Diod.xix. 51,52,G1, 105 ; Just.xv.2.) 

IV. Kings of Syria. 
1. Surnamed Balas, a person of low origin, 
pretended to be the son of Antiochus IV. 
Epiphanes, and reigned in Syria B.C. 150-146. 
He defeated and slew in battle Demetrius I. 
Soter, but was afterwards defeated and de- 
throned by Demetrius II. Nicator (Polyb. xxxiii. 
14; Just, xxv.; Joseph. Ant. xiii. 2i. — 2. Hur- 
nnmed Zebina or Zabinas (i.e. //<<■ slave), son of 
a nifrohant, was set up by Ptolemy Physcon as 
a pretender to the throne of Syria, shortly after 



the return of Demetrius II. Nicator from his 
captivity among the Parthians, B.C. 128. He 
defeated Demetrius in 125, but was afterwards 
defeated by Antiochus Grypus, by whom he 




Alexander Balas, King of Syria. B.C. 150-146. 
06c, head or king ; rat,, eagle standing on beak of galley ; 
date. 163 = B.C. 150. 



was put to death, 122. (Just, xxxix. 1 ; Joseph. 
I Ant. xiii. 9.) 

V. Literary. 
1. Of Aeg/ae, a peripatetic philosopher at 
Rome in the first century after Christ, was tutor 
to the emperor Nero (Suet. Tib. 57 1. — 2. The 
Aetolian, of Pleuron in Aetolia, a Greek poet, 
lived in the reign of Ptolemaeus Philadelphus 
(B.C. 285-247), at Alexandria, where he was 
reckoned one of the seven tragic poets who 
constituted the tragic pleiad. He also wrote 
other poems besides tragedies. His fragments 
are collected by Capellmann, Alexandri Aetoli 
Fragmenta, Bonn, 1829. — 3. Of Aphrodisias, in 
Carta, the most celebrated of the commentators 
on Aristotle, and hence called Exegetes, lived 
about a.d. 200. About half his voluminous 
works were edited and translated into Latin at 
the revival of literature ; there are a few more 
extant in the original Greek, which have never 
been printed, and an Arabic version is preserved 
of several others. His most important treatise 
is entitled De Fato, an inquiry into the opinions 
of Aristotle on the subject of Fate and Free- 
will : edited by Orelli, Zurich, 1821 ; Usener, 
Berlin, 1859.— -4. Cornelius, surnamed Poly- 
histor, a Greek writer, was made prisoner 
during the war of Sulla in Greece Cb.c. 87-84), 
and sold as a slave to Cornelius Lentulus, who 
took him to Rome, made him the teacher of 
his children, and subsequently restored him to 
freedom. The surname of Polyhistor was given 
to him on account of his prodigious learning. 
He is said to have written a vast number of 
works, all of which have perished : the most 
important of them was one in 42 books, con- 
taining historical and geographical accounts of 
nearly all countries of the ancient world. Some 
fragments are collected by C. Jliiller, Frag. 
Hist. Graec. 1849. — 5. Surnamed LychriUS, of 
Ephesus, a Greek rhetorician and poet, lived 
about B.C. 30. A few fragments of his geo- 
graphical and astronomical poems are extant. 
(Strab. p. 042; Cic. Att. ii. 20, 22.) See C. 
M tiller, Frag. Hist. Graec. — 6. Of Myndus, in 
Caria, a Greek writer on zoology, of uncertain 
date. — 7. Numenius, a Greek rhetorician, who 
lived in the second century of the Christian 
aera. Two works are ascribed to him, one De 
Fignris Sententiarum et Elocutionis, from 
which Aquila Romnnus took his materials for 
his work on the same subject; and the other 
On Sliow-spceches ; which was written by a 
Inter grammarian of the name of Alexander. 
Edited in Walz's Rhctorrs Graeci, vol. viii. ; 
Spengel, 1856. — 8. The Paphlagonian, a cele- 
brated impostor, who flourished about the begin- 
ning of the second century after Christ, of whom 
Lucian has given an amusing account, chiefly of 

E 2 



52 



ALEXANDRIA 



the various contrivances by which he established 
and maintained the credit of an oracle, which 
he pretended to be the reappearance of Ascle- 
pius in the form of a serpent. The influence 
he attained over the populace seems incredible ; 
indeed, the narrative of Lucian would appear to 
be a mere romance, were it not confirmed by 
some medals of Antoninus and M. Aurelius 
(Lucian, Alex.). — 9. Surnamed Peloplaton, a 
Greek rhetorician of Seleucia in Cilicia, was 
appointed Greek secretary to M. Antoninus, 
about A.D. 175. At Athens he conquered the 
celebrated rhetorician Herodes Atticus, in a 
rhetorical contest. All persons, however, did 
not admit his abilities ; for a Corinthian said 
that he had found in Alexander ' the clay 
[ilTjAds], but not Plato.' This saying gave rise 
to the surname of Peloplaton (Philostr. Vit. 
Soph. ii. 5). — 10. Philalethes, an ancient Greek 
physician, lived probably towards the end of 
the first century B.C., and succeeded Zeuxis as 
head of a celebrated Herophilean school of 
medicine, established in Phrygia between Lao- 
dicea and Carura (Strab. p. 580 ; Galen, de Biff. 
Puis. iv. 4, vol. viii. p. 727, 746).— 11. Of Tralles 
in Lydia, one of the most eminent of the ancient 
physicians, lived in the 6th century after Christ 
(Agathias, Hist. v. p. 149), and is the author of 
two extant Greek works : — 1. Libri Duodecim 
de Be Medica ; 2. De Lumbricis (Puschmann, 
Vienna, 1878). 



which was joined to the city by an artificial 
dyke, called Heptastadium, which formed, with 
the island, the two harbours of the city, that on 
the NE. of the dyke being named the Great 
Harbour (now the New Port), that on the SW. 
Eunostus (evvoaros, the Old Port). These 
harbours communicated with each other by two 
channels cut through the Heptastadium, one at 
each end of it ; and there was a canal from the 
Eunostus to the Lake Mareotis. The city was 
built on a regular plan ; and was intersected by 
two principal streets, above 100 feet wide, the 
one extending 30 stadia from E. to W., the other 
across this, from the sea towards the lake, to the 
length of 10 stadia. The city was divided into 
three regions : the Brucheium, which was the 
Royal, or Greek, region at the eastern end, the 
Jews' quarter at the NE. angle, and the 
Rhacotis or Egyptian quarter on the west, 
beyond which, and outside of the city, was the 
Necropolis or cemetery. A great lighthouse 
was built on the I. of Pharos in the reign of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus (b.c. 283). Under the 
care of the Ptolemies, as the capital of a great 
kingdom and of the most fertile country on the 
earth, and commanding by its position all the 
commerce of Europe with the East, Alexandria 
soon became the most wealthy and splendid 
city of the known world. Greeks, Jews, and 
other foreigners flocked to it ; and its popula- 
tion probably amounted to three quarters of a 




H alter &■ Boutall sc. 



Plan of Alexandria. 



Alexandria, oftener -la, rarely -ea ('AA.efai'- 
Speia : 'AAe£av8pevs, Alexandrlnus), the name of 
several cities founded by, or in memory of Alex- 
ander the Great. — 1. (Alexandria, Arab. Iskan- 
deria), the capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, 
ordered by Alexander (who himself traced the 
ground plan) to be founded in B.C. 332. (Strab. 
p. 791 ; Arrian, iii. 1 ; Curt. iv. 8 ; Amm. Marc, 
xxii. 40 ; Plin. v. 10 ; Polyb. xxxix. 14 ; Caes. 
B.C. iii. 112.) It was built on the narrow 
neck of land between the Lake Mareotis and 
the Mediterranean, opposite to the I. of Pharos, 



million (in Diod. Sic. xvii. 52 the free citizens 
alone are reckoned at 300,000, B.C. 58). Under 
the empire the food of the populations of Rome 
and Constantinople depended largely on the 
despatch of the corn-ships from Alexandria. 
Its fame was greatly increased through the 
foundation, by the first two Ptolemies, of the 
Museum, an establishment in which men de- 
voted to literature were maintained at the 
public cost, and of the Library, which contained 
90,000 distinct works, and 400,000 volumes, and 
the increase of which made it necessary to 



ALEXANDRIA 

establish another library in the Serapeium 
(Temple of Serapis), which reached to 42,soo 
volumes, but which was destroyed by the bishop 
Theophilus, at the time oi the general overthrow 
of the heathen temples under Theodosius (a.d. 
389). The Great Library suffered severely by 
fire when Julius Caesar was besieged in Alex- 
andria, and was finally destroyed by Amrou, the 
lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, in a.d. 651. 
These institutions made Alexandria the chief 
centre of literary activity. When Egypt be- 
came a Roman province [Aegyptvs , Alex- 
andria was made the residence of the Praef ectus 
Aegypti. Its government was peculiar and re- 
tained specially in the hands of the emperor, 
perhaps owing to the importance of the sending 
or delaying the corn supply. The emperor 
appointed the chief official, called Juridicus 
Alexandriae, who acted as procurator, exerci- 
sing, without any municipal senate, jurisdiction 
over the city as apart from the Egyptian country 
districts. The Jewish population had a council 
and an edvdpxvs of their own, competent to deal 
with purely Jewish disputes ; but in causes 
affecting other nationalities the sole authority 
was the juridicus. Other subordinate officers 
belonging to the city were the efi)7?)Ti;s, who 
managed the markets and commerce, the town- 
cierk called iir3fj.vrip.aToypd<pos, and the vvktz- 
pivbs crTpoT7)7<5j, or praefectus vigilum for the 
police. In matters beyond municipal concern 
the Praefectus Aegypti was supreme. It re- 
tained its commercial and literary importance, 
and became also a chief seat of Christianity and 
theological learning. Among the ruins of the 
ancient site are the remains of the cisterns by 
which the whole city was supplied with water, 
house by house ; the two obelisks (vulg. Cleo- 
patra's Needles), which adorned the gateway of 
the royal palace, and, outside the walls, to the 
S., the column of Diocletian (vulg. Pompey's 
Pillar). The modem city stands on the dyke 
uniting the island of Pharos to the mainland. — 
2. A. Troas, also Troas simply ('A. ry Tpads : 
Eskistamboul, i.e. the Old City), on the sea- 
coast SW. of Troy, was enlarged by Antigonus, 
hence called Antigonia, but afterwards it re- 
sumed its first name. It flourished greatly, 
both under the Greeks and the Romans ; it 
was made a colonia (Plin. v. § 124 ; Strab. 
p. 598). It is even said that both Julius 
Caesar and Constantine thought of establishing 
the seat of empire in it (cf. Suet. Cues. 79 : Hor. 
Od. iii. 3. 37 ; Zosim. ii. 30). — 3. A. ad Issum 
('A. koto 1<jo6v : Iskenderoon, Scanderoun, 
Alexandrette), a seaport at the entrance of 
Syria, a little S. of Issus, on the coast road 
between that place and Rhossus. It possibly 
occupied the site of Myriandus (Xen. An. i. 4), 
and received its name in Alexander's honour. 
— 4. In Susiana, aft. Antiochia, aft. Charax 
Spasini (Xopaf Tlav'tvov or Sttoo - .), at the mouth 
of the Tigris, built by Alexander ; destroyed by 
a flood ; restored by Antiochus Epiphanes : 
birthplace of Dionysius Periegetes and Isi- 
dores Characenus. — 5. A. Ariae ('A. 'n Iv 'Aplois : 
Herat), founded by Alexander on the river 
Arius, in the Persian province of Aria, a very 
flourishing city, on the great caravan road to 
India. — 6. A. Arachosiae or Alexandropolis 
(Kandahar"?), on the river Arachotus, was pro- 
bably not founded till after the time of Alex- 
ander. — 7. A. Bactriana ('A. koto Bo/crpo : prob. 
Khonloom, Ru.), E. of Bactra (Balk/i). — 8. A. 
ad Caucasum, or apud Paropamisida9 I'A. iu 
napoTra,u«Ti5ois), at the foot of M. Paropomisua 
(Hindoo Koosh), probably near Cabul. — 9. A. 



ALLECTUS 



53 



Ultima or Alexandrescata ('A. r) io-xdrn : Ko- 
kand ?), in Sogdiana, on the Jaxartes, a little 
E. of Cyropolis, marked the furthest point 
reached by Alexander in his Scythian expedition 
(Arrian, An. iv. 1, 3 ; Curt. vii. 6). 

Alexanor (perhaps an old surname of Ascle- 
pius), son of Machaon and grandson of Ascle- 
pius, to whom he is said to have built the 
temple of Titane, near Sicyon (Paus. ii. 11, 6). 

Alexiares, brother of Anicetus, son of Hera- 
cles and Hebe. Both these sons were probably 
imagined out of surnames of Heracles similar 
in meaning to bXztf.Ko.Kos. 

Alexinus ('A\e(ivos), of Elis, a philosopher of 
the Dialectic or Megarian school, and a disciple 
of Eubulides, lived about the beginning of the 
3rd century B.C. From Cic. Acad. ii. 24, 75, 
he seems to have dealt in sophistical puzzles. 
He died from being wounded by a reed while 
swimming in the Alpheus (Diog. Laert. ii. 
109). 

Alexis ('AAefu), a comic poet, born at Thurii 
in Italy, and an Athenian citizen. He was the 
uncle and instructor of Menander, was born 
about E.c. 394, and lived to the age of 106. He 
was the chief poet of the Middle Comedy, and 
wrote 245 plays, of which we have fragments 
from 140, but not of sufficient length to criticise. 
He lived on into the period of the Xew Comedy ; 
but the fragments of his works show the politi- 
cal allusions, and also mythological subjects, 
which do not belong to the New Comedy (Poet. 
Comic. Frag. ed. Meineke, 1847). 

Alfenus Varus. [Varus.] 

Algldus Mons, a range of mountains in La- 
tium, extending S. from Praeneste to M. Alba- 
nus, cold, but covered with wood, and containing 
good pasturage. The two kinds of oak, decidu- 
ous and evergreen (qu'ercus et ilices, Hor. Od. 
iii. 23, 10, iv. 4, 50), may still be seen on its 
slopes. It was an ancient seat of the worship 
of Diana. From it the Aequi usually made 
their incursions into the Roman territory. A 
small town, Algidus, on its slopes is men- 
tioned in Strabo, p. 237. 

Alienus Caecina. [Caecina.] 

Alimentus, L. Cincius, a celebrated Roman 
annalist, was praetor in Sicily, B.C. 209, and 
wrote his Afinales, which contained an account 
of Rome to the second Punic war. He was for 
some time a prisoner in Hannibal's army. 
Hence when Livy appeals to his writings for 
matters connected with the second Punic war 
(as regards the route of Hannibal, Liv. xxi. 38), 
the statements are entitled to more respect than 
they sometimes receive. 

Alinda (™ ''AA.ii'So: 'AKivSevs), a fortress 
and small town, SE. of Stratoniee, where Ada, 
Queen of Caria, fixed her residence, when 
she was driven out of Halicarnassus (b.c. 
340). 

Aliphera CAA'icpeipa, 'AAi'cpTjpa, 'AKHptipatus, 
' A\i<priptvs : nr. Nerovitza, Ru.), a fortified town 
in Arcadia, situated on a mountain on the 
borders of Elis, S. of the Alpheus, said to have 
i been founded by the hero Alipherus, son of Ly- 
caon (Paus. viii. 26). 

Alipherus. [Alipheha.] 

Aliso (Elsen), a strong fortress built by 
Drusus B.C. 11, at the confluence of the Luppia 
(Lippc) and the Eliso (Aline) (Dio Cass. liv. 33 ; 
Tac. Ann. ii. 7). 

ALsontia (Alsilz), a river flowing into tho 
Mo>ella (Mosel). 

Allectus, the chief officer of CarausiuB in 
Britain, whom he murdered in a.i>. 298. Ho 
then assumed the imperial title himself, but 



1 



54 



ALLIA 



was defeated and slain in 296 by the general of 
Constantius. 




AUectus, Roman Emperor, A.D. 293-29G. 
Obv., head of Emperor ; rev., Pax (struck in London). 

Allia, or more correctly Alia, a small river, 
which rises in the neighbourhood of Crustume- 
rium, and flows into the Tiber, crossing the Via 
Salaria about 11 miles from Rome. It is 
memorable for the defeat of the Romans by the 
Gauls on its banks, July 16th, B.C. 390 ; which 
day, dies Alliensis, was hence marked as an 
unlucky day in the Roman calendar. (Liv. vi. 
1, 28 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 91 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 717.) 
There is some dispute about its identification, 
but it seems proba.ble that it is the stream now 
known as Scolo del Casale, which crosses the 
road at Fonte di Papa. It is a very small 
brook, but runs in a deep hollow. 

A. Allienus. 1. A friend of Cicero, was the 
legate of Q. Cicero in Asia, B.C. 60, praetor in 
49, and governor of Sicily on behalf of Caesar 
in 48 and 47 (Cic. Q. F. i. 1 ; Att. x. 15 ; Farn. 
xiii. 78). — 2. A legate of Dolabella, by whom he 
was sent into Egypt in 43 (Cic. Phil. xi. 12). 

Alllfae, or more correctly Allfae (Alifanus : 
Allife), a tov/n of Samnium, on the Vulturnus, 
in a fertile country. It was celebrated for the 
manufacture of its large drinking-cups (Alifana 
sc. pocula, Hor. Sat. ii. 8, 39). 

Allobroges (Nom. Sing. Allobrox : 'AAA.u'- 
Ppoyes, 'A\h6fipvyes, 'Ah\6f3piy€s), a powerful 
people of Gaul dwelling between the Rhodanus 
(Rhone) and the Isara (Isere). In the time of 
Julius Caesar their territory extended as far as 
that corner of L. Lemannus where Geneva 
stands. At that point they were bounded on 
the east by the Nantuates, south of whom came 
the Centrones, and next, forming the southern 
border of the Allobroges (i.e. immediately 
across the Isere), the Graioceli and the Vocontii. 
To the west they were bounded by the Rhone, 
as far as Lyons, and the same river formed 
their noithern boundary up to the Lake of 
Geneva. Hence their territory at that time 
comprised the NW. corner of Savoy and part 
of the department of Isere, with the southern 
corner of Drome. Their chief city was Vienna 
(Vienne) on the Rhone (Caes. B. G. i. 6 and 
10; Strab. p. 185). But there is good reason 
to suppose that their territory was not the same 
two centuries earlier (as modern writers seem 
generally to assume). There can be no doubt 
that the country which both Polybius and Livy 
call ' the Island,' was precisely the country 
of the Allobroges in Caesar's time : but in Poly- 
bius, iii. 49, 50, the 'A\\6[}piyts are obviously 
not the people of the ' Island,' but dwelt in the 
country through which Hannibal was next to 
pass ; they furnished guides at first and after- 
wards attacked him on his march. It is pro- 
bable that they then dwelt south of the Isere, 
perhaps near Gap, and at a late time (before 
B.C. 121) moved northwards and occupied the 
' Island.' Livy (xxi. 31) though he says cor- 
rectly, speaking of the Island, ' incolunt prope 
Allobroges,' yet seems to confuse them with the 
then dwellers in the Island as described by 
Polybius. If the Celtic etymology of their 



ALOPE 

name (ail, 'other,' and brog, 'dwelling') is cor- 
rect, they would seem to have been at one time 
a roving tribe. They were conquered, in B.C. 
121, by Q. Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus, and 
made subjects of Rome, but they bore the yoke 
unwillingly, and were always disposed to rebel- 
lion. In B.C. 63 their ambassadors first intrigued 
with Catiline, and then divulged the conspiracy 
(Sail. Cat. 41; Cic. Gat. iii. 5). 

Almo (Almone), a small river, rises near 
Bovillae, and flows into the Tiber S. of Rome, 
half a mile from the walls on the Ostian road, 
in which the statues of Cybele were washed 
annually. (Diet. Ant. s. v. Megalesia.) 

Almopes ('Ak/xwires), a people in Macedonia, 
inhabiting the district Almopia between Eor- 
daea and Pelagonia. 

Aloeus ('AAwevs) 1. Son of Helior, and 
brother of Aretes. He was King of Asopia 
(Paus. ii. 41). — 2. Son of Poseidon and Canace, 
married Iphimedla, the daughter of Triops. 
His wife was beloved by Poseidon, by whom she 
had two sons, Otus and Ephialtes, who are 
usually called the Aloidae, from their reputed 
father Aloeus. In Horn. II. v. 385 they are 
genuine sons of Aloeus — in Od. xi. 305 ; Ap. 
Rh. i. 481 ; Ov. Met. vi. 116, of Poseidon. They 
were renowned for their extraordinary strength 
and daring spirit. When they were 9 years 
old, each of their bodies measured 9 cubits in 
breadth and 27 in height. At this early a.ge, 
they threatened the Olympian gods with war 
and attempted to pile Ossa upon Olympus, and 
Pelion upon Ossa. They would have accom- 
plished their object, says Homer, had they been 
allowed to grow up to the age of manhood; 
but Apollo destroyed them before their beards 
began to appear (Od. xi. 305 seq.). They also 
put the god Ares in chains, and kept him im- 
prisoned for 13 months. Ephialtes is said to 
have sought the love of Hera and Otus of 
Artemis (or both of Artemis) : therefore Artemis 
passed between them in the form of a hind, at 
which they hurled spears and slew one another 
(Pind. Pyth. iv. 88 ; Apollod. i. 482). In Hades 
they were bound to a pillar by serpents, and 
plagued by the cries of an owl [&tos, however, 
means ' shriek-owl '] (Hyg. Fab. 28 ; cf. Verg. 
Aen. vi. 582). The Thracian legend is totally 
different. They are heroes who founded Ascra 
on Helicon, and instituted the worship of the 
Muses. Their graves were honoured at Anth- 
edon (Paus. ix. 22 ; Diod. v. 51). They were 
worshipped also in Naxos (C. I. G. ii. 2420). 
The conclusion should be that they were origi- 
nally for the Thracians deities representing the 
increase and produce of the earth, and presid- 
ing over agricultural work : under this view 
the names are connected with akoi-f), and with 
c-jBew, itpa.Wofj.ai, as describing the work of the 
wine-press. These earth-deities were then 
imagined by the Greeks as in conflict with the 
gods of Olympus. 

Aloidae. [Aloeus.) 

Alonta ('AA.<Wa : Terek), a river of Sarmatia 
Asiatica, flowing into the Caspian (Ptol. v. 9, 12.) 

Alope ('AA07rr)), daughter of Cercyon, became 
by Poseidon the mother of Hippothous. She 
was put to death by her father, but her body 
was changed by Poseidon into a well, which 
bore the same name (Hyg. Fab. 187; Paus. i. 
5 ; Aristoph. Av. 559). 

Alope ('AA.dV)7 : 'Akovevs, 'AXott'ittis). 1. A 
town in the Opuntian Locris, opposite Euboea 
(Thuc. ii. 26 ; Strab. p. 426).— 2. A town in 
Phthiotis in Thessaly (II. ii. 682; Strab. p. 427, 
432). 



ALOPECE 

Alopece (' AXoii^Kr, and 'A\wireKa( : 'AAtuire- 
Kevs), a dermis of Attica, of the tribe Antiochis, 
11 stadia E. of Athens, on the hill Anchesmus. 

AlopeCOtmesus C AXwireKovvriaos : ' A\coireKOi>- 
irfjatot'- Alexil), a town in the Thraeian Cher- 
sonesus, founded by the Aeolians (Dem. de 
Cor. p. 256, § 92 ; Liv. xxxi. 16). 

Alorus, a town of Macedonia, west of 
Methone, in the Therrnaic Gulf, birthplace of 
Ptolemaeus Alorites (Strab. p. 330). 

Alpenus i'AA.tttjj'o's, 'AAirr/voi'), a town of the 
Epicnemidii Locri at the entrance of the pass 
of Thermopylae (Hdt. vii. 176, 216J. 

Alpes (at "Akirzts, 7j "A\irts, ra 'A\w€iva 
upn, to." AKirtia vpn; probably from the Celtic 
Alb or Alp, 1 a height '), the mountains forming 
the boundary of northern Italy, are a part of 
the great mountain-chain which extends from 
the Gulf of Genoa to the Adriatic near Trieste, 
but on the west the line of demarcation between 
the Alps and the Apennines, running southwards, 
is not very distinct, while on the east the spurs 
from the Cornice Alps, separating the valleys 
of the Save and Drave from the Adriatic, 
pass into the Dlyrian mountains, and so east- 
ward to the Balkans. Of the Alps proper the 
Greeks had very little knowledge, and included 
them under the general name of the Rhipaean 
mountains. The appear in Lycophron (Alex. 
1361) as 2ctA.7na. The Romans first obtained 
some knowledge of them by their conquest of 
Cisalpine Gaul and by Hannibal's passage 
across them : this knowledge was gradually 
extended by their various wars with the inhabi- 
tants of the mountains, who were not finally 
subdued till the reign of Augustus. In the 
time of the emperors the different parts of the 
Alps were distinguished by the following names, 
most of which are still retained. We enume- 
rate them in order from W. to E. 1. Alpes 
Maeitimae, the Maritime or Ligurian Alps, 
from Genua (Genoa), where the Apennines 
begin, run W. as far as the river Varus ( Var) and 
M. Cema (la Caillole), and then X. to M. Vesulus 
{Monte Viso). (Plin. H. N. iii. § 117 ; Strab. 
p. 201 ; Mel. ii. 4.) — 2. Alpes Cottiae or Cot- 
ttanae, the Cottian Alps (so called from a king 
Cottius in the time of Augustus), from Monte 
Viso to Mont Cenis, contained M. Matrona, 
afterwards called M. Janus or Janua (Mont 
Genevre), across which Cottius constructed a 
road, which became the chief means of commu- 
nication between Italy and Gaul. — 3. Alpes 
Graiae, also Saltus Graius (the Romans fanci- 
fully connected the name with the legendary- 
passage of Hercules, but it is probably Celtic, 
and has nothing to do with Greece) and Mom 
Graius (Tac. Hist. iv. C>H), the Graian Alps, 
from Mont Cenis to the Little St. Bernard 
inclusive, contained the Jugum Cremonis (Liv. 
xxi. 88) (le Cramont) and the Centronicae 
Alpes, apparently the little St. Bernard and the 
surrounding mountains. — 4. Alpes Pexninak, 
the Pennine Alps, from the Great St. Bernard 
to the Simplon inclusive, the highest portion of 
the chain, including Mont Blanc, and Monte 
Rosa. The Great St. Bernard was called M. 
Penninus, and on its summit the inhabitants 
worshipped a deity, whom the Romans called 
Jupiter Penninus. The name is probably de- 
rived from the Celtic pen, 'a height.' Livy 
(xxi. 38) expressly rejects the absurd derivation 
from Poeni, which was based on the idea that 
Hannibal had gone round to Martigny in the 
upper Rhone valley.— 5. Alpes Lepontiorum 
or Lepontiae, the Lepontian or Helvetian 
Alps, occupied by the Celtic Lepontii, from the 



ALPES 



55 



Simplon to the St. Gothard. — 6. Alpes Rhae- 
ticae, the Mhaetian Alps, from the St. 
Gothard to the Orteler and the pass of the 
Stelvio. [Cf. AdulaMoxs.1 — 7. Alpes Teiden- 
tikae, the mountains of southern Tyrol, in 
which the Athesis (Adige) rises, with the pass 
of the Brenner. — 8. Alpes Xoricae, whence 
the Drave rises (Plin. iii. § 139), the Xoric 
Alps, XE. of the Tridentine Alps, comprising 
the mountains in the neighbourhood of Salz- 
burg, with mines worked by the Romans for 
iron. — 9. Alpes Cabxicae, the Carnic Alps, 
E. of the Tridentine, and S. of the Xoric, to 
Mount Terglu. From these mountains flows 
the Save (Plin. ib.). — 10. Alpes Jullae, the 
Julian Alps, from Mount Terglu to the com- 
mencement of the Illyrian or Dalmatian moun- 
tains (Tac. Hist. iii. 8), which are known by the 
name of the Alpes Dalmaticae, further north 
by the name of the Alpes Pannonicae. The 
Alpes Juliae were so called because Julius 
Caesar or Augustus constructed roads across 
them : they are also called Alpes Venetae. 
(Amm. Marc. xxxi. 16). We have some men- 
tion of the industries and produce of the Alps, 
which then, as now, consisted of pine wood, 
resin, honey, wax and cheese, with but little 
corn (Strab. p. 206) ; and of alpine animals, 
the chamois (rupicapra), the ibex, the marmot, 
white hares and ptarmigan (Plin. viii. § 214, 
x. § 186, Varr. R.B. iii. 12). 

Pri7icipal Passes of the Alps. 
It will be useful to enumerate the passes 
used by the Romans, and, no doubt, communi- 
cated to them by the natives of the various 
districts as the easiest routes; for we can 
hardly doubt that there were other mountain 
paths traversed, though less frequently, by the 
natives themselves. The Roman roads, or bridle 
tracks, over the Alps were as follows, reckoning 
from the western sea coast : — 1. Per Alpes Mari- 
timas, corresponding to the Cornice Road, from 
the Var to Genoa, which was opened in the 
time of Augustus as a regular road, the Ligu- 
rians being entirely subdued. Turbia was re- 
garded as the summit of the pass : thence it 
passed rather north of Xice. — 2. It is probable 
that the modern Col de V Argentiere, from 
Cuneo by the valley of the Stura to Barcelo- 
nette, by the valley of the Ubaye and so to Gap, 
was used by the Romans (see Freshfield, Alp. 
Journ. xi. 2*82 ; Desjardins, Gcogr. de la Gaule 
| Rom. i. 96). If so, this pass led from Pollentia 
i to Vapincum. and was. no doubt, like the fol- 
lowing, described as per Alpes Cottias. — 3. Per 
Alpes Cottias, i.e. the pass of Mont Genevre 
from Augusta Taurinorum (Turin) to Brigantio 
(Briancon). It thence at first followed the 
Durance to Charges in the Caturiges : whence 
those who were bound for the Southern Pro- 
vincia (Nimes, Orange, &C.) continued by the 
Durance ; those who went northwards to Va- 
lence, Vienne, &c, crossed the Col Bayard by 
Gap, down the valley of the Drae. into the 
valley of the IsMe. This in all probability was 
the route of Hannibal iM-o Freshfii-ld, I.e.. who, 
however, makes Hannibal reach Italy by the 
I Col de l'Argenticre mentioned above). Pompey 
, probably shortened the route by taking the Col 
de Lauteret from Briancon after he had crossed 
I the Genevre. This Col is higher than the 
Genevre itself but a much mote direct route to 
i Grenoble, and after the time of Pompey it be- 
came a recognised Roman road. — 4. North of 
the Geni'vre is the pass of Mont Cenis, which 
also belongs to the Alpes Cottiae. There ig 



50 



ALPHENUS 



ALTHEMENES 



little doubt that over this, or rather over the 
Petit Mont Cents, from Susa (Segusio) was a 
route used by the Romans : here probably 
Caesar passed to Gallia Ulterior (B.G. i. 10). The 
pass descends by the valley of the Arc, through 
the territory of the Centrones into the valley of 
the Isfere. — 5. Per Alpes Graias: this is the 
pass of the Little St. Bernard, from the plain 
of the Po at Ivrea, through the defiles of the 
valley of Aosta, then from Aosta (Augusta Prae- 
toria), S. Didier (Arebrigium) over the pass to 
B. St. Maurice (Bergintrum), and by the valley 
of the Isere, directly to Vienna or northwards to 
Geneva. It will be found impossible to make 
the route by the valley of Aosta agree with 
Polybius's account of Hannibal's route. 6. Per 
Alpes Penninas : the Great St. Bernard, from 
Martigny (Octodurits) to Aosta (Tac. Hist. i. 
61, iv. 68; cf. Liv. xxi. 38). 7. Per Alpes 
Bhaeticas, from Brigantia on L. Constance to 
Mediolanum (Milan). This passage had two al- 
ternative routes : a, most direct, by Curia (Coire) 
over the Julier pass as far as Bivium (Bivio), 
thence over the Septimer to Casaccia and 
Clavenna (Chiavenna) ; b, branching off at 
Bivio by the remainder of the Julier pass to 
Silvaplana, and then by the Maloja to Chia- 
venna, rejoining the Septimer route at Casaccia. 
Both routes pass by Tinnetio (Tinzen) on the 
Swiss side. Either will suit the description in 
Claud. Bell. Get. 320-360.— 8. Also per Alp. 
Bhaet., from Brigantia to Tridentum, striking 
off from the preceding at Clunia (Feldkirch), 
and passing by the upper Inn and Meran to 
Bauzianum (Botzen). — 9. A divergence from the 
preceding by the Puster Thai and Lienz, to 
reach Aquileia. [Possibly also a direct road from 
Sebatum (Brunnecken) to Bellttno.] — 10. Per 
Alpes Tridentinas, from Verona to Tridentum, 
thence up the valley of the Athesis, and over 
the Brenner, and so to Augusta Vindelicorum 
(Augsburg). — 11. Per Alpes Carnicas, from 
Aquileia through Julium Carnicum (Z uglio), by 
the pass of Sta Croce and the valley of the Gail 
into the valley of the Brave, near Aguontum 
(Lienz). — 12. Slightly east of the preceding 
(from which it diverged near Gemona), more 
directly to Villa ad Aquas (Villach), by the low 
pass of Tarvis (the lowest in the chain of the 
Alps). — 13. Per Alpes Julias, through the valley 
of the Sontius (Isonzo), by the Predil pass to 
Villa ad Aquas. — 14. Also per Alp. Julias, irom 
Aquileia by the valley of the Wippach over the 
pass of Loitsch to Emona (Laibach), and the 
valley of the Save. The last five were intended 
as lines of communication from Aquileia to 
Bhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia. 

Of these passes Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7 were known to 
Polybius (cited by Strabo, p. 209), and Nos. 
1, 3, 4, 5 are mentioned by Varro (Serv. ad 
Aen. x. 13), who reckons five passes, probably 
because he considers the Col de Lauteret passed 
by Pompey as a separate one. He brings Has- 
drubal over the Cenis. The communication 
with the Central Alps was by No. 6 to the 
Rhone valley, and thence by Viviscus (Vevey) 
and Minnodunum (Moudon) to Aventicum ; or 
by No. 7 to Brigantia, thence by the western 
road through Vindonissa (Windisch) to Salo- 
dururn (Solotlnorn) and Aventicum. 

Alphenus Varus. [Varus.] 

Alphesiboea ('A\cpe<n0o'ia). 1. Mother of 
Adonis. [Adonis.] — 2. Daughter of Phegeus,who 
married Alcmaeon. [Alcmaeon.] — 3. Daughter 
of Bias and wife of Pelias (Theocr. iii. 45). 

Alpheus Mytilenaeus (AA^eiosMimATji/cuos), 
the author of about 12 epigrams in the Greek 



Anthology, was probably a contemporary of the 
emperor Augustus (Anth. Pal.). 

Alpheus ('A\<pei6s : Dor. 'AA<j>«Js ; Alfeo, 
Bofeo, Byfo, Bufea), the chief river of 
Peloponnesus, rises at Phylace in Arcadia, 
shortly afterwards sinks under ground, appears 
again near Asea, and then mingles its waters 
with those of the Eur5tas. After flowing 20 
stadia, the two rivers disappear under ground : 
the Alpheus again rises at Pegae in Arcadia, and 
increased by many affluents, among them the 
Ladon and the Erymanthus, flows NW. 
through Arcadia and Elis, not far from 
Olympia, and falls into the Ionian sea. (Paus. 
viii. 54; Strab. pp. 275, 343). The subterra- 
nean descent of the river, which is confirmed 
by modern travellers, gave rise to the stories 
about the river-god Alpheus and Artemis 
Alpheiaea, or the nymph Arethusa : a. that 
the river-god Alpheus loved Artemis and she 
escaped him by the strange disguise of smear- 
ing her face and the faces of her nymphs with 
mud (Paus. vi. 227 : b. that Artemis fled from 
him to Ortygia (Pind. Nem. i. and Schol.) : c. 
the later poeticised legends, where instead of 
Artemis we have a nymph Arethusa pursued by 
Alpheus, both changed to streams passing under 
the sea and at last united in Ortygia (Paus. v. 
7, 2 ; Ov. Met. v. 752, with the intervention of 
Artemis ; Verg. Aen. iii. 694 ; Stat. Silv. i. 2, 
203 ; Theb. i. 271, iv. 239). The actual sequence 
appears to be, that the Artemis of Elis and 
Arcadia was a deity of fountains and streams 
who was <rvfj.l3a>fxos, or united in worship, with 
Alpheus, and was called Artemis Alpheiaea or 
TTorafiia. This worship was transferred to 
Ortygia by some of the family of the Iamidae 
at Olympia who joined in the Corinthian settle- 
ment and established a temple of Artemis 
irorafxia and also named a spring in Ortygia 
after the spring Arethusa in Elis. It is easy 
to understand how later orthodoxy found it neces- 
sary to substitute Arethusa for Artemis in the 
legend of the passage under the sea. (Pind. 
01. v., Nem. i. ; Diod. v. 3 ; Strab. p. 270.) Strabo 
mentions the story of the saucer thrown into the 
fountain at Olympia and coming up in Ortygia 
with the sacrificial stains upon it : for, when 
the nymph, pursued by Alpheus, was changed 
by Artemis into the fountain of Arethusa in the 
island of Ortygia at Syracuse, the god continued 
to pursue her under the sea, and attempted to 
mingle his stream with the fountain at Ortygia. 

AlpMus A Vitus. [A vitus.] 

Alplnus. [See under Bibaculus.] 

Alsa, a small river of Venetia, which flows 
into the Adriatic a little west of Aquileia. The 
younger Constantine fell here, A. D. 340. 

Alsrum (Alsiensis : Palo), one of the most 
ancient Etruscan towns on the coast near 
Caere, and a Roman colony after the 1st Punic 
war. In its neighbourhood Pompey had a 
country-seat (villa Alsiensis). 

Althaea ('AKdaia), daughter of the Aetolian 
king Thestius and Eurythemis, married Oeneus, 
king of Calydon, by whom she became the 
mother of several children. [See Meleager.] 

Althaea, the chief town of the Olcades in the 
country of the Oretani in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis. 

Althemenes ('AA0rj^eV7js or 'AXBaifizvys), son 
of Catreus, king of Crete. In consequence of 
an oracle, that Catreus would lose his life by 
one of his children, Althemenes quitted Crete 
and went to Rhodes. There he unwittingly 
killed his father, who had come in search of his 
son. (Diod. v. 59 ; Apollod. iii. 2.) 



ALTIXUM 



AMARYXTHUS 



57 



Altinum (Altmas : Altino), a municipium 
in the land of the Veneti in the X. of Italy, 
at the mouth of the river Silis and on the 
road from Patavium to Aquileia, was a wealthy 
manufacturing town, and the chief emporium 
for all the goods which were sent from southern 
Italy to the countries of the north. Goods 
could be brought from Ravenna to Altinum 
through the Lagoons and the numerous canals 
of the Po, safe from storms and pirates. There 
were many beautiful villas around the town. 
( Mart. iv. 25 ; Strab. p. 214 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 6.) 

Altis ("AAtis), the sacred grove of Zeus at 

OliYMPIA. 

Aluntium or Haluntium i '' AKovvnov), a town 
on the N. coast of Sicily, on a steep hill, cele- 
brated for its wine. It lay between Tyndaris 
and Calacta : the town of S. Marco probably 
occupies its site. (Dionys. i. 51 ; Cic. Terr. iv. 
23 .1.) 

Alus orHaluS ("AAos, "AAos : 'AAevs : nr. Ee- 
falosi, Eu.), a town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, at 
the extremity of M. Othrys, built by Athamas. 
(II. ii. 682 ; Hdt. vii. 173 ; Strab. p. 432.) 

Alyattes ('KKvarrr\s), king of Lydia, B.C. 617- 
560, succeeded his father Sadyattes, and was 
himself succeeded by his son Croesus. He car- 
ried on war with Miletus from 617 to 612, and 
with Cyaxares, king of Media, from 590 to 585 ; 
an eclipse of the sun, which happened in 585 
during a battle between Alyattes and Cyaxares, 
led to a peace between them. Alyattes drove 
the Cimmerians out of Asia and took Smyrna. 
The tomb of Alyattes, N. of Sardis, near the 
lake Gygaea, which consisted of a large mound 
of earth, with a circumference of nearly a mile, 
raised upon a foundation of great stones, still 
exists. (Hdt. i. 25, 73, 93 ; Strab. p. 627.) 

Alyba (\AA.u/3i)), a town on the S. coast of the 
Euxine. (H. ii. 857.) 

Alyplus CAhvmos), of Alexandria, probably 
lived in the 4th century of the Christian aera, 
and is the author of a Greek musical treatise 
entitled ' Introduction to Music ' (elaaywyn 
fiovaiKr)), printed by Meibomius in Antiquae 
Musicae Auctores Septum, Amstel. 1652 ; Scrijit. 
Metrici, ed. Westphal, 1866. 

Alyzia or Alyzea I'AAufia, 'AAv(aa : A\v- 
(aios; Ru. in the valley of Kandili), a town in 
Acarnania near the sea opposite Leucas, with a 
harbour and a temple both sacred to Heracles. 
The temple contained one of the works of Lysip- 
pus representing the labours of Heracles, which 
the Romans carried off. (Thuc. vii. 31 ; Xen. 
Hell. v. 4; Strab. p. 450; Cic. Fam. xvi. 2 ; 
Plin. iv. 2.) 

Amadocus ('AftdSoicos) orMedocua imtiSokos). 
1. King of the Odrysae in Thrace, when Xeno- 
phon visited the country in B.C. 400. He and 
Seuthes, who were the most powerful Thracian 
kings, were frequently at variance, but were 
reconciled to each other by Thrasybulus, the 
Athenian commander, in 390, and induced by him 
to become the allies of Athens (Diod. xiii. 105 ; 
Xen. An. vii. 2, Hell. iv. 8). — 2. A ruler in 
Thrace, who, in conjunction with Berisades and 
Cersobleptes, succeeded Cotys in 358. (Dem. 
in Arist. p. 623.) 

Amafinius. one of the three writers on Epi- 
cnroan ■ ' " >sophy who preceded Cicero (the 
ing Rabirius and Catius Insuber). 
simply and in a popular manner, 
the physical theories of Epicurus, 
ng from the Greek sources without 
reasoning. (Cic. Acad. i. 2, 5 ; 
V ... ii. 8,7, iv. 8,6.) 

Am ria. [Magetobria.] 



Amalthea ('A/uaAfcia). 1. The nurse of the 
infant Zeus in Crete. According to some tra- 
ditions Amalthea is the goat who suckled Zeus, 
! and who was rewarded by being placed among 
I the stars. [Aega.] According to others, Amal- 
thea was a nymph, daughter of Oceanns, Helios, 
Haemonius, or of the Cretan king Melisseus, 
who fed Zeus with the milk of a goat. When 
this goat broke off one of her horns, Amalthea 
filled it with fresh herbs and gave it to Zeus, 
who placed it among the stars. According to 
other accounts Zeus himself broke off one of 
the horns of the goat Amalthea, and gave it to 
the daughters of Melisseus, and endowed it with 
the wonderful power of becoming filled with 
whatever the possessor might wish. This 
story is explanatory of the celebrated horn of 
Amalthea, commonly called the horn of plenty 
or cornucopia, which was used in later times as 
the symbol of plenty in general. (Athen. p. 503 ; 
Strab. p. 458 ; Ov. Fast. v. 115, Met. ix. 87.) 
[For the story of Amalthea giving the horn of 
plenty to Achelous, and his exchange, see 
Achelous.] In Diod. iii. 68, there is a story 
that Amalthea was beloved by the Libyan Am- 
nion, who gave her a horn-shaped portion of 
land of great fertility. — 2. One of the Sibyls, 
identified with the Cumaean Sibyl, who sold to 
king Tarquinius the celebrated Sibylline books 
(Lactant. Inst. i. 6, 10), but distinguished from 
her in Tibull. ii. 5, 67. 

Amaltheum or Amalthea, a villa of Atti- 
cus on the river Thyamis in Bpirus, was per- 
haps a shrine of the nymph Amalthea, which 
Atticus adorned with statues and bas-reliefs, 
and converted into a beautiful summer retreat. 
Cicero, in imitation, constructed a similar re- 
treat on his estate at Arpinum. (Cic. de Legg. 
ii. 3, 7 ; Att. i. 13.) 

Amantia ('Afiavria : Amantlnus, Amantianus, 
or Amantes, pi. : Nivitza), a Greek town and 
district in Illyricum; the town, said to have 
been founded by the Abantes of Euboea, lay at 
some distance from the coast, E. of Oricum. 
(Caes. B.C. iii. 12, 40 ; Cic. Phil. xi. 11.) 

Amanus (d 'AfxavSs, rb 'AfMaudv : 'A,uaeiT77S, 
Amaniensis : Almadagh), a branch of Mt. 
Taurus, which runs from the "head of the Gulf 
of Issus NE. to the principal chain, dividing 
Syria from Cilicia and Cappadoeia (Strab. pp. 
521, 535). There were two passes in it : the one, 
called the Syrian Gates (ai 2vpiai irv\ai, Syriae 
Portae : By lan) near the sea ; the other, called 
the Amanian Gates ('Auavnts or 'AfiaviKal 
TrvKat : Amanicao Pylae, Portie Amani Montis : 
Demir Kapu, i.e. the Iron Gate), further to the 
X. The former pass was on the road from 
Cilicia to Antioch, the latter on that to the dis- 
trict Commagene ; but, on account of its great 
difficulty, the latter pass was rarely used, until 
the Romans made a road through it. (Arrian. 
An. ii. 7 ; Polyb. xii. 17, 19 ; Strab. p. 676 ; Cic. 
Fam. xv. 4.) 

Amardi orMardi ("Auapooi, MdpSoi), a power- 
ful, warlike, and predatory tribe who dwelt on 
the S. shore of the Caspian Sea. (Strab. p. 514.) 

Amardus or Mardus CAnapSos, MdpSos : 
Kizil Ozien), a river flowing through the coun- 
try of the Mardi into the Caspian Sea. 

Amarynceus CAp.apvyKevs), a chief of the 
Eleans ill. xxiii. 630), is said by some writers to 
have fought against Troy; but Homer only men- 
tions his son Diores (Amaryncides) as taking 
part in the Trojan war (II. ii. 622, iv. 517). 

Amarynthus C Atudpuvdos : 'AuapvvBios), a 
town in Euboea 7 stadia from Eretria, to which 
it belonged, with a celebrated temple of Artemis 



58 



AMASENUS 



AMAZONES 



(Strab. p. 448 ; Paus. i. 31 ; Liv. xxxv. 38), who 
was hence called Amarynthia or Amarysia, and 
in whose honour there was a festival of this 
name both in Euboea and Attica. (See Diet, of 
Antiq. art. Amarynthia.) 

Amasenus (Amaseno), a river in Latiurn, rises 
in the Volscian mountains, flows by Privernum, 
and after being joined by the Ufens (Ufente), 
which flows from Setia, falls into the sea be- 
tween Circeii and Terracina, though the greater 
part of its waters are lost in the Pontine 
marshes. (Verg. Aen. vii. 684, xi. 547.) 

Amasia or -ea ('Afxaaeia : 'A/xacrevs : Ama- 
siah), the capital of the kings of Pontus, was a 
strongly fortified city on both banks of the river 
Iris. It was the birthplace of Mithridates the 
Great and of the geographer Strabo. It is 
described by Strabo (p. 561). 

Amasis. 1. King of Egypt, B.C. 572-528 [the 
Egyptian Aahrnes II]. When the expedition of 
Apries against Cyrene had failed [Apries], 
Amasis, whom he had trusted to quell the mu- 
tinous troops, became their leader and defeated 
his master. For six years he reigned jointly with 
Apries, and then put him to death. Although the 
Egyptian party who had given him the throne 
expected him to withdraw all favour from the 
Greeks and cease to employ them or merce- 
naries, he did just the contrary. He formed a 
body-guard of Ionians at Memphis, married La- 
dice, a native of Cyrene, of the family of the 
Battiadae, and restored Naucratis as a settle- 
ment for Greek traders in the Delta. [Naucra- 
tis.] His reign was one of great prosperity. 
(Hat. ii. 161-182, iii. 1-16 ; Diod. i. 68, 95.)— 
2. A Persian, sent in the reign of Cambyses (b.c. 
525) against Cyrene, took Barca, but did not 
succeed in taking Cyrene. (Hdt. iv. 167, 201.) 

Amastris ("Afj.aarpis, Ion. "Afi-^arpis). 1. 
Wife of Xerxes, and mother of Artaxerxes I., 
was of a cruel and vindictive character (Hdt. 
vii. 61, ix. 108-113). — 2. Also called Amastrine, 
niece of Darius, the last king of Persia. She 
married, 1. Craterus ; 2. Dionysius, tyrant of 
Heraclea in Bithynia, B.C. 322 ; and 3. Lysi- 
machus, B.C. 302. Having been abandoned by 
Lysimachus upon his marriage with Arsinoe, 
she retired to Heruclea, where she reigned. She 
was drowned by her two sons about 288. (Arrian. 
An. vii. 4 ; Diod. xx. 109 ; Blemn. 4, 5.) 

Amastris ("A/xacrTpis : 'Afjui.crTpia.v6s : Ama- 
sera), a large and beautiful city, with two har- 
bours, on the coast of Paphlagonia, built by 
Amastris after her separation from Lysimachus 
(about B.C. 300), on the site of the old town of 
Sesamus, which name the citadel retained. The 
new city was built and peopled by the inha- 
bitants of Cytorus and Cromna. (II. ii. 853 ; 
Strab._p. 544 ; Plin. Ep. x. 99 ; Catull. 4, 11.) 

Amata, wife of king Latinus and mother of 
Lavinia, opposed Lavinia being given in mar- 
riage to Aeneas, because she had already pro- 
mised her to Turnus. When she heard that 
Turnus had fallen in battle, she hung herself. 
(Verg. Aen. xii. 600 ; Dionys. i. 64.) 

Amathus, untis ('Afxatiovs, ovvros : 'A/iaBov- 
<rios : Limasol), an ancient town on the S. coast 
of Cyprus, with a celebrated temple of Aphro- 
dite, who was hence called Amathusia. But it 
preserved its Phoenician character and retained 
the worship of Melcart. It long remained 
faithful to Persia (Hdt. v. 104). There were 
copper-mines in the neighbourhood of the town 
(fecundam Amathunta metalli, Ov. Met. x. 
220). TCypeus.] 

Amatius, surnam^d Psendomarius, originally 
an oculist. It is said that his real name was 



Herophilus, which he romanised into Amatius. 
Pretended to be either the son or grandson of 
the great Marius, and was put to death by 
Antonv in B.C. 44. (Val. Max. ix. 15, 2 ; Appian. 
B. C. iii. 2 ; Cic. Att. xii. 49, xiv. 6-8, Phil. i. 2, 5.) 

Amazones ('Afj.a(6yes), a mythical race of 
warrior women who engaged in battle with dif- 
ferent Greek heroes according to various local 
traditions. Their especial country in legend 
was in Pontus, near the river Thermodon, where, 
by some accounts, the Naiad Harmonia had 
born them to Ares, and where they founded the 
city Themiscvra, in the neighbourhood of the 
modern Trebizond (Paus. i. 2 ; Diod. iv. 16 ; 
Ap. Bh. ii. 996; Phereeyd. fr. 25). Their 
eountry was inhabited only by the Amazons, 
who were governed by a queen : but in order to 
propagate their race, they met once a year the 
Gargareans in Mount Caucasus. The children of 
the female sex were brought up by the Amazons, 
and each had her right breast cut off, the better 
to manage spear and bow (whence the name, 
a-/u.a(6s, according to most: Diod. ii. 45; 
Apollod. ii. 5 ; Arrian. An. vii. 13 ; cf. Unimam- 
mia, Plaut. Cure. iii. 75), but it should be 
observed that this does not appear in any art 
representation of an Amazon. The male chil- 
dren were sent to the Gargareans or put to 
death. The foundation of several towns in Asia 
Minor and in the islands of the Aegean is 
ascribed to them, e.g. of Ephesus, Smyrna, 
Cyme, and Myrina, and it is particularly to be 
noticed that very prevalent traditions connect 
them, not merely with the north of Asia Minor, 
Colchis, the Caucasus, &c, but also with Thrace 
and Scythia (Aesch. Pr. 723 ; Verg. Aen. xi. 
659 ; Strab. p. 504 ; Hdt. iv. 110). The Greeks 
believed in their existence as a real historical 
race down to a late period ; and hence it is said 
that Thalestris, the queen of the Amazons, 
hastened to Alexander, in order to become a 
mother by the conqueror of Asia (Plut. Alex. 
46). The following are the chief mythical ad- 
ventures with which the Amazons are con- 
nected. In Homer they appear in Phrygian and 
Lycian story (II. iii. 188, vi. 186) — they are said 
to have invaded Ljeia in the reign of Iobates, 
but were destroyed by Bellerophontes, who 
happened to be staying at the king's court. 
[Bellerophontes ; Laomedon.] They also 
invaded Phrygia, and fought with the Phrygians 
and Trojans when Priam was a young man. 
Their story was developed by Arctinus, who, 
unlike Homer, makes their queen Penthesilea 
the ally of Priam, but in the period of the war 
after the close of the Iliad, when she was slain 
by Achilles. This is a favourite subject in 
art (Q. Smyrn. i. 669). A later story tells of 
their being repelled from the island of Leuee at 
the mouth of the Danube by the ghost of 
Achilles. The ninth among the labours imposed 
upon Heracles by Eurystheus, was to take from 
Hippolyte, the queen of the Amazons, her 
girdle, the ensign of her kingly power, which 
she had received as a present from Ares. 
[Heracles.] The Athenian story makes them 
invade Attica, penetrating into the town itself, 
in revenge for the attack which Theseus had 
made upon them. They are repelled and driven 
back to Asia by Theseus. This was the subject 
of Micon's picture of the Amazons on the Stoa 
Poikile (Paus. i. 15, 2 ; Aristoph. Lys. 678 ; cf. 
Aesch. Eum. 655 ; Plut. Thes. 27). As to the 
origin of these stories different theories have 
! been put forward. That of O. Miiller and later 
' writers following him, is that the story arose 
from armed maiden attendants (Up6o'ovXoi) of 



AMBARRI 

the ' Magna Mater ' under one or more of her 
names, the Goddess of Comaua, Artemis of 
Ephesus, Cybele, the Goddess Ma or Amma. 
This may derive some probability from the 
accounts of their connexion with Artemis in 
some stories, their attendance ou her as huntress 
maidens, their offerings to Artemis Tauropolos, 
their recognition of her power in Laconia 
(Paus. iii. 25, 2). But, on the other hand, 
nothing can be further removed than the 
Amazons, as represented to us, from the sen- 
suality of the temple-slaves. A more likely 
origin is suggested by the legends which make 
them come from Thracian and Scythian lands, 
connected with the Thracian Ares, whose chil- 
dren they are by some accounts, and to whom 
they sacrifice horses (Ap. Bh.ii. 387). Coupling 
this with the accounts which reached the Greeks 
regarding the life and character of women 
among these northern races, their free and 
hardy life, hunting and bathing like men (Hdt. 
iv. 116), it is easy to understand how these 
stories of warrior women may have grown up, 
and how thev reached Greece in connexion 



AMBRACIUS 



59 



Ambiatlnus Vicus, a place in the country of 
the Treviri near Coblenz, where the emperor 
Caligula was born (Suet. Cal. 8). 

Ambibari, an Armoric people in Gaul, near 
the modern Ambieres in Xormandy (Caes. B. G. 
vii. 75). 

Ambiliati, a Gallic people, perhaps in Brit- 
tany I Caes. B. G. iii. 9). 

Ambiorix, a chief of the Eburones in Gaul, 
cut to pieces, in conjunction with Cativolcus, 
the Roman troops under Sabinus and Cotta, 
who were stationed for the winter in the terri- 
tories of the Eburones, B.C. 51. He failed in 
taking the camp of Q. Cicero, and was defeated 
on the arrival of Caesar, who was unable to 
obtain possession of the person of Ambiorix, 
notwithstanding his ac. i . e pursuit of the latter. 
(Caes. B. G. v. 26-51, vi. 29-13, viii. 21 ; Dio 
Cass. xl. 5, 31.) 

Ambivareti, the clientes or vassals of the 
Aedui, probably dwelt X. of the latter (B. G. 
vii. 75). 

Ambivariti, a Gallic people, W. of the Maas, 
in the neighbourhood of Xainur [B. G. iv. 9). 




Wounded Amazons. (Phigalean Marbles..' 



with stories of Ares ; the connexion with Ar- 
temis probably arose merely from the huntress 
character which belonged to her. In art the 
Amazons are a favourite subject alike in great 
sculptures such as those from the temple frieze 
at Bassae, from the Mausoleum and from Xan- 
thus, and on vases. It is noticeable that in the 
more archaic art they are dressed and armed 
exactly like male warriors I avTiavtipai I; but after 
the Persian wars in vase pictures they assume 
an Oriental type of dress and appearance, while 
in sculptures they become idealised warrior 
maidens, resembling some types of the huntress 
Artemis, and perhaps modelled after Spartan 
maidens. In the Greek form they wear the 
chiton witli the right breast bare whether on 
foot or on horseback ; on the vases their garb is 
Oriental with the Phrygian cap and with the 
Asiatic or the Scythian trousers. The charac- 
teristic Amazonian arms besides the bow are 
the double battle-axe and the crescent shield 
(cf. Hor. Ofl. iv. 4, 17 ; Diet. Ant. s.w. Pelta, 
Becuris). Penthesilea.] 

Ambarri, a people of Gaul, on the Arar 
(Saone) E. of the Aedui, and of the same stock 
as the latter (Caes. B. G. vii. 7"' : Liv. v. 84). 

Ambiani, a Belgic people, between the Bello- 
vaci and Atrebates, conquered by Caesar in 
B.C. 57. Their chief town was Snmarobrlva, 
afterwards called Ambiani, now Amiens (Goes. 
B. G. ii. 4, 15, vii. 75). 



Ambivius Turplo. [TuB.no.] 

Amblada | "Ap.0\aoa : 'Au&Kadevs), a town 
in Pisidia, on the borders of Caria; famous for 
its wine (Strab. p. 570). 

Ambracla CA/xn-paKta, afterwards 'A/j.f}pai<ia: 
'An^paKiiir-qs. 'Afi&patcievs, Ambraciensis : Arta), 
a town on the left bank of the Arachthus, 80 
stadia from the coast, X. of the Ambracian Gulf, 
was originally included in Acarnania, but after- 
wards in Epirus. It was colonised by the 
Corinthians about B.C. GOO, and at an early 
period acquired wealth and importance. It be- 
came subject to the kings of Epirus about the 
time of Alexander the Great. Pyrrhus made it 
the capital of his kingdom, and adorned it with 
public buildings and statues. At a later time 
it joined the Aetolian League, was taken by the 
Romans in B.C. 189, and stripped of its works 
of art. Its inhabitants were transplanted to 
the new city of Xicopolis, founded by Augustus 
after the battle of Actium, B.C. 31. South of 
Ambracia on the E. of the Arachthus, and close 
to the sea. was the fort Ambracus. (Strab. pp. 
325, 452; Hdt. viii. 45; Thuc. i. 46, ii. 80, iii. 
105 ; Polyb. xxii. 9-13 ; Liv. xxxviii. 3-9.) 

Ambracius Sinus ( 'A/i-rrpaKiKbs or ' AnftpaKimhs 
KoKiros : O- . of Arta), a gulf of the Ionian Sea 
between Epirus and Acarnania, said by Poly- 
bius to be 300 stadia long and 100 wide, and 
with mi entrance only 5 stadia in width. Its 
reul length is 25 miles and its breadth 10 ; the 



60 



AMBKONES 



AMMIANUS 



entrance is about half a mile wide, narrowing 
in one part to 700 yards. 

Ambrones ("Aixjipciives), a Celtic people, who 
joined the Cimbri and Teutones in their invasion 
of the Roman dominions, and were defeated by 
Marius near Aquae Sextiae (Aix) in B.C. 102. 

Ambrosius, bishop of Milan a.d. 374. [See 
Diet, of Christian Bioyraphy.~\ 

Ambrysus or Amphrysus ("A/xfipvcros: 'A/x- 
Ppvazvs ■ nr. Dhistomo), a town in Phoeis 
strongly fortified, S. of M. Parnassus : in the 
neighbourhood were numerous vineyards. It was 
fortified with a double wall by the Thebans as 
a stronghold against Philip. (Strab. p. 423 ; 
Paus. x. 36, 1.) 

Ambustus, Fabius. The notable persons of 
this name are 1. M., pontifex maximus in the 
year when Rome was taken by the Gauls, B.C. 
390. His three sons, Kaeso, Numerius, and 
Quintus, were sent as ambassadors to the Gauls 
when the latter were besieging Clusium, and 
took part in a sally of the besieged against the 
Gauls (B.C. 391). The Gauls demanded that 
the Fabii should be surrendered to them for 
violating the law of nations ; and upon the 
senate refuting to give up the guilty parties, 
they marched against Rome. The three sons 
were in the same year elected consular tribunes 
(Liv. v. 35, 41). — 2. M., consular tribune in B.C. 
331 and 369, and censor in 363, had two daugh- 
ters, of whom the elder was married to Ser. 
Sulpicius, and the younger to C. Licinius Stolo, 
the author of the Licinian Rogations. Accord- 
ing to the story recorded by Livy, the younger 
Fabia induced her father to assist her husband 
in obtaining the consulship for the plebeian 
order, into which she had married (Liv. vi. 22, 
34, 36). — 3. M., thrice consul, in B.C. 360, when 
he conquered the Hernici, a second time in 356, 
when he conquered the Falisci and Tarquinien- 
ses, and a third time in 354, when he conquered 
the Tiburtes. He was dictator in 351. He was 
the father of the celebrated Q. Fabius Maximus 
Rullianus. [Maximus.] (Liv. vii. 11, 17, 22, 
viii. 33.) 

Amenanus ('A/xevavos, Dor. 'A/xtvas), a river 
in Sicily near Catana, sometimes dried up for 
years together (nunc fluit, inter dum suppresses 
fontibus aret, Ov. Met. xv. 280 ; Strab. p. 240), 
possibly owing to volcanic changes in Etna, at 
whose foot it rises. 

Ameria (Amerlnus : Amelia), an ancient town 
in Umbria, and a municipium, the birthplace of 
Sex. Roscius defended by Cicero, was situate in 
a disti'ict rich in vines (Verg. Georg. i. 265), on 
a hill 56 miles from Rome, between the valleys 
of the Tiber and the Nar (Strab. p. 227 ; Plin. 
iii. § 114). 

Ameriola, a town in the land of the Sabines, 
destroyed by the Romans at a very early period 
(Liv. i. 38; Plin. iii. § 68). 

Amestratus (Amestratlnus : Mistretta), a 
town in the N. of Sicily, not far from the coast, 
the same as the Myttistratum of Polybius and 
the Amastra of Silius Italicus, taken by the 
Romans from the Carthaginians in the first 
Punic war (Cic. Verr. iii. 39, 43, 74). 

Amestris. [Amastbis.] 

Amida (r) "A/xiSa: Diarbekr), a town in So- 
phene (Armenia Major) on the Upper Tigris. 
It was taken by the Persian king Sapor a.d. 
359, when Ammianus Marcellinus was among 
the defenders (Am. Marc. xix. 1). The Romans 
afterwards recovered it. 

Amilcar. [Hamilcab.] 

Aminias ('A/xeivias), brother of Aeschylus, 
distinguished himself at the battle of Salamis 



(b.c. 480) ; he and Eumenes were judged to 
have been the bravest on this occasion among 
all the Athenians (Hdt. viii. 84; 93; Plut. 
Them. 14 ; Diod. xi. 27). 

Amlpsias (A/xenJ/i'ay), a comic poet of Athens, 
contemporary with Aristophanes, whom he twice 
conquered in the dramatic contests, gaining the 
second prize with his Connus when Aristo- 
phanes was third with the Clouds (B.C. 423) r 
and the first with his Comastae when Aristo- 
phanes gained the second with the Birds (B.C. 
414). (Diog. Laert. ii. 28.) 

Aniisia or Amisius (Ems), a river in northern 
Germany well known to the Romans, on which 
Drusus had a naval engagement with the Bruc- 
teri, B.C. 12 (Strab. p. 290 ; Mela, iii. 3 ; Tac. 
Ann. i. 60, 63, 70, ii. 23). 

Amisla (Emden ?), a fortress on the left bank 
of the river of the same name (Tac. Ann. ii. 8). 

Amisodarus ('A/xtadSapos), a king of Lycia, 
who brought up the monster Chimaera ; his sons 
Atymnius and Maris were slain at Troy by the 
sons of Nestor (II. xvi. 317-328 ; Apollod. ii. 3). 

AmiSuS ('A/xl(t6s : 'A/xi(T7]v6s, Amisenus : 
Samsun), a large city on the coast of Pontus, 
on a bay of the Euxine Sea, called after it 
(Amisenus Sinus). Mithridates enlarged it, 
and made it one of his residences. It was taken 
by Lucullus B.C. 71, by Pharnaces B.C. 47, freed 
by Julius Caesar, and again held by tyrants, 
liberated from the tyrant Strato by Augustus 
immediately after Actium (see Ramsay's Asia- 
Minor, p. 194). It became one of the civitates 
foederatae, and before Trajan's time was at- 
tached to the province of Bithynia-Pontus as a 
free city (Strab. p. 547 ; Dio Cass. xlii. 46 ; App. 
B. C. ii. 91 ; Plut. Luc. 15 ; Plin. Bp. x. 93). 

Amiternum (Torre d' Amitemo), an ancient 
Sabine town, according to Cato and Varro the 
cradle of the Sabine race (Dionys. i. 14, ii. 49). 
It stood on the Aternus, under the highest of 
the Apennines (Gran Sasso d' Italia). It fell 
into decay in the civil wars, but was re-colonised 
and became a place of importance under the 
Empire, and was the birthplace of Sallust. 
According to Liv. x. 39 it was in the power or 
the alliance of Samnium at the beginning of 
the third Samnite war, and was taken B.C. 293 
(Verg. Aen. vii. 710 ; Strab. p. 228). 

Ammianus ('Afx/xtav6s), a Greek epigramma- 
tist, but probably a Roman by birth, the author 
of nearly thirty epigrams in the Greek An- 
thology, lived under Trajan and Hadrian. 

Ammianus Marcellinus, by birth a Greek, 
and a native of Syrian Antioch, was admitted 
at an early age among the imperial bodyguards. 
He served many years under Ursicinus, one of 
the generals of Constantius, both in the "West 
and East, and he subsequently attended the 
emperor Julian in his campaign against the 
Persians (a.d. 363). Eventually he established 
himself at Rome, where he composed his his- 
tory, and was alive at least as late as 390. His 
history, written in Latin, extended from the 
accession of Nerva, a.d. 96, the point at 
which the histories of Tacitus terminated, to 
the death of Valens, a.d. 378, comprising a 
period of 282 years. It was divided into 31 
books, of which the first 13 are lost. The re- 
maining 18 embrace the acts of Constantius 
from A.D. 353, the seventeenth year of his reign, 
together with the whole career of Gallus, Ju- 
lianus, Jovianus, Valentinianus, and Valens. 
The portion preserved was the more important 
part of the work, as he was a contemporary of 
the events described in these books. The style 
of Ammianus is too often affected and bom- 



AAIMON 

hastic, but his accuracy, fidelity, and impartiality 
deserve praise. — Editions. By Eysseiihardt, 
Berl. 1871 ; Gardthausen, Giitt. 1875. 

Ammo ii. more correctly Amon or Amun, the 
supreme god of the Egyptians according to the 
Tbeban theology. He may possibly, as some 
think, have been originally the god of animal 
and vegetable fruitfulness ; but there is no 
doubt that as Amen-Ba at Thebes he was the 
Sun-God, who ruled over all the upper and the 
under world, and whose representative on the 
earth was the reigning king of Egypt. His 
worship in the original form was set aside by 
Amenhotep IV., who from his mother, appa- 
rently a Mesopotamian, had adopted views in 
favour of a purer monotheism, and substituted 
the worship of ' the sun's disk ' for the orthodox 
worship of Amun, and though the original faith 
was restored by the following dynasty, and 
especially by Bamses EL ( = Sesostris), some 
traces of the change remained. A further 
variation from other lands was caused by the 
Ethiopian conquest of Egypt in the 8th century 
B.C., whence some Ethiopian characteristics 
were introduced into his worship, and the erro- 
neous idea arose that the Egyptians had de- 
rived the religion of Amun from Meroe (Hdt. 
ii. 29, 42). "When Psammetichus established his 
rule in Lower Egypt at Sais, in the 7th century 
B.C., the exclusive worship of Amun, except in 
his special temples, diminished; but soon after 
this he was brought into relation with Greek 
mythology, through the settlers at Naucratis, 
&c, and still more through the Greek colonists 
of Cyrene, who became acquainted with the 
famous oracle of Ammon in the western Oasis 
of the Ammonium (Siwah), founded by a colony 
of Egyptians and Ethiopians in the 8th century. 
His worship spread in Greece, being identified 
with that of Zeus ; so that he became Zeus "Afi- 
fnoiv, and to the Bo- 
mans Jupiter Am- 
mon. (Pind. Pyth. 
iv. 16 ; Plat. Polit. 
257 B, where ' our ' 
God means Cyre- 
naic.) It appears in 
Laconia (Paus. iii. 
18, 2). The oracle 
from the Am- 
monium, to which 
tradition gave the 
same origin as that 
of Dodona (Hdt. ii. 
54), gained much 
influence with the 
Greeks after Alex- 
ander's visit, and 
sacred embassies 
were sent to it 
[see Diet. Ant. 
s.v. Theoris]. In 
Egyptian art Am- 
mon is represented 
sometimes with a 
head-dress of two lofty feathers, symbolising his 
rule over the upper and under world ; sometimes 
as a ram-headed deity with an orb over the 
horns, symbolising the sun. Some take the 
ram merely to signify animal fruitfulness. It 
looks more like the remnant of a totemistic 
religion, especially where the custom of cloth- 
ing the statue in the skin of a slaughtered ram 
is mentioned (Hdt. ii. 42). In Greek art this 
symbol of the ram is preserved, but brought 
into agreement with Greek taste by merely 
showing the horns added to the ideal human 



AaTPELUS 



61 




Ammon. 
(From Wilkinson s Egyptian*.) 



head, as in figures of Zeus Ammon and Alex- 
ander the Great (seen in coins of Lysimachus). 
See coin, p. 50. 

Ammonium. [Oasis.] 

Ammonius ('Afxfiwvios). 1. Grammaticus, 
of Alexandria, left this city on the overthrow of 
tne heathen temples in a.d. 389, and settled at 
Constantinople. He wrote, in Greek, a valu- 
able work, On the Differences of Words of like 
Signification {trfpi dfioiuy xai SicMpopwv Ae£eaiv). 
— Editions. By Valckenaer, Lugd. Bat. 1739; 
by Schafer, Lips. 1822. — 2. Son of Hermeas, 
studied at Athens under Proclus (who died a.d. 
484), and was the master of Sirnplicius, Damas- 
cius, and others. He wrote numerous com- 
mentaries in Greek on the works of the earlier 
philosophers. His extant works are Commen- 
taries on the Isagoge of Porphyry, or the Five 
Predicables, first published at Venice in 1500 ; 
and 0?i the Categories of Aristotle, and De 
Interpretatione, published by Brandis in his 
edition of the Scholia of Aristotle. — 3. Of 
Lamprae in Attica, a Peripatetic philosopher, 
lived in the first century of the Christian aera, 
and was the instructor of Plutarch (Plut. 
Symp. iii. 1). — 4. Surnamed Saccas, or sack- 
carrier, because his employment was carrying 
the corn landed at Alexandria, as a public 
porter, was born of Christian parents. Some 
writers assert, and others deny, that he aposta- 
tised from the faith. At any rate he combined 
the study of philosophy with Christianity, and 
is regarded by those who maintain his apostasy 
as the founder of the later Platonic School. 
Among his disciples were Longinus, Heren- 
nius, Plotinus, and Origen. He died a.d. 243, 
at the age of more than 80 years. 

Amnias, a river of Pontus, E. of the Halys 
(Strab. p. 562 ; Appian, Mithr. 18). 

Amnisus ('A/ieicr<5s), a town in the N. of 
Crete and the harbour of Cnossus, situated on 
a river of the same name, the nymphs of which, 
called Ammsiddes, were in the service of Arte- 
mis (Strab. p. 470 ; Od. xix. 188 ; Ap. Eh. iii. 
881 ; Callim. Hymn. Dian. 15). 

Amon. [AinioN.] 

Amor. [Ebos.] 

Amorgus ("Afwpyos : 'Aixopyivos : Amorgo), 
an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of 
the Sporades, the birthplace of Simonides, and 
under the Boraan emperors a place of banish- 
ment, more favourable than Gyarus as being 
productive of corn, oil, and wine. It had three 
towns on its western coast, Aigiale, Arcesine, 
and Minon. (Strab. p. 487 ; Scyl. p. 22 ; Tac. 
Ann. iv. 30.) 

Amorium ('A/j.6piov), a city of Galatia, 30 
miles S\V. of Pessianus. 

Ampe CAfim), Hdt.) or Ampelone iPlin.), 
a town at the mouth of the Tigris, where Darius 
I. planted the Milesians whom he removed 
from their own city after the Ionian revolt 
(B.C. 494). (Hdt. vi. 20; Plin. vi. § 159.) 

L. Ampelius, the author of a small work, 
entitled Liber Memorialis, lived in the 2nd 
century of the Christian era. His work is a 
sort of commonplace-book, containing a meagre 
summary of the most striking natural objects 
and of the most remarkable events, divided 
into 50 chapters. He is praised by Sidonius 
Apollinaris (ix. 299). It is generally printed 
with Florus, and is published separately by 
Beck, Lips. 1826; Wiilfflin, Lips. 1854. 

Ampelus, the personification of the vine. 
He was a beautiful youth, son of a satyr and a 
nymph, and beloved by Dionysus. According 
to Ovid (Fast. iii. 407), he was killed by falling 



62 



AMPELU8 



AMPHION 



from a vine branch, and was placed, as Vinde- 
mitor, in the stars ; according to Nonu. Dionys. 
x. 175, he was changed into a vine. A marble 
grourj now in the British Museum represents 
Dionysus with Ampelus half changed, into a 
vine. 

Ampelus ("AfMreAos), a promontory at the 
extremity of the peninsula Sithonia in Chal- 
cidice in Macedonia, near Torone. 

Ampelusia ('A/j.-Ke\ovcrta : C. Espartel), the 
promontory at the W. end of the S. or African 
coast of the Fretum Gaditanum (Straits of 
Gibraltar). The natives of the country called 
it Cotes (at Kcireis). (Strab. p. 825 ; Plin. v. 1.) 

Amphaxitis ('Afj.(pafiTis), a district of Myg- 
donia in Macedonia, at the mouths of the Axius 
and Echedorus (Polyb. v. 97 ; Strab. p. 330). 

Amphea ("A^eia: 'A/n(pevs), a small town of 
Messenia on the borders of Laconia and Mes- 
senia, conquered by the Spartans in the first 
Messenian war (Paus. iv. 5, 9). 

AmpMaraus ('A/xcpidpaos), son of Oicles and 
Hypermnestra, daughter of Thestius, was de- 
scended on his father's side from the famous 
seer Melampus, and was himself a great pro- 
phet and a great hero at Argos, having first 
gained his prophetic powers by sleeping in the 
/xavTiKbs oIkos at Phlius (Paus. ii. 13, 6). By 
his wife Eriphyle, the sister of Adrastus, he 
was the father of Alcmaeon, Amphilochus, 
Eurydice, and Demonassa. He took part in 
the hunt of the Calydonian boar, and the Argo- 
nautic voyage. He also joined Adrastus in the 
expedition against Thebes, although he foresaw 
its fatal termination, through the persuasions 
of his wife Eriphyle, who had been induced to 
persuade her husband by the necklace of Har- 
monia which Polynices had given her. On 
leaving Argos, however, he enjoined his sons to 
punish their mother for his death. [Aloiaeon.] 
During the war against Thebes, Amphiaraus 
fought bravely, but could not escape his fate. 
Pursued by Periclymenus, he fled towards the 
river Ismenius, and the earth swallowed him 
up together with his chariot, before he was 
overtaken by his enemy. (Od. xv. 240-247; 
Pind. Nem. ix. 57, 01. vi. 21; Aesch. Sept. 
587; Soph. El. 837 ; Stat. Theb. vii. 816.) In 
Paus. i. 34 there is a story that he was swal- 
lowed up by the earth at Harma, near Myca- 
lessus. Zeus made him immortal, and hence- 
forth he was worshipped as a hero between 
Potniae and Thebes (Hdt. i. 16, viii. 134), but 
afterwards with greater fame near Oropus, 
where also his temple for dream-oracles was 
situated (Paus. i. 34). (See Diet, of Ant. art. 
Oraculum.) 

Amphicaea or Amphiclea ('A^i'/caia, 'Afj.<pi- 
KAeia: 'A/xcptKcutvs : Dhadhi or Oglunitzal), a 
town in the N. of Phocis, with an adytum of 
Dionysus, was called for a long time Ophitea 
('0(J)!T€i'a) (Hdt. viii. 33 ; Paus. x. 3, 33). 

Amphictyon ('A/j.<Piktvuv). 1. A king of 
Attica who drove out his father-in-law Cranaus, 
and reigned for 12 years, when he was displaced 
by Erichthonius (Paus. i. 2, 5 ; Apollod. i. 7). — 
2. The mythical founder of the Amphictyonic 
council, son of Deucalion (Paus, x. 8). He had 
a temple at Anthela, near Thermopylae (Hdt. 
vii. 200). 

Ampnidamas ('A^cpiSdfias). 1. Son of Aleus 
and brother of Lycurgus, the Arcadian king 
(Paus. viii. 4, 6 ; Ap. Bh. i. 161) : others make 
him the father, others the son, of Lycurgus (II. 
ii. 603). He was one of the Argonauts. (Other 
mythical persons of the same name, II. x. 266; 
Hes. Op. 652.) — 2. General of the Eleans B.C. 



218, taken prisoner by Philip, king of Macedon 
(Polyb. iv. 75, 84, 86). 

Aniphidoli ('Afj.(p'iSo\ot), a town in Pisatis in 
Elis (Xen. Hell. iii. 2, 30 ; Strab. pp. 341, 349). 

AmphilocMa ('Affpi/\ox'io-), the country of the 
Amphilochi ('A/A<pihox<>i), an Epirot race, at the 
E. end of the Ambracian gulf, usually included 
in Acarnania. Their chief town was Argos 
Amphilochictjm. (Strab. p. 326.) 

Amphilochus ('A/j.(pt\oxos), son of Amphia- 
raus and Eriphyle, and brother of Alcmaeon. 
He took an active part in the expedition of the 
Epigoni against Thebes, assisted his brother in 
the murder of their mother [Alcmaeon], and 
afterwards fought against Troy, and was in the 
wooden horse (Quint. Sm. xii. 323). On his re- 
turn from Troy, together with Mopsus, who was 
like himself a seer, he founded the town of 
Mallos in Cilicia. Hence he proceeded to his 
native place, Argos, but returned to Mallos, 
where he was killed in single combat by Mopsus 
(Strab. p. 675 ; Lycophr. 439), or by Apollo 
(Strab. p. 676). Others relate (Thuc. ii. 68) that, 
after leaving Argos, Amphilochus founded Argos 
Amphilochicum on the Ambracian gulf. He 
was worshipped at Mallos in Cilicia, at Oropus, 
and at Athens. (Paus. i. 34, 2, iii. 15, 6 ; cp. 
Mopsus.) 

Amphilytus ('A/j.<P'i\vtos), a celebrated seer in 
the time of Peisistratus (b.c. 559), is called both 
an Acarnanian and an Athenian : he may have 
been an Acarnanian who received the franchise 
at Athens (Hdt. i. 62; Plat. Theag. p. 124). 

Amphimachus ('A/xcfi'juaxos). 1. Son of Ctea- 
tus, grandson of Poseidon, one of the four leaders 
of the Epeans against Troy, was slain by Hector 
(II. xiii. 185).^2. Son of Nomion, with his 
brother Nastes, led the Carians to the assistance 
of the Trojans, and was slain by Achilles (II. 
ii. 870).— 3. Son of Polyxenus (II. ii. 623). 

Amphimalla (rd 'AixipifxaWa), a town on the 
N. coast of Crete, on a bay called, after it (G. of 
Armiro). 

AmpMmedon ('A/j-cpifieSiov), of Ithaca, a guest- 
friend of Agamemnon, and a suitor of Penelope, 
slain by Telemachus (Od. xxii. 284, xxiv. 103). 

AmpMnomus ('Afxip'ivotxos) and his brother 
Anapius were dutiful citizens of Catane, who 
in an eruption of Aetna carried off, the one his 
father, the other his mother, on their shoulders. 
The lava turned aside and spared them. They 
appear in later coins of the city. (Paus. x. 28, 4 ; 
Claudian, vii. 41 ; Auson. Ord. Jlrb. Nob. 92.) 

Amphion ('Afupiuv). 1. Son of Zeus and An- 
tiope, the daughter of Nycteus of Thebes, and 
twin-brother of Zethus. Amphion and Zethus 
were born either at Eleutherae in Boeotia or on 
Mount Cithaeron, whither their mother had fled, 
and grew up among the shepherds, not knowing 
their descent. Hermes (according to others, 
Apollo, or the Muses) gave Amphion a lyre, who 
henceforth practised song and music, while his 
brother spent his time in hunting and tending 
the flocks. (Od. xi. 260 ; Eur. Antiop. Fr. ; Paus. 
ii. 6. 2 ; Ov. Met. vi. 110 ; Hor. Ep. i. 18.) Having 
become acquainted with their origin, they 
marched against Thebes, where Lycus reigned, 
the husband of their mother Antiope, whom he 
had repudiated, and had then married Dirce in 
her stead. They took the city, and as Lycus 
and Dirce had treated their mother with great 
cruelty, the two brothers killed them both. 
They put Dirce to death by tying her to a bull, 
who dragged her about till she perished ; and 
they then threw her body into a well, which was 
from this time called the well of Dirce (Stat. 
Theb. ix. 678). After they had obtained posses- 



AMPHIPOLIS 



AMPHISTRATUS 



63 



sion of Thebes, they fortified it by a wall. It I 
is said that when Amphion played his lyre, the 
stones moved of their own accord and formed 
the wall (Scb.ol.Ap. Eh. i. 740, 703; Apollod. 
iii. 5, 5 ; Hor. Od. iii. 11 ; Prop. i. 9, 10 ; Stat. 
Tlteb. iv. 357). Amphion afterwards married 
Niobe, who bore him many sons and daughters, 
all of whom were killed by Apollo. His death 




Zethus and Amphion. (From a Lns relief at Rome.) 

is differently related : some say that he killed 
himself from grief at the loss of his children 
(Ov. Met. vi. 270), and others tell us that he was 
killed by Apollo because he made an assault on 
the Pythian temple of the god. Amphion and 
his brother were buried at Thebes. A connexion 
may be traced between the Theban legend of 1 
these twin sons of Zeus and the Lacedaemonian 
legend of the Dioscuri ; and, again, between 
Amphion and Apollo. The punishment inflicted 
upon Dirce is represented in the celebrated 
Farnese bull, the work of Apollonius and Tau- 
riscus, which was discovered in 1540, nnd placed 
in the Farnese palace at Rome. iPlin. xxxvi. 
tj 84.) [DrRCE.j — 2. Son of Jasua and father of 
Chloris (Od. xi. 281). In Homer, this Amphion, 
king of Orchomenos, is distinct from Amphion 
the husband of Niobe ; but in some traditions 
they were regarded as the same person. 

Amphipolis ('Au<)>nroAis ; 'Ait(/>i7roAiTT)r : 
Xenklurrio, in Turkish Jeni-Keui), a town in 
Macedonia on the left or eastern bank of the 
Strymon, just below its egress from the lake 
Cercinitis, and about 8 miles from the sea. I 
The Strymon flowed almost round the town, 
nearly forming a circle, whence its name Amphi- 
polis. It was originally called "Zvvea Aioi, ' the 
\'in>- Ways,' and belonged to the Edonians, a 
Thracian people. Aristagoras of Miletus first 
attempted to colonise it, but was cut off witli 
his followers by the Edonians in B.C. 4!I7. The 
Athenians made a next attempt with 10.0011 
colonists, but they were all destroyed by the 
Edonians in 465. In 437 the Athenians were 



more successful, and drove the Edonians out of 
the ' Nine Wavs,' which was henceforth called 
Amphipolis. (EGitt. v. 120, is. 75; Thuc. i. 100, 




iv. 102, v. 0.) It was one of the most important 
of the Athenian possessions, being advan- 
tageously situated for trade on a navigable river 
in the midst of a fertile country, and near the 
gold mines of M. Pangaeus. Hence the indig- 
nation of the Athenians when it fell into the 
hands of Brasidas (b.c. 4241 and of Philip (358). 
Under the Romans it was a free city, and the 
capital of Macedonia prima : the Via Egnatia 




Plan of the neighbourhood of Amphipolis. 
1. site of Amphipolis ; -2. site of Eion : 8. ridge connecting 
Amphipolis with Mt. PangaeuB ; 4. Long Wall of Amphi- 
polis : the three marks across indicate the gates : 5; 
Palisade ^ i connecting the Long Wall with the 

bridge over the Strymon : G. Lake Cercinitis ; 7. Mt. 
Cerdylium ; -. Mt. Pangaeus. 

ran through it. The port of Amphipolis was 
Eion. 

Amphis ("Au<pis), an Athenian comic poet, of 
the middle comedy, contemporary with the 
philosopher Plato. We have the titles of 26 of 
his plays, and a few fragments of them (Meineke, 
Frag. Coin. Graee.). 

AmphiS8a l"Au(piarra : 'AfM<pi<rcrevs, 'Aurpur- 
rrciios : Salona), one of the chief towns of the 
Locri Ozolae on the borders of Phocis, 7 miles 
from Delphi, said to have been named after 
Amphissa, daughter of Macareus, and beloved 
by Apollo. In consequence of the Sacred War 
declared against Amphissa by the Amphictyons, 
the town was destroyed by Philip, rs.c. 388 
(Aesch. Ctrs. p. 71 ; Strab. p. 419i, but it was 
soon afterwards rebuilt, supplying 400 hoplites 
■gainst Brennus B.C. 279 (Pnus. x. 28, 1' ; was 
taken by the Romans B.C. 190 (Liv xxxvii. 5). 
Under the empire it had freedom from tribute 
(Plin. iv. § 71. 

Amphistratus CAtubiirrpaTnt) and his hroth-r 
Crecas, the charioteers of the Dioscuri, \vr" 
said to have taken part in the expedition of 



64 AMPHITEITE 

Jason to Colchis, and to have occupied a part 
of that country which was called after them 
Heniochia, as heniochus (tyioxos) signifies a 
charioteer (Strab. p. 496; Arist. Pol. viii. 4, 3). 

Amphitrite ('A/j.(pirp'irri), a Nereid or an 
Oceanid, wife of Poseidon and goddess of the 
sea, especially of the Mediterranean. In the 
Odyssey Amphitrite is merely the name of the sea 




Amphitrite holding a rudder. 
CFrom a Bas-relief published by Winckelmann.) 



(in the Iliad the word does not occur), and she 
first occurs as a goddess in Hesiod. She was 
carried off from Naxos by Poseidon, or, accord- 
ing to others, having fled to Atlas was tracked 
out by a dolphin, which Poseidon therefore 
placed in the stars. Later poets again use the 
word as equivalent to the sea in general. She 
became by Poseidon the mother of Triton, 
Ehode or Bhodos, and Benthesicyme. 

AmpMtrope ('Affptrpdirrj : ' Afxcpnpoiraievs), 
an Attic demus belonging to the tribe Antio- 
chis, in the neighbourhood of the silver mines 
of Laurium. 

Amphitryon or Amphitruo ('Afuptrpvaiv), son 
of Alcaeus, king of Tiryns, and Astydameia, or 
Laonome, or Lysidice. Alcaeus had a brother 
Electryon, who reigned at Mycenae. Between 
Electryon and Pterelaus, king of the Taphians, 
a furious war raged, in which Electryon lost all 
his children except Licymnius, and was robbed 
of his oxen. Amphitryon recovered the oxen, 
but on his return to Mycenae accidentally killed 
his uncle Electryon. He was now expelled 
from Mycenae, together with Alcmene the 
daughter of Electryon, by Sthenelus the brother 
of Electryon, and went to Thebes, where he was 
purified by Creon. In order to win the hand of 
Alcmene, Amphitryon prepared to avenge the 
death of Alcmene's brothers on the Taphians, 
and conquered them, after Comaetho, the 
daughter of Pterelaus, through her love for 
Amphitryon, cut off the one golden hair on her 
father's head which rendered him immortal. 
During the absence of Amphitryon from Thebes, 
Jupiter visited Alcmene, who became by the 
god the mother of Heracles ; the latter is called 
Amphitry oniades in allusion to his reputed 
father. Amphitryon fell in a war against Er- 
ginus, king of the Minyans (Paus. viii. 14, 15, 
17, ix. 10; Apollod. ii. 4; Hes. Sc. 11; Pind. 
Nem. x. 13, Pyth. ix. 81). Euripides (S.'F.) 
represents his death as caused by Heracles after 
the war with the Minyans. The comedy of 
Plautus, called Amphitruo, is a ludicrous re- 
presentation of the visit of Zeus to Alcmene in 
the disguise of her lover Amphitryon. 
Amphoterus ('AnQSrepos). [Aoabnan.] 
Amphrysus ('A/Mppvafc). 1. A small river in 
Thessaly which flowed into the Pagasaean gulf, 
on the banks of which Apollo fed the herds of 
Admetus [pastor ab Amphryso, Verg. Georg. 



AMYCUS 

iii. 2 ; cf. Strab. p. 433 ; Ap. Eh. i. 54 ; Ov. Met. 

1. 580). — 2. See Ambrystjs. 

Ampsaga ( Wad-el-Kabir, or Sufjimar), a 
river of N. Africa, which divided Numidia from 
Mauretania Sitifensis. It flows past the town 
of Cirta (Constantino). 

Ampsanctus or Amsanctus Lacus (Lago 
d'Ansanti or Mufiti), a small lake in Samnium 
near Aeculanum, four miles from the modern 
Frigento. Sulphurous vapours arose from it. 
Near it was a chapel of the god Mephitis with 
a cavern from which mephitic vapours also 
came, and which was therefore regarded as an 
entrance to the lower world. (Verg. Aen. vii. 
563 ; Plin. ii. § 208 ; Cic. Div. i. 36.) 

Ampsivarii. [Ansibabii.] 

Ampycus ("A/xttukos). 1. Son of Pelias, hus- 
band of Chloris, and father of the famous seer 
Mopsus, who is hence called Ampycides. Pau- 
sanias (v. 17) calls him Ampyx. — 2. Son of 
Iapetus, a bard and priest of Ceres, killed by 
Phineus at the marriage of Perseus (Ov. Met. 
v. 111). 

Ampyx. [Ampycus.] 

Amulius. [Eomulus.] 

Amyclae. 1. ('Afj.vKkai' 'A/j.vK\aievs, 'A/xu- 

k\cuos : Sklavokhori or Aia Kyriaki ?), an 
ancient town of Laconia on the Eurotas, in a 
beautiful country, 20 stadia SE. of Sparta 
(Polyb. v. 19 ; Liv. xxxiv. 28). It is mentioned 
in the Iliad (ii. 584), and is said to have been 
founded by the ancient Lacedaemonian king 
Amyclas, father of Hyacinthus, and to have 
been the abode of Tyndarus, and of Castor and 
Pollux, who are hence called Amyclaei Fratres 
(Paus. iii. 1; Stat. Theb. vii. 413). After- the 
conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, the 
Achaeans maintained themselves in Amyclae 
for a long time ; and it was only shortly before 
the first Messenian war that the town was taken 
and destroyed by the Lacedaemonians under 
Teleclus. The tale ran that the inhabitants 
had been so often alarmed by false reports of 
the approach of the enemy, that they passed a 
law that no one should speak of the enemy ; and 
accordingly when the Lacedaemonians at last 
came, and no one dared to announce their ap- 
proach, 1 Amyclae perished through silence : ' 
hence arose the proverb, Amyclis ipsis tacitur- 
nior (Paus. iii. 2 ; Strab. p. 364 ; Serv. ad Aen. 
x. 564). After its destruction by the Lacedae- 
monians Amyclae became a village, and was 
only memorable by the festival of the Hyacinthia 
(see Diet, of Ant. s.v.) celebrated at the place 
annually, and by the temple and colossal statue 
of Apollo, who was hence called Amyclaeus. — 

2. (Amyclanus), an ancient town of Latium, E. 
of Terracina, on the Sinus Amyclanus, was, 
according to tradition, an Achaean colony from 
Laconia. In the time of Augustus the town 
had disappeared ; the inhabitants were said to 
have deserted it on account of its being infested 
by serpents (Plin. iii. 9) ; but when Virgil (Aen. 
x. 564) speaks of tacitae Amyclae, he probably 
transfers to this town the epithet belonging to 
the Amyclae in Laconia [No. 1] (cf. Sil. viii. 
528; Pervigil. Ven. 92). Near Amyclae was 
the Spelunca (Sperlonga), or natural grotto, a 
favourite retreat of the emperor Tiberius. 

Amyclas. [Amyclae.] 

Amyclldes, a name of Hyacinthus, as the 
son of Amyclas. 

Amycus CA/avkos), son of Poseidon and Bi- 
thynis, king of the Bebryces, was celebrated 
for his skill in boxing, and used to challenge 
strangers to box with him. When the Argonauts 
came to his dominions, Pollux accepted the 



AMYDON 

challenge and killed him (Apollod. i. 9 ; Ap. Rh. 
ii.). On the Ficoroni Cista he is represented 
as bound to a tree by Polydeuces. On his 
grave grew the 'laurus insana,' a branch of 
which caused strife (Plin. xvi. § 239). 

Amydon CAfiviiiv), a town in Macedonia on 
the river Axius (II. ii. 849; Juv. iii. 69). 

Amymone {'Anvfiwvri), one of the daughters 
of Danaus and Elephantis. When Danaus ar- 
rived in Argos, the country was suffering from 
a drought, and Danaus sent out Amymone to 
fetch water. She was attacked by a satyr, but 
was rescued from his violence by Poseidon, who 
appropriated her to himself, and then showed 
her the wells at Lema. According to another 
account he bade her draw his trident from the 
rock, from which a threefold spring gushed 
forth, which was called after her the well and 
river of Amymone. Her son by Poseidon was 
called Nauplius (Apollod. ii. 1; Hyg. Fab. 169; 
Paus. ii. 37; Strab. p. 368; Eur. Phoen. 188). 

Amynander ('AyUiWeSpos), king of the Atha- 
manes in Epirus, an ally of the Romans in their 
war with Philip of Macedonia, about B.C. 198, 
but an ally of Antiochus B.C. 189 (Pol. xvi. 27, 
xxii. 8 ; Liv. xxvii. 30, xxxii. 14, xxxv. 47, 
xxxviii. 1). 

Amyntas CA/ivuras). 1. I. King of Mace- 
donia, reigned from about B.C. 540 to 500, and 
was succeeded by his son Alexander I. He 
acknowledged himself to Megabyzus a vassal 
of Persia. He was in alliance with the Peisis- 
tratids, and offered Hippias a refuge (Hdt. viii. 
139; Thuc. ii. 100; Paus. ix. 40).— 2. II. King 
of Macedonia, son of Philip, the brother of 




Amyntas II., King of Macedonia, B.C. 303-369. 
Obv., head of king; rev., horse. 



Perdiccas II., at first, like his father, prince of 
upper Macedonia (Thuc. ii. 95), obtained the 
throne of Macedonia B.C. 393 by the murder of 
the usurper Pausanias. Soon after his acces- 
sion he was driven from Macedonia by the Illy- 
rians, but was restored to his kingdom by the 
Thessalians. On his return he was engaged 
in war with the Olynthians, in which he was 
assisted by the Spartans, and by their aid 
Olynthus was reduced in 379. Amyntas united 
himself also with Jason of Pherae, and carefully 
cultivated the friendship of Athens. Amyntas 
died B.C. 370, and left by his wife Eurydice three 
sons, Alexander, Perdiccas, and the famous 
Philip (Diod. xiv. 89 f., xv. 19, 00; Xen. Hell. v. 
2). — 3. Grandson of Amyntas II., was excluded 
by Philip from the succession on the death of 
his father Perdiccas III. in B.C. 360. He was 
But to deatli in the first year of the reign of 
Alexander the Great, 336, for a plot against 
the king's life (Just. xii. 6 ; Curt. vi. 9, 17). — 
4. A Macedonian officer in Alexander's army, 
son of Andromenes. He and his brothers were 
accused of being privy to the conspiracy of 
Philotas in 330, but were acquitted. Some little 
time after he was killed at the siege of a village 
(Arr. iii. p. 72 f .'). — 5. A Macedonian traitor, son 
of Antiochus, took refuge at the court of Darius, 1 
and became one of the commanders of the 
Greek mercenaries. He was present at the | 



ANACHARSIS 65 

battle of Issus (b.c. 333), and afterwards fled 
to Phoenicia, and having gathered ships went 
to Egypt, got possession of Pelusium, and was 
killed in battle against Mazaces, the Persian 
governor of Memphis (Arr. i. 24 f. ; Curt. iii. 11, 
iv. 7; Plut. Alex. ; Diod. xvii. 48). — 6. A king 
of Galatia, supported Antony, and fought on 
his side against Augustus at the battle of 
Actium (B.C. 31). He fell in an expedition 
against the town of Homonada or flomona 
(Strab. p. 567). — 7. A Greek writer of a work 
entitled Stathmi (STixffytoi'), probably an ac- 
count of the different halting-places of Alex- 
ander the Great in his Asiatic expedition 
(Athen. ii. p. 67 &c). 

Amyntor ('Aixvvrap), son of Ormenus of 
Eleon in Thessaly, where Autolycus broke into 
his house, and father of Phoenix, whom he 
cursed on account of unlawful intercourse with 
his mistress. According to Apollodorus he 
was a king of Ormenium, and was slain by 
Heracles, to whom he refused a passage 
through his dominions, and the hand of his 
daughter Astydamia. (II. ix. 434, x. 226 ; 
Apollod. ii. 7, iii. 13). According to Ovid (Met. 
xii. 364) he was king of the Dolopes. 

Amyrtaeus ('Aftvprtiios), an Egyptian, 
assumed the title of king, and joined Inarus 
the Libyan in the revolt against the Persians in 
B.C. 460. They at first defeated the Persians 
[Achaemenes], but were subsequently totally 
defeated, 455. Amyrtaeus escaped, and main- 
tained himself as king in the marshy districts 
| of Lower Egypt, till about 414, when the 
1 Egytians expelled the Persians, and Amyrtaeus 
reigned 6 years. (Hdt. ii. 140, iii. 15 ; Thuc. i. 
110 ; Diod. xi. 74.) 

Amyxus ("A/xvpos), a river in Thessaly, with 
a town of the same name upon it, flowing into 
the lake Boebeis : the country around was 
called the 'AfxvpiKbv ireSiW (Strab. 442 ; 
Polyb. v. 99). 

Amythaon ('AixvSawv), son of Cretheus and 
Tyro, father of Bias and of the seer Melampus, 
who is hence called Amythaunius (Verg. Georg. 
iii. 550). He dwelt at Pylus in Messenia, and 
is mentioned among those to whom the restora- 
tion of the Olympian games was ascribed. 
(Paus^. v. 8 ; Od. xi. 258.) 

Anabon ('Avafiuv), a district of the Persian 
province of Aria, S. of Aria Proper, containing 
4 towns, which still exist, Phra (Ferrah), Bis 
(Beest or Bost), Gari (Ghore), Nii (Neh). 

Anabura. (' Avajiovpo.) a town of Pisidia. It 
stood NW. of Antiocheia and SW. of the river 
Lalandus. Its name seems to have been 
changed to Neapolis between the times of 
Strabo and Pliny, or, rather, it was deserted 
when Neapolis was built near it. (Strab. p. 
570; Liv. xxxviii. 15; Ramsay). 
Anaces ("Afa/ces). [Anax, No. 2.] 
Anacharsis CAvdxapvs), a Scythian of 
princely rank, left his native country to travel 
in pursuit of knowledge, and came to Athens, 
about B.C. 594. He became acquainted with 
Solon, and by his talents and acute observa- 
tions, and his simplicity of life, he excited 
general admiration. The fame of his wisdom 
was such, that he was even reckoned by some 
among the seven sages. He was killed by his 
brother Saulius on his return to his native 
country : according to Herodotus, because he was 
introducing the Greek worship of Cybele ; 
according to Diogenes Laertius, by accident. 
(Hdt. iv. 70; Diog. Lae'rt. i. 101; Plut. Sol. 5, 
Conviv. Sept. Sap. ; Lucian, Sct/tha, Ana- 
charsis ; Athen. pp. 159, 428, 487, 613.) Cicero 



66 



ANACEEON 



ANAURUS 



(Tusc. Disp. v. 32) quotes from one of his 
letters. Those which are ascribed to him are 
spurious (ed. Hercher, 1873, Epistologr. 
Graec.) 

Anacreon ('Avcucpecov), a celebrated lyric 
poet, born at Teos, an Ionian city in Asia 
Minor. He removed from his native city, with 
the great body of its inhabitants, to Abdera, in 
Thrace, when Teos was taken by the Persians 
(about B.C. 540), but lived chiefly at Samos, 
under the patronage of Polycrates, in whose 
praise he wrote many songs. After the death 
of Polycrates (522), he went to Athens at the 
invitation of the tyrant Hipparchus, where he 
became acquainted with Simonides and other 
poets. He died at the age of 85, choked, as 
was said, by a grape-stone (Plin. vii. 5 ; Val. 
Max. ix. 12, 8), probably about 478 : the 
place of his death is uncertain. The Athenians 
set up his statue in the Acropolis, as the type 
of age still constant to the pleasures of youth 
(Paus. i. 25). The universal tradition of anti- 
quity represents Anacreon as a consummate 
voluptuary ; and h'is poems prove the truth of 
the tradition. He sings of love and wine with 
hearty good will ; and we see in him the luxury 
of the Ionian inflamed by the fervour of the 
poet. The tale that he loved Sappho is very 
improbable. (Hdt. iii. 121 ; Plat. Charm, p. 
157 ; Hipparch. p. 228 ; Athen. p. 429, 599, 600 ; 
Strab. p. 638.) Of his poems only a few genuine 
fragments have come down to us ; and these 
seem to show him as a poet light and graceful, 
but without force and passion. He probably 
followed the Lesbian poets as regards metre 
and style, but wrote in the Ionic dialect. The 
collection of love songs and drinking songs 
which bear his name are of various authorship 
and dates. — Editions : by Fischer, Lips. 1793 ; 
Bergk, Lips. 1878; Rose, 1876; Weise, Lips. 
1878. 

Anactorium ('AvaKTopiov : 'Avaxropios), a 
town in Acarnania, built by the Corinthians, 




Coin of Anactorium in Acarnania. 
Obv. t head of Athene, with legend Ava<Topiewv • rev., 
Pegasus. 

upon a promontory of the same name (near La 
Madonna) at the entrance of the Ambracian 
gulf. Its inhabitants were removed by Augustus 
after the battle of Actium (b.c. 31) to Nicopolis. 

Anadyomene. [Aphrodite.] 

Anagnia (Anagnlnus : Anagni), an ancient 
town of Latium, the chief town of the Hernici, 
and subsequently both a municipium (having 
first received the civitas sine suffragio as a 
punishment for disaffection) and a Roman 
colony. (Liv. ix. 43 ; Diod. xx. 80 ; Plin. iii. 
63.) It lay in a very beautiful and fertile 
country on a hill, at the foot of which the Via 
Lavicana and Via Praenestina united 
(Compitum Anagninum). In the neighbour- 
hood Cicero had an estate, Anagninum (Cic. 
pro Dom. 30). 

Anagyrus ('Avayvpovs, ovvros : 'Avayvpd&ios, 
' Avayvpovvrddw. nr. Vari. Ru.), a demus of 
Attica, belonging to the tribe Ereetheis, S. of 
Athens, near the promontory Zoster (Strab. p. 
398 ; Paus. i. 31). 



Anaitica ('Aua'iTiKrt), a district of Armenia, 
in which the goddess Anaitis was worshipped ; 
also called Acilisene. 

Anaitis ( Auairis), an Asiatic divinity, whose 
name is also written Anaea, Aneitis, Tanais, 
or Nanaea. Her worship prevailed in Armenia, 
Cappadocia, Assyria, Persis, &c, and seems to 
have been a part of the worship, so common 
among the Asiatics, of the creative powers of 
nature, both male and female. The G-reek 
writers sometimes identify Anaitis with 
Artemis, and sometimes with Aphrodite. (Strab. 
pp. 512, 559, 733, 738 ; Plut. Artax. 27, Lucull. 
24 ; Paus. iii. 16 ; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 3 ; Clem. 
Alex. p. 43.) 

Anamari or -res, a Gallic people in the plain 
of the Po, in whose land the Romans founded 
Placentia (Polyb. ii. 32). Possibly, however, 
we should here read the name as Ananes 
instead of making this people distinct from the 
following. 

Ananes, a Gallic people, W. of the Trebia, 
between the Po and the Apennines (Polyb. 
ii. 17). 

Ananius ('Avdvios), a Greek iambic poet, 
contemporary with Hipponax, about B.C. 540. 
(Fragments in Bergk, Poetae Lyrici, ii. 1878.) 

Anaphe ('Avdtpri : 'Avcupaios : Anaphi, 
Nanfio), a small island in the S. of the Aegean 
sea, E. of Thera, with a temple of Apollo 
Aegletes, who was hence called Anapheus 
(Strab. p. 484 ; Ov. Met. vii. 461). 

Anapnlystus (' AvdtyKvtnos : 'AvcxpXvarios : 
Anavyso), an Attic demus of the tribe Antiochis 
on the SW. coast of Attica, opposite the island 
Eleussa, called after Anaphlystus, son of 
Poseidon (Hdt. iv. 29 ; Strab. p. 398). 

Anapius. [Amphinomus.] 

Anapus ("Avairos). 1. A river in Acarna- 
nia, flowing into the Achelous (Thuc. ii. 82). — 
2. (Anapo), a river in Sicily, flowing into the 
sea S. of Syracuse through the marshes of Lysi- 
melia (Thuc. vi. 96; Theocr. i. 68; Ov. Met. 
v. 416). 

Anartes or -ti, a people of Dacia, N. of the 
Theiss (Caes; B. G. vi. 25). 

Anas ("Avas : Guadiana), one of the chief 
rivers of Spain, rises in Celtiberia in the 
mountains near Laminium, forms the boundary 
between Lusitania and Baetica, and flows into 
the ocean by two mouths (now only one) 
(Strab. p. 139; Plin. iii. 1). 

Anatolius. 1, Bishop of Laodicea, a.d. 270, 
an Alexandrian by birth, was the author of 
several mathematical and arithmetical works, 
of which some fragments have been preserved. 
— 2. An eminent jurist, was a native of Berytus, 
and afterwards P. P. (praefectus praetorio) of 
lllyricum. He died a.d. 361. A work on 
agriculture, often cited in the Geoponica, and a 
treatise concerning Sympathies and Anti- 
pathies, are assigned by many to this Anatolius. 
The latter work, however, was probably written 
by Anatolius the philosopher, who was the 
master of Iamblichus, and to whom Porphyry 
addressed Homeric Questions. — 3. Professor of 
law at Berytus, is mentioned by Justinian 
among those who were employed in compiling 
the Digest. He wrote notes on the Digest, and 
a very concise commentary on Justinian's Code. 
Both of these works are cited in the Basilica. 
He perished a.d. 557, in an earthquake at 
Constantinople, whither he had removed from 
Berytus. 

Anaurus ('Avavpds), a river of Thessaly flow- 
ing into the Pagasaean gulf, in which Jason lost 
a sandal (Ap. Rh. i. 8 ; Athen. p. 72). 



ANAVA 



ANAXIMENES 



67 



Anava ("Acava), an ancient, but early de- 
cayed, city of Great Phrygia, on the salt lake of 
the same name, between Celaenae and Colossae 
(Hagee Gliioul) (Hdt. vii. 30). In Frederic 
Barbarossa's march (a.d. 1190J the country is 
described as near the sources of the Maeander 
' per loca desertissima ubi lacus salinarum.' It 
is a mistake to identify it with Ascania. 

Anaz CAfo|). 1. A giant, son of Uranus and 
Gaea, and father of Asterius (Paus. i. 35, vii. 
2.) — 2. An epithet of protecting deities in the 
plural "Afcuces, or "Avoktzs, or "AvaKes iralSes, 
used to designate the Dioscuri especially, but 
also the Curetes or the Cabiri, and the Trito- 
patres (Paus. ii. 22, 6, x. 38, 3 ; Cic. N. D. iii. 21, 
53J. 

Anaxagoras ('Ava.£ay6pas), a Greek philoso- 
pher of the Ionian school, was born at Clazo- 
menae in Ionia, B.C. 500. He gave up his 
property to his relations, as he intended to 
devote his life to higher ends, and went to 
Athens at the age of 20 ; here he remained 30 
years, and became the intimate friend and 
teacher of the most eminent men of the time, 
such as Pericles and Euripides. His doctrine 
gave offence to the religious feelings of the 
Athenians ; and the enemies of Pericles availed 
themselves of this circumstance to accuse him 
of impiety, B.C. 450. It was only tlirough the 
eloquence of Pericles that he was not put to 
death ; but he was sentenced to pay a fine of 5 
talents and to quit Athens. fie retired to 
Lampsacus, where he died in 428 at the age of 
72. Anaxagoras was dissatisfied with the 
systems of his predecessors, the Ionic philo- 
sophers, and struck into a new path. The Ionic 
philosophers had endeavoured to explain nature 
and its various phenomena by regarding matter 
in its different forms and modifications as the 
cause of all things. Anaxagoras, on the other 
hand, conceived the necessity of seeking a 
higher cause, independent of matter, and this 
cause he considered to be vovs — that is, mind, 
thought, or intelligence. 

Anaxander {'Ava^avhpos), king of Sparta, son 
of Eurycrates, fought in the second Messenian 
war, about B.C. 668 (Paus. iii. 14, 4, iv. 16, 2). 

Anaxandrides {'Ava^avSptSns). 1. Son of 
Theopompus, king of Sparta (Hdt. viii. 131). 
— 2. King of Sparta, son of Leon, reigned from 
about B.c 560 to 520. Having a barren wife 
whom he would not divorce, the ephors made 
him take with her a second. By her he had 
Cleomenes ; and after this by his first wife 
Dorieus, Leonidas, and Cleombrotus (Hdt. i. 
65, v. 39; Paus. iii. 3). — 3. An Athenian comic- 
poet of the middle comedy, a native of Camirus 
in Rhodes, began to exhibit comedies in B.C. 
876. Aristotle held him in high esteem IBhet. 
iii. 10 ; Eth. Ead. vi. 10 ; Kicom. vii. 10) ; one 
of the best known fragments of his plays con- 
trasts the religious observances of Greeks and 
Egyptians (Athen. p. 874). He wrote also 
dithyrambs, which have not survived (Meineke, 
Fray.). 

Anaxarchus (' Ava£dpxos I, a philosopher of 
Abdera, of the school of Democritus (a pupil of 
Metrodorus), accompanied Alexander into Asia 
(B.C. 834), and gained his favour by flattery and 
wit. He was named 6 tvSaifjLOviKds, as being an 
optimist in temper. After the death of Alex- 
ander (323), Anaxarchus was thrown by ship- 
wreck into the power of Nicocreon, king of 
Salamis in Cyprus, to whom he had given mortal 
offence, and who had him pounded to death in 
a stone mortar. (Cic. Tusc. ii. 22, 52, iV. 1). iii. 
88, 82 ; Arr. iv. 10 ; Plut. Alex. 52.) 



Anaxarete CAvaiaptrri). a maiden of Cyprus, 
remained unmoved by the love of lphis, who 
at last, in despair, hanged himself at her door. 
She looked with indifference at the funeral of 
the youth, but Venus changed her into a stone 
statue, which was preserved in the temple of 
Venus Prospiciens i'A<ppo5. TrapaKvitTovtra.) at 
Salamis in Cyprus. Ant. Liberalis tells us the 
same story of a Greek Arsinoe beloved by a 
Phoenician youth. It may be connected with 
the approach of the Greek colonists to the wor- 
ship of Astarte (Ov. Met. xiv. 698; Ant. Lib. 
39). 

AnaxIMa ('Ara^flJoj, daughterof Pleisthenes, 
sister of Agamemnon, wife of Strophius, and 
mother of Pylades. 

Anaxibius ('Ava£i&ios), the Spartan admiral 
stationed at Byzantium on the return of the 
Cyrean Greeks from Asia, B.C. 400. In 389 he 
succeeded Dercyllidas in the command in the 
Aegean, but fell in a battle against Iphicrates, 
near Antandrus, in 388 (Xen. An. v. 1, vi. 1 ; 
j Hell. iv. 8). 

Anaxidamus ('Ava£iSanos\ king of Sparta, 
son of Zeuxidamus, lived to the end of the 
second Messenian war, B.C. 668 (Paus. iii. 7). 
Anaxllaus ('Ava^iKaos) or Anaxllas I'Avofi'- 
I \as). 1. Tyrant of Ehegium, of Messenian 
| origin, took possession of Zanele in Sicily about 
I B.C. 494, peopled it with fresli inhabitants, and 
[ changed its name into Messene. He died in 
1 476 (Hdt. vi. 22, vii. 165 ; Thuc. vi. 4).— 2. Of 
Byzantium, surrendered Byzantium to the 
Athenians in B.C. 408. — 3. An Athenian comic 
poet of the middle comedy, contemporary with 
Plato and Demosthenes. We have a few frag- 
ments, and the titles of 19 of his comedies. 
(Meineke). — 4. A physician and Pythagorean 
philosopher, bom at Larissa, was banished by 
Augustus from Italy, B.C. 28, on the charge of 
magic (Euseb. Chron. ad Olymp. 138). 

Anaximander ( 'Ava^/xavSpos), of Miletus, 
was born B.C. 610, and died 547 in his 64th 
j year. He was one of the earliest philosophers 
of the Ionian school, and the immediate suc- 
cessor of Thales, its first founder. He first 
used the word a.pxw to denote the origin of 
things, or rather the material out of which they 
were formed : he held that this apxv was the 
infinite (rb airtipov), everlasting, and divine, 
though not attributing to it a spiritual or 
intelligent nature; and that it was the sub- 
stance into which all things were resolved on 
their dissolution. He was a careful observer of 
nature, and was distinguished by his astro- 
nomical, mathematical, and geographical know- 
ledge : he is said to have introduced the use of 
the gnomon into Greece. 

Anaximenes ('Ava(ifi4vris). 1. Of Miletus, 
the third in the series of Ionian philosophers, 
flourished about B.C. 544 ; but as he was the 
teacher of Anaxagoras, B.C. 480, he must have 
lived to a great age. He considered air to be 
the first cause of all things, the primary form, 
J as it were, of matter, into which the other ele- 
ments of the universe were resolvable. — 2. Of 
1 Lampsacus, accompanied Alexander the Great 
1 to Asia (B.C. 334), and wrote a history of Philip 
of Macedonia; a history of Alexander the 
(ireat; and a history of Greece in 12 books, 
from the earliest mythical ages down to the 
death of Epaminondas. Of these a few frag- 
ments remain. He also enjoyed great reputa- 
tion as a rhetorician, and is the author of a 
scientific treatise on rhetoric, the 'PriTopiK^t 
irpbs 'A\t£avtipov, usually printed in the works 
of Aristotle. He was an enemy of Theophrastus, 

r 2 



68 



ANAZARBUS 



ANCUS 



and published under his name a work calumniat- 
ing Sparta, Athens, and Thebes, which produced 
great exasperation against Theophrastus. (Paus. 
vi. 18, 3 ; Diod. xv. 76, 89.) 

Anazarbus or -a ('Avafrpfids or -a: 'Ava^ap- 
fievs, Anazarbenus : Anasarbaor Naversa, Ru.), 
a considerable city of Cilicia Campestris, on the 
left bank of the river Pyramus, at the foot of a 
mountain of the same name. Augustus con- 
ferred upon it the name of Caesarea (ad Ana- 
zarbum) ; and, on the division of Cilicia into 
the two provinces of Prima and Secunda, it 
was made the capital of the latter. It was 
almost destroyed by earthquakes in the reigns 
of Justinian and Justin. 

Ancaeus (' Ay koios). 1. Son of the Arcadian 
Lycurgus and Creophile or Eurynome, and 
father of Agapenor. He was one of the Argo- 
nauts, and took part in the Calydonian hunt, 
in which he was killed by the boar (Ap. Rh. i. 
164 ; Paus. viii. 4 ; Ov. Met. viii. 391).— 2. Son 
of Poseidon and Astypalaea or Alta, king of the 
Leleges in Samos, husband of Samia, and father 
of' Perilaus, Enodos, Samos, Alitherses, and 
Parthenope. His story shows points of resem- 
blance to that of the son of Lycurgus, for he 
also is represented as one of the Argonauts : 
but they differ in that the son of Lycurgus is 
celebrated for strength ; the son of Poseidon 
is noted for skilful seamanship : he became 
the helmsman of the ship Argo after the death 
of Tiphys (Ap. Rh. i. 188, ii. 867-900). A well- 
known proverb is said to have originated with 
this Ancaeus. He had been told by a seer 
that he would not live to taste the wine of his 
vineyard ; and when he was afterwards on the 
point of drinking a cup of wine, the growth of 
his own vineyard, he laughed at the seer, who, 
however, answered, 7roAAa /j.era^b irc\ei kv\ikos 
koL x^eos aicpov, ' There is a many a slip be- 
tween the cup and the lip.' At the same instant 
Ancaeus was informed that a wild boar was 
near. He put down his cup, went out against 
the animal, and was killed by it (Ap. Rh. I.e. ; 
Tzetzes and Lycophr. 488). 

Ancalites, a people of Britain (Caes. B. G. v. 
21). They are placed by some writers at Hen- 
ley-on-Thames, on the Oxfordshire bank. 

Q. Ancharius, tribune of the plebs, B.C. 59, 
took an active part in opposing the agrarian 
law of Caesar. He was praetor in 56, and suc- 
ceeded L. Piso in the province of Macedonia. 
(Cic. pro Sest. 53, 113 ; in Pis. 36, 89 ; ad Fam. 
xiii. 40). 

Anchesmus ('AyxecTfids), a hill not far from 
Athens, with a temple of Zeus, who was hence 
called Anchesmius. 

Anchiale and -lus ('Ayx^v)- 1- (Ahiali), 
a town in Thrace on the Black Sea, on the 
borders of Moesia (Strab. p. 329 ; Ov. Trist. i. 
9, 36). — 2. Also Anchialos, an ancient city of 
Cilicia, W. of the Cydnus near the coast, said 
to have been built by Sardanapalus (Strab. p. 
672 ; Athen. p. 529 ; Arrian, ii. 5). 

AncMses ('Ayx'Tys), son of Capys and 
Themis, the daughter of Ilus, king of Dardanus 
on Mount Ida. As descended by the royal line 
from Zeus, he is called Sectf avSpaiu (see II. v. 
268 ; xx. 215-240). In beauty he equalled the 
immortal gods, and was beloved by Aphrodite, 
by whom he became the father of Aeneas, who 
is hence called Anchisiades (Hymn, ad Ven. 
45 seq. ; Hes. Theog. 1008). The goddess warned 
him never to betray the real mother of the 
child ; but as on one occasion he boasted of his 
intercourse with the goddess, he was struck 
by a flash of lightning, which according to 



some traditions killed, but according to others 
only blinded or lamed him. Virgil in his 
Aeneid makes Anchises survive the capture of 
Troy, and Aeneas carries his father on his 
shoulders from the burning city. He further 
relates that Anchises died soon after the first 
arrival of Aeneas in Sicily, and was buried on 
mount Eryx. This tradition seems to have 
been believed in Sicily, for Anchises had a 
sanctuary at Egesta, and the funeral games 
celebrated in Sicily in his honour continued 
down to a late period. There is, however, the 
greatest difference of traditions as to his burial- 
place : it was in Ida, and honoured by herds- 
men (Eustath. ad II. xii. 98) ; in Pallene 
(Schol. ad II. xfv. 459) ; in Arcadia, where 
Aeneas was supposed to have settled for a while 
on his way to Sicily, having landed on the 
Laconian coast (Paus. viii. 12, 8) ; in Epirus 
(Procop. Goth. iv. 22) ; in Sicily (Verg. Aen. v. 
760 ; Hyg. Fab. 260) ; in Latium (see Serv. 
ad Aen. i. 570, iii. 711). This variation is 
accounted for by the variety of legends about 
the wanderings of Aeneas [see that article]. 

AnohlSia (' Ayx^ia), a mountain in Arcadia, 
NW. of Mantinea, where Anchises is said to 
have bsen buried [see above]. 

Ancon (AevKOffvpwv 'Aytc&v), a harbour and 
town at the mouth of the river Iris in Pontus. 

Ancona or Ancon ('Ayx^v '■ Ancon itanus : 
Ancona), a town in Picenum on the Adriatic 
sea, lying in a bend of the coast between two 
promontories, and hence called Ancon or an 
'elbow.' It was built by the Syracusans, who 




Coin of Ancona in Italy. 
Obv., head of Aphrodite; rev., bent arm holding a palm 
branch. 

settled there about B.C. 392, discontented with 
the rule of the elder Dionysius ; and under the 
Romans, who made it a colony, it became one 
of the most important seaports of the Adriatic. 
It possessed an excellent harbour, completed 
by Trajan, and it carried on an active trade 
with the opposite coast of Illyricum. The town 
was celebrated for its temple of Venus and its 
purple dye : the surrounding country produced 
good wine and wheat (Strab. p. 241 ; Plin. iii. 
§ 111 ; Caes. B. C. i. 11 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 9 ; Juv. 
iv. 40 ; Catull. 36, 13). The coin shows Aphro- 
dite as tutelary deity. 

Ancorarlus Mons, a mountain in Mauretania. 
Caesariensis, S. of Caesarea, abounding in citron 
trees, the wood of which was used by the Romans 
for furniture (Plin. xiii. § 95). 

Ancore. [Nicaea.] 

Ancus Marcius, fourth legendary king of 
Rome, reigned 24 years, B.C. 640-616, and is 
said to have been the son of Numa's daughter. 
Like Numa he embodies the priestly or ponti- 
fical institutions of the regal period, but espe- 
cially has assigned to him those religious cere- 
monies which belonged to war. He conquered 
the Latins, took many Latin towns, transported 
the inhabitants to Rome, and gave them the 
Aventine to dwell on : these conquered Latins 
formed the original Plebs. He also founded a 
colony at Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber ; 
built a fortress on the Janiculum as a protection 



ANCYEA 

Against Etruxia, and united it with the city by 
a bridge across the Tiber ; dug the ditch of the 
Quirites, which was a defence for the open 
ground between the Caelian and the Palatine ; 
and built a prison. He was succeeded by Tar- 
quinius Priscus. (Liv. i. 32 ; Dionys. iii. 36 ; 
Cic. deliep. ii. 18.) 

Ancyra ('AjKvpa: 'AyKvpavSs, Aneyranus). 
(Angora or Enguri), a city of Galatia in Asia 
Minor, in 39° 56' N. lat. It was an important 
junction of roads both pre-Roman and Roman, 
especially the roads from Byzantium and Chal- 
eedon to T avium and Armenia beyond the 
Halys, and the roads southwards to Cilicia and 
westwards to Sardis. In the time of Augustus, 
when Galatia became a Roman province, Ancyra 
was the capital it was originally the chief city 
of a Gallic tribe named the Tectosages, who 
came from the S. of France. Under the Roman 
empire it had the name of Sebaste, which in 
Greek is equivalent to Augusta in Latin. 
Hence the inhabitants of the district of which 
it was metropolis were called "J,e^aarrivo\ Tiktu- 
<r<ryes, and Ancyra was called 5f^cto-T<; Te/CTO- 
crdywf, to distinguish it from two other Sebastes 
of Galatia, Tavium and Pessinus. When Au- 
gustus recorded the chief events of his life on 



ANDOCIDES 



69 




Coin of Ancyra in Phrvgia. 
Obv., head ol the Senate ; m., within wreath ANKYPANON, 

bronze tablets at Rome, the citizens of Ancyra 
had a copy made, which was cut on marble 
blocks and placed at Ancyra in a temple dedi- 
cated to Augustus and Rome. This inscription 
is called the Monumentum (or Marmor) Ancg- 
ranum (Mommsen, 1865; C.I.L.i.). It has 
erroneously been supposed that there was 
another Ancyra in Phrygia, for which Strab. 
pp. 567, 576, and Ptol. v. 2, 22 have been cited, 
but the fact is that both these writers some- 
times (though not consistently) extend Phrygia 
so as to include part of Galatia. 

And an: a ( 'AvSav'ta : 'AuSavitvs, 'AvSdi'ios), a 
town in Messenia, between Megalopolis and 
Messene, the capital of the kings of the race of 
the Leleges, abandoned by its inhabitants 
in the second Messenian war, and from that 
time a mere village. Pausanias found only 
ruins. Oechalia is identified by Strabo with 
Andania, but by Pausanias with Carnasium, one 
mile distant, where mysteries were celebrated. 
(See Oechalia ; Paus. iv. 33, 6; Strab. pp. 339, 
850; Liv. xxxvi. 31.) 

Andecavi, Andegavi, Andes, a Gallic people 
N. of the Loire, with a town of the same name, 
also called Juliomagus, now Angers (Caes. B. G. 
ii. 35 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 40). 

Andeira (tA "AvSetpa : 'Avoe ipnvds), a city of 
Mysia, celebrated for its temple of Cybelc sur- 
named 'AefSeipijevj (Plin. v. § 126). 

Andematonnnm. [Lingones.] 

Anderida, a Roman station in South Britain 
on the site of Pevensey in Sussex. The district 
Anderida (which is said to be named from a 
Celtic word andred, meaning uninhabited or 
'forest' land) formed a wide tract of the 
Weald of Kent and Sussex, extending into 
Hampshire. 



Anderitum (Anterieux), a town of the Gabali 
in Aquitauia (Caes. B. G. vii. 75). 

Andes. 1. See Andecavi. — 2. A pagus or 
township near Mantua, the birthplace of Virgil. 
Whether it was the name of a single vicus, ox 
village, is not certain ; but an old tradition 
(Dante, Burg, xviii. 83) identifies it with Pistola 
on the Mincio, about 3 miles below Mantua. 
Whether this is correct or not, it cannot have 
been many miles from Mantua, and it is hard 
to account for the ' xxx milia ' in Probus, unless 
be meant to say 30 miles from Cremona. 

Andocides ('AvSoKiSris). 1. Son of Leogoras, 
who fought against the Peisistratidae (Andoc. 
de Myst. § 106). He was one of the envoys for 
the truce with Sparta, B.C. 445, and held com- 
mand with Glaucon at Corcyra B.C. 435 (Andoc. 
de Pace, § 6 ; Thuc. i. 51). — 2. Grandson of the 
preceding, son of another Leogoras, was the 
second in date of the Ten Attic Orators. He was 
born about b.c. 440 (cf. Andoc. deBed.% 7 ; [Lys.] 
in Andoc. § 46). In 415 he was implicated in 
the charge of mutilating the Hermae (he does 
not seem to have been connected with the other 
charge of profaning the mysteries), and being 
denounced by Diocleides along with his father 
and other relations and supposed accomplices 
(42 in all) was imprisoned. To save these per- 
sons he revealed what he knew : viz. that cer- 
tain persons previously named by Teucros, and 
four others, were guilt}'. He and his relations 
thus escaped; but as he was regarded as impli- 
cated in the impiety the promise of indemnity 
did not save him from arifiia, which involved 
his banishment. The truth seems to have been 
that he admitted belonging to the club at which 
the mutilation had been proposed, and by the 
members of which it was carried out, but he 
himself was ill at the time (so he stated in the 
speech 15 years afterwards), and took no part 
in the act. In his exile he traded in timber 
and supplied the fleet at Samos with oars. 
Hence when he attempted to live at Athens in 
411 he was denounced for supplying the de- 
mocracy at Samos and driven from Athens. 
He then despatched corn from Cyprus to 
Athens, which facilitated his return to Athens 
in the following year, and it was at this time 
that he delivered the speech still extant, On his 
Return, in which he petitioned for pel mission 
to reside at Athens, but in vain. He was thus 
driven into exile a third time, and went to reside 
at Elis. In 403 he again returned to Athens 
upon the overthrow of the tyranny of the Thirty 
by ThrasybuluB, and the proclamation of the 
general amnesty. He was now allowed to 
remain quietly at Athens for the next 4 years, 
but in 390 his enemies accused him of having 
profaned the mysteries : he defended himself 
in the oration still extant, On the Mysteries, 
and was acquitted. In 891 he was sent as 
ambassador to Sparta to conclude a peace, 
which on his return in 390 he defended unsuc- 
cessfully in the extant speech On the Peace 
with Lacedaemon. He seems to have died 
soon afterwards, perhaps in exile. Besides the 
three orations already mentioned there is a 
fourth against Alcibiades, said to have been 
delivered in 415, which is spurious. Andocides 
was not a trained rhetorician, and his speeches 
have not art or grace of style, and are lacking 
in skill of arrangement ; on the other hand, he 
is unaffected and natural, and has passages of 
forcible and telling narrative (e.g. de Myst. 
§ 43 f., 48 f.). It is to bin credit that his advice, 
to accept the peace with Lacedaemon was Bound 
Statesmanship, though rejected by his country- 



70 



ANDBAEMON 



ANDBOMEDA 



men. — Editions. Oratores Attici, Bekker 1828, 
Baiter 1850 C. Miiller 1868 ; text by Teubner, 
1871. 

Andraemon ('AvSpcdfitmv). 1. Husband of 
Gorge, daughter of Oeneus king of Calydon, in 
Aetolia, whom lie succeeded, and father of 
Thoas, who is hence called Andraemonides (II. 
ii. 638; Od. xiv. 499; Paus. x. 38, 5).— 2. Son of 
Oxylus, and husband of Dryope, who was 
mother of Amphissus by Apollo (Ov. Met. ix. 
5.63 ; Ant. Lib. 32). 

Andriscus ('AvSpltrxos), a man of low origin, 
who pretended to be a natural son of Perseus, 
"king of Macedonia, was seized by Demetrius, 
king of Syria, and sent to Borne. He escaped 
irom Rome, assumed the name of Philip, and 
obtained possession of Macedonia, B.C. 149. 
He defeated the praetor Juventius, but was con- 
quered by Caecilius Metellus, and taken to 
Bome to adorn the triumph of the latter, 148. 
(Veil. Pat. i. 11 ; Flor. ii. 14 ; Amm. Marc. xiv. 
11, 31 ; Liv. Bp. 49, 50,_52.) 

Androcles ('AvSpoK\ris), an Athenian dema- 
gogue. He was an enemy of Alcibiades ; and 
it was chiefly owing to his exertions that Alci- 
biades was banished. After this event, An- 
drocles was for a time at the head of the 
democratical party ; but in B.C. 411 he was put 
to death by the oligarchical government of the 
Pour Hundred (Thuc. viii. 65; Aristoph. Vesp. 
1187 ; Plut. Ale. 19 ; Andoc. de Myst. 27). 

Androclus, the slave of a Boman consular, 
was sentenced to be exposed to the wild beasts 
in the circus ; but a lion which was let loose 
upon him, instead of springing upon his victim, 
exhibited signs of recognition, and began licking 
him. Upon inquiry it appeared that Androclus 
had been compelled by the severity of his 
master, while in Africa, to run away from him. 
Having one day taken refuge in a cave from the 
heat of the sun, a lion entered, apparently in 
great pain, and seeing him, went up to him and 
held out his paw. Androclus found that a large 
thorn had pierced it, which he drew out, and 
the lion was soon able to use his paw again. 
They lived together for some time in the cave, 
the lion catering for his benefactor. But at 
last, tired of this savage life, Androclus left the 
cave, was apprehended by some soldiers, brought 
to Bome, and condemned to the wild beasts. 
He was pardoned, and presented with the lion, 
which he used to lead about the city. (G-ell. v. 
14 ; Sen. de Benef. ii. 19 ; Aelian. V. H. vii. 48.) 

AndrogeOS ('AvSpdyeas), son of Minos and 
Pasiphae, or Crete, conquered all his opponents 
in the games of the Panathenaea at Athens. 
This extraordinary good luck, however, became 
the cause of his destruction, though the mode 
of his death is related differently. According 
to some accounts Aegeus, fearing his strength, 
sent him to fight against the Marathonian bull, 
who killed him ; according to others, he was 
assassinated by his defeated rivals on his road 
to Thebes, whither he was going to take part in 
a solemn contest (Apollod. iii. 1. 2, 15. 7 ; Paus. 
i. 27, 9). Propertius (ii. 1. 61) speaks of his 
being recalled to life by Aesculapius. A third 
account related that he was assassinated by 
Aegeus himself (Diod. iv. 60). Minos made 
war on the Athenians in consequence of the 
death of his son, and imposed upon them the 
tribute of seven youths and seven maidens 
from which they were delivered by Theseus. 
At Phalerum there was an altar called ' the 
Altar of the Hero,' which Pausanias (i. 1) states 
to be really the altar of Androgeos. In the 
games of the Ceramicus for the son of Minos, 



he is known as Eurygyes (Hesych. s.v. iir' 
Evpvyvy aywv : cf. Hes.fr. 106). 

Andromache ('AvSpofxaxt]), a daughter of 
Eetion, king of the Gilician Thebes, and one of 
the noblest female characters in the Iliad. 
Her father and her 7 brothers were slain by 
Achilles at the taking of Thebes, and her 
mother, who had purchased her freedom by a 
large ransom, was killed by Artemis (II. vi. 
414 ft.). She was married to Hector, by whom 
she had a son Scamandrius (Astyanax), and for 
whom she entertained the most tender love 
(cf. II. xxii. 460, xxiv. 725). On the taking of 
Troy her son was hurled from the wall of tbe 
city, and she herself fell to the share of Neo- 
ptolemus (Pyrrhus), the son of Achilles, who took 
her to Epirus, and to whom she bore 3 sons, 
Molossus, Pielus, and Pergamus. She after- 
wards married Helenus, a brother of Hector, 
who ruled over Chaonia, a part of Epirus, and 
to whom she bore Cestrinus. (Verg. Aen. iii. 295 ; 
Paus. i. 11 ; Pind. Nem. iv. 82, vii. 50.) In 
Euripides, Androm., she lives until the death 
of Neoptolemus in Phthia. After the death of 
Helenus, she followed her son Pergamus to 
Asia, where an heroum was erected to her. 

Andromachus ('AuSp6fj.axos). 1. Buler of 
Tauromenium in Sicily about B.C. 344, and 
father of the historian Timaeus (Plut. Tim. 10 ; 
Diod. xvi. 7, 68). — 2. Of Crete, physician to the 
emperor Nero, a.d. 54-68 ; was the first person 
on whom the title of Arehiater was conferred, 
and was celebrated as the inventor of a famous 
compound medicine and antidote called Theri- 
aca Andromachi, which retains its place in 
some foreign Pharmacopoeias to the present 
day. Andromachus has left the directions for 
making this mixture in a Greek elegiac poem, 
consisting of 174 lines, edited by Tidicaeus, 
Tiguri, 1607, and Leinker, Norimb. 1754 ; Kiihn, 
1826. 

Andromeda ('AvSpo/nzSri), daughter of the 
Aethiopian king Cepheus and Cassiopea. [The 
story belongs also to Phoenicia and is localised 
at Joppa : see Strab. pp. 43, 759 ; Paus. iv. 35, 
9 ; Plm. v. § 59.] Her mother boasted that 
the beauty of her daughter surpassed that 
of the Nereids, who prevailed on Poseidon to 
visit the country by an inundation and a 
sea-monster. The oracle of Ammon promised 
deliverance if Andromeda was given up to 
the monster ; and Cepheus, obliged to yield to 




Andromeda and Perseus. (From a Terra-cotta.j 



the wishes of his people, chained Andromeda 
to a rock. Here she was found and saved by 

; Perseus, who slew the monster and obtained 
her as his wife. Andromeda had previously 
been promised to Phineus, and this gave rise to 
the famous fight of Phineus and Perseus at the 
wedding, in which the former and all his asso- 

I ciates were slain (Ov. Met. v. 1 seq.). After 



ANDRONICUS 



ANIO 



71 



her death, she was placed among the stars. 
(Apollod. ii. 4 ; Hyg. Fab. 64 ; Poet. Ast. ii. 10 ; 
Arat. Phaen. 198 ; Ov. Met . iv. 662.) 

Andronlcus ('Av8p6i>iKosj. 1. Cyrrhestes, 
so called from his native place, Cyrrha, probably 
lived about B.C. 100, and built the octagonal 
tower at Athens, called ' the tower of the 
winds' (Vitr. i. 6, 4; cf. Diet, of Ant. s.v. Horo- j 
logium). — 2. Livius Andronlcus, the earliest 
Roman poet, was a Greek, probably a native of | 
Tarentum. He was brought to Rome B.C. 275 
and became the slave of M. Livius Salinator, 
by whom he was manumitted, and from whom I 
he received the Roman name Livius. He 
obtained at Rome a perfect knowledge of the 
Latin language. He was employed by M. 
Livius to teach his sons (and perhaps other 
children), and for the benefit of his pupils trans- 
lated the Odyssey into Saturnian verse (Cic. 
Brut. 18, 71 ; Gell. xviii. 9), of which some 
fragments remain ("Wordsworth, Fr.). He also 
translated tragedies and a few comedies from 
the Greek, using in them some of the Greek 
metres, especially the trochaic. His first play 
was acted B.C. 240, and he himself was one of 
the actors (Liv. vii. 2). In B.C. 207 he was 
appointed by the Pontifex to write a poem on 
the victory at Sena (Liv. xxvii. 37). He cannot 
he called an original poet, but he gave the first 
impulse to Latin literature. From Horace (Ep. 
ii. 1. 69) we learn that his poems, probably the 
translation of the Odyssey in particular, long 
remained a school-book. (Fragments in Duntzer, 
1835 ; Ribbeck, Seen. Bom. 1871 ; Wordsworth.) 
— 3. Of Rhodes, a Peripatetic philosopher at 
Rome, about B.C. 58. He published a new 
edition of the works of Aristotle and Theo- 
phrastus, which formerly belonged to the 
library of Apellicon, and which were brought to 
Rome by Sulla with the rest of Apellicon's 
library in B.C. 84. Tyrannio commenced this 
task, but apparently did not do much towards 
it (Strab. 665 ; Gell. xx. 5 ; Aristoteles). The 
arrangement which Andronicus made of Ari- 
stotle's writings seems to be the one which 
forms the basis of our present editions. He 
wrote many commentaries upon the works of 
Aristotle ; but none is extant, for the para- 
phrase of the Nicomachean Ethics ascribed to 
him was not his work. 

Andropolis VAvhpwv ir6\is : Chabur), a city 
of Lower Egypt, on the W. bank of the Canopic 
branch of the Nile, was the capital of the Nomos 
Andropolites, and, under the Romans, the sta- 
tion of a legion. 

Andros (*AvSpos : "AvSptos: Andro), the most 
northerly and one of the largest islands of the 
Cyclades, SE. of Euboea, 21 miles long and 8 
broad, early attained importance, and colonised 
Acanthus and Stagira about B.C. 654 (Thuc. iv. 
84, 88). It was taken by the Persians in their 
invasion of Greece, was afterwards subject to 
the Athenians, at a later time to the Mace- 
donians, and at length to Attalus III., king of 
Pergamus, on whose death (B.C. 133) it passed 
with the rest of his dominions to the Romans 
(Hdt. viii. Ill, 121 ; Liv. xxxi. 45). It was 
celebrated for its wine, whence the whole island 
was regarded as sacred to Dionysus (Diet. Ant. 
s.v. Theoxenia). Its chief town, also called 
Andros, contained a celebrated temple of Dio- 
nysus, and a harbour of the name of Gaureleon, 
and a fort Gaurion. 

Androtion ('AeSponW). 1. An Athenian 
orator, and a contemporary of Demosthenes, 
against whom the latter delivered an oration, 
which is still extant. — 2. The author of an 



Atthis, or a work on the history of Attica (Pans, 
vi. 7, 2, x. 8, 1). 

Anemorea, afterwards Anemolea ('Avefidpeta, 
'Avefi&Keia), a town on a hill on the borders of 
Phocis and Delphi (II. ii. 521 ; Strab. p. 423). 

Anemurium ( ' Avefiovpiov : Anamur), a town 
and promontory at the S. point of Cilicia, oppo- 
site to Cyprus. 

Angerona or Angeronla, a Roman goddess 
respecting whom we have different statements, 
some representing her as the goddess of silence, 
others as the goddess of anguish and fear — that 
is, the goddess who not only produces this state 
of mind, but also relieves men from it. Her 
statue stood in the temple of Volupia, with her 
mouth bound and sealed up. Hence an ancient 
surmise that she was a protectress of Rome, 
keeping in silence a secret name of the city 
(Plin. iii. § 65). A modern theory is that she 
was a goddess of the new year, her festival 
falling at the winter solstice (C. I. L. i. p. 409), 
and in this view her name is derived a b an- 
gerendo, i.e. from the turning back of the sun. 
If so we can only suppose the attitude of silence 
to denote that none can reveal what the new- 
year will bring. Her festival, called Angero- 
nalia, Divalia, or feriae divae Angeronae, 
was on Dec. 21. (Macrob. i. 10, 7 ; Varr. L. L. 
vi. 23; Plin. 1. c. ; Kal. Praenest.) 

Angites ('A77i't7jj : Anghista), a river in 
Macedonia, flowing into the Strymon (Hdt. vii. 
113). 

Angltla or Anguitia, a goddess worshipped 
by the Marsians and Marrubians, who lived 
about the shores of the lake Fucinus. Origi- 
nally an Italian deity, she was later made a sister 
of Medeia, or identified with Medeia herself 
(Verg. Aen. vii. 759 ; Serv. ad loc. ; Sil. Ital. 
viii. 500; Plin. vii. 15, xxv. 10; Gell. xvi. 11.) 

Angli or Anglii, a German people of the 
race of the Suevi, on the left bank of the Elbe, 
afterwards passed over with the Saxons into 
Britain, which was called after them England. 
[Saxones.] (Tac. Germ. 40 ; Ptol. ii. 11.) 

Angrivarii, a German people dwelling on 
both sides of the Visurgis (Weser), separated 
from the Cherusci by an agger or mound of 
earth (Tac. Ann. ii. 19). They were generally 
on friendly terms with the Romans, but rebelled 
in a.d. 16, and were subdued. Towards the end 
of the first century they extended their terri- 
tories southwards, and, in conjunction with the 
Chamavi, took possession of part of the territory 
of the Bructeri, S. and E. of the Lippe, the 
Angaria or Engern of the middle ages. (Tac. 
Germ. 34.) 

Anicetus, a freedman of Nero, and formerly 
his tutor, was employed by the emperor in the 
execution of many of his crimes ; he was after- 
wards banished to Sardinia, where he died. 
Anicius Gallus. [Gallub.] 
Anigrus ('Aviypos : Mavro-Potamo),a.small 
river in the Triphylian Elis, the Minyeius (Mi- 
yvfltos) of Homer (//. xi. 721), rises in M. Lapi- 
thas, and flows into the Ionian sea near Sami- 
cum ; its waters are sulphurous, and have a 
disagreeable smell, and its fish are not eatable. 
This, according to the legend, was caused by 
the wounded Centaurs bathing in it to wash 
out the poison from the arrows of Heracles 
! (Strab. pp. 844-347; Paus. v. 5; Ov. Mct.xv.'Ml). 
! Near Samicum was a cave sacred to the Nymphs 
I Amgridca t'AviyptSes or 'AviypidSt j), where 
j persons with cutaneous diseases were cured by 
the waters of the river. 

Anio, anciently Allien (hence Gen. Anienis : 
Teverone or I'Aniene), in Greek 'Aviccv and 



72 



ANIUS 



ANTAEUS 



'Aufys, a river, the most celebrated of the tri- 
butaries of the Tiber, rises in the mountains of~ 
the Hernici near Treba (Trevi), flows first NW. 
and then SW. through narrow mountain-valleys, 
receives the brook Digentia (Licenza) above 
Tibur, forms at Tibur beautiful waterfalls (hence 
praeceps Anio, Hor. Od. i. 7, 13 ; cf. Strab. 
p. 238 ; Stat. Silv. i. 3. 73), and flows, form- 
ing the boundary between Latium and the land 
of the Sabines, into the Tiber, 3 miles above 
Rome, where the town of Antemnae stood. The 
water of the Anio was conveyed to Rome by 
two aqueducts, the^4mo vetus and^.»io novus. 
(See Diet, of Ant. s.v. Aquaeductus.) 

AH1US ("Avios), son of Apollo (according to 
others, of Zarex, who afterwards married his 
mother), and priest of Apollo at Delos. His 
mother was Rhoio ( = pomegranate) , daughter 
of Staphylus ( = grapes), and granddaughter of 
Dionysus. Staphylus, seeing his daughter with 
child, placed her in a chest and set her adrift. 
She came to land, as variously stated, in Delos 
or Euboea, and bore her son Anius. By Dryope 
he had three daughters, Oeno, Spermo, and 
Elais, to whom Dionysus gave the power of 
producing at will any quantity of wine, corn, 
and oil — whence they were called Oenotrupae. 
With these necessaries, being taken to Troy by 
Palamedes (or by Menelaus), they are said to 
have supplied the Greeks during the first 9 
years of the Trojan war. According to Ovid 
they were changed into doves to escape from 
Agamemnon. Roman legends make them and 
their father entertain Aeneas at Delos. Anius 
represents the connexion which was imagined 
between Apollo and Dionysus, and the names 
of his kindred point the same way (Tzetz. ad 
Lyc. 580 ; Diod. v. 62 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 80 ; Ov. 
Met. xiii. 632 ; Dionys. i. 59). 

Anna, Anna Perenna. Anna was daughter 
of Belus and sister of Dido. After the death 
of the latter, she fled from Carthage to Italy, 
where she was kindly received by Aeneas. 
Here she excited the jealousy of Lavinia, and 
being warned in a dream by Dido, . she fled and 
threw herself into the river Numicius. Hence- 
forth she was worshipped as the nymph of that 
river under the name of Anna Pebenna. [In 
a mime of Laberius the names are Anna Per- 
anna, and in a satire of M. Varro Anna ac 
Peranna : Gell. xiii. 23.] There are various 
other stories respecting the origin of her wor- 
shig. Ovid relates that she was considered by 
some as Luna, by others as Themis, by others 
as Io, daughter of Inachus, by others as the 
Anna of Bovillae, who supplied the plebs with 
food when they seceded to the Mons Sacer. 
Her festival was celebrated on the 15th of 
March, when plebeian men and women met in 
couples and feasted and drank, either under 
extemporised booths or in the open. According 
to Martial, there had once been a maiden sacri- 
fice. A special place was at the first milestone 
on the Via Flaminia. The identification of this 
goddess with Anna, the sister of Dido, is un- 
doubtedly of late origin. Some have regarded 
her merely as the goddess of flowing waters; 
others, in view of her legendary reference to 
Luna, and Io, and Themis, the mother of the 
Hours, treat her, with greater probability, as the i 
goddess of the year, worshipped in the spring. 
But the opinion of Usener deserves considera- 
tion — that she represents the union of two 
goddesses (Anna ac Peranna), one the goddess 
of the year in its course, the other of the com- 
pleted year ; and the story of the wooing of 
Minerva through Anna by Mars is regarded as 



a corruption of the myth of Mars and Nerio 
(Ov. Fast. iii. 523-693; Mart. iv. 64, 16; Ma- 
crob. Sat. i. 12, 6 ; C.I. L. i. p. 322). 

Anna Comnena, daughter of Alexis I. Com- 
nenus (reigned a.d. 1081-1118), wrote the life 
of her father Alexis in 15 books, which is one 
of the most valuable histories of the Byzantine 
literature. — Editions. By Possinus, Paris, 
1651 ; Schopen, Bonn, 1839 ; Reifferscheid, 1878. 

Annalis, a cognomen of the Villia Gens, first 
acquired by L. Villius, tribune of the plebs, in 
B.C. 179, because he introduced a law fixing the 
year (annus) at which it was lawful for a per- 
son to be a candidate for the public offices. 

M. Anneius, legate of M. Cicero during his 
government of Cilicia, B.C. 51 (Cic. Fam. xiii. 
55, 57 ; xv. 4). 

T. An.nia.nus, a Roman poet, lived in the time 
of Trajan and Hadrian, and wrote Fescennine 
verses, and also a poem (Faliscum) about 
country life at Falerii (Gell. vi. 7 ; Auson. 
Id. 13). 

Anniceris ('Avv'ucepis). There were two Cy- 
renaic philosophers of this name : 1. A. the 
elder, ransomed Plato for 20 minae when he 
was sold as a slave by Dionysius about B.C. 388 
(Diog. Laert. ii. 86). — 2. A. the younger, pupil 
of Antipater, and contemporary of Hegesias, 
about B.C. 320-280. He limited the doctrine of 
pleasure as the only principle so far that he 
allowed the wise to make sacrifices for friend- 
ship, gratitude, and patriotism. 

Annius Cimber. [Cimbeb.] 

Annius Milo. [Milo.] 

Anser, a poet of the Augustan age, a friend 
of the triumvir M. Antonius (Cic. Phil. xiii. 5, 11). 
As a writer of light and wanton verse he is 
called procax by Ovid (Trist. ii. 435). There 
does not seem much ground for the theory of 
Servius, Donatus, &c, that he is alluded to as 
anser in Verg. Eel. ix. 36, and that he was a 
detractor of Virgil's fame ; or for supposing that 
the line of Propert. iii. 32, 83, refers to him. 

Ansibarii or Ampsivarli, a German people, 
originally dwelt S. of the Bructeri, between the 
sources of the Ems and the Weser ; driven out 
of their country by the Chauci in the reign of 
Nero (a.d. 59), they asked the Romans for per- 
mission to settle in the Roman territory be- 
tween the Rhine and the Tssel, but when their 
request was refused they wandered into the 
interior of the country to the Cherusci, and 
were at length extirpated, according to Tacitus. 
We find their name, however, among the Franks 
in the time of Julian. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 55, 56 ; 
Amm. Marc. xx. 10.) 

Antaeopolis (' AvTai6iro\is : nr. Gau-el-Ke- 
bir), a city of Upper Egypt (the Thebai's), on 
the E. side of the Nile, but at some distance 
from the river, was one of the chief seats of the 
worship of Osiris (Ptol. iv. 5, 71 ; Plin. v. 49). 

Antaeus ('Avraios), son of Poseidon and Ge, 
a mighty giant and wrestler in Libya. The 
strangers who came to his country were com- 
pelled to wrestle with him ; the conquered were 
slain, and out of their skulls he built a house 
to Poseidon. He was vanquished by Heracles. 
According to some accounts he was invincible 
as long as he remained in contact with his 
mother earth ; therefore Heracles lifted him 
and strangled him in the air. This seems to be 
a later addition, for in works of art the older 
examples show the ordinary wrestling (Antaeus 
vanquished by being thrown) ; the lifting, only 
in later monuments. The tomb of Antaeus 
(Antaei collis), which formed a moderate hill in 
the shape of a man stretched out at full length, 



ANTAGORAS 



ANTICYRA 



73 



was shown near the town of Tingis in Maure- 
tania. (Pind. Isthm. iii. 70 ; Plat. Theae*. 169 ; 
Apollod. ii. 5, 11 ; Hyg. Fab. 31 ; Ov. Ibis, 393 ; 
Luc. Phars. iv. 590 ; Juv. iii. 89 ; Strab. p. 829.) 

Antagoras ('Avraydpas ), of Rhodes, flourished 
about B.C. 270, a friend of Antigonus Gonatas, 
and a contemporary of Aratus. He wrote an 
epic poem entitled Thebais, and also epigrams, 
of which specimens are still extant (Anth. Pal.). 

Antalcldas ('Avra\K'iSas\, a Spartan, son of 
Leon, is chiefly known by the treaty concluded 
with Persia in B.C. 387, usually called the peace 
of Antalcidas, since it was the fruit of his 
diplomacy. According to this treaty all the 
Greek cities in Asia Minor, together with Clazo- 
menae and Cyprus, were to belong to the Per- 
sian king ; the Athenians were allowed to retain 
only Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, and all the 
other Greek cities were to be independent. 

Antander ("AvravSpos!, brother of Agathocles, 
king of Syracuse, wrote the life of his brother. 

Antandrus ("AvravSpos : 'AvrdvSpios : An- 
tandro), a city of Great Mysia, on the Adramyt- 
tian Gulf, at the foot of Mount Ida ; an Aeolian 
colony. Virgil represents Aeneas as touching 
here after leaving Troy. (Aen. iii. 106; Strab. 
p. 606 ; Thuc. viii. 108 ; Hdt. v. 26, vii. 42.) 

Aataradus ('AvrdpaSos : Tortosa), a town on 
the N. border of Phoenicia, opposite the island 
of Aradus. 

Antea or Antia ("AcTeio), daughter of the 
Lycian king Iobates, wife of Proetus of Argos. 
She is also called Stheneboea. Respecting her 
love for Bellerophontes, see Bellehophontes. 

Antemnae (Antemnas, atis), an ancient Sa- 
bine town at the junction of the Anio and the 
Tiber, destroyed by the Romans in the earliest 
times (Varr. L. L. v. 28; Verg. Aen. vii. 631 ; 
Liv. i. 10 ; Dionys. ii. 32 ; Strab. p. 230). 

Antenor ('Avr-'nvuip). 1. A Trojan, husband 
of Theano, was one of the wisest among the 
elders at Troy, and a companion of Priam ; he 
received Menelaus and Ulysses into his house 
when they came to Troy as ambassadors, and 
advised his fellow-citizens to restore Helen to 
Menelaus (II. iii. 148, 262, vii. 347 ; cf. Plat. Symp. 
221 c). In post-Homeric story he is a traitor 
to his country who concerted a plan of deliver- 
ing the city, and even the palladium, into the 
hands of the Greeks. Hence on the capture of 
Troy he was spared bv the Greeks (Dar. Phryg. 
5; Diet. Cret. v. 1, 4, 8; Serv. ad Aen. i. 246, 
651, ii. 15; Tzetz. Lye. 339; Paus. x. 27). His 
history after this event is related differently. 
Some writers relate that he founded a new 
kingdom at Troy ; according to others, he em- 
barked with Menelaus and Helen, was carried 
to Libya, and settled at Cyrene ; while a third 
account states that he went with the Heneti to 
Thrace, and thence to the western coast of the 
Adriatic, where the foundation of Patavium and 
several towns is ascribed to him. (Pind. Pytli. 
v. 83 ; Strab. pp. 212, 543, 552 ; Liv. i. 1 ; Serv. 
ad Aen. i. 1, ix. 264.) — 2. Son of Euphranor, an 
Athenian sculptor, made the first bronze statues 
of Harmodius and Aristogiton, which the Athe- 
nians set up in the Ceramicus, B.C. 509. These 
statues were carried off to Su?a by Xerxes, and 
their place was supplied by others made either 
by Collias or by Praxiteles. After the conquest 
of Persia, Alexander the Great sent the statues 
back to Athens, where they were again set up 
in the Ceramicus. 

Anteros. [Eros.] 

Antevorta, also called Porrima or Prorsa, 
and Postvorta, are described either as the two 
sisters or as companions of the Roman goddess 



Carmenta ; but originally they were only two 
attributes of the one goddess Carmenta, the 
former describing her knowledge of the future, 
and the latter that of the past, analogous to 
the two-headed Janus (Ov. Fast. i. 633; Gell. 

xvi. 16 ; Macrob. Sat. i. 7 ; Ixdigitamenta). 
Anthedon i'Av8r)Sd>v : 'AvdrjSovws : Lukisit), 

a town of Boeotia with a harbour, on the coast 
I of the Euboean sea, at the foot of M. Messa- 
pius, said to have derived its name from a 
nymph Anthedon, or from Anthedon, son of 
Glaucus, who was here changed into a god 
(Ov. Met. vii. 232, xiii. 905). The inhabitants 
lived chiefly by fishing. (Strab. pp. 460, 404, 
445 ; Paus. ix. 22 ; H. ii. 508.) 

Aathemlus, emperor of the West, a.e. 467- 
472, was killed on the capture of Rome by Rici- 
mer, who made Olybrius emperor. 

Anthemus ('Avdtixovs, oivros : 'AvBe/iovcios), 
a Macedonian town in Chalcidice (Hdt v. 94 ; 
i Thuc. ii. 99J. 

Anthemusia or Anthemus ('AvBefj.ovaia), a 
city of Mesopotamia, SW. of Edessa, and a 
little E. of the Euphrates. The surrounding 
district was called by the same name, but was 
generally included under that of Osrhoexe.' 

Anthene rAvBfyri), a place in Cynuria, in the 
Peloponnesus (Thuc. v. 41 ; Paus. iii. 38). 

Anthylla l"Avdv\\a), a considerable city of 
Lower Egypt, near the mouth of the Canopic 
branch of the Nile, below Xaucratis, the reve- 
nues of which, under the Persians, were assigned 
to the wife of the satrap of Egypt, to provide 
her with shoes (Hdt. ii. 97 ; Athen. p. 33). 

Antias, Q. Valerius, a Roman annalist, wrote, 
about B.C. 90, a history of Rome from the earliest 
times in more than 70 books (Gell. vi. 9, 17 J. 
He is mentioned by Dionysius among the well- 
known annalists (i. 7, ii. 13), but not by Cicero. 
Livy mentions him more than any other (35 
tunes), and apparently without misgiving in the 
first decade (e.g. vii. 36, ix. 27, 37, 43); but 
having later the means of comparing him with 
more trustworthy authorities, such as Polybius, 
he stigmatises him as the most mendacious of 
the annalists (xxvi. 49, xxx. 19, xxxiii. 10, xxxviii. 
23, xxxix. 43 ; cf. Gell. I.e. ; Oros. v. 16). He 
seems to have been reckless in his invention of 
precise numbers, obviously exaggerated, and of 
circumstantial details. — Fragments by Krause 
I 1833, Roth 1852, "Wordsworth 1874. 

Anticlea i 'AvriKKaat daughter of Autolycus, 
' wife of Laertes, and mother of Odysseus, died of 
I grief at the long absence of her son (Od. xi. 85, 
j 152, xv. 356), or, according to Hyginus (Fab. 248), 
put an end to herself. A story is mentioned 
by Plutarch (Q. Gr. 43) and Hyginus (Fab. 201) 
that before marrying Laertes she lived on inti- 
mate terms with Sisyphus ; whence Ulysses is 
called a son of Sisyphus (Soph. Aj. 190; Eur. 
Iph. Aid. 524, C;/cl. 104; Ov. Met. xiii. 31). 

Anticlides I'AvtikA.(i'5t)s), of Athens, lived 
after the time of Alexander the Great, and 
was the author of several works, the most im- 
portant of which was entitled Nosti (N<S<ttoi), 
containing an account cf t':e return of the 
Greeks from their mythical expeditions (Plut. 
Alex. 46; Athen. pp. 157, 384, 446). 

Anticyra, more anciently Anticirrha ('Airf- 
nippa, or 'Avr'tKvpa : 'AvriKupivs, ' AvTiKvpcuos). 
| 1. (Aspra Spitia), a town in Phocis, with a 
, harbour, on a peninsula on the W. side of the 
. Sinus Anticyranus, a lay of the Crissaean Gulf, 
I called in ancient times Cyparissus. It con- 
tinued to be a place of importance under the 
Romans (Strab. p. 418; Paus. x. 8, 36; Gell. 

xvii. 13 ; Liv. xxii. 18). — 2. A town in Thessaly, 



74 



ANTIGENES 



ANTIGONUS 



on the Spercheus, not far from its mouth (Hdt. 
vii. 198; Strab. pp. 418, 428, 434).— Both towns 
were celebrated for their hellebore, the chief 
remedy in antiquity for madness (and, accord- 
ing to Pliny, for epilepsy). It is not to be sup- 
posed from Horace A. P. 300 that there was a 
third place of the name : he means that even 
three, if they existed, would be too few (Hor. 
Sat. ii. 3, 83, 166 ; Ov. Pont. iv. 3, 53 ; Pers. 
iv. 16 ; Juv. xiii. 97 ; Plut. de Coh. Ira, 13 ; 
Plin. xxv. § 47). 

Antigenes ('Aurtyevris), a general of Alex- 
ander the Great, on whose death he obtained 
the satrapy of Susiana, and espoused the side of 
Eumenes. On the defeat of the latter in B.C. 
316, Antigenes fell into the hands of his enemy 
Antigonus, and was burnt alive by him [Plut. 
Alex. 80, Eum. 13; Diod. xix. 44). 

Antigenidas ('AvnyeviSas), a Theban, a cele- 
brated flute-player, and a poet, lived in the 
time of Alexander the Great. 

Antigone (' AvnydvT)), daughter of Oedipus 
by his mother Jocaste, and sister of Ismene, 
and of Eteocles and Polynlces. In the tragic 
story of Oedipus Antigone appears as a noble 
maiden, with a truly heroic attachment to her 
father and brothers. When Oedipus had blinded 
himself, and was obliged to quit Thebes, he was 
accompanied by Antigone, who remained with 
him till he died in Colonus, and then returned 
to Thebes. After her two brothers had killed 
each other in battle, and Creon, the king of 
Thebes, would not allow Polynices to be buried, 
Antigone alone defied the tyrant, and buried the 
body of her brother. Creon thereupon ordered 
her to be shut up in a subterranean cave, where 
she killed herself. Haemon, the son of Creon, 
who was in love with her, killed himself by her 
side. This is the story of Sophocles. In a lost 
Antigone of Euripides Creon is induced (by the 
intercession of Dionysus) to give her in mar- 
riage to Plaemon, and she bears a son named 
Maeon. In Hyginus (Fab. 72) Antigone is de- 
livered by Creon to Haemon to be put to death, 
but he marries her and lives with her in con- 
cealment in a shepherd's hut, where she bears 
a son. When this son is grown up he is recog- 
nised in Thebes by Creon as having the mark 
borne by all the dragon race. Hence he dis- 
covers that Antigone still lives, and rejects the 
intercession of Heracles. Haemon kills Anti- 
gone and then himself. The intercession of 
Heracles seems to be the subject of a vase- 
painting belonging to the fourth century B.C. (see 
Baumeister). Some have thought that Hyginus 
is giving the story of Euripides' play ; but it 
does not seem to agree with the slight notices 
which we possess of that play, and probably 
reproduces the plot of a later drama. It should 
be observed that the stories followed by the 
tragedians seem to be of late, probably Attic, 
origin. Homer does not mention Antigone 
(though he names 'Maeon son of Haemon ' in II. 
iv. 394). Pindar speaks of burial given to all 
seven Argive armies (01. vi. 15; Nem. ix. 24; 
cf. Paus. ix. 18, 3) without exception. The first 
notice of burial refused is in Aesch. Th. 1017. 

Antigonea and -la ('AvriySveia, 'Avrtyovla). 
1. (Tepeleni), a town in Epirus (Illyricum), at 
the junction of a tributary with the Aous, and 
near a narrow pass of the Acroceraunian moun- 
tains (Liv. xxxii. 5, xliii. 23). — 2. A Macedonian 
town in Chalcidice.— 3, See Mantinea. — 4. A 
town on the Orontes in Syria, founded by Anti- 
gonus as the capital of his empire B.C. 306, but 
most of its inhabitants were transferred by 
Seleucus to Antiochia, which was built in its 



neighbourhood (Strab. p. 750 ; Diod. xx. 47 ; 
Dio Cass. xl. 29 ; Liban. Antioch. p. 349). — 5. A 
town in Bithynia, afterwards Nicaea. — 6. A 
town in the Troas. [Alexandbia, No. 2.] 

Antigonus ('Avrlyovos). 1. King of Asia, 
surnamed the One-eyed (Lucian, Macrob. 11; 
Pol. v. 67), son of Philip of Elymiotis, and 
father of Demetrius Poliorcetes by Stratonlce. 
He was one of the generals of Alexander the 
Great, and in the division of the empire after 
the death of the latter (b.c. 323), he received 
the provinces of the Greater Phrygia, Lycia, 
and Pamphylia (Curt. x. 25, 2). On the death 
of the regent Antipater in 319, he aspired to the 
sovereignty of Asia. In 316 he defeated Eumenes 
and put him to death, after a struggle of nearly 
3 years (Nep. Eum. ; Plut. Eum. ; Diod. xix. 
43 ; Eumenes). From 315 to 311 he carried on 
war, with varying success, against Seleucus, 
Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus. By the 
peace made in 311, Antigonus was allowed to 
have the government of all Asia ; but peace 
did not last more than a year. After the defeat 
of Ptolemy's fleet in 306, Antigonus assumed the 
title of king, and his example was followed by 
Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Seleucus. In the 
same year Antigonus, hoping to crush Ptolemy, 
invaded Egypt, but was compelled to retreat. 
His son Demetrius Poliorcetes carried on the 
war with success against Cassander in Greece, 
but he was compelled to return to Asia to the 
assistance of his father, against whom Cas- 
sander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus 
had formed a fresh confederacy. Antigonus 
and Demetrius were defeated by Lysimachus at 
the decisive battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in 301. 
Antigonus fell in the battle in the 81st year of 
his age (Diod. xx. 46-86 ; Plut. Demetr. 15-30 ; 
Just. xv. 2-4). — 2. Gonatas, son of Demetrius 
Poliorcetes, and grandson of the preceding. He 




Coin of Antigonus Gonatas, ob. B.C. 239. 
Obv., head of Poseidon ; rev., Apollo with bow, seated on a 
prow. Probably refers to a naval success at Cos. [Some 
have called it a coin of the 1st Antigonus, referring to 
his victory at Cyprus, B.C. 306.] 



assumed the title of king of Macedonia aftei 
his father's death in Asia, in B.C. 283, but ha 
did not obtain possession of the throne till 277. 
He defeated an army of the Gauls (part of the 
reserves left by Brennus) B.C. 276 (Just. xxv. 2 ; 
cf. Diog. Laert. ii. 140). He was driven out of 
his kingdom by Pyrrhus of Epirus in 273, but 
recovered it in the following year : he was again 
expelled by Alexander, the son of Pyrrhus, 
and again recovered his dominions. After a 
long war with Athens he besieged and took the 
city, and placed a Macedonian garrison in it, 
B.C. 263. He died in 239. He was succeeded 
by Demetrius II. His surname Gonatas is 
usually derived from Gonnos or Gonni in Thes- 
saly ; but some think that the name means 
having an iron plate protecting the knee. (Plut. 
Demetr. 51, Pyrrh. 26 ; Just. xxiv. 1, xxv. 
1-3 ; Polyb. xxii. 43 f., Lucian, Macrob. 11.) — 
3, Doson (so called because he was always about 
to give but never did), nephew of the preceding, 



ANTLLIBAXUS 



ANTIOCHIA 



75 



son of Demetrius of Cyrene, and grandson of 
Demetrius Poliorcetes. On the death of Deme- 
trius II. in B.C. 229, he was left guardian of his 
son Philip, but he married the widow of Deme- 
trius, and became king of Macedonia himself. 
Aratus, by an unfortunate policy, called in the 
assistance of Antigonus against Sparta, and put 
him in possession of the Acrocorinthus. Anti- 
gonus defeated Cleomenes at Sellasia in 221, and 
took Sparta. On his return to Macedonia, he 
defeated the Ulyriaus, and died a few days 
afterwards, 220. (Polyb. ii. 45 f. ; Just, xxviii. 3 ; 
Plut. Arat., Cleom.) — 4. King of Judaea, son 
of Aristobulus II., was placed on the throne by 
the Parthians in B.C. 40, but was taken prisoner 
by Sosius, the lieutenant of Antony, and was 
put to death by the latter in 37 (Dio Cass. xlix. 
22; Jos. B. J. i. 13). — 5. Of Carystus, lived at 
Alexandria about B.C. 250, and wrote a work 
still extant, entitled Htstoriae Mirabiles, which 
is only of value from its preserving extracts 
from other and better works. — Editions. By 
J Beckmann, Lips. 1791 ; by Westermann in his 
Paradoxographi, Bruns. 1839 ; Keller, 1977. 

Antiiibanus ('AvTiXi&avos : Jebel-es-Sheikh 
or Anti-Lebanon), a mountain on the confine? 
of Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria, parallel to 
Libanus (Lebanon), which it exceeds in height. 
Its highest summit is M. Hermou (also Jebel- 
es-Sheikh). (Strab. p. 754 ; Ptol. v. 15.) 

Antlldchus ('Ai/t'iKoxos), son of Nestor and 
Anaxibia or Eurydice (Od. iii. 452), accompanied 
his father to Troy, and distinguished himself by 
his bravery. He was a favourite of Zeus and 
of Achilles (II. xviii. 16, xxiii. 500, 007). He 
was slain before Troy by Memnon the Ethio- 
pian ; according to Pindar he had come to help 
his father, who was hard pressed by Memnon. 
and saved him at the cost of his own life (0(7. 
iii. Ill, iv. 188; Pind. Pyth. vi. 28; cf. Xen. 
Venat. i. 14), and was buried by the side of his 
friends Achilles and Patroclus (Od. xxiv. 72), 
and with them received honours of sacrifice in 
after times (Strab. p. 590). The grief of his 
father and of the whole army at his death is 
mentioned in Soph. Phil. 424 ; Hor. Od. ii. 9, ; 
13 ; Q. Smym. iii. 516. 

Antimachus (AvTi'jiioxoj). 1. A Trojan, per- 
suaded his countrymen not to surrender Helen 
to the Greeks. He had three sons, two of whom 
were put to death by Menelaus (II. xi. 123, 128). 
— 2. Of Claros or Colophon, a Greek epic and 
elegiac poet, was probably a native of Claros, 
but was called a Colophonian, because Claros 
belonged to Colophon (Clarius poeta, Ov. i 
Trist. i. 6. 1). He flourished towards the end 
of the Peloponnesian war; his chief work was 
an epic poem of great length called Thebais 
(07j0aij). Antimachus was one of the fore- 
runners of the poets of the Alexandrine school, 
who wrote more for the learned than for the 
public at large. Though he seems to have been 
little regarded by writers nearer to his time, the 
Alexandrine grammarians assigned to him the 
second place among the epic poets, and the 
emperor Hadrian preferred his works even to 
those of Homer. (Dio Cass. lix. 4.) He also 
wrote a celebrated elegiac poem called Lyde — 
which was the name of his wife or mistress — as i 
well as other works. There was likewise a tra- | 
dition that he made a recension of the text of I 
the Homeric poems, from which also he seems ; 
to have borrowed. — Fragments by Schellenberg, | 
1786 ; Bergk, 18G6. 

Antinoopolis ('Avtiv6ou v6\ts or 'Avtiv6(io. : 
Enseneh, Ru.), a splendid city, built by Hadrian, I 
in memory of his favourite Antinous, on the E. 



bank of the Nile, upon the site of the ancient 
Besa, in Middle Egypt (Heptanomis). It was 
the capital of the Nomos Antinoites, and had 
an oracle of the goddess Besa. (Ptol. iv. 5, 61 ; 
Paus. viii. 9 ; Dio Cass. lix. 11.) 

Antinous ('Avt'lvoos). 1. Son of Eupithes of 
Ithaca, and one of the suitors of Penelope, was 
slain by Ulysses. — 2. A youth of extraordinary 
beauty, born at Claudiopolis in Bithynia, was 
the favourite of the emperor Hadrian, and his 
companion in his journeys. He was drowned 
in the Nile, a.d. 122. This, as seems probable, 
was an act of suicide from melancholy ; though 
some regarded it as caused by a superstition 
that the sacrifice of his life would avert evil 
from the emperor. The grief of the emperor 
knew no bounds. He enrolled Antinous amongst 
the gods, caused a temple to be erected to him 
at Mantinea. and founded the city of Antinoo- 
polis in honour of him. Festivals in his honour 
were celebrated in Bithynia and at Athens, 
Argos, and Mantinea. A large number of works 




Antinous. (From a bas-relief in Villa Aibanl.) 



of art of all kinds were executed in his honour, 
and many of them are still extant. (Dio Cass, 
lix. 11 ;_Spartian. Radr. 14; Paus. viii. 9. 4.) 

Antlochia and -ea ('AvTi6x*ia.: 'Avrioxevs 
and -dx^'os, fern. Action's and -<$xi<r<ra, Antio- 
chenus), the name of several cities of Asia, 16 of 
which are said to have been built by Seleucus I. 
Nicator, and named in honour of his father An- 
tiochus. 1. A. Epidaphnes, or ad Daphnem, 
or ad Orontem ('A. iirl Aa<pvri : so called from a 
neighbouring grove : 'A. M 'Opdvi-ri : Antakia, 
Ru.), the capital of the Greek kingdom of Syria, 
and long the chief city of Asia and perhaps of 
the world, stood on the left bank of the Orontes, 
about 20 miles (geog.) from the sea, iu a beau- 
tiful valley, about 10 miles long and 5 or C 
broad, enclosed by the ranges of Amanus on the 
NW. and Casius on the SE. It was built by 
si- Nicator, about B.C. 300, and peopled 
chiefly from the neighbouring city of Anti- 
go nia. It flourished so rapidly as soon to need 
enlargement ; and other additions were again 
made to it by Seleucus II. Callinicus (about B.C. 
240), and Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (about B.C. 
170). Hence it obtained the name of Tetrapolis 
(TfTpcnr<jA.ir, i.e. 4 cities). It had a considerable 
commerce, the Orontes being navigable up to 
the city, and the high road between Asia and 
Europe passing through it. Under the Romans 



76 



ANTIOCHIA 



it was metropolis of the province and the resi- 
dence of the proconsuls of Syria ; it was fa- 
voured and visited by emperors ; and was made 
a colonia with the 
Jus Italicum by 
Antoninus Pius. 
Though far in- 
ferior to Alexan- 
dria as a seat of 
learning, yet it 
derived some dis- 
tinction in this 
respect from the 
teaching of Li- 
banius and other 
sophists ; and its 
eminence in art 
is attested by the 
beautiful gems 
and medals still 
found among its 
ruins. The an- 
nexed figure, re- 
presenting the 
Genius of An- 
tioch, was the 
work of Euty- 
chides of Sicyon, a pupil of Lysippus. It repre- 
sents Antioch as a female figure, seated on the 
rock Silpius and crowned with towers, with ears 
of corn in her hand, and with the river Orontes 
at her feet. This figure appears constantly on 
the later coins of Antioch. — Antioch was de- 




Genius of Antioch. 




Coin of Antioch. 
Obv., head of city; rev., ram running to right; above 
crescent and star and magistrate's name ; date 105 = 
B.C. 60. 

stroyed by the Persian king Chosroes (a.d. 
540), but rebuilt by Justinian, who gave it the 
name of Theupolis (0eouTr<5Ais). The ancient 
walls, which still surround the insignificant 
modern town, are probably those built by 
Justinian. The name of Antiochia was also 
given to the surrounding district, i.e. the NW. 
part of Syria, which bordered upon Cilicia. 
(Strab. pp. 749-751 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 80 ; Procop. 
B. P.ii. 8; Liban. p. 321.) — 2. A. ad Maeandmm 
{'A. irpbs MaiavSpifi) : nr. Yenishehr, En.), a city 
of Caria, on the Maeander, built by Antiochus i. 
Soter on the site of the old city of Pythopolis 
(Strab. p. 630).— 3. A. Pisidiaeor ad Pisidiam 
('A. Hicritiias or irpbs YliaiSla), a considerable 
city on the borders of Phrygia Paroreios and 
Pisidia; built by colonists from Magnesia ; 
declared a free city by the Romans after their 
victory over Antiochus the Great (b.c. 189) ; 
made a colony under Augustus, and called 
Caesarea. It was celebrated for the worship 
and the great temple of Men Ascaenus (the 
Phrygian Moon-god), which the Romans sup- 
pressed. Its remains are still considerable, 
denoting a strong fortress of the Hellenistic 
type. It is thought that a semicircular rock- 
cutting marks the Phrygian temple. (Strab. p. 
577.) — i. A. Margiana (A. Mapyiav-f): Meru 
Shah-Jehan ?), a city in the Persian province 
of Margiana, on the river Margus, founded by 
Alexander^ and at first called Alexandria ; de- 



ANTIOCHUS 

stroyed by the barbarians, rebuilt by Antiochus 
I. Soter, and called Antiochia. It was beauti- 
fully situated, and was surrounded by a wall 70 
stadia (about 8 miles) in circuit. Among the 
less important cities of the name were : (5.) A. 
ad Taurum in Commagene : this according to 
some is the modern Marash, which others with 
greater probability make the site of Geb- 
manicia ; (6.) A. ad Cragum, and (7.) A. ad 
Pyramum, in Cilicia. The following Antiochs 
are better known by other names : A. ad Sarum 
[Adana ;] A. Characen.es [Chabax] ; A. Callir- 
rhoe [Edessa]; A. ad Hippum [Gad aba]; A. 
Mygdoniae [Nisibis] ; in Cilicia [Tabsus] ; in 
Caria or Lydia [Tballes]. 

Antiochus ('Avt(oxos). I. Kings of Syria. 
1. Soter (reigned B.C. 280-261), was the son 
of Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Syrian 




Coin of Antiochus I. Soter, King of Syria, B.C. 280-261. 
Rev., Apollo seated on the Omphalos, a bow in his left 
hand, an arrow in his right. 

kingdom of the Seleucidae. He married his 
stepmother Stratonice, whom his father sur- 
rendered to him on the representation of the 
physician that it would restore him to health. 
He succeeded his father b.c. 280. He gained 
his surname from successful contest against the 
Gauls, but eventually fell in battle against them 
B.C. 261. (Just. xvii. 2 ; Plut. Demetr. 38, 39 ; 
Appian, Sijr. 59-65.)— 2. Th.ec-8 (b.c. 261-246), 
son and successor of No. 1. The Milesians 
gave him the surname of Theos, because he 
delivered them from their tyrant, Timarchus. 
He carried on war with Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
king of Egypt, which was brought to a 
close by his putting away his wife Laodlce, 
and marrying Berenice, the daughter of 
Ptolemy. After the death of Ptolemy, he 
recalled Laodice, but, in revenge for the insult 
she had received, she caused Antiochus and 
Berenice to be murdered. During the reign of 
Antiochus, Arsaces founded the Parthian em- 
pire (250) and Theodotus established an inde- 
pendent kingdom at Bactria. He was succeeded 
by his son Seleucus Callinicus. His younger 
son Antiochus Hierax also assumed the crown, 
and carried on war some years with his brother. 
[Seleucus II.] (Just, xxvii. 1 ; Val. Max. ix. 
14; Athen. p. 45.)— 3. The Great (b.c. 223-187), 
second son of Seleucus Callinicus, succeeded to 
the throne on the death of his brother Seleucus 
Ceraunus, when he was only in his 15th year. 
After defeating (220) Molon, satrap of Media, 
and his brother Alexander, satrap of Persis, who 
had attempted to make themselves independent, 
he carried on war against Ptolemy Philopator, 
king of Egypt, in order to obtain Coele-Syria, 
Phoenicia, and Palestine, but was obliged to 
cede these provinces to Ptolemy, in conse- 
quence of his defeat at the battle of Raphia 
near Gaza, in 217. (Polyb. v. 82 ; Just. xxxi. 1.) 
He next marched against Achaeus, who had 
revolted in Asia Minor, and whom he put to 
death, when he fell into his hands in 214. 
[Achaeus.] Shortly after this he was engaged 
for 7 years (212-205) in an attempt to regain 



ANTIOCHUS 



77 



the E. provinces of Asia, which had revolted 
during the reign of Antiochus II. ; but though 
he met with great success, he found it hopeless- 
to effect the subjugation of the Parthian and 
Bactrian kingdoms, and accordingly concluded 
a peace with them. (Polyb. x. 27.) In 205 he 
renewed his war against Egypt with more 
success, and in 198 conquered Palestine and 
Coele-Syria, which he afterwards gave as a 
dowry with his daughter Cleopatra upon her 
marriage with Ptolemy Epiphanes. In 196 he 
crossed over into Europe, and took possession 
of the Thracian Chersonese. This brought him 
into contact with the Romans, who commanded 
him to restore the Chersonese to the Macedo- 
nian king ; but he refused to comply with their 
demand ; in which resolution he was strength- 
ened by Hannibal, who arrii-ed at his court in 
195. Hannibal urged him to invade Italy 
without loss of time ; but Antiochus did not i 
follow his advice, and it was not till 192 that 
he crossed over into Greece, at the request of 
the Aetolian League, of which he was named 
general. (Polyb. xviii. 32, xx. i. ; Liv. xxxiv. 60, 
xxxv. 45.) In 191 he was defeated by the 
Romans at Thermopylae, and compelled to re- 
turn to Asia : his fleet was also vanquished in 
two engagements. In 190 he was again defeated 



Epimanes (' the madman ') in parody of Epi- 
phanes (Polyb. xxvi. 10). — 5. Eupator (b.c. 164- 
162), son and successor of Epiphanes, was nine 
years old at his father's death, and reigned 
under the guardianship of Lysias. He was de- 
throned and put to death by Demetrius Soter, 




Coin of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, King of Syria, B.C. 175-1G4. 
lire. Zeus holding Victory. 

the son of Seleucus Philopator, who had 
hitherto lived at Rome as a hostage. (Polyb. 
xxxi. 12 ; Just, xxxiv. 3.) — 6. Theos or Dionysus 
Epiphanes, son of Alexander Balas. He was 
brought forward as a claimant to the crown in 
144, against Demetrius Nicator by Tryphon, 
but he was murdered by the latter, who 
ascended the throne himself in 142 (Just 




Coin of Antiochus III. the Great. King of Syria, B.C. 223-187. 
{Rev. as above.) 

by the Romans under L. Scipio, at Mount 
Sipylus, near Magnesia, and compelled to sue 
for peace, which was granted in 188, on condi- 
tion of his ceding all his dominions B. of 
Mount Taurus, paying 15,000 Euboic talents 
within 12 years, giving up his elephants and 
ships of war, and surrendering the Roman 
enemies ; but he allowed Hannibal to escape. 
In order to raise the money to pay the Romans, 
he attacked a wealthy temple in Elymais, but 
was killed by the people of the place (187). He 
was succeeded by his son Seleucus Philopator. 
(Liv. xxxvii. 25-14 ; Polyb. xxi. 9-20 ; Just, 
xxxii. 2; Diod. xxix. 18.)— 4. Epiphanes (b. c. 
175-164), son of Antiochus III., was given as a 
hostage to the Romans in 188, and was released 
from captivity in 175 through his brother 
Seleucus Philopator, whom he succeeded in the 
same year. He carried on war against Egypt 
from 171 to 168 with great success, in order to 
obtain Coele-Syria and Palestine, whicli had 
been given as a dowry with his sister, and he 
was preparing to lay siege to Alexandria in 
168, when the Romans compelled him to retire. 
He endeavoured to root out the Jewish religion 
and to introduce the worship of the Greek 
divinities; but this attempt led to a rising of 
the Jewish people, under Mattathias and his 
heroic sons the Maccabees, which Antiochus 
was unable to put down. He died, B.C. 163, in 
the course of an unsuccessful campaign, at 
Tabae in Persia in a state of raving madness, 
which the Jews and Greeks equally attributed 
to his sacrilegious crimes. (Liv. xli.-xlv.; 
Polyb. xxvi.-xxxi.; Just. xxiv. 8; Joseph. Ant. 
xii. 5.) Hia subjects gave him the name of 



Coin of Antiochus VI. Theos, or Dionysus, King of Syria, 
B.C. 144-142. 

Ohv., Antiochus with diadem and the rayed crown which 
passed from Ptolemy Euergetes to the Seleucidae ; rev., 
the Dioscuri, whom some interpret as symbolising the 
divided power of Antiochus and Tryphon, part of whose 
name appears as tpy. 

xxxvi. 1).— 7. Sidetes (b.c. 137-128), so called 
from Side in Pamphylia, where he was brought 
up, younger son of Demetrius Soter, dethroned 
Tryphon. He married Cleopatra, wife of his 
elder brother Demetrius Nicator, who was 
a prisoner with the Parthians. He carried on 
war against the Parthians, at first with suc- 
cess, but was afterwards defeated and slain in 
battle in 128. (Just, xxxviii. 10 ; Athen. 449, 540). 
— 8. Grypus, or Hook-nosed (b.c. 125-96), 
second son of Demetrius Nicator and Cleopatra. 
He was placed upon the throne in 125 by his 
mother Cleopatra, who put to death his eldest 
brother Seleucus, because she wished to have 
the power in her own hands. He poisoned his 
mother in 120, and subsequently carried on 
war for some years with his half-brother A. IX. 
Cyzicenus. At length, in 112, the two brothers 
agreed to share the kingdom between them, A. 
Cyzicenus having Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, 
and A. Grypus the remainder of the provinces. 
Grypus was assassinated in 96. (Just, xxxix. 
1-3 ; Liv. Ep. 60 ; Athen. p. 540.)— 9. Cyzicenus, 
from Cvzicus, where he was brought up, son of 
A. VII. Sidetes and Cleopatra, reigned over 
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia from 112 to 96, but 
fell in battle in 95 against Seleucus Epiphanes, 
son of A. VIII. Grypus (Appian, Syr. 69). — 
10. Eusebes, son of A. IX. Cyzicenus, defeated 
Seleucus Epiphanes, who had slain his father in 
battle, and maintained the throne against the 
brothers of Seleucus. He succeeded his father 



78 



ANTIOCHUS 



ANTIPATBR 



Antiochus IX. in 95. (Appian, Syr. 69 ; Diod. 
xxxiv. 38.) — 11. Epiphanes, son of A. VIII. 
Grypus and brother of Seleucus Epiphanes, 
carried on war against A. X. Eusebes, but was 
defeated by the latter, and drowned in the 
river Orontes (Appian, I.e., Diod. I.e.). — 

12. Dionysus, brother of No. 11, held the 
crown for a short time, but fell in battle 
against Aretas, king of the Arabians. The 
Syrians, worn out with the civil broils of the 
Seleucidae, offered the kingdom to Tigranes, 
king of Armenia, who united Syria to his own 
dominions in 83, and held it till his defeat by 
the Romans in 69 (Joseph. Ant. xiii. 15). — 

13. Asiaticus, son of A. X. Eusebes and Selene 
(or Cleopatra) daughter of Ptolemy Physcon, 
became king of Syria on the defeat of Tigranes 
by Lucullus in 69 ; but he was deprived of it in 
65 by Pompey, who reduced Syria to a Roman 
province. In this year the Seleucidae ceased to 
reign. (Appian, Syr. 49, 70 ; Cic. Verr. iv. 27, 
61 ff.) 

II. Kings of Commagene. 
1. Son of Mithridates I. Callinicus, the step- 
son of Antiochus Epiphanes (above, No. 11). 
Made an alliance with the Romans, about B.C. 
64. He assisted Pompey with troops in 49, 
had friendly communications with Cicero, then 
proconsul of Cilicia ; was attacked by Antony 
in 38. He was succeeded by Mithridates II. 
about 31. (Dio Cass. xxxv. 2, xlix. 20 ; Appian, 
Mithr. 106 ; Cic. Fam. xv. 1, 2 ; Cass. S. O. iii. 
5.) — 2, Succeeded Mithridates II., and was 
put to death at Rome by Augustus in 29 (Dio 
Cass. Iii. 43). — 3. Succeeded No. 2, and died 
in a.d. 17. Upon his death, Commagene 
became a Roman province, and remained so till 
A.D. 38 (Tac. Ann. ii. 42, 56). — i. Surnamed 
Epiphanes Magnus son of Antiochus III. 
received his paternal dominion from Caligula in 
A.D. 38. He was subsequently deposed by 
Caligula, but regained his kingdom on the 
accession of Claudius in 41. He was a faithful 
ally of the Romans, and assisted them in their 
wars against the Parthians under Nero, and 
against the Jews under Vespasian. At length 
in 72, he was accused of conspiring with the 
Parthians against the Romans, was deprived of 
his kingdom, and retired to Lacedaemon, where 
he passed the remainder of his life. His sons 
Epiphanes and Callinicus lived at Rome. (Dio 
Cass. lix. 8, lx. 8 ; Joseph. Ant. xix. 9, B. J. v. 
11, vii. 7 ; Tac. Ann. xiii. 7.) 

III. Literary. 
1. Of Aegae in Cilicia, a sophist, or, as he 
himself pretended to be, a Cynic philosopher. 
He flourished about a.d. 200, during the reign 
of Severus and Caracalla. During the war of 
Caracalla against the Parthians, he deserted to 
the Parthians together with Tiridates. He was 
one of the most distinguished rhetoricians of 
his time, and also acquired some reputation as 
a writer. — 2. Of Ascalon, the founder of the 
fifth Academy, was a friend of Lucullus and 
the teacher of Cicero during his studies at 
Athens (b.c. 79) ; but he had a school at Alex- 
andria also, as well as in Syria, where he seems 
to have ended his life (b.c. 68). His principal 
teacher was Philo, who succeeded Plato, Arce- 
silas, and Carneades, as the founder of the 
fourth Academy. He is, however, better known 
as the adversary than the disciple of Philo ; and 
Cicero mentions a treatise called Sosus, written 
by him against his master, in which he re- 
futes the scepticism of the Academics (Acad. 
iv. 4, 11). He was in his own philosophy an 



Eclectic, seeking a middle course between Zeno, 
Aristotle, and Plato. He made truth rest upon 
authority whenever he could find points agreed 
upon by these philosophers, and laboured to 
show that they differed in expression rather 
than in essentials. (Cic. Acad. ii. 18, 43, &c. ; 
de Fin. v. 25 ; Tusc. v. 8.) — 3. Of Syracuse, a 
Greek historian, lived about B.C. 423, and wrote 
a history of Sicily in 9 books from the mythical 
Sicanian king Cocalus to his own date, to which 
it is not improbable that Thucydides was to 
some extent indebted in the beginning of book 
vi. He wrote also a history of the Greek colo- 
nies in Italy. (Diod. xii. 71 ; Dionys. i. 12 ; a 
few fragments in C. Miiller's Frag. Hist. 
Graec.) 

Antiope (' Apt i6irr]). 1. Daughter of Nyctens 
and Polyxo, or of the river god Asopus in Boeotia, 
became by Zeus the mother of Amphion and 
Zethus. Dionysus threw her into a state of 
madness on account of the vengeance which 
her sons had taken on Dirce. [Amphion.] In 
this condition she wandered through Greece, 
until Phocus, the grandson of Sisyphus, cured 
and married her. — 2. An Amazon, sister of 
Hippolyte, wife of Theseus, and mother of Hip- 
poly tus. [Theseus.] 

Antipater (' hvr'nvarpos). 1. The Macedo- 
nian, an officer greatly trusted by Philip and 
Alexander the Great, was left by the latter 
regent in Macedonia when he crossed over 
into Asia in B.C. 334. In this office he quelled 
the Thracians on one hand, and on the other 
suppressed the Spartan rising by a victory at 
Megalopolis (b.c. 330). Inconsequence of dissen- 
sions between Olympias and Antipater, the 
latter was summoned to Asia in 324, and Cra- 
terus appointed to the regency of Macedonia, 
but the death of Alexander in the following 
year prevented these arrangements from taking 
effect. Antipater now obtained Macedonia 
again, and in conjunction with Craterus, who 
was associated with him in the government, 
carried on war against the Greeks, who endea- 
voured to establish their independence. This 
war, usually called the Lamian war, from Lamia, 
where Antipater was besieged in 323, was ter- 
minated by Antipater's victory over the con- 
federates at Crannon in 322. This was followed 
by the submission of Athens and the death of 
Demosthenes. In 321 Antipater crossed over 
into Asia in order to oppose Perdiccas ; but the 
murder of Pebdiccas in Egypt put an end to 
this war, and left Antipater supreme regent. 
Antipater died in 319, after appointing Poly- 
sperchon regent, and his own son Cassandeb. 
to a subordinate position. (Diod. xvii., xviii. ; 
Just. xiii. 4-6.) — 2. Grandson of the preceding, 
and second son of Cassander and Thessalonlca. 
After the death of his elder brother Philip IV. 
(B.C. 295), great dissensions ensued between 
Antipater and his younger brother Alexander, 
for the kingdom of Macedonia. Antipater, 
believing that Alexander was favoured by his 
mother, put her to death. The younger 
brother upon this applied for aid at once to 
Pyrrhus of Epirus and Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
The remaining history is related differently: 
but so much is certain, that both Antipater 
and Alexander were subsequently put to death 
— Alexander by Demetrius and Antipater by 
Lysimachus (Just. xvi. 1, 2 ; Plut. Demetr.), 
and that Demetrius became king of Macedonia. 
— 3. Father of Herod the Great, son of a noble 
Idumaean of the same name, espoused the cause 
of Hyrcanus against his brother Aristobulus. 
He ingratiated himself with the Romans, and 



ANTIPATER 

in B.C. 47 was appointed by Caesar procurator 
of Judaea, which appointment he held till his 
death in 43, when he was earned off by poison 
which Malichus, whose life he had twice saved, 
bribed the cup-bearer of Hyrcanus to adminis- 
ter to him. (Jos. Ant. xiv. 9; B. J. i. 10.) — 
4. Eldest son of Herod the Great by his first 
wife, Doris, brought about the death of his two 
half-brothers, Alexander and Aristobulus, in 
B.C. 6, but was himself condemned as guilty of 
a conspiracy against his father's life, and was 
executed five days before Herod's death. (Jos. 
Ant. xvii. 1 ; B.J. i. 28.) — 5. Of Tarsus, a Stoic- 
philosopher, the successor of Diogenes in the 
chair at Athens, and the teacher of Panaetius, 
about B.C. 144 (Cic. Off. iii. 12, 50 ; Div. i. 3, 6). 
—6. Of Tyre, a Stoic philosopher, died shortly 
before B.C. 45, and wrote a work on Duties 
(de Officiis) (Cic. Off. ii. 24).— 7. Of Cyrene, 
a pupil and follower of Aristippus (Diog. 
Laert. ii. 96; Cic. Tusc. v. 38, 112).— 8. Of 
Sidon, the author of several epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology, flourished about B.C. 108-100, 
and lived to a great age. — 9. Of Thessalonica, 
the author of several epigrams in the Greek 
Anthology, lived in the latter part of the reign 
of Augustus. 

Antlpater, L. CaeKus, a Roman jurist and 
historian, and a contemporary of C. Gracchus 
(B.C. 123), and L. Crassus, the orator, wrote 
Annates, which were epitomised by Brutus, 
and which contained a valuable account of the 
second Punic war. He seems to have been 
honest and trustworthy, but too prone to rheto- 
rical ornament. (Cic. Div. i. 24, 49, ad Att. xiii. 
8; Liv. xxi. 46, xxvii. 27). 

Antipatria ('AvTiirdrpta: Berat ?), a town in 
Hlyricum on the borders of Macedonia, on the 
left bank of the Apsus (Liv. xxxi. 27). 

Ailtiphanes ('Avntpdv-qs). 1. A comic poet, 
next to Alexis the most important, of the 
middle Attic comedy, bom about B.C. 404, and 
died 330. He wrote 365, or at the least 260 
plays (titles of 150 remain), which were distin- 
guished by elegance of language. Probably 
many were recited, but not produced on the 
stage. (Fragments in Meineke.) — 2. Of Berga in 
Thrace, a Greek writer on marvellous and 
incredible things (Strab. pp. 47, 102, 104 ; Polyb. 
xxxiii. 12). — 3. An epigrammatic poet, several of 
whose epigrams are still extant in the Greek 
Anthology, lived about the reign of Augustus. 

Antipnates ('AvrnpaT-qs), king of the mythical 
Laestrygones in Sicily, represented as giants 
and cannibals. They destroyed 11 of the ships 
of Ulysses, who escaped with only one vessel 
(Od. x. 80; Ov. Met. x. 233; Juv. xiv. 20). 

Antiphellua (' Avt ItpeWos : Antiphilo), a 
town on the coast of Lycia, between Patara and 
Aperlae, originally the port of Phellus (Strab. 
p. 666). 

Antiphemus CAvTl<pr)iu.os), the Rhodian, 
founder of Gela, in Sicily, B.C. 690. 

Antiphllus CAfTi'^iAos). 1. Of Byzantium, 
an epigrammatic poet, author of several excel- 
lent epigrams in the Greek Anthology, was a 
contemporary of the emperor Nero. — 2. Of 
Egypt, a distinguished painter, the rival of 
Apelles, painted for Philip and Alexander the 
Great (Quint, xii. 10; Phn. xxxv. § 114, 138). 

Antiphon ('Avri4>£>vi. 1. Tin- most ancient 
bt the 10 orators in the Alexandrine canon, 
was a son of Sophilus the Sophist, and born at 
Rhamnus in Attica, in B.C. 480. He belonged 
to the oligarchical party at Athens, and took an 
active part in the establishment of the govern- 
ment of the Four Hundred (B.C. 411), after the 



AXTISTHENES 



79 



overthrow of which he was brought to trial, 
condemned, and put to death. The oratorical 
powers of Antiphon are highly praised by the 
ancients. He introduced great improvements 
in public speaking, and was the first who laid 
down theoretical laws for practical eloquence ; 
he opened a school in which he taught rhetoric, 
and the historian Thucydides is said to have 
been one of his pupils. The orations winch he 
composed were written for others ; and the only 
time that he spoke in public himself was when 
he was accused and condemned to death. This 
speech, which was considered in antiquity a 
masterpiece of eloquence, is now lost. (Thuc. 
viii. 68 ; Cic. Brut. 12.) "We still possess 15 
orations of Antiphon, 3 of which were written 
by him for others, and the remaining 12 as 
specimens for his school, or exercises on 
fictitious cases of trials for homicide. They are 
printed in the collections of the Attic orators, 
and separately, edited by Baiter and Sauppe, 
Zurich, 1838; C. Muller, 1868. — 2. A tragic 
poet, whom many writers confound with the 
Attic orator, lived at Syracuse, at the court of 
the elder Dionysius, by whom he was put to 
death (Arist. Bhet. ii. 6).— 3. Of Athens, a 
sophist and an epic poet, wrote a work on the 
interpretation of dreams, referred to by Cicero 
and others. He is the same person as Antiphon 
an opponent of Socrates. (Xen. Mem. i. 6.) 

Antlphus CActi^oj). 1. Son of Priam and 
Hecuba, slain by Agamemnon (II. iv. 489, xi. 
101). — 2. Son of Thessalus, and one of the 
Greek heroes at Troy (II. ii. 676). 

Alltipolis (' AvriiroXis : Antibes, pronounced 
by the inhabitants Antiboul), a town in Gallia 
Narbonensis on the coast, in the territory of 
the Deciates, a few miles \V. of Nicaea, was 
founded by Massilia, and received Jus Latinum 
after b.c 46 ; the muria, or salt pickle made of 
fish, prepared at this town, was very celebrated 
(Strab. pp. 180, 184; Tac. Hist. ii. 15; Mart, 
xiii. 103). 

Antirrhlum (' Avrippiov \ Castello di Bome- 
lia), a promontory on the borders of Aetolia 
and Locris, opposite Rhium (Castello di Morea) 
in Achaia, with which it formed the narrow 
entrance of the Corinthian gulf : the straits are 
sometimes called the Little Dardanelles. 

Antissa i"AvTtacra: 'AvTirriralos: Kalas Lim- 
neonasj, a town in Lesbos with a harbour, on 
the W. coast between Methymna and the pro- 
montory Sigrium, was originally on a small 
island opposite Lesbos, which was afterwards 
united with Lesbos (Plin. ii. § 204 ; Ov. Met. 
xv. 287). It joined Mitylene in the revolt 
(Thuc. iii. 18, 28). It was destroyed by the 
Romans, B.C. 168, and its inhabitants removed 
to Methymna, because they had assisted Antio- 
chus I Strab. p. 618; Liv. xiv. 31). 

Antisthenes ('Avncflewjl). 1. An Athenian, 
founder of the sect of the Cynic philosophers. 
His mother was a Thracian. In his youth he 
fought at Tanagra (B.C. 426), and was a disciple 
first of Gorgias, and then of Socrates, whom 
lie never quitted, and at whose death lie was 
present. He died at Athens, at the age of 70. 
Among his pupils were Crates of Thebes and 
Diogenes of Sinope. He taught in the Cynos- 
arges, a gymnasium for the use of Athenians 
born of foreign mothers; whence probably liiM 
followers were called Cynics (kvviko'i), though 
others derive their name from their dog-like 
neglect of all forms and usages of society. His 
writings have perished, except two declama- 
tions, named Ajax and Ulysses, about the 
arms of Achilles, the genuineness of which ia 



80 



ANTISTIUS 



ANTONINUS 



disputed. He was an enemy to all speculation, 
and thus was opposed to Plato, whom he 
attacked furiously in one of his dialogues : in 
especial he denied ideas, and asserted that the 
individual alone existed. He paid little regard 
to art, learning, and scientific research. His 
philosophical system was confined almost en- 
tirely to ethics, and he taught that virtue is the 
sole thing necessary : and virtue consisted in 
complete independence of surroundings, in 
avoiding evil and having no needs. Hence it 
amounted to apathy. The later Cynics, such 
as Diogenes, sank to a lower depth both of igno- 
rance and disregard of conventional morality. 
He showed his contempt of all the luxuries and 
outward comforts of life by his mean clothing 
and hard fare. From his school the Stoics 
subsequently sprang. In one of his works 
entitled Physicus, he contended for the Unity 
of the Deity (Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 13, 32). 
Fragments edited by Winckelmann, 1842. — 
2. A Greek historian of Ehodes about B.C. 200 
(Polyb. xvi. 14). Ed. by C. Miiller in Frag. 
Hist. Graec. — 3. A Spartan admiral mentioned 
in B.C. 412 and 399 (Thuc. viii. 39 ; Xen. Hell. 
iii. 2, 6). 

Antistius, P., tribune of the plebs, B.C. 88, 
a distinguished orator, supported the party of 
Sulla, and was put to death by order of young 
Marius in 82. His daughter Antistia was mar- 
ried to Pompeius Magnus (Cic. Brut. 63, 226, 
pro Rose. Am. 32, 90 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 26 ; Appian, 
B. C. i. 88). Others of this name are mentioned 
by Livy at various dates, of whose history no- 
thing important is preserved. 

Antistius Labeo. [Labeo.] 

Antistius Vitus. [Vetus.] 

Antitaurus {'AvTiravpos : Ali-Dagh), a chain 
of mountains, which strikes off NE. from the 
main chain of the Taurus on the S. border of 
Cappadocia, in the centre of which district it 
turns to the E. and runs parallel to the Taurus 
as far as the Euphrates. Its average height 
exceeds that of the Taurus ; and one of its 
summits, Mount Argaeus, near Mazaca, is the 
loftiest mountain of Asia Minor. 

Antrum (Antias : Torre or Porto a" Anzo), a 
very ancient town of Latium on a rocky pro- 
montory running out some distance into the 
Tyrrhenian sea. It was founded by Tyrrhenians 
and Pelasgians, and in earlier and even later 
times was noted for its piracy. Although united 
by Tarquinius Superbus to the Latin League, 
it generally sided with the Volscians against 
Eome (Liv. ii. 33, 63, 65 ; Dionys. iv. 49, vi. 92, 
ix. 58). It was taken by the Romans in B.C. 
467, and was made a Latin colony (Liv. iii. 1 ; 
Dionys. ix. 59), but it revolted, was taken a 
second time by the Romans in B.C. 338, was 
deprived of all its ships — the beaks of which 
(rostra) served to ornament the platform of the 
speakers in the Roman forum — was forbidden 
to have any ships in future, and was made a 
Roman colony (Liv. vii. 27, viii. 12-14). But it 
gradually recovered its former importance, was 
allowed in course of time again to be used as a 
seaport, and in the latter times of the republic 
and under the empire, became a favourite 
residence of many of the Roman nobles and 
emperors. The emperor Nero was born here, 
and in the remains of his palace the celebrated 
Apollo Belvedere was found (Strab. p. 232 ; Cic. 
Att. ii. 1, 7, 11; Suet. Aug. 58, Ner. 6; Tac. 
Ann. xiv. 27, xv. 23). Antium possessed a 
celebrated temple of Fortune (0 Diva, gratum 
quae regis Antium. Hor. Od. i. 35), of Aescu- 
lapius, and at the port of Ceno, a little to the 



E. of Antium, a temple of Neptune, on which 
account the place is now called Nettuno. 

Antius Restio. [Restio.] 

Antonia. 1. Maior, elder daughter of M. 
Antonius and Octavia, wife of L. Domitius 
Ahenobarbus, and mother of Cn. Domitius, the 
father of the emperor Nero. Tacitus calls this 
Antonia the younger daughter. (Tac. Ann. iy. 44, 
xii. 64; Suet. Ner. 5; Plut. Ant. 87; cf. Dio 
Cass. Ii. 15.) — 2. Minor, younger sister of the 
preceding, wife of Drusus, the brother of the 
emperor Tiberius, and mother of Germanicus, 
the father of the emperor Caligula, of Livia or 
Livilla, and of the emperor Claudius. She died 
a.d. 38, soon after the accession of her grandson 
Caligula. She was celebrated for her beauty 
and virtue (Plut. Ant. 87; Tac. Ann. xi. 3 ; Val. 
Max. iv. 3, 3). — 3. Daughter of the emperor 
Claudius, married first to Pompeius Magnus, 
and afterwards to Faustus Sulla. Nero wished 
to marry her after the death of his wife Poppaea, 
A.D. 66 ; and on her refusal he caused her to 
be put to death on a charge of treason (Suet. 
Claud. 27, Ner. 35 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 2, xiii. 23, 
xv. 53 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 5). 

Antonia Turris, a castle on a rock at the 
NW. corner of the Temple at Jerusalem, which 
commanded both the temple and the city. It 
was at first called Baris : Herod the Great 
changed its name in honour of M. Antonius. 
It contained the residence of the Procurator 
Judaeae. 

Antonini Itineraria. There are two lists of 
stations on Roman roads and their distances 
bearing this name. The most probable account 
of them is that they are based on work done in 
the time of Antoninus Caracalla (a.d. 211-217) 
and that additions were made at various times 
to this groundwork. The recension which we 
now have belongs to the early part of the 4th 
century, for on the one hand it contains the town 
Diocletianopolis ; on the other, distances are 
not reckoned from Constantinople. — Editions 
by Tobler, St. Gall, 1863 ; Parthey, 1848. _ 

Antoninopolis ( ' KvTUvivoirdMs : -Irris, anus), 
a city of Mesopotamia, between Edessa and 
Dara, aft. Maximianopolis, and aft. Constantia. 

Antoninus, M. Aurelius. [M. Aurelius.] 

Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor, a.d. 138- 
161. His name in the early part of his life, at full 
length, was Titus Aurelius Fulvius Boionius 
Arrius Antoninus. These names probably 
imply inheritance from various relations. His 
father and grandfather, both of consular rank, 
both bore the names Aurelius Fulvius; his 
mother was an Arria, and he reckoned a 
Boionius also among his maternal ancestors. 
His paternal ancestors came from Nemausus 
(Nismes) in Gaul; but Antoninus himself was 
born near Lanuvium, September 19th, a.d. 86. 
From an early age he gave promise of his future 
worth. In 120 he was consul, and subsequently 
proconsul of the province of Asia : on his return 
to Rome he lived on terras of the greatest 
intimacy with Hadrian, who adopted him on 
February 25th, 138. Henceforward he bore 
the name of T. Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus 
Caesar, and on the death of Hadrian, J uly 2nd, 
138, he ascended the throne. The senate con- 
ferred upon him the title of Pius, or the duti- 
fully affectionate, because he persuaded them 
to grant to his father Hadrian the apotheosis 
and the other honours usually paid to deceased 
emperors, whioh they had at first refused to 
bestow upon Hadrian. The reign of Antoninus 
is almost a blank in history — a blank caused 
by the suspension for a time of war, violence-, 



ANTONINUS 



ANTONIUS 



81 



and crime. He was one of the best princes that 
ever mounted a throne, and all his thoughts 
and energies were dedicated to the happiness 
of his people. No attempt was made to achieve 
new conquests, and various insurrections among 
the Germans, Dacians, Jews, Moors, Egyptians, 
and Britons, were easily quelled by his legates. 
The 'wall of Antonine ' between the Clyde and 
the Forth was raised by the praefect Lollius 
Urbicus at this time. In all the relations of 
private life the character of Antoninus was 
without reproach. He was faithful to his wife 
Faustina, notwithstanding her profligate life, 
and after her death loaded her memory with 
honours. He died at Lorium, March 7th, 161, 
in his 75th year. He was succeeded by M. 




Antoninus Pius, Roman Emperor. A.D. 138-161. 
(The legend on the obverse, in full, is Antoninus Augustus 
Pius, I'ater Patriae, Tribunitia Poteetas, Consul III.) 



Aurelius, whom he had adopted, when he him- 
self was adopted by Hadrian, and to whom he 
gave his daughter Faustina in marriage (Life 
in Scriptores Hist. August., usually attributed 
to Capitolinus, but by some assigned to Spar- 
tianus). 

Antoninus Liberalis, a Greek grammarian, 
probably lived in the reign of the Antonines, 
about a.d. 147, and wrote a work on Meta- 
morphoses (Vl(Ta[wp(t>to<Te<i>i> Govaywyt)), in 41 
chapters, which is extant, derived from ancient 
sources, and valuable for tracing variations 
of mythology. — Editions : bv Verhevk. Lugd. 
Bat, 1774 ; by Koch, Lips. 1832 ; by Wester- 
mann, in his Paradoxvgrajihi, Brunsv. 1839. 

Antonius. 1. M., the orator, bora B.C. 143; 
quaestor in 113; praetor in 104, when he fought 
against the pirates in Cilicia ; consul in 99 ; and 
censor in 97. He belonged to Sulla's party, and 
was put to death by Marius and China when 
they entered Rome in 87 : his head was cut off 
and placed on the Rostra. Cicero mentions 
him and L. Crassus as the most distinguished 
orators of their age; and lie is introduced as 
one of the speakers in Cicero's lie Oratore. — 
2. M., surnamed Creticus, elder son of the 
orator, and father of the triumvir, was praetor 
in 75, and received the command of the fleet 
and all the coasts of the Mediterranean, in 
order to clear the sea of pirates; but he did not 
Hucceed in his object, and used his power to 
X>lunder the provinces. He died shortly after- 
wards in Crete, and was called Creticus in de- 
rision (Plut. Ant. 1 ; Diod. xl. 1). — 3. C, younger 
son of the orator, und uncle of the triumvir, 
was expelled the senate in 70 for extortion ; but 
afterwards was the colleague of Cicero in the 
praetorship (65) and consulship (08). He was 
one of Catiline's conspirators, but deserted the 
latter on Cicero's promising him the province 
of Macedonia. He had to lead an army against 
Catiline, but unwilling to fight against his for- 
mer friend, he gave the command on the day of 
battle to his legate, M. Petreius. At the con- 
clusion of the war Antony went into his 
province, which he plundered shamefully ; and 



on his return to Rome in 59 was accused both 
of taking part in Catiline's conspiracy and of 
extortion in his province. He was defended by 
Cicero, but was condemned, and retired to the 
island of Cephallenia. He was subsequently 
recalled, probably by Caesar, and was in Rome 
at the beginning of 44 (Cic. Clu. 42, Cat. hi. 6, 
Cael. 31, Flacc. 38 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 40, 
xxxviii. 10). He was surnamed Hybrida, possi- 
bly as being semiferus (Plm. viii. 213).— 4. M., 
the Triumvir, was son of No. 2 and Julia, the 
sister of L. Julius Caesar, consul in 64, and 
was bom about 83. His father died while he 
was still young, and he was brought up by 
Cornelius Lentulus, who married his mother 
Julia, and who was put to death by Cicero in 63 
as one of Catiline's conspirators ; whence he be- 
came a personal enemy of Cicero. Antony in- 
dulged in his earliest youth in every kind of 
dissipation, and his affairs soon became deeply 
involved. In 58 he went to Syria, where he 
served with distinction under A. Gabinius. 
He took part in the campaigns against Aristo- 
bulus in Palestine (57, 56), and in the restora- 
tion of Ptolemy Auletes to Egypt in 55. In 54 
he went to Caesar in Gaul, and by the influence 
of the latter was elected quaestor. As quaestor 
152) he returned to Gaul, and served under 
Caesar for the next two years (52, 51). He re- 
turned to Rome in 50, and became one of the 
most active partisans of Caesar. He was tri- 
bune of the jilebs in 49, and in January fled to 
Caesar's camp in Cisalphie-Gaul (with another 
tribune, Q. Cassius Longinus), after putting a 
veto upon the decree of the senate which de- 
prived Caesar of his command. He accom- 
panied Caesar in his victorious march into 
Italy, and was left by Caesar in the command of 
Italy, while the latter carried on the war in 
Spain. In 48 Antony brought the troops left in 
Italy to join Caesar in Epirus, after several 
delays, for which he was rebuked, and was 
present at the battle of Pharsalia, where he 
commanded the left wing ; and in 47 he was 
again left in the command of Italy during 
Caesar's absence in Africa. In 44 he was con- 
sul with Caesar, when he offered him the kingly 
diadem at the festival of the Lupercalia. After 
Caesar's murder on the 15th of March, Antony 
endeavoured to succeed to his power. He 
therefore used every means to appear as his 
representative ; as surviving consul he pro- 
nounced the speech over Caesar's body and read 
his will to the people; and he also obtained the 
papers and private property of Caesar. But he 
found a new and unexpected rival in young Oc- 
tavianus, the adopted son and great-nephew of 
the dictator, who came from Apollonia to Rome, 
assumed the name of Caesar, and at first joined 
the senate in order to crash Antony. Towards 
the end of the year Antony proceeded to Cisal- 
pine Gaul, which had been previously granted 
him by the senate; but Dec. Brutus refused to 
surrender the province to Antony and threw 
himself into Mutina, where he was besieged by 
Antony. The senate approved of the conduct 
of Brutus, declared Antony a public enemy, and 
entrusted the conduct of the war against him to 
Octavianus. Antony was defeated at the battle 
of Mutina, in April 43, and was obliged to cross 
the Alps. Both the consuls, however, had 
fallen, and the senate now began to show their 
jealousy of Octavianus. Meantime Antony was 
joined by Lepidus witli a powerful army : 
Octavianus became reconciled to Antony ; and 
it was agreed that the government of the state 
should be vested in Antony, Octavianus, and 

G 



02 



ANTONIO'S 



ANUBIS 



Lepidus, under the title of Triumviri Beipub- gaged in war against Octavianus at the instiga- 
iieae Constitueiulae, for the next 5 years. The tion of Fulvia, his brother's wife. He was 
mutual enemies of each were proscribed, and in unable to resist Octavianus, and threw himself 
the numerous executions that followed, Cicero, into the town of Perusia, which he was obliged 
who had attacked Antony in the most un- , to surrender in the following year : hence trie- 
measured manner in his Philippic Orations, \ war is usually called that of Perusia. His life 
fell a victim to Antony. In 42 Antony and j was spared, and he was afterwards appointed 
Octavianus crushed the republican party by the : by Octavianus to the command of Iberia. His 
battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius ' character is painted by Cicero in dark colours, 
fell. Antony then went to Asia, which he had , perhaps with some exaggeration (Cic. Phil. iii. 
received as his share of the Roman world. In 12, y. 7, 11, xii. 8 ; Appian, B. C. v. 19-49).- 



Cilicia he met with Cleopatra, and followed her 
to Egypt, a captive to her charms. In 41 Fulvia, 
the wife of Antony, and his brother L. Antonius, 
made war upon Octavianus in Italy. Antony 
prepared to support his relatives, but the war 
was brought to a close at the beginning of 40, 
before Antony could reach Italy. The oppor- 
tune death of Fulvia facilitated the reconcili- 



1. M., called by the Greek writers Antylhis — 
which is probably only a corrupt form of An- 
tonillus (young Antonius) — elder son of the 
triumvir by Fulvia, was executed by order of 
Octavianus, after the death of his father in 30 
(Suet. Aug. 63; Plut. Ant. 81).— 8. Julus, 
younger son of the triumvir by Fulvia, was 
brought up by his stepmother Octavia at Rome, 




M. Antonius and Cleopatra. ^ 

Cbv., head Of Antonius — legend 'AnTa.v.oc AvToKparwp rpirov Tptwr <Ji'5p 

(=third time triumvir) ; rev., head of Cleopatra — legend v,am\Ctraa K\> 

•.Tarpa. Oea vetvTepn, 



ation of Antony and Octavianus, which was j and received great marks of favour from Augus- 
cemented by Antony marrying Octavia, the tus. Horace notices him as a poet (0(7. iv. 2). 
sister of Octavianus. Antony remained in Italy j He was consul in B.C. 10, but was put to death 
till 39, when the triumvirs concluded a peace | in 2, in consequence of his adulterous inter- 
course with Julia, the daughter of 
Augustus (Dio Cass. liv. 36, lv. 10 ; 
Tac. Ann. iv. 44 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 100).. 
Antonius Felix. [Felix.] 
Antonius Musa. [Musa.] 
Antonius Primus. [Pbimus.] 
Antron ('Avrptiv: Fano), a town 
in Phthiotis in Thessaly, at the en- 
trance of the Sinus Maliacus {II. 
ii. 697 ; Strab. p. 435). 

Antunnacum (Andemach), a 
town of the Ubii on the Rhine 
(Amm. Marc, xviii. 2). 

Anubis {"Avovfiis), an Egyptian 
divinity (the Egyptian Anpu), the 
ruler of the dead. He watched over 
the rites of embalming, and con- 
with Sext. Pompey, and he afterwards went to j ducted the dead in their course to the western 
his provinces in the East. In this year and the realm of shades. In the Osiris myths he i* 
following Ventidius, the lieutenant of Antony, subordinate to Osiris, and is represented as his. 
defeated the Parthians. In 37 Antony crossed son by Nephthys, 
over to Italy, when the triumvirate was renewed ; and he is sup- 
for 5 years. He then returned to the East, and \ posed, together 
shortly afterwards sent Octavia back to her j with Horus, or 
brother, and surrendered himself entirely to | Thoth, to weigh 
the charms of Cleopatra. In 36 he invaded the actions of 
Parthia, but he lost a great number of his the dead in their 
troops, and was obliged to retreat. He was judgment before 
more successful in his invasion of Armenia in Osiris, besides 
34, for he obtained possession of Artavasdes, the acting as their 
Armenian king, and carried him to Alexandria, guide. Hence of 
Antony now laid aside entirely the character of course followed 
a Roman citizen, and assumed the pomp and his identifica- 
ceremony of an Eastern despot. His conduct, tion with Her- 
and the unbounded influence which Cleopatra mes (Hermanu- 
had acquired over him, alienated many of his bis). He was 
friends and supporters ; and Octavianus thought figured with the 
that the time had now come for crushing his head of a jackal, 
rival. The contest was decided by the memor- because that ani- 
able sea-fight off Actium, September 2nd, 31, in mal, as haunt- 
which Antony's fleet was completely defeated, ing the graves, 
Antony, accompanied by Cleopatra, fled to seemed the in- 
Alexandria, where he put an end to his own life carnation of the 
in the following year (30), when Octavianus dead. The Ro- 
appeared before the city. (See Plut. Ant. ; index mans imagined 
to Cicero ; Appian. B. C. iii., iv. ; Dio Cass. I him with a dog's 
xliv. ff.). — 5 C, brother of the triumvir, was i head (Plut. de Is.; 
praetor in Macedonia in 44, fell into the hands ! Verg. Aen. viii. 
of M. Brutus in 43, by whom he was put to ; 698 ; Ov. Met. ix. 
death in 42, to revenge the murder of Cicero ; 690; Prop. iii. 9. 
(Plut. Brut. 28; Dio Cass, xlvii. 23).— 6. L., ; 41 ; Juv. xv. 8; 
youngest brother of the triumvir, was consul in Dionys. i. 18, 87 ; Strab. p. 805). His worship,, 
41, when he triumphed for success over some with that of Isis and Serapis, was introduced 
Alpine tribes, and in the following winter en- both at Rome and in Greece, under the emperors. 




Anubis. (Wilkinson's Egyptians.} 



ANXUR 
Amur. [Tarracina.] 

Anxurus, an Italian divinity, who was wor- 
shipped in a grove near Anxur (Tarracina) to- 
gether with Feronia. He was regarded as a 
youthful Jupiter, and Feronia as Juno. On 
coins his name appears as Axur or Anxur. 

Anysis ( y Aev<m), according to Herodotus ii. 
137, an ancient blind king of Egypt, in whose 
reign Egypt was invaded by the Ethiopians 
under their king Sabaco. He is supposed to 
come from a city Anysis, and to take refuge 
from the invaders in the marshes for 50 years, 
during which he increased his island by making 
malefactors add earth to it by way of penalty. 
It is clear that Herodotus has misinterpreted 
his information, whether it was about the city 
or the man. He makes Anysis succeed Asykis 
( = Aseskaf or Shepseskafj, who reigned in the 
fourth dynasty, about B.C. 30(10, nearly 3000 
years before Sabaco. 

Anyte ('Avvrr)), of Tegea, the authoress of 
several epigrams in the Greek Anthology, 
flourished about B.C. 700. — Edition. Kinkel, 
1877. 

AnytUS ("Av utos), a wealthy Athenian, son of 
Anthemion, the most influential and formidable 
of the accusers of Socrates, B.C. 399 (hence 
Socrates is called Anyti reus, Hor. Sat. ii. 4. 3). 
He was a leading man of the democratical 
party, and had taken an active part, along with 
Thrasybulus, in the overthrow of the 30 Tyrants. 
The Athenians, having repented of their con- 
demnation of Socrates, sent Anytus into banish- 
ment to Heraclea in Pontus iXen. Hell. ii. 3, 42). 

A6n ("Ao)v), son of Poseidon), and an ancient 
Boeotian hero, from whom the Aones, an ancient 
race in Boeotia, were believed to have derived 
their name (Strab. pp. 401, 412 ; Paus. ix. 5). 
Aonia was the name of the part of Boeotia, near 
Phocis, in which were Mount Helicon and the 
fountain Aganippe (Aoniae aquae, Ov. Fast. 
iii. 456). The Muses are also called Aonides, 
since they frequented Helicon and the fountain 
of Aganippe (Ov. Met. v. 333). 

Aonides. [Aon.J 

Aornus. 1. A rocky stronghold in the country 
between Cabul and the Indus, captured with 
difficulty by Alexander. It was said to rise to 
a height of more than 7,000 feet (Arrian, An. iv. 
2«; Curt. viii. 11; Strab. p. l»8Mj.— 2. A lake in 
Thesprotian Epirus, where there was a vexuo- 
navruov, or oracle of the dead, visited by 
Orpheus (Paus. ix. 30, 6). It is not clear 
whether this is another name for Lake Ache- 
rusia, or, rather, for the spot on its banks where 
the oracle stood, or whether it is a neighbouring 
lake (cf. Hdt. v. 92,7; Diod. iv. 22; Acheuusia). 

Aorsi ("Aopaoi) or Adorsi, a powerful people 
of Asiatic Sarmatia, who appear to have had 
their original settlements on the NE. of the 
( a spian, but are chiefly found between the 
Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azof) and the Caspian, 
to the SE. of the river Tanai's (Don), whence 
they spread far into European Sarmatia. They 
carried on a considerable traffic in Babylonian 
merchandise, which they fetched on camels out 
>f Media and Armenia (Strab. pp. 492, 500 ; 
rac._^4n)t. xii. 15). 

Aous or Aeas ('Awos or Alas : Viosa, Viussa, 
ar Vovussa), the principal river of the Greek 
part of Illyricum, rises in M. Lacmon, the N. 
part of Pindus, and flows into the Ionian sea 
tear Apollonia. 

Apamea or -la ('Awa/ie ia : 'Airautevs. Apa- 
meus, -enus, -ensis), the name of several Asiatic 
cities, some of which were founded by Seleucus 
I. Nicator, and named in honour of hi- wife 



APELLES 



83 



Apama. 1. A. ad Orontem (Famieh), the capi- 
tal of the Syrian province Apamene, and, under 
the Romans, of Syria Secunda, was built by 
Seleucus Nicator on the site of the older city of 
Pella, in a very strong position on the river 
Orontes or Axius, the citadel being on the left 
(W.) bank of the river, and the city on the right. 
It was surrounded by rich pastures, in which 
Seleucus kept a splendid stud of horses and 500 
elephants (Strab. p. 752). As Famieh it was 
occupied by Tancred in the Crusades. — 2. In 
Osroene in Mesopotamia (Balasir), a town built 

; by Seleucus Nicator on the E. bank of the 

1 Euphrates, opposite to Zeugma, with which it 
was connected by a bridge, commanded by a 

J castle, called Seleucia. — 3. A. Cibotus or ad 
Maeandrum ('A. 7) Kt^arSs, or irpbs MaiavSpov), 
a great city of Phrygia, on the Maeander, close 
above its confluence with the Marsyas. It was 
built on a site easy of access, yet defensible, by 

, Antiochus I. Soter, who named it in honour of 
his mother Apama, and peopled it with the 
inhabitants of the neighbouring Celaenae. It 

\ became one of the greatest cities of Asia west of 
the Euphrates, and under the Romans it was 
the seat of a Conventus Juridicus. Standing 
at a junction of several Roman roads, it had a 
great commerce, until the change of roads under 
the Byzantine system, after the end of the 4th 
century a.d., caused it to decline in prosperity. 
The great routes from Constantinople and Ni- 

\ comedia did not pass through Apamea, and the 
older Roman routes had lost their importance. 
The surrounding country, watered by the Mae- 
ander and its tributaries, was called Apamena 
Regio. — 4. A. Myrleon, in Bithynia. [Myrlea.] 
— 5. A town built by Antiochus Soter, in the 
district of Assyria called Sittacene, at the junc- 
tion of the Tigris with the Royal Canal which 
connected the Tigris with the Euphrates, and 
at the N. extremity of the island called Mesene, 
which was formed by this canal and the two 
rivers. — 6. A. Mesenes (Koma), in Babylonia, 

J at the S. point of the same island of Mesene, 

I and at the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates. 
— 7. A. Rhagiana ('A. ri irpbs 'Payats), a Greek 

[ city in the district of Choareue in Parthia (for- 
merly in Media), S. of the Caspian Gates. 

Apelles ('A7reAA7}s), one of the most cele- 
brated of Grecian painters, son of Pythias, was 
born, most probably, at Colophon in Ionia. He 
studied first at Ephesus under Ephorus ; then 
at Sicyon under Pamphilus. Thence he went 
to Pella and became the court painter to Philip 
and Alexander from B.C. 336 onwards. When 
Alexander set out for Asia Apelles returned to 
Ephesus, and lived both there and at Rhodes, 
the home of Protogenes, his greatest contempo- 
rary. Being driven by a storm to Alexandria, 
after the assumption of the regal title by 
Ptolemy (b.O. 306), whose favour he had not 
gained while he was with Alexander, his rivals 
laid a plot to ruin him, which he defeated by an 
ingenious use of his skill in drawing. We are 
not told when or where he died. Throughout 
his life Apelles laboured to improve himself, 
especially in drawing, which he never spent a 
day without practising. Hence the proverb 
Nulla dies sine linea. This and other Bayings 
attributed to him, whether genuine or not, indi- 
cate his fame as an authority. A list of his 
works is given by Pliny. They are for the most 
part single figures, or groups of a very few 
figures. Of his portraits the most celebrated 
was that of Alexander wielding a thunderbolt, 
painted for the temple of Artemis at Ephesus; 
but the most admired of all his pictures was the 

a 2 



84 



APELLICON 



APHRODITE 



' Venus Anadyomene ' (t) kvaSvofxivi) 'A<ppoS'tTT)), 
or Aphrodite rising out of the sea, painted for a 
temple at Cos, and placed in the temple of 
Caesar at Eome by Augustus, who remitted a 
tribute of 100 talents to the Coans as equivalent 
value. There can be no doubt that Apelles 
stands at the head of painters of the Hellenistic 
period. His work was chiefly portraiture — it 
was said that Alexander would sit to no other 
painter — and therefore it is possible that earlier 
painters such as Polygnotus or Zeuxis may have 
surpassed him in composition ; but Apelles 
was probably the greatest Greek painter in 
technique, and brought colouring to a perfec- 
tion unequalled in Greek art. (Plin. xxxv. 
79-100 ; Diet. Ant. s.v. Pictura.) 

Apellicon ('A7reAA.iKeoi>), of Teos, a Peripatetic 
philosopher and great collector of books. His 
valuable library at Athens, containing the auto- 
graphs of Aristotle's works (which Apellicon is 
said to have discovered hidden in a cellar : 
Strab. p. 609; Plut. Sull. 26), was carried to 
Rome by Sulla (b.c. 83) : Apellicon had died 
just before. 

Apenninus Mons (<5 'Airevvivos and rb 'Airtv- 
vlvov upos, probably from the Celtic Pen ' a 
height'), the Apennines, a chain of mountains 
which runs throughout Italy from N. to S., and 
forms the backbone of the peninsula. It is a 
continuation of the Maritime Alps [Alpes], 
begins near Genua and ends at the Sicilian sea, 
and throughout its whole course sends off nume- 
rous branches in all directions. It rises to its 
greatest height in the country of the Sabines, 
where one of its points (now Monte Corno, or 
Gran Sasso d' Italia) is 9521 feet above the sea; 
and further S., at the boundaries of Samnium, 
Apulia, and Lucania, it divides into two main 
branches, one of which runs E. through Apulia 
and Calabria, and terminates at the Salentine 
promontory, and the other W. through Brut- 
tium, terminating apparently at Rhegium and 
the straits of Messina, but in reality continued 
throughout Sicily. The greater part of the 
Apennines is composed of limestone, abound- 
ing in numerous caverns and recesses, which in 
ancient as well as in more recent times were the 
resort of numerous robbers : the highest points 
of the mountains are covered with snow, even 
during most of the summer (nivali vertice se 
attollens Apenninus, Verg. Aen. xii. 703). For 
a general description see Polyb. ii. 16, iii. 110 ; 
Strab. pp. 128, 211 ; for the storms of the Apen- 
nines, Liv. xxi. 58. 

M. Aper, a Roman orator and a native of 
Gaul, rose by his eloquence to the rank of 
quaestor, tribune, and praetor, successively. He 
is one of the speakers in the Dialogue de Ora- 
toribus attributed to Tacitus. 

Aper, Arrius, praetorian prefect, and son-in- 
law of the emperor Numerian, whom he was 
said to have murdered : he was himself put to 
death by Diocletian on his accession in a.d. 284. 

Aperantia, a town and district of Aetolia near 
the Achelous, inhabited by the Aperantii (Polyb. 
xxii. 8 ; Liv. xxxviii. 3). 

Aperlae ("AirepKai : on a coin the inscr. is 
> A7rep\aeiTcSi'), a town in Lycia a few miles west 
of Simena. It formed with three others, Simena, 
Apollonia and Isinda, a single Sf/fios or district 
with a common fiou\ii (Waddington, 1292, 1296). 
In later times it was the seat of a bishopric 
including the above towns. The inscriptions 
show the true spelling in Plin. v. 100. 

Aperopia, a small island off the prom. Bu- 
porthmus in Argolis (Paus. ii. 34, 9 ; Plin. iv. 56). 

Apesas ('AireVas : Fuka ?), a mountain on the 



borders of Phliasia and Argolis, with a temple 
of Zeus, who was hence called Apesantius, and 
to whom Perseus here first sacrificed. 

Aphaca {to. "A<pa.Ka : Afta ?), a town of Coele- 
Syria, between Heliopolis and Byblus, cele- 
brated for the worship of Aphrodite Aphacltis. 

Aphareus ('A<papevs). 1. Son of the Messenian 
king Perieres, and founder of the town of Arene 
in Messenia, which he called after his wife. 
Lycus, son of Pandion, took refuge there and 
initiated Aphareus in the mysteries (Paus. iii. 

I, iv. 2, 4.) He was buried at Sparta (Paus. iii. 

II, 11 ; Theocr. xxii 141). His two sons Idas and 
Lynceus, the Apharetidae (Aphareia proles, 
Ov. Met. viii. 304), are celebrated for their fight 
with the Dioscuri, which is described by Pindar 
(Nem. x. 111). — 2. An Athenian orator and 
tragic poet, flourished B.C. 369-342. After the 
death of his father, his mother married the 
orator Isocrates, who adopted Aphareus as his 
son. He wrote 35 or 37 tragedies, and gained 
4 prizes. (Plut. Vit. X. Or. 839.) 

Aphetae ('A</>eTai and 'A<f>6Tai : 'Acpsrcuos), a 
seaport and promontory of Thessaly, at the en- 
trance of the Sinus Maliacus, from which the 
ship Argo is said to have sailed (Hdt. vii. 193, 
196, viii. 4 ; Strab. p. 436 ; Ap. Rh. i. 591). 

Aphldas ('A(pelSas), son of Areas, obtained 
from his father Tegea and the surrounding 
territory. He had a son, Aleus. 

Aphidna CA$i8ea and 'A<pt$v at : 'AQiSvcuos), 
an Attic demus not far from Decelea, originally 
belonged to the tribe Aeantis, afterwards to 
Leontis, and last to Hadrianis. It was one of the 
12 towns and districts into which Cecrops is 
said to have divided Attica ; in it Theseus con- 
cealed Helen, but her brothers Castor and 
Pollux took the place and rescued their sister. 
(Hdt. ix : 73 ; Plut. Thes. 32 ; Paus. i. 17, 6.) 

Aphrodisias ('A<ppoStaias : 'A<ppo5i<ritvs '■ 
Aphrodisiensis), the name of several places 
famous for the worship of Aphrodite. 1 A. 
Cariae (Gheira, Ru.), on the site of an old town 
of the Leleges, named Ninoe : under the Ro- 
mans a civitas foederata et libera, with immu- 
nity from taxation, and independence of local 
government secured by ancient treaty. It was 
the chief town of Caria under Diocletian. (Strab. 
p. 576 ; Plin. v. 109 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 62 ; O. I. G. 
2737 ; C. I. L. iii. 449.)— 2. Veneris Oppidum, a 
town on the coast of Cilicia, opposite to Cyprus 
(Liv. xxxiii. 20). — 3. A town, harbour, and island, 
on the coast of Cyrenaica in N. Africa. — 4. See 
Gades. 

Aphrodite ('A<ppoS'tTri), the Greek goddess 
of beauty and love, and of fruitful increase, 
whether of animal or vegetable life, worshipped 
by the Romans as Venus. In the Iliad (though 
apparently in the later portions only) she is 
called the 'daughter of Zeus and Dione : another 
myth represented her as sprung from the foam 
of the sea [see Uranus]. She was wedded to 
Hephaestus. For the myths of her relations to 
others, and of her children, see Abes, Dionysus, 
Hermes, Poseidon, Eros, Anchises, Adonis, 
Cinyras, Butes. In the Homeric poems she 
took the side of the Trojans, interfering to pro- 
tect Paris and Aeneas, and to save from defile- 
ment the body of Hector (II. iii. 380; v. 311, 
xxiii. 185). [See also'under Paris and Venus.] 

Eastern Origin. — The myths of Aphrodite 
as presented in Greek literature result from a 
mixture of Greek and Oriental (chiefly Semitic) 
mythology. Many Eastern nations worshipped 
a deity who was at once the goddess of fruit- 
fulness and generation and also of the moon or 
of the star Venus. Such was the Babylonish 



APHRODITE 



S3 



Belit (the feminine of Baal), who appears in 
Herodotus i. 196, 199 as Mylitta ; the Assyrian 
Ishtar (who was also to the Chaldeans the star 
Venus), the Phoenician Astarte or Ashtoreth, 
and the Syrian Atargates. This goddess, under 
her various names, was in each case the su- 
preme deity of the female sex, whence probably 
it arose that she was regarded as the giver of 
all fruitful increase. But a leading idea in her 
worship was that (perhaps as being, so to speak, 
Queen of Heaven) she was the goddess of the 




Ashtoreth, or the Moon Goddess. (Assyrian Cylinder : 
Layard.) 

moon (see Hdt. i. 105 ; Strab. p. 807 ; Lucian, tie 
Dea Syr. 4, 32 ; Herodian, v. 6, 10), for which 
reason some prefer to derive her worship as 
the goddess of fruitfulness from the idea that 
the moon was connected with menstruation, and, 
moreover, was supposed to control the dew 
which gave fertility to plants. The latter 
idea is traced in the story of the dew sent by 
Aphrodite to her altar at Eryx (Ael. N.A. x. 50; 
cf. Tac. Hist. ii. 8 ; Pervig. Ven. ii. 15). This 
worship of natural increase was degraded in 
the East to rites such as those of Mylitta 
described by Herodotus, a degradation which 
pervaded generally the worship of Astarte, and 
was transferred to some Greek temples, such as 
those at Corinth and Eryx. The animals and 
plants sacred in the worship of the Oriental, as 
of the Greek, deity were symbolical of fertility 
— the ram, the goat, the deer, the partridge, the 
purple mussel and various fish, the myrtle and 
cypms. Again, perhaps alike from the in- 
fluence of the moon upon the sea, and also from 
the dependence of mariners upon the stars, 
arose the connexion of the Eastern deity witli 
the sea ; and the fact that the goddess Derceto 
(Atargatesl, worshipped at Hieropolis (Bum- 
byce), at Ascalon, and at other places in Syria, 
was represented as a goddess of fish, may be 
explained as due either to this connexion with 
the sea or to the idea that fish represented 
abundance and fruitfulness. Another very 
noticeable characteristic is the descent of this 
deity into the underworld of the dead, an idea 
which may be connected witli the waning of 
the moon, but more probably with the deatli 
of vegetation in winter. In the celebrated 
myth of Ishtar there are many points of resem- 
blance to the story of Persephone. Lastly, it 
should be observed that Astarte was an 
armed goddess, in Phoenicia, at Babylon, and at 
Carthage sometimes represented with a spear 
and a bow. Whether we are to regard this 
idea as suggested by the moonbeams, or, more 
simply, as showing the power of the nature- 
goddess to punish those who neglect her, the 
same is traceable in the Greek Aphrodite. 

Origin in Greece. — The above are the cha- 
racteristics which the Greeks seem to have 
borrowed from Eastern religions and engrafted 



j on their own. In the Homeric age Aphrodite 
was accepted as a genuine Greek deity, yet 
traces of Eastern origin remained in the names 
Kvvpis, Ua<pla, KvBepeia in the Hiad, and 
Kvirpoyevris in Hesiod. It is clear that under 
these names lies the truth that the Phoenicians 
established this worship, or a part of it, in the 
islands of Cyprus and Cythera, where they 
planted trading stations, especially for the 
trade in the purple mussel, and that it spread 
thence to Greece, as it also passed fiom Car- 
thage to Eryx in Sicily. [It has, however, been 
observed that all the passages in the Iliad 
and Odyssey, where Aphrodite is represented 
either as a daughter of Zeus and Dione, or as 
named from Cyprus and Cythera, belong to the 
latest portions of those poems, and hence it is 
deduced that the oldest Homeric poems know 
nothing of the origin of the deity.] In Greek 
myths the connexion of the goddess with the 

j moon, as a recognised attribute, disappears, 
because the Greeks already connected with the 
moon the names Hecate, Selene, and Artemis, 
and also because it was not her main charac- 
teristic ; yet it survives in the terms Ovpavia 
(see below), ' regina siderum,' and in the star 
Venus ; it has, moreover, been pointed out that 
the Greek name Artemis has, possibly from this 
confusion, been given to the goddess of gene- 
ration whom the old, non-Semitic, Babylonians 
worshipped as Nanai. If, however, the con- 
nexion with the moon has almost vanished, the 
main attribute of power over all fruitfulness 
and offspring, whether of the animal or of the 

; vegetable world, belongs to Aphrodite through 
all Greek literature, and to Venus in Roman 
writers. It is only necessary to cite, among 
many passages, Horn. U. v. 430, Hymn, ad 

j Aphr. 3, 69 ; Hes. Th. 200 ; Eur. Hipp, ill ; 
Luc-ret. i. 1; Hor. Od. i. 4; Pervigil. Veil. 




Aphrodite and KroH. 
(Causel. Mimeum Jiomnnum vol. 1, tav. 40. 

Hence Aphrodite was attended by the Horac 
iPaus. v. 15, 8) ; hence she was the goddess of 
gardens (cf. Strab. p. 343), called ItpdKTyiros, wor- 
shipped in the 'gardens' at Athens, where 
stood the noted statue by Alcamenes (Paus. i. 
19, 2; Plia. xxxvi. 16), and in the marsh or iv 



8G 



APHRODITE 




Ka\d/j.ois, as suggesting rich growth of vegetation 
(Athen. p. 572) ; hence also the animals sacred 
to Aphrodite were usually, as in the East above 
noticed, those which were regarded as specially 
prolific — the ram, the goat, the rabbit, the hare, 
the deer, the partridge, the sparrow : similarly 
the myrtle, the Cyprus, and the pomegranate 
are stated bv Pliny to produce fertility (xxii. 
107, 160, xxiv. 14, xxviii. 102). [For the degrada- 
tion—increased, no doubt, if not originated, by 
Eastern influence — of this form of worship to 
a patronage of Hetaerae and the services of the 
Up6Sov\oi ( Venerei) in certain temples, see Strab. 
pp. 272, 378, 745; Cic. Div. in Caec. 17, 55.] 
Her connexion 
with the sea is 
traced in Hes. 
Th. 188 in the 
story of her 
birth from the 
mutilation of 
Uranus (He- 
siod making 
her drift to Cy- 
prus eastward 
from Cythera 
instead of west- 
ward from Sy- 
ria) ; so also in 

Aphrodite issuing from the sea. and Plat. CTUt. 406 
received by Eros. (From a silver ft T+ jg also 
relief. Gazette A reh. 1B79.) ' -, 

preserved in 

the epithets ava.5vofj.4vr), a<ppoyevr)s, 6a\ao~o~'ia, 
itovTia, irt\ay'ia, ewAoia, yaXr]va'ia: in the 
special regard paid by mariners, and in the 
choice of the dolphin as sacred to her. 
Aphrodite, like her Eastern counterpart, is 
in some degree connected with the under- 
world : the traces of this appear in the statue 
at Delphi to an 'A<ppo5. e-jriTvixPia (Plut. Q. B. 
23) ; in the grave of Aphrodite-Ariadne at 
Naxos and at Amathus [Abiadne], and in the 
myth of Adonis. It is preferable to see in this 
the death of vegetation in winter rather than 
the phases of the moon. Lastly, for the armed 
Aphrodite who can revenge breaches of the 
laws of natural production (cf. Horn. II. iii. 413) 
we have the epithet eyx^ios (Hesych.), ivdirXtos 
(C. I. G. 1444), and the armed statues at 
Cythera, Corinth, Epidaurus, and Sparta (Paus. 
ii. 5, 1, ii. 27, 4, iii. 15, 8, iii. 23, 1). 

All the above characteristics seem to be 
borrowed from the East, though the theory 
cannot be positively rejected that many of 
them at least may have grown up in Greece 
itself as the genuine attributes of a goddess of 
natural powers, therefore called yeveruAAis and 
Kovporpocpos. At any rate it must be recognised 
that we can trace an earlier Greek goddess to 
whom such characteristics as were Oriental 
were transferred because she was through some 
likeness identified with the deity of Oriental 
religions. In the Aphrodite daughter of Zeus 
and Dione, as she appears to us in Homer and 
Sappho, we see a deity who was mainly a 
Greek conception. There was assuredly always 
a deity of love and birth for the Greeks, a power 
ruling over mortals arid immortals alike, and 
therefore ' the oldest of the Fates ' (Paus. i. 19, 
2). The original of the daughter of Zeus and 
Dione ( =• J uno) may, as some think, have been 
Hebe, who remains as the goddess of Youth, 
while her chief powers have passed to Aphro- 
dite. Again, in the stories of the marriage of 
Hephaestus with Aphrodite, and also with 
Charis — a legend probably starting from Lem- 
nos — may lurk the truth that Aphrodite, as 



goddess of love and beauty, has taken the place 
of a Greek deity Charis. 

It remains to notice the distinction in Greek 
literature and art between 'A<f>poh"iTri Oi/pav'ia 
and ' AcppoSirr) ndi/Srifios. There can be little 
doubt that the familiar distinction in philo- 
sophers was a later conception. Originally 
'A<ppoo'iT7) Oi/pav'ia was the Queen of Jhe Hea- 
vens, equivalent to that Eastern goddess who 
ruled the moon and stars, 
who guided the mariners, 
and who ruled the sea. She 
is represented in Greek art 
seated on a flying swan 
(also on a globe, or stand- 
ing on a tortoise), some- 
times with a star-spangled 
sky as background. A stele 
found at Kertsch is dedi- 
cated to ' Aphrodite Oura- 
nia, who rules the Bospo- 
rus.' On the other hand, 
'A<ppoSirri nacSrj/xos (who is 
represented riding on a 
goat) was no less recog- 
nised as an honoured deity 
in the state cult, nor was 
her worship committed to 
priestesses of low repute ; 
she is called ffefiv-r), and her 
priestess in one inscription 
is specially stated to be a 
married woman and not a 
courtesan. The probability 
is that she represents the 
original goddess of love 
worshipped in Greece, and 
that the statement of Pausanias that she 
was so called when the demes of Attica were 
united, should be accepted. It was a later idea 
of philosophers and moralists to give to ovpavia 
the sense of ennobling, and to ira.vZi)tios of de- 
basing, love, and again to make the former the 




Aphrodite of Melos. 
(Venus of Milo : Louvre 
in Paris.) 





Aphrodite of Cnidus 
(Munich). 



Aphrodite 
(Venus de' Medici : Florence.) 



patroness of the lawfully married, the latter of 
courtesans (see Plat. Symp. 180, 181; Paus. vi. 
25, 2, ix. 16, 2; Theocr. Epig. 13). In art the 
nude statues are the later development, the 
weaker types of ordinary feminine beauty being 
later than the stronger ; the more archaic 
statues were fully clothed, the earliest of all 



APHRODITOPOLIS 



APIS 



87 



probably ending in a quadi'angular base, sueli 
as that at Delos, which Pausanias (ix. 40) calls 
the work of Daedalus. Of the numerous nude 
statues of Aphrodite, three of the most famous 
iire here given. The first is an original statue 
found at Melos (Milo), and now in the Louvre 
at Paris, called the Venus of Milo. The second 
is a copy of the Aphrodite of Cnidus by Praxi- 
teles, now at Munich. The third (Venus de' 
Medici) is evidently an imitation of the Cnidian 
Aphrodite : it was ascribed to Cleomenes until 
Michaelis showed that the inscription with that 
name is a very late addition. For the Eoman 
goddess of love see Venus. 

Aphrodltopolis CA<ppoSir7is iroAis), the name 
of several cities in Egypt. 1. In Lower Egypt : 

(1) In the Nomos Leontopolites, in the Delta, be- 
tween Arthribis and Leontopolis (Strab. p. 802) ; 

(2) (Chybin-el-Koum) in the Nomos Prosopites, 
in the Delta, on a navigable branch of the Nile, 
between Naucratis and Sais ; probably the 
■same as Atarbechis, which is an Egyptian name 
of the same meaning as the Greek Aphrodito- 
polis (Strab. p. 802).— 2. In Middle Egypt, or 
Heptanomis, (Atfyli) a considerable city on the 
E. bank of the Nile ; the chief city of the 
Nomos Aphroditopolites (Strab. p. 809). — 3. In 
Upper Egypt, or the Theba'fs : (1) Veneris 
•Oppidum (Tachta), a little way from the W. 
bank of the Nile ; the chief city of the Nomos 
Aphroditopolis (Strab. p. 813 ; Plin. v. 61). (2) 
In the Nomos Hermonthites (Deir, N\V. of 
Esneh), on the W. bank of the Nile (Plin. v. 
4>0 ; Strab. p. 817). 

Aphthonius {'A<p86vios), of Antioch, a Greek 
rhetorician, lived at the end of the 3rd century 
a.d. and wrote the introduction to the study of 
rhetoric, entitled Progymnasmata [irpoyvfiv- 
darfiara). It was constructed on the basis of the 
Progymnasmata of Hennogenes, and became 
so popular that it was used as the common 
school-book in this branch of education for 
several centuries — In Walz's Bhctores Graeci, 
vol. i.; Spengel's Bhet. Graec. vol. ii. 1853. 
Aphthonius also wrote some Aesopic fables, 
which are extant. 

Aphytis CAtpvris: Athyto), a town in the 
peninsula Pallene in Macedonia, with a cele- 
brated temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon 
(Hdt. vii. 123; Thuc. i. 04; Strab. p. 330; 
Paus. iii. 18). 

Apia ('Am'o, sc. y?j)i the Apian land, an 
.ancient name of Peloponnesus, especially 
Argolis, said to have been so called from Apis, 
a mythical king of Argos. The name is prob- 
ably from the root up (whence aqua ), and corre- 
sponds with the Slavonic Morea from more = 
mare. If originally applied to the Western plain 
of Argolis, ' Waterland ' would be appropriate, 
and, as its application extended, the significance 
was lost (cf. Apulia). [Peloponnesus; Apis.) 

Apicata, wife of Sejanus, was divorced by 
him, a. n. 23, and put an end to her own life on 
the execution of Sejanus in 31 (Tac. Ann. iv.8, 
11 ; Dio Cuss, lviii. 11). 

Apicius. the name of three notorious glut- 
tons. — 1. The first lived in the time of Sulla, 
and is said to have procured the condemnation 
of Rutilius Ruins, B. c. 92. — 2. The second and 
most renowned, M. (iabius A picius, flourished 
under Tiberius. After squandering upwards 
of £800,000 upon his stomach lie found that 
little more than 80,000 remained ; upon which, 
despairing of being able to satisfy the cravings 
of hunger from such a pittance, he forthwith 
hanged himself. But he was not forgotten. 
Sundry cakes [Apicia) and sauces long kept 



! alive his memory, and his name passed into 
a proverb in all matters connected with the 
pleasures of the table. (Tac. Ann. iv. 1; Dio 
Cass. lvii. 19 ; Athen. p. 7 ; Plin. viii. 209, ix. 66, 
xix. 137 ; Juv. iv. 23 ; Sen. de. Vit. Beat. 11, 4.) 
— 3. A contemporary of Trajan, sent to this 
emperor, when he was in Parthia, fresh oysters, 
preserved by a skilful process of his own 
lAthen. p. 7). — The treatise we now possess, 
bearing the title Caelii Apicn de Opsoniis 
et Condimentis. sive de Be Culinaria , Libri 
decern, is a sort of Cook and Confectioner's 
Manual, containing a multitude of receipts for 
cookery. It was probably compiled in the 3rd 
century a.d. by some Caelius who entitled it 
Apicius to indicate its subject, and should 
perhaps correctly be called Caelii Apicius. — 
Edit. Schuch. Heidelb. 1874. 

Apidanus CA-mSavSs, Ion. 'HiriSavos), a river 
in Thessaly, which flows into the Enipeus near 
Pharsalus. 

Apiolae, a town of Latium, destroyed by 
Tarquinius Priscus (Liv. i. 35; Diony. iii. 49). 

Apion I A7riW), a Greek grammarian, and a 
native of Oasis in Egypt, studied at Alexandria, 
and taught rhetoric at Rome in the reigns of 
Tiberius and Claudius. In the reign of Caligula 
he left Rome, and in a. d. 38 he was sent by the 
inhabitants of Alexandria at the head of an 
embassy to Caligula to bring forward complaints 
against the Jews residing in their city. Apion 
was the author of many works, all of which are 
now lost. Of these the most celebrated were 
upon the Homeric poems. The extant glosses 
bearing his name are not genuine, but those 
which he did write were used by Apollonius the 
Sophist in his Homeric Lexicon. He also 
wrote a work on Egypt in 5 books, ana a work 
against the Jews, to which Josephus replied in 
his treatise Against Apion. 
Apion, Ftolemaeus. [Ptolemaeus Apion.] 
Apis CAms). 1. The Bull of Memphis, wor- 
shipped as a god among the Egyptians. This 
Apis was regarded as the incarnation of the 
supreme god Ptah, the god of the sun, and 
identified with Osiris, whence Apis is called by 
Greek writers an incarnation of Osiris (Strab. p. 
807 ; Diod. i. 85 ; Plut. Is. 20, 29). The Egyptians 
held the new Apis to be bom from a cow upon 
whom a spark from heaven fell at the death of 
the original Apis [see Serapis]. The symbol of 




Apia i Wtlklnaon'B J-.'yyptiam). 

Apis was a bull with the sun-disk between its 
horns, the regular Egyptian symbol for tin? sun. 
The worship was maintained of the living 
incarnate Apis (as well as of the dead Osiris- 
Apis, or Serapis) and the great temple for hie 
honour was at Memphis. He was called 
Epaphus by the Greeks and regarded as the 



88' 



APIS 



son of Isis (Hdt. ii. 153). There were certain 
signs by which lie was recognised to be the god. 
It was requisite that he should be quite black, 
have a white square mark on the forehead, on 
his back a figure similar to that of an eagle, 
have two kinds of hair in his tail, and on his 
tongue a knot in the shape of a beetle. When 
all these signs were discovered, the animal 
was consecrated with great pomp, and was 
conveyed to Memphis. His birthday, which 
was celebrated every year, was his most solemn 
festival ; it was a day of rejoicing for all 
Egypt (Hdt. iii. 28 ; Aelian, H. A. xi. 11). The 
god was allowed to live only a certain number 
of years (A then. p. 168). If he had not died 
before the expiration of that period, he was 
killed and buried in a sacred well, the place 
of which was unknown except to the initiated. 
But if he died a natural death, he was 
buried publicly and solemnly ; and as his birth 
filled all Egypt with joy and festivities, so 
his death threw the whole country into grief 
and mourning. (Plin. viii. 184 ; Plut. Is. 5(5.) 
This account of his being put to death is not 
borne out by the monumental representations 
of the Serapeum. Pliny (I.e.) tells the story 
that the refusal to take food from the hand of 
Germanicus was an omen of death. — 2. Son of 
Phoroneus and Teledice or Laodice, succeeded 
his father in the kingdom of Argos and the 
Peloponnesus generally, which was called Apia 
after him. He ruled tyranically and was slain 
by Thelxion and Telchin. From an confusion 
with the Egyptian Apis, he is further stated to 
have migrated to Egypt, founded Memphis, and 
to have been deified as Serapis (Apollod. ii. 1, 
1 ; Euseb. Chron. 271).— 3. Son of Telchin of 
Sicyon, also credited with giving the name 
Apia to Peloponnesus (Paus. ii. 5, 7). — 4. Son 
of the Arcadian Jason, slain by Aetolus (Paus. 
v. 1, 6). — 5. Son of Apollo, endowed with the 
arts of healing and prophecy, born at Naupac- 
tus, freed Argos from monsters. He also was 
said to have been the origin of the name Apia 
(Aesch. Swppl. 262). No doubt the converse 
was the truth and the name of the land was 
accounted for by the various local traditions. 

Apis CAttis), a city of Egypt, on the coast of 
the Mediterranean, on the border of the 
country towards Libya, about 10 stadia W. of 
Paraetonium ; celebrated for the worship of the 
god Apis. 

Apobathmi ('A-n-6[3adfi.oi), a place in Argolis 
on the sea not far from Tyrea, where Danaus is 
said to have landed (Paus. ii. 38, 4). 

Apodoti and Apodeotae (AttoSojtoi and 
'AttoSotol), a people in the SE. of Aetolia, 
between the Evenus and Hylaetlius. 

Apollinaris, Sidorrius. [Sidonius.] 

Apolllnis Pr. ('AttoWiiivos a.Kpov : C. Zibeeb 
or O. Farina), a promontory of Zeugitana in 
N. Africa, forming the W. point of the Gulf of 
Carthage = the Pulehri Promont. Liv. xxix. 27. 

Apollo (AiroAAo)!'), one of the great divinities 
of Greece. In literature he is the son of Zeus 
and Leto, born with his twin sister Artemis in 
Delos under Mount Cynthus, whither his 
mother had fled from the jealous anger of 
Hera. The three deities Zeus, Apollo and 
Athene were regarded as embodying in a 
special degree the divine powers, so that the 
solemn appeal in oath or prayer is ZeC re irdrip 
teal 'Ad-qva'iri Kal 'AttoWov (II. ii. 371, &o.) In j 
Homer, however, we find Apollo only as the | 
god of prophecy and as the god who sends 
plagues. The manifold attributes which will 
be described were the result partly of develop- 



APOLLO 

ment, but still more of the sweeping together of 
various local traditions and forms of worship 
into the religion of this deity, who became their 
representative. It is probably right to find the 
origin of most of these attributes in the nature- 
worship of the god of Light, and though in 
Homer the sun was a separate deity [Helios], 
Apollo becomes afterwards identified with the 
sun itself as well as with ideas belonging gener- 
ally to light. The physical conception, however, 
was gradually lost (though revived sometimes 
in art), and Apollo's special provinces are pro- 
phecy, music, poetry and the preservation of 
the state from maladies. It is very doubtful if 
we should refer the epithets Xvtceios, &c. to this 
original idea of light ; but there is little doubt 
that the names <po?@os and xP x " T0K ^f L0S have 
this meaning. Hence Apollo is (1) the god of 
the year and its months, with epithets 
ojpo/xe'Scne, iipirr]s, veofxriVLOS, e^So/xayeTris (cf. 
Hdt. vi. 57 ; Aesch. Th. 781) : the new and full 
moon, the 7th and 20th of each month were 
sacred to him [cf. Diet. Ant. s. v. Daphne- 
pJwria]. He is the god who brings back sun- 
shine and light in spring : according to Hes. 
Op. 526 the sun went to Ethiopia in winter (cf. 
Hdt. ii. 24). This return was celebrated at 
Delphi in the Theophania on the 7th of the 
month Bysios which began the Apollineaii year 
(see Diet. Ant. s.v. Theophania.) It is now 
the general theory, and is very likely correct, 
that the victory of Apollo over dragons and 
serpents at Delphi and Delos (Hymn, ad Ap. 
122, 178; Eur. I. T. 1250) symbolises the 
driving away of winter and darkness by the 
return of spring and light. In this view the 
dragon is darkness ; the arrow which slew it is 
the ray of the sun (cf. Eur. H. F. 1090). It is 
possible also that the slaying of the giants 
Tityus and the Aloidae may refer to the same 
battle against winter. It may be observed, 
however, that these legends may also signify the 
prevalence of a new Greek religion over an 
older local worship. Apollo seems to have been 
once the rival of Asclepius, to whom the 
serpent was sacred, and to have prevailed over 
him [Asclepius] : it is not improbable that at 
Delphi, at Delos, at Phlegyae and elsewhere, 
there was an old serpent-worship, possibly 
a relic of tribes to whom the serpent was a 
totem, which the Apollineaii worship overthrew, 
and this would explain the expiation which 
Apollo had to make for the slaughter of the 
Python. Such an explanation would not 
exclude the probability that the dragon or ser- 
pent was regarded in the worship of Apollo as 
the symbol of darkness and winter, and that 
the armed dances at the Ephesian Ortygia and 
at Delos, like those of the Salii at Rome, 
represent an attempt of savage superstition to 
frighten away the powers of darkness (cf. 
Strab. p. 640; Diet. Ant. s.v. Salii). (2) As god 
of the sun and of the warmer part of the year 
Apollo was honoured partly, though not solely, 
in the character of a god of harvest in certain 
festivals belonging to the summer and early 
autumn (Diet. Ant. s.v. Carnea, Delia, Hyacin- 
thia, Pyanepsia, Thargelia): hence also comes 
the epithet trirdKKas (Paus. x. 15, 2). (3) The 
god who sends plagues (II. i. 42 ; Paus. ix. 36, 
3) ; and, by a common sequence, he was also^ 
the god of healing who averted plagues (Eur. 
Ale. 220). This connexion with sickness and 
death is no doubt owing to the observation that 
the heat of the sun favoured the spread of 
plagues, and that the sunstroke sometimes, 
killed directly : for his healing character, besides. 



APOLLO 



89 



the belief that the god who brought sickness 
could also remove it, his identification with the 
worship of Asclepius is also answerable. Here 
belong the epithets ovAtos, Aolfiios, Traiuivios, 
axiaios, iraiuv, bAt^Maitos (which was said to 
refer to his staying the plague of Athens, Paus. 
i. 3, 4), iiriKOvpios, opifer. Apollo's arrows slay 
men, as those of Artemis slay women (see the 
story of NiobeJ. (4) The god of oracles. The 
prophetic power of Apollo is by some supposed 
to express the idea that his light penetrated all 
darkness : if it belongs to him as sun-god it 
might better be regarded as a characteristic of 
the all-seeing sun is iravT icpopq Kat iravr' 
4ira.Kovet. It is possible, however, that he 
became the deity of more oracular temples 
than any other god merely because he was 
eventually regarded as the vicegerent and 
mouthpiece of Zeus (cf. Aesch. Eum. 19; II. i. 
72) and thus absorbed many local oracles. The 
oracle of Zeus at Dodona was an earlier Greek 
oracle than that of Apollo at Delphi, of which 
the notice in II. ix. 404 belongs to a late portion 
of the Iliad. It is said that Zeus and Apollo 
shared the oracle of Branchidae, which may 
account for his name Didymaeus there (Steph. 
s. v. AtSujua) ; or it may only express his 
twinship with Artemis. It is probable that 
Apollo occupied an oracular seat at Delphi 
once sacred to other deities in succession : to a 
nature-deity such as earth (Eum. 1); to Posei- 
don, whence the symbol of the dolphin and the 
names 8eK<pivtos, 5eA<J>eios ficvfios ; and probably 
to Dionysus. (Hymn, ad Apoll. 31'J ; Diet. 
Ant. s. v. Oraculum. where also an account of 
the numerous oracles of Apollo in Greece and 
Asia Minor will be found.) From oracular 
temples he has many surnames, such as Clarius, 
Lvcius, Ismenius, Patareus. (5) The founder 
of States and the leader of colonies. This at- 
tribute is commonly derived from the fact that 
navigation began in spring and that colonies 
started then, led by the god of spring. It is 
better to assign a twofold reason : that Apollo's 
oracle sanctioned the enterprise of the colonists, 
and also that in most cases Apollo was the 
representative Hellenic god whose worship 
they carried with them. These functions are 
expressed in the epithets varpuos, apx 7 J7 eT7 ) 5 > 
ifcc. (see Thuc. vi. 8), in that of o-yuieus, 
because he presided over the city, in traditions 
of States founded by his sons and grandsons, 
such as Ion, Dorus, Chaeron, Sec. isee also 
Paus. i. 42, 2; Callim. Hymn, ad Apoll. 55). (6) 
The god of expiation and purification: 
(Twttip, KaBdpaios, laTpd/xavris. This appeal's 
especially in the atoning rites at Delphi, and in 
the atonement at the Thargelia (see Diet. Ant. 
h. v.), and is dwelt upon in the Eumenides. 
This attribute may belong to him equally as 
the god of healing, as the god of oracles, and as 
the god of light. (7) Apollo as the god of 
prophecy and oracular wisdom (Od. viii. 4HH> 
was recognised also as the leader of the Muses, 
as the god of music and poetry (//. i. 608 ; Pind. 
Nan. v. 28 ; Paus. v. 18. 4, x. l'J. 4). I*) The 
ideal of manly youth and beauty [Oil. viii. 
HO; Hes. Th. 847) ; hence a patron of athletes 
with the epithet Spouaios. (9) Some have con- 
nected with the preceding the attribute of 
iypc's, d-ypf i'itjjj, itc., which he had as god of 
hunting (Soph. 0. C. 1091 ; Pans. i. 41. 3) ; but 
it is more probable that this, as in the case of 
Artemis, arose from the fact that in various 
ancient local religions certain animals were 
sacred to him. On the whole it is most prob- 
able that in the consecration of the wolf to 




Apollo Sauroctonos. 



Apollo, and in his names Kviceios, KvK-nyevrjs we 
have, not the misinterpretation of a name 
meaning light, but the relic of an ancient 
totemistic religion in which a tribe whose totem 
was the wolf and whose animal worship was 
transferred to Apollo, at first imagined as the 
wolf-god and receiving 
special sacrifice of the 
sacred animal of the 
tribe, and then re- 
garded as the wolf- 
slayer (\vkokt6vos, 
Soph. El. 0, cf. Paus. 
x. 14, 7; Xen. Anab. 
ii. 2, 9.). To this the 
story of the victory of 
the wolf {i.e. a wolf- 
tribe) over the bull at 
Argos [Danaus], and 
the figure of a wolf on 
Argive coins (Paus. ii. 
19, 3) seem to point ; 
and to this belongs the 
name of the Lyceum 
at Athens. The shep- 
herds, of whom in 
some districts he was 
a patron (cf. his ser- 
vice to Laomedon and 
Admetus), may have 
been glad to suppose 
him the slayer of 
the wolf rather than 
its protector. It is remarkable that Mars, 
between whom and Apollo a connexion has 
been traced, has the same sacred animal. — 
Other attributes. It is probably best to ac- 
count in the same way for the story of the 
Telmissians that Apollo took the form of a 
dog, and also for the better known stories of 
Apollo Smintheus (i. e. the mouse-god), wor- 
shipped in several places under this title (Strab. 
pp. 481), 604, Ael. if. A. xiii. 5; cf. II. i. 39), 
and represented by Scopas with a mouse at his 
foot. Some have supposed this to mean that as 
harvest-god he destroyed the mice to save the 
crops: it is more likely that the mouse was the 
sacred animal, and that the idea of its destruc- 
tion by Apollo came later when the animal 
worship was transferred to him. The dolphin 
may have been sacred to him for a similar 
reason, or from an association of Poseidon with 
Delphi mentioned above : other reasons sug- 
gested are, that the dolphin symbolised his 
claim to spring, when navigation began, or that 
it was merely a misinterpretation of the local 
name Delphi. [For the laurel see Daphne.] — 
Worship of Apollo at Home. This was intro- 
duced under Tarquinius Superbus, when the 
Sibylline books were brought to Rome. 
(Dionys. iv. 02; Diet. Ant.s.w Libri Sibyllini). 
Hence he is called Cumaeus Apollo: a temple 
was built to him B.C. 430 (Liv. iv. 25); the 
Ludi Apollinares (Diet. Ant.) were celebrated 
from 212 B.C. onwards, and the worship of 
Apollo, the giver of victory at Actium, was 
especially favoured by Augustus, who was even 
said to be the son of Apollo (Suet. Aug. 94). 
As a Greek divinity he was honoured by the 
Lcctistcrnium (Diet. Ant. s. v.). Apollo is in 
the more matured periods of Greek art gener- 
ally represented us a handsome beardless youth. 
As god of music with the lyre he is always 
clothed, and wears the long tunic Mfrmi 
ipdoardStos), as in the Vatican statue of Apollo 
Citharoedus (p. 90), a copy of the statue by 
Scopas placed by Augustus in the Palatini- 



•90 



APOLLOCRATES 




Apollo Citharoedus (in the 
Vatican). 



temple. As the archer god, slayer of the dragon, 
lie is represented naked: highly idealised by 
Praxiteles, as in 
the ' Sauroctonos ' 
(p. 89) ; a type 
which in later 
works approaches 
more nearly a fe- 
minine character. 
The so-called ' Bel- 
vedere ' Apollo is 
a beautiful marble 
copy of an ori- 
ginal in bronze ; 
from a comparison 
with a small bronze 
copy now at St. 
Petersburg, it is 
seen that the left 
hand held the 
aegis ; the right was 
empty. It is now 
generally thought 
that the original 
was made after the 
Gallic repulse from 
Delphi B.C. 278, and 
that Apollo is here 
the indignant war- 
like god repelling 
the barbarians from his temple. The attri- 
butes of Apollo in art are the dolphin, the 
griffin [sup- 
posed to be 
derived from 
his connexion 
with Hyperbo- 
rean lands], the 
wolf (Paus. x. 
14), and the 
mouse (as 
Apollo Smin- 
theus), the 
aurel crown, 
the bow, the 
lyre, and the 
tripod. A fa- 
vourite subject 
with vase-pain- 
ters is the 
carrying off of 
the tripod by 
Heracles and 
its restoration 
to Apollo 
(Paus. x. 13 ; 
Heracles.) 
Apollocrates ('ATroWoicpdrris), elder son of 
Dionysius the Younger, was left by his father 
in command of the citadel of Syracuse, but was 
compelled by famine to surrender it to Dion, 
about B.C. 354 (Plut. Dionys. 37 ; Strab. p. 259.) 

Apollodorus {'AvoWdSupos). — 1. Of Amphi- 
polis, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, 
was intrusted in B.C. 331, together with Menes, 
with the administration of Babylon and of all 
the satrapies as far as Cilicia (Curt. v. 1 ; Diod. 
xvii. 54). — 2. Tyrant of Cassandrea (formerly 
Potidaea) in the peninsula of Pallene, obtained 
the supreme power in B.C. 379, and exercised it 
with the utmost cruelty. He was conquered 
and put to death by Antigonus Gonatas. (Polyb. 
vii. 7 ; Polyaen. vi. 7 ; Paus. iv. 5, 1.) — 3. Of 
Carystus, a comic poet, probably lived B.C. 
300-260, and was one of the most distinguished 
of the poets of the new Attic Comedy. It was 
from him that Terence took his Hecyra and 




The Belvedere Apollo (in the Vatican). 



APOLLONIA 

Phormio. — i. Of Gela in Sicily, a comic poet 
and a contemporary of Menander, lived B.C. 
340-290. He is frequently confounded with 
Apollodorus of Carystus. The fragments of both 
are edited by Meineke. — 5. A Grammarian of 
Athens, son of Asclepiades, and pupil of Ari- 
starchus and Panaetius, flourished about B.C. 
140. He wrote a great number of works, which 
have perished, among them the Chronica, a 
history of the world from the fall of Troy to his 
own time, and a geographical treatise — both in 
trimeter iambics. His surviving work is the 
Bibliotlieca, which consists of three books and 
is of considerable value. It contains a well- 
arranged account of the mythology and the 
heroic age of Greece : it begins with the origin 
of the gods, and goes down to the time of 
Theseus, when the work suddenly breaks off. — 
Editions. By Heyne, GSttingen, 1803, 2d ed. ; 
by Clavier, Paris, 1805, with a French transla- 
tion ; by Westermann in the Mythographi, 
Brunswick, 1843 ; by Hercher, 1874. Its genu- 
ineness is, however, doubted by some writers 
(see Hercher, and C. Robert, Berlin, 1873.) — 
6. Of Pergamus, a Greek rhetorician, taught 
rhetoric at Apollonia in his advanced age, and 
had as a pupil the young Octavius, afterwards 
the emperor Augustus (Strab. p. 625 ; Suet. Aug. 
89). — 7. A painter of Athens, flourished about 
B.C. 408, with whom commenced a new period in 
the history of the art. He made a great advance 
in colouring, and invented aerial perspective, 
the treatment of different planes, and the right 
management of chiaroscuro (Plin. xxxv. 69 : see 
further Diet. Ant. ii. 409). Hence he was the 
| founder of the art of landscape painting. — 8. An 
J architect of Damascus, lived under Trajan and 
Hadrian, by the latter of whom he was put to 
death. He built the forum and the column of 
Trajan. 

Apollonia (' AiroXKuvia : ' AiroWcovi6.T7}s). 1. 

! (Pollina or Pollona), an important town in 
Illyria or new Epirus, not far from the mouth 
of the Aous, and 00 stadia from the sea. It was 
founded by the Corinthians and Corcyraeans, 
and was equally celebrated as a place of com- 
merce and of learning ; many distinguished 
Romans, among others the young Octavius, 
afterwards the emperor Augustus, pursued their 
studies here. Persons travelling from Italy to 
Greece and the E., usually landed either at 
Apollonia or Dyrrhachium ; and the Via Egna- 
tia, the great high road to the East, commenced 
at Apollonia or, according to others, at Dyrrha- 
chium (Thuc. i. 26 ; Strab. pp. 316, 322 ; Paus. v. 
21, 12). [Egnatia Via.] — 2. (Polina), a town 
in Macedonia, on the Via Egnatia, between 
Thessalonica and Amphipolis, and S. of the lake 
of Bolbe (Plin. iv. 38; Athen. p. 334).— 3. (Size? 
boli), a town in Thrace on the Black Sea, with 
two harbours, a colony of Miletus, afterwards 
called Sozopolis, whence its modern name ; it 
had a celebrated temple of Apollo, from which 
Lucullus carried away a colossus of this god, 
and erected it on the Capitol at Rome (Hdt. iv. 
90 ; Strab. pp. 319, 541). — 4. A castle or fortified 
town of the Locri Ozolae, near Naupactus. — 
5. A town in Sicily, on the N. Coast. It lay 
near Haluntium, a little way inland, and seems 
to have been a Sikel town whose name was 
changed when the neighbouring Greek colonists 
brought in the worship of Apollo. It is probably 
the modern Pollina. (Cic. Verr. hi. 43, v. 33 ; 
Diod. xiv. 72.) — 6. (Abullionte), a town in 
Bithynia on the lake Apolloniatis, through 
which the river Rhyndacus flows (Strab. p. 575). 
— 7. A town on the borders of Mysia and Lydia, 



APOLLONIS 

in the Caicus valley, between Pergamus and 
Sardis (Strab. p. 625). — 8. A town in t'alestina, 
between Caesarea and Joppa. — 9. A town in 
Assyria, in the district of Apolloniatis, through 
which the Delas or Duras (Diala) flows. — 10. 
IMarza Susa), a town in Cyrenaica and the 
harbour of Cyrene, one of the 5 towns of the 
Pentapolis in Libya : it was the birthplace of 
Eratosthenes. — 11. A Lycian town on an island, 
probably the island Dolichiste. 

Apollonis (Palamut), a city in Lydia, be- 
tween Pergamus and Sardis. It was one of the 
1-2 cities of Asia which were destroyed by an 
earthquake in the reign of Tiberius (a.d. 17). 
I Strab. p. 625; Tac. Ann. ii. 47.) Its original 
name was Doidya : it was a colony of Macedo- 
nian soldiers under the Seleucids about 260 B.C. ; 
and was refounded by Attalus II., who named 
it Apollonis after his mother, about 159 B.C. 

Apollonius i'AwoWdvios). 1. Of Alabanda 
in Caria, a rhetorician, taught rhetoric at Rhodes, 
about B.C. 120. He was a very distinguished 
teacher of rhetoric, and used to ridicule and 
despise pliilosophy. Scaevola was present at 
his lectures (Cic. de Orat. i. 17, 75). He was 
sumamed 6 MaAcutos, and must be distinguished 
irom the following. — 2. Of Alabanda, sumamed 
Molo, likewise a rhetorician, taught rhetoric at 
Rhodes, and also distinguished himself as a 
pleader in the courts of justice (Strab. p. 655). 
In B.C. 81, when Sulla was dictator, Apollonius 
i-ame to Rome as ambassador of the Rhodians, 
on which occasion Cicero heard him ; Cicero 
also received instruction from Apollonius at 
Rhodes a few years later (Cic. Brut. 89-91), and 
later still Caesar (Suet. Jul. 4). — 3. Son of 
Archebulus, a .grammarian of Alexandria, in 
the first century of the Christian aera, and a 
pupil of Didymus. He wrote a Homeric Lexi- 
con, based on glossaries of Apion, which is still 
extant, and though much interpolated, is a work 
of great value. — Editions. BvVilloison, Paris, 
1773 ; by H. Tollius, Lugd. Bat. 1788 ; and by 
Bekker, Berlin, 1833. — 4. Sumamed Dyscolus, 
' the ill-tempered,' a grammarian at Alexandria, 
in the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius 
(a.d. 117-161), taught at Rome as well as Alex- 
andria. He and his son Hekodianls are called 
by Priscian the greatest of all grammarians. 
Apollonius was the first who reduced grammar 
to anything like a system. Of his numerous 
works only 4 are extant. 1. Ufpi trvvTafcivs rov 
\6yov /xfpwv, ' de Constructione Orationis,' or 
' de Ordinatione sive Constructione Dictionum,' 
in 4 books ; edited by Fr. Sylburg, Frankf. 1590 ; 
by L Bekker, Berlin, 1817; and by A. Butt- 
mann, 1878. 2. flep! avraivufuas 'de Prono- 
mine;' edited by L Bekker, Berlin, 1814. 8. 
Tltpl avviiafkoiv, ' de Conjunctionibus,' and 
4. Iltpl 4irippT]fidT(iiv, ' de Adverbiis,' printed in 
Bekker's Anecdot. ii. p. 477, &c. Among the 
workB ascribed to Apollonius by Suidas there is 
one wepl Ka.Titytvoiiivt\s ttTTopias, on fictitious or 
forged histories : this has been erroneously sup- 
posed to be the same as the extant work 'Iirropioi 
Bavfuuriai, which purports to be written by an 
Apollonius (published by Westermann, Vara- 
doaographi, Brunswick, 1839, and Keller, 1877) ; 
but it is now admitted that the latter work was 
written by an Apollonius who is otherwise un- 
known. — 5. Pergaeus, from Perga in Pam- 
phylia, one of the greatest mathematicians of 
antiquity, commonly called the 'Great Geo- 
meter,' was educated at Alexandria under the 
successors of Euclid, and flourished about B.C. 
250-220. His most important work was a 
treatise on Conic Sections in 8 books, of which 



APOLLONIUS 



91 



the first 4, with the commentary of Eutocius, 
are extant in Greek ; and all but the eighth in 
Arabic. We have also introductory lemmata 
to all the 8, by Pappus. Edited by Halley, 
' Apoll. Perg. Conic, lib. viii., &c.,' Oxon 1710, 
fol. The eighth book is a conjectural restora- 
tion founded on the introductory lemmata of 
Pappus. — 6. Rhodius. a poet and grammarian, 
son of Silleus or Illeus and Khode, bom at 
Alexandria (according to Athen. p. 283, and 
Aelian, N. A. xv. 23, he was a citizen of Nau- 
cratis), wrote in the reigns of Ptolemy Philo. 
pator and Ptolemy Epiphanes B.C. 222-181. 
In his youth he was instructed by Callimaehus; 
but they afterwards became bitter enemies. 
Their tastes were entirely different ; for Apol- 
lonius admired and imitated the simplicity of 
the ancient epic poets, and disliked and de- 
spised the artificial and learned poetry of Calli- 
maehus. When Apollonius read at Alexandria 
his poem on the Argonautic expedition (Argo- 
nautica), it did not meet with the approbation 
of the audience : he attributed its failure to the 
intrigues of Callimaehus, and revenged himself 
by wilting a bitter epigram on Callimaehus 
which is still extant (Anth. Graec. xi. 275). 
Callimaehus in return attacked Apollonius in 
his Ibis, which was imitated by Ovid in a poem 
of the same name. Apollonius now left Alex- 
andria and went to Rhodes, where he taught 
rhetoric with so much success that the Rhodians 
honoured him with their franchise : hence he 
was called the ' llhodian.' He afterwards re- 
turned to Alexandria, where he read a revised 
edition of his Argonautica with great applause. 
He succeeded Eratosthenes as chief librarian 
at Alexandria, in the reign of Ptolemy Epipha- 
nes, about B.C. 194, and appears to have held 
this office till his death. The Argonautica, 
which consists of 4 books, and is still extant, 
gives a straightforward and simple description 
of the adventures of the Argonauts : it is a 
close imitation of the Homeric language and 
style, but exhibits marks of art and labour as 
of one who is a student only of the heroic age, 
and thus forms a contrast with the natural 
genius and flow of the Homeric poems. Still, 
although not an exception to the rule that the 
Alexandrian poetry was derivative and anti- 
quarian, rather than original, Apollonius Rho- 
dius has left us the best of the Alexandrian 
epics, presenting detached passages of vivid 
and telling description, which must rank high 
as poetry, when they are taken out of their 
somewhat dull and cold setting. Among the 
Romans the work was much read, and P. 
Terentius Varro Atacimis acquired great repu- 
tation by his translation of it. The Argonaut ica 
of Valerius Flaccus is only a free imitation of 
it. — Editions. By Brnnck, Argentorat. 1780 ; 
by G. Schaefer, Lips. 1810-13 ; by Wellauer, 
Lips. 1828; Merkel, 1854. Apollonius wrote 
several other works which are now lost. — 7. 
Tyanensis or Tyanaeus, i.e. of Tyanain Cappa- 
docia, a Pythagorean philosopher, was born 
about 4 years before the Christian aera. At a 
period when there was a general belief in 
magical powers, it would appear that Apollonius 
obtained great influence by pretending to them ; 
and we may believe that his Life by Philo- 
stratus gives a just idea of his character and 
reputation, however inconsistent in its facts, 
and absurd in its marvels. Apollonius, accord- 
ing to Philostratus, was of noble ancestry, and 
studied first under Euthydemus, of Tarsus ; 
but, being disgusted at the luxury of the inhabi- 
tants, he retired to the temple of Asclepius 



92 



APOLLONIUS 



APPIA 



at Aegae in Cilioia, guided, as was said, by some 
inspiration. Here he dwelt from the age of 16 
to 20, regarded as having especial favour from 
the god, and, after a general study of Greek 
philosophy, adopting that of Pythagoras and 
living the ascetic life of a strict Pythagorean. 
He subsequently travelled throughout the East, 
visiting Nineveh, Babylon, and India. On his 
return to Asia Minor, we first hear of his pre- 
tensions to miraculous power, founded, as it 
would seem, on the possession of some divine 
knowledge derived from the East. From Ionia 
he crossed over into Greece, and from thence to 
Pome, where he arrived just after an edict 
against magicians had been issued by Nero. He 
accordingly remained only a short time at Borne, 
and next went to Spain and Africa ; at Alex- 
andria he was of assistance to Vespasian, who 
was preparing to seize the empire. The last 
journey of Apollonius was to Ethiopia, whence 
he returned to settle in the Ionian cities. On 
the accession of Domitian, Apollonius was 
accused of exciting an insurrection against the 
tyrant : he voluntarily surrendered himself and 
appeared at Rome before the emperor ; but 
as his destruction seemed impending, he was 
smuggled out of Borne, or, as his admirers 
averred, escaped by the exertion of his super- 
natural powers. The last years of his life were 
spent at Ephesus, where he is said to have pro- 
claimed the death of the tyrant Domitian at 
the instant it took place. It may be noted that 
Dio Cassius emphatically avows his belief in 
this story (lvii. ad fin.), though earlier in the 
same book (lvii. 18) he calls him an impostor, 
but does not seem to be aware that he is there 
speaking of the same Apollonius. Many of the 
wonders which Philostratus relates in con- 
nexion with Apollonius, curiously coincide with 
the Christian miracles. The proclamation of 
the birth of Apollonius to his mother by Proteus, 
and the incarnation of Proteus himself, the 
chorus of swans which sang for joy on the occa- 
sion, the casting out of devils, raising the dead, 
and healing the sick, the sudden disappearances 
and reappearances of Apollonius, his adventures 
in the cave of Trophonius, and the sacred voice 
which called him at his death, to which may be 
added his claim as a teacher having authority 
to reform the world — cannot fail to suggest the 
parallel passages in the Gospel history. We 
know, too, that Apollonius was one among many 
rivals set up by the Eclectics to our Saviour, 
an attempt renewed by the English freethinkers 
Blount and Lord Herbert. Still, it remains a 
doubtful question whether Philostratus was de- 
liberately fabricating a parallel to please Julia 
Domna, who shared the eclecticism apparent in 
Alexander Severus when he placed busts of 
Christ and of Apollonius, of Orpheus and of 
Abraham in his Lararium, and who wished for 
soma rival to set up against the exclusive 
Christian religion — whether in short he was, as 
Godet says, consciously opposing a Pythagorean 
Messiah to the Christian Messiah, or was merely 
(as seems more likely) a credulous romancer, 
weaving into his narrative besides what he de- 
rived from the eai'lier biographies of Apollonius 
by Maximus and Darius, stories also from Greek 
mythology and from the Gospels. For an esti- 
mate of the character of Apollonius we have no 
guide in the cursory allusions of Apuleius and 
Lucian, of whom the former seems to consider 
him as a magician, the latter as a teacher of 
imposture to Alexander. But we have some 
striking testimony to his personal virtue, and 
even to the purity of some of his tenets, in 



Christian writers — in Eusebius (iii. 5, iv. 12) ; in 
Origen, who had the biography of Moeragenes 
before him (co?itr. Cels. vi. 41), and in Sidonius 
Apollinaris (Ep. viii. 3). These passages have 
been recently discussed by Professor Dyer (Gods 
of Greece), and in a dissertation by Professor 
Gildersleeve. We are led to the conclusion that 
Apollonius was probably one of those enthu- 
siasts of high aim and real virtue whose claim 
to divine power and inspiration was not wholly 
a conscious imposture, but was possibly in 
greater part a self-deception. His tenets were 
that the soul must be liberated from the fetters 
of the sensual body by purity of life and true 
j worship of the highest god, by prayer and 
] contemplation but not by sacrifices : that life 
1 must be purified by asceticism and devoted to 
the good of the world, and that the highest 
proficients in such virtues would have super- 
natural powers such as were ascribed alike to 
Pythagoras and to Apollonius himself. — 8. Of 
Tyre, a Stoic philosopher, who lived in the 
reign of Ptolemy Auletes, wrote a history of the 
Stoic philosophy from the time of Zeno (Strab. 
757). — 9. Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles 
(about 150 B.C.), were two brothers, and the 
sculptors of the group which is commonly 
known as the Farnese bull, representing the 
punishment of Diree by Zethus and Amphion. 
[Dirce.] It was taken from Bhodes to Borne 
by Asinius Pollio, and afterwards placed in the 
baths of Caracalla, where it was dug up in the 
sixteenth century, and deposited in the Farnese 
1 palace. It is now at Naples. These sculptors 
, belong to the Hellenistic Asiatic schools. Their 
work is great in its rendering of anatomy, but 
departs from the repose of sculpture and prefers 
passion and emotion. Their style has many 
points of likeness to that of Agesander as seen 
in his Laocoon. — 10. Apollonius, a sculptor of 
; Athens in the 1st century B.C. His work is the 
famous Heracles-torso in the Vatican, belong- 
ing to what is now called the 'Attic Benais- 
sance.' 

Apollophanes ('k-KoXKo<j>avris), a poet of the 
old Attic Comedy, of whose comedies a few 
fragments are extant, lived about B.C. 400. 

Aponus or Aponi Pons (Abano), warm medi- 
cinal springs, near Patavium, hence called 
Aquae Patavinae, were much frequented by the 
sick (Plin. ii. 227, xxxi. 61 ; Mart. vi. 42 ; Lucan, 
vii. 193; Claud. Id. 6). 

Appia or Apia ('hirma, 'Airla), a city of 
Phrygia Pacatiana. 

Appia Via, the most celebrated of the Roman 
roads (regina viarum, Stat. Silv. ii. 2, 12), was 
commenced by Ap. Claudius Caecus, when 

| censor, B.C. 312, and was the great line of com- 
munication between Rome and southern Italy. 
It issued from the Porta Gapena, and passing 

\ through Aricia, Tres Tabernae, Appii Forum, 
Tarracina , Fundi, Formiae, Minturnae, Sinn - 

j essa, and Casilinum, terminated at Capua (131 

I Roman miles), but was eventually extended 
through Calatia and Caudiumto Beneventum, 
and finally thence through Ve.nusia, Tarentum, 
and TJria to Brundisium. The total distance 
by this route from Rome to Brundisium was 
363 miles. A variation of the route from Bene- 
ventum by Canusium and Barium to Brundi- 
sium was first regularly constructed and 
generally adopted under Trajan, with the name 
of Via Trajana, often called Via Appia. It was 
a route, however, sometimes used in earlier 
times (e.g. by Horace), instead of the regular 
road to Brundisium. In Horace's time also, 
travellers used the canal through the Pontine 



APPIANUS 



APULEIUS 



93 



marshes from Forum Appii ; but a road also ran I 
by the side of the canal (cf. Strab. p. 233). 
The road from Capua by Nuceria to Rhegium, 1 
originally Via Popilia, is also sometimes called 
Via Appia. 

Appianus ('Amriayos), the Roman historian, 
was born at Alexandria, and lived at Rome 
during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and An- 
toninus Pius. He wrote in Greek a Roman 
history ('Puprnxa, or 'Pwp.ouKri icrropia), in 24 
books, arranged not synchronistically, but 
ethnographically — that is, he did not relate 
the history of the Roman empire in chrono- 
logical order ; but he gave a separate account 
of the affairs of each country, till it was finally 
incorporated in the Roman empire. The 
subjects of the different books were : 1. The 
kingly period. 2. Italy. 3. The Samnites. 4. The 
Gauls or Celts. 5. Sicily and the other islands. 1 
6. Spain. 7. Hannibal's wars. 8. Libya. Car- I 
thage, and Numidia. 9. Macedonia. 10. Greece j 
and the Greek states in Asia Minor. 11. Syria 1 
and Parthia. 12. The war with Mithridates. 
13-21. The civil wars, in 9 books, from those \ 
of Marios and Sulla to the battle of Actium. I 
22. 'EKarovTaeTia, comprised the history of a I 
hundred years, from the battle of Actium to the 
beginning of Vespasian's reign. 23. The wars 
with Illyria. 24. Those with Arabia. We possess I 
only 11 of these complete : namelv, the 6th, 7th, 
8th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th. 17th, and 
23rd : there are fragments of several of the 
others. The Parthian history, which has come 
down to us as part of the 11th book, is not a 
work of Appian, but merely a compilation from 
Plutarch's Lives of Antony and Crassus. Ap- 
pian's work is a compilation. His style is clear 
ii nd simple ; but he possesses few merits as an 
historian, and he frequently makes blunders. 
Thus, for instance, he places Saguntum on the 
N. of the Iberus, and states that it takes only 
half a day to sail from Spain to Britain. Never- 
theless he is an indispensable authority for the 
period of the civil wars, and in other portions 
lias preserved for us records of writers whose 
works have perished. — Editions. Schweig- 
hiiuser, 1785 ; Bekker, 1852 ; Mendelssohn, 
1879. 

Appias, a nymph of the Appian well, which 
was situated near the temple of Venus Gene- 
trix in the forum of Julius Caesar. It was 
surrounded by statues of nymphs, called 1 
Apniades. (Ov. A.A. i. 82, 3 ; Plin. xxxvi. 33.) 

Appii Forum. [Forum Appn.] 

Appttleius. [ApuLErus.] 

Appuleius Saturninus. [Satubninus.] 

Aprils ('Arrpi'^s, 'Airpiaj), ft king of Egypt, 
the Pharaoh -Hophra of Scripture, succeeded 
his father Psammetichus II. and reigned B.C. 
588-570. He increased the number of Greek 
mercenaries to 80,000, which roused the jealousy 
of the Egyptian soldiers, who mutinied on the 
occasion of an unsuccessful attempt against 
Cyrene. They chose Amasis, the king's brother- 
in-law, as their leader, and defeated Apries and 
his mercenaries. Amasis allowed him to reign 
six veaxe jointly with himself, and then put him 
to death. (Hdt. ii. 151.) 

Apronius. 1. Q., one of the worst instru- 
ments of Verres in oppressing the Sicilians. — 
2. L., served under Drusus (a. n. 14) and Ger- 
manicus (15) in Germany. In 20 he was pro- 
consul of Africa, and praetor of Lower Germany, 
where he lost his life in a war against the 
Fri-ii. Apronius had two daughters: one of 
whom was married to Plautius Silvanus ; the 
otlicr to I.rntulus Gaetuhcus, consul in 2(5. 



Apsilae fAi^Aat,) a Scythian people in Col- 
chis, N. of the river Phasis. 

ApsiB.es ('A^iVjjs), of Gadara in Phoenicia, a 
Greek sophist and rhetorician, taught rhetoric 
at Athens about A. D. 235. Two of his works 
are extant : Ilepi Ttov /xepwv rov irohnixov Xoyov 
T ^X V7 li which is much interpolated: and Ilepi 
twv ia-)(y\iia.Ti<jfj.iv(i)v irpo^KruxaTuv, both of 
which are printed in "Walz, Bhetor. Graec. 

Apsus (Crevasta), a river in Illyria (Nova 
Epirus), flowing into the Ionian sea (Strab. p. 
316 ; Caes. B. C. iii. 13, &c; Appian, B. C. ii. 56). 

Apsyrtus. [Absybtus.] 

Apta Julia (Apt), chief town of the Vul- 
gientes in Gallia Narbonensis, and a Roman 
colony. 

Aptera ('Avrepa: 'AirTepaws : Palaeokas- 
tron on the G. of Suda), a town on the W. 
coast of Crete, 80 stadia from Cvdonia (Strab. 
p. 479). 

Apuani, a Ligurian people on the Macra, 
were subdued by the Romans after a long 
resistance and transplanted to Samnium, B.C. 
180 (Liv. xxxix. 2, 20, 32, xl. 1, 38, 41). 

Apuleius, of Madaura in Africa, was born 
about A. D. 114, of respectable parents. He 
received the first rudiments of education at 
Carthage, and afterwards studied the Platonic 
philosophy at Athens. He next travelled 
extensively, visiting Italy, Greece, and Asia, 
becoming initiated in most mysteries, and 
gathering information on magic and necro- 
mancy. At length he returned home, and spent 
about two years at Rome ; but soon afterwards 
undertook a new journey to Alexandria. On 
his way thither he was taken ill at the town of 
Oea, and was hospitably received into the 
house of a young man, Sicinius Pontianus, 
whose mother, a very rich widow of the name 
of Pudentilla, he married. Her relatives, being 
indignant that so much wealth should pass out 
of the family, accused Apuleius of gaining 
the affections of Pudentilla by charms and 
magic spells. The cause was heard at Sabrata 
before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa, 
.v. d. 173, and the defence (Apologia) spoken 
by Apuleius is still extant. Of his subsequent 
career we know little, except that he lectured on 
rhetoric at Carthage, and declaimed in public with 
great applause. The most important of the ex- 
tant worksof Apuleius are : I. Meta morphoseon 
seu de Asino Aureo Libri XI. This cele- 
brated romance is imitated from the Aovkios 7) 
ovos of Lucian, but lias much that is the fruit 
of Apuleius' own imagination or researches, 
notably the tale of Cupid and Psyche, and the 
stories of bandits, magicians, jugglers and 
priests. It is a satire in the guise of a fantas- 
tical autobiography of a supposed Lucius who 
is transformed by an enchantress, with whom 
he is in love, into an ass, in which shape he 
has opportunities for observing the follies of 
men, until he is restored to his natural form 
by the priests of Isis. It seems to hare been 
intended as a satire upon the hypocrisy and 
debauchery of certain orders of priests, the 
frauds of juggling pretenders to supernatural 
])Owers, and the general profligacy of public 
morals. A vein of mysticism, however, runs 
through the work, and there are some who dis- 
cover a more recondite meaning, and especially 
bishop Warburton, in his Divine Legation of 
Moses, who lias at great length endeavoured to 
prove, that the Golden Ass was written witli tin- 
view of recommending the Pagan religion in 
opposition to Christianity, and especially of 
inculcating the importance of initiation into 



94 APULIA 

the purer mysteries. The well-known and 
beautiful episode of Cupid and Psyche is intro- 
duced in the 4th, 5th, and 6th books. This, 
whatever opinion we may form of the principal 
narrative, is evidently an allegory, and is gene- 
rally understood to shadow forth the progress of 
the soul to perfection. II. Floridorum Libri 

IV. An Anthology, containing select extracts 
from various orations and dissertations, collected 
probably by some admirer. III. De Deo 
Socratis Liber. IV. De Dogmate Platonis 
Libri tres. The first book contains some 
account of the speculative doctrines of Plato, 
the second of his morals, the third of his logic. 

V. De Munclo Liber. A translation of the work 
irepl k6(T)j.ov, at one time ascribed to Aristotle. VI. 
Apologia sive de Magia, Liber. The oration de- 
scribed above, delivered before Claudius Maxi- 
mus. — The style of Apuleius is stilted and pre- 
tentious, and his writings are stated by Macrobius 
to have been of small account. His novel, how- 
ever, is amusing, and in spite of its licentious 
tone, must be valued as instructive in several 
features of the period to which it belongs, as 
well as for the beauty of the allegory of Cupid 
and Psyche. — Editions. By Hildebrand, 1842 ; 
Oudendorp, 1823 ; ed. princeps, Borne, 1469 ; 
Metamorph. by Eyssenhardt, 1869 ; O. Jahn, 
1856 ; cf. Friedliinder, Sittengesch. vol. i. 

Apulia or Appulia (AirouAi'a: Apulus or 
Appulus, 'A.itov\oi). The ' waterland ' [root 
ap, aqua, see Apia.] It is probable that the 
name first belonged, as Strabo says, to the plain 
just north of M. Garganus, which is extremely 
well watered. As the name was extended the 
meaning was lost, and Horace writes ' Siticu- 
losae Apuliae,' and ' Daunus pauper aquae ' 
(Epod. 3, 16 ; Od. iii. 30, 11), in reference to 
the plains of Northern Apulia, arid in summer. 
It included, in its widest signification, the whole 
of the SE. of Italy from the river Frento to 
the promontory Iapygium, and was bounded on 
the N. by the Frentani, on the E. by the 
Adriatic, on the S. by the Tarentine gulf, and 
on the W. by Samnium and Lucania, thus in- 
cluding the modern provinces of Bari, Otranto, 
and Capitanata, in the former kingdom of 
Naples. Apulia in its narrower sense was the 
country E. of Samnium on both sides of the Au- 
fidus, the Daunia and Peucetia of the Greeks : 
the whole of the SE. part was called Calabria by 
the Bomans. The Greeks gave the name of 
Daunia to the N. part of the country from the 
Frento to the Aufidus ; of Peucetia to the 
country from the Aufidus to Tarentum and 
Brundisium, and of Iapygia or Messapia to the 
whole of the remaining S. part : though they 
sometimes included under Iapygia all Apulia 
in its widest meaning (Strab. pp. 277, 283, 285 ; 
Ptol. iii. 1, 15, 72.) The NW. of Apulia is a 
plain, but the S. part is traversed by the E. 
branch of the Apennines, and has only a small 
tract of land on the coast on each side of the 
mountains. The country was very fertile, 
especially in the neighbourhood of Tarentum, 
and afforded excellent pasturage ; but the plain 
of Northern Apulia, rich in winter, became dry 
in summer, and the flocks were then driven to 
the upland valleys of Samnium and the Abruzzi. 
The population was of a mixed nature : in 
legend they are said to have settled in the 
country under the guidance of Iapyx, Daunius, 
and Peucetius, three sons of an Illyrian king, 
Lycaon. But the Iapygian or Messapian race 
seems to have more affinity to Greeks than to the 
Italian stock. It may be conjectured that this 
part of Italy was peopled by Pelasgian tribes 



AQUILEIA 
from Epirus and Greece. The Apulians joined 
the Samnites against the Bomans, and became 
subject to the latter on the conquest of the 
Samnites. 

Aquae, the name given by the Bomans to 
many medicinal springs and bathing-places 
(Plin. xxxi. 1-61): — (1) Aueeliae or Colo- 
nia Aurelia Aquensis (Baden-Baden). 

(2) Apollinaees, in Etruria between Sabate 
and Tarquinii = ' Phoebi vada' (Mart. vi. 42, 7). 

(3) Bormonis, applied to springs at Bourbonne 
V Archambault in Allier, and also to those at 
Bourbonne in Saute Marne. Bormonia was 
a Celtic deity of medicinal springs. (4) Cuti- 
liae, mineral springs in Samnium near the 
ancient town of Cutilia, which perished in early 
times, and E. of Beate. There was a celebrated 
lake in its neighbourhood with a floating island, 
which was regarded as the umbilicus or centre 
of Italy. Vespasian died at this jjlace. (Dionys. 
i. 15 ; Macrob. Sat. i. 7 ; Sen. N.Q. iii. 25 ; Strab. 
p. 228 ; Suet. Vesp. 24.) (5) Geattanae, Aix in 
Savoy on the Lac de Bourget. (6) Mattiacae 
or Fontes Mattiaci (Wiesbaden), in the land 
of the Mattiaci in Germany. (7) Nisinci, Bour- 
bon VAnci in Sadne-et-Loire. (8) Passeeis, 
in Etruria between Volsinii and Forum Cassi 
(Mart. vi. 42) now Bacucco, 5 miles N. of 
Viterbo. (9)Patavinae [AponiFons]. (10) Sex- 
tiae (Aix), a Roman colony in Gallia Narbon- 
ensis, founded by Sextius Calvinus, B.C. 122 ; 
its mineral waters were^long celebrated, but 
were thought to have lost much of their efficacy 
in the time of Augustus. Near this place 
Marius defeated the Teutoni, B.C. 102 (Strab. 
pp. 178, 180). It is 18 miles N. of Marseilles. 
(11) Solis (Bath) in Britain called "TSara Oepixa 
in Ptol. ii. 3, 28. (12) Statiellab (Acqui), a 
town of the Statielli in Liguria, celebrated for 
its warm baths (Strab. p. 217 ; Plin. xxxi. 4). 
(13) Taebellae, on the Aturus (Adour), now 
Dacs. (14) Tadei in Etruria, 3 miles N. of 
Civita Vecchia: now Bagni di F errata. 

Aquae, in Africa. 1. (Meriga, Bu.), in the 
interior of Mauretania Caesariensis. — 2. Cali- 
dae (Gurbos or Hammam VEnf), on the gulf of 
Carthage. — 3. Begiae (Hammam Truzza), in 
the N. part of Byzacena. — 4. Tacapitanab 
(Hammat-el-Khabs), at the S. extremity of 
Byzacena, close to the large city of Tacape 
(Khabs). 

Aquila. 1. Of Pontus, translated the Old 
Testament into Greek, in the reign of Hadrian, 
probably about a.d. 130. Only a few fragments 
remain, which have been published in the 
editions of the Hexapla of Origen. — 2. Julius 
Aquila, a Roman jurist quoted in the Digest, 
lived under or shortly before the reign of 
Septimius Severus, a.d. 193-198.— 3. L. Pontius 
Aquila, a friend of Cicero, and one of Caesar's 
murderers, was killed at the battle of Mutina, 
B.C. 43 (Appian, B. C. ii. 133 ; Dio Cass. xlvi. 
38, 40 ; Cic. Phil. xi. 6, xiii. 12; Earn. x. 33). — 
4. Aquila Romanus, a rhetorican, who probably 
lived in the third century after Christ, wrote a 
small work entitled De Figuris Seiitentiarum 
et Elocutionis, which is usually printed with 
Butilius Lupus. — Editions. By Buhnken, 
Lugd. Bat. 1768, reprinted with additional notes 
by Frotscher, Lips. 1831. 

Aquilaria (Alhowareali), a town on the 
coast of Zeugitana in Africa, on the W. side of 
Hermaeum Pr. (C. Bon), the E. extremity of the 
Gulf of Carthage. It was a good landing-place 
in summer (Caes. B. C. ii. 23). 

Aquileia (Aquileiensis : Aquileia or Aglar), 
a town in Gallia Transpadana at the very top 



AQUILIA 



ARABIA 



95 



of the Adriatic, between the rivers Sontius and 
Natiso, about 60 stadia from the sea. It was 
founded by the Romans in B.C. 182 as a 
bulwark against the N. barbarians, and 
is said to have derived its name from 
the favourable omen of an eagle (aquila) 
appearing to the colonists (Liv. xl. 34, xliii. 
17 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15). As it was the key of Italy 
on the NE., it was made one of the strongest 
fortresses of the Romans (Amm. Marc. xxi. 12). 
From its position it became also a most flourish- 
ing place of commerce : the Via Aemilia was 
continued to this town, and from it all the roads 
to Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Istria, and 
Dalmatia branched off. Under Diocletian it i 
was the chief city of Venetia and Histria. 
Ausonius (Ord. Nob. Urb. 6) reckons it as 
ninth of the cities of the Roman Empire in the 
4th century, and in Italy inferior only to Rome, 
Milan, and Capua. It was taken and com- j 
pletely destroyed by Attila in a.d. 452 ; its in- 
habitants escaped to the Lagoons, where Venice 
was afterwards built. 

Aquilia Severa, Julia, a vestal virgin, whom 
Elagabalus married, after divorcing Paula iDio 
Cass, lxxix. 9). 

Aquillius or Aquilius. 1. M'., consul b.c. 
129, finished the war against Aristonicus, son of 
Eumenes of Pergamus. He laid down the 
road in the province of Asia from Ephesus to 
Apamea. On his return to Rome he was 
accused of maladministration in his province, 
but was acquitted by bribing the judges (Just, 
xxxri. 4; Veil. Pat. ii. 4). — 2. M'., consul b.c. 
101, conquered the slaves in Sicily, who had 
revolted under Athenion. In 93 he was accused 
of maladministration in Sicily, but was ac- 
quitted. In 88 he went into Asia as one of the 
consular legates in the Mithridatic war : he was 
defeated and handed over by the inhabitants of 
Mytilene to Mithridates, who put him to death 
by pouring molten gold down his throat 
(Appian, Mithrid. vii. 19, 21 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 18 ; 
Cic. pro Leg. Man. 5; Athen. p. 213.) 

Aquillius Gallus. "Galms. 

Aquilonla (Aquil6nu»), a town of Saninium, 
E. of Bovianum, destroyed by the Romans in 
the Samnite wars (Liv. x. 38-43). 

Aquinum (Aquinas: Aquino), a town of the 
Volscians, E. of the river Melpis, in a fertile 
country; a Roman municipium and afterwards 
a colony ; the birth-place of Juvenal ; cele- 
brated for its purple dye (Strab. p. 237: Tac. 
Hist. i. 88, ii. 63; Hor. A>. i. 10. 27; Juv. iii. 
319; Cic. Phil. ii. 41, 106). 

Aquitania. 1. The country of the Aquitani, 
extended from the Garumna (Garonnet to the 
Pyrenees, and from the ocean to Gallia Nar- 
bonensis; it was first conquered by Caesar's 
legates, and again upon a revolt of the inhabi- 
tants in the time of Augustus (Caes. B. G. i. 1, 
viii. 46 ; Appian, B. C. v. 92 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 49 ; 
Suet. Aug, 21 1. — 2. The Roman province of 
Aquitania, formed in the reign of Augustus, 
was of much wider extent, and was bounded on 
the N. by the Ligeris {Loire), on the W. by the 
ocean, on the S. by the Pyrenees, and on the 
E. by the Mons Cevenna, which separated it 
from Gallia Narbonensis (Strab. p. 177 ; I'lin. 
iv. 108). — The Aquitani were one of the three 
races which inhabited Gaul ; they were of 
Iberian or Spanish origin, and differed from the 
Gauls and Belgians in language, customs, and 
physical peculiarity (Dio CasR. I.e. ; Strab. l.c). 

Ara Ublorum, in the Oivitns Vbiornm 
(= Cologne) was a sanctuary for the surround- 
ing province, not merely for the Ubii, since one . 



of the Cherusci is mentioned as priest (Tac. 
Ann. i. 37, 39, 45, 57 ; see Colonia Agrippina). 

Arabia if 'ApaBia : "Apivp, pi. *Apaj3<=s, "Apa- 
/3oi, Arabs, Arabus, pi. Arabes, ArabI : Arabia), 
a country at the Sw. extremity of Asia, forming 
a large peninsula, of a sort of hatchet shape, 
bounded on the W. bv the Akabicus Sinus 
(Bed Sea), on the S. "and SE. by the Eby- 
thraeum Mare (Gulf of Bab-el-Mandeb and 
Indian Ocean) and on the NE. by the Persi- 
cus Sinus (Persian Gulf). On the N. or land 
side its boundaries were somewhat indefinite, 
but it seems to have included the whole of the 
desert country between Egypt and Syria, 
on the one side, and the banks of the Euphrates 
on the other; and it was often considered 
to extend even further on both sides, so as 
to include, on the E., the S. part of Mesopo- 
tamia along the left bank of the Euphrates, 
and, on the W, the part of Palestine E. of the 
Jordan, and the part of Egypt between the 
Red Sea and the E. margin of the Nile valley, 
which, even as a part of Egypt, was called 
Arabiae Xomos. In the stricter sense of the 
name, which confines it to the peninsula itself, 
Arabia may be considered as bounded on the 
X. by a line from the head of the Red Sea (at 
Sue:\ to the mouth of the Tigris (Shat-el-Arab) 
winch just about coincides with the parallel of 
30° N. lat. It was divided into 3 parts : 
ill Arabia Petraea (jj -jr^rpala 'Apafi'ia: NW. 
part of El-Hejaz), including the triangular 
piece of land between the two heads of the Red 
Sea (the peninsula of M. Sinai) and the country 
immediately to the N. and NE. ; and called 
from its capital Petra, while the literal signifi- 
cation of the name ' Rocky Arabia ' agrees also 
with the nature of the country ; (2) Arabia 
Deserta (El-Iebel). including the great Syrian 
Desert and a portion of the interior of the 
Arabian peninsula: (3) Arabia Felix (El- 
Nejed, El-Hejaz. El-Yemen, El-Hadramant, 
Oman and El-Hejer), consisted of the whole 
country not included in the other two divisions ; 
the ignorance of the ancients respecting the 
interior of the peninsula leading them to accept 
the name Arabia Felix, although much of it 
consists of a sandy desert of steppes and table 
land, interspersed with Oases (Wadis), and 
fringed with mountains, between which and the 
sea, especially on the W. coast, lies a belt of 
low land (called Tehilmah), intersected by 
numerous mountain torrents, which irrigate 
the strips of land on their banks, and produce 
that fertility with which the ancients credited 
the whole peninsula (Strab. p. 767 ; Diod. ii. 48 ; 
Mela, iii. 8 ; Plin. vi. 142 f.). [The name Felix 
or evSaifwiy, or in Plin. v. 65 beata, 's said to 
have arisen from the Semitic word Jaman 
meaning ' right side ' — i.e. ' south ' — being mis- 
interpreted to mean ' lucky.' ] The width of 
the Tehfimah is, in some places on the W. 
coast, as much as from one to two days' journey, 
but on the other side it is very narrow, except 
at the E. end of the peninsula (about Muskat 
in Oman) where for a small space its width is 
again a day's journey. — The inhabitants of 
Arabia were of the Semitic race. The NW. 
district (Arabia Petraeajwas inhabited by the 
various tribes which constantly appear in 
Jewish history: the Amalekites, Midianites, 
Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites See. The 
Greeks and Romans called the inhabitants by 
the name of Nabathaki, whose capital was 
Petra (Jos. Ant. xiv. 1, 4; Ptol. v. 17). The 
people of Arabia Deserta were called Arabes 
Scenitae (Skti^itoi), from their dwelling in 



9C 



ARABICUS 



ARADUS 



tents, and Arabes Nomades (No/mSes), from 
their mode of life, which was that of wandering 
herdsmen, who supported themselves partly by 
their cattle, and to a great extent also by the 
plunder of caravans, as their unchanged de- 
scendants, the Bedouins, still do. The people of 
the Tehamah were (and are) of the same race ; 
but their position led them at an early period 
to cultivate both agriculture and commerce, 
and to build considerable cities. The chief 
tribes were known by the following names, 
beginning S. of the Nabathaei on the W. 
coast : the Thamydeni and Minaei (in 
the S. part of Hejaz) in the neighbour- 
hood of Mac-oraba {Mecca) ; the Sabaei and 
Homeritae in the SW. part of the peninsula 
(Yemen) ; on the SE. coast, the ChatramolTtae 
and Adramitae (in El-Hadramaut, a country 
very little known, even to the present day) ; on 
the E. and NE. coast the Omanitae and Dara- 
cheni (in Oman, and El-Asha or El-Hejer). — 
From the earliest known period a considerable 
traffic was carried on by the people in the N. 
(especially the Nabathaei) by means of caravans, 
and by those on the S. and E. coast by sea, in 
the productions of their own country (chiefly 
gums, spices, and precious stones), and in those 
of India and Arabia. Besides this peaceful 
intercourse with the neighbouring countries, 
they seem to have made military expeditions 
at an early period, for there can be no doubt 
that the Hyksos or ' Shepherd-kings,' who for 
some time ruled over Lower Egypt, were 
Arabians. On the other band, they have suc- 
cessfully resisted all attempts to subjugate 
them. The alleged conquests of some of the 
Assyrian kings could only have affected small 
portions of the country on the N. Of the Per- 
sian empire we are expressly told that they 
were independent. Alexander the Great died 
too soon even to attempt his contemplated 
scheme of circumnavigating the peninsula and 
subduing the inhabitants. The Greek kings of 
Syria made unsuccessful attacks upon the 
Nabathaei. Under Augustus, Aelius Gallus, 
assisted by the Nabathaei, made an expedition 
into Arabia Felix, but was compelled to retreat 
into Egypt to save his army from famine and 
the climate. Under Trajan, Arabia Petraea 
was conquered by A. Cornelius Palma (a.d. 107), 
and the country of the Nabathaei became a 
Roman province, to which in 295 Auranitis, 
Batanea, and Trachonitis were added (Dio Cass, 
lxviii. 14 ; Amm. Marc. xiv. 8). In the 5th 
century there were two divisions of this pro- 
vince ; the northern called Arabia with the 
chief city Bostra, the southern called Palaestina 
Tertia or Palaestina Salutaris of which Petra 
was the capital. Some partial and temporary 
footing was gained on the SW. coast by the 
Ethiopians ; and both in this direction and 
from the N. Christianity was early introduced 
into the country, where it spread to a great 
extent, and continued to exist side by side with 
the old religion (which was Sabaeism, or the 
worship of heavenly bodies), and with some 
admixture of Judaism, until the total revolution 
produced by the rise of Mohammedanism in 622. 

Arabicus Sinus (6 'Apafiiicbs k6Xivos\ Bed 
Sea), a long narrow gulf between Africa and 
Arabia, connected on the S. with the Indian 
Ocean by the Angustiae Divae (Straits of Bab- 
el-Mandeb), and on the N. divided into two 
heads by the peninsula of Arabia Petraea 
(Penins. of Sinai), the E. of which was called 
Sinus Aelanites or Aelaniticus (Gulf of Akaba), 
and the W. Sinus Heroopolites or Heroopoliti- 



cus (Gulf of Suez), which must in Strabo's time 
have extended 40 miles north of its present 
limit, and included Lake Timsah. The upper 
part of the sea was known at a very early 
period; but it was not explored in its whole 
extent till the maritime expeditions of the 
Ptolemies. Respecting its other name see 
Ekythbaeum Mabe. 

AraMs C Apa/3is, also 'Apdfitos, 'Apfiis, "Ap- 
raffis, and 'AprdjSws : Poorally or Agbor), a 
river of Gedrosia, falling into the Indian Ocean 
1000 stadia (100 geog. miles) W. of the mouth 
of the Indus, and dividing the Orltae on its W. 
from the Arabltae or Arbles on its E., who had 
a city named Arbis on its E. bank (Strab. p. 
720; Ptol. vi. 19). 

Arabisca (Alanquer), a town of the Lusitani 
on the right bank of the Tagus. 

Arachnaeum ('Apaxvaiov), a mountain form- 
ing the boundary between Argolis and Corinthia 
(Paus. ii. 2_5, 10). 

Arachne, a Lydian maiden, daughter of 
Idmon of Colophon, a famous dyer in purple. 
Arachne excelled in the art of weaving, and, 
proud of her talent, ventured to challenge 
Athene to compete with her. The work of 
Athene showed the Olympian gods in all their 
dignity. Arachne produced a piece of cloth in 
which the amours of the gods were woven, 
and as Athene was indignant at the taunt, and 
jealous of the faultless work, she tore it to 
pieces. Arachne in despair hanged herself : the 
goddess loosened the rope and saved her life, 
but the rope was changed into a cobweb and 
Arachne herself into a spider (apdxvy)-, the 
animal most odious to Athene. (Ov. Met. vi. 
1 seq. ; Verg. Georg. iv. 246.) The myth seems 
to represent the rivalry between the Lydian 
and Greek arts of weaving. Nonnus (Dion. 
xviii. 215) makes her an Assyrian. 

Arachosla. ('Apax^cla : 'Apax<»Toi or -<3tcu: 
SE. part of Afghanistan and NE. part of 
Beloochistan), one of the extreme E. provinces 
of the Persian (and afterwards of the Parthian) 
empire, bounded on the E. by the Indus, on 
the N. by the Paropamisadae, on the W. by 
Drangiana, and on the S. by Gedrosia. It was 
a fertile country, watered by the river Arachotus 
(Apaxcuros), some distance from which stood a 
city of the same name, Arachotus, which was 
said to have been built by Semiramis, and 
which was the capital of the province until the 
foundation of Alexandria. The shortest road 
from Persia to India passed through Arachosia 
(Strab. p. 723; Arrian, An. vi. 17). 

Arachotus. [Akachosia.] 

Arachthus or Aretho ("ApaxOos or 'ApiBaiu'. 
Arta), a river of Epirus, rises in M. Lacmon 
or the Tymphean mountains, and flows into the 
Ambracian gulf, S. of Ambracia : it is deep and 
difficult to cross, and navigable up to Ambracia 
(Strab. pp. 325, 327). 

Aracynthus ('ApaKvudos : Zigos), a mountain 
on the SW. coast of Aetolia near Pleuron, some- 
times placed in Acarnania (Strab. pp. 450, 460). 
Virgil and Propertius, however, place it between 
Attica and Boeotia, and hence mention it in 
connexion with Amphion, the Boeotian hero. 
(Propert. iii. 13, 41 ; Actaeo [i.e. Attico] Ara- 
cyntho, Verg. Eel. ii. 24.) 

Aradus ("ApaSos: 'ApdStos, Aradlus: in O. 
T. Arvad: Buad), an island off the coast of 
Phoenicia, at the distance of 20 stadia (2 geog. 
miles), with a city which occupied the whole 
surface of the island, 7 stadia in circumference, 
which was said to have been founded by exiles 
from Sidon, and which was a very flourishing 



ARAE 

place under its own kings, under the Seleucidae, 
and under the Romans. It possessed a har- 
bour on the mainland, called Antaradus 
(Strab. p. 753). 

Arae Philaenorum. [Philaen-oruji Arae.] 

Araethyrea ('ApaiBupia), daughter of Aras, 
an autochthon who was believed to have built 
Arantea, the most ancient town in Phliasia. 
After her death, her brother Aoris called the 
country of Phliasia Araethyrea, in honour of 
his sister (Paus. ii. 12, 5 ; Horn. II. ii. 571 ; 
Strab. p. 382). 

Araphen ('Apatpijv: 'Apa<pi}vios, 'ApcxprivoBev: 
Bafina), an Attic demus belonging to the tribe 
Aegaeis, on the E. of Attica, X. of the river 
Erasinus, not far from its mouth. 

Arar or Araris (Saone), a river of Gaul, rises 
in the Vosges, receives the Dubis (Doubs) from 
the E., after whieh it becomes navigable, and 
flows with a quiet stream into the Rhone at 
Lugdunum (Lyon}. In the time of Ammianus 
(a.d. 370) it was also called Sauconna, and in 
the middle ages Sangona, whence its modern 
name Saone (Arum, Marc, xv. 11). 

Araros ('Apapt&s), an Athenian poet of the 
Middle Comedy, son of Aristophanes, flourished 
B.C. 375. (Fragments in Meineke.) 

Aras. [Araethyrea.] 

Araspes CApdairris}, a Mede, and a friend of 
the elder Cyrus, is one of the characters in 
Xenophon's Cyropaedia. He contends with 
Cyrus that love has no power over him, but 
shortly afterwards refutes himself by falling in 
love with Panthea, whom Cyrus had committed 
to his charge. (Xen. Cyr. v. 1, vi. 1, 36 ; 
Abradatas.) 

Aratus i'Aparos). 1. The celebrated general 
of the Achaeans, son of Clinias, was born at 
Sicyon, B.C. 271. On the murder of his father 
by Abantidas, Aratus, who was theu a child, 
was conveyed to Argos, where he was brought 
up. When he had reached the age of 20 he 
gained possession of his native city, B.C. 251, 
deprived the usurper Xicocles of his power, and 
united Sicyon to the Achaean League, which 
gained in consequence a great accession of 
power. [Achaei.j In 245 he was elected general 
of the League, which office he frequently held 
in subsequent years. Through his influence a 
great number of the Greek cities joined the 
League ; but he excelled more in negotiation 
than in war, and in his war with the Aetolians 
and Spartans he was often defeated. Indeed, 
it must be admitted that he showed positive 
cowardice in battle strangely contrasted with 
the boldness of his plansand policy. In 234, 
through the patriotism of Lydiadas, tyrant of 
Megalopolis, that city was joined to the Achaean 
League ; but it must be observed, as detracting 
from the well-deserved fame of Aratus, that his 
jealousy of Lydiadas often interfered with the 
interests of the League. Thus he opposed the 
scheme of Lydiadas for union with Argos in I 
220, but when he himself became general he 
effected it. The death of Lydiadas also ut \ 
Laodicea (226) and the consequent defeat by 
the Spartans were due to the want of courage i 
which Aratus showed in the battle. A still 
greater calamity was his rejection of the pro- 
posal of Cleomenes to bring Sparta into the 
League, and his resolution to seek the friendship 
of Antigonus, and to surrender Acrocorinthus 
to a Macedonian garrison — certainly the greatest 
mistake of his life. To strengthen himself 
against Aetolia and Sparta he cultivated the 
friendship of Antigonus Doson, and of his 
successor Philip ; but us Philip was evidently 



ARAXES 



97 



anxious to make himself master of all Greece, 
dissensions arose between him and Aratus, and 
the latter was eventually poisoned in 213 by 
the king's order. Divine honours were paid to 
him by his countrymen, and an annual festival 
lApareia: see Diet, of Antiq.) established. 
Aratus wrote Commentaries, being a history 
of his own times down to B.C. 220, which are 
commended by Polybius (ii. 40). Aratus un- 
questionably deserves the credit of the develop- 
ment and early successes of the League, and his 
extraordinary personal ascendency, even after 
reverses, with the citizens of the League is a 
strong testimony to Ins political ability; but 
he ruined the chances of the Achaean League 
to become a lasting and independent bulwark 
of Greece when he rejected the union with 
Sparta and gave the key of the position to 
Macedonia (Plut. Arat. and Agis ; Polyb. ii., iv., 
vii., viii.). — 2. Of Soli, afterwards Pompeiopolis, 
in Cilicia, or (according to one authority) of 
Tarsus, flourished B.C. 270, and spent all the 
latter part of his life at the court of Antigonus 
Gonatas, king of Macedonia. He wrote two 
astronomical poems, entitled Phaenomena (4>ai- 
vofieva), consisting of 732 verses, and Diosemeia 
(Aiotrrj/ieia), of 422. The design of the Phae- 
nomena is to give an introduction to the know- 
ledge of the constellations, with the rules for 
their risings and settings. The Diosemeia 
consists of prognostics of the weather from 
astronomical phaenomena, with an account of 
its effects upon animals. It appears to be an 
imitation of Hesiod, and to have been imitated 
by Virgil in some parts of the Georgics. The 
style of these two poems is distinguished by 
elegance and accuracy ; but it wants originality 
and poetic elevation. That they became very 
popular both in the Grecian and the Roman 
world (cum sole et luna semper Aratus erit, 
Ov. Am. i. 15, 16) is proved by the number of 
commentaries and Latin translations. Parts of 
three poetical Latin translations are preserved : 
one written by Cicero when very young ; one by 
Caesar German icus, the grandson of Augustus; 
and one by Festus Avienus. — Editions. By 
Voss, Heidelb. 1824, with a German poetical 
version ; by Buttmann, Berol. 1820 ; and bv 
Bekker, Berol. 1828. 

Arauris (Serault), erroneously Rauraris in 
Strabo, a river in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in 
M. Cevenna, and flows into the Mediterranean 
(Strab. p. 182; Mel. ii. 5). 

Arausio [Orange), a town of the Cavari or 
Cavares, and a Roman colony, in Gallia Xar- 
bonensis, on the road from Arelate to Vienna : 
it still contains remains of an amphitheatre, 
circus, aqueduct, triumphal arch, &c. (Strab. 
p. 185; Mel. ii. 5; Plin. iii. 36). 

Araxes (Apa£?jsi, the name of several rivers. 
— 1. In Armenia Major (L'raskli or Aras), rises 
in M. Aba or Abus (nr. Erzeroum), from the 
opposite side of which the Euphrates flows ; 
and, after a great bend SE. and then NE., joins 
the Cyrus (Konr\. which flows down from the 
Caucasus, and falls with it into the Caspian by 
two mouths, in about 30 3 20' X. Lat. The 
lower part, past Artaxata, flows through a 
plain, which was called rh 'Apa£r)vbv weSlov 
i Strab. p. 531 ; Ptol. v. 13). Herodotus, i. 202, iv. 
40, is clearly speaking of this Araxes, which, he 
says, runs eastward from the country of the 
Matieni into the Caspian ; but he seems to be 
misinformed about the position of the Massa- 
getae mid to place them and other tribes too 
far wi ~t. or the Araxes and Caspian tno fur 
east. The upper branch < r affluent of tho 

H 



98 



AEAXUS 



ARCADIA 



Araxes is called Phasis (Xen. Anab. iv. 6, 4). 
[Phasis.] The Araxes was proverbial for the 
force of its current ; and hence Virgil {Aen. viii. 
728) says pontem indicjnatus Araxes, with 
special reference to the failure of Alexander to 
throw a bridge over it (Arr. An. vii. 16, 3). — 2. In 
Mesopotamia. [Chaboeas.] — 3. In Persis (Bend- 
Emir), the river on which Persepolis stood, 
rises in the mountains E. of the head of the 
Persian Gulf, and flows SE. into a salt lake 
(BaWitegan) not far below Persepolis. — 4. The 
Peneus, in Thessaly, was called Araxes (apatraoo) 
from the violence of its torrent (Strab. I. c). 

Araxus {"Apa£os : C. Papa), a promontory of 
Achaia near the confines of Elis. 

Arbaces ('Apf}a.Kr)s), the founder of the Me- 
dian empire, according to Ctesias (Diod. ii. 33), 
is said to have taken Nineveh in conjunction 
with Belesis, the Babylonian, and to have de- 
stroyed the Assyrian empire under the reign of 
Sardanapalus. Ctesias assigns 28 years to the 
reign of Arbaces, apparently about B.C. 870, 
and makes his dynasty consist of eight kings. 
This account differs from that of Herodotus, 
who makes Deioces the first king of Media, and 
assigns only four kings to his dynasty. There 
seems to be in Ctesias (who is frequently con- 
futed by the inscriptions) a confused allusion to 
the overthrow of Sardanapalus by the Baby- 
lonians in alliance with Cyaxares (Kastarit),king 
of Media at a much later date. [Cyaxares.] 

Arbela (ra"Ap^-r)Ka: Erbille), a city of Adia- 
bene in Assyria, between the rivers Lycus and 
Caprus (the greater and lesser Zab) ; celebrated 
as the head-quarters of Darius Codomannus, 
before the last battle in which he was over- 
thrown by Alexander (B.C. 331), which is hence 
frequently called the battle of Arbela, though 
it wt,s really fought near Gaugamela, about 25 
miles W. of Arbela. The district about Arbela 
was called Arbelltis ('ApfiriluTis). (Strab. p. 737 ; 
Diod. xvii. 53 ; Arr. An. iii. 8 ; Curt. iv. 9 ; Amm. 
Marc, xxiii. 6.) 

Arbis. [Ababis.] 

Arbuc&la or Arbocala (Albercal), the chief 
town of the Vaccaei in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
north of the Tagus, in the modern province of 
Salamanca, taken by Hannibal after a long 
resistance (Liv. xxi. 5). 

Arbuscula, a celebrated female actor in 
pantomimes in the time of Cicero (Cic. Att. iv. 
15 ; Hor. Sat. i. 10, 76). 

Area or -ae ("Ap/c?j, or -at : Tell-Arka), a very 
ancient city in the N. of Phoenicia, not far 
from the sea-coast, at the foot of M. Lebanon : 
a colony under the Eomans, named Area Cae- 
sarea or Caesarea Libani : the birthplace of 
the emperor Alexander Severus, and famous 
for a temple of Astarte (Ptol. v. 15'; Macrob. 
Sat. L21; Vit. Alex. Sev.). 

Arcadia ('ApKaSla: "ApKas, pi. 'Ap/caSes), a 
country in the middle of Peloponnesus, was 
bounded on the E. by Argolis, on the N. by 
Achaia, on the W. by Elis, and on the S. by 
Messenia and Laconica. Next to Laconica it 
was the largest country in the Peloponnesus : 
its greatest length was about 50 miles, its 
breadth from 35 to 41 miles (Strab. pp. 335-337). 
It was surrounded on all sides by mountains, 
which likewise traversed it in every direction, 
and it may be regarded as the Switzerland of 
Greece. Its principal mountains were Cyllene 
and Erymanthus in the N., Artemisius in the 
E., and Parthenius, Maenalus, and Lycaeus in 
the S. and SW. The Alpheius, the greatest 
river of Peloponnesus, rises in Arcadia, and 
flows through a considerable part of the country, 



receiving numerous affluents. The N. and E. 
parts of the country were barren and unpro- 
ductive ; the "W. and S. were more fertile, with 
numerous valleys where corn was grown. The 
Arcadians, said to be descended from the epony- 
mous hero Abcas, regarded themselves as the 
most ancient people in Greece : the Greek 
writers call them indigenous (avrdxSoues) and 
Pelasgians, and Pelasgus is the name given to 
their earliest king (Paus. viii. 1). They were 
said to have ' lived before the moon ' (7rpo- 
(reXrjVot), which is probably a corruption of a 
statement that they were in the Peloponnese 
before the Syllani or Hellenes. Their claim to 
antiquity is just, since in the security of their 
mountains they withstood the Dorian conquest. 
In consequence of the physical peculiarity of 
the country, they were chiefly employed in 
hunting and the tending of cattle, whence their 
worship of Pan, who was especially the god of 
Arcadia, and of Artemis. They were a people 
simple in their habits and moderate in their 
desires : they were passionately fond of music, 
and cultivated it with great success (soli can- 
tare periti Arcades, Verg. Eel. x. 39), which 
circumstance was supposed to soften the natural 
roughness of their character. The Arcadians, 
thanks to their rugged country, experienced 
fewer changes than any other people in Greece. 
Like the other Greek peoples, they were ori- 
ginally governed by kings, but are said to have 
abolished monarchy towards the close of the 
second Messenian war, and to have stoned to 
death their last king, Aristocrates, because he 
betrayed his allies the Messenians. The different 
towns then became independent republics, of 
which the most important were Mantinea, 
Tegea, Obchomenus, Psophis, and Pheneos, 
which lie in the secluded valleys of the north 
and east, protected by their mountains ; to the 
west the valleys of the Alpheus and Ladon are 
more accessible, and here, accordingly, were 
cantons of hamlets rather than independent 
cities : in the upper valley of the Alpheus, the 
Maenalians, and Eutresians ; lower down, the 
Parrhasians, Cynurians, and Heraeans ; in the 
valley of the Ladon the Azanes. The bond 
of union from early times was religious. Pan- 
arcadian festivals were held to Zeus at M. 
Lycaeus, to Athene Alea at Tegea, and to 
Artemis Hymnia at Orchomenus (Paus. viii. 2, 
5, 53). Like the Swiss, the Arcadians frequently 
served as mercenaries, and in the Pelopon- 
nesian war they were found in the armies of 
both the Lacedaemonians and Athenians. The 
Lacedaemonians made many attempts to obtain 
possession of parts of Arcadia, but these at- 
tempts were finally frustrated by the battle of 
Leuctra (b.c. 371) ; and in order to resist all 
future aggressions on the part of Sparta, the 




Coin of Arcadia. 
Obv., head of Zeus : rev.. Pan, seated on a rock, holding a 
knotted shepherd's staff. 

Arcadians, upon the advice of Epaminondas, 
and led by Lycomedes, built the city of Mega- 
lopolis, and instituted a general assembly of 



ARCADIUS 

the whole nation, caUed the Myrii ('Mupioi, 
Diet, of Antiq. s.v.). This Arcadian League did 
not last long. Mantinea and Tegea were at en- 
mity already before the death of Eparninondas, 
and though the assembly of the Ten Thousand 
existed in the time of Demosthenes we have no 
trace of an Arcadian League after the end of 
the fourth cent. B.C. The Arcadian cities sub- 
sequently joined the Achaean League, and 
finally became subject to the Romans. 

Arcadius, emperor of the East (a.d. 395— 408i, 
elder son of Theodosius L, was born in Spain, 
A.D. 383. On the death of Theodosius he be- 
came emperor of the East, while the West was 
given to his younger brother Honorius. Arca- 
dius possessed neither physical nor intellectual 
rigour, and was entirely governed by unworthy 
favourites. At first he was ruled by Rufinus, 
the praefect of the East ; and on the murder of 
the latter, soon after the accession of Arcadius, 
the government fell into the hands of the 
eunuch Eutropius. Eutropius was put to death 
in 399, and his power now devolved upon 
Gainas, the Goth ; but upon his revolt and 
death in 401 Arcadius became entirely depen- 
dent upon his wife Eudoxia, and it was through 
her influence that St. Chrysostom wai exiled in 



ARCHELAUS 



99 




Arcadius. Roman Emperor, A.D. 895-408. 
Obv„ Dominufi Noster Arcadius Pater Patriae Augustus ; 
rrc. Concord. The letters Con signify the mint of Con- 
stantinople, and ob the purity of the metal 172 soldi to 
one pound of gold). 

404. Arcadius died on May 1, 408, leaving the 
empire to his son Theodosius II., who was a 
minor. (Sozom. viii. ; Socr. Hist. Eccl. vi. ; 
Cedren. i. ; Claudian.) 
Arcanum. [Abpinum.] 

Areas ("Ap/coj), king and eponymous hero of 
the Arcadians, son of Zeus and Callisto, grand- 
son of Lycaon and father of Aphldas, Elatus, 
and Azan. He taught his subjects the arts of 
baking and weaving. Areas was the boy whose 
flesh his grandfather Lycaon placed before Zeus 
to try his divine character. Zeus upset the 
table (rpajrefa) which bore the dish, and de- 
stroyed the house of Lycaon by lightning, but 
restored Areas to life. When Areas had grown 
up, he built on the site of his father's house the 
town of Trapezus. Areas in hunting followed 
his mother Callisto, who had the form of a she- 
bear, into the temple of Zeus Lycaeus, a profa- 
nation which by Arcadian law would have 
caused their death, but Zeus changed them into 
stars as Arctophylax and the Great Bear. The 
legends show traces of primitive totemism, and 
of human sacrifices. (Hyg. Astr. 2; Paus. viii. 
* ; Ov. Met. ii. 49(i, FaJtt. ii. 188.) 

Arcesilaus or Arcesilas ('ApKeo-iAaos, 'Ap«f- 
<r(Aaj), a Greek philosopher (about B.C. 315-240), 
son of Seuthes or Scythes, was born at Pitane 
in Aeolis. He studied at first in his native 
town under Autolycus, a mathematician, and 
afterwards went to Athens, where he became 
the disciple first of Theophrastus and next of 
r.,i emo and of Crantor. He succeeded Crates 
about B.C. in the chair of the Academy, and 
became the founder of the second or middle 
{ftirn) Academy. He is said to have died in 



' his 76th year from a fit of drunkenness (Diog. 
Laert. iv. 30,). His philosophy was of a sceptical 
character, though it did not go so far as that of 
the followers of Pyrrhon. He did not doubt 
the existence of truth in itself, only our capa- 
cities for obtaining it by the senses or by reason, 

' and he combated most strongly the dogmatism 

j of the Stoics, as regards Zeno's doctrine of the 
KaTa\riTrTiK-q <pavr atria (or impression producing 
conviction), holding that no impressions pro- 
vided a testimony of their truth : hence the ne- 
cessity of suspended judgment (iwoxv), though 

' action according to our reason was not pre- 
cluded (Cic. de Orat. iii. 18, 67, Acad. ii. 24, 

I 77). 

Arcesilaus ('ApKtaihaos). 1. Son of Lycus 
and Theobule, leader of the Boeotians in the 

i Trojan war, slain by Hector. — 2. The name of 
four kings of Cyrene. [Battus and Battiadae.J 
Arcesrus CAp/telo-ios), son of Zeus and Eury- 
odia, father of Laertes, and grandfather of 
Ulysses. Hence both Laertes and Ulysses are 
called Arcesiades t'ApK(t<na.8ris) {Od. xvi. 118 ; 
Ov. Met. xiii. 1441. According to Eustathius 
uid Horn. 1961), his mother was a she-bear, 
Cephalus having been told by an oracle that he 
should have a son by the first female being 
whom he met on his way home. The story 
doubtless arose from his name. 

Archaeopolis CApxai6vo\is\, the later capital 
of Colchis ; near the river Phasis. 

Archagathus, a Greek physician, the first 
who made medicine a profession at Rome. He 
came from the Peloponnese, and settled at 

j Rome B.C. 219, where a shop was bought for 

i him, and he received the Jus Quiritium. His 

j practice was mainly surgical (Plin. xxix. 12). 
Archandropolis ('Apxavhpov iniAis), a city of 
Lower Egypt, on the Nile, between Canopus 
and Cercasorus. 

Archedemus ('Apx^S-qfws : Dor. 'Apx^Sa/ios). 
1. A popular leader at Athens, took the first 
step against the generals who had gained the 
battle of Arginusae, B.C. 406. The comic poets 
called him ' blear-eyed ' (yKafiuiv), and said that 
he was a foreigner, and had obtained the fran- 

i chise bv fraud. (Xen. Hell. vii. 1, Mem. ii. 9 ; 

1 Arist. Ban. 419, 588 ; Lys. c. Ale. § 25.)— 2. An 
Aetolian (called Archidamus by Livy), com- 
manded the Aetolian troops which assisted the 
Romans in their war with Philip (b.c. 199-197). 
He afterwards took an active part "gainst the 
Romans, and eventually joined Perseus, whom 
he accompanied in his flight after his defeat in 
168. — 3. Of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, men- 
tioned by Cicero, Seneca, and other ancient 

, writers. 

Archedicus i'Apx^iKos), an Athenian comic 
poet of the New Comedy, supported Antipater 
and the Macedonian party. 

Archegetes (ApxriyfVns), a surname of 
Apollo. 

Archelais rApxeAais). 1. In Cappadocia 
(Akteraf), on the Cappadox, a tributary of the 
Halys, a city founded by Archelaus, the last 
king of Cappadocia, and made a Roman colony 
by the emperor Claudius. — 2. A town of Pales- 
tine, near Jericho, founded by Archelaus, the 
son of Herod the Great. 

Archelaus (Apx^'Aaor). 1. Son of Heiiod 
the Great, was appointed by his father as his 
successor, and received from Augustus Judaea, 
Samaria, and Idumaea, with the title of ethnarch. 
In consequence of his tyrannical government, 
the Jews accused him before Augustus in the 
10th year of his reign (a.d. 7) : Augustus ban- 
ished him to Vienna in Gaul, where he died. — 

H 2 



L ofC. 



100 ARCHELAUS 
2. King of Macedonia (b.c. 413-399), an illegiti- 
mate son of Perdiccas II., obtained the throne 
by the murder of his half-brother. He unproved 
the internal condition of his kingdom, and was 
a warm patron of art and literature. His palace 
was adorned with magnificent paintings by 
Zeuxis ; and Euripides, Agathon, and other men 
of eminence, were among his guests. According 
to some accounts Archelaus was accidentally 
slain in a hunting party by his favourite, Cra- 
terus ; but according to other accounts he was 
murdered by Craterus. (Diod. xiv. 37 ; Aristot. 
Pol. v. 10.) — 3. A general of Mithbidates. In 
B.C. 87 he was sent into Greece by Mithridates 
with a large fleet and army ; at first he met 
with considerable success, held most of northern 
Greece, and took Peiraeus. After sustaining 
a siege, he withdrew to Boeotia, where he was 
twice defeated by Sulla in 86, near Chaeronea 
and Orchomenos. Thereupon he was commis- 
sioned by Mithridates to sue for peace, which 
he obtained ; but subsequently being suspected 
of treachery by the king, he deserted to the 
Romans just before the commencement of the 
second Mithridatic war, B.C. 81. (Piut. SuU. 
11-24 ; Appian, Mithr. 17-64 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 25.)— 
4. Son of the preceding, was raised by Pompey, 
in B.C. 63, to the dignity of priest of the goddess 
(Enyo or Bellona) at Comana in Pontus or 
Cappadocia. In 56 or 55 Archelaus became 
king in Egypt by marrying Berenice, the 
daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, who, after the 
expulsion of her father, had obtained the sove- 
reignty of Egypt. Archelaus, however, was 
king of Egypt only for 6 months, for Gabinius 
marched with an army into Egypt in order to 
restore Ptolemy Auletes, and in the battle 
which ensued Archelaus perished. (Bell. Alex. 
66 ; Strab. pp. 558, 796 ; Dio Cass, xxxix. 58 ; Cic. 
pro Bab. Post. 8.) — 5. Son of No. 4, and his 
successor in the office of high-priest of Comana, 
was deprived of his dignity by Julius Caesar 
in 47 (Cic. Fam. xv. 4 ; Bell. Alex. 66).— 6. Son 
of No. 5, received from Antony, in B.C. 36, the 
kingdom of Cappadocia — a favour which he 
owed to the charms of his mother Glaphyra. 
After the battle of Actium Octavianus not only 
left Archelaus in the possession of his kingdom, 
but subsequently added to it a part of Cilicia 
and Lesser Armenia. But having incurred the 
enmity of Tiberius by the attention which he 
had paid to C. Caesar, he was summoned to 
Rome soon after the accession of Tiberius and 
accused of treason. His life was spared, but 
he was obliged to remain at Rome, where he 
died soon after, a.d. 17. Cappadocia was then 
made a Roman province. (Strab. pp. 540,796; 
Dio Cass. li. 3; 'Sac. Ann. ii'. 42; Suet. Tib. 37, 
Cal. 1). — t. A philosopher, probably born at 
Athens, though others make him a native of 
Miletus, flourished about B.C. 450. The philo- 
sophical system of Archelaus is remarkable as 
forming a point of transition from the older to 
the newer form of philosophy in Greece. As a 
pupil of Anaxagoras he belonged to the Ionian 
school, but he added to the physical system of 
his teacher some attempts at moral speculation. 
Against the statement that Socrates was taught 
by him (Diog. Laert. ii. 19) it must be noted 
that Plato and Xenophon say nothing about it. 
— 8. A Greek poet, in Egypt, lived under the 
Ptolemies, and wrote epigrams, some of which 
are still extant in the Greek Anthology. — 9. A 
sculptor of Priene, son of Apollonius, made the 
marble bas-relief representing the Apotheosis 
of Homer, which fonnerly belonged to the 
Colonna family at Rome, and is now in the 



ARCHIDAMUS 

I British Museum. This work, which probably 
belongs to the early part of the reign of Ti- 
' berius, is noticed as a mixture of styles. The 
upper part is composed more in the painter's 
manner than the sculptor's (as is sometimes 
found in the Alexandrian school) ; the lower- 
part revives the older style of Greek votive 
tablets. 

Archemorus ('Apx^pos), or Opheltes, son 
of the Nemean king Lycurgus and Euvydice. 
When the Seven heroes on their expedition 
against Thebes stopped at Nemea to obtain 
water, Hypsipyle, the nurse of the child Opheltes, 
while showing the way to the Seven, left the 
child alone. In the meantime, the child was 
killed by a serpent. The Seven gave him burial ; 
but as Amphiaraus saw in this accident an omen 
boding destruction to himself and his com- 
panions, they called the child Archemorus, that 
is, ' Forerunner of Death,' and instituted the 
Nemean games in honour of him. His death 
is frequently represented in works of art. (Pind. 
Nem. viii. 51, x. 28 ; Paus. ii. 15, viii. 48 ; 
Apollod. iii. 6 ; Stat. Theb. iv. 624.) 

Archestratus ('ApxecrrpaTos), of Gela or 
Syracuse, about B.C. 350, wrote a poem on the 
Art of Cookery, which was imitated or trans- 
lated by EnniusmhisC«?W2«a Hed ijpathetica 
or Hedijpathica (from rjSviraBeta). — Fragments 
by Ribbeck, Berlin, 1877. 

Archias ('Apxi'os). 1. An Heraclid of Corinth, 
left his country in consequence of the death of 
Actaeon, and founded Syracuse, B.C. 734, by 
command of the Delphic oracle (Thuc. vi. 3; 
Paus. v. 7, 2; Strab. pp. 262, 269).— 2. A. Lici- 
nius Archias, a Greek poet, born at Antioch in 
Syria, about B.C. 120, very early obtained cele- 
brity by his verses. In 102 he came to Rome, 
and was received in the most friendly way by 
many of the Roman nobles, especially by the 
Luculli, from whom he afterwards obtained the 
gentile name of Licinius. After a short stay at 
Rome he accompanied L. Lucullus, the elder, 
to Sicily, and followed him, in the banishment 
to which he was sentenced for his management 
of the slave war in that island, to Heraclea in 
Lucania, in which town Archias was enrolled 
as a citizen ; and as this town was a state 
united with Rome by a,foedus, he subsequently 
obtained the Roman franchise in accordance 
with the Lex Plautia Papiria passed in B.C. 89. 
At a later time he accompanied L. Lucullus 
the younger to the Mithridatic war. Soon after 
his return, a charge was brought against him in 
61 of assuming the citizenship illegally, and the 
trial came on before Q. Cicero, who was praetor 
this year. He was defended by his friend M. 
Cicero in the extant speech Pro Archia, in 
which the orator, after briefly discussing the 
legal points of the case, rests the defence of 
his client upon Ms surpassing merits as a poet, 
which entitled him to the Roman citizenship. 
We may presume that Archias was acquitted, 
though we have no formal statement of the fact. 
Archias wrote a poem on the Cimbric war in 
honour of Marius ; another on the Mithridatic 
war. in honour of Lucullus ; and at the time of 
his trial was engaged on a poem in honour of 
Cicero's consulship. No fragments of these 
works are extant ; and it is doubtful whether 
the epigrams preserved under the name of 
Archias in the Greek Anthology were really 
written by him. (Cic. pro Arch., ad Alt. i. 16 ; 
Quintil. x. 7, 19.) 

Archidamus ('Apyltianos), the name of 5 
kings of Sparta. 1. Son of Anaxidamus, con- 
temporary with the Tegeatan war, which fol- 



ARCHIGEXES 



ARCHIilEDES 



101 



lowed soon after the second Jlessenian, B.C. 668 
(Pans. iii. 7, 6). — 2. Son of Zenxidamus, suc- 
ceeded his grandfather Leotychides, and reigned | 
B.C. 469-427. During his reign, B.C. 464, Sparta 
was made a heap of ruins by a tremendous 
earthquake ; and for the next 10 years he was 
engaged in war against the revolted Helots and 
Messenians. Towards the end of his reign the 
Peloponnesian war broke out : he recommended 
his countrymen not rashly to embark in the 
war, and he appears to have taken a more 
correct view of the real strength of Athens than | 
any other Spartan. After the war had been 
declared (B.C. 481) he invaded Attica, and held 
the supreme command of the Peloponnesian 
forces till his death in 429. (Hdt. vi. 71 ; Thuc. 
i.-iii. ; Diod. xi. 63 ; Paus. iii. 7.) — 3. Grandson 
of No. 2, and son of Agesilaus II., reigned B.C. 
361-338. During the lifetime of his father he 
took an active part in resisting the Thebans 
and the various other enemies of Sparta, and 
in 367 he defeated the Arcadians and Argives in 
the ' Tearless Battle,' so called because he had 
won it without losing a man. In 362 he de- 
fended Sparta against Epaminondas. In the 
third Sacred war (b.c. 356-3461 he assisted the 
Phocians. In 338 he went to Italy to aid the 
Tarentines against the Lucanians, and there 
fell in battle. (Xen. Hell. v. 4, vii. 1-5 ; Diod. 
xv., xvi. ; Strab. p. 280.1 — i. Grandson of No. 3, 
and son of Eudamidas I., was king in B.C. 296, 
when he was defeated by Demetrius Poliorcetes 
(Plut. Demetr. 85). — 5. Son of Eudamidas II., 
and the brother of Agis IV. On the murder of 
Agis, in B.C. 240, Archidamus fled from Sparta, 
but afterwards obtained the throne by means 
of Aratus. He was, however, slain almost im- 
m -diately after his return to Sparta. He was i 
ma last king of the Eurypontid race. (Plut. 
Cleom. 1, 5 ; Polyb. v. 37, viii. 1.) 

ArcMgenes ('Apx'7 c ^s)i an eminent Greek 
physician, born at Apamea in Syria, practised 
at Rome in the time of Trajan, a.d. 98-117. 
He published a treatise on the pulse, on which 
Galen wrote a Commentary. It seems to be 
founded on preconceived theory rather than 
practical observation. He was the most eminent 
physician of the sect of the Eclectici, and is 
mentioned by Juvenal as well as by other 
writers. Only a few fragments of his works 
remain. (Juv. vi. 286, xiii. 98, xiv. 252.) 

Archilochus CApx'^oxos), of Paros, was one ! 
of the earliest Ionian lyric poets, and the first 
Greek poet who composed Iambic verses accord- 
ing to fixed rules. He lived about B.C. 720-676. 
He was descended from a noble family, who 
held the priesthood in Paros. His grandfather 
was Tellis, his father Telesicles, and his mother 
a slave named Enipo. In the flower of his age 
(between B.C. 710 and 700), Archilochus went 
from Paros to Thasos with a colony, of which 
one account makes him the leader. The motive 
for this emigration can only be conjectured. It 
was most probably the result of a political 
change, to which cause was added, in the case 
of Archilochus, a sense of personal wrong. He 
had been a suitor to Neobule, one of the 
daughters of Lycambes, who first promised and 
afterwards refused to give his daughter to the 
poet. Knraged at this treatment, Archilochus 
attacked the whole family in an iambic poem, 
Accusing Lycambes of perjury, and his daughters | 
of the most abandoned lives. The verses were I 
reciU-d at the festival of Di nn tcr, and produced 
such an effec t that the daughters of Lycambes 
are said to haw hanged themselves through 
shame (Hor, Epod. 6, 18). The bitterness which 




Archilochus. 



he expresses in his poems towards his native 
island seems to have arisen in part also from 
the low estimation in which he was held, as 
being the son of a slave. Neither was he more 
happy at Thasos. He draws the most melan- 
choly picture of his adopted country, which he 
at length quitted in disgust. 
While at Thasos, he incurred 
the disgrace of losing his 
shield in an engagement with 
the Thraeians of the opposite 
continent ; but, instead of 
being ashamed of the disas- 
ter, he recorded it in his 
verse : not, however, because 
he felt himself to be a coward, 
but because he felt that his 
courage had been proved be- 
yond dispute, and he wished 
to express a cynical disap- 
probation of staying to be : 
killed when there was no- 
thing to be gained by it. 
The feeling of Horace (if his case is real and 
not a mere copy of Archilochus) was dif- 
ferent, since he never professed to be a warrior 
by nature. At length he returned to Paros, 
and in a war between the Parians and the 
people of Naxos, he fell by the hand of a 
Naxian named Calondas or Corax. The force 
and originality of Archilochus is vindicated by 
the Greek critics, who gave him a place in 
poetry beside Homer, Pindar, and Sophocles — 
perhaps as heading a fourth branch of poetry 
(Longin. xiii. 3 ; Veil. Pat. i. 5 ; Diog. Laert. ix. 1 ; 
Cic. Urnt. 1. 4). He shared with his contem- 
poraries, Thaletas and Terpander, in the honour 
of establishing lyric poetry throughout Greece. 
The invention of the elegy is ascribed to him, 
as well as to Callinus ; but it was on his satiric 
Iambic poetry that his fame was founded. His 
Iambics expressed the strongest feelings in the 
most unmeasured language. The licence of 
Ionian democracy and the bitterness of a dis- 
appointed man were united with the highest 
degree of poetical power to give them force and 
point. The emotion accounted most con- 
spicuous in his verses was ' rage ' — ' Archilochum 
proprio rabies armavit iambo' (Hor. Ar. Poet. 
79). — -The fragments of Archilochus are collected 
in Bergk's Poet. Lijriri (Irnec. 1867, and by 
Liebel, Archilochi Reliquiae, Lips. 1812, 8vo. 

Archimedes CApx'ju^Stjs), of Syracuse, the 
most famous of ancient mathematicians, was 
boni B.C. 287. He was a friend, and according 
to Plutarch a kinsman, of Hiero, though his 
actual condition in life does not seem to have 
been elevated. In the early part of his life lie 
travelled into Egypt, wh"re he studied under 
Conon the Samian, a mathematician and as- 
tronomer. After visiting other countries, he 
returned to Syracuse (Diod. v. 87). Here he 
constructed for Hiero various engines of war, 
which, many years afterwards, were so far 
effectual in the defence of Syracuse against 
Mareellus as to convert the siege into a block- 
ade, and delay the taking of the citv for a con- 
siderable time (Plut. Marcell. 14-18 ; Polyb. 
viii. 5 ; Liv. xxiv. 34). The accounts of the 
perfr rmances of these engines are evidently 
exaggerated; and tin- story of the burning oi 
the Roman ships by the reflected rays of the 
sun, though very current in later times, is 
probably a fiction : it is not recorded by Plut- 
arch, Polybius, or Livy ; the earliest writers 
who mention it are Galen (ilr Tern/), iii. 2| and 
Luciun (Hij>p. 2, 2). It is described more par 



102 



ARCHINUS 



ARCTOS 



ticularly by Tzetzes (Chil. ii. 103 f.). He super- 
intended the building of a ship of extraordinary 
size for Hiero, of which a description is given 
in Athenaeus (p. 206 d), where he is also said 
to have moved it to the sea by the help of 
a screw. He invented a machine called, from 
its form Coclea, and now known as the water- 
screw of Archimedes, for pumping the water 
out of the hold of this vessel (Vitr. x. 11 ; Diet. 
Ant. s.v. Coclea). Another celebrated proof of 
his genius was the construction of a sphere — a 
kind of orrery, representing the movements of 
the heavenly bodies (Gic. N. D. ii. 35, 88, 
Tusc. i. 25, 63; Ov. Fast. vi. 277; Claudian, 
Ep. 21). When Syracuse was taken (b.c. 212), 
Archimedes was killed by the Roman soldiers, 
being at the time intent upon a mathematical 
problem (Liv. xxv. 31 ; Plut. Marc. 19 ; Val. 
Max. viii. 7 ; Cic. de Fin. v. 19, 50). Upon his 
tomb was placed the figure of a sphere inscribed 
in a cylinder. When Cicero was quaestor in 
Sicily (75) he found this tomb near one of the 
gates of the city, almost hid amongst briars, 
and forgotten by the Syracusans (Cic. Tusc. v. 
23, 64). The intellect of Archimedes was of 
the very highest order. He possessed, in a 
degree never exceeded, unless by Newton, the 
inventive genius which discovers new provinces 
of inquiry, and finds new points of view for old 
and familiar objects ; the clearness of concep- 
tion which is essential to the resolution of 
complex phaenomena into their constituent 
elements ; and the power and habit of intense 
and persevering thought, without which other 
intellectual gifts are comparatively fruitless. 
The following works of Archimedes have come 
down to us: 1. On Equiponderants and Centres 
of Gravity. 2. The Quadrature of the Para- 
bola. 3. On the Sphere and Cylinder. 4. On 
Dimension of the Circle. 5. On Spirals. 6. On 
Conoids and Spheroids. 7. The Arenarius 
(6 i^/a^iTr)?), in which he calculates the sphere 
of the stars, and shows that it is possible to 
note a number greater than that of the grains 
of sand which would fill it (64 figures in our 
notation is his estimate). His real point is to 
maintain that the power of notation is not 
limited, as his contemporaries thought. It is 
remarkable that he in some degree anticipated 
the invention of logarithms. 8. On Floating 
Bodies. 9. Lemmata. — Editions. Of his 
works, by Torelli, Oxon. 1792 ; of the Spirals, 
by C. Scherling, Liibeck, 1865 ; of the Dimen- 
sion of the Circle, by H. Menge, Coblenz, 1874. 
There is a French translation of his works, 
with notes, by F. Peyrard, Paris, 1808, and an 
English translation of the Arenarius by G. 
Anderson, London, 1784. 

Archlnus ('ApxiVos), one of the leading Athe- 
nians, who, with Thrasybulus and Anytus, over- 
threw the government of the Thirty, B.C. 403 
(Dem. c. Tim. p. 742 ; Aeschin. c. Ctesiph. 61). 

Archippus ("Apxi7T7ros),an Athenian poet of 
the Old Comedy, about B.C. 415. In his play 
'lX@vs, he seems to have followed Magnes (as 
Aristophanes does in the Birds) in introducing 
animals, for he has a chorus of fishes. — Fragm. 
in Meineke. 

Archytas ('Kpxvras). 1. Of Amphissa, a 
Greek epic poet, flourished about B.C. 300 
(Athen. p. 82) . — 2. Of Tarentum, a distinguished 
philosopher, mathematician, general, and states- 
man, probably lived about B.C. 400, and on- 
wards, so that he was contemporary with Plato, 
whose life he is said to have saved by his in- 
fluence with the tyrant Dionysius (Tzetz. Chil. 
x. 359, xi. 362 ; cf. Plut. Dion. 18). He was 7 



times the general of his city, and he commanded 
in several campaigns, in all of which he was 
victorious. Whether we are to believe that 
he was drowned while upon a voyage in the. 
Adriatic, depends on the interpretation of Hor. 
Od. i. 28. It is generally supposed that, if 
the drowned body is not that of Archytas, his 
tomb was on the shore near the spot where 
the body lay ; but we have no positive record 
of his death or the place of his burial. Our 
chief authority for the little known of his life 
is Diog. Laert. viii. 79-83 ; cf. Cic. de Sen. 12, 
39, Tusc. iv. 36, 78, de Hep. i. 38 ; Val. Max. 
iv. 1. As a philosopher, he belonged to the 
Pythagorean school, and through his genius 
and reputation raised the sect to something of 
its former influence in Magna Graecia, from 
which it finally declined as regards science soon 
after his death ; and the Pythagorean mysteries, 
alone maintained their position. Like the 
Pythagoreans in general, he paid much atten- 
tion to mathematics. To his theoretical science, 
he added the skill of a practical mechanician, 
and constructed various machines and auto- 
matons, among which his wooden flying dove 
in particular was the wonder of antiquity. He 
also applied mathematics with success to. 
musical science, and even to metaphysical 
philosophy. His influence as a philosopher 
was so great, that Plato was undoubtedly in- 
debted to him for some of his views ; and 
Aristotle is thought by some writers to have 
borrowed the idea of his categories, as well as 
some of his ethical principles, from Archytas. 
When Horace calls him mensorem arenae, he 
implies, rightly or wrongly, that Archytas had 
pursued the calculations of Archimedes in the 

Ipafj./J.LTT1S. 

Arconnesus (^Apitovvnaos : 'ApKovvii<rios). 1. 
An island off the coast of Ionia, near Lebedus, 
also called Aspis (Strab. p. 643.) — 2. (Orak 
Ada), an island off the coast of Caria, opposite 
Halicarnassus, of which it formed the harbour 
(Strab. p. 656 ; Arrian, i. 23). 

Arctmus {'ApKrivos), of Miletus, the most 
distinguished among the cyclic poets, probably 
lived about B.C. 776. Two epic poems were 
attributed to Irim. 1. The Aethiopis, which 
was a kind, of continuation of Homer's Iliad : 
its chief heroes were Memnon, king of the 
Ethiopians, and Achilles, who slew him, in 
vengeance for the slaughter of Antilochus. It 
narrates also the combat between the Greeks 
and Amazons, and the death of Penthesilea, 
and concludes with the death of Achilles, his 
funeral rites, and the contest for his arms. 
2. The Sack of Ilion ('IAi'ou n-ipats), which con- 
tained a description of the destruction of Troy, 
and the subsequent events until the departure 
of the Greeks, with which the story of the 2nd 
Aeneid mainly agrees. The substance of these 
two epics of Arctinus are preserved by Proclus. 
Fragments in G. Kinkel, Epic. Graec. Fr: 
1877 ; Kbckly, Corp. Ep. Graec. 

Arctophyiax. [Arctos.] 

Arctos ("ApKTos), 'the Bear,' two constella- 
tions near the N. Pole. 1. The Geeat Beau 
("ApKTos /xeydAri : Ursa Major), also called the 
Waggon (afia^a: plaustrum). The ancienf 
Italian name of this constellation was Septem 
Triones, that is, the Seven Ploughing Oxen 
nlso Septentrio, and with the epithet Major to 
distinguish it from the Septentrio Minor, oi 
Lesser Bear : hence Virgil (Aen. iii. 356) speakf 
of geminosque Triones. The Great Bear was 
also called Helice (eAi'io)) from its sweeping 
round in a curve. — 2. The Lesser or Littlh 



ARDALTJS 

Beak ("Apxros fxiKpd : Ursa Minor), likewise 
called the Waggon, was first added to the 
Greek catalogues by Thales, by whom it was 
probably imported from the East. It was also 
called Plioenice (Qoivikti), from the circum- 
stance that it was selected by the Phoenicians 
as the guide" by which they shaped their course 
at sea, the Greek mariners with less judgment 
employing the Great Bear for the purpose ; and 
Cynosura (K.vv6crovpa), dog's tail, from the 
resemblance of the constellation to the upturned 
curl of a dog's tail. The constellation before 
the Great Bear was called Bootes (Bodir-qs), 
Arctojphylax ('ApKTo<pv\al;), or Arcturus 
('ApKTovpos from oZpos, guard) ; the two latter 
names suppose the constellation to represent a 
man upon the watch, and denote simply the 
position of the figure in reference to the Great 
Bear, while Bootes, which is found in Homer, 
refers to the Waggon, the imaginary figure of 
Bootes being fancied to occupy the place of the 
driver of the team. At a later time Arcto- 
phylax became the general name of the con- 
stellation, and the word Arcturus was confined 
to the chief star in it. All these constellations 
are connected in mythology with the Arcadian | 
nymph Callisto, the daughter of Lycaon, 
metamorphosed by Zeus upon the earth into a 
she-bear. [See Arcas.] In the poets the 
epithets of these stars have constant reference 
to the family and country of Callisto : thus we 
find them called Lycaonis Arctos : Maenalia 
Arctos and Maenalia Ursa (from M. Mi._.»alus 
in Arcadia) : Erymanthis Ursa (from 5c 3ry- 
manthus in Arcadia I: Parrhasides stellae 
(from the Arcadian town Parrhasia). Though 
most traditions identified Bootes with Areas, 
others pronounced him to be Icarus or his 
daughter Erigone. Hence the Septentriones 
are called Boves Icarii. (See Diet, of Antiq. 
s. v. Astronomia). 

Ardalus, son of Hephaestus, built at Troezen 1 
a temple to the Muses, where they were called 
locally 'ApSaXiai ; said also to have invented the 
flute. (Paus. ii. 31, 4; Plut. de Mus. 5). 

Arcturus. [Arctos.] 

Ardea (Ardeas, -atis : Ardea). 1. The chief 
town of the Eutuli in Latium, a little to the 
left of the river Xuniicus, 3 miles from the sea, 
was situated on a rock surrounded by marshes, 
in an unhealthy district I Strab. p. 231 ; Mart, 
iv. HO). It was one of the most ancient places 
in Italy, and was said to have been the capital 
of Turnus (Verg. Aen. vii. 410 ; Plin. iii. 56). 
It was one of the 30 cities of the Latin League, 
and was besieged by Tarquinius Superbus 
(Dionys. iv. 04, v. 01 ; Liv. i. 57). It was con- 
quered and colonised by the Eomans, B.C. 442, 
from which time its importance declined (Liv. 
iv. 11 ; Diod. xii. 84 ; cf. Liv. v. 44, xxvii. ; 
Verg. Aen. vii. 413 ; Strab. p. 201 ; Juv. xii. 105). 
In its neighbourhood was the Latin Aphrodi- 
sium or temple of Venus, under the superin- 
tendence of Ardeates. — 2. lArdekdn?), an im- 
portant town in Persis, SW, of Persepolis. 

Arduenna Silva, /// e. 1 rde. nnes, a vast forest, 
in the NW. of Gaul, extended from the Rhine 
end the Treviri to the Xervii and Remi, and X. 
-fill far as the Scheldt : there are still consider- 
able remains of this fon-st. though the greater 
part of it has disappeared (Caes. B. G. v. 8, vi. 
21), 88). There was a Celtic goddess of this 
name, whose attributes seem to have been akin 
to those of Artemis (C. I. L. vi. 46). 

Ardys i"Ap5i>s), son of Gyges, king of Lydia, 
reigned B.C. 678-629 : he took Priene and made 
war against Miletus I idt. i. 15 ; Paus. iv. 24). 



AEES 



103 



Area or Aretias ("Apeia or 'Apyrias vriaos, 
i.e. the island of Ares : Kerasunt Ada), also 
called Chalcerltis, an island off the coast of 
Pontus, close to Pharnacea, celebrated in the 
legend of the Argonauts (Ap. Ehod. ii. 334 ; 
Mel. ii. 7)._ 

Areithous ('Apijifloor), king of Ame in 
Boeotia, and husband of Philomedusa, is called 
in the Hiad (vii. 8) Kopvvt)TT)s, because lie fought 
with a club : he fell by the hand of the Arca- 
dian Lycurgus (II. vii. 132 ; Paus. viii. 11, 3). 

Arelate, Arelas, or Arelatum (Arelatensis : 
Aries), a town in Gallia Narbonensis at the 
head of the delta of the Rhone on the left 
bank, and a Roman colony founded by the 
soldiers of the sixth legion, Colonia Arelate 
Sextanorum. It is first mentioned by Caesar, 
and under the emperors it became one of the 
most flourishing towns on this side of the Alps. 
Constantine the Great built an extensive 
suburb on the right bank, which he connected 
with the city by a bridge. The Roman remains 
at Aries attest the greatness of the ancient 
city : there are still to be seen an obelisk of 
granite, and the ruins of an aqueduct, theatre, 
amphitheatre, palace of Constantine, and a 
large Eoman cemetery. (Strab. p. 181 ; Mel. ii. 
5; Plin. iii. 36; Caes. B. G.i. 36, ii. 5; Auson. 
Urb. Nob. 8.) 

Aremorlca. [Armorica.] 

Arenacum (Arriheim or Aert ?), a town of 
the Batavi in Gallia Belgica (Tac. Hist. v. 20). 

Areopagus. [Athexae.] 

Ares ("ApTjs), the Greek god of war, re- 
presented as the son of Zeus and Hera 
890; Hes. Th. 922). Another tradition 
makes his birth a parallel to that of Athene : 
he is bom from Hera alone, to whom a flower 
had been given by Flora (Ov. Fast. v. 229). 
But while Athene represents wisdom in war, 
Ares is described in Homer, who makes Eris 
his sister, as rejoicing in tumult and bloodshed, 
and a fickle partisan (aWonp6aaWos, II. v. 
889) : he helps the Trojans though he had pro- 
mised aid to the Greeks (II. v. 832, xxi. 412). 
His character is not congenial to the Greek 
mind, certainly not to the spirit of Homer, and 
for that reason, and probably also because in 
spite of the parentage given him he is still to 
some degree felt to be a foreign Thracian god, 
we find him represented in undignified positions 
in the Iliad, and often overborne by the more 
truly Greek deities. He is ignominiously 
driven from the field by Athene and Diomede 
(II. v. 776) ; again overcome by Athene (II. xxi. 
405), prevented by her from avenging his son 
Ascalaphus (II. xv. 125), his son Cycnus (Hes. 
Sc. 455) : he was imprisoned for thirteen 
months by the Aloidae ill. v. 385), and made a 
laughing-stock to the gods (Ov. viii. 266), when 
the partner of his disgrace was Aphrodite, her- 
self in many aspects a deity of alien origin. 
He fights oftenest on foot, but sometimes in a 
chariot (II. v. 356, xv. 110 ; Hes. Sc. 109, 191 ; 
Pind. Pyth. iv. 87). Quintus Smyrnaeus 
names his four horses Aitlion, Phlogios, Kona- 
bos, Phobos; in Homer he has two, and 
Deimos and Phobos are his sons, not his horses. 
As god of battles lie lias the epithet or surname 
'EvuoAior in Homer (II. ii. 512, xiii. 518) : the 
name was probably used as a battle-cry (cf. 
Xen. Anab. i. 8, 18), and in later writers given 
to a separate deity [Enyalius.] The love of 
Ares for Aphrodite is noticed in the Iliad, and 
in various traditions Eros and Anteros, Deimaa 
and Phobos, and Priapus are their children. 
According to the Theban story he was the hus- 



104 



ARES 



ARETE 




Ares and Aphrodite. 
(Osterley, Denkmtiler.) 



band of Aphrodite, and father by her of Har- 
monia (Hes. Th. 987). In Homer Thrace is 
the home of Ares (II. xiii. 301, Od. viii. 361 ; 
of. Hdt. v. 7 ; Soph. Ant. 970, 0. B. 196) ; but 
the most ancient seat of his worship in Greece 
appears to have been Thebes (Aesch. Th.. 135), 
whence in the Iliad the 
walls of Thebes are 
called re?xos "Apeiov 
(iv. 407), and he was the 
father of the dragon 
which Cadmus slew at 
the well of Ares (Paus. 
ix. 10, 5; Cadmus). At 
Athens his temple was 
on the western slope of 
*l Areiopagus and con- 
tained statues of Aphro- 
dite, of Ares (by Alca- 
menes), of Athene, and 
Enyo (Paus. i. 8, 5). 
The Athenian story 
makes him marry the 
daughter of Erechtheus, 
and become the father 
of Alcippe ; as slayer 
of Halirrhothius, who 
assailed Alcippe, he was tried before the coun- 
cil of gods in the Areiopagus. [Halibbho- 
thtus ; Diet. Ant. s. v. Areiopagus.'] It is clear 
that this story points to a period when his wor- 
ship was introduced as that of a separate deity. 
[For the Amazons, daughters of Ares, and their 
attack on Athens, see Amazones.] As regards 
the origin of Ares, some, from a theory that a 
war-god is not a primitive idea, suppose him to 
have been a storm-god or a light-god ; others 
with greater truth regard him as one of the 
xQAvtoi 0eo!, working from the depths of the 
earth to produce on the one hand increase, on 
the other death and destruction : whence he 
became the god of war. It may be replied that 
it is difficult to conceive a primitive time to 
which war was not familiar, and it is vain to 
inquire what deity was appealed to by primitive 
warring tribes. There must have been dif- 
ferent deities in different local religions whose 
worship was appropriated by Ares. The 
worship of "Aprjs 6.<puei6s at Tyre and of "Aprjs 
yvvaiKoBolvas (Paus. viii. 44, 6 ; 48, 3) very 
likely points to an old nature-worship of a god 
of increase, as may also be suggested by his 
union with Aphrodite : on the other hand when 
we find "Apris t-wirios honoured with 'A9r,vtt 
lirma at Olympia, and Ares receiving sacrifices 
of dogs at Therapnae, the inference is that he 
replaced for purposes of war a local animal- 
worship (Paus. iii. 20, 1; 14, 9; v. 15, 4). 
But that Ares mainly represents a worship 
of a god of the netherworld in various parts of 
Greece is highly probable. As regards the 
earliest site of this worship there is every 
probability that the idea of Ares which pre- 
dominated in Greece was derived from Thrace, 
as is implied by Homer and Herodotus, and 
was adopted by Thebes and other states as a 
modification of their own worship. There may 
be fewer Thracian than Theban legends about 
Ares, but we know more about Thebes than 
Thrace. The Theban story seems to express 
the struggle between an ancient serpent-wor- 
ship with which Ares bad become identified, 
perhaps through Thracian influence, and a new 
civilisation, probably at the time when the 
worship of Dionysus began to prevail. In older 
art Ares is represented as a fully armed, 
bearded warrior: in the 5th century from 



Pheidias onwards the type is that of a hand- 
some beardless youth, naked or nearly so, 




Ares. (Ludovisi Statue in Rome.) 

with a spear and sometimes a helmet : the 
bearded type reappears later. 

Arestor ('Ap<E<TTa>p), father of Argus, the 
guardian of Io, who is therefore called Are- 

storides. 

Aretaeus ('ApeTauosl, the Cappadocian, one 
of the most celebrated of the ancient Greek 
physicians, probably lived in the reign of Ves- 
pasian. He wrote in Ionic Greek a general 
treatise on diseases in 8 books, which is still 
extant. He is noticeable for accuracy of dia- 
gnosis, and for a departure from the method of 
Hippocrates when he considered that the 
symptoms required it, in which he is supported 
by modern experience. — The best edition is by 
C. G. Kiihn, Lips. 1828. 

Aretas ('Aperas), the name of several kings 
of Arabia Petraea. 1. A contemporary of 
Pompey, invaded Judaea in B.C. 65, in order to 
place Hyrcanus on the throne, but was driven 
back by the Romans, who espoused the cause of 
Aristobulus. His dominions were subsequently 
invaded by Scaurus, the lieutenant of Pompey. 
(Dio Cass, xxxvii. 15; Pint. Pomp. 39; Joseph 
Ant. xiv.) — 2. The father-in-law of Herod Anti- 
pas, invaded Judaea, because Herod had dis- 
missed the daughter of Aretas in consequence 
of his connexion witli Herodias (Jos. Ant. 
xviii.). This Aretas seems to have been the 
prince who had possession of Damascus at the 
time of the conversion of the Apostle Paul, 
a.d. 31. 

Arete ('Ap^rrj). 1. "Wife of Alcinous, king of 
the Phaeacians, received Ulysses with hospi- 
tality, and induced her people not to give up 
Medea to the emissaries of Aeetes (Od. vi. 305, 
vii. 66 ff. ; Ap. Rh. iv. 1010 ; Apollod. i. 9, 25). 
— 2, Daughter of the elder Dionysius and 
Aristomache, wife of Thearides, and after his 
death of her uncle Dion. After Dion had fled 
from Syracuse, Arete was compelled by her 
brother to marry Timocrates, one of his friends ; 
but she was again received by Dion as his wife 
when he had obtained possession of Syracuse 
and expelled the younger Dionysius. After 
the assassination of Dion in 353, she was 
drowned by his enemies. (Plut. Dion. ; Ael. 
V. H. xii. 47, where Arete and Aristomache are 




ARETHUSA 

confused.) — 3. Daughter of Aristippus, the I 
founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, j 
was instructed by him in the principles of his 
system, which she transmitted to her son the i 
younger Aristippus (Diog. Laert. ii. 72). 

Arethusa ('ApiOovaa), one of the Nereids, 
and the nymph of the famous fountain of Are- 
thusa in the 
island of Or- 1 
tygia near Sy- 
racuse. For 
details, see Al- 
pheus. Virgil 
(Eclog. iv. 1, x. 
1) reckons her 
among the Si- 
cilian nymphs, 
and as the di- 
vinity who in- 
spired pastoral 
poetry. The 
head of Are- 
thusa with her 
hair confined 
in a net and 
surrounded by 
fishes, occurs 
in the coins 
of Syracuse. — 
There were se- 
veral other 
fountains in 
Greece which 
bore the name 
of Arethusa, of 
which the most 
important was 

Asethusa. Coin of Syracuse of the one in Ithaca, 
reign of Gelon, whose Givmpic vie- J e i, ( ..lr, 

tory Is Bhown on the reverse. D °V ^euaao, 

and another in 

Euboea near Chalcis (Strab. p. 58 ; Eur. Iph. 
Aul. 170). 

Arethusa ('ApeBovtra: Er-Bestun), a town 
and fortress on the Orontes, in Syria (Strab. 
p. 758; Appian, Syr. 57). For its history and 
government see Emesa. 

Are Has. [Area.] 

Arctium. [Arretium.] 

Areas ('Apevs), two kings of Sparta. 1. Suc- 
ceeded his grandfather, Cleomenes II. (since 
his father Acrotatus had died before him), and 
reigned B.C. 809-265. He made several unsuc- 
cessful attempts to deliver Greece from the 
dominion of Antigonus Gonatas, and at length 
fell in battle against the Macedonians in 2(15, 
and was succeeded by his son Acrotatus (Justin, 
xxiv. 1 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 20-29 ; Paus. iii. ; 
Diod. xx. 29). — 2. Grandson of No. 1, reigneel 
as a child for 8 years under the guardianship of 
his uncle Leonidaa II., who succeeded him about 
B.C. 250 (Pint. Agis, 3). 

Arevacae or Arevaci, the most powerful 
tribe of the Celtiberians in Spain, near the 
sources of the Tugus, derived their name from 
the river Areva (Arlanzo), a tributary of the 
Durius (Duero) (Strab. p. 102; Polyb. xxxv. 2; 
A\>y\nn. IIinp, 45; Plin. iii. 19, 27). 

Argaeus {'Apydtos). 1. King of Macedonia, 
son and successor of Perdiccus I., the founder 
of the dynasty. — 2. A pretender to the Mure- 
donian crown, dethroned Perdiccus II. and 
reigned 2 years (Diod. xiv. 92, xvi. 2). 

Argaeus Hons ( 'Apya'ios : Eriljixh), a lofty 
snow-cu.pj>ed mountain nearly in the centre of 
Cappadocia ; an offset of the Anti-Taurus. At 
its foot stood the celebrated city of Mazaca or 
Caesarea (Strab. p. 58B). 



ARGOXAUTAE 



105 



Arganthonius CApyavduivios), king of Tartes- 
sus in Spain, in the 6th century B.C., is said to 
have reigned 80 years, and to have lived 120 
i (Hdt. i. 163 ; Strab. p. 151 ; Lucian, Macrob. 10 ; 
Cic. de Sen. 19 ; Plin. vii. 154, who cites Ana- 
creon as making him live 150 years). 

Arganthonius or Arganthus Mons iVb 'Ap- 
yavduvtov upos '■ Katirli), a mountain in Bithy- 
1 nia, running out into the Propontis, forming 
the Prom. Posidimn (C. Bouz), and separating 
the bays of Cios and Astacus (Strab. p. 564). 

Argennum or Arginum ("Apyewov, 'Apyivov : 
C. Blanco), a promontory on the Ionian coast, 
> opposite to Chios (Thuc. viii. 34). 

Argentarius Mons. 1. Monte Argentaro, a, 
promontory of Etruria, where it is said there 
are traces of ancient silver mines. — 2. Part of 
M. Orospeda in southern Spain, the source of 
| the river Baetis (Strab. p. 148). 

Argenteus, a small river in Gallia Narbo- 
nensis, which flows into the Mediterranean near 
Forum Julii (Cic. Fain. x. 34 ; Plin. iii. 35). 

Argentoratum or -tus (Strasbwg), an im- 
portant town on the Rhine in Gallia Belgica, 
the head-quarters of the 8th legion, and a Roman 
municipium. In its neighbourhood Julian 
gained a brilliant victory over the Alemanni, 
a.d. 357. It was subsequently called Strate- 
burgum and Stratisburgum in the Notitia 
and Ravenna Geog. (Amm. Marc. xv. 11, 
xvi. 12 ; Zosim. iii. 3.) 
Arges. [Cyclopes.] 

Argia CApyeia), daughter of Adrastus and 
Amphithea, and wife of Polynices (Apollod. i. 9 ; 
Diod. iv. 65). 

Argia CApyeia). [Argos.] 
Argiletum, a district in Rome, which exten- 
ded from the S. of the Quirinal to the Capito- 
line and the Forum. It was chiefly inhabited 
by mechanics and booksellers. The origin of 
the name is uncertain : the most obvious deri- 
vation is from argilla, 'potter's clay ; ' but the 
more common explanation in antiquity was 
Argi let inn , ' death of Argus,' from a hero Argus 
who was buried there. (Varro. L.L. iv. 32; Cic. 
Att. xii. 32 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 845 ; Mart. i. 4.) 

Argilus ["ApyiAos: 'Apyihios), a town in Bi- 
saltia, the E. part of Mygdonia in Macedonia, 
| between Amphipolis and Bromiscus, a colony 
| of Andros (Thuc. iv. 103, v. 6). 

Arginusae CApytvoZ<rai or ' Apyivov<r<rai), 
8 small islands off the coast of Aeolis, opposite 
Mytilene in Lesbos, celebrated for the naval 
J victory of the Athenians over the Lacedae- 
monians under Callicratidas, B.C. 406 (Strab. 
I p. 617 ; Xen. Hell. i. 6.) 

Argiphontes CApyeHpovrws), 'the slayer of 
Argus,' a surname of Hermes. 

Argippaei I'Apynnraioii, a Scythian tribe in 
Sarmatia Asiatica, who appear, from the de- 
scription of them by Herodotus (iv. 23),ito have 
been of the Calmuck or Mongolian race. 
Argissa. TArgura.] 

Argithea, the chief town of Athamania in 
Epixos. 

Argiva, a surname of Hera or Juno. 
Argivi. [Argos.] 
Argo. TAroonautae.] 
Argolis. 'Argos.] 

Argdnautae i'Apyovavrai\. the Argonauts, 
'the sailors of the Argo,' were the heroes who 
sailed to Aea (afterwards called Colchis) for 
the puEPOM of fetching the golden fleece. The 
story of the Argonauts is variously related by 
the ancient writers, but the common tale ran as 
follows. In lolcus in Thessnly n igned 1'clian, 
who li.id deprived his half-brothfr Arson of tho 



106 



ARGONAUTAE 



sovereignty. In order to get rid of Jason the 1 
son of Aeson, Pelias persuaded Jason to fetch 
the golden fleece, which was suspended on an : 
oak-tree in the grove of Ares in Colchis, and 
was guarded day and night by a dragon. Jason 
willingly undertook the enterprise, and com- 
manded Argus, the son of Phrixus, to build a 
ship with 50 oars ; which was called Argo 
('Apyci) after the name of the builder. Jason 
was accompanied by all the great heroes of the 
p.ge, and their number is said to have been 
50-60. (Pindar names only 11.) Among these 
were Heracles, Castor and Pollux, Zetes and 
Calais, the sons of Boreas, the singer Orpheus, 
the seer Mopsus, Philammon, Tydeus, Theseus, 
Amphiaraus, Peleus, Nestor, Admetus, &c. Ac- 



and Phineus now advised them, before sailing 
through the Symplegades, to mark the flight of 
a dove, and to judge from its fate what they 
themselves would have to do. When they ap- 
proached the Symplegades, they sent out a. 
dove, which in its rapid flight between the 
rocks lost only the end of its tail. The Argo- 
nauts now, with the assistance of Hera, followed 
the example of the dove, sailed quickly between 
the rocks, and succeeded in passing without 
injury to their ship, with the exception of some 
ornaments at the stern. Henceforth the Sym- 
plegades stood immoveable in the sea. On 
their arrival at the Mariandyni, the Argonauts, 
were kindly received by their king, Lycus. 
The seer Idmon and the helmsman Tiphis died 



cording to Hdt. iv. 179, Jason made a pre- > here, and the place of the latter was supplied 
liminary voyage round the Peloponnesus, wish- 
ing to get to Delphi by the Corinthian gulf, and 
was driven from Malea to Libya, where the Argo 
went ashore at Lake Tritonis and was helped 
off by a Triton. Their start from Iolcus for the 
real expedition is marked by the name 
Aphetae (Strab. p. 436; Hdt. vii. 198). After 
leavin 



by Ancaeus. They now sailed along the coast 
until they arrived at the mouth of the river 
Phasis. The Colchian king Aeetes promised 
to give up the golden fleece, if Jason alone, 
would yoke to a plough two fire-breathing oxen 
with brazen feet, and sow the teeth of the. 
dragon which had not been used by Cadmus at. 
Iolcus they first landed at Lemnos, I Thebes, and which he had received from Athene. 

The love of Medea fur- 
nished Jason with 
means to resist fire 
and steel, on condition 
of his taking her as his 
wife ; and she taught, 
him how he was to kill 
the warriors that were 
to spring up from the 
teeth of the dragon. 
While Jason was en- 
gaged upon his task, 
Aeetes formed plans 
for burning the ship 
Argo and for killing all 
the Greek heroes. But 
Medea's magic powers, 
sent to sleep the dra- 
gon who guarded the 
golden fleece ; and 
after Jason had taken 
possession of the trea- 
sure, he and his Argo- 
nauts, together with 
Medea and her young 
brother Absyrtus, em- 
sailed away. Aeetes 




Athene superintending the Building of the Argo (from a terra-cotta panel in 
British Museum). 



where they united themselves with the women 
of the island, who had just before murdered 
their fathers and husbands. From Lemnos 
they sailed to the Doliones at Cyzicus, where 
king Cyzicus received them hospitably. They 
left the country during the night, and being 
thrown back on the coast by a contrary wind, 
they were taken for Pelasgians, the enemies of 
the Doliones, and a struggle ensued, in which 
Cyzicus was slain ; but he was recognised by the 



barked by night and 

pursued them, but before he overtook them, 
Medea murdered her brother, cut him into 
pieces, and threw his limbs overboard, that her 
father might be detained in his pursuit by 
collecting the limbs of his child. Aeetes at 
last returned home, but sent out a great num- 
ber of Colchians, threatening them with the 
punishment intended for Medea if they re- 
turned without her. While the Colchians were 



Argonauts, who buried him and mourned over, dispersed in all directions,, the Argonauts had 



his fate. They next landed in Mysia, where 
they left behind Heracles and Polyphemus, 
who had gone into the country in search of 
Hylas, whom a nymph had carried off while he 
was fetching water for his companions. In the 
country of the Bebryces, king Amycus chal- 
lenged the Argonauts to fight with him ; and 
when Pollux had conquered him, the Argonauts 
afterwards slew many of the Bebryces, and 
sailed to Salmydessus in Thrace, where the seer 
Phineus was tormented by the Harpies. When 
the Argonauts consulted him about their voyage 
he promised his advice on condition of their 
delivering him from the Harpies. This was 
dene by Zetes and Calais, wo sons of Boreas ; 



already reached the mouth of the river Eridanus. 
But Zeus, angry at the murder of Absyrtus, 
raised a storm which cast the ship from its 
course. When driven on the Absyrtian islands, 
the ship began to speak, and declared that the 
anger of Zeus would not cease unless they sailed' 
towards Ausonia and were purified by Circe. 
They now sailed along the coasts of the Ligyans 
and Celts, and through the sea of Sardinia, and 
continuing their course along the coast of 
Tyrrhenia, they arrived in the island of Aeaea, 
where Circe purified them. When they were 
passing by the Sirens, Orpheus sang to prevent 
the Argonauts being allured by them. Butes, 
however, swam to them, but Aphrodite carried 



ARGOS 107 

him to Lilybaeum. Thetis and the Nereids may therefore contain the same root as the 
conducted them through Scylla and Charybdis Latin word ager. In Homer we find mention 
and between the whirling rocks (-w4rpai TrXaym- of the Pelasgic Argos (II. ii. 681), that is, a town 
red); and sailing by the Thrinacian island with or district of Thessaly, and of the Achaean 
its oxen of Helios, they came to the Phaeacian Argos (II. ix. 141; Od. iii. 251), by which he 
island of Corcyra, where the}' were received by means sometimes the whole Peloponnesus, 
Alcinous. In the meantime, some of the Col- sometimes Agamemnon's kingdom of Argos of 
chians, not being able to discover the Argonauts, which Mycenae was the capital, and sometimes 
had settled at the foot of the Ceraunian nioun- the town of Argos. As Argos in Homeric times 
tains ; others occupied the Absyrtian islands was the most important part of the Pelopon- 
near the coast of Hlyricum ; and a third band nesus, and sometimes stood for the whole of 
overtook the Argonauts in the island of the it, so the Ap-v'ioi often occur in Homer as 
Phaeacians. But as their hopes of recovering a name of thfc whole body of the Greeks, in 
Medea were deceived by Arete, the queen of which sense the Roman poets also use Argivi. — 
Alcinous, they settled in the island, and the 1. Argos, a district of Peloponnesus, called 
Argonauts continued their voyage. During the Argolis (r) 'ApyoKis) by Herodotus (i. 82), but 
night they were overtaken by a storm; but more frequently by other Greek waiters either 
Apollo sent brilliant flashes of lightning which Argos, Argla (r\ Apyei'a), or Argolice (t] 
enabled them to discover a neighbouring island, 'ApyoKiKri). Under the Romans Argolis be- 
which they called Anaphe. [According to one came the usual 'name of the country, while 
account, in the Pseudo-Orpheus, the stranding the word Argos or Argi was confined to the 
of the ship in the Syrtes, and its reaching Lake town. Argolis under the Romans signified the 
Tritonis, comes in here on the return voyage.] country bounded on the N. by the Corinthian 
Here they erected an altar to Apollo, and territory, on the W. by Arcadia, on the S. by 
solemn rites were instituted, which continued Laconia, and included towards the E. the whole 
to be observed down to very late times. Their Acte or peninsula between the Saronic and 
attempt to land in Crete was prevented by Argolic gulfs : but during the time of Grecian 
Talus, who guarded the island, but was killed independence Argolis or Argos did not include 
by the artifices of Medea. Prom Crete they the territories of Epidaums, &c, on the E. and 
sailed to Aegina, and from thence between SE. coasts of the Acte, but only the country 
Euboea and Locris to Iolcus. Respecting the lying round the Argolic gulf, bounded on the 
events subsequent to their arrival in Iolcus, W. by the Arcadian mountains, and separated 
see Aeson, Medea, Jason, Pelias. lApoll. Rh. on the N. by a range of mountains from Corinth, 
Argonautica ; Apollod. i. 9, 16-26 ; Pind. Pi/th. Cleonae, and Phlius. Argolis, as understood 
iv. 171 ; Valer. Flacc. Argon.) Strabo notices by the Romans, was for the most part a moun- 
the local traditions in his account of each place tainous and unproductive country ; the whole 
at which the Argo is supposed to have touched, eastern part is of a dry and thirsty soil, with 
It is clear that the story was already a subject few streams, the ttoAi/Si'^iov "Apyos of II. iv. 171. 
for poets at any rate in the later Homeric age; The only extensive plain adapted for agriculture 
for the Argo is iraai nekov&a in Od. xii. 70 ; was in the neighbourhood of the city of Argos : 
Jason is her captain, and she passes through this was the koiXov "Apyos (Soph. O. C. 378), 
rocks like the Symplegades. In the Liad there and being well watered was famed as "Apyos 
are traces of a local tradition about Jason at Ih-ko^otov (II. ii. 287 ; Strab. p. 388). Its rivers 
Lemnos \Il. vii. 467, xxi. 40j ; but no apparent were, however, small and often dry in summer: 
knowledge of the Argo or of Jason's voyages, the most important was the Inachus. The 
The story of the Argonauts is by many writers country was divided into the districts of Argla 
construed as a sun myth, expressing either or Argos proper, Epldauria, Troezenia, and 
sunset and sunrise or a drawing of clouds by Hermioxis. The original inhabitants of the 
the sun in various directions at various times country were, according to mythology, the 
of the year. No doubt the idea of the goldeu , Cynurii ; but the main part of the population 
fleece in an Eastern land may have been in some consisted of Pelasgi and Achaei, to whom 
degree suggested by the sun's rays ; but the Dorians were added after the conquest of 
main drift of the myth is to express the idea of j Peloponnesus by the Dorians. The fame of 
the earliest sea voyage. In different places ' the cities of Argolis, and their prosperity in early 
there were local traditions of the earliest sea- days, were greatly due to the favourable position 
farers, and these have become a more or less of the country for maritime intercourse in the 
connected story attached to the name of J ason, 1 more timid period of navigators, when the 
who, with his band of heroes, sets out on a j peculiar facility which vessels had for sailing 
search which some modern writers have com- through a chain of sheltering islands SE. to 
pared to the search after the Holy Grail. It is Crete, Cj^irus, and Egypt, E. to Ephesus or 
natural that the mythical king of the Eastern : Miletus, and N. by Euboea to Thessaly, &c, 
land should appear as the child of the sun. In ' gave the settlements at Mycenae, Tiryns, or 
ancient art the most famous representations j Argos a start in the commerce before the 0th 
(which have perished) were the sculptures of century B.C. — 2. Argos, or Argi, -orum, in the 
Lysippus (Plin. xxxiv. 7'J), the paintings of Latin writers, now Argo, the capital of Argolis, 
Micon in the temple of the Dioscuri at Athens and, next to Sparta, the most important town 
(Paus. i. 18), those of Cydias (Plin. xxxv. 130), i in Peloponnesus, situated in a level plain a 
and those on the portico of Neptune (Juv. vi. , little to the W. of the Inachus. It had an 
153 ; Mart. ii. 14). The Argonauts in Bithynia | ancient Pelasgic citadel, called Larissa, and 
are shown on the Ficoroni Cista. One of the | another built subsequently on another height 
most remarkable of the vase-paintings on this (duas arces habent Argi, Liv. xxxiv. 25). It 
subject is at Munich, showing Jason at the possessed numerous temples, and was par- 
moment of taking the fleece from the custody ticularly celebrated for the worship of Hera, 
of the dragon. whose great temple, Heraeum, lay between 

Argos (to 'Apyos, -eos), is said by Strabo (p. Argos and Mycenae. The remains of the Cy- 
872) to have signified a plain in the language clopean walls of Argos are still to be seen. It 
of the Macedonians and Thessalians, and it is the natural centre of the plain, and probably 



108 



ARGOS 



ARIABIGNES 



existed as early as any other Argolic city, 
though not at first the most powerful. The 
city is said to have been built by Inachus or 
his son Phoboneus, or grandson Abgtjs. The 
descendants of Inachus, who may be regarded 
as the Pelasgian kings, reigned over the country 
for 9 generations, but were at length deprived 
of the sovereignty by Danaus, who is said to 
have come from Egypt. This story, like the 
similarity of Io and Isis, points to an early con- 
nexion with Egypt, though how early is a 
doubtful question. [See Aegyptus.] The de- 
scendants of Danaus were in their time obliged 
to submit to the Achaean race of the Pelopidae. 
Under the rule of the Pelopidae Mycenae be- 
came the capital of the kingdom, and Argos 
was a dependent state. Thus Mycenae was 
the royal residence of Atreus and of his son 
Agamemnon; but under Orestes Argos was 
preferred. Upon the conquest of Peloponnesus 
By the Dorians, Argos fell to the share of 
Temenus, whose descendants ruled over the 
country ; but the great bulk of the population 
continued to be Achaean, and the existence of 
a fourth tribe at Argos (the Hyrnethian) pro- 
bably points to the inclusion of a part of the 
old inhabitants in the citizenship. With the 
Dorian conquest the supremacy of Mycenae in 
Argolis ceased, and Argos thenceforth became 
the leading city. All these events belong to 
mythology ; and Argos first appears in history 




Argos in Peloponnesus. 
Obc, head of Hera ; rev., dolphins and hound. 



about b.c. 750, as the chief state of Pelopon- 
nesus, under its ruler Phidon. The successors 
of Temenus appear as Cisus, Medon, Thestius, 
Merops, Aristodanidas, Eratus, Phidon (Paus. 
ii. 19). After the time of Phidon its power 
declined, being greatly weakened by its wars 
with Sparta. The two states long contended 
for the district of Cynuria, which lay between 
Argolis and Laconia, and which the Spartans 
at length obtained by the victory of their 
300 champions, about B.C. 550. In B.C. 524 
Cleomenes, the Spartan king, defeated the 
Argives with such loss near Tiryns, that Sparta 
was left without a rival in Peloponnesus. In 
the north also, after B.C. 600, the power of 
Periander of Corinth, and Cleisthenes of Sicyon, 
exceeded that of Argos, nor did she regain her 
hegemony. In consequence of its weakness 
and of its jealousy of Sparta, Argos took no 
part in the Persian war. In order to strengthen 
itself, Argos attacked the neighbouring towns 
of Tiryns, Mycenae, &c, destroyed them, and 
transplanted their inhabitants to Argos. The 
introduction of so many new citizens was fol- 
lowed by the abolition of royalty and of Doric 
institutions, and by the establishment of a 
democracy, which continued to be the form of 
government till later times, when the city fell 
under the power of tyrants. In the Pelopon- 
nesian war Argos sided with Athens against 
Sparta. In B.C. 243 it joined the Achaean 
League, and on the conquest of the latter by 
the Romans, 146, it became a part of the Roman 



province of Achaia. At any early time Argos 
was distinguished by its cultivation of music 
and poetry [Sacadas ; Telesilla] ; but at the 
time of the intellectual greatness of Athens, 
literature and science seem to have been en- 
tirely neglected at Argos. It produced some 
great sculptors, of whom Ageladas and Poly- 
cletus are the most celebrated. It must not 
be forgotten that Argolis, in its extended sense, 
was especially a land of great religious festivals : 
the Nemea at Cleonae, that of Apollo Lycaeus 
at Argos, the Heraea at the temple of Hera, 
near Mycenae, those of Asclepius at Epidaurus, 
the Cthonia of Demeter at Hermione. [See 
Diet. Ant. s.w.J 

Argos Amphj.locMcum("Ap7osTo- 'AfMpiXox'- 
k6v), the chief town of Amphilochia in Acar- 
nania, situated on the Ambracian gulf, and 
founded by the Argive Amphilochus (Thuc. 
ii. 68 ; Strab. p. 325). 

Argos Hippium. [Af.pi.] 

Argous Portus (Porto Ferraio), a town and 
harbour in the island of Ilva (Elba). 

Argura ("Apyovpa), a town in Pelasgiotis in 
Thessaly, called Argissa by Homer (II. ii. 738). 

ArgUS ("Apyos). 1. Son of Zeus and Niobe, 
3rd king of Argos, from whom Argos derived its 
name (Apollod. ii. 1 ; Paus. ii. 16). — 2. Sur- 
named Panoptes, ' the all-seeing,' because he 
had a hundred eyes, son of Agenor, Arestor, 
Inachus, or Argus. Hera appointed him guar- 
dian of the cow into which Io had been meta- 
morphosed ; but Hermes, at the command of 
Zeus, put Argus to death, either by stoning him, 
or by cutting off his head after sending him 
to sleep by the sweet notes of his flute. Hera 
transplanted his eyes to the tail of the peacock, 
her favourite bird (Apollod. ii. 1 ; Ov. Met. i. 
264 ; Aesch. Pr. 569 ; Mosch. ii. 58). Many 
have seen in the story a reference to the starry 
' eyes ' of the sky. — 3. The builder of the Argo, 
son of Phrixus, Arestor, or Polybus, was sent 
by Aeetes, his grandfather, after the death of 
Phrixus, to take possession of his inheritance in 
Greece. On his voyage thither he suffered 
shipwreck, was found by J ason in the island of 
Aretias, and carried back to Colchis. (Ap. Rh. 
ii. 1095 ; Apollod. ii. 9.) 

Argyra ('Apyvpa), a town in Achaia near Pa- 
trae, with a fountain of the same name. 

Argyripa. [Abpi.] 

Aria ('Aptla, 'Apia : "Apeios, 'Apios : the E. 
part of Khorassan, and the W. and NW.part 
of Afghanistan), the most important of the E. 
provinces of the ancient Persian Empire, was 
bounded on the E. by the Paropamisadae, on 
the N. by Margiana and Hyrcania, on the W. 
by Parthia, and on the S. by the great desert of 
Carmania. It was a vast plain, bordered on 
the N. and E. by mountains, and on the W. and 
S. by sandy deserts; and, though forming a 
part of the great sandy tableland, now called 
the Desert of Iran, it contained several very 
fertile oases, especially in its N. part, along the 
base of the Sariphi (Kohistan and Hazarah) 
mountains, which was watered by the river 
Arms or -as (Serirood), on which stood the 
later capital Alexandria (Herat). The river is 
lost in the sand. The lower course of the great 
river Etymandbus (Helmund) also belonged to 
Aria, and the lake into which it falls was called 
Aria Lacus (Zurrah). From Aria was derived 
the name under which all the E. provinces were 
included. [Abiana.] 

Aria Lacus. [Abia.] 

Ariabignes ('Apta$iyvr)s), son of Darius Hys- 
taspis, one of the commanders of the fleet of 



ARIADNE 



AEIASPAE 



1C9 



Xerxes, fell in the battle of Salamis, B.C. 480. 
(Hdt. vii. 97, viii. 89.) 

Ariadne ('ApidSvri), daughter of Minos and 
Pasiphae or Creta, fell in love with Theseus, 
when he was sent by his father to convey the 
tribute of the Athenians to Minotaurus, and 
gave him the clue of thread by means of which 
he found his way out of the Labyrinth, and 
which she herself had received from Hephaes- 
tus. Theseus in return promised to marry her, 
and she accordingly left Crete with him ; but 
on their arrival in the island of Dia iNaxosi, 
she was killed by Artemis. This is the Homeric 
account (Od. xi. 322) ; but the more common 
tradition, to mitigate the perfidy of Theseus, 
related that Theseus left Ariadne in Naxos 
alive, either because he was forced by Dionysus 
to leave her, or because he was ashamed to 
bring a foreign wife to Athens, or because he 
was carried away by a storm (Plut. Tlies. 20; 
Diod. iv. 61 ; Paus. i. 20). Dionysus found her 
at Naxos, made her his wife, and placed among 
the stars the crown which he gave her at their 
marriage (Ov. Met. viii. 181, Fast. iii. 459 ; 
Hyg. Ast. 2, 5). There is no doubt that we 
have in Ariadne the story of various local 
nature-goddesses in the islands of Crete, Naxos 
and Delos, nearly akin to and in some aspects 
identified with Aphrodite ; whence the story of 
the wooden statue of Aphrodite by Daedalus 
left at Delos by Ariadne (Paus. ix. 40, 3 ; 
Callim. Hymn. Del. 308) : this was honoured 
with a Cretan labyrinth dance (Plut. I.e.). In 
Cyprus also there was the tomb of Ariadne in 
the grove sacred to Ariadne-Aphrodite. The 
twofold aspect in Naxos of Ariadne the 
mourner, deserted by Theseus, and Ariad>.e 
the joyful bride of Dionysus, presents the ide .■: 
of the earth abandoned by its flowers and 
fruits in winter, and renewing its gaiety in 
spring. The same was probably the meaning 
of the avfi/ju^is ru Aiovvaw Kai 6 ydfi.os in 
Aristot. 'A07)j/. iroKir. ch. 3. Similarly in Italy, 
Ariadne becomes Libera the bride of Liber. 

Ariaeus i'Apiouos), or Aridaeus CAptSdlos). 
the friend of Cyrus, commanded the left wing 
of the army at the battle of Cunaxa, B. c. 401 
(Xen. An. i. 8; Diod. xiv. 22). After the death 
of Cyrus he first joined the Greeks, but after- 
wards obtained the pardon of Artaxerxes by 
abandoning them and aiding Tissaphernes to 
destroy the Greek generals (Xen. An. ii. ; 
Plut. Artax. 18). We hear afterwards of his 
being employed to put Tissaphernes to death, 
and again of his revolting from Artaxerxes in 
895 (Polyaen. viii. 16 ; Diod. xiv. 80 ; Xen. 
Hell. iv. 1, 27). 

Ariamnes CApid/ivris), the name of two kings 
of Cappadocia, one the father of Ariarathes I., 
and the other the son and successor of Ariara- 
thes II. 

Ariana (ApiaW): Iran), derived from Aria, 
from the specific sense of which it must be care- 
fully distinguished, .was the general name of 
the E. provinces of the ancient Persian Empire, 
and included the portion of Asia bounded on 
tin- \V. by an imaginary line drawn from the 
Caspian to the mouth of the Persian Gulf, on 
the S. by the Indian Ocean, on the E. by the 
Indus, and on the N. by 'the great chain of 
mountains called by the general name of the 
Indian Caucasus, embracing the provinces of 
Parthia, Aria, the Paropamisodae, Arachosia, 
Drangiana, Gedrosia, and Cannania (Khoras- 
san, Afghanistan, Beloochintan, and Kirman). 
But the name was often extended to the 1 
country as far W. as the margin of the Tigris- , 



valley, so as to include Media and Persia, and 
also to the provinces N. of the Indian Caucasus, 
namely Bactria and Sogdiana (Bokhara). The 
knowledge of the ancients respecting the 
greater part of this region was confined to what 
was picked up in the expeditions of Alexander 
and the wars of the Greek kings of Syria, and 
what was learned from merchant caravans. 
(Strab. pp. 688, 696, 720 ff. ; Plin. vi. 93.) 

Ariarathes ('Apiapatfys), the name of several 
kings of Cappadocia. — 1. Son of Ariamnes I., 
assisted Ochus in the recovery of Egypt, B.C. 
350. Ariarathes was defeated by Perdiccas, and 
crucified, 322. Eumenes then obtained posses- 
sion of Cappadocia (Diod. xviii. 16, xxxi. 3 ; 
Plut. Eum. 3). — 2. Son of Holophemes, and 
nephew of Ariarathes I., recovered Cappadocia 
after the death of Eumenes, B.C. 315. He was 
succeeded by Ariamnes II. (Diod. xxxi. 28). — 
3. Son of Ariamnes II., and grandson of No. 2, 
married Stratonlce, daughter of Antiochus II., 
king of Syria. — 4. Son of No. 3, reigned B. c. 
220-162. He married Antiochis, the daughter 
of Antiochus III., king of Syria, and assisted 
Antiochus in his war against the Romans. 
After the defeat of Antiochus, Ariarathes sued 
for peace in 188, which he obtained on favour- 
able terms. In 183-179, he assisted Eumenes 
in his war against Pharnaces. (Liv. xxxvii. 31, 
xxxviii. 38; Polyb. xxii. 24, xxxi. 12-14.)— 5. 
Son of No. 4, reigned B.C. 163-130. He was 
surnamed Philopator, and was distinguished by 
the excellence of Iris character and his cultiva- 
tion of philosophy and the liberal arts, having 
been educated at Rome (Liv. xli. 19). He 
assisted the Romans in their war against 
Aristonicus of Pergamus, and fell in this war, 
130 (Justin, xxxv. i. ; Polyb. xxxii. 20, xxxiii. 
12). — 6. Sou of No. 5, reigned B. c. 130-90. He 
married Laodice, sister of Mithridates VI., king 
of Pontus, and was put to death by Mithridates 
by means of Gordius. On his death the king- 
dom was seized by Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, 
who married Laodice, the widow of the late 
king. But Nicomedes was soon expelled by 
Mithridates, who placed upon the throne 
I.Justin, xxxvii. 1, xxxviii. 1) — 7. Son of No. 6. 
He was, however, also murdered by Mithri- 
dates, in a short time, who now took possession 
of his kingdom. The Cappadocians rebelled 
against Mithridates, and placed upon the 
throne — 8. Second son of No. 6 ; but he was 
speedily driven out of the kingdom by Mith- 
ridates, and shortly afterwards died. Botli 
Mithridates and Nicomedes attempted to give a 
king to the Cappadocians ; but the Romans 
allowed the people to choose whom they 
pleased, and their choice fell upon Ariobar- 
zanes (Justin, I.e. ; Strab. p. 540). — 9. Son of Ari- 
obarzanes II. went to Rome to seek Caesar's 
support B.C. 45 ; got the throne after Philippi, 
and reigned B.C. 42-36. He was deposed and 
put to death by Antony, who appointed Arche- 
laus as his successor. (Appian, li. C. v. 7 ; Dio 
Cass. xlix. 32 ; Cic. Fam. xv. 2, Att. xiii. 2.) 

Ariaspaeoi Agriaspae | 'Aptdtnrat, 'Aypidawat), 
a people in the S. part of the Persian province 
of Drangiana, on the very borders of Gedrosia, 
with a capital city, Ariaspe rApiorrir7)). In 
return for the services which they rendered to 
the army of Cyrus the Great, when he marched 
through the desert of Cannania, they were 
honoured with the name of Eiitpytrcu, and 
were allowed by the Persians to retain their 
independence, which was confirmed to them by 
Alexander as the reward of similar services to- 
himself. (Arriau, iii. 27, 37 ; Curt. vii. 3.) 



110 



ARICIA 



ARIPHRON 



Aricia (Ariclnus : Ariccia or Biccia), an 
ancient town of Latium at the foot of the Alban 
Mount, on the Appian Way, 16 miles from 
Rome. It was a member of the Latin con- 
federacy, was subdued by the Romans, with the 
other Latin towns, in B.C. 338, and received the 
Roman franchise (Liv. viii. 14). In its neigh- 
bourhood was the celebrated grove and temple ; 
of Diana Arieina, on the borders of the Lacus 
Nemorensis (Ne??ii). [See Diana, and Diet. Ant. 
s. v. Bex Nemorensis.'] 

Aricdnium (Weston), in Herefordshire, be- 
tween Blestum (Monmouth) and Glevum 
(Gloucester), on the road leading from Silchester 
to Caerleon. 

Aridaeus. [Ahiaeus : Abbhidaeus.] 

Arii. [Abia.] 

Arimaspi ('Api/xaa-rrol), a people in the N. of 
Scythia, of whom a fabulous account is given 
by Herodotus (iv. 27). The germ of the fable is 
perhaps to be recognised in the fact that the 
Ural Mountains abound in gold. 

Arimazes ('Api/xd^s) or Ariomazes (Apio- 
jm£ws), a chief in Sogdiana, whose fortress was 
taken by Alexander in B.C. 328. In it Al»x- 
ander found Roxana (the daughter of the 
Bactrian chief, Oxyartes), whom he made his 
wife. Curtius states that Alexander crucified 
Arimazes ; but this is not mentioned by Arrian 
or Polyaenus. (Arrian, iv. 19 ; Curt. vii. 11 ; 
Polyaen. iv. 3.) 

Arlmi ("Apifiot) and Arima (to "Apifia sc. op?j), 
the names of a mythical people, district, and 
range of mountains in Asia Minor, which the 
old Greek poets made the scene of the punish- 
ment of the monster Typhoeus. Virgil (Aen. 
ix. 716) has misunderstood the eiV 'Api^ois of 
Homer (II. ii. 783), and made Typhoeus lie 
beneath Inarime, an island off the coast of 
Italy — namely, Pitheeusa or Aenaria (Ischia). 

Arinrinum (Ariminensis : Bimini), a town in 
Umbria on the coast at the mouth of the little 
river Ariminus (Marocchia). It was originally 
inhabited by Umbrians and Pelasgians, was 
afterwards in the possession of the Senones, and 
was colonised by the Romans in B.C. 268, as one 
■of the 12 most recent Latin colonies which had 
commercium, but not civitas (Cic. pro Caec. 
■35, 102). It obtained the full franchise in 188, 
and is mentioned by Appian (B. C. iv. 3) as a 
flourishing city in 43 B.C. Augustus established 
a military colony there. It became in later 
times subject to the Exarchs of Ravenna. 
After leaving Cisalpine Gaul, it was the first 
town which a person arrived at in the NE. of 
Italia proper. It was connected by the Via 
Flaminia with Rome, and by the Via Aemilia 
with Placentia (Strab. p. 217). 

Ariobarzanes ('Apio^ap(dvris). I. Kings or 
Satraps of Bontus. — 1. Betrayed by his son 
Mithridates to the Persian king, about B.C. 400 
(Xen. Cyr. viii. 8 ; Ar. Bol. v. 8).— 2. Son of 
Mithridates I., reigned B.C. 363-337. He re- 
volted from Artaxerxes in 362, and may be 
regarded as the founder of the kingdom of 
Pontus (Diod. xvi. 90). — 3. Son of Mithridates 
III., reigned 266-240, and was succeeded by 
Mithridates IV. — II. Kings of Cappadocia. — 
1. Bum.tkmeiBhiloromaeus, reigned B.C. 93-63, 
and was elected king by the Cappadocians, 
under the direction of the Romans. He was 
several times expelled from his kingdom by 
Mithridates, was restored by Sulla in 92, ex- 
pelled in 90, and fled to Rome, restored by 
Aquillius in 89, expelled the next year, but 
received his throne in 84 from Sulla, was ex- 
pelled again by Mithridates in 66, and finally 



restored by Pompey in 63 (App. Mithr. 10, 5? 
60; Plut. Sull. 22; Justin, xxxviii. 2).— 2. Sur- 
named Bhilopator, succeeded his father in 63. 
The time of his death is not known ; but it 
must have been before 51, in which year his son 
was reigning (Cic. Fam. xv. 2 ; de Frov. Cons. 4). 
— 3. Surnamed Eusebes and Bhiloromaeits, son 
of No. 2, whom he succeeded about 51. He 
assisted Pompey against Caesar in 48. but was 
nevertheless pardoned by Caesar, who even en- 
larged his territories. He was slain in 42 by 
Cassius, because he was plotting against him in 
Asia. (Cic. Fam. ii. 17, xv. 2 ; Diod. xlii. 45 ; 
Dio Cass, xlvii. 33 ; Caes. B. 0. iii. 4.) 

Arion ('ApW). 1. Of Methymna in, Lesbos, 
an ancient Greek bard and a celebrated player 
on the cithara. He lived about B.C. 625, and 
spent a great part of his life at the court of 
Periander, tyrant of Corinth. His great work 
was to develop the dithyramb or choral hymn 
to Dionysus. He first employed a trained 
chorus of 50 singers, with distinct parts for 
singing and action, ranged in a circle around the 
altar, and therefore called the cyclic chorus, 
whereas Doric choruses had been drawn up in 
a rectangular form. This was an important 
step towards the growth of Greek tragedy (see 
Diet. Ant. s.v. Tragoedia). Of his life scarcely 
any thing is related beyond the beautiful story 
of his escape from the sailors with whom he 
sailed from Sicily to Corinth. On one occasion, 
thus runs the story, Arion went to Sicily to take 
part in some musical contest. He won the 
prize, and, laden with presents, he embarked in 
a Corinthian ship to return to his friend Peri- 
ander. The rude sailors coveted his treasures, 
and meditated his murder. After trying in 
vain to save his life, he at length obtained per- 
mission once more to play on the cithara. In 
festal attire he placed himself in the prow of 
the ship and invoked the gods in inspired 
strains, and then threw himself into the sea. 
But manj' song-loving dolphins had assembled 
round the vessel, and one of them now took the 
bard on its back and carried him to Taenarus, 
from wiience he returned to Corinth in safety, 
and related his adventure to Periander. Upon 
the arrival of the Corinthian vessel Periander 
inquired of the sailors after Arion, who replied 
that he had remained behind at Tarentum ; but 
when Arion, at the bidding of Periander, came 
forward, the sailors owned their guilt, and were 
punished according to their desert. In the time 
of Herodotus and Pausanias there existed at 
Taenarus a brass monument, representing Arion 
riding on a dolphin. Arion and his cithara 
(lyre) were placed, among the stars. (Hdt. i. 23 ; 
Aelian, JV. A. xii. 45 ; Cic. Tusc. ii. 27, 67 ; Ov. 
Fast. ii. 83.) A fragment of a hymn to Poseidon, 
ascribed to Arion, is contained in Bergk's Foetae 
Lyrici Graeci, p. 566, &c. — 2. A fabulous horse, 
of which Poseidon was the father. [Poseidon.] 

Ariovistus, a German chief, who crossed the 
Rhine at the request of the Sequani, when they 
were hard pressed by the Aedui. He subdued 
the Aedui, but appropriated to himself part of 
the territory of the Sequani, and threatened to 
take still more. The Sequani now united with 
the Aedui in imploring the help of Caesar, who 
defeated Ariovistus about 50 miles from the 
Rhine, B.C. 58. Ariovistus escaped across the 
river in a small boat. (Caes. B. G. i. 31-53 ; Dio 
Cass, xxxviii. 31; Plut. Caes. 18.) That his 
fame lived in Gaul is seen from Tac. Hist. 
iv. 73. 

Ariphron. 1. Grandfather of Pericles (Hdt. 
vi. 131). — 2. A lyric poet of Sicyon (Athen. p. 



ARISBE 

702 ; Lucian, de Laps. 6). A fragment is printed 
in Bergk, Poet. Lyr. 

Arisbe. a town of the Troad. It was a camp 
of Alexander, and was taken by the Gauls (II. 
ii. 836 ; Arrian, i 12 ; Polyb. v. 111). 

Aristaenetus, a rhetorician of Xieaea, friend 
of Libanius, killed in an earthquake at Xico- 
media a.d. 358 ( An™ . Marc. xvii. 7). To him is 
wrongly ascribed a collection of erotic epistles, 
ed. Hercher, 1873. 

Aristaenus C ApicrTaivos), of Megalopolis, 
sometimes called Aristaenetus, was frequently 
strategus or general of the Achaean League from 
B.C. 198 to 185. He was the political opponent 
of Philopoemen, and a friend of the Romans. 
(Polyb. xvii. 1-13, xxiii. 7, xxxii. 19 ; Liv. xxxiv. 
25.) 

Aristaeus ('ApioTaios), an ancient divinity 
representing the giver of best gifts, worshipped 
in many parts of Greece, especially in Thessaly, 
Boeotia, Arcada, Ceos, Corcyra, and other 
islands of the Aegean and Adriatic. No doubt 
Thera was an ancient seat of this worship, and 
thence it passed to Cyrene. "When the later 
Hellenic religion prevailed, Aristaeus was re- 
presented as the son of one of the deities, a 
mortal deified for his virtues. His origin is 
then variously related in local traditions. (Hes. 
Th. 975 ; Pind. Pyth. ix. 45 ; Diod. iv. 81 ; Ap. 
Eh. iii. 500 ; Verg. Georg. i. 14, iv. 283.) He is 
described either as a son of Uranus and Ge, 
or, according to a more general tradition, as the 
son of Apollo and Cyrene. His mother Cyrene 
had been carried off by Apollo from mount 
Pelion to Libya, where she gave birth to Ari- 
staeus. Aristaeus subsequently went to Thebes 
in Boeotia ; but after the unfortunate death of 
his son Actaeon, he left Thebes and visited 
almost all the Greek colonies on the coasts of 
the Mediterranean. Finally he went to Thrace, 
and after dwelling for some time near mount 
Haemus, where he founded the town of Ari- 
etaeon, he 1 * disappeared. Aristaeus is one of 
the most beneficent divinities in ancient mytho- 
logy : he was worshipped as the protector of 
flocks and shepherds, of vine and olive planta- 
tions ; he taught men to keep bees, and averted 
from the fields the burning heat of the sun and 
other causes of destruction. 

Aristagoras ('Apia-rayopas), of Miletus, 
brother-in-law of Histioeus, was left by the 
latter during his stay at the Persian court, in 
charge of the government of Miletus. Having 
failed in an attempt upon Naxos (B.C. 501), 
which he had promised to subdue for the 
Persians, and fearing the consequences of his 
failure, he induced the Ionian cities to revolt 
from Persia. He applied for assistance to the 
Spartans and Athenians : the former refused, 
but the latter sent him 20 ships and some troops. 
In 499 his army captured and burnt Sardis, but 
was finally chased back to the coast. The Athe- 
nians now departed ; the Persians conquered 
most of the Ionian cities; and Aristagoras in 
despair fled to Thrace, where he was slain by 
the Edonians in 497 (Hdt. v. 30-51, 97-120; 
Thuc. iv. 102). 

Aristander CApiaTavSpos), the most cele- 
brated soothsayer of Alexander the Greut, wrote 
on prodigies (Arrian, iv. 4; Plin. xvii. 248). 

Anstarchus CAp'itTTapxos). 1- An Athenian, 
one of the leaders in the revolution of the ' Four 
Hundred,' B.C. 411. He was afterwards put to 
death bv the Athenians, not later than 406 
(Thuc. viiii. 90 ; Xen. Hell. i. 7, 28).— 2. A Lace- 
daemonian, succeeded Cleander as harmost of 
Byzantium in 400, and in various ways ill treated 



ABISTEAS 



111 



the Cvrean Greeks, who had recently returned 
from Asia (Xen. An. vii. 2-6). — 3. Of Tegea, a 
tragic poet at Athens, contemporary with Eu- 
ripides, flourished about B.C. 454, and wrote 70 
tragedies (Nauek, Fr. Poet. Trag. 1856). — 1 Of 
Sajios, an eminent mathematician and astro- 
nomer at Alexandria, flourished between B.C. 
280 and 264. He employed himself in the de- 
termination of some of the most important ele- 
ments of astronomy ; but none of his works 
remain, except a treatise on the magnitudes 
and distances of the sun and moon lirepi fifyeBav 
KaL ctiroCTrj/iOTOiy yX'iov :;aX ceA.rjj'ls). Edited 
by "Wallis, Oxon. 1688, and reprinted in vol. iii. 
of his works ; by Nizze, 1856. — 5. Of Samo- 
theace, the celebrated grammarian, flourished 
B.C. 156. He was educated in the school of 
Aristophanes of Byzantium, at Alexandria, 
where he himself founded a grammatical and 
critical school. At an advanced age he left 
Alexandria, and went to Cyprus, where he is 
! said to have died at the age of 72, of voluntary 
! starvation, because he was suffering from in- 
• curable dropsy. Aristarchus was the greatest 
critic of antiquity. His labours were chiefly 
j devoted to the Greek poets, but more especially 
to the Homeric poems, of which he published a 
recension, which lias been the basis of the text 
from his time to the present day. The great 
object of his critical labours was to restore the 
genuine text of the Homeric poems, and to 
clear it of all later interpolations and corrup- 
tions. He marked those verses which he thought 
spurious with an obelos, and those which were 
repeated with an asterisk. He adopted the 
i division (already made) of the Iliad and Odyssey 
into 24 books each. He did not confine himself 
to a recension of the text, but also explained 
and interpreted the poems : he opposed the 
allegorical interpretation which was then begin- 
ning to find favour, and which at a later time 
became very general. His grammatical prin- 
ciples were attacked by many of his contem- 
poraries : the most eminent of his opponents 
I was Crates of Mallus. His criticisms are 
best preserved in the Venetian Scholia (ed. 
Bachmann, 1835). These Scholie. include the 
Epitome, formed from the collection which 
Didymus and other Aristarcheans made from 
the writings of their master. 

Aristeas ('Apiarias), of Proconnesus, an epic 
poet of whose life we have only fabulous ac- 
counts. His date is quite uncertain : some place 
him in the time of Croesus and Cyrus ; but other 
traditions make him earlier than Homer, or 
a contemporary and teacher of Homer. We 
only know that he was earlier than Herodotus. 
He seems to have been a mystic writer about 
the Hyperboreans, and was said to be a magician, 
whose soul could leave and re-enter its body 
according to its pleasure. He was connected 
with the worship of Apollo, which he was said 
to have introduced at Metapontum. He is said 
to have travelled through the countries N. and 
E. of the Euxine, and to have visited the Isse- 
dones, Arimaspae, Cimmerii, Hyperborei, and 
other mythical nations, and after his return to 
have written an epic poem in 3 books, called 
The ArismaspP.a (to 'Api^o<77r€ia). This work is 
frequently mentioned by the ancients, but it ia 
impossible to say who was the real author of it. 
(Hdt. iv. 13, 36 ; Strab. pp. 6, 39 ; Tzetz. ii. 724 ; 
Paus. i. 24, 6, v. 7, 9 ; Gell. ix. 4.) 

Aristeas or Aristaeus, an officer of Ptolemy 
Philadelphns (B.C. 285-247), the reputed author 
of a Greek work giving an account of the man- 
ner in which the translation of the Scptuagint 



no 



ARICIA 



ARIPHRON 



Aricia (Aricmus : Ariccia or Biccia), an 
ancient town of Latium at the foot of the Alban 
Mount, on the Appian Way, 16 miles from ! 
Rome. It was a member of the Latin con- 
federacy, was subdued by the Romans, with the 
other Latin towns, in B.C. 338, and received the 
Roman franchise (Liv. viii. 14). In its neigh- 
bourhood was the celebrated grove and temple 
of Diana Ariclna, on the borders of the Lacus 
Nemorensis (Nemi). [See Diana, and Diet. Ant. 
s. v. Bex Nemorensis.} 

Ariconium (Weston), in Herefordshire, be- 
tween Blestum (Monmouth) and Glevum 
(Gloucester), on the road leading from Silchester 
to Caerleon. 

Aridaeus. [Abiaeus : Arbhidaeus.] 

Arii. [Aria.] 

Arimaspi ('Api/iaa-iroi), a people in the N. of 
Scythia, of whom a fabulous account is given 
by Herodotus (iv. 27). The germ of the fable is 
perhaps to be recognised in the fact that the 
Ural Mountains abound in gold. 

Arimazes (Apip-afijs) or Ariomazes (Apio- 
,ua£V)s), a chief in Sogdiana, whose fortress was 
taken by Alexander in B.C. 328. In it Alex- 
ander found Roxana (the daughter of the 
Bactrian chief, Oxyartes), whom he made his 
wife. Curtius states that Alexander crucified 
Arimazes ; but this is not mentioned by Arrian 
or Polyaenus. (Arrian, iv. 19 ; Curt. vii. 11 ; 
Polyaen. iv. 3.) 

Arrmi ("Apifiot) and Arima (to." Apifia sc. uprj), 
the names of a mythical people, district, and 
range of mountains in Asia Minor, which the 
old Greek poets made the scene of the punish- 
ment of the monster Typhoeus. Virgil (Aen. 
ix. 716) has misunderstood the etv 'Apifxois of 
Homer (II. ii. 783), and made Typhoeus lie 
beneath Inarime, an island off the coast of 
Italy — namely, Pithecusa or Aenaria (Ischia). 

Ariminum (Ariminensis : Rimini), a town in 
Umbria on the coast at the mouth of the little 
river Ariminus (Marocchia). It was originally 
inhabited by Umbrians and Pelasgians, was 
afterwards in the possession of the Senones, and 
was colonised by the Romans in B.C. 268, as one 
of the 12 most recent Latin colonies which had 
commercium, but not civitas (Cic. pro Caec. 
35, 102). It obtained the full franchise in 188, 
and is mentioned by Appian (B. C. iv. 3) as a 
flourishing city in 43 B.C. Augustus established 
a military colony there. It became in later 
times subject to the Exarchs of Ravenna. 
After leaving Cisalpine Gaul, it was the first 
town which a person arrived at in the NE. of 
Italia proper. It was connected by the Via 
Flaminia with Rome, and by the Via Aemilia 
with Placentia (Strab. p. 217). 

Ariobarzanes ('Apio0ap(duris). I. Kings or 
■Satraps of Pontics. — 1. Betrayed by his son 
Mithridates to the Persian king, about B.C. 400 
(Xen. Cyr. viii. 8 ; Ar. Pol. v. 8).— 2. Son of 
Mithridates L, reigned B.C. 363-337. He re- 
volted from Artaxerxes in 362, and may be 
regarded as the founder of the kingdom of 
Pontus (Diod. xvi. 90). — 3. Son of Mithridates 
III., reigned 266-240, and was succeeded by 
Mithridates IV. — II. Kings of Cappadocia. — 
1. Surnamed Philoromaeus, reigned B.C. 93-63, 
and was elected king by the Cappadocians, 
under the direction of the Romans. He was 
several times expelled from his kingdom by 
Mithridates, was restored by Sulla in 92, ex- 
pelled in 90, and fled to Rome, restored by 
Aquillius in 89, expelled the next year, but 
received his throne in 84 from Sulla, was ex- 
pelled again by Mithridates in 66, and finally 



restored by Pompey in 63 (App. Mithr. 10, 5? 
60; Plut. Sail. 22; Justin, xxxviii. 2).— 2. Sur- 
named Philopator, succeeded his father in 63. 
The time of his death is not known ; but it 
must have been before 51, in which year his son 
was reigning (Cic. Bam. xv. 2 ; de Prov. Cons. 4). 
— 3. Surnamed Eusebes and Philoromaeus, son 
of No. 2, whom he succeeded about 51. He 
assisted Pompey against Caesar in 48. but was 
nevertheless pardoned by Caesar, who even en- 
larged his territories. He was slain in 42 by 
Cassius, because he was plotting against him in 
Asia. (Cic. Fam. ii. 17, xv. 2 ; Diod. xlii. 45 ; ' 
Dio Cass, xlvii. 33 ; Caes. B. C. in. 4.) 

Arion ('Aplav). 1. Of Methymna in, Lesbos, 
an ancient Greek bard and a celebrated player 
on the cithara. He lived about B.C. 625, and 
spent a great part of his life at the court of 
Periander, tyrant of Corinth. His great work 
was to develop the dithyramb or choral hymn 
to Dionysus. He first employed a trained 
chorus of 50 singers, with distinct parts for 
singing and action, ranged in a circle around the 
altar, and therefore called the cyclic chorus, 
whereas Doric choruses had been drawn up in 
a rectangular form. This was an important 
step towards the growth of Greek tragedy (see 
Bid. Ant. s.v. Tragoedia). Of his life scarcely 
any thing is related beyond the beautiful story 
of his escape from the sailors with whom he 
sailed from Sicily to Corinth. On one occasion, 
thus runs the story, Arion went to Sicily to take 
part in some musical contest. He won the 
prize, and, laden with presents, he embarked in 
a Corinthian ship to return to his friend Peri- 
ander. The rude sailors coveted his treasures, 
and meditated his murder. After trying in 
vain to save his life, he at length obtained per- 
mission once more to play on the cithara. In 
festal attire he placed himself in the prow of 
the ship and invoked the gods in inspired 
strains, and then threw himself into the sea. 
But many song-loving dolphins had assembled 
round the vessel, and one of them now took the 
bard on its back and carried him to Taenarus, 
from wiience he returned to Corinth in safety, 
and related his adventure to Periander. Upon 
the arrival of the Corinthian vessel Periander 
inquired of the sailors after Arion, who replied 
that he had remained behind at Tarentum ; but 
when Arion, at the bidding of Periander, came 
forward, the sailors owned their guilt, and were 
punished according to their desert. In the time 
of Herodotus and Pausanias there existed at 
Taenarus a brass monument, representing Arioa 
riding on a dolphin. Arion and his cithara 
(lyre) were placed, among the stars. (Hdt. i. 23 ; 
Aelian, N. A. xii. 45 ; Cic. Tusc. ii. 27, 67 ; Ov. 
Fast. ii. 83.) A fragment of a hymn to Poseidon, 
ascribed to Arion, is contained in Bergk's Boetae 
Lyrici Graeci, p. 566, &c. — 2. A fabulous horse, 
of which Poseidon was the father. [Poseidon.] 

Ariovistus, a German chief, who crossed the 
Rhine at the request of the Sequani, when they 
were hard pressed by the Aedui. He subdued 
the Aedui, but appropriated to himself part of 
the territory of the Sequani, and threatened to 
take still more. The Sequani now united with 
the Aedui in imploring the help of Caesar, who 
defeated Ariovistus about 50 miles from the 
Rhine, B.C. 58. Ariovistus escaped across the 
river in a small boat. (Caes. B. G. i. 31-53 ; Dio 
Cass, xxxviii. 31; Plut. Caes. 18.) That his 
fame lived in Gaul is seen from Tac. Hist. 
iv. 73. 

Ariphron. 1. Grandfather of Pericles (Hdt. 
vi. 131). — 2. A lyric poet of Sicyon (Athen. p. 



ARISBE 



ARISTEAS 



111 



702 ; Lucian, de Laps. 6). A fragment is printed 
in Bergk, Poet. Lyr. 

Arisbe, a town of the Troad. It was a camp 
of Alexander, and was taken by the Gauls (II. 
ii. 836 ; Arrian, i. 12 ; Polyb. v. 111). 

Aristaenetus, a rhetorician of Nicaea, friend 
of Libanius, killed in an earthquake at Nico- 
media a.d. 358 (Anim. Marc. xvii. 7). To him is 
wrongly ascribed a collection of erotic epistles, 
ed. Hercher, 1873. 

Aristaenus (' Aplcrraiyos), of Megalopolis, 
sometimes called Aristaenetus, was frequently 
strategus or general of the Achaean League from 
e.c. 198 to 185. He was the political opponent 
of Philopoemen, and a friend of the Romans. 
(Polyb. xvii. 1-13, xxiii. 7, xxxii. 19 ; Liv. xxxiv. 
25.) 

Aristaeus ('Apia-Taws), an ancient divinity 
representing the giver of best gifts, worshipped 
in many parts of Greece, especially in Thessaly, 
Boeotia, Arcada, Ceos, Corcyra, and other 
islands of the Aegean and Adriatic. No doubt 
Thera was an ancient seat of this worship, and 
thence it passed to Cyrene. When the later 
Hellenic religion prevailed, Aristaeus was re- 
presented as the son of one of the deities, a 
mortal deified for his virtues. His origin is 
then variously related in local traditions. (Hes. 
Th. 975 ; Pind. Pyth. ix. 45 ; Diod. iv. 81 ; Ap. 
Rh. iii. 500 ; Verg. Georg. i. 14, iv. 283.) He is 
described either as a son of Uranus and Ge, 
or, according to a more general tradition, as the 
son of Apollo and Cyrene. His mother Cyrene 
had been carried off by Apollo from mount 
Pelion to Libya, where she gave birth to Ari- 
staeus. Aristaeus subsequently went to Thebes 
in Boeotia ; but after the unfortunate death of 
his son Actaeok, he left Thebes and visited 
almost all the Greek colonies on the coasts of 
the Mediterranean. Finally he went to Thrace, 
and after dwelling for some time near mount 
Haemus, where he founded the town of Ari- 
staeon, he'» disappeared. Aristaeus is one of 
the most beneficent divinities in ancient mytho- 
logy : he was worshipped as the protector of 
flocks and shepherds, of vine and olive planta- 
tions ; he taught men to keep bees, and averted 
from the fields the burning heat of the sun and 
other causes of destruction. 

Aristagoras CApia-Tay6pas), of Miletus, 
brother-in-law of Histiaeus, was left by the 
latter during his stay at the Persian court, in 
charge of the government of Miletus. Having 
failed in an attempt upon Naxos (B.C. 501), 
which he had promised to subdue for the 
Persians, and fearing the consequences of his 
failure, he induced the Ionian cities to revolt 
from Persia. He applied for assistance to the 
Spartans and Athenians : the former refused, 
but the latter sent him 20 ships and some troops. 
In 499 his army captured and burnt Sardis, but 
was finally chased back to the coast. The Athe- 
nians now departed ; the Persians conquered 
most of the Ionian cities; and Aristagoras in 
despair fled to Thrace, where he was slain by 
the Edonians in 497 (Hdt. v. 30-51, 97-120; 
Thuc. iv. 102). 

Aristander I'Apia-ravSpos), the most cele- 
brated soothsayer of Alexander the Great, wrote 
on prodigies (Arrian, iv. 4 ; Plin. xvii. 248). 

AristarchuS ('Apl'<rTopX05)- L An .Ulifnian, 
one of the leaders in the revolution of the ' Four 
Hundred,' B.C. 411. He was afterwards put to 
death by the Athenians, not later than 406 
(Time. viii. 90 ; Xen. Hell. i. 7, 28).— 2. A Lace- 
daemonian, succeeded Oleander as liurmost of 
Byzantium in 400, and in various ways ill treated 



the Cvrean Greeks, who had recently returned 
from Asia (Xen. An. vii. 2-6).— 3. Of Tegea, a 
tragic poet at Athens, contemporary with Eu- 
ripides, flourished about B.C. 454, and wrote 70 
tragedies (Nauck, Fr. Poet. Trag. 1856).— 4. Of 
Sajios, an eminent mathematician and astro- 
nomer at Alexandria, flourished between B.C. 
280 and 264. He employed himself in the de- 
termination of some of the most important ele- 
ments of astronomy ; but none of his works 
remain, except a treatise on the magnitudes 
and distances of the sun and moon (irepl fityzdeov 
Kal airoaTrifidruv riKlov ::ai creAyicrjs). Edited 
by Wallis, Oxon. 1688, and reprinted in vol. iii. 
of his works ; by Nizze, 1856. — 5. Of Samo- 
thrace, the celebrated grammarian, flourished 
B.C. 156. He was educated in the school of 
Aristophanes of Byzantium, at Alexandria, 
where he himself founded a grammatical and 
critical school. At an advanced age he left 
Alexandria, and went to Cyprus, where he is 
said to have died at the age of 72, of voluntary 
starvation, because he was suffering from in- 
curable dropsy. Aristarchus was the greatest 
critic of antiquity. His labours were chiefly 
devoted to the Greek poets, but more especially 
to the Homeric poems, of which he published a 
recension, which has been the basis of the text 
from his time to the present day. The great 
object of his critical labours was to restore the 
genuine text of the Homeric poems, and to 
clear it of all later interpolations and corrup- 
j tions. He marked those verses which he thought 
i spurious with an obelos, and those which were 
j repeated with an asterisk. He adopted the 
I division (already made) of the Iliad and Odyssey 
I into 24 books each. He did not confine himself 
to a recension of the text, but also explained 
and interpreted the poems : he opposed the 
I allegorical interpretation which was then begin- 
ning to find favour, and which at a later time 
\ became very general. His grammatical prin- 
i ciples were attacked by many of his contem- 
, poraries : the most eminent of his opponents 
was Crates of Mallus. His criticisms are 
best preserved in the Venetian Scholia (ed. 
Bachmann, 1835). These Scholia include the 
Epitome, formed from the collection which 
Didymus and other Aristarcheans made from 
the writings of their master. 

Aristeas ('Apia-Tear), of Proconnesus, an epic 
poet of whose life we have only fabulous ac- 
counts. His date is quite uncertain : some place 
him in the time of Croesus and Cyrus ; but other 
traditions make him earlier than Homer, or 
a contemporary and teacher of Homer. We 
only know that he was earlier than Herodotus. 
He seems to have been a mystic writer about 
the Hyperboreans, and was said to be a magician, 
whose soul could leave and re-enter its body 
according to its pleasure. He was connected 
with the worship of Apollo, which he was said 
to have introduced at Metapontum. He is said 
to have travelled through the countries N. and 
E. of the Euxine, and to have visited the Isse- 
dones, Arimaspae, Cimmerii, Hyperborei, and 
other mythical nations, and after his return to 
have written an epic poem in 3 books, called 
The ArismaspF.a (to 'Aptfidunre 10). This work is 
frequently mentioned by the ancients, but it is 
impossible to say who was the real author of it. 
(Hdt. iv. 18, 36; Strab. pp. (!, 39; Tzetz. ii. 721 ; 
Paus. i. 24, 6, v. 7, 9 ; Gell. ix. 4.) 

Aristeas or Aristaeus, an officer of Ptolemy 
Philadclphus (B.C. 285-247), the reputed author 
of a Greek work giving an account of the man- 
ner in which the translation of the Septuagint 



114 



ARISTOGITON 



ARISTOPHANES 



was not present at the battle in which his com- 
rades fell, either in consequence of sickness, or 
because he had been sent on an errand from 
the camp. The Spartans punished him with 
Atimia, or civil degradation. Stung with this 
treatment he met his death at Plataea in the 
following year (479), after performing the wildest 
feats of valour. (Hdt. vii. 229.) — 5. A tragic 
actor of Athens in the time of Demosthenes, 
took a prominent part in the political affairs of 
his time, and advocated peace with Macedonia. 
He was employed by the Athenians in their 
negotiations with Philip, with whom he was a 
great favourite (Dem. de Cor. p. 232, § 21 ; F.L. 
p. 344, § 12).— 6. Of Miletus, a friend and 
flatterer of Antigonus, king of Asia, who sent 
him into Greece in B.C. 315, in order to pro- 
mote his interests there (Diod. xix. 57-66). — 
7. There were many literary persons of this 
name referred to by the ancient grammarians. 
Two were natives of Nysa in Caria, both gram- 
marians, one a teacher of Pompey, and the 
other of Strabo. There was also an Aristo- 
demus of Elis, and another of Thebes, who are 
quoted as writers. 

Aristogiton ('Apiffroye'troiv). 1. The conspi- 
rator against the sons of Pisistratus. See 
Habmodius. — 2. An Athenian orator and ad- 
versary of Demosthenes, Hyperldes, and Dein- 
archus. He was often accused by Demosthenes 
and others, and defended himself in a number 
of orations which are lost. A speech of Dein- 
archus against Aristogiton is extant, and two 
which are attributed to Demosthenes, but are 
probably srjurious. 

Aristomache ('Apiaroixixr)), daughter of Hip- 
parinus of Syracuse, sister of Dion, and wife of 
the elder Dionysius, who married her and Doris 
of Locri on the same day. She afterwards 
perished with her daughter Aeete. 

Aristomachus {'ApicrrSfxaxos). 1. Son of 
Talaus and brother of Adrastus. — 2. Son of 
Cleodemus or Cleodaeus, grandson of Hyllus, 
great-grandson of Heracles, and father of Te- 
menus, Cresphontes, and Aristodemus. He fell 
in battle when he invaded Peloponnesus ; but 
his three sons were more successful and con- 
quered Peloponnesus. (Hdt. vi. 52 ; Paus. ii. 7. 
6 ; Apollod. ii. 8.) — 3. Tyrant of Argos, under 
the patronage of Antigonus Gonatas, was as- 
sassinated and succeeded by Aristippus II. 
(Plut. Arat. 25.) — i. Tyrant of Argos, succeeded 
Aristippus II. ; he resigned his power upon the 
death of Demetrius in B.C. 229, and induced 
Argos to join the Achaean League. He after- 
wards deserted the Achaeans, and again assumed 
the tyranny of Argos ; but the city having been 
taken by Antigonus Doson, Aristomachus fell 
into the hands of the Achaeans, and was by 
them put to death. It must be recollected 
in his favour that his preference of the Spartan 
leader to the Macedonian, whom Aratus called 
in, was the better policy. (Polyb. ii. 59 ; Plut. 
Arat. 25-44.) 

Aristomenes ('ApiffTOfieuns). 1. The Messe- 
nian, the hero of the second war with Sparta, 
belongs more to legend than to history. He 
was a native of Andania, and was sprung from 
the royal line of Aepytus. Tired of the yoke of 
Sparta, he began the war in B.C. 685, thirty- 
nine years after the end of the first war. Soon 
after its commencement he so distinguished 
himself by his valour that he was offered the 
throne, but refused it, and received the office of 
supreme commander. After the defeat of the 
Messenians in the third year of the war, through 
the treachery of Aristocrates, the Arcadian 



leader, Aristomenes retreated to the mountain 
fortress of Ira, and there maintained the war 
for eleven years, constantly ravaging the land 
of Laconia. In one of his incursions, however, 
the Spartans overpowered him with superior 
numbers, and carrying him with fifty of his 
comrades to Sparta, cast them into the pit 
(KedSas) where condemned criminals were 
thrown. The rest perished ; not so Aristomenes, 
the favourite of the gods ; for legends told how 
an eagle bore him up on its wings as he fell, 
and a fox guided him on the third day from the 
cavern. But having incurred the anger of the 
Twin Brothers, his country was destined to 
ruin. The city of Ira,, which he had so long 
successfully defended, fell into the hands of 
the Spartans ; Aristomenes, after performing 
prodigies of valour, was obliged to leave his 
country, which was again compelled to submit 
to the Spartans, B.C. 668. He afterwards settled 
at Ialysus in Rhodes, where he died. Dama- 
getus, king of Ialysus, had been enjoined by 
the Delphic oracle 1 to marry the daughter of 
the best of the Greeks,' and he therefore took 
to wife the daughter of Aristomenes, who ac- 
companied him to Rhodes. The Rhodians 
honoured Aristomenes as a hero, and from him 
were descended the illustrious family of the 
Diagoridae. At Leuctra his apparition was seen 
aiding the Thebans against the Spartans. (Paus. 

iv. 14-24, 32 ; Polyb. iv. 82.)— 2. An Acarna- 
nian, who governed Egypt with justice and 
wisdom during the minority of Ptolemy V. 
Epiphanes, but was put to death by Ptolemy 
in 192 (Polyb. xv. 31, xviii. 36.-3. A comic 
poet of Athens, flourished during the Pelopon- 
nesian war. 

Ariston ^Apitrruv). 1. Of Chios, a Stoic 
philosopher, and a disciple of Zeno, nourished 
about B.C. 260. Though he professed himself a 
Stoic, yet he differed from Zeno in several 
points: he more nearly approached to the 
Cynics; he despised all culture, the study of 
dialectics and physics, and valued ethical dis- 
cussion alone, holding indifference to worldly 
goods to be the aim of philosophy. — 2. A Peri- 
patetic philosopher of Iulis in the island of 
Ceos, succeeded Lycon as head of the Peri- 
patetic school, about b.c. 224. He wrote several 
philosophical works which are lost (Diog. Laert. 

v. 70; Cic. de Fin. v. 5). — 3. Of Alexandria, a 
Peripatetic philosopher and a contemporary of 
Strabo, wrote a work on the Nile (Strab. p. 690). 

Aristonautae ('Apicrrovavrai), a town in 
Achaia, the harbour of Pallene. 

Aristdnicus (?Api<n6vMos). 1. A natural 
son of Eumenes II. of Pergamus. Upon the 
death of his brother Attalus III. B.C. 133, who 
left his kingdom to the Romans, Aristonicus 
laid claim to the crown. At first he met with 
considerable success. He defeated in 131 the 
consul P. Licinius Crassus ; but in 130 he was 
defeated and taken prisoner by M. Perperna, 
was carried to Rome by M'. Aquillius in 129, 
and was there put to death. (Veil. Pat. ii. 4 ; 
Plor. ii. 20 ; Strab. p. 646.)— 2. An Alexandrine 
grammarian, a contemporary of Strabo, and 
the author of several works, most of which 
related to the Homeric poems (Strab. p. 38). 

Aristonymus ('ApicrTtcwfios), a comic poet 
and contemporary of Aristophanes and Ami- 
psias. 

Aristophanes ('ApicrTcxpavris). 1. The cele- 
brated comic poet of Athens, was born about 
B.C. 444 ; he belonged to the deme of Cydathe- 
naion. His father Philippus had possessions 
in Aegina, and may originally have come from 



ARISTOPHANES 



113 



that island, whence a question arose whether 
Aristophanes was a genuine Athenian citizen : 
his enemy Cleon brought against him more 
than one accusation to deprive him of his civic 
rights (ftvi'as ypcupcd), but without success. 
He had three sons, Philippus, Araros, and 
Nicostratus, but of his private history we know 
nothing. He probably died about B.C. 380. 
The comedies of Aristophanes are of the highest 
historical interest, containing as they do an 
admirable series of caricatures of the leading 
jnen of the day, and a contemporary commen- 
tary on the evils existing at Athens. Indeed, 
the caricature is the only feature in modern 
social life which at all resembles them. Ari- i 
stophanes wrote because he was a genius and 
-a poet; and it would be a mistake to sup- 
pose that he produced plays merely or pri- 
marily with a political purpose. At the same 
time he wrote with a patriotic feeling, and in 
many points with wisdom ; though m many 
.also he was above measure reactionary. He 
had the strongest affection for Athens, and ' 
longed to see her restored to the state in which I 
she was flourishing in the previous generation, 
and almost in his own childhood, before Peri- | 
cles became the head of the government, and 
when the age of Miltiades and Aristidea had 
but just passed away. The first great evil of 
his own time against which he inveighs, is the 
.Peloponnesian war, which he regards as the 
work of Pericles. To this fatal war, among a 
host of evils, he ascribes the influence of dem- 
.agogues like Cleon at Athens. Another great 
object of his indignation was the recently 
adopted system of education which had been 
introduced by the Sopliists, acting on the 
speculative and inquiring turn given to the 
Athenian mind by the Ionian and Eleatic 
philosophers, and the extraordinary intellectual 
development of the age following the Persian 
war. The new theories introduced by the 
Sophists threatened to overthrow the founda- 
tions of morality, by making persuasion and 
not truth the object of man in his intercourse 
with his fellows, and to substitute a universal 
scepticism for the religious creed of the people. 
The worst effects of such a system were seen in 
Alcibiades, who combined all the elements 
which Aristophanes most disliked, heading the 
war party in politics, and protecting the sophis- ! 
tical school in philosophy and also in literature. 
Of this latter school — the literary and poetical 
.Sophists — Euripides was the chief, whose works 
are full of that fier(wpoffo<pia which contrasts so 
strongly with the moral dignity of Aeschylus and 
Sophocles ; on account of which Aristophanes 
introduces him as soaring in the air to write his 
tragedies. Another feature of the times was 
the excessive love for litigation at Athens, the 
consequent importance of the dicasts, and dis- 
graceful abuse of their power; all of which 
enormities, are made by Aristophanes objects 
of continual attack. But though he saw what 
were the evils of his time, he had not wisdom 
to find a remedy for them, except the hopeless 
and undesirable one of a movement backwards. 
His first comedy was the AoiroAeis, or Ban- 
queters, which in B.C. 427 gained the second 
prize : like the Clouds, it objected to the 
modem tendency of education to produce 
quibbles of rhetoric. In 428 his Babi/loniana 
was produced in the name of Callistratus 
(Acharn. (185). The title was applied to foreign 
slaves and the chorus consisted of slaves 
branded on the forehead with an owl, as the 
property of Athens. The play was directed j 



against the arbitrary treatment of her allies 
by Athens ; and as many of them were then 
present for the spring payment of tribute, the 
offence was greater, and Callistratus was in- 
dicted by Cleon (Acharn. oil). The follow- 
ing is a list of his extant comedies, with the 
year in which they were performed. In the 
first group, those before the Sicilian expedition 
may be reckoned, which used political satire 
with no restraint : viz. in 425, Achamians. 
Produced in the name of Callistratus. First 
prize. — 424. 'Imrets, Knights or Horsemen. 
The first play produced in the name of Aristo- 
phanes himself. First prize ; second, Cratinus. 
— 423. Clouds. First prize, Cratinus ; second, 
Amipsias. — 422. Wasps. Second prize. — 
Clouds (second edition), failed in obtaining a 
prize. Some writers place this B.C. 411, and 
the whole subject is very uncertain. — 419. 
Peace. Second prize ; Eupolis first. In the 
second group there is less of political satire and 
less bitterness : viz. in 414, Birds. Second 
prize; Amipsias, first; Phrynichus, third. — 
411. Lgsistrata. — Thesmophoriazusae. Dur- 
ing the Oligarchy— 408. First Pint us— 405. 
Frogs. First prize ; Phrynichus, second ; Plato, 
third. Death of Sophocles. — 392. Ecclesiazusae. 
— 388. Second edition of the Plutus. In the 
Ecclesiazusae and the Plutus the personal 
satire has nearly disappeared, and there is 
more approach to the ^Middle Comedy : the 
Plutus may be regarded as the transition, which 
is also marked by the disappearance of the 
chorus, connected perhaps with the poverty of 
the time. — The last two comedies of Aristo- 
phanes were the Aeolosicon and Cocalus, pro- 
duced about B.C. 387 idate of the peace of 
Antalcidas) by Araros, one of his sons. They 
seem to have resembled the Middle Comedy, 
having no chorus or parabasis and more regu- 
lar plots. Suidas tells us that Aristophanes was 
the author, in all, of 54 plays. As a poet Ari- 
stophanes possessed merits of the highest order. 
His works contain exquisite snatches of lyric 
poetry ; and some of his choruses, particularly 
one in the Knights, in which the horses are 
represented as rowing triremes in an expedition 
against Corinth, are written with a spirit and 
humour unrivalled in Greek. They were in 
some points not very dissimilar to English 
ballads. He was a complete master of the 
Attic dialect, and in his hands the perfec- 
tion of that glorious language is wonderfully 
shown. The burlesque element also is freely 
admitted : animals of every kind are pressed 
into his service; frogs cliaunt choruses, a dog 
is tried fur stealing a cheese, and an iambic 
verse is composed of the grunts of a pig. — 
Editions. In the Poetae Scenici of Dindorf, 
1870; Bergk, 1872; Meineke, 1861; Holden, 
1808 : the Frogs and Wasps by Rogers, with 
a verse translation are to be recommended. 
For the whole the most useful assistance is 
Bekker's edition with notes variorum and 
Scholia. — 2. Of Byzantium, son of Apelles, and 
one of the most eminent Greek grammarians at 
Alexandria. He was pupil of Zenodotus and 
Eratosthenes, and teacher of the celebrated 
Aristarchus. He was bom about 200 B.C., 
lived in the reigns of Ptolemy II. and Ptolemy 
III., and had the supreme management of the 
library at Alexandria. Aristophanes was the 
first who introduced the use of accents in the 
Greek language. He devoted himself chiefly 
to the criticism and interpretation of the Greek 
poets, and more especially of Homer, of whose 
work he made a new and critical edition 

I 2 



lie 



AEISTOPHON 



AFIISTOTELES 



(Si6p8w<TLs). The philosophers Plato and Ari- 
stotle likewise engaged his attention, and of the 
former, as of several of the poets, he made new 
and critical editions. All we possess of his 
numerous works consists of fragments scattered 
through the Scholia on the poets, some Argu- 
menta to the plays of the tragic poets and of 
Aristophanes, and a part of his Ae'leis, which 
is printed in Boissonade's edition of Herodian's 
Partitio'nes, London, 1819, p. 283-289 ; Nauek, 
1848._ 

Aristophon {'Apicrrocpuiv). 1. Of the demus 
of Azenia ' in Attica, one of the most distin- 
guished Athenian orators about the close of the 
Peloponnesian war. The number of laws 
which he proposed may be inferred from his 
own statement, as preserved by Aeschines, that 
he was accused 75 times of having made illegal 
proposals, but that he had always come off 
victorious. In B.C. 354 he accused Iphicrates 
and Timotheus, and in the same year he came 
forward in the assembly to defend the law of 
Leptines against Demosthenes. The latter 
treats him with great respect, and reckons him 
amongst the eloquent orators (Dem. Eubul. § 
30 ; Athen. pp. 13, 38).— 2. Of the demus of Col- 
yttus, a contemporary of Demosthenes, and an 
orator of great distinction and influence. It 
was this Aristophon whom Aeschines served as 
a clerk, and in whose service he was trained 
for his public career. [Aeschines.] — 3. A 
comic poet of the Middle Comedy. — i. A painter 
of some distinction, son and pupil of Aglaophon, 
and brother of Polygnotus. 

Aristoteles ('ApicrTOTeArys), the philosopher, 
was born at Staglra, a town in Chalcidice in 
Macedonia, B.C. 384. His father, Nicomachus, 
was physician in ordinary to Amyntas II., king 
of Macedonia, and the author of several treatises 
on subjects connected with natural science : his 
mother, Phaestis (or Phaestias), was descended 
from a Chalcidian family. The studies and 
occupation of his father account for the early 
inclination manifested by Aristotle for the 
investigation of nature, an inclination which is 
perceived throughout his whole life. He lost 
his father before he had attained his 17th year,' 
and he was entrusted to the guardianship of 
one Proxenus of Atarneus in Mysia, who was 
settled in Staglra. In 367, he went to Athens 
to pursue his studies, and there became a pupil of 
Plato, who had just returned from Sicily, about 
365. Plato soon distinguished him above all { 
his other disciples. He named him the ' intellect 
of his school,' and his house, the house of the j 
' reader.' Aristotle lived at Athens for 20 years, 
till 847. During the whole of this period the J 
good understanding which subsisted between 
teacher and scholar continued, with some 
trifling exceptions, undisturbed ; for the stories 
of the disrespect and ingratitude of the latter j 
towards the former are nothing but calumnies 
invented by his enemies. During the last 10 
years of his first residence at Athens, Aristotle 
gave instruction in rhetoric, and distinguished 
himself by his opposition to Isocrates. It was 
at this time that he published his first rhetorical 
writings. Upon the death of Plato (347) Ari- 
stotle left Athens : perhaps he was offended by 
Plato having appointed Speusippus as his suc- 
cessor in the Academy. He first repaired to his 
friend Hermeias at Atarneus, where he married 
Pythias, the adoptive daughter of the prince. 
On the death of Hermeias, who was killed by 
the Persians (344), Aristotle fled from Atarneus 
to Mytilene. 1 TwcTyears afterwards (342) he 
accepted-an invitation from Philip of Macedonia, 



to undertake the instruction of his son Alex-f 
ander, then 13 years of age. Here Aristotle 
was treated with the most marked respect. His 
native city, Stagira, which had been destroyed 
by Philip, was rebuilt at his request, and Philip 
caused a gymnasium (called Nymphaeum) to be 
built there in a pleasant grove expressly for 
Aristotle and his pupils. Several of the youths 
of the Macedonian nobles were educated by 
Aristotle along with Alexander. Aristotle spent 
7 years in Macedonia ; but Alexander enjoyed 
his instruction without interruption for only 4. 
Still with such a pupil even this short period 
was sufficient for a teacher like Aristotle to- 
fulfil the highest purposes of education, and try 
create in his pupil that sense of the noble and 
great, which distinguishes Alexander from all 
those conquerors who have only swept like a. 
hurricane through the world. On Alexander's, 
accession to the throne in 335, Aristotle re- 
turned to Athens. Here he found his friend 
Xenocrates president of the Academy. He 
himself had the Lyceum, a gymnasium sacred 
to Apollo Lyceus, assigned to him by the state. 
He soon assembled round him a large number 
of distinguished scholars, to whom he delivered 
lectures on philosophy in the shady walks. 
(ircp'nraToi) which surrounded the Lyceum, 
while walking up and down (irepiiraTtiv), and 
not sitting, which was the general practice of 
the philosophers. Prom one or other of these 
circumstances the name Peripatetic is derived, 
which was afterwards given to his school. 
According to an account preserved by Gellius. 
(xx. 5) he gave two different courses of lec- 
tures every day. Those which he delivered in 
the morning (kwdwbs irep'nrcnos) to a narrower 
circle of chosen (esoteric) hearers, and which 
were called acroamatic or acroatic, embraced 
subjects connected with the more abstruse 
philosophy (theology), physics, and dialectics. 
Those which he delivered in the afternoon 
(SeiAtvbs Trep'nraTos) and intended for a more 
promiscuous circle (which accordingly he called 
exoteric), extended to rhetoric, sophistics, and 
politics. He appears to have taught not so 
much in the way of conversation, as in regular 
lectures. His school soon became the most 
celebrated at Athens, and he continued to pre- 
side over it for 13 years (335-323). During this 
time he also composed the greater part of his 
works. In these labours he was assisted by the 
truly kingly liberality of his former pupil, who 
not only presented him with 800 talents, but 
also caused large collections of natural curi- 
osities to be made for him, to which posterity 
is indebted for one of his most excellent works, 
the History of Animals. Meanwhile various- 
causes contributed to throw a cloud over the 
latter years of the philosopher's life. In the 
first place, he felt deeply the death of his wife,. 
Pythias, who left behind her a daughter of the 
same name : he lived subsequently with a 
friend of his wife's, the slave Herpyllis, who 
bore him a son, Nicomachus. Another trouble 
was the breach in his friendship with Alexander, 
caused by the affair of Callisthenes. [See Alex- 
ander ; Callisthenes.] The story that Ari- 
stotle had a share in poisoning the king is a 
fabrication of a later age ; and moreover it is 
certain that Alexander died a natural death. 
After the death of Alexander (323) Aristotle was 
looked upon with suspicion at Athens as a 
friend of Macedonia ; but as it was not easy to 
bring any political accusation against him, he 
was accused of impiety (a<re/8ei'as) by the hiero- 
phant Eurymedon. He withdrew from Athens 



AEISTOTELES 



117 




apizto. 

Lust of Aristotle. 



before his trial, and escaped in the beginning 
of 322 to Chalcis in Euboea, where he died in 
the course of the same year, in the 03rd year of 
his age, of a chronic disease of the stomach. 
His body was transported to his native city 
Stagira, and his memory was honoured there, 
lite that of a hero, by yearly festivals. He be- 
queathed to Theophrastus his well-stored 
library and the originals of his writings. Im- 
plicit reliance cannot be placed on the depre- 
ciatory picture of some later writers, that 
Aristotle was sLort and of slender make, 
with small eyes, and a lisp in his pro- 
nunciation, using L for It, and with a sort 
of sarcastic expression in his countenance 
(Diog. Lae'rt. v. 1 ; Ael. V.H. iii. 19 ; Anth. Pal. 
iii. 170). At any rate these carpings show 
that there was nothing 
to allege against the no- 
bility of character which 
may be inferred from his 
writings. He exhibited 
remarkable attention to 
external appearance, and 
bestowed much care on 
his dress and person. 
He is described as having 
been of weak health, 
which, considering the 
astonishing extent of his 
studies, shows all the 
more the energy of his 
mind. The importance 
of Aristotle's work can 
hardly be over-estimated, though his place as 
the greatest of ancient philosophers was not 
fully recognised till the middle ages. Indeed, it 
would be difficult to name a writer in any age 
who to such a degree combined thoroughness 
■and reality with comprehensiveness. For Ari- 
stotle dealt scientifically, so far as existing 
.materials could go, with all branches of know- 
ledge. He founded the science of reasoning, 
•since called Logic, as opposed to the Dialectic 
or art of discussion instituted by Socrates and 
Plato. In theoretical physics he could not 
•supply us with anything that makes for present 
knowledge, but he did supply the foundation 
upon which the greater part of the system of 
the Schoolmen, and the literature which grew 
out of it, was based. In mathematics he seems 
to have quitted the speculative methods of 
Plato and to have brought us nearer to the 
real discoveries of Archimedes. In natural his- 
tory, investigating the whole of zoology, he 
arrived, as will be seen, at broad classifications 
entirely his own, but approved by modern 
science. The same force and clearness of reason, 
and the same comprehensive grasp of his sub- 
jects, mark his works on moral philosophy, on 
political history, and on literary criticism, and 
have left their impress in much of modern 
thought and method where the debt to Aristotle 
as the originator is often forgotten. A com- 
plete list of the works written by Aristotle is 
nnattuinuble. It is remarkable that while we 
have two lists handed down, one said to be by 
the Alexandrian Hennippus (200 A.D.), the other 
by Ptolemaeus, a Peripatetic of the 2nd cen- 
tury a.d. (preserved by Arabian writers), the 
former, putting the total at 400 writings, does 
not mention important works of Aristotle which 
we now possess : it was probably a list of Ari- 
stotelian works at that time in the Alexandrian 
library. In the collection which we now have 
many, no doubt, are rightly noted by modern 
Writers as spurious : it does not, however, follow 



that they present to us nothing of Aristotle ; 
for, while in several that are rightly attributed 
to Aristotle there are insertions and alterations 
by later writers, on the other hand much that 
Aristotle did not write probably represents the 
notes of his teaching thrown into shape by his 
pupils and followers. The works by Aristotle, 
or bearing his name, may be divided into the 
following classes, according to the subjects of 
which they treat. I. Dialectics and Logic. — 
The extant logical writings are comprehended 
as a whole under the title Orga/ttOJl ("Opyavov, 
i.e. instrument of science). They are occupied 
with the investigation of the method by which 
man arrives at knowledge. An insight into the 
nature and formation of conclusions and of 
proof by means of conclusions, is the common 
aim and centre of all the separate 6 works com- 
posing the Organon : these separate works are, 
1. Kar-qyoplai, Praedicamenta, in which Ari- 
stotle treats of the (10) comprehensive generic 
ideas, under which all the attributes of things 
may be subordinated as species : that is, in 
order to get an exhaustive definition of con- 
cepts they are made to fall under one or other of 
these classes or categories, of which the 4 most 
important determine the substance of anything 
(pva-'ia or ti eoTi), the quantity (it6aov), the 
quality (tto'iov), the relation (irpbs rt). 2. Ilep! 
kpixr)veias, De Interpretatione, concerning the 
expression of thought by means of speech. 
[This is by a later writer.] 3, 4. 'AvaAvraca 
■n-pOTtpa and vtrTepa, Analytica, each in 2 
books, on the theory of conclusions : so called 
from the resolution of the conclusion into its 
fundamental component parts. 5. Tom/cd, De 
Locis, in b books, of the general points of view 
(r&iroi) from which conclusions may be drawn. 
0. Il;pl tro(pi(TT ikwv iKeyxuv I the 9th of the 
Topica), concerning the fallacies which only 
apparently prove something. The term ' logic ' 
was not applied to this science by Aristotle 
(who called it ' Analytic ' ), but by the Stoic 
school. The best edition of the Organon is by 
\Vaitz, Lips. 1H40.— II. Metaphysics, or ' the 
first philosophy,' in 14 books (toiv yuenx ret 
<pu<riKdj, originally distinct treatises, indepen- 
dent of one another, which were put together 
as one work after Aristotle's death (Books ii. 
and xi. from ch. 8 are spurious). The title also 
is of late origin, and was given to the work 
from its being placed in the collection of 
Andronicus ajter {fieraj the Physics (rot 
(pvaiKa). The subject is the origin and nature 
of existence, or, more particularly, it treats 
of (a) the relation of the individual to the 
universal, (b) form to matter, (c) the moving to 
the moved. Whereas Plato allows only ideas 
I the universal) to have real existence, Aristotle 
denies the separate and independent existence 
of the Platonic ideas. His view is that the 
formless substance of matter (i/Aj;) has merely 
the capacity for becoming something (Swifiei 
(fTTij, it attains reality (Ivipyaa or 4vTt\ix (ta ) 
when form (tISos) is communicated to it. 
From the relations of form and matter arises 
motion : the moving element is the form, which 
produces reality; the moved is the potential or 
material. The highest good being the final 
object is the ultimate source of movement and 
life in the world. [Separately edited by Bonitz 
and Schwegler.] — III. Science, including 
(a) Mathematics, on which we have two treatises 
not by Aristotle, but probably conveying his 
teaching : viz. riepl ar6fiuv ypapt/xuv, i. c. con- 
cerning indivisible lines, and M7j yaviKa irpofikii- 
ficna, Mechanical Problems; (b) Phytic!, in 



118 



ARISTOTELES 



which we have — (1) (pvffiKr] axpoaais (called 
also by others irepi apxu>v), in 8 books. In these 
Aristotle develops the general principles of 
natural science. (Cosmology.) (2) Concerning 
the Heaven (irepi ovpavov), in 4 books. (3) On 
Production and Destruction (irepl yevecreoos koX 
<p8opus, de Generatione et Gorruptione), in 2 
books, develop the general laws of production 
and destruction, (4) On Meteorology (fiereoipo- 
hoyiK&, de Meteoris), in 4 books. (5) On the 
Universe (irepl kAct/jlou, de Mundo), a letter to 
Alexander, treats the subject of the last 2 works 
in a popular tone and a rhetorical style alto- 
gether foreign to Aristotle, and is certainly not 
his work. The theories of Aristotle about the 
nature of the world, where he was left to specu- 
lation unaided by experience, have a different 
value from his treatment of natural history. 
"With the problems of creation he was not con- 
cerned, because he held matter and form to be 
eternal. His theories of the spherical earth in 
the centre, with concentric heavenly spheres 
around it, and the heaven of the fixed stars as 
the innermost, are of a purely literary value 
from their bearing on the Paradiso of Dante. 
(6) The History of Animals (-Kepi £<iaiv Itrrop'ia), 
in 9 books (the 10th being spurious), treats of all 
the peculiarities of this division of the natural 
kingdom, according to genera, classes, and 
species ; especially giving all the character- 
istics of each animal according to its external 
and internal vital functions ; according to the 
manner of its copulation, its mode of life, and 
its character. The best edition is by Schneider, 
Lips. 1811. The observations in this work are 
the triumph of ancient sagacity, and have been 
confirmed by the results of the most recent in- 
vestigations. For instance, he divides the animal 
kingdom into the vertebrate and invertebrate : 
in the former he distinguishes mammals, birds, 
reptiles and fishes, and recognises that whales 
are mammals. (7) On the Parts of Animals 
(irep! (daiv fxop'iuv), in 4 books, in which Ari- 
stotle, after describing the phaenomena in each 
species, develops the causes of these phaeno- 
mena by means of the idea to be formed of the 
purpose which is manifested in the formation 
of the animal. (8) On the Generation of 
Animals (irep\ (awu yeveffeoes), in 5 books, 
treats of the generation of animals and the 
organs of generation. (9) De Incessu Ani- 
malium [irepl £ooa>v iropeias). [irepl £coai/ 
Kiviiffeais is spurious.] (10) Three boohs on 
the Soul (irepi xj/vxys). Aristotle defines the soul 
to be that which gives real form to the bodily 
matter, and therefore movement and life. 
Man differs from other animals in having 
spirit (yovs) besides the animal soul. There 
are besides smaller treatises connected with this 
subject, on memory, sleep, dreams, &c. (11) In 
the 37 sections of Problems (irpo[)Aiifj.aTa) we 
have many remarks that are Aristotle's on 
various branches of knowledge, but buried in a 
mass of later additions. The treatises irepl 
(puT&v, irepi xp w P-aXMV, irzpl aKovffrSiv, irepi 
Baviiarriav a.Kov<rfjArwv, and the (pvffioyvoifjuKa. 
are spurious. Several anatomical works of 
Aristotle have been lost. He was the first 
person who in any especial manner advocated 
anatomical investigations, and showed the 
necessity of them for the study of the natural 
sciences. He frequently refers to investiga- 
tions of his own on the subject. — IV. Practi- 
cal Philosophy or Politics. — All that falls 
within the sphere of practical philosophy is com- 
prehended in three principal works : the Ethics, 
the Politics, and the Oeconomics. (1) The 



Nicomachean Ethics ('HBiko. Ni/fo^a%6ia), in. 
10 books. Aristotle here begins with the 
highest and most universal end of life, for the- 
individual as well as for the community in the. 
state. This is happiness (evSai/Aovla) ; and its. 
conditions are, on the one hand, perfect virtue 
exhibiting it - elf in the actor, and, on the other 
hand, corresponding bodily advantages and 
favourable external circumstances. Virtue is 
the readiness to act constantly and consciously 
according to the laws of the rational nature of 
man (optibs \6yos). The nature of virtue shows: 
itself in its appearing as the medium between two i 
extremes. In accordance with this, the several 
virtues are characterised. Editions by Grant,, 
1874; Ramsauer, 1878; By water, 1890; Notes, 
by Stewart, 1893 ; Book v. by H. Jackson, 1879. 
— (2) The Eudemean Ethics ('HdtKa EuS-fj/xeia), 
in 7 books, of which only books i. ii. iii. and vii. 
are preserved, while the remaining books iv. v. 
and vi. are a repetition of books v. vi. and vii. of 
the Nicomachean Ethics. This ethical work 
is a recension of Aristotle's lectures, edited by 
Eudemus. — (3) 'HdtKa Me7aA.11, in 2 books, a 
sketch compiled from the Nicomachean and 
Eudemean Ethics. — (4) Politics (Uo\irtKa) in 
8 books. The Ethics conduct us to the Politics. 
The connexion between the two works is so- 
close, that in the Ethics by the word v&repov 
reference is made by Aristotle to the Politics, 
and in the latter by irp6repov to the Ethics. 
The Politics show how happiness is to be> 
attained for the human community in the 
state ; for the object of the state is not merely 
the external preservation of life, but ' happy 
life, as it is attained by means of virtue ' 
(aper-q, perfect development of the whole man). 
Hence also ethics form the first and most- 
general foundation of political life, because the 
state cannot attain its highest object if mor- 
ality does not prevail among its citizens. The' 
house, the family, is the element of the state. 
Accordingly Aristotle begins with the doctrine 
of domestic economy, then proceeds to a de- 
scription of the different forms of government, 
after which he gives a delineation of the most 
important Hellenic constitutions, and then in- 
vestigates which of the constitutions is the' 
best (the ideal of the state) — an aristocracy in 
which the citizenship is enjoyed only by those 
whose position and education fits them to> 
direct the state. Hence he desires a state 
education for the citizens. Manual labour is- 
left to slaves and aliens; for he assumes 
slavery as a necessary condition. The doctrine 
concerning education, as most important in 
this best state, forms the conclusion. Editions 
by Congreve, 1874 ; Susemihl, 1879 ; New- 
man, Oxford, 1887 ; transl. by Jowett; and by 
Welldon. — (6) It was known that Aristotle had 
written wholly or in part several ■KoXlrtiai, 
i. e. particular accounts of the constitutions 
of various states (more than 100 in number, as. 
was said). Of these it was supposed that only 
fragments, collected by Neumann and by Rose, 
survived. But a papyrus was discovered in 
Egypt and was published in 1891 by the British 
Museum, containing the greater part of the 
' Adrivaiuv irokirela, a treatise of considerable 
historical value for the elucidation and con- 
firmation of several points in the constitutional 
history of Athens down to the close of the 5th 
century B. c. How far, or in what sense, this 
is to be regarded as a genuine work of Aristotle 
is still a subject of discussion. There is in- 
ternal evidence of its having been written be- 
fore the date of Aristotle's death: if not by 



ARISTOTELES 

himself, at least from notes of his teaching. 
Editio princeps by Kenyon, 1891 ; also by 
Sandys, 1892. — (7) Oeconomics (oiKouofiiKd), 
in 2 books, which are by a later writer. — V. 
Wobks of Art. To these belong the Poe- 
tics and Bhetoric. (1) The Poetics {Tlep'i 
iroi7)Ti«^j). Aristotle penetrated deeper than 
any of the ancients into the essence of the 
Hellenic art. He is the father of the aes- 
thetics of poetry, as he is the completer of 
Greek rhetoric as a science. He holds that 
' Poetry is more serious and more profound 
than History, because it deals with universal 
truth, not with that which lies in details.' The 
greatest part of the treatise contains a theory 
of Tragedy, under which head he has left us 
criticisms on particular Greek plays : he defines 
Tragedy as the imitation of some action of 
proper magnitude in fitting language, not by 
narrative, but by action, so as to effect through 
pity and terror a purgation of the passions 
(Kadapffis), i.e. sc that the excitable passions 
are ' worked out ' and the mind is left calm 
though elevated (Kadap<ris being a medical meta- 
phor). He calls Euripides the 'most tragic' 
of the Tragedians. Epic poetry, as though 
superseded in value by Tragedy, he treats 
slightly, and says little of Lyric. [Editions 
and comments by Christ, 1878 ; Bernays, 1880 ; 
Braunscheid, 1882; Wharton, 1883; Prickard, 
1891.] — (2) The Bhetoric (rexvv frvropiKr)), in 
3 books ; but the genuineness of the 3rd is doubt- 
ful. Rhetoric, as a science, according to Ari- 
stotle, stands side by side with Dialectics. That 
which makes a scientific treatment of rhetoric 
possible is the argumentation which awakens 
conviction : he therefore directs his chief atten- 
tion to the theory of oratorical argumentation. 
The second division of the work treats of 
the production of that favourable disposition 
in the hearer in consequence of which the 
orator appears to him to be worthy of credit. 
The third part treats of oratorical expression 
and arrangement. Edition by Cope and Sandys, 
1877 ; trutuL by Welldon. [The 'PrjTopiKr] 
irphs 'A\4£cwSpov is spurious.]. — VI. Poetby. 
Though several epigrams are falsely attribute 1 
to him, it is probable that the beautiful 
Scolion beginning 'Apera 7roA.iV°x" € yivei 
fiportlw, in praise of Hermeias, is his work. — 
According to a story current in antiquity Ari- 
stotle bequeathed his library and MSS. to 
Theophrastus, his successor in the Academy. 
On the deatli of Theophrastus, the libraries and 
MSS. both of Aristotle and Theophrastus are 
said to have come into the hands of his relation 
and disciple, Neleus of Scepsis. This Neleus 
sold both libraries to Ptolemy II. king of Egypt, 
for the Alexandrian library ; but he retained 
for himself, as an heirloom, the original MSS. 
of the works of these two philosophers. The 
descendants of Neleus, who were subjects of 
the king of Pergamus, knew of no other way of 
Becuring them from the search of the Attali, 
who wished to rival the Ptolemies in forming a 
large library, than concealing them in a cellar, 
where for a couple of centuries they were 
exposed to the ravages of damp and worms. 
It was not till the beginning of the century 
before the birth of Christ that a wealthy book- 
collector, the Athenian Apellicon of Teos, 
traced out these valuable relics, bought them 
from the ignorant heirs, and prepared from 
them a new edition of Aristotle's works. After 
the capture of Athens, Sulla conveyed Apelli- 
con's library to Rome, B. c. 31. Tyrannion 
made copies of them, and Andronieusof Rhodes 



ARMENIA 



119 



thence arranged an edition of Aristotle's works. 
[Apellicon.] From this story an error arose, 
which has been handed down from the age 
of Strabo to recent times. It was concluded 
from this account, that neither Aristotle nor 
Theophrastus had published their writings, 
with the exception of some exoteric works, 
which had no important bearing on their sys- 
tem ; and that it was not till 200 years later 
that they were brought to light by the above- 
mentioned Apellicon, and published to the 
philosophical world. That, however, was by 
no means the case. Aristotle, indeed, did not 
prepare a complete edition, as we call it, of his 
writings. Nay, it is certain that death over- 
took him before he could finish some of his 
works and put the finishing hand to others. 
Nevertheless it cannot be denied that the Peripa- 
tetics in this interval of 200 years were acquain- 
ted with Aristotle's writings. It has, indeed, 
been surmised that the 146 works catalogued (as 
stated above) about 200 B. c. were the lost 
Dialogues of Aristotle's earlier and Platonic 
style, which would have explained Cicero's 
description of his language as having ' a golden 
flow.' — The complete edition of Aristotle's 
works by Bekker has Scholia and a Latin 
translation. This does not include the recently 
discovered treatise on the Constitution of 
Athens. This edition has been reprinted at Ox- 
ford in 11 vols. 8vo. ; and by Tauchnitz, 1877 : 
there is a convenient edition in one volume by 
Weise, 1843 ; for editions of separate treatises 
see above. 

Axistoxenus CApicrTj£evos), of Tarentum, a 
Peripatetic philosopher and a musician, flour- 
ished about B. c. 318. He was a disciple of 
Aristotle, whom he appears to have rivalled in 
the variety of his studies. According to Suidas, 
he produced works to the number of 453 upon 
music, philosophy, history, in short every 
department of literature. We know nothing of 
his philosophical opinions, except that he held 
the soul to be a harmony of the body (Cic. 
Tusc. i. 10), a doctrine which had already been 
discussed by Plato in the Phaedo. Of his 
numerous works the only one extant is his 
Elements of Harmony {apfiovaca (TToi\(7a), in 
3 books : edited by Meibomius, in the Antiquae 
Musicae Auctores Septem, Amst. 1052. 

AristUS CApuTTos). 1. Of Salamis in Cyprus, 
wrote a history of Alexander the Great (Arrian, 
vii. 19 ; Strab. p. 682). — 2. An Academic philo- 
sopher, a contemporary and friend of Cicero, 
and teacher of M. Brutus (Cic. ad Att. v. 10 ; 
Plut. Brut. 2). 

Arius, river. [Aria.] 

Ariusia (t) 'Apiovcia x^pol, a district on the 
N. of Chios, where the best wine in the island 
was grown (Verg. Eel. v. 71 ; Plin. xiv. 73). 

Armene {'Apixiirq, or -4\vri '. Akliman), a town 
on the coast of Paphlagonia, where the 10,000 
Greeks, during their retreat, rested 5 days, 
entertained by the people of Sinope, a little to 
the W. of which Armene stood (Xen. An. vi. 1, 
15; Strab. p. 545). 

Armenia i'Apixivia : 'Apuevtos, Armenius : 
Armenia), a country of Asia, lying between 
Asia Minor and the Caspian, is a lofty table- 
land, backed by the chain of the Caucasus, 
watered by the rivers Cyrus and Araxes, con- 
taining the sources also of the Tigris and of 
the Euphrates, the latter of which divides the 
country into 2 unequal parts, which were called 
Major and Minor. 1. Armenia Major or Pro- 
pria ('A. t; ftcyd\r) or r) i'5iu>s Ka\ouu.ivn : Erze- 
roum, Kars, Van, and Erivan), was bounded 



120 



AEMENIA 



AENE 



on the NE. and N. by the Cyrus (Kur), which 
divided it from Albania and Iberia ; on the 
NW. and W. by the Moschici mountains (the 
prolongation of the chain of the Anti-Taurus), 
and the Euphrates (Frat), which divided it 
from Colchis and Armenia Minor ; and on the 
S. and SE. by the mountains called Masius, 
Niphates, and Gordiaei (the prolongation of the 
Tatvrus), and the lower course of the Abaxes, 
which divided it from Mesopotamia, Assyria, 
and Media : on the E. the country comes to a 
point at the confluence of the Cyrus and Araxes. 
It is intersected by chains of mountains, be- 
tween which run the two great rivers Abaxes, 
flowing E. into the Caspian, and the Arsanias, 
or S. branch of the Euphrates (Murad), flow- 
ing W. into the main stream (Frat) just above 
M. Masius. The E. extremity of the chain of 
mountains which separates the basins of these 
two rivers, and which is an offshoot of the 
Anti-Taurus, forms the Ararat of Scripture. In 
the S. of the country is the great lake of Van, 
Thospitis Palus, enclosed by mountain chains 
which connect Ararat with the S. range of 
mountains. — 2. Armenia Minor (A. fxacpd or 
fipaxvTepa), was bounded on the E. by the 
Euphrates, which divided it from Armenia 
Major, on the N. and NW. by the mountains 
Scodlses, Paryadres, and Anti-Taurus, dividing 
it from Pontus and Cappadocia, and on the S. 
by the Taurus dividing it from Commagene in 
N. Syria, so that it contained the country E. 
and S. of the city of Siwas (the ancient Cabira 
or Sebaste) as far as the Euphrates and the 
Taurus. The boundaries between Armenia 
Minor and Cappadocia varied at different times ; 
and indeed the whole country up to the 
Euphrates is sometimes called Cappadocia, 
and, on the other hand, the whole of Asia 
Minor E. of the Halys seems at one time to 
have been included under the name of Armenia. 
It is described by Justin (xlii. 2) as the land 
' from Cappadocia to the Caspian.' The people 
of Armenia claimed to be aboriginal. Hero- 
dotus connects them with the Phrygians ; 
Strabo, with the Thessalians (Hdt. vii. 23 ; 
Strab. p. 530). They seem to have belonged to 
the same stem as the Medes. Their language, 
though possessing some remarkable peculiari- 
ties of its own, was nearly allied to the Indo- 
Germanic family ; and their manners and reli- 
gious ideas were similar to those of the Medes 
and Persians, but with a greater tendency to 
the personification of the powers of nature, as 
in the goddess Analtis, whose worship was 
peculiar to Armenia. They had commercial 
dealings with Assyria and Phoenicia. The 
earliest Armenian traditions represent the 
country as governed by native kings, who had 
perpetually to maintain their independence 
against attacks from Assyria. They were said 
to have been conquered by Semiramis, but 
again threw off the yoke at the time of the 
Median and Babylonian revolt. Their relations 
to the Medes and Persians seem to have 
varied between successful resistance, unwilling 
subjection, and friendly alliance. A body of 
Armenians formed a part of the army which 
Xerxes led against Greece ; and they assisted 
Darius Codomannus against Alexander, and in 
this war they lost their king, and became sub- 
ject to the Macedonian empire (b.c. 328). After 
another interval of successful revolt (b.c. 317- 
274), they submitted to the Greek kings of Syria ; 
but when Antiochus the Great was defeated by 
the Romans (b.c. 190), the country again re- 
gained its independence, and it was at this 



period that it was divided into the two kingdoms 
of Armenia Major and Minor, under two dif- 
ferent dynasties, founded respectively by the 
nobles who headed the revolt, Artaxias and 
Zariadras. Ultimately, Armenia Minor was 
made a Roman province (but for no long time) 
by Trajan. M. Aurelius reduced it, but did 
not make it a province ; but later two provinces 
were formed from Armenia Minor, and under 
Justinian four, the fourth comprising a part of 
Armenia Major. 

Armenius Mons (rb 'Ap/ueutof Zpos), a branch 
of the Anti-Taurus chain in Armenia Minor. 

Arminius (the Latinised form of Hermann, 
' the chieftain '), son of Sigimer, ' the conqueror,' 
and chief of the tribe of the Cherusci, who 
inhabited the country to the north of the Hartz 
mountains, now forming the S. of Hanover and 
Brunswick. He was born in B.C. 18 ; and in his 
youth he led the warriors of his tribe as 
auxiliaries of the Roman legions in Germany, 
where he learnt the language and military dis- 
cipline of Rome, and was admitted to the free- 
dom of the city, and enrolled among the equites. 
In a.I). 9, Arminius, who was now 27 years old, 
and had succeeded his father as chief of his 
tribe, persuaded his countrymen to rise against 
the Romans, who were now masters of this 
part of Germany, which seemed destined to 
become, like Gaul, a Roman province. His 
attempt was crowned with success. Quintilius 
Varus, who was stationed in the country with 
three legions, was destroyed with almost all his 
troops [Vaeus] ; and the Romans had to relin- 
quish all their possessions beyond the Rhine. 
In 14, Arminius had to defend his country 
against Germanicus. At first he was success- 
ful ; the Romans were defeated, and Germanicus 
withdrew towards the Rhine, followed by Armi- 
nius. But having been compelled by his uncle, 
Inguiomer, against his own wishes, to attack 
the Romans in their entrenched camp, his army 
was routed, and the Romans made good their 
retreat to the Rhine. It was in the course of 
this campaign that Thusnelda, the wife of 
Arminius, fell into the hands of the Romans, 
and was reserved with the infant boy to whom 
she soon after gave birth in her captivity, to 
adorn the triumph of Germanicus at Rome. In 
16, Arminius was again called upon to resist 
Germanicus, in which campaign he rejected 
with scorn the entreaties of his brother to join 
the Romans ; he was defeated, and his country 
was probably only saved from subjection by the 
jealousy of Tiberius, who recalled Germanicus 
in the following year. At length Arminius 
aimed at absolute power, and was in consequence 
put to death by his own relations in the 37th 
year of his age, a.d. 19. (Tac. Ann. i. 55-68, ii. 9, 
16, 45, 88 ; Strab. p. 293 ; Suet. Aug. 23 ; Veil. 
Pat. ii. 118 ; Dio Cass. lvi. 18.) 

Armorica or Aremorica, the name of the 
NW. coast of Gaul from the Ligeris (Loire) to 
the Sequana (Seine), derived from the Celtic 
ar, air, ' upon,' and muir,mor, ' the sea.' The 
Armoricae civitates are enumerated by Caesar 
(B. G. vii. 75). 

Arna (Arnas, -atis : Civitella d'Arno), a town 
in Umbria near Perusia. 

Arnae ("Apvai), a town in Chalcidice in Mace- 
donia, S. of Aulon and Bromiscus. 

Arne ("Apvr)). 1. A town in Boeotia mentioned 
by Homer (II. ii. 507), supposed by Pausanias 
to be the same as Chaeronea, but placed 
by others near Acraephium on the E. of the 
lake Copais. — 2. A town in the SW. of Thessaly, 
near the modern Mataranga (Thuc. ii. 12). 



ARNISSA 



AERIANUS 



12-1 



Arnissa {"Apviaaa : Ostrova ?), a town in 
Eordaea in Macedonia. 

Arnobius, a native of Africa, lived about a.d. 
300, in the reign of Diocletian. He was at first 
a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca in Africa, but 
afterwards embraced Christianity ; and to 
remove all doubts as to the reality of his con- 
version, he wrote, while yet a catechumen, his 
celebrated work against the Pagans, in 7 books 
(Libri septem adversus Gentes), which we still 
possess. It is chiefly valuable for the informa- 
tion which it gives about Greek and Roman 
customs and ritual. — Editions. By Orelli, Lips. 
1816 ; by Reifferscheid, Vindob. 1875. 

Arnon {"Apvwv : Wad-el-Mojib), a consider- 
able river of E. Palestine, rising in the Arabian 
Desert, and flowing W. through a rocky valley 
into the Lacus Asphaltites (Dead Sea). The 
surrounding district was called Amonas ; and 
in it the Romans had a military station, called 
Castra Amonensia. 

Arnus (Arno), the chief river of Etruria, 
rises in the Apennines, flows by Pisae, and falls 
into the Tyrrhenian sea. It gave the name to 
the Tribus Arnensis, formed B.C. 387. (Strab. 
p. 222 ; Liv. xxii. 2 ; Tac. Ann. i. 79.) 

Aroa ('Aprfa or Apfrq), the ancient name of 
Patrae. 

Aromata (ri 'Apwfiara, ' Apufiarav axpov : 
Cape Guardafui), the E.-most promontory of 
Africa, at the S. extremity of the Arabian Gulf : 
also the surrounding district was called Aromata 
or Aromatophora Regio, with a town 'Apu/mrtov 
&ardptov : so named from the abundance of 
spices which the district produced. 

Arpi (Arpiinus : Arpi), an inland town in 
the Daunian Apulia, founded, according to 
tradition, by Diomedes, who called it "Apyos 
Xmrtov, from which its later name, Arggrippa 
or Argyripa and Arpi are said to have arisen 
(Ille LDicmedes] urbem Arggripam, patriae 
cognomine gentis, Verg. Aen. xi. 246). During 
the time of its independence it was a flourish- 
ing commercial town, using Salapia as its har- 
bour. It was friendly to the Romans in the 
Samnite wars, but revolted to Hannibal after 
the battle of Cannae, B.C. 216 : it was taken by 
the Romans in 313, deprived of its independence, 
and never recovered its former prosperity. 
(Strab. p. 283 ; Liv. xxii. 12, xxiv. 46.) 

Arpinum (Arpinas, -atis : Arpino), a town of 
Latium on the small river Fibrenus (Fibreno), 
originally belonging to the Volscians and after- 
wards to the Samnites, from whom the Romans 
wrested it, was a Roman municipium, and 
received the jus suffragii, or right of voting in 
the Roman comitia, B.C. 188. (Strab. p. 220 ; 
Liv. xxxviii. 36.) It was the birthplace of 
Marius and Cicero, the latter of whom was born 
in his father's villa, situated on a small island 
formed by the river Fibrenus. Cicero's brother 
Quintus had an estate S. of Arpinum, called 
Arcanum. (Sail. Jug. 67 ; Cic. Legg. ii. 1, 8, 
■ad Fam. xiii. 11.) 

Arretium or A ret. urn (Arretinus: Arezzu), 
one of the most important of the twelve cities 
of Etruria, was situated in the NE. of the 
country at the foot of the Apennines, and pos- 
sessed a fertile territory near the sources of the 
Arnus and the Tiber, producing good wine and 
corn (Liv. ix. 87, x. 87 ; Strab. pp. 222, 226.) It 
was a Roman colony and municipium after the 
2nd Punic war. It was particularly celebrated 
for its pottery, which was of red ware. The 
Cilnii, from whom Maecenas was descended, 
were a noble family of Arretium. The ruins of 
a city 2 or 3 miles to the SE. of Arczzo on a 



height called Poggiu di Sun Cornelia, or Car- 
tel Seccu, are probably the remains of the 
ancient Arretium. 

Arrhapachitis I'AppaTraxirts), a district of 
Assyria, between the rivers Lycus and Choa- 
tras. 

Arrhibaeus {'Appifidios), chieftain of the 
Macedonians of Lyncus, revolted against king 
Perdiccas in the Pelopoimesian war. It was to 
reduce him that Perdiccas sent for Brasidas 
(B.C. 424), and against him took place the un- 

I successful joint expedition, in which Perdiccas 

| deserted Brasidas, and Brasidas effected his 
bold and skilful retreat. (Thuc. ii. 99, iv. 79, 83, 

j 124 ; Strab. p. 326.) 

Arrhidaeus CAppiSaios) or Aridaeus ('Api- 
Scuos). 1. A half-brother of Alexander the 
Great, son of Philip and a female dancer, 
Philinna of Larissa, was of imbecile under- 

I standing. He was at Babylon at the time of 
Alexander's death, B.C. 323, and was elected 

' king under the name of Philip. The young 
Alexander, the infant son of Roxana, was asso- 
ciated with him in the government. In 322 
Arrhidaeus married Eurydice. On their return 
to Macedonia, Eurydice attempted to obtain the 
supreme power in opposition to Polysperchon ; 
but Arrhidaeus and Eurydice were made pri- 
soners, and put to death by order of Olympias, 
317. (Plut. Alex. 77 ; Just. xiv. 5 ; Diod. xix. 
52 ; Paus. viii. 7, 5.) — 2. One of Alexander's 
generals, obtained the province of the Helles- 
pontine Phrygia, at the division of the pro- 
vinces which was made in 321, but was deprived 
of it by Antigonus in 319 (Just. xiii. 4 ; Diod. 
xviii. 51, 72). 

Arria. 1. Wife of Caecina Paetus. When 
her husband was ordered by the emperor Clau- 
dius to put an end to his life, a.d. 42, and hesi- 
tated to do so, Arria stabbed herself, handed 
the dagger to her husband, and said, f Paetus, 
it does not pain me.' (Plin. Ep. iii. 16 ; Dio 
Cass. lx. 16 ; Mart. i. 14.)— 2. Daughter of the 
preceding, and wife of Thrasea (Tac. Ann. xvi. 
34). 

Arrianus ('Apptavos). 1. Of Xicomedia in 
Bithynia. born about a.d. 90, was a pupil and 
friend of Epictetus, and first attracted attention 
as a philosopher by publishing at Athens the 
lectures of his master. In 124 he gained the 
friendship of Hadrian during his stay in Greece, 
and received from the emperor the Roman 

I citizenship ; from this time he assumed the 
name of Flavius. In 136 he was appointed 
praefect of Cappadocia, which was invaded the 
year after by the Alani or Massagetae, whom 
he defeated. Under Antoninus Pius, in 116, 
Am an was consul ; and about 150 he withdrew 
from public life, and from this time lived in his 
native town of Xicomedia, us priest of Demeter 
and Persephone. He died at an advanced age 
in the reign of M. Aurelius. Anion was one of 
the most active and best writers of his time. 
He was a close imitator of Xenophon, both in 
the subjects of his works and in the style in 
which they were written. He regarded his 
relation to Epictetus as similar to that of 
Xenophon to Socrates ; and it was his endea- 
vour to carry out that resemblance. Witli this 
view he published (1) the philosophical lectures 
of his master tAiarpi&cu 'Ettikt^tou) in 8 books, 

, the first four of which are still extant. Edited 
in Schweighauser's Epicteteae Philosojihiae 
Munuinriita, vol. iii., Bad in Corucs' Tldptpya. 
'ZKKt)v. BiflAiofl. vol. viii. (2) An abstrac t of the 
practical philosophy of Epictetus CEyx ( 'P^' " 
'Etiktv.tou), which is still extant. This cele- 



122 



ABBIBAS 



AESACES 



brated work maintained its authority for many 
centuries, both with Christians and Pagans. 
The best editions are those of Schweighauser 
and Coraes, in the collections above referred to. 
He also published other works relating to 
Epictetus, which are now lost. His original 
works are (3) A treatise on the chase (Kwtj- 
yrtTiicds), which forms a kind of supplement to 
Xenophon's work on the same subject, and is 
printed in most editions of Xenophon's works. 

(4) The History of the Asiatic expedition of 
Alexander the Great ('Avd^acris 'A\e!-dv$pov) in 
7 books, the most important of Arrian's works. 
This great work reminds the reader of Xenophon's 
Anabasis, not only by its title, but also by the 
ease and clearness of its style. It is also of 
great value for its historical accuracy, being 
based upon the most trustworthy histories 
written by the contemporaries of Alexander, 
especially those of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, 
and of Aristobulus, the son of Aristobulus. 

(5) On India ('IvhiKii or to; 'IvSikol), which may 
be regarded as a continuation of the Anabasis, 
at the end of which it is usually printed. This 
work is written in the Ionic dialect, probably 
in imitation of Ctesias of Cnidus, whose work 
on the same subject Arrian wished to supplant 
by a more trustworthy and correct account. 
The best editions of the Anabasis are by Sin- 
tenis, Berlin, 1867; Abicht, Leipzig, 1876: of 
the Indica by Schmieder, Halle, 1798. (6) A 
description of a voyage round the coasts of the 
Euxine (Trsp'nr\ovs ttovtov Eu^eiVou), which had 
been made by Arrian himself during his govern- 
ment of Cappadocia. This Periplus has come 
down to us together with a Periplus of the Ery- 
thraean, and a Periplus of the Euxine and the 
Palus Maeotis, both of which also bear the 
name of Arrian, but they belong to a later 
period. The best editions are in Hudson's 
Geographi Minores, vol. i., and in Gail's and 
Miiller's collections of the minor Geogra- 
phers. (7) A work on Tactics (\6yos raKriKbs 
or Texvy raKTiKr,), sometimes ascribed to him, 
is now generally held to be by Aelian. — 2. A 
Roman jurisconsult, probably lived under 
Trajan, and is perhaps the same person with 
the orator Arrianus who corresponded with the 
younger Pliny. He wrote a treatise de Inter- 
dictis, of which the second book is quoted in 
the Digest. 

Arribas, Arrybas, Arymbas, or Tharrytas 

('App['/3as, 'AppvfSas, 'Apvjxfias, or Qappvras), a 
descendant of Achilles, and one of the early 
kings of the Molossians in Epirus. He is said 
to have been educated at Athens, and on his 
return to his native country to have framed for 
the Molossians a code of laws and established a 
regularconstitution. (Paus. i. 11 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 1.) 

Q. Arrius. 1. Praetor, b.c. 72, defeated 
Crixus, the leader of the runaway slaves, but 
was afterwards conquered by Spartacus. In 
71, Arrius was to have succeeded Verres as 
propraetor in Sicily, but died on his way to 
Sicily (Cic. Verr.ii. 15, iv. 20).— 2. A son of the 
preceding, was an unsuccessful candidate for the 
consulship, B.C. 59. He was an intimate friend 
of Cicero (Cic. pro Mil. 17, ad AM. ii. 5, 7.) 

Arrius Aper. [Apeb.] 

1. Arruntius. 1. Proscribed by the trium- 
virs in B.C. 43, but escaped to Sext. Pompey in 
Sicily, and was restored to the state with Pom- 
pey. He subsequently commanded the left 
wing of the fleet of Octavianus at the battle of 
Actium, 31, and was consul in 22. (App. B. C. iv. 
46; Plut. Ant. 66.)— 2. Son of the preceding, 
consul a.d. 0. Augustus declared in his last 



illness, that Arruntius was not unworthy of the 
empire, and would have boldness enough to. 
seize it, if an opportunity presented. This, 
rendered him an object of suspicion to Tiberius. 
He was charged in a.d. 37, as an accomplice in 
the crimes of Albucilla, and put an end to his. 
own life. (Tac. Ann. i. 8, 13, 76, vi. 27, 47 ; Dio- 
Cass, lviii. 27.) 

Arsa (Aziiuga), a town in Hispania Baetica. 

Arsaces ('ApcraKTjs), the name of the founder 
of the Parthian empire, which was also borne 
by all his successors, who were hence called the 
Arsacidae. — I. He was of obscure origin, of 
Scythian race, according to Strabo from the 
country of the Ochus. He and his brother 
Tiridates who had small satrapies in Bactria. 
under Antiochus II., resenting the tyranny of 
Agathocles, slew him, and driving out the 
Syrians, established for Arsaces a small Par- 
thian kingdom with the capital Hecatompylus,. 
B.C. 256. (Arrian ap. Syncellus 284 ; Strab. p. 
515 ; Appian, Syr. 65.) He induced the Par- 
tisans to revolt from the Syrian empire of the 
Seleucidae, and he became the first monarch of 
the Parthians. This event probably took place 
about B.C. 250, in the reign of Antiochus II. ; 
but the history of the revolt, as well as of the 
events which immediately followed, is stated 
very differently by different historians. Arsaces 
reigned only two years, and was succeeded by 
his brother Tiridates. — II. = Tiridates, reigned. 
37 years, B.C. 248-211, and defeated Seleucus. 
Callinicus, the successor of Antiochus II. — III. 
= Artabanus I., son of the preceding, was. 
attacked by Antiochus III. (the Great), who, 
however, was unable to subdue his country, and 
at length recognised him as king, about 210 
(Polyb. x. 27; Just. xli. 5).— IV.iPriapatius,. 
son of the preceding, reigned 15 years and left 
three sons, Phraates, Mithridates, and Artaba- 
nus. — V. = Phraates I., subdued the Mardi, and, 
though he had many sons, left the kingdom to 
his brother Mithridates. — VI. = Mithridates I. 
son of Arsaces IV., greatly enlarged the Par- 
thian empire by his conquests. He defeated 
Demetrius Nicator, king of Syria, and took him 
prisoner in 138. Mithridates treated Demetrius, 
with respect, and gave him his daughter Bho- 
dogune in marriage. Mithridates" died during 
the captivity of Demetrius, between 138 and 130 
(Just. xli. 6 ; Strab. pp. 510, 524 ; Appian, Syr. 
67). — VII. = Phraates II., son of the preceding, 
carried on war against Antiochus VII. Sidetes, 
whom Phraates defeated and slew in battle, B.C. 
128. Phraates himself was shortly after killed 
in battle by the Scythians, who had been 
invited by Antiochus to assist him against 
Phraates, but who did not arrive till after the 
fall of the former (Just, xxxviii. 10, xlii. 1). 
— VIII. =Artabanus II., youngest brother of 
Arsaces VI., and youngest son of Arsaces IV., 
fell in battle against the Thogarii or Tophari, 
apparently after a short reign. — IX. = Mithri- 
dates II., son of the preceding, prosecuted 
many wars with success, and added many 
nations to the Parthian empire, whence he 
obtained the surname of Great. It was in his 
reign that the Romans first had any official com- 
munication with Parthia. Mithridates sent an 
ambassador to Sulla, who had come into Asia 
B.C. 92, and requested alliance with the Eomans 
(Just. xlii. 2, 4 ; Plut. Sail. 5.)— X. = (Mnascires ?) 
Nothing is known of the successor of Arsaces 
IX. Even his name is uncertain. — XI. = Sana- 
troces, reigned seven years, and died about B.C. 
70. — XII. = Phraates III., son of the preceding. 
He lived at the time of the war between the 



ARSACES 



123 



as hostages his four sons, with their wives and 
children, who were carried to Rome. In a.d. 2, 
Phraates was poisoned by his wife Thermusa. 
and her son Pi.raataces (Jos. A>it. xviii. 2, 4). — 
XVI. = Phraataces, reigned only a short time, as 
he was expelled by his subjects on account of 
his crimes. The Parthian nobles then elected 



Romans and Mithridates of Pontus, by both of 
whom he was courted. He contracted an 
alliance with the Romans, but he took no part 
in the war. At a later period misunderstand- 
ings arose between Pompey and Phraates, but 
Pompey thought it more prudent to avoid a 
war with the Parthians, although Phraates had 
invaded Armenia, and Tigranes, the 
Armenian king, implored Pompey's 
assistance. Phraates was murdered 
soon afterwards by his two sons, 
Mithridates and Orodes (Dio Cass, 
xxxvi. 28, 34, xxxvii. 6, xxxix. 56 ; 
Appian, Syr. 104; Plut. Pomp. 33-39). 
—XIII. = Mithridates III., son of 
the preceding, succeeded his father 
during the Armenian war. On his 
return from Armenia, Mithridates was 
expelled from the throne, on account 
of his cruelty, ind was succeeded by This i8 a good 6pecimen o°^h°' ParThil" coins, obr.. head of king ; 

his brother Orodes. Mithridates after- rer., Parthian holding a bow. with the legend BAZ1AEOZ BAI1AEON 
wards made war upon his brother, but ^xakoy eyepfetov aikaioy EmtANOYS ♦■aeaahnos (ARTEiMmoY . 
was taken prisoner and put to death 

(Dio Cass, xxxix. 56 ; Appian, Syr. 51 ; Jos. B. J. j as king Orodes, who was of the family of the 
I. g . — XIV. = Orodes I., brother of the preceding, Arsacidae. — XVII. = Orodes II., also reigned 
was the Parthian king whose general Surenas only a short time, as he was killed by the Par- 
defeated Crassus and the Romans, B.C. 53. thians on account of his cruelty. Upon his 
[Crassus.] After the death of Crassus, Orodes death the Parthians applied to the Romans for 
gave the command of the army to his son Vonones, one of the sons of Phraates IV., who 
Pacorus, who entered Syria in 51 witli a small was accordingly granted to them (Tac. Ann. ii. 
force, but was driven back by Cassius. In 50 '1-4,1. — XVIII. = Vonones I., son of Phraates IV., 
Pacorus again crossed the Euphrates with a was also disliked by his subjects, who therefore 
much larger army, and advanced as far as invited Artabanus, king of Media, to take 
Antioch, but was defeated near Antigonea by I possession of the kingdom. Artabanus drove 
Cassius. The Parthians now remained quiet Vonones out of Parthia, who resided first in 




for some years. In 40 they crossed the Eu 
phrates again, under the command of Pacorus 
and Labienus, the son of T. Labienus. They 
overran Syria and part of Asia Minor, but were 
defeated in 39 by Ventidius Bassus, one of 
Antony's legates : Labienus was slain in the 



Armenia, next in Syria, and subsequently in 
Cilicia. He was put to death in a.d. 19, accord- 
ing to some accounts by order of Tiberius on 
account of his great wealth (Tac. Ann. ii. 1-4, 
56,68; Suet. Tib. 49).— XIX. = Artabanus III., 
obtained the Parthian kingdom soon after the 



flight, and the Parthians retired to their own J expulsion of Vonones, about a.d. 16. Artabanus 
dominions. In 38, Pacorus again invaded placed Arsaces, one of his sons, over Armenia, 
Syria, but was completely defeated and fell in and assumed a hostile attitude towards the 
the battle. This defeat was a severe blow to ! Romans. His subjects, whom he oppressed, 
the aged king Orodes, who shortly afterwards despatched an embassy to Tiberius to beg him 
surrendered the crown to his son, Phraates, to send to Partliia Phraates, one of the sons of 
during his lifetime (Dio Cass. xl. 28, xlviii. Phraates IV. Tiberius willingly complied with 
24-41, xlix. 19, 23; Just. xlii. 4; Appian, B. C. v. the request ; but Phraates upon arriving in 
65 ; Plut. Ant. 33 ; Cic. Att. v. 18, Fam. xv. 1) Syria was carried off by a disease, a.d. 35. As 
— XV. = Phraates IV., commenced his reign by soon as Tiberius heard of his death, he set up 
murdering his father, his 30 brothers, and liis Tiridates, another of the Arsacidae, as a claim- 
own son, who was grown up, that there might 1 ant to the Parthian throne : Artabanus was 
be none of the royal family whom the Parthians obliged to leave his kingdom, and to fly for 
could place upon the throne in his stead. In refuge to the Hyrcanians and Cannanians. 
consequence of his cruelty many of the Par- Hereupon Vitellius, the governor of Syria,, 
thian nobles fled to Antony (37), who invaded crossed the Euphrates, and placed Tiridates on 
Parthia in 36, but was obliged to retreat after . the throne. Artabanus was, however, recalled 
losing a great part of his army (Dio Cass. xlix. . next year (86) by his fickle subjects. He was 
23-31 ; Plut. Ant. 37-51; Strab. p. 523). A few once more expelled by his subjects, and once 



years afterwards the cruelties of Phraates pro- 
duced a rebellion against him ; he was driven 
out of the country, and Tiridates proclaimed 
king in his stead. Phraates, however, was soon 
restored by the Scythians, and Tiridates fled to 
Augustus, carrying with him the youngest son 
of Phraates iHor. Od. ii. 2, 17, cf. i. 26, 5, iii. 8, 
19). Augustus restored his son to Phraates, on 
condition of his surrendering the Roman stan 
dards and prisoners taken in the war witli 
Crassus and Antony (Dio Cass. Ii. 18, liii. 33, 



more restored (Tac. Ann. ii. 58, vi. 31-37, 41-44 ; 
Dio Cass, lviii. 26, lxix. 27 ; Jos. Ant. xviii. 5). 
He died soon after his last restoration, leaving 
two sons, Bardanes and Gotarzes. — XX. = 
Gotarzes, succeeded his father, Artabanus 
III., but was defeated by his brother Bardanes 
and retired into Hyrcauia. — XXI. Bardanes, 
brother of the preceding, was put to deatli by 
his subjects in 47, whereupon Gotarzes again 
obtained the crown. But as he ruled with 
cruelty, the Parthians secretly begged the 



liv. 8 ; Just. xlii. 5 ; Suet. Aug. 21; 1 1 or. Od. emperor Claudius to send them from Rome 
iv. 15, 6, Epiat. i. 18). They were given up in ! Meherdates, grandson of Phraates IV. Clau- 
20 ; their restoration caused universal joy ut dius complied with tlu ir request, and corn- 
Rome, and was celebrated not only by the | munded the governor of Syria to assist Meher- 
poets, but by festivals and commemorative dates, but the latter was defeated in battle, 
monuments. Phraates also sent to Augustus and takeu prisoner by Gotarzes. (Tac. Ann. xL 



124 



AESACES 



ARSINOE 



8-10, xii. 10-14. The account varies in Jos. 
Ant. xx. 3.) — XXII. = Von6nes II., succeeded 
Gotarzes about 50. His reign was short. — 
XXIII. = Vologeses I., son of Vonones II. or 
Artabanus III. Soon after his accession, he 
conquered Armenia, which he gave to his 
brother Tiridates. In 55 he gave up Armenia 
to the Romans, but in 58 he again placed his 
brother over Armenia and declared war against 
the Romans. This war terminated in favour of 
the Romans : the Parthians were repeatedly 
defeated by Domitius Corbulo, and Tiridates 
was driven out of Armenia. At length, in 62, 
peace was concluded between Vologeses and the 
Romans on condition that Nero would sur- 
render Armenia to Tiridates, provided the 
latter would come to Rome and receive it as a 
gift from the Roman emperor. Tiridates came 
to Rome in 63, where he was received with 
extraordinary splendour, and obtained from 
Nero the Armenian crown. Vologeses after- 
wards maintained friendly relations with Ves- 
pasian, and seems to have lived till the reign of 
Domitian (Tac. Ann. xiii. 5-9, xiv. 23, xv. 1-18, 
25-31 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 19-23, lxiii. 1-7, lxvi. 
11). — XXIV. = Pac6rus, succeeded his father, 
Vologeses I., and was a contemporary of 
Domitian and Trajan (Mart. ix. 39; Plin. Ep. 
x. 16). — XXV. = Chosroes or Osroes, succeeded 
his brother Pacorus during the reign of Trajan. 
His conquest of Armenia occasioned the inva- 
sion of Parthia by Trajan, who stripped it of 
many of its provinces, and made the Parthians 
for a time subject to Rome. [Teajanus.] Upon 
the death of Trajan in a.d. 117, the Parthians 
expelled Parthamaspates, whom Trajan had 
placed upon the throne, and recalled their 
former king, Chosroes. Hadrian relinquished 
the conquests of Trajan, and made the Eu- 
phrates, as before, the eastern boundary of the 
Roman empire. Chosroes died during the 
reign of Hadrian (Dio Cass, lxviii. 17-33). — 
XXVI. = Vologeses II., succeeded his father 
Chosroes, and reigned from about 122 to 149 
(Dio Cass. lxix. 15).— XXVII. = Vologeses III., 
began to reign in 149. He invaded Syria in 
162, but the generals of the emperor Verus 
drove him back into his own dominions, invaded 
Mesopotamia and Assyria, and took Seleucia 
and Ctesiphon; and Vologeses was obliged to 
purchase peace by ceding Mesopotamia to the 
Romans. From this time to the downfall of 
the Parthian empire, there is great confusion in 
the list of kings (Dio Cass. lxx. 2, lxxi. 2; 
Capitol. M. Ant. Phil. 8, 9; Ver. 6, 7; 
Eutrop. viii. 10).— XXVIII. = Vologeses IV., 
probably ascended the throne in the reign of 
Commodus. His dominions were invaded by 
Septimius Severus, who took Ctesiphon in 199. 
On the death of Vologeses IV., at the beginning 
of the reign of Caracalla, Parthia was torn 
asunder by contests for the crown between the 
sons of Vologeses (Dio Cass. lxxv. 9, lxxvii. 12 ; 
Herodian, iii. 1-10; Script. Aug. Sever. 15, 16). 
— XXIX. = Vologeses V., son of Vologeses IV., 
was attacked by Caracalla in 215, and about 
the same time was dethroned by his brother 
Artabanus (Dio Cass, lxxvii. 19). — XXX. = Arta- 
banus IV., the last king of Parthia. The war 
commenced by Caracalla against Vologeses was 
continued against Artabanus ; but Macrinus, 
the successor of Caracalla, concluded peace 
with the Parthians. In this war Artabanus 
had lost the best of his troops, and the Persians 
seized the opportunity of recovering their long- 
lost independence. They were led by Arta- 
xerxes (Ardshir), the son of Sassan, and defeated 



the Parthians in three great battles, in the last 
of which Artabanus was taken prisoner and 
killed, a.d. 226 (Dio Cass, lxxviii. 1-27, lxxx. 
3 ; Herodian, iv. 9-15; Capitol. Macrin. 8, 12; 
Syncell. p. 677). Thus ended the Parthian 
empire of the Arsacidae, after it had existed 
476 years. The Parthians were now obliged 
to submit to Artaxerxes, the founder of the 
dynasty of the Sassanidae, which continued to 
reign till a.d. 651. 

Arsacla ('ApcraKla : Ru. SE. of Teheran), 
a great city of Media, S. of the Caspiae Portae, 
originally named Rhagae ('Payai) ; rebuilt by 
Seleucus Nicator, and called Europus (Evpair6s); 
again destroyed in the Parthian wars and re- 
built by Arsaces, who named it after himself 
(Strab. pp. 514, 524). 

Arsacidae, the name of a dynasty of Par- 
thian kings. [Arsaces.] It was also the name 
of a dynasty of Armenian kings, who reigned in 
Armenia from B.C. 149 to a.d. 428. This dynasty 
was founded by Abtaxias I., who was related 
to the Parthian Arsacidae. 

Arsamosata (Aptrct/ucotraTa, also wrongly 
abbrev. 'Ap/xuxrara : Shemshat), a town and 
strong fortress in Armenia Major, between the 
Euphrates and the sources of the Tigris, near 
the most frequented pass of the Taurus (Tac. 
Ann. xv. 10; Plin. vi. 26). 

Arsairias, -ius, or -us ('Ap<ravlas, &c), the 
name of two rivers of Great Armenia. — 1. 
(Murad), the S. arm of the Euphrates. [Ar- 
menia.] — 2. (Arslan ?), a small stream rising 
near the sources of the Tigris, and flowing W. 
into the Euphrates near Melitene. 

Arsenarla, or -enn- ('Apffr/vapta : Arzaw, 
Ru.), a town in Mauretania Caesariensis, 3 
miles (Rom.) from the sea : a Roman colony 
(Plin. v. 19). 

Arsene. [Abzanene.] 

Arses, Narses, or Oarses ('Apcr^s, Ndpa-qs, 
or 'Oapcny!), youngest son of king Artaxerxes 
III. Ochus, was raised to the Persian throne 
by the eunuch Bagoas after he had poisoned 
Artaxerxes, B.C. 339, but he was murdered by 
Bagoas in the 3rd year of his reign, when he 
attempted to free himself from the bondage in 
which he was kept. After the death of Arses, 
Bagoas made Darius III. king (Diod. xvii. 5 ; 
Strab. p. 736; Arrian, An. ii. 14). 

Arsia (Arsa), a river in Istria, forming the 
boundary between Upper Italy and Illyricum, 
with a town of the same name upon it. 

Arsia Silva, a wood in Etruria celebrated for 
the battle between the Tarquins and the Romans 
(Liv. ii. 7). 

Arsinoe ('Apuw6ri). I. Mythological. 1, 
Daughter of Phegeus, and wife of Alcmaeon. 
As she disapproved of the murder of Alcmaeon, 
the sons of Phegeus put her into a chest and 
carried her to Agapenor at Tegea, where they 
accused her of having killed Alcmaeon. [Alc- 
maeon; Agenor.]— 2. Nurse of Orestes, saved 
the latter from the hands of Clytemnestra, and 
carried him to Strophius, father of Pylades 
(Pind. Pyth. xi. 18). Some accounts call her 
Laodamla. — 3. Daughter of Leucippus and 
Philodice, became by Apollo mother of Eriopis 
and Aesculapius. — II. Historical. 1. Mother 
of Ptolemy I., was a concubine of Philip, father 
of Alexander the Great, and married Lagus, 
while she was pregnant with Ptolemy. — 2. 
Daughter of Ptolemy I. and Berenice, married 
Lysimachus, king of Thrace, in B.C. 300, receiv- 
ing the cities of Heracles and Dium as her 
appanage. After the death of Lysimachus in 
281, she lived at Cassandreia in Macedonia. 



ARSINOE 



AETAPHERXES 



125 



Her half-brother, Ptolemy Ceraunus, got pos- 
session of this town through promise of mar- 
riage, but drove out Arsinoe, and slew her 
two children. Afterwards, in 279, she married 
her own brother. Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. 
Though Arsinoe bore Ptolemy no children, she 
was exceedingly beloved by him ; he gave her 
name to several cities, called a district (po/xo's) 
of Egypt Arsinoi'tes after her, and honoured 
her memory in various ways (Just. xxiv. 2 ; 
Plut. Demetr. 31 ; Paus. i. 7 ; Theocr. xv. 128 ; 




Athen. p. 497; Diet. Ant. s. v. Shyton.) — 3. 
Daughter of Lysiniachus, married Ptolemy II. 
Philadelphus soon after his accession, B.C. 285. 
In consequence of her plotting against her 
namesake [No. 2], when Ptolemy fell in love 
with her, she was banished to Coptos in Upper 
Egypt. She had by Ptolemy three children, 
Ptolemy III. Evergetes, Lysimachus, and Bere- 
nice (Polyb. xv. 25 ; Paus. I.e.). It is probable 
that she is the Arsinoe who afterwards married 
Magas, king of Cyrene (Just. xxvi. 3). — 4, Also 
called Earijdice and Cleopatra, daughter of 
Ptolemy III. Evergetes, wife of her brother 
Ptolemy TV. Philopator, and mother of Ptolemy 
V. Epiphanes. She was killed by Philammon 
by order of her husband (Polyb. v. 83, xv. 25- 
83). — 5. Daughter of Ptolemy XI. Auletes, 
escaped from Caesar, when he was besieging 
Alexandria in B.C. 47, and was recognised as 
queen by the Alexandrians. After the capture 
of Alexandria she was carried to Rome by 
Caesar, and led in triumph by him in 46. She 
was afterwards dismissed by Caesar, and re- 
turned to Alexandria; but her sister Cleopatra 
persuaded Antony to have her put to death, in 
41 (Dio Cass. xlii. 89; Caes. B. C. iii. 112; B. 
Alex. 4, 83 ; Appian, B. C. v. 9). 

Arsinoe {'Aptrivor) : 'Apmvotvs, or -o / r,rt)s), the 
name of several cities of the times of the Dia- 
doclii, each called after one or other of the 
persons in the preceding article. — 1. In Aetolia. 
[CoNOPA.] — 2. On the N. coast of Cyprus, on 
the site of the older city of Marium (Mopiov), 
whicli Ptolemy I. had destroyed (Strab. p. 683.) — 
3. A port on the W. coast of Cyprus (Strab. ib.) 
— 4. (Famagosta), on the SE. coast of Cyprus, 
between Salami* and Leneolla (Strab. p. 0H2.) — 5. 
In Cilicia, E. of Anemnrium (Strab. p. 070.) — 6. 
(Ajrroud or Suez), in the Nomos Heroiipolites 
or W. branch of the Red Sea (Gulf of Suez). 
It was afterwards called Cleopatris. — 7. (Medi- 
net-el-Faioum, Ru.), the chief city of the 
Nomos Arsinoites in the Heptanomis or Middle 
Egypt [AEOYPTL'sj ; formerly called Crociidl- 
lopoUB {KpoKoSf i\(i>v irrfAis), and the district 
Nomos Crocodilopolites, from its being the 
chief seat of the Egyptian worship of the cro- 
codile. This nomos also contained the Lake 
Moeris and the labyrinth (Strab. p. 809 ; Hdt. ii. 
4S ; IMin. v. 01). — 8. In Cyrenaica, also called 
TaUCHEIKa. — 9. On the coast of the Troglodytae 
on the western coast of the lied Sea (Strab. p. 
7(59). Its probable position is a little below the 



' parallel of Thebes. — Some other cities called 
Arsinoe are better known by other names, 
such as Ephesls in Ionia and Patara in 
Lycia. 

Arsissa or Arsese ('Apcria-aa : Aryislt), part of 
the lake Thospitis, in the S. of Armenia Major. 
; [Thospitis.] 

Artabanus CAprlfiavos). 1. Son of Hystapes 
and brother of Darius, whom he tried to dis- 
suade from the Scythian expedition, also men- 
tioned in the reign of his nephew Xerxes, as a 
wise and frank counsellor (Hdt. iv. 83, vii. 
10, 46-531. — 2. A Hyrcanian, commander of 
the body-guard of Xerxes, assassinated this 
king in B.C. 465, with the view of setting him- 
self upon the throne of Persia, but was shortly 
afterwards killed by Artaxerxes (Diod. xi. 69 ; 
Just. iii. 1).— 3. I. II. III. IV., kings of Par- 
thia. [Aksaces, III. Y1TI. XEX. XXX.] 

Artabazus CAprdfiaCos). 1. A Mede, acts a 
prominent part inXenophon's account of Cyrus 
the Elder (Xen. Cyrojj. i. 4, &c.).— 2. A dis- 
tinguished Persian, a son of Pharnaces, com- 
manded the Parti nans and Choasmians, in the 
expedition of Xerxes into Greece, B.C. 480 
(Hdt. vii. 66). He served under Mardonius 
in 479, and after the defeat of the Persians at 
Plataea, he fled with 40,000 men, and reached 
Asia in safety. Afterwards an intermediary 
between Xerxes and Pausanias (Hdt. ix. 41, 
89 ; Diod. xi. 33-44 ; Thuc. i. 129).— 3. A general 
of Artaxerxes I., fought against Inarus in 
1 Egypt, B.C. 462. — 4. A Persian general, fought 
, under Artaxerxes II. against Datames, satrap 
of Cappadocia, b.c. 362. Under Artaxerxes HI., 
Artabazus, who was then satrap of TV. Asia, 
revolted in B.C. 356, but was defeated and obliged 
to take refuge with Philip of Macedonia. He 
was afterwards pardoned by Artaxerxes, and 
returned to Persia ; and he was one of the most 
faithful adherents of Darius III. Codomannus, 
who raised him to high honours. On the death 
of Darius (380) Artabazus received from Alex- 
ander the satrapy of Bactria. One of his 
daughters, Barsine, became by Alexander the 
mother of Heracles; a second, Artocama, mar- 
ried Ptolemy son of Lagus ; and a third, Artonis, 
married Eumenes. (Diod. xvi. 22 ; Arrian, iii. 
21 ; Strab. p. 578.) 

Artabri, afterwards Arotrebae, a Celtic 
people in the NW. of Spain, near the Promon- 
tory Nerium or Celticum, also called Artabrum 
after them (C. Finisterre). (Strab. pp. 187, 147.) 

Artace CAprdKri : Artakil, a seaport town of 
the peninsula of Cyzicus, in the Propontis : also 
a mountain in the same peninsula. (Strab. 
pp. 576, 582.) 

Artachaees ('Apraxairjs), a distinguished 
Persian in the army of Xerxes, died while 
Xerxes was at Athos. The mound which the 
king raised over him is still in existence. 
(Hdt. vii. 22, 117.) 

Artacoana | 'Aprax oava, at -Kavva: SeJeh- 
van?) the ancient capital of Akia, not far from 
the site of the later capital, Alexandria. 

Artaei CApraioi), was, according to Hero- 
dotus (vi. 61), the old native name of the Per- 
sians. It signifies noble, and appears, in the 
form Apra, as the first part of a large number 
of Persian proper names. 

Artanes i'Aprdirjji). 1. A river in Thrace, 
falling into the Ister. — 2. A river in Bithynia. 

Artaphernes i 'ApTa<t>4pvr)%). 1. Son of Hys- 
taspes and brother of Darius. He was satrap 
of Sardis at the time of the Ionian revolt, B.C. 
500. See Akistaookas. — 2. Son of the former, 
I commanded, along with Datis, the Persian 



126 



AETAUNUM 



ARTAXIAS 



army of Darius, which was defeated at the 
battle of Marathon, B.C. 490. Artaphemes com- 
manded the Lydians and Mysians in the in- 
vasion of Greece by Xerxes in 480. (Hdt. vi. 
94. 116 ; Aesch. Pers. 21.) — 3. An ambassador 
from Artaxerxes to Sparta B.C. 425, intercepted 
by the Athenians (Thuc. iv. 50). 

Artaunum (Salburg near Homburg ?), a 
Roman fortress in Germany on M. Taunus, 
built by Drusus and restored by Germanicus 
(Dio Cass. liv. 33; Tac. Ann. i. 56). Others 
take it to be the modern Wiirtzburg. 

Artavasdes or Artabazes {'Apra^iQns). 
1. King of the Greater Armenia, succeeded his 
father Tigranes. In the expedition of Crassus 
against the Parthians, B.C. 54, Artavasdes was 
an ally of the Romans ; but after the defeat of 
the latter, he concluded a peace with the Par- 
thian king (Plut. Crass. 19-22). In 36 he joined 
Antony in his campaign against the Parthians, 
and persuaded him to invade Media, because 
he was at enmity with his namesake Artavasdes, 
king of Media ; but he treacherously deserted 
Antony in the middle of the campaign. Antony 
accordingly invaded Armenia in 34, contrived 
to entice Artavasdes into his camp, where he 
was immediately seized, carried him to Alex- 
andria, and led him in triumph. He remained 
in captivity till 30, when Cleopatra had him 
killed after the battle of Actium, and sent his 
head to his old enemy, Artavasdes of Media, in 
hopes of obtaining assistance from the latter 
(Dio Cass. xlix. 33-40 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 82 ; Tac. 
Ann. ii. 3 ; Plut. Ant. 37-50). This Artavasdes 
was well acquainted with Greek literature, and 
wrote tragedies, speeches, and historical works 
(Plut. Crass. 33). — 2. King of Armenia, pro- 
bably a grandson of No. 1, was placed upon the 
throne by Augustus, but was deposed by the 
Armenians (Tac. Ann. ii. 3, 4). — 3. King of 
Media Atropatene, and an enemy of Artavasdes 
I., king of Armenia. Antony invaded his 
country in 36, at the instigation of the Armenian 
king, but he was obliged to retire with great 
loss. Artavasdes afterwards concluded a peace 
with Antony, and gave his daughter Iotape in 
marriage to Alexander, the son of Antony. 
With the Roman help he was successful ; but 
when Antony recalled his troops, he was de- 
feated by Artaxias. After Actium Octavianus 
restored to him his daughter Iotape. (Dio 
Cass. xlix. 25-41, li. 16 ; Plut. Ant. 38, 52.) 

Artaxata or -ae (to. 'Aprd^ara, or -^lara : Ru. 
above Nakshivan), the later capital of Great 
Armenia, built by Artaxias, under the advice 
of Hannibal, on a peninsula, surrounded by 
the river Araxes. After being burnt by the 
Romans under Corbulo (a.d. 58), it was restored 
by Tiridates, and called Neroniana. It was 
still standing in the fourth century. (Strab. 
p. 528 ; Dio Cass, lxiii. 7 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 39, xii. 
50, xiii. 39.) 

Artaxerxes or Artoxerxes ('Apra^ep^ris or 
'Apro^ep^ws), the name of four Persian kings. 
1. Surnamed Longimanus, from the circum- 
stance of his right hand being longer than his 
left, reigned B.C. 465-425. He ascended the 
throne after his father, Xerxes I., had been 
murdered by Artabanus, and after he himself 
had put to death his brother Darius on the 
instigation of Artabanus. His reign was dis- 
turbed by several dangerous insurrections of 
the satraps. The Egyptians also revolted in 
460, under Inarus, who was supported by the 
Athenians. The first army which Artaxerxes 
sent under his brother Achaemenes was de- 
feated and Achaemenes slain. The second 



army which he sent, under Artabazus and 
Megabyzus, was more successful. Inarus was 
defeated in 456 or 455, but Amyrtaeus, another 
chief of the insurgents, maintained himself in 
the marshes of Lower Egypt. At a later period 
(449) the Athenians under Cimon sent assist- 
ance to Amyrtaeus ; and even after the death 
of Cimon, the Athenians gained two victories 
over the Persians, one by land and the other by 
sea, in the neighbourhood of Salamis in Cyprus. 
After this defeat Artaxerxes is said to have 
concluded peace with the Greeks on terms very 
advantageous to the latter. Artaxerxes was 
succeeded by his son Xerxes II. — 2. Surnamed 
Mnemon, from his good memory, succeeded 
his father, Darius II., and reigned B c 405-359. 
Cyrus, the younger brother of Artaxerxes, who 
was satrap of W. Asia, revolted against his 
brother, and, supported by Greek mercenaries, 
invaded Upper Asia. In the neighbourhood of 
Cunaxa, near Babylon, a battle was fought 
between the armies of the two brothers, in 
which Cyrus fell, B.C. 401 (Xen. Anab. i. 8-10. 
Cybus.) Tissaphernes was appointed satrap of 
W. Asia in the place of Cyrus, and was actively 
engaged in wars with the Greeks. [Thimbron ; 
Dercyllidas ; Agesieaus.] Notwithstanding 
these perpetual conflicts with the Greeks, the 
Persian empire maintained itself by the dis- 
union among the Greeks themselves, which was 
fomented and kept up by Persian money. The 
peaceof Antalcidas,inB.c. 388,gave the Persians 
even greater power and influence than they had 
possessed before. [Antalcidas.] But the em- 
pire was suffering from internal disturbances, 
and Artaxerxes had to carry on frequent wars 
with tributary princes and satraps, who en- 
deavoured to make themselves independent. 
Thus he maintained a long struggle against 
Evagoras of Cyprus, from 385 to 376 ; he also 
had to carry on war against the Cardusians, on 
the shores of the Caspian Sea; and his 
attempts to recover Egypt were unsuccessful. 
Towards the end of his reign be put to death 
his eldest son Darius, who had formed a plot 
to assassinate him. His last days were still 
further embittered by the unnatural conduct 
of his son Ochus, who caused the destruction 
of two of his brothers, in order to secure the 
succession for himself (Plut. Artax. ; Diod. 
xv. 9, 90-93 ; Just. x. 3). Artaxerxes was suc- 
ceeded by Ochus, who ascended the throne 
under the name of Artaxerxes III. — 3. Also 
called Ochus, reigned B.C. 359-338. In order 
to secure his throne, he began his reign with a 
merciless extirpation of the members of his 
family. He himself was a cowardly and reck- 
less despot; and the great advantages which 
the Persian arms gained during his reign 
were owing only to his Greek generals and 
mercenaries. These advantages consisted in 
the conquest of the revolted satrap Artabazus 
[Artabazus, No. 4], and in the reduction of 
Phoenicia, of several revolted towns in Cyprus, 
and of Egypt, 350. The reins of government 
were entirely in the hands of the eunuch 
Bagoas, and of Mentor the Rhodian. At last 
he was poisoned by Bagoas, and was succeeded 
by his youngest son, Arses. (Diod. xvi. 40-52 ; 
xvii. 5.) — 4. The founder of the dynasty of the 
Sassanedae. 

Artaxias ('Apra^las) or Artaxes ('Aprd^ris), 
the name of kings of Armenia. — 1, The founder 
of the Armenian kingdom, was one of the 
generals of Antiochus the Great, but revolted 
from him about B.C. 188, and became an inde- 
pendent sovereign. Hannibal took refuge at 



/ 



ARTAYCTES 

The court of Artaxias, and he superintended 
the building of Abtaxata, the capital of Ar- 
menia. Artaxias was conquered and taken 
prisoner by Antiochus TV. Epiphanes, about 
165. (Strab. pp. 528-53-2 ; Plut. Lucull. 31 ; Ap- 
pian, Syr. 45, 66 ; Polyb. xxvi. 6.)— 2. Son of 
Artavasdes, was made king by the Armenians 
■when his father was taken prisoner by Antony 
in 34. In 20 Augustus, at the request of the 
Armenians, sent Tiberius into Armenia, in order 
to depose Artaxias and place Tigranes on the 
throne, but Artaxias was put to death before 
Tiberius reached the country. Tiberius, how- 
ever, took the credit to himself of a successful 
expedition: whence Horace (Epist. i. 12, 2(ji 
■says, Claudi virtute Xero?iis Armenius cecidit. 
(Dio Cass. xlix. 39-44, liv. 9; Tac. Ann. ii. 3 ; 
Suet. Tib. 9.) — 3. Son of Polemon, king of 
Pontus, was proclaimed king of Armenia by 
Germanicus, in a.d. 18. He died about 35. His 
original name was Zenon, but Artaxias had 
hecome a general title of Armenian kings. (Tac. 
Ann. ii. 56, vi. 31.) 

Artayctes ('ApravKTr]i), Persian governor of 
Sestus on the Hellespont, when the town was 
taken by the Greeks in B.C. 478, met with an 
ignominious death on account of the sacrilegious 
acts which he had committed against the tomb 
of the hero Protesilaus. (Hdt. vii. 33, 78, ix. 
116, 118-120; Paus. i. 4, 5.) 

Artemidorus {'ApnitiZwpos}. 1. Surnamed 
Aristophanius, from his being a disciple of 
the celebrated grammarian Aristophanes, was 
himself a grammarian, and the author of several 
works now lost. — 2. Of Cnidns, a friend of 
Johns Caesar, was a rhetorician, and taught 
the Greek language at Home (Strab. p. 656; ■ 
Plut. Caes. Go).— -3. Daldianus, a native of ' 
Ephesus, but called Daldianus, from Daldis in 
Lydia, his mother's birthplace, to distinguish 
him from the geographer Artemidorus. He 
lived at Rome in the reigns of Antoninus Pius 
and M. Aurelius (a.d. 138-180), and wrote a 
work on the interpretation of dreams COveipo- 
KptTiKa), in 5 books, which is still extant. The 
object of the work is to prove that the future is 
revealed to man in dreams, and to clear the 
science of interpreting them from the abuses 
with which the fashion of the time had sur- 
rounded it. The style is simple and good, and 
the book is valuable as giving an account of 
myth and ritual and of contemporary thought. 
— Edition. By Reiff, Lips. 1805 ; by Hercher, 
Lips. 1864. — 4." Of Ephesus, a Greek geo- 
grapher, lived about B.C. 100. He made voyages 
round the coasts of the Mediterranean, in the 
Red Sea, and apparently even in the S. ocean. 
He also visited Iberia and Gaul. The work in 
which he gave the results of his investigations 
consisted of 11 books, of which Marcianus after- 
wards made an abridgment. The original 
work is lost ; but we possess fragments of Mar- 
cianus' abridgment, which contain the periplus 
of the Pontus Euxinus, and accounts of Bithynia 
and Paphlagonia. These fragments are printed 
in Hudson's Oeographi Minorca, vol. i.— -5. The 
son-in-law of the Stoic Musonius Rufus, himself 
a friend of Pliny the Younger, and one of the 
philosophers expelled from Rome by Domitian, 
A.D. 98 (Plin. Eji. iii. 11). 

Artemis ("Aprefus), as presented to us in 
literature, was the daughter of Zeus and Lcto, 
twin sister of Apollo, born at Ortygia (Hymn, 
ad Apoll. 15), which is taken to be Delos or 
the small island of Rheneia, close to Delos. 
Hence for most Greeks Delos is their birthplace, 
but local traditions make this claim for other 



ARTEMIS 



127 



places named Ortygia, especially at Syracuse 
and Ephesus. [See Ortygia.] Already in Ho- 
; meric times Artemis is a kind of female Apollo : 
| that is, she as a female divinity represented the 
same idea that Apollo did as a male divinity. 
Apollo represented the beauty of youths, Ar- 
I temis of maidens (Od. vi. 107, xx. 71) ; as Apollo 
was sung in the paean, so we have "Aprefxis 
6/j.via (Paus. viii. 5).- As sister of Apollo, Artemis 
is, like her brother, armed with a bow, quiver, 
] and arrows, and sends plagues and death 
among men and animals. Sudden deaths, but 
more especially those of women, are described 
as the effect of her arrows. (II. xxi. 483.) These 
deaths are oftenest painless ( II. vi. 428 ; Od. xi. 
172) ; but also as a punisliment (II. xxiv. 606 ; 
Od. v. 123 ; Niobe) ; she also heals (II. v. 447). 
Delighting in wild beasts, like the Arcadian 
Artemis [see below], she was regarded as the 
, Huntress (17. xxi. 511, xxiv. 606 ; Hymn, ad 
Dian. 101. Hence the Attic name for the 
month Elaphebolion (deer-shooting), which 
| corresponds to that elsewhere called Artemisios. 
Although not a maiden-goddess in primitive 
religions, she has, as the daughter of Leto, be- 
' fore Homer's time come to be so regarded ; and 
the epithets ayvq, wapBevos, dS/i-/;Ti7 refer to the 
| belief then prevalent, that she was never con- 
quered by love (cf. Eur. Hipp. 1301 ; Paus. vii. 
19, 2). She was also, but in post-Homeric 
literature and art (not earlier than the 5th 
century B.C.), connected with the moon, as 
Apollo with the sun, taking the place of Selene 
(even sometimes in the story of Endymion), 
and so called <Tt\atTtp6pos (Paus. i. 31), o,u</>/- 
iropos (cf. Aesch. Fr. 164 ; Soph. O. B. 207), 
'AprepLis "E.KO.TTI and "Apr. <re\rivaia (Aesch. 
Suppl.&lG; Eur. Med. 396, Phoen. 176), and 
worshipped in torch-races. [Bexdjs ; Hecate.] 
It is plain that this worship of Artemis had 
developed from a union of various religious 
observances, and it is necessary to examine the 
different local traditions and rites which have 
combined to form the Artemis described above. 
From these traditions, especially from those of 
the Arcadian and Brauronian Artemis, it will 
appear that the deity who was in historic times 
worshipped in Greece as the daughter of Leto 
and sister of Apollo, and as the virgin goddess, 
was developed in most places from a nature- 
goddess, representing and fostering the streams 
which fertilise the earth, the trees which grow 
from it, the wild animals of the wooded hills 
and their increase ; and hence also presiding 
over human birth and motherhood. But it is 
probable that we may go a step further back, 
and infer that this ancient worship itself sprang 
from something older — a worship of a goddess 
of increase and harvest under the form of the 
various animals which were each regarded either 
as the tutelar deity of tribes, or as the spirit of 
the com or of the wood, to whom human sacri- 
fice was offered. The deity, at first the animal 
itself, became in some rites the recipient of the 
animal sacrifice : in others, the protectress of 
the animal itself ; and it is not unlikely that 
the choice of different animals in different 
localities depended on the animal totem of the 
tribe or family from which the ritual sprang. 
Recently a stone figure of a bear has been 
found in the Acropolis, which may possibly 
have been an offering to Artemis Brauronin. — 
1. The Arcadian Artemis is a nature-deity of 
fountains, streams, and wooded hills: in this 
aspect a female Pan rather than a female 
Apollo. (For her connexion with streams see 
Paus. viii. 22, 5; Aretiiusa.) She is called 



128 



ARTEMIS 



Se'cmoiva Kip-vys and ■worajxia (Eur. Hip]). 230 ; 
Paus. v. 14, 4) ; she is worshipped on hills 
(Paus. iii. 20, 7, viii. 36, 5) ; she is also the 
goddess of vegetable fertility, of woods and 
trees ; even her image is hung on trees (Paus. 
viii. 13, 2), thus indicating that her worship 
was formerly that of the tree itself. This will 
explain how she was identified with the goddess 
of the ancient rites at Aricia or Nemi. [See 
Diana.] That she was thus at one time re- 
garded in many places as a goddess of harvest 
appears in the Aetolian story, where Artemis 
resents not receiving harvest-offerings (II. ix. 
530; Meleager). It is easy enough to trace 
her special character as huntress of wild ani- 
mals from this Arcadian idea of her dwelling 
in wooded hills. But from the Arcadian story 
of Callisto, who is sometimes Artemis herself, 
and yet was changed into a bear, it appears 
that a primitive worship of animals was trans- 
ferred to this goddess, who thus became their 
patroness, and in a further development the 
huntress. Animals were sacrificed to her at 
the festival of Laphria, and figures of animals 
were carried in processions to do her honour 




Artemis. (Louvre, in Paris.) 

(Paus. vii. 18, 7 ; Theocr. ii. 67 ; Diet. Ant. s.v. 
Laphria). The more ancient totemistic religion 
leaves traces also in her epithet at Tegea, 
Kva.Kea.Tis (Paus. viii. 53. 5), signifying that the 
statue of the deity was clothed in the skin of 
the sacrificed animal [see below], the more 
recent development in her Aetolian epithet 
rtfjLtpairia, which represents her as taming the 
sacred animals — wolves and deer — which are 
kept in the enclosure of her temple. (Strab. p. 
215 ; Paus. viii. 18 gives a different tradition.) — 
2. Artemis Brauronia, Artemis Orthia, and 
Artemis Taurica. These rites in Attica show 
almost more clearly the absorption of an ancient 
savage religion into that of Artemis. The 
dance of girls in imitation of bears (apicreia), 
wearing formerly the bear-skin and afterwards 
the saffron robe instead (Aristoph. Lys. 646), 
was the remnant in civilised times of the local 
religion, in which the deity herself was a bear, 
and worshipped with human sacrifices : to which 
refers the story that they were instituted because 
a bear which tore a maiden to pieces had been 
killed. Tradition therefore connected it with 
the worship of Artemis Orthia at Limnaeum in 



Laconia, at which the human sacrifices of 
older times were replaced by the blood of boys 
scourged at the altar (Paus. iii. 16, 7), and also 
with the savage rites of Artemis Tauropolos in 
the Tauric Chersonese [Iphigenia]. Legend 
clearly represents the rites in Greece as derived 
from those of the Chersonese, and so there is a 
dispute whether the wooden image at Brauron, 
or that at Limnaeum, or that at Laodicea, was 
the actual %6avov brought by Iphigenia. This 
does not prove that the rites actually came 
from the Crimea, but merely that the Greeks 
found a resemblance between the relics of 
savage ritual which they still had and the 
savage ritual which existed later in the Crimea. 
[See also Diet. Ant. s.v. Brauronia.'] — 3. Ar- 
temis Tauropolos. Although the poets, from 
the similarity of the name, connect Artemis 
Tauropolos with the bloodthirsty goddess of 
Brauron and Tauri (I. T. 1424 ff. ; Soph. Aj. 
172), there is little real likeness. The chief 
sites of this religion were Samos and Icaria 
(Hdt. iii. 46 ; Strab. p. 639 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.) ; 
the name belongs to her also at Amphipolis 
(Diod. xviii. 4 ; Liv. xliv. 44), and in some towns 
of Asia Minor. The goddess was regarded as 
presiding over the herds and receiving bloodless 
offerings, and in coins as riding upon a bull. 
Similarly at Pherae, a country of horsemen, 
she presided over horses, and called i-mroaSa 
and Eupiwirct (Pind. 01. iii. 27; Paus. viii. 14). In 
each case no doubt there had been the identifi- 
cation with the animal, and probably bloody 
sacrifices ; but the idea of protectress of animals 
only remained. — 4. Artemis Eileithyia, as the 
goddess presiding over childbirth. (Tlei- 
thyta.] Artemis and Eileithyia were regarded 
as distinct deities in earlier poets, but are con- 
fused in the Tragedians (e.g. Eur. Hipp). 166), 
and the epithets e&Aoxos, Aox'a, Xvaifavos are 
applied to her. There is no ground for attaching 
any such meaning to Homer II. xxi. 481. 
Some have thought that this function was 
assigned to her as a moon-goddess connected 
with menstruation and with the fertilising dew ; 
but it is much more probable that it was one 
of the attributes of the nature-goddess who 
favoured increase and presided over the young 
alike of animals and of human beings : whence 
she was called also KovporpScpos &c. — 5. Ar- 
temis of Ephesus shows all the characteristics 
of an Asiatic nature-goddess, whose worship the 
Ionians have found and have brought into their 
own religion. Her statue, of unknown antiquity, 
which was said to have fallen from heaven 
(SionreTes), was an uncouth and essentially un- 
Greek idol with many breasts, which symbolised 
the productive forces of nature, and differed as 
widely as possible from the Greek ideal of the 
goddess of maiden purity. Later tradition of 
course tried to account for her Ephesian wor- 
ship as though she were the Artemis of Greek 
literature, and Tacitus records a local belief 
that her birthplace, the Ortygia of the legend, 
was at Ephesus, not at Delos (Ann. iii. 61). 
The Oriental character of her temple service, 
however, still remained in the service of eunuch 
priests called /u.<=ya.Pv(oi (Strab. p. 641) , combined 
with three grades of priestesses termed Upai, 
irapiepaL, and fi*\\i4paf, there were also temple 
slaves (kp68ovAoi). The tumultuous procession 
of her idol, attended with riot and bloodshed, is 
described by Christian writers (Metaphr. Vita, 
Timoth. 769 ; Act. Sanct. 556). The original 
deity of this religion, whether connected, as 
some think, with Comana or not, presents many 
points of resemblance with the Asiatic proto- 



ARTEMIS 



ARUNS 



129 



types of Aphrodite, regarded not only as the 
goddess of fruitfulness, but also as a moon- 
goddess and as a goddess of the sea, protectress 
of sailors, and having fish among her sacred 
animals (Athen. p. 361 ; Plin. ii. 201 ; cf. Callim. 
Dian. 239 J ; and she appears to have been for 
the more northern parts of Asia Minor what 
Ashtoreth and the equivalent deities were more 
to the south. [See Aphrodite.] The supposed 
connexion of Artemis with the Amazons points 
the same way. The reason for the Greek 
colonists identifying this Oriental deity with 
Artemis may have been either because both 
were regarded as goddesses of the moon, or from 
the Arcadian idea of a deity presiding over 
natural fruitfulness and birth, and caring for 
the young, as is symbolised by the animals 
upon the lower part of her image. It is remark- 
able that Pausanias mentions a worship of 
Artemis after the Ephesian fashion at Alea in 




Artemis i Diana) of Ephems. 

Arcadia, and that Pan is said to have been 
associated with her in the Asiatic temples. 
The Ephesian cult was carried by colonist-i to 
Marseilles and Spain (Strab. pp. 159, 179). Taci- 
tus (Ann. iii. 02) mentions also the worship of an 
Art r„i is Persica at Hierocaesareia in Lydia, 
apparently akin to fire-worship ; for, according 
to Pausanias (v. 27, 3), there was a Magian 
priest who nsed barbaric prayers and invoca- 
tions, causing fire to blaze spontaneously on 
the altar. At Perga there was an oracle and 
temple of Artemis Pergaea, served by mendi- 
cant priests (Strab. p. 607 ; Cic. Verr. i. 20, 54 ; 
Suid. Phot. s.u. 'Apr. Ilfp?.). [For "Aprefus 
'laaupa see Bkitomartis ; for the Roman deity, 
Diana.] In art the most familiar type is the 
ideal of staid maiden beauty, the dress a short 
chiton ; she is represented as a huntress, with 
bow and quiver, holding a stag, as in the statue 
from Hadrian's Villa (the Versailles Diana), or 
driving a chariot drawn by deer. Another 



characteristic shows her as a light-goddess or 
moon-goddess, and one of those honoured by 
the torch-race. She bears a torch in her left 
hand, but is still distinguished by the quiver, 
though the dress is no longer that of the 
huntress. Her connexion with the moon is 
also represented by the attribute of a crescent, 
or by her appearance in a biga. As Artemis 
Tauropolos she is shown riding on a bull. The 
types of the Ephesian Artemis as shown on 
coins and statuettes have no doubt refined upon 
the original as regards the freedom of the arms 
and the character of the face, but still retain 
the multitude of breasts. 

Artemisrarn {'Aprefiiaiou), properly a temple 
of Artemis. 1. A tract of country on the N. 
coast of Euboea, opposite Magnesia, so called 
from the temple of Artemis belonging to the 
town of Hestiaea : off this coast the Greeks 
defeated the fleet of Xerxes, B.C. 480 (Hdt. 
vii. 185, viii. 8; Plut. Them. 1 ; Diod. xi. 12).— 
2. A promontory of Caria near the gulf Glaueus, 
so called from the temple of Artemis in its 
neighbourhood (Strab. p. 051) = Pedalium (Plin. 
v. 103). — 3. A mountain ridge between Argolis 
and Arcadia (Paus. ii. 25, 3, viii. 5, 6). 

Artemlta fApre/in-a). 1. (Shereban ?) a city 
on the Sillas, in the district of Apolloniatis in 
Ass}*ria (Strab. p. 519 ; Ptol. vi. 1). — 2. A city of 
Great Armenia, S. of the lake Arsissa (Ptol. v. 
13, 21). There is a village Artemid near Van. 

Artem5n {'Apre^iuv), a Lacedaemonian, built 
the military engines for Pericles in his war 
against Samos in B.C. 441 (Plut. Pericl. 27 ; 
Diod. xii. 28). Pliny (xxxiv. 50) mentions his 
statue by Polycletus. Among the writers of 
this name are : 1. Artemon of Clazomenae (Ael. 
H. A. xii. 28). — 2. Of Cassandreia, a gramma- 
rian (Athen. p. 094). — 3. Of Pergamus, who 
wrote a history of Sicily. (Frag, of all three in 
Frag. Hist. Graec. ed. C. Miiller.) — 4. Artemon 
of Magnesia, wrote a treatise on the virtues of 
women (Phot. Bibl. 103). 

M. Artorius, a physician at Rome, was the 
friend and physician of Augustus, whom he 
attended in his campaign against Brutus and 
Cassius, B.C. 42. He was drowned at sea 
shortly after the battle of Actium, 31 (Veil. 
Pat. ii. 70; Appian, B. C. iv. 110; Dio Cass, 
xlvii. 41 ; Suet. Aug. 91). 

Arverni, a Gallic people in Aquitania in 
the country of the M. Cebenna, in the modern 
Auvergne. In early times they were the most 
powerful people in the S. of Gaul : they were 
defeated by Domitius Ahenobarbus and Fabiu^ 
Maximus in B.C. 121, but still possessed con- 
siderable power in the time of Caesar (58). 
Their capital in Caesai's time was Gergoyia, 
afterwards transferred to Nemossus, also named 
Augustonemetum or Arverni on the Elaver 
(Allier), with a citadel, called, at least in the 
middle ages, Clarus Mons, whence the name of 
the modern town, Clermont (Caes. B. G. i. 45, 
vii. 7 ff. ; Strab. p. 191 ; Vercingktordc). 

Arvina, a cognomen of the Cornelia gens, 
borne by several of the Cornelii, of whom tin- 
most important was A. Cornelius Cossus Ar- 
vina, consul B.C. 848 and 322, and dictator 320. 
j He commanded the Roman armies against the 
Samnites, whom he defeated in several battles 
(Liv. vii. 19-88). 

Aruns, an Etruscan word, was regarded by 
the Romans as a proper name, but perhaps 
signified a younger son in general. 1. Younger 
brother of Lucumo, i.e. L. Tarquinius Prisons. 
— 2. Younger brother of L. Tarquinius Super- 
bus, was murdered by his wife.— 3. Younger 



130 



AEUNTIUS 



ASCLEPIUS 



son of Tarquinius Superbus, fell in combat with 
Brutus. — 4. Son of Porsena, fell in battle before 
Aricia. — 5. Of Clusium, invited the Gauls 
across the Alps (Liv. i. 34, 46, 56, ii. 14, v. 33). 

Aruntius. [Abeuntius.] 

Arusianus, Messus or Messius, a Eoman 
grammarian, lived about a.d. 395, and wrote a 
Latin phrase-book, entitled Quadriga, vel 
Exempla Elocutionum ex Virgilio, Sallustio, 
Terentio, et Cicerone per literas digesta. It 
is called Quadriga from its being composed 
from four authors, from whom he selects an 
example for each construction in his alpha- 
betical list of substantives, adjectives, prepo- 
sitions and verbs. — Edition. By Lindemann, 
in his Corpus Grammaticorum Latin, vol. i. 
p. 199._ 

Arxata ('Ap^dra: Nakshivan), the capita of 
Great Armenia, before the building of Artaxata, 
lay lower down upon the Araxes, on the con- 
fines of Media (Strab. p. 529). 

Aryandes ('ApvdvStis), a Persian, who was 
appointed by Oambyses governor of Egypt, but 
was put to death by Darius, because he coined 
silver money of the purest metal, in imitation 
of the gold money of that monarch (Hdt. iv. 
165, 200). 

Arycanda ('Apu/favSa), a small town of Lycia, 
on the river Arycandus, a tributary of the 
Limyrus (Stephan. s.v. ; Plin. v. 100). 

Arzanene ('Ap(aur)u^), a district of Armenia 
Major, bounded on the S. by the Tigris, on the 
W. by the Nymphius, and containing in it the 
lake Arsene ('ApoTjW) : Erzen). It formed part 

of GOEDYENE. 

Arzen or -es, or Atranutzin ('Aptfv, "ApCes, 
'ArpdvovT&v '• Erzeroum), a strong fortress in 
Great Armenia, near the sources of the Euphra- 
tes and the Araxes, founded in the 5th century. 

Asaei ('Aaaiot), a people of Sarmatia Asia- 
tica, near the mouth of the Tanai's (Don) 
(Ptol. v. 9). 

Asander CAiravSpos). 1. Son of Philotas, 
brother of Parmenion, and one of the generals 
of Alexander the Great ; appointed governor of 
Lydia, B.C. 334 ; sent to bring reinforcements 
from Europe, 331. After the death of Alex- 
ander in 323 he obtained Caria for his satrapy, 
and took an active part in the wars which 
followed. He joined Ptolemy and Cassander 
in their league against Antigonus, but was 
defeated by Antigonus in 313 (Arrian, Anab. i. 
18, iv. 7; Just. xiii. 4; Diod. xix. 62-75).— 
2. A general of Pharnaces II., king of Bosporus. 
He put Pharnaces to death in 47, after the 
defeat of the latter by Julius Caesar, in hopes 
of obtaining the kingdom. But Caesar con- 
ferred the kingdom upon Mithridates of Per- 
gamum, with whom Asander carried on war. 
Augustus afterwards confirmed Asander in the 
sovereignty (Dio Cass. xlii. 46, liv. 24 ; Appian, 
Bell. Mithr. 120 ; Bell. Alex. 78). 

Asbystae ('Aff^varai), a Libyan people, in 
the N. of Cyrenaica. Their country was called 
Ait/Suo-t/s (Hdt. iv. 170; Ptol. iv. 4). 

Asca ("Atma), a city of Arabia Felix. 

Ascalabus, son of Misme. When Demeter 
came to this part of Attica, Misme gave her a 
jar of water, which the goddess drained. Asca- 
labus mocked at her greediness, whereupon 
the goddess changed him to a lizard (Ov. Met. 
v. 446 ; Nicand. Ther. 484, and ap. Anton. 
Lib. 24). The same story is told of Abas, son 
of Metaneira. [Abas, No. 1.] 

Ascalaphus ('AoTcaAatpor). 1. Son of Ares 
and Astyoche, led, with his brother Ialmenus, 
the Minyans of Orchomenos against Troy, and 



was slain by Dei'phobus (II. ii. 511, xiii. 518, 
xv. 110; Paus. ix. 37, 7).— 2. Son of Acheron 
and Gorgyra or Orphne. "When Persephone 
was in the lower world, and Pluto gave her 
permission to return to the upper, provided she 
had not eaten anything, Ascalaphus declared 
that she had eaten part of a pomegranate. 
Demeter punished him by burying him under 
a huge stone, and when this stone was sub- 
sequently removed by Heracles, Persephone 
changed him into an owl (dcvcctAacpos), by sprink- 
ling him with water from the river Phlegethon 
(Ov. Met. v. 539 ; Apollod. i. 5, 3). 

Ascalon ('AavcaAcue : 'AffKahajve'nris '. AsJca- 
lan), one of the chief cities of the Philistines, on 
the coast of Palestine, between Azotus and Gaza. 

Ascania (r/ 'AaKav'ia Xifivrj). 1. (Lake of 
Iznik), in Bithynia, a great fresh-water lake, 
at the E. end of which stood the city of Nicaea 
(Iznik). The surrounding district was also 
called Ascania (Strab. p. 565). — 2. (Lake of Bul- 
dur), a salt-water lake on the borders of Phrygia 
and Pisidia, the boundary between Pisidia and 
the Roman province of Asia (Strab. p. 565; 
II. ii. 862). 

Ascanius ('Aovcapios), son of Aeneas by 
Creusa. According to some traditions, Ascanius 
remained in Asia after the fall of Troy, and 
reigned either at Troy itself or at some other 
town in the neighbourhood. According to 
other accounts he accompanied bis father to 
Italy. Other traditions again gave the name 
of Ascanius to the son of Aeneas and Lavinia. 
Livy states that on the death of his father 
Ascanius was too young to undertake the 
government, and that after he had attained the 
age of manhood, he left Lavinium in the hands 
of his mother, and migrated to Alba Longa. 
Here he was succeeded by his son Silvius. 
Some writers relate that Ascanius was also 
called Ilus or Julus. The gens Julia at Borne 
traced its origin from Julus or Ascanius. [For 
the variations of the story and for fuller details, 
see Aeneas.] 

Asciburgium (Asbicrg near Mors), an an- 
cient place on the left bank of the Bhine, 
founded, according to fable, by Ulysses (Tac. 
Hist. iv. 33, Germ. 3). 

Asclepladae, the reputed descendants of 
Asclepius. [Asclepius.] 

Asclepiades ('AffKArjindSris). 1. A lyric poet 
of Samos early in the 2nd century B.C. who is 
said to have invented the metre called after 
him (Metrum Asclepiadeum). (Epigrams in 
Anth. Pal.). — 2. There were a great many 
physicians who assumed this name as a sort of 
professional title, the most celebrated of whom 
was a native of Prusias, in Bithynia, who came 
to Rome in the middle of the first century B.C., 
where he acquired a great reputation (Plin. vii. 
124, xxiii. 38, xxvi. 12). Nothing remains of his 
writings but a few fragments published by Gum- 
pert, Asclepiadis Bithyni Fragmenta, Vinar. 
1794. 

Asclepidddrus ('AaicArimSSupos). 1. A general 
of Alexander the Great, afterwards made 
satrap of Persia by Antigonus, B.C. 317 (Arrian, 
Anab. iv. 13 ; Diod. xix. 48). — 2. An Athenian 
painter, a contemporary of Apelles (Plin. xxxv. 
107). 

Asclepius ('AtTKXrjmSs), called Aesculapius 

by the Romans, the god of the medical art : at 
first in all probability the deity of a Thessaliaii 
oracle. The name is connected by some modern 
scholars with d<ncaAa/3oy (which is taken to have 
meant a serpent as well as a lizard), by others 
with &Kko>. In the Homeric poems he is not a 




ASCLEPIUS 
deity, but simply the ' blameless physician ' 
(itjttjp bfiv/iwv), whose sons, Machaon and Po- 
dallrius, were the physicians in the Greek army, 
and ruled over Tricca, Ithome, and Oechalia. 
The common story of later poets relates that he | 
was the son of Apollo and Coronis, the daughter 
of Phlegyas, and that when Coronis was with 
child by Apollo, she became enamoured of j 
Ischys, an Arcadian. Apollo, informed of this 
by a raven, which he had set to watch her, 
Or, according to Pin- 
dar, by his own pro- 
phetic powers, sent 
his sister Artemis to 
kill Coronis. Arte- j 
mis accordingly de- 
stroyed Coronis in 
her own house at : 
Lacerla in Thessaly, 
on the shore of lake 
Baebia. According to 
Ovid (Met. ii. 6051. it 
was Apollo himself 
who killed Coronis 
and Ischys. When 
the body of Coronis 
was to be burnt, 
either Apollo or Her- 
mes saved the child 
Asclepius from the 
flames, and carried 
him to Chiron, who 
instructed the boy in 
the art of healing 
and in hunting. In 
this account the He- 
siodic poem Eoeae 
and Pindar (Pyth. 
iii.) mainly agree, 
except that Pindar gives greater credit to 
Apollo than the earlier writer has given. 
The legend is continued by Pindar that he 
not only cured all the sick, but called the dead 
to life again. But while he was restoring 
Glaucus (or according to Verg. Aen. vii. 761, 
Hippolytus) to life, Zeus killed him with a flash 
of lightning, as he feared lest men might con- 
trive to escape death altogether. He was 
married to Epione, and besides the two sons 
spoken of by Homer, we also find mention of 
the following children of his : Telesphorus, 
Ianiscus, Alexenor, Aratus, Hygieia, Aegle, 
Iaso, and Panaceia, most of whom are only 
personifications of the powers ascribed to their 
father. The fact is that the traditions are 
modified according to the place to which they 
belong. Thessaly and then Boeotia appear to 
have been the earliest seats of his worship. 
Hence the descent of Asclepius from Phlegyas. 
But, as the worship passed into the Pelopon- 
nesus, we find Phlegyas a native of Epidaurus, 
with 11 daughter Aegle (or Coronis), who bears 
Asclepius, the god of healing, to Apollo, but 
without mention of any catastrophe. (Inser. of 
a poem by Isyllus of Epidaurus. 'K<pi}n. 'Ap\- 
lft85. i Similarly we find an Arcadian story 
which makes him the son of Arsinoe and Arsip- 
pos, and a Messenian story which makeH him 
the son of Arsinoe and Apollo (see Pausan. ii. 
26; Cic. Nat. De. iii. 22, 57). O. Midler and 
later writers are probably right in the conclu- 
sion that Asclepius, the deity of the Phlegyae, 
was once the rival of Apollo, and that the 
idea of his sonship to Apollo was introduced 
to reconcile the two cults when the Apollo 
worship predominated. We may go a step 
further back and recognise in Asclepius the 



ASCONIUS 



131 



Asclepius. (Statue at Florence. I 



survivor of a serpent worship which preceded 
the Creek theology in that country, and was 
perhaps even then connected with an oracle. 
It is true that the poets from Homer onwards 
represent him as a hero who dies, and that in 
very late writers we find him among the 
Argonauts and in the Calydonian hunt ; but 
the fact remains that in his temples he was 
worshipped as a god. Thraemer has noticed 
that out of 320 places where his cult was pre- 
served, only four cities show traces of a he/o 
worship : from three of these we have the some- 
what dubious mention of his tomb, the fourth 
is Athens, where tjpwa are mentioned in the 
Asclepieion ; but this may well refer to a hero 
worship of some of the Asclepiadae. The chief 
temples of Asclepius were at Trieca, Tithorea, 
Athens, Pergamus, Colophon, and above all, 
Epidaurus. from which place the worship of 
Asclepius was introduced into Rome to avert a 
pestilence B.C. 293 (Liv. x. 47). In the recently 
discovered Mimes of Herodas ( No. i) there is a 
description of his temple, probably at Cos (cf. 
Strab. p. 657), and of the offerings made. The 
rites for these temples consisted in lustral bath- 
ings of the worshippers, and in offerings of sacri- 
fices, more especially of cakes, and of libations : 
among the sacrifices is to be noticed that of a 
cock iPlat. Phaed. ad fin. ; Herodas. 4, 18), the 
reason for which is uncertain : some have sug- 
gested that the cock is the herald of the dawn (of 
a new life) : those who regard Asclepius as repre- 
senting the winds cite Pausan. ii. 34, 2, where a 
cock is the sacrifice to avert wind hurtful to the 
vines. The essential part of his temple worship 
was the sleeping in the temple itself (incubaMo : 
see Arist. Pint, ill ff.), where an oracle through 
a dream revealed to the patient the method of 
cure. That such dream apparitions could easily 
be contrived by the priests is obvious, and there 
is no doubt that the remedies were such as the 
priests believed, rightly or wrongly, would be 
beneficial. The cure, real or supposed, was 
commemorated by an ex voto tablet. Hence 
these temples supplied the place of public 
hospitals (see Diet, of Antiq. s. v. Yaletudi- 
tuiria). The supposed descendants of the god 
were called the Asclepiadae, to whom Hippo- 
crates belonged ; in them was by inheritance 
the knowledge of medicine, and from them in 
great part, though not exclusively, were taken 
the priests of the a<r/cA.7)iriua. In art the god is 




Aftclcplus and a Sick Man. 
(MUlln. Qal. Myth., tav. 82. No. 10J.I 

represented (except in later Roman art) as a 
bearded man with a head something like that 
of Zeus ; the distinctive attribute is a staff with 
a serpent twisted round it : he often stands by 
the Omphalos (as in the Florentine statue) ; 
with him we find, on coins and reliefs, his 
daughter Hygieia and the boy Telesphorus. 

Q. Asconius Pedianus. a Roman grammarian, 
born at Patavium (Padua), about B.C. 9, lost 
his sight in his 73rd year in the reign of Yespa- 

K 2 



120 



AKMENIA 



ARNE 



on the NE. and N. by the Cyrus (Kur), which 
divided it from Albania and Iberia; on the 
NW. and W. by the Moschici mountains (the 
prolongation of the chain of the Anti-Taurus), 
and the Euphrates (Frat), which divided it 
from Colchis and Armenia Minor ; and on the 
S. and SE. by the mountains called Masius, 
Niphates, and Gordiaei (the prolongation of the 
Taurus), and the lower course of the Araxes, 
which divided it from Mesopotamia, Assyria, 
and Media : on the E. the country comes to a 
point at the confluence of the Cyrus and Araxes. 
It is intersected by chains of mountains, be- 
tween which run the two great rivers Abaxes, 
flowing E. into the Caspian, and the Arsanias, 
or S. branch of the Euphrates (Murdd), flow- 
ing W. into the main stream (Frat) just above 
M. Masius. The E. extremity of the chain of 
mountains which separates the basins of these 
two rivers, and which is an offshoot of the 
Anti-Taurus, forms the Ararat of Scripture. In 
the S. of the country is the great lake of Van, 
Thospitis Palus, enclosed by mountain chains 
which connect Ararat with the S. range of 
mountains. — 2. Armenia Minor ('A. fxiKpa. or 
fipaxvTepa), was bounded on the E. by the 
Euphrates, which divided it from Armenia 
Major, on the N. and NW. by the mountains 
Scodlses, Paryadres, and Anti-Taurus, dividing 
it from Pontus and Cappadocia, and on the S. 
by the Taurus dividing it from Commagene in 
N. Syria, so that it contained the country E. 
and S. of the city of Skvas (the ancient Cabira 
or Sebaste) as far as the Euphrates and the 
Taurus. The boundaries between Armenia 
Minor and Cappadocia varied at different times ; 
and indeed the whole country up to the 
Euphrates is sometimes called Cappadocia, 
and, on the other hand, the whole of Asia 
Minor E. of the Halys seems at one time to 
have been included under the name of Armenia. 
It is described by Justin (xlii. 2) as the land 
' from Cappadocia to the Caspian.' The people 
of Armenia claimed to be aboriginal. Hero- 
dotus connects them with the Phrygians ; 
Strabo, with the Thessalians (Hdt. vii. 23 ; 
Strab. p. 530). They seem to have belonged to 
the same stem as the Medes. Their language, 
though possessing some remarkable peculiari- 
ties of its own, was nearly allied to the Indo- 
Germanic family ; and their manners and reli- 
gious ideas were similar to those of the Medes 
and Persians, but with a greater tendency to 
the personification of the powers of nature, as 
in the goddess Analtis, whose worship was 
peculiar to Armenia. They had commercial 
dealings with Assyria and Phoenicia. The 
earliest Armenian traditions represent the 
country as governed by native kings, who had 
perpetually to maintain their independence 
against attacks from Assyria. They were said 
to have been conquered by Semiramis, but 
again threw off the yoke at the time of the 
Median and Babylonian revolt. Their relations 
to the Medes and Persians seem to have 
varied between successful resistance, unwilling 
subjection, and friendly alliance. A body of 
Armenians formed a part of the army which 
Xerxes led against Greece ; and they assisted 
Darius Codomannus against Alexander, and in 
this war they lost their king, and became sub- 
ject to the Macedonian empire (b.c. 328). After 
another interval of successful revolt (b.c. 317- 
274), they submitted to the Greek kings of Syria ; 
but when Antiochus the Great was defeated by 
the Romans (b.c. 190), the country again re- 
gained its independence, and it was at this 



period that it was divided into the two kingdoms 
of Armenia Major and Minor, under two dif- 
ferent dynasties, founded respectively by the 
nobles who headed the revolt, Artaxias and 
Zariadras. Ultimately, Armenia Minor was 
made a Roman province (but for no long time) 
by Trajan. M. Aurelius reduced it, but did 
not make it a province ; but later two provinces 
were formed from Armenia Minor, and under 
Justinian four, the fourth comprising a part of 
Armenia Major. 

Armenlus Mons (rh 'kppiviov Zpos), a branch 
of the Anti-Taurus chain in Armenia Minor. 

Arminius (the Latinised form of Hermann, 
' the chieftain '), son of Sigimer, ' the conqueror,' 
and chief of the tribe of the Cherusci, who 
inhabited the country to the north of the Hartz 
mountains, now forming the S. of Hanover and 
Brunswick. He was born in B.C. 18 ; and in his 
youth he led the warriors of his tribe as 
auxiliaries of the Roman legions in Germany, 
where he learnt the language and military dis- 
cipline of Rome, and was admitted to the free- 
dom of the city, and enrolled among the equites. 
In a.d. 9, Arminius, who was now 27 years old, 
and had succeeded his father as chief of his 
tribe, persuaded his countrymen to rise against 
the Romans, who were now masters of this 
part of Germany, which seemed destined to 
become, like Gaul, a Roman province. His 
attempt was crowned with success. Quintilius 
Varus, who was stationed in the country with 
three legions, was destroyed with almost all his 
troops [Varus] ; and the Romans had to relin- 
quish all their possessions beyond the Rhine. 
In 14, Arminius had to defend his country 
against Germanicus. At first he was success- 
ful ; the Romans were defeated, and Germanicus 
withdrew towards the Rhine, followed by Armi- 
nius. But having been compelled by his uncle, 
Inguiomer, against his own wishes, to attack 
the Romans in their entrenched camp, his army 
was routed, and the Romans made good their 
retreat to the Rhine. It was in the course of 
this campaign that Thusnelda, the wife of 
Arminius, fell into the hands of the Romans, 
and was reserved with the infant boy to whom 
she soon after gave birth in her captivity, to 
adorn the triumph of Germanicus at Rome. In 
16, Arminius was again called upon to resist 
Germanicus, in which campaign he rejected 
with scorn the entreaties of his brother to join 
the Romans ; he was defeated, and his country 
was probably only saved from subjection by the 
jealousy of Tiberius, who recalled Germanicus 
in the following year. At length Arminius 
aimed at absolute power, and was in consequence 
put to death by his own relations in the 37th 
year of his age, a.d. 19. (Tac. Ann. i. 55-68, ii. 9, 
16, 45, 88 ; Strab. p. 293 ; Suet. Aug. 23 ; Veil. 
Pat. ii. 118 ; Dio Cass. lvi. 18.) 

Armorlca or Aremorica, the name of the 
NW. coast of Gaul from the Ligeris (Loire) to 
the Sequana (Seine), derived from the Celtic 
ar, air, ' upon,' and muir, mor, ' the sea.' The 
Armoricae ciuitates are enumerated by Caesar 
(B. G. vii. 75). 

Arna (Arnas, -atis : Civitella d'Arno), a town 
in Umbria near Perusia. 

Arnae ("Apuai), a town in Chalcidice in Mace- 
donia, S. of Aulon and Bromiscus. 

Ame("Ape7j). 1. A town in Boeotia mentioned 
by Homer (II. ii. 507), supposed by Pausanias 
to be the same as Chaeronea, but placed 
by others near Acraephium on the E. of the 
lake Copais. — 2, A town in the SW. of Thessaly, 
near the modern Mataranga (Thuc. ii. 12). 



AEXISSA 



ABBLiXUS 



12i 



Amissa ("Apvi<raa : Ostrova ?), a town in 
Eordaea in Macedonia. 

Arnobius, a native of Africa, lived about a.d. 
300, in the reign of Diocletian. He was at first 
a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca in Africa, but 
afterwards embraced Christianity ; and to 
remove all doubts as to the reality of his con- 
version, he wrote, while yet a catechumen, his 
celebrated work against the Pagans, in 7 books 
(Libri sejptem adversus Gentes), which we still 
possess. It is chiefly valuable for the informa- 
tion which it gives about Greek and Eoman 
customs and ritual. — Editions. By Orelli, Lips. 
1816 ; by Eeifferscheid, Vindob. 1875. 

Arnon ("Apvuv : Wad-el-Mojib), a consider- 
able river of E. Palestine, rising in the Arabian 
Desert, and flowing W. through a rocky valley 
into the Lacus Asphaltites (Dead Sea). The 
surrounding district was called Arnonas ; and 
in it the Eomans had a military station, called 
Castra Arnonensia. 

Arnus (Arno), the chief river of Etruria, 
rises in the Apennines, flows by Pisae, and falls 
into the Tyrrhenian sea. It gave the name to 
the Tribus Arnensis, formed B.C. 387. (Strab. 
p. 222 ; Liv. xxii. 2 ; Tac. Ann. i. 79.) 

Aroa ('Ap6a or 'AporjJ, the ancient name of 
Patrae. 

Ardmata (t<x 'Apwp.ara, 'ApaifiCtTtov ixKpov : 
Cape Guardafui), the E.-most promontory of 
Africa, at the S. extremity of the Arabian Gulf : 
also the surrounding district was called Aromata 
or Aromatophora Eegio, with a town 'Apw/MTOjv 
(fiiropiov : so named from the abundance of 
spices which the district produced. 

Arpi (Arpanus : Arpi), an inland town in 
the Daunian Apulia, founded, according to 
tradition, by Diomedes, who called it "Apyos 
'liririov, from which its later name, Argyrippa 
or Argj/rlpa and Arpi are said to have arisen 
(Ille [Dicmedes] vrbem Argyripam, patriae 
cognomine gentis, Verg. Aen. xi. 240). During 
the time of its independence it was a flourish- 
ing commercial town, using Salapia as its har- 
bour. It was friendly to the Eomans in the 
Samnite wars, but revolted to Hannibal after 
the battle of Cannae, li.c. 21G : it was taken by 
the Eomansin 813, deprived of its independence, 
and never recovered its former prosperity. 
(Strab. p. 283 ; Liv. xxii. 12, xxiv. 46.) 

Arpinum (Arplnas, -iitis : Arpiiio), a town of 
Latium on the small river Fibrenus (Fibrenu), 
originally belonging to the Volscians and after- 
wards to the Samnites, from whom the Eomans 
wrested it, was a Eoman municipium, and 
received the jus suffragii, or right of voting in 
the Eoman comitia, B.C. 188. (Strab. p. 220 ; 
Liv. xxxviii. 86.) It was the birthplace of 
Marius and Cicero, the latter of whom was born 
in his father's villa, situated on a small island 
formed by the river Fibrenus. Cicero's brother 
Quintus had an estate S. of Arpinum, called 
Arcanum. (Sail. Jug. 07 ; Cic. Legg. ii. 1, 8, 
•ad Fam. xiii. 11.) 

Arretium or Aretium (Arretlnus: Arezzo), 
one of the most important of the twelve cities 
of Etruria, was situated in the NE. of the 
country at the foot of the Apennines, and pos- 
sessed a fertile territory near the sources of the 
Arnus and the Tiber, producing good wine and 
corn (Liv. ix. 87, x. 87 ; Strab. pp. 222, 220.) It 
was a Eoman colony and municipium after the 
2nd Punic war. It was particularly celebrated 
for its pottery, which was of red ware. The 
Cilnii, from whom Maecenas was descended, 
were a noble family of Arretium. The ruins of 
a city 2 or 3 miles to the SE. of Arezzo on a 



height called Poggiu di San Comelio, or Cas- 
tel Secco, are probably the remains of the 
ancient Arretium. 

Arrhapachltis i'Appcnra.x'iTis), a district of 
Assyria, between the rivers Lycus and Choa- 
tras. 

Arrhibaeus {'AppifiaTos), chieftain of the 
Macedonians of Lyncus, revolted against king 
Perdiccas in the Peloponnesian war. It was to 
reduce him that Perdiccas sent for Brasidas 
(b.c. 424), and against him took place the un- 
successful joint expedition, in which Perdiccas 
deserted Brasidas, and Brasidas effected his 
bold and skilful retreat. (Thuc. ii. 99, iv. 79, 83, 
124 ; Strab. p. 326.) 

Arrhidaeus ('AppiSa7os) or Aridaeus {'Api- 
Sdiosj. 1. A half-brother of Alexander the 
Great, son of Philip and a female dancer, 
Philinna of Larissa, was of imbecile under- 
standing. He was at Babylon at the time of 
Alexander's death, B.C. 323, and was elected 
king under the name of Philip. The J'oung 
Alexander, the infant son of Eoxana, was asso- 
ciated with him in the government. In 322 
Arrhidaeus married Eurydice. On their return 
to Macedonia, Eurydice attempted to obtain the 
supreme power in opposition to Polysperchon ; 
but Arrhidaeus and Eurydice were made pri- 
soners, and put to death by order of Olympias, 
317. (Plut. Alex. 77 ; Just. xiv. 5 ; Diod.'xix. 
52 ; Paus. viii. 7, 5.) — 2. One of Alexander's 
generals, obtained the province of the Helles- 
pontine Phrygia, at the division of the pro- 
vinces which was made in 321, but was deprived 
of it by Antigonus in 319 (Just. xiii. 4 ; Diod. 
xviii. 51, 72). 

Arria. 1. Wife of Caecina Paetus. When 
her husband was ordered by the emperor Clau- 
dius to put an end to his life, a.d. 42, and hesi- 
tated to do so, Arria stabbed herself, handed 
the dagger to her husband, and said, ' Paetus, 
it does not pain me.' (Plin. Ep. iii. 16 ; Dio 
Cass. lx. 10 ; Mart. i. 14.)— 2. Daughter of the 
preceding, and wife of Thrasea (Tac. Ann. xvi. 

Arrianus CAppiavos). 1. Of Xicomedia in 
Bithynia, born about a.d. 90, was a pupil and 
friend of Epictetus, and first attracted attention 
as a philosopher by publishing at Athens the 
lectures of his master. In 124 he gained the 
friendship of Hadrian during his stay in Greece, 
and received from the emperor the Eoman 
citizenship ; from this time he assumed the 
name of Flavins. In 136 he was appointed 
praefect of Cappadocia, which was invaded the 
year after by the Alani or Massagetae, whom 
he defeated. Under Antoninus Pius, in 146, 
Arrian was consul ; and about 150 he withdrew 
from public life, and from this time lived in his 
native town of Xicomedia, as priest of Demeter 
and Persephone. He died at an advanced age 
in the reign of M. Aurelius. Arrian was one of 
the most active and best writers of his time. 
He was a close imitator of Xenophon, both in 
the subjects of his works and in the style in 
which they were written. He regarded his 
relation to Epictetus as similar to that of 
Xenophon to Socrates ; and it was his endea- 
vour to carry out that resemblance. With this 
view he published (1) the philosophical lectures 
of his master (Aiarpi/Jai 'E7nK-rr,Toi/) in 8 bunks, 
the first four of which are still extant. Edited 
in Schweighauser's Epicteteae Philosophiae 
mrntii, vol. iii., and in Coraes' Tldptpya. 
'E\At)v. Bi/3Aio0. vol. viii. (2) An abstract of the 
practical philosophy of Epictetus l'E-yx f ipiSioy 
'Etnktv.tou), which "is still extant. This cele- 



134 



ASOPUS 



range, and the city to be Khamil, in the cen- 
tre of Chinese Tartary (Ptol. vi. 16; Amm. 
Marc, xxiii. 6). 

Asopus ('AffairSs). 1. (BasiWcos), a river in 
Peloponnesus rises near Phlius, and flows 
through the Sicyonian territory into the Corin- 
thian gulf (II. iv. 383 ; Strab. pp. 271, 382, 408, 
409 ; Thuc. ii. 5). — 2. (Asopo), a riven in Boeo- 
tia, forms the N. boundary of the territory of 
Plataeae, flows through the S. of Boeotia, and 
falls into the Euboean sea near Delphinium in 
Attica. The battle of Plataeae was fought on 
the banks, B.C. 479 (Hdt. ix. 51).— 3. A river 
in Phthiotis in Thessaly, rises in M. Oeta, and 
flows into the Maliac gulf near Thermopylae 
(Strab. p. 382).— i. A river in Paros (Id. ib.)— 5. 
A river in Phrygia, flows past Laodicea into 
the Lycus. — 6. A town in Laconica on the E. 
side of the Laconian gulf (Strab. p. 364 ; Paus. 
iii. 21, 22). 

Asopus, the river god, is claimed both by 
the Boeotians and the Sicyonians as their 
indigenous deity with a somewhat similar 
genealogy (Paus. ii. 5, 2). Asopus was the son 
of Poseidon and Pero (according to others of 
Oceanus and Tethys, of Poseidon and Kelusa, 
or Zeus and Eurynome). He married Metope, 
daughter of the river god Ladon, who bore be- 
sides Ismenus and Pelasgos, a great number of 
daughters. In the tablet dedicated at Olympia 
by Phlius, Nemea, Aegina, Corcyra, and Thebe 
are named (Paus. v. 22, 5). To these Apollo- 
dorus adds Salamis, Euboea, Cleone, Tanagra, 
Thespiae, Oenia, and Chalcis. A story (which 
clearly started in Sicyon) runs that Zeus carried 
off Aegina : Asopus followed to Corinth, and, 
having created a spring in Acrocorinthus, where 
water had been scarce, he learned from Sisy- 
phus the name of the robber. As he still per- 
sisted in the pursuit Zeus smote him with a 
thunderbolt, and from that time the river 
carries down charcoal in its bed (Apollod. iii. 
12; Eur. I. A. 697; Anton. Lib. 38). Aegina 
was conveyed to the island which took her 
name, or, according to one story, was changed 
into an island. These many daughters seem to 
indicate partly the towns connected by religious 
rites or otherwise with the two chief rivers ; 
partly places to which the name passed, whether 
as a local name for a stream, or as representing 
the worship of river-deities (cp. the name Are- 
thusa) . Other daughters of Asopus are Antiope 
and Evadne. The name Asopis applies to the 
daughters, Asopiades to Aeacus, son of Zeus and 
Aegina. 

Aspadana ('A<riraSdva: Ispahan 1 ?), a town 
of the district Paraetacene in Persis. 

Asparagium (Iscarpar), a town in the terri- 
tory of Dyrrhachium in Illyria (Caes. B. C. iii. 
30, 76). 

Aspasia (A<rjra<n'a). 1. The elder, of Mile- 
tus, daughter of Axiochus, the most celebrated 
of the Greek Hetaerae (see Diet, of Antiq. s. v.), 
came to reside at Athens. Here she was visited 
by Athenians most distinguished for position 
and culture, offering what may be compared to 
a salon for witty and even learned conversation. 
Socrates is said to have been among those 
found there ; but in especial she gained the 
affections of Pericles, who separated from his 
wife and took Aspasia to live with him, in as 
close a union as could be formed with a 
foreigner. There was no doubt much exaggera- 
tion as to the political influence which she 
exerted, and the stories of her inducing Pericles 
to make war on Samo3 for the sake of Miletus, 
and on Sparta because of Aspasia's quarrel with 




ACPACIA 
Aspasia (Visconti). 



ASPII 

Megara (Plut. Pericl. 24 ; Aristoph. Ach. 
497), may be dismissed as lampoons. The 
enemies of Pericles accused Aspasia of impiety 
(atresia), and it required all the personal influ- 
ence of Pericles, who defended her, and his 
most earnest entreaties, to procure her acquittal. 
On the death of Pericles (b.c. 429), Aspasia is 
said to have attached herself to one Lysicles, a 
dealer in cattle, and to have made him by her 
instructions a first- 
rate orator. The son 
of Pericles by Aspasia 
was legitimated by a 
special decree of the 
people, and took his 
father's name. Some 
of the sayings of As- 
pasia are collected 
in Mulierum Graec. 
Fragmenta, by Wolf, 
1739. The bust here 
engraved was found a4 
Civitii Vecchia : the 
genuineness of the in- 
scription is, however, 
now disputed. — 2. The 
younger, a Phocaean, 
daughter of Hermoti- 
mus, was the favourite 
concubine of Cyrus the i" 1 
Younger, who called 
her Aspasia after the 
mistress of Pericles, her previous name having 
been Milto. After the death of Cyrus at the 
battle of Cunaxa (b.c. 401), she fell into the hands 
of Artaxerxes. When Darius, son of Artaxerxes, 
was appointed successor to the tlirone, he asked 
his father to surrender Aspasia to him. Arta- 
xerxes gave her up ; but he soon after took her 
away again, and made her a priestess of a temple 
at Ecbatana, where strict celibacy was requisite. 
(Plut. Artax. 26-29; Just. x. 2.) 
Aspasii. [Aspii.] 

Aspasius (Aairdffios). 1. A Peripatetic philo- 
sopher, lived about a.d. 80, and wrote commen- 
taries on most of the works of Aristotle. A< 
portion of his commentaries on the Nicoma- 
chean Ethics is still preserved. — 2. Of Byblus, 
a Greek sophist, lived about a.d. 180, and wrote 
commentaries on Demosthenes and Aeschines, 
of which a few extracts are preserved. 

Aspendus ("Aa-wei/Sos : 'AawtySios, Aspen- 
dius : Dashashkehr or Manaugat), a strong 
and flourishing city of Pamphylia, on the small 
navigable river Eurymedon, 60 stadia (6 geog. 
miles) from its mouth : said to have been a 
colony of the Argives (Strab. p. 667 ; Thuc viii. 
81 ; Polyb. v. 73)._ 

Asper, Aemiliius, a Eoman grammarian, 
of the age of Trajan, who wrote commentaries 
on Terence and Virgil, must be distinguished 
from a very inferior grammarian of the 6th cen- 
tury, usually called Asper Junior, the author 
of a small work entitled Ars_ Grammatical 
printed in the Grammat. Lat. Auctores, by 
Putschius, Hanov. 1605. For remains of Aem- 
ilius Asper see Hagen, Pliilolog. xxv. 

Asphaltites Lacus or Mare Mortuum 
{'Aa<pa^TiTis or SoSo^iTis Ai'/ucrj or rj OaXaaaa { 
i/eicpd : Dead Sea), the great salt and bitumi- 
nous lake in the SE. of Palestine, which re- 
ceives the water of the Jordan. It has no visiblf 
outlet, and its surface is considerably below 
the level of the Mediterranean. (Diod. Sic 
ii. 48.) _ 

Aspii or Aspasii ("Aairtoi, 'A&irdcrioi), ai 
Indian tribe, in the district of the Paropami 



ASPIS 

sadae, between the rivers Choes (Kama) and I 
Indus, in the NE. of Afghanistan and the 
NW. of the Punjab (Arrian, An. iv. 23). 

Aspis ('Aanis). 1. Clypea (Klibiah), a city 
on a promontory of the same name, near the 
NE. point of the Carthaginian territory, 
founded by Agathocles, and taken in the first 
Punic War by the Romans, who called it Clypea, t 
the translation of 'Affiris, a name said to be 
derived from the shield-like hill on which it 
stands (Strab. p. 834; Polyb. i. 29, 36).— 2. 
(Marsa- Z affran ? Eu.), in the African Tripoli- 
tana, the best harbour on the coast of the great 
Syrtis (Strab. p. 836).— 3. [Arcoxxesus.] 

Aspledon (' ' AavXnhuv : 'AtrnXrihovLos), or 
Spledon, a town of the Minyae in Boeotia on 
the river Melas, near Orchomenus; built by 
the mythical Aspledon, son of Poseidon and 
Midea (II. ii. 510 ; Strab. p. 416). 

Assa ("Aaaa : 'Aacraios), a town in Chalci- 
dice in Macedonia, on the Singitic gulf (Hdt. 
vii. 122). 

Assaceni CAaaaKnvoi), an Indian tribe, in the 
district of the Paropamisadae, between the 
rivers Cophen (Cabool) and Indus, in the NW. 
of the Punjab) (Curt. viii. 10; Arr. An. iv. 25; 
Strab. p. 698). 

Assaracus ('Atro-ipaKos), king of Troy, son of 
Tros, father of Capys, grandfather of Anchises, 
and great-grandfather of Aeneas. Hence the 
Romans, as descendants of Aeneas, are called 
domus Assaraci (Verg. Aen. i. 284). [Tbos.] 

Assesus CAaanads), a town of Ionia near 
Miletus, with a temple of Athene surnamed 
'AwTjirlo (Hdt. i. 19). 

Assorns (' Aaawpoi or 'Acraupiov : 'Aaauplvos : 
Asaro), a small town in Sicily between Enna 
and Agyrium. It contained a temple of the 
local river god Chrysas, which Verres tried to 
plunder (Cic. Verr. iv. 44). It was a Sicel 
town, and a faithful ally of Dionysius in B. c. 
396 (Diod. xiv. 58). 

AsstLS ("Aaaos: "Aacrios, 'A<r<reus: Asso, Ru., 
near Berani), a flourishing city in the Troad, 
on the Adramyttian Gulf, opposite to Lesbos : 
afterwards called Apollonia : the birthplace of 
Cleanthes the Stoic (Strab. pp. 610, 735). 

Assyria ('Avavpia : 'Aaavpios, Assyrius : 
Kurdistan). [The name is said to be derived 
from an ancient capital, Assur = ' river-bank,' 
now Kaleh Sherghat, on the right bank of the 
Tigris : others derive the name of the town 
from the Assyrian god Asur.J — 1. The country 
properly so called, in the narrowest sense, was 
u district of W. Asia, extending along the E. 
side of the Tigris, which divided it on tlie W. 
and NW. from Mesopotamia and Babylonia, and 
bounded on the N. and E. by M. Niphates and 
M. Zagrus. which separated it from Armenia 
Media, and on the SE. by Susiana. It was 
watered by several streams, flowing into the 
Tigris from the E.; two of which, the Lycus or 
Zabatus (Great Zab), and the Caprus or Zabas 
or Anzabas (Little Zab), divided the country 
into three parts : that between the Upper Tigris 
and the Lycus was called Aturia (a mere dia- 
lectic variety of Assyria), was probably the 
most ancient seat of the monarchy, and con- > 
tained the capital, Nineveh or MINUS : that 
between the Lycus and the Caprus was called 
Adiabene : and the part SE. of the Caprus con- 
tained the districts of Apolloniatis and Sitta- 
cene. Another division into districts, given by I 
Ptolemy, is the following : Arrhapachitis, Cala- 1 
cine, Adiabene, Arbelitis, Apolloniatis, and 
Sittacene. — 2. In a wider sense the name was 
applied to the whole country watered by the 



ASTACTJS 



135 



Euphrates and the Tigris, between the moun- 
tains of Armenia on the N., those of Kurdistan 
on the E., and the Arabian Desert on the W., so 
as to include, besides Assyria Proper, Mesopo- 
tamia and Babylonia (Strab. p. 736) ; nay, there 
is sometimes an apparent confusion between 
Assyria and Syria (Verg. Georg. ii. 465). — 3. 
By a further extension the word is used to 
designate the Assyrian Empire in its widest 
sense. The early history of this great monarchy 
cannot be given here in any detail. It was far 
less ancient than the Babylonian monarchy. 
The Assyrian rulers were at first merely petty 
princes of Assur, subject to Babylon, among 
whom Sammas-Rimmon, who built the temple 
of Rimmon at Assur, is dated 1820 B.C. The 
first ' king ' of Assyria seems to have been Belu- 
sumeli-capi, about 1700 B.C.; but it was not till 
the reign of Rimmon-nirari (the historical 
Ninus), about 1330 B.C., that the king of Assyria 
stood forth as completely independent, a rival 
and superior of the Babylonish king, and Nine- 
veh became the capital. Babylon was captured 
by Tiglath-Adar, king of Assyria, in 1270, but 
regained its independence in the next reign, 
when the Assyrians were at war with the Hittite 
empire, which Tiglath-Pileser L overthrew for 
a time in 1130. The empire of this king and 
his successors, though at some periods curtailed 
by Babylonian, Hittite, or Syrian enemies, 
included the countries just mentioned, with 
Media, Persia, and portions of the countries to 
the E. and NE., Armenia, Syria, Phoenicia, and 
Palestine, except the kingdom of Judah ; and, 
beyond these limits, some of the Assyrian kings 
made incursions into Arabia and Egypt. The 
empire, however, dwindled in the eighth century 
B.C., several provinces revolted, and the dynasty 
fell about 750. Pul or Poros, who then seized 
the throne and called himself Tiglath Pileser II. 
founded the ' second ' Assyrian empire and 
restored all its power, which was further ex- 
tended by Shalmaneser P7., and Sargon, who 
made himself master of Syria and of Babylon 
(whose king he took captive) before his death 
in 705. His son, Sennacherib, failed in his 
attempt to conquer Egypt, and met with disas- 
ter in Judaea, 700 B.C. This so weakened the 
empire, that after the death of Assurbani-pal 
(Sardaxapalus) the Medes revolted and formed 
a separate kingdom, and at last, in B.C. 606, the 
governor of Babylonia united with Cyaxares, 
the king of Media, to conquer Assyria, which 
was divided between them, Assyria Proper fall- 
ing to the share of Media, and the rest of the 
empire to Babylon. The king (prob. Esarhad- 
don II.) perished, and Nineveh was rased to the 
ground. [Comp. Babylon and Media.] 

Asta (Astensis). 1. (Asti in Piedmont), an 
inland town of Liguria on the Tanarus, a Roman 
colony (Plin. iii. 49). — 2. (Mesa de Asta), a 
town in Hispania Baetica, near Gades, a Roman 
colony with the surname liegia (Strab. p. 140). 

Astabdras CAffrafiSpas : Atbarah or Tacazza) 
and Astapus ('A<rTairovs,Bahr-el-Aza!c or Blue 
Nile), two rivers of Aethiopia, having their 
sources in tlie highlands of Abyssinia, and unit- 
ing in about 17 J N. Lat. to form the Xile. The 
land enclosed by them was the island of Merok. 

Astacus l "AarctKos), father of Ismarus, 
Leades, Asphodicus, and Melanippus (Hdt. v. 
67 ; Aesch. Th. 407 ; Apollod. iii. 6). 

Astacus CAo-toucoj : 'Aa-TaKnvSs). 1. (Dra- 
gomestre), a city of Acarnania, on the Acheloiis 
(Strab. p. 459).— 2. A city of Bithynia.atthe SE. 
corner of the Sinus Astacenus ('Aaraxrivhs 
k6\itos), a bay of the Propontis, was a colony 



122 



AEEIBAS 



ARSACES 



brated work maintained its authority for many 
centuries, both with Christians and Pagans. 
The best editions are those of Schweighauser 
and Coraes, in the collections above referred to. 
He also published other works relating to 
Epictetus, which are now lost. His original 
works are (3) A treatise on the chase (Kvv-q- 
yrjTixSs), which forms a kind of supplement to 
Xenophon's work on the same subject, and is 
printed in most editions of Xenophon's works. 

(4) The History of the Asiatic expedition of 
Alexander the Great ('Ava.l3a.tTis 'AAz!;dv8pov) in 
7 books, the most important of Arrian's works. 
This great work reminds the reader of Xenophon's 
Anabasis, not only by its title, but also by the 
ease and clearness of its style. It is also of 
great value for its historical accuracy, being 
based upon the most trustworthy histories 
written by the contemporaries of Alexander, 
especially those of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, 
and of Aristobulus, the son of Aristobulus. 

(5) On India ('IvSi/rr; or ra 'IvdiKa), which may 
be regarded as a continuation of the Anabasis, 
at the end of which it is usually printed. This 
work is written in the Ionic dialect, probably 
in imitation of Ctesias of Cnidus, whose work 
on the same subject Arrian wished to supplant 
by a more trustworthy and correct account. 
The best editions of the Anabasis are by Sin- 
tenis, Berlin, 1867; Abicht, Leipzig, 1876: of 
the Indica by Schmieder, Halle, 1798. (6) A 
description of a voyage round the coasts of the 
Euxine (wepi-rrKovs ttovtov Ei>£eiVou), which had 
been made by Arrian himself during his govern- 
ment of Cappadocia. This Periplus has come 
down to us together with a Periplus of the Ery- 
thraean, and a Periplus of the Euxine and the 
Palus Maeotis, both of which also bear the 
name of Arrian, but they belong to a later 
period. The best editions are in Hudson's 
Geographi Minores, vol. i., and in Gail's and 
Midler's collections of the minor Geogra- 
phers. (7) A work on Tactics (\6yos tg.ktlkus 
or Tex vr l tcucti/ci';), sometimes ascribed to him, 
is now generally held to be by Aelian. — 2. A 
Soman jurisconsult, probably lived under 
Trajan, and is perhaps the same person with 
the orator Arrianus who corresponded with the 
younger Pliny. He wrote a treatise de Inter- 
dictis, of which the second book is quoted in 
the Digest. 

Arribas, Arrybas, Arymbas, or Tharrytas 

('Applf3as, 'Appvffas, 'Apv/xftas, or ®appvras), a 
descendant of Achilles, and one of the early 
kings of the Molossians in Epirus. He is said 
to have been educated at Athens, and on his 
return to his native country to have framed for 
the Molossians a code of laws and established a 
regular constitution. (Pans. i. 11 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 1.) 

Q. Ariius. 1, Praetor, b.c. 72, defeated 
Crixus, the leader of the runaway slaves, but 
was afterwards conquered by Spartacus. In 
71, Arrius was to have succeeded Verres as 
propraetor in Sicily, but died on his way to 
Sicily (Cic. Verr. ii. 15, iv. 20).— 2. A son of the 
preceding, was an unsuccessful candidate for the 
consulship, B.C. 59. He was an intimate friend 
of Cicero (Cic. pro Mil. 17, ad Att. ii. 5, 7.) 

Arrius Aper. [Apeb.] 

L. Arruntius. 1. Proscribed by the trium- 
virs in B.C. 43, but escaped to Sext. Pompey in 
Sicily, and was restored to the state with Pom- 
pey. He subsequently commanded the left 
wing of the fleet of Octavianus at the battle of 
Actium, 31, and was consul in 22. (App. B. C. iv. 
46; Plut. Ant. 66.)— 2. Son of the preceding, 
consul A.D. 6. Augustus declared in his last 



illness, that Arruntius was not unworthy of the 
empire, and would have boldness enough to- 
seize it, if an opportunity presented. This, 
rendered him an object of suspicion to Tiberius. 
He was charged in a.d. 37, as an accomplice in 
the crimes of Albucilla, and put an end to his. 
own life. (Tac. Ann. i. 8, 13, 76, vi. 27, 47 ; Dio- 
Cass. lviii. 27.) 

Arsa (Azunga), a town in Hispania Baetica. 

Arsaces ('Ap<ram;s), the name of the founder 
of the Parthian empire, which was also borne 
by all his successors, who were hence called the' 
Arsacidae. — I. He was of obscure origin, of 
Scythian race, according to Strabo from the 
country of the Ochus. He and his brother 
Tiridates who had small satrapies in Bactria. 
under Antiochus II., resenting the tyranny of 
Agathocles, slew him, and driving out the 
Syrians, established for Arsaces a small Par- 
thian kingdom with the capital Hecatompylus,, 
b.c. 256. (Arrian ap. Syncellus 284 ; Strab. p. 
515 ; Appian, Syr. 65.) He induced the Par- 
tisans to revolt from the Syrian empire of the 
Seleucidae, and he became the first monarch of 
the Parthians. This event probably took place 
about B.C. 250, in the reign of Antiochus II. ; 
but the history of the revolt, as well as of the 
events which immediately followed, is stated 
very differently by different historians. Arsaces 
reigned only two years, and was succeeded by 
his brother Tiridates. — II. = Tiridates, reigned 
37 years, B.C. 248-211, and defeated Seleucus. 
Callinicus, the successor of Antiochus II. — III. 
= Artabanus I., son of the preceding, was 
attacked by Antiochus III. (the Great), who, 
however, was unable to subdue his country, and 
at length recognised him as king, about 210 
(Polyb. x. 27; Just. xli. 5). — IV. = Priapatius,. 
son of the preceding, reigned 15 years and left 
three sons, Phraates, Mithridates, and Artaba- 
nus. — V. = Phraates I., subdued the Mardi, and, 
though he had many sons, left the kingdom to 
his brother Mithridates. — VI. = Mithridates I. 
son of Arsaces IV., greatly enlarged the Par- 
thian empire by his conquests. He defeated 
Demetrius Nicator, king of Syria, and took him 
prisoner in 138. Mithridates treated Demetrius 
with respect, and gave him his daughter Eho- 
dogune in marriage. Mithridates died during 
the captivity of Demetrius, between 138 and 130 
(Just. xli. 6 ; Strab. pp. 516, 524 ; Appian, Syr. 
67). — VII. = Phraates II., son of the preceding,, 
carried on war against Antiochus VII. Sidetes, 
whom Phraates defeated and slew in battle, B.C. 
128. Phraates himself was shortly after killed 
in battle by the Scythians, who had been 
invited by Antiochus to assist him against 
Phraates, but who did not arrive till after the 
fall of the former (Just, xxxviii. 10, xlii. 1). 
— VIII. =Artabanus II., youngest brother of 
Arsaces VI., and youngest son of Arsaces IV., 
fell in battle against the Thogarii or Tochari, 
apparently after a short reign. — IX. = Mithri- 
dates II., son of the preceding, prosecuted 
many wars with success, and added many 
nations to the Parthian empire, whence he 
obtained the surname of Great. It was in his 
reign that the Romans first had any official com- 
munication with Parthia. Mithridates sent an 
ambassador to Sulla, who had come into Asia 
B.C. 92, and requested alliance with the Eomans 
(Just. xlii. 2,4; Plut. Sull. 5.)— X. = (Mnascires ?) 
Nothing is known of the successor of Arsaces 
IX. Even his name is uncertain. — XI. = Sana- 
troces, reigned seven years, and died about B.C. 
70. — XII. = Phraates III., son of the preceding. 
He lived at the time of the war between the 



ARSACES 



123 



as hostages his four sons, with their wives and 
children, who were carried to Rome. In a.d. 2, 
Phraates was poisoned by his wife Thermusa. 
and her son Pi.raataces (Jos. Ant. xviii. 2, 4). — 
XVI. = Phraataces, reigned only a short time, as 
he was expelled by his subjects on account of 
his crimes. The Parthian nobles then elected 



Romans and Mithridates of Pontus, by both of 
whom he was courted. He contracted an 
alliance with the Romans, but he took no part 
in the war. At a later period misunderstand- 
ings arose between Pompey and Phraates, but 
Pompey thought it more prudent to avoid a 
war with the Parthians, although Phraates had 
invaded Armenia, and Tigiaues, the 
Armenian king, implored Pompey's 
assistance. Phraates was murdered 
soon afterwards by his two sons, 
Mithridates and Orodes (Dio Cass, 
xxxvi. 28, 34, xxxvii. 6, xxxix. 50 ; 
Appian, Syr. 104; Plut. Pnmj). 33-39). 
— XIII. = Mithridates III., son of 
the preceding, succeeded his father 
during the Armenian war. On his 
return from Armenia, Mitlnidates was 
expelled from the throne, on account 
of his cruelty, and was succeeded by 
his brother Orodes. Mithridates after- 
wards made war upon his brother, but 
was taken prisoner and put to death 
(Dio Cass, xxxix. 56 ; Appian, Sijr. 51 ; Jos. B. J. I as king Orodes, who was of the family of the 
i. 8). — XIV. = Orodes I., brother of the preceding, Arsacidae. — XVII. = Orodes II,, also reigned 
was the Parthian king whose general Surenas 1 only a short time, as he was killed by the Par- 
defeated Crassus and the Romans, B.C. 53. ; thians on account of his cruelty. Upon his 
[Ckassus.J After the death of Crassus, Orodes ; death the Parthians applied to the Romans for 
gave the command of the army to his son Vonones, one of the sons of Phraates IV., who 
Pacorus, who entered Syria in 51 with a small was accordingly granted to them (Tac. Ann. ii- 
force, but was driven back by Cassius. In 50 1-4). — XVIII. = Vonones I., son of Phraates IV.^ 
Pacorus again crossed the Euphrates with a was also disliked by his subjects, who therefore 
much larger army, and advanced as far as invited Artabanus, king of Media, to take 
Antioch, but was defeated near Antigonea by I possession of the kingdom. Artabanus drove 
Cassius. The Parthians now remained quiet Vonones out of Parthia, who resided first in 




Coin of Phraataces. 
ais is a good specimen of the Parthian coins. Obr.. head of king; 
rer., Parthian holding a bow. with the legend BAZIAEOZ BAZIAEON 

AP2AKOY EYEPTETOY AIKAIOY EBWANOYZ tIAEAAHKUZ [APTE] MI210Y . 
AIT=311. 



for some years. In 40 they crossed the Eu 
phrates again, under the command of Pacorus 
and Labienus, the son of T. Labienus. They 
overran Syria and part of Asia Minor, but were 
defeated in 39 by Veutidius Bassus, one of 
Antony's legates : Labienus was slain in the 
flight, and the Parthians retired to their own 
dominions. In 38, Pacorus again invaded 
Syria, but was completely defeated and fell in 
the battle. This defeat was a severe blow to 



Armenia, next in Syria, and subsequently in 
Cilicia. He was put to death in a.d. 19, accord- 
ing to some accounts by order of Tiberius on 
account of his great wealth (Tac. Ann. ii. 1-4, 
56,68; Suet. Til. 49).— XIX. = Artabanus III., 
obtained the Parthian kingdom soon after the 
expulsion of Vonones, about a.d. l(i. Artabanus 
placed Arsaces, one of his sons, over Armenia, 
and assumed a hostile attitude towards the 
Romans. His subjects, whom he oppressed, 



the aged king Orodes, who shortly afterwards despatched an embassy to Tiberius to beg him 
surrendered the crown to his son, Phraates, to send to Parthia Phraates, one of the sons of 
during his lifetime (Dio Cass. xl. 28, xlviii. I Phraates IV. Tiberius willingly complied with 
24-41, xlix. 19,23; Just. xlii. 4; Appian, B.C. v. the request ; but Phraates upon arriving in 
65 ; Plut. Ant. 33 ; Cic. Att. v. 18, Fain, xv. 1) Syria was carried off by a disease, a.d. 35. As 
— XV. = Phraates IV., commenced his reign by soon as Tiberius heard of his death, he set up 
murdering his father, his 30 brothers, and his Tiridates, another of the Arsacidae, as a claim- 
own son, who was grown U2>, that there might ! ant to the Parthian throne : Artabanus was 
be none of the royal family whom the Parthians obliged to leave his kingdom, and to fly for 
could place upon the throne in his stead. In refuge to the Hyrcanians and Curmanians. 
consequence of his cruelty many of the Par- ! Hereupon Vitellius, the governor of Syria, 
thian nobles fled to Antony (37), who invaded \ crossed the Euphrates, and placed Tiridates on 
Parthia in 30, but was obliged to retreat after ( the throne. Artabanus was, however, recalled 
losing a great part of his army (Dio Cass. xlix. next year (36) by his fickle subjects. He was 



23-31 ; Plut. Ant. 37-51; Strab. p. 528). A few- 
years afterwards the cruelties of Phraates pro- 
duced a rebellion against him ; lie was driven 
out of the country-, and Tiridates proclaimed 
king in his stead. Phraates, however, was soon 
restored l>y the Scythians, and Tiridates fled to 
Augustus, carrying with him the youngest son 
of Phraates (Hor. Od. ii. 2, 17, cf. i. 26, 5, iii. 8, 
19). Augustus restored his son to Phraates, on 
condition of his surrendering the Roman stan 
dards and prisoners taken in the war witli 
Crassus and Antony (Dio Cass. Ii. 18, liii. 33, 
liv. 8; Just. xlii. 5; Suet. Any. 21 ; Hor. Od 



once more expelled by his subjects, and once 
more restored (Tac. Aim. ii. 58, vi. 31-87, 41-44 ; 
Dio Cass, lviii. 20, lxix. 27 ; Jos. Ant. xviii. 5). 
He died soon after his last restoration, leaving 
two sons, Bardanes and Gotarzes. — XX. = 
Gotarzes, succeeded his father, Artabanus 
III., but was defeated by his brother Bardanes 
and retired into Hyrcania. — XXI. Bardanes, 
brother of the preceding, was put to death by 
his subjects in 47, whereupon Gotarzes again 
obtained the crown. But as he ruled with 
crnelty, the Parthians secretly begged the 
emperor Claudius to send them from Rome 



15, 6, Epist. i. 18). They were given up in Meherdates, grandson of Phraates IV. Clau- 
20 ; their restoration caused universal joy at dius complied with their request, and corn- 
Rome, and was celebrated not only by the \ manded the governor of Syria to assist Meher- 
poets, but by festivals and commemorative dates, but the latter was defeated in battle, 
monuments. Phraates also sent to Augustus and takeu prisoner by Gotarzes. (Tac. Ann. xi. 



138 



ATBENUM 



ATHENE 



the Romans in consequence transplanted its 
inhabitants to Calatia, and peopled the town 
with new citizens from Nuceria. Atella owes 
its celebrity to the Atellanae Fabulae or Oscan 
farces, which took their name from this town. 
(Diet, of Antiq. s.v. Satura.) 

Aternum (Pescara), a town in central Italy 
on the Adriatic, at the mouth of the river 
Aternus (Pescara), was the common harbour of 
the Vestini, Marrucini,andPeligni (Strab. p. 241). 

Aternus. [Aternum.] 

Ateste (Atestlnus : Este), a Roman colony in 
the country of the Veneti in Upper Italy (Mart, 
x. 93). 

Athacus, a town in Lyncestis in Macedonia. 

Athamania ('Ada/xavia : 'Ada/xdv, -avos), a 
mountainous country in the S. of Epirus, on the 
W. side of Pindus, of which Argithea was the 
chief town. The Athamanes were a Thessalian 
people, who had been driven out of Thessaly by 
the Lapithae. They were governed by inde- 
pendent princes, the last of whom was Amyn- 
ander. (Strab. pp. 434, 449.) 

Athamas ('Ada/xas), son of Aeolus and Ena- 
rete, and king of Orchomenus in Boeotia. At the 
command of Hera, Athamas married Nephele, 
by whom he became the father of Phrixus and 
Helle. But he was secretly in love with the 
mortal Ino, the daughter of Cadmus, by whom 
he begot Learchus and Melicertes; and Nephele, 
on discovering that Ino had a greater hold on 
his affections than herself, disappeared in anger. 
Having thus incurred the anger both of Hera 
and of Nephele, Athamas was seized with mad- 
ness, and in this state killed his own son, Le- 
archus : Ino threw herself with Melicertes into 
the sea, and both were changed into marine 
deities, Ino becoming Leucothea, and Melicertes 
Palaemon. Athamas, as the murderer of his 
son, was obliged to flee from Boeotia, and 
settled in Thessaly. — Hence we have Atha- 
mantlades, son of Athamas, i.e. Palaemon ; and 
Athamantis, daughter of Athamas, i.e. Helle. 
[See Phrixus, Ino, Melicertes.] 

Atiianagia (Agramunt ?), the chief town of 
the Ilergetes in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Athanarlcus, king of the Visi-Goths during 
their stay in Dacia. In a.d. 367-369 he carried 
on war with the emperor Valens, with whom he 
finally concluded a peace. In 374 Athanaric 
was defeated by the Huns, and, after defending 
himself for some time in a stronghold in the 
mountains of Dacia, was compelled to fly in 
380, and take refuge in the Roman territory. 
He died in 381. (Amm. Mar. xxvii. 5, xxx. 3 ; 
Sozom. vi. 37.) 

Athanasius, archbishop of Alexandria a.d. 
326. (See Diet, of Christian Biogr.) 

Athene ('ABrjvalri or 'A6y}vaia, whence 'Adrivda 
contracted in Attic into 'Adujva, in Trag. 'Addva \ 
in older Ionic 'A&rjeT)), one of the great 
deities of the Greek race, personifying to them 
the guiding influence of life, in wise counsel, 
in industry, and in strategy of war. The story 
of her birth, as given in Hesiod and in Hymn, 
ad Apoll., tells that Metis (= wise counsel) 
was the wife of Zeus, and being pregnant with 
Athene was, in the form of a fly which he had 
persuaded her to assume, swallowed by him, 
because he found that her child would be his 
superior in might (Hes. Th. 886). Athene was 
then born from the head of Zeus : springing 
forth, as Pindar tells, fully armed with a great 
shout (01. vii. 35). This has all the appearance 
of a very old tradition from primitive ancestors : 
but Homer, perhaps because he constantly 
discards the more grotesque myths which Hesiod 



retains, does not mention it, though his know- 
ledge of it may perhaps be traced in II. v. 875, 
and in the epithets d/3pi,uo7raTp7j and rpiToyiveia. 
The story fixed on later Tritonis in Libya as 
the scene of her birth (cf. Apollod. i. 3, 6) : 
and from Hdt. iv. 180 it may be surmised that 
some local sea or water deity, daughter of 
Poseidon, had become identified with Athene. 
Out of her other name Pallas (often a surname 
Ua\X.ds 'AQr\VT)), which some derive from her 
brandishing the spear, others interpret as 
= ' maiden,' probably arose a later story that 
she was the daughter of the giant Pallas (Tzetz. 
ad Lyc. 355; Cic. N.D. hi. 23, 59). In Homer 
she appears as the champion of the Greeks, 
and in the Odyssey especially of the wise 
Odysseus (cf. II. x. 244). She is already not 
only the goddess of wisdom (iro\v/3ov\os), but 
also the goddess of war, yet always of war 
tempered by prudence (II. i. 206) ; already the 
goddess of womanly industries (II. v. 735, ix. 
390), and of other arts (Od. vi. 233), whence 
came the later surname 'Epydvq (Paus. i. 24) ; 
and already the protectress of Greek states 
(epvaiiTTokis, II. vi. 305) : whence she was after- 
wards 'A6. iroAias or ivoXiovxos. From this cha- 
racter as helper of industries she is regarded in 
later literature as the goddess of agriculture also, 
and so as the giver of the olive to Athens. The 
story ran that, in the reign of Cecrops, Poseidon 
and Athene contended for the control of Athens : 
the gods decreed that whichever produced the 
gift most useful to mortals should possess the 
city. Poseidon struck the ground with his 
trident, and a horse appeared : Athene made 
the olive spring up, and was adjudged the giver 
of the best gift and the protectress of Athens 
(Hdt. viii. 55 ; Apollod. hi. 14). A contest 
between two deities generally means that the 
new religion brought in by immigrants pre- 
vailed over some older cult. It is probable in 
this case that the worship of Poseidon had been 
established by the Pelasgic inhabitants of 
Attica, to whom the Lapithae belonged, and 
that the Ionian immigrants made that of Athene 
take the chief place. Thenceforth she was 
entreated and thanked for the fruits of the 
land and other aid. Her connexion with the 
harvest appears in the story of Erechtheus, and 
in the festivals of the Panathenaea, the Plyn- 
teria, the Procharisteria, the Oschophoria, 
the Arrhephoria, and the Scirophoria. [Diet. 
Ant. s.vv.]. As divine patroness of all arts, 
and not merely of weaving, she was at Athens 
the especial deity of the potters : this brought 
about a union of her worship with that of 
Hephaestus (as well as Prometheus) in the 
torch-race [Diet. Ant. s.v. Lampadedromia], 
which accounts for the connexion of these two 
deities in myths. The Peplos in the Pan- 
athenaea shows her as the weavers' goddess. 
[For the special myths of her in connexion with 
weaving, see Arachne.] As goddess of war we 
find her in post-Homeric story celebrated' in the 
battle of the giants and the Gorgon (Eur. Hec. 
466, Ion, 987 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 578 ; Paus. viii. 
47), whence her epithets yopyo<p6vos, yiyavro- 
Kfreipa. But she was also the goddess of 
military arts in general and so of martial music 
(Pind. Pyth. xii. 6; cf. 'Adrivv 2aA.7"7£, Paus. 
ii. 21, 3), and of war-ships [Akgo] : both music 
and ship were represented in the Panathenaea 
(both attributes, however, might be derived from 
her care for art and for commerce). It is more 
doubtful whether we should regard, as some do, 
her epithets iirma, xaAiyms (cf. Bellerophon), 
Sa/xiirnnros, as goddess of horses and chariots 



ATHENE 



189 



with the idea of war-horses and war-chariots, 
or with an older religion in which the horse 
was a sacred animal to her as it was to Poseidon 
(Paus. i. 30, 4, ii. 4 ; Pind. 01. xiii. 79 ; Soph. 
O. C. 1071). She was the inventress also, by 
some accounts, of the Pyrrhic dance (Plat. Legg. 
796 b), and, as giver of victory in war, was 
worshipped in 'A07)t") Ni'kt; (Paus. i. 42, 4). She 
was in fact Ni'/C7j onrrepos, the wingless Victory, 
to distinguish her from the conventional symbol 
of winged Victory. As protectress of cities she 
was called iro\toiixos not only at Athens but in 
other states (Paus. i. 42, iii. 17) : at Athens in 
this character she presided over the phratries or 
clans, and sacrifice was offered to her at the 
Apaturia. In many local legends of the Pelo- 
ponnesus, connected apparently with the Dorian 
conquest, she appears as the friend and ally of 
Heracles (Paus. v. 17, 11, vi. 19, 12). The 
animals sacred to her were the owl, the serpent, 
and the cock : for the last Pausanias (vi. 26, 2) 
gives the rather doubtful reason that the cock 




Athene. (Aeglna Marbles.) 

was a pugnacious bird ; the serpent was prob- 
ably consecrated to her as representative of an 
old local religion connected with Erichthonius. 
As regards the owl, the most reasonable expla- 
nation is that at one time she was worshipped 
as the owl itself in the primitive days of animal 
worship, and that when Greek art and civili- 
sation rejected monstrous forms of deities and 
chose the idealised human form, then the owl 
became merely her sacred bird or her symbol 
on coins. (Even Homer seems to preserve a 
trace of this primitive religion when he makes 
Athene assume the form of a bird : II. vii. 59 ; 
Oil. iii. 372, v. 353.) It is impossible to accept 
the idea that Homer when he called Athene 
yAavKwiTis pictured her to himself as an owl- 
faced deity, but there is much probability that 
at one period she had that form : it is even ] 
possible that though Homer (cf. Paus. i. 14, 6) 
attached the sense of ' keen-eyed ' to the word, i 
he may be using an epithet which once meant i 
owl-faced. This is more reasonable than to ac- 
cept Roscher's view that the name was actually 
derived from the flashing of lightning ; for there | 



is in truth very slight ground for the supposi- 
tion that Athene was originally conceived as a 
goddess of the thunderstorm. Arguments for 
this origin from the thunderstorm, which are far 
from satisfactory, are 
found in the aegis, and 
even in Pindar's descrip- 
tion of her birth. Others 
see in the Athene myth 
the clouds, and argue 
that her attribute of 
weaving was imagined 
from the fleecy clouds 
of heaven : others again 
upon the doubtful foun- 
dation of etymology 
base the conclusion that 
she was the goddess of 
dawn or of light. It is 
better not to regard 
Athene as a nature god- 
dess at all, but simply as 
the divinity of wisdom, 
of arts and of industry : 
the ideal for the Greek 
race of the policy and 
skill which brought pro- fp 
sperity to the state and 
their protectress against 
barbarism: a deity who, 
far from resembling the 
nature deities, is always 
the inviolate maiden goddess. Besides the 
Athenian festivals mentioned above, the Argive 
ceremony deserves special notice, in which the 
archaic image of Athene was washed in the 
river Inachus, as a symbolical cleansing of the 




Statuette of Athene 
Parthenos. 




Athene. (From a Statue in tho Hopo Collection. 

blood-stained goddess after her battle with 
the giants. (Callim. Lavacr. Pall.) She was 
worshipped also at Epidaurus in the temple 
of Asclepius as Athene Hygieia, in which 
character she had an altar at Athens. It is 
remarkable that the serpent and the cock were 



110 



ATHENAE 



sacred to Asclepius as well as to Athene, but 
there is not sufficient clue to the origin of the 
consecration of these animals to warrant a 
conclusion that they belonged to her healing 
character especially. The temple of Athene 
Itonia, near Coronea, was famous for the 
meeting of the Boeotian congress. In archaic 
art Athene was represented (1) as a throned and 
unarmed deity, which may have been the form 
in the %6avov of Athene Polias ; (2) as a goddess 
armed with helmet, shield, and spear, which 
was the form of the Palladium. The armed 
type was adopted and idealised by Phidias in 
his famous statues, the colossal Athene Pro- 
machos on the Acropolis [Acropolis] and that 
of Athene Parthenos, which we know from copies 
as wearing a high ornamented helmet, the aegis 
(a goat skin plated with scales, and having the 
Gorgon's head in the centre) on her breast, carry- 
ing the figure of victory in her right hand and 
resting her left on a shield. Often her helmet is 
the ' Corinthian ' visored helmet, plain, with 
openings for eyes and mouth : this helmet she 
wears on many coins, and in other represen- 
tations, thrown back on the head : the Attic 
helmet which she wears on Athenian coins has 
a high (paKos [see coin on p. 144], but not so 
high as that of Athene Parthenos, a neck-piece 
fitting close to the neck, and a narrow guard for 
the face which can be moved up or down. Her 
face has a dignified type of beauty with some- 
what compressed lips, a broad clear brow, and 
thoughtful eyes. The characteristic objects 
often added are the owl, the serpent, and the 
olive branch. 

Athenae ('ABrivai, also 'A(Wjv7j in Homer : 
'AO-qvdios, Atheniensis : Athens), the capital of 
Attica, is situated about three miles from the 
sea coast, in the central plain of Attica, which 
is enclosed by mountains on every side except 
the south, where it is open to the sea. This 
plain is bounded and sheltered on the NW. by 
Mt. Parnes, on the NE. by Mt. Pentelicus, on 
the SE. by Mt. Hymettus, and on the W. by 
Mt. Aegaleos. In the southern part of the 
plain there rise several eminences. Of these 
the most prominent is a lofty insulated moun- 
tain, with a conical peaked summit, now called 
the Hill of St. George, which used to be 
identified by topographers with the ancient 
Anchesmus, but which is now admitted to be 
the more celebrated Lycabettus. This moun- 
tain, which was not included within the ancient 
walls, lies to the north-east of Athens, and 
forms the most striking feature in the environs 
of the city. It is to Athens, as a modern 
writer has aptly remarked, what Vesuvius is 
to Naples or Arthur's Seat to Edinburgh. The 
visitor to Athens is probably surprised when he 
sees Lycabettus that so little is said of it in 
Attic writers — in Plato, for instance, that it 
should only once be mentioned (Crit. p. 112), 
and then without much distinction. Strabo 
however, does mention it as being the charac- 
teristic height of Athens, as Taygetus was of 
Sparta, or Atabyris of Rhodes (p. 454). South- 
west of Lycabettus there are four hills of 
moderate height, all of which formed part of 
the city. Of these the nearest to Lycabettus, 
and at the distance of a mile from the latter, 
was the Acropolis, or citadel of Athens, a 
square craggy rock rising abruptly about 150 
feet, with a flat summit of about 1000 feet long 
from east to west, by 500 feet broad from north 
to south. Immediately west of the Acropolis, 
is a second hill of irregular form, the Areiopa- 
gus. To the south-west there rises a third hill, 



the Pnyx, on which the assemblies of the 
citizens were held ; and to the south of the 
latter is a fourth hill, known as the Museum. 
On the eastern and western sides of the city 
there run two small streams, both of which are 
nearly exhausted by the heats of summer and 
by the channels for artificial irrigation before 
they reach the sea. The stream on the east, 
called the Ilissus, was joined by the Eridanus 
close to the Lyceum outside the walls, and 
then flowed in a south-westerly direction 
through the southern quarter of the city. The 
stream on the west, named the Cephissus, runs 
due south at a distance of about a mile and a 
half from the walls. South of the city lay the 
Saronic gulf and the harbours of Athens. As 
in the case of most early towns in Greece, and 
indeed elsewhere, the first settlement was made 
on the most defensible eminence of the plain, 
and this was the Acropolis, which was at once a 
more convenient height and a more convenient 
shape than the peaked Lycabettus. [See Acro- 
polis.] This was the nucleus round which 
later Athens grouped itself when it had grown 
to be the head of a united Attica. [See under 
Attica, Cecrops, Theseus.] The city was 
burnt by Xerxes in B.C. 480, but was soon re- 
built under the administration of Themistocles, 
and was adorned with public buildings by 
Cimon and especially by Pericles, in whose 
time (b.c. 460-429) it reached its greatest splen- 
dour. Its beauty was chiefly owing to its 
public buildings, for the private houses were 
mostly insignificant, and its streets badly laid 
out. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian 
war, it contained 10,000 houses (Xen. Mem. iii. 
6, 14), which at the rate of 12 inhabitants to 
a house would give a population of 120,000, 
though some writers make the inhabitants as 
many as 180,000. Under the Romans Athens 
continued to be a great and flourishing city, 
and retained many privileges and immunities 
when S. Greece was formed into the Roman 
province of Achaia. It suffered greatly on its 
capture by Sulla, B.C. 86, and was deprived of 
many of its privileges. It was at that time, 
and also during the early centuries of the 
Christian aera, one of the chief seats of learn- 
ing, and the Romans were accustomed to send 
their sons to Athens, as to a University, for 
the completion of their education. Hadrian, 
who was very partial to Athens and frequently 
resided in the city (a.d. 122, 128), adorned it 
with many now buildings, and his example was 
followed by Herodes Atticus, who spent large 
sums of money upon beautifying the city in the 
reign of M. Aurelius. — Athens consisted of 
three distinct parts united with one line of 
fortifications. I. The Acropolis (' AKp6iro\is) or 
Polis (n6\is), also called the Upper City (ri 
ava ir6\is), which is described in a separate 
article [Acropolis]. II. The Asty (rh "Affry), 
also called the Lower City {ri KaroondKis) to dis- 
tinguish it from the Acropolis, surrounded with 
walls by Themistocles. Ill .The three harbour- 
towns of Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum, 
also surrounded with walls by Themistocles, 
and connected with the city by means of the 
long walls (ra /xaKpa Tei'x?)), built under the 
administration of Pericles. The long walls 
consisted of the wall to Phalerum on the E., 35 
stadia long (about 4 miles), and of the wall to 
Piraeus on the W., 40 stadia long (about 4£ 
miles) ; between these two, at a short distance 
from the latter and parallel to it, another wall 
was erected, thus making two walls leading to 
the Piraeus (sometimes called to. <tk:4At)), with 



ATHENAE 



141 



a narrow passage between them. There were passed over the hill of the Museum including 
therefore three long walls in all ; but the name ] in after times the monument of Philopappus : 
of Long Walls seems to have been confined to they then continued a little to the north of the 
the two leading to the Piraeus, while the one : Ilissus, including the Olyinpieum ; on the E. 
leading to Phalerum was distinguished by the they did not extend as far as the Lyceum. — 
name of the Phalerian Wall {rb $a\r)piKbv ' Gates. On the W. side were : — (1) Dipylum 
T(7x os )' T ne entire circuit of the walls was i (AiirvKov, more anciently Qpiaoiai or Kspaiutctu). 
174£ stadia (nearly 22 miles), of which 43 stadia the most frequented gate of the city, leading 
(nearly oh miles) belonged to the city, 75 stadia from the inner Ceramlcus to the outer Cera- 




1. Parthenon 

2. Ereclitheum 

3. Propylaea 

4. Prytaneum 

5. Temple of Asclepius 

6. Stoa of Eumenes 

7. Mon. of Lysierates 

8. Eleusinium 

9. Metroon 

10. Bouleuterion 

11. Tholos 

Temple of Furies 
Temple of Ares 

14. Enneacrounos 

15. So-called Prison of 
S>§0cratt 



H'niktr t~r ISoulalt sc. 



Uap of Ancient Athons. 



(9£ miles) to the long walls, and 50 J (7 miles) 
to Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum. — Topo 
graphy of the Lower City— Walls. The line of 
the walls surrounding the whole city, which were 
built by Themistocles (Thuc. i. 90) can be traced 
with certainty (see map above), and a portion of 
them is especially noticeable near the Dipylon 
(rate. On the W. they passed over the hill of the 
Nymphs and included the Pnyx; on the S. they 



micus, and to the Academy. It consisted of 
two gates which with the walls joining them 
inclosed a rectangular space : hence the name 
' double-gate ' : each gate had double doors with 
a centre pier : remains of the southern tower 
which defended the gate are traceable. The 
. name of this gate has been the more celebrated 
from a lind in this spot of a number of vases 
with geometric pattern which gave the desig- 



14 



ATHENAE 



ns vase ' to this class. [Diet. 

A', I This was the gate through j 

wl ,ion to Eleusis passed : hence 

it lutarch 'legal nv\ai. [It was 

loi onat this Sacred Gate was a 

se' -iing : but the opening so explained 

han oeen shown to be a watercourse through 
which the Eridanus flowed.] The name Thri- j 
asian was given because it led to the Eleusinian j 
deme Thria. It is probable that the name ] 
'Hp'iat wv\at, the Gate of the Dead, belonged to 
this gate also because it led to the Ceramicus. 
(2) The Piraean Gate (r/ neipaiicri ir. : Plut. Sull. 
14), between the Dipylon and the Nymphs' 
Hill. (3) The Melitian Gate (at MtAiriSes ir.), 
so called because it led between the Long 
"Walls to the demus Melite, within the city. 
On the S. side, going from W. to E. : — (4) 
The Itonian Gate (at 'Iraviai ir.), near the 
Ilissus, where the road to Phalerum began. 
On the E. side, going from S. to N. :— (5) The 



outer Ceramicus ; the S. part of the inner 
Ceramicus contained the Agora (ayopd), or 
' market-place.' The political Agora occupied 
the space immediately surrounding the Areio- 
pagus and between the Areiopagus, Pnyx and 
Acropolis, and there also was the market-place 
of commerce ; but as business increased, the 
market for buying and selling was pushed 
further out into the Ceramicus N. and NE. to 
the neighbourhood of the Stoa of Attalos and 
the Colonos Agoraios (the hill on which the 
temple falsely called Theseum stands ; and in 
Roman times further East to the Stoa of 
Hadrian and gate of Athene Archegetis. This 
gate of Athene Archegetis was built from dona- 
tions of Julius Caesar and Augustus, as an in- 
scription on it records. It seems to mark the 
SE. entrance to the Agora of the Roman period : 
whether, as some have conjectured, it was de- 
signed to mark some special point in state 
processions, cannot be determined. The re- 




Gate of Diochares (at Aioxdpovs ir.), leading to 
the Lyceum. — 6. The Dio?nean Gate (f] Aio/iTyis 
ttvAt], Alciphr. iii. 51, 4), leading to Cynosarges 
and the demus Diomea. On the NE. side : 
(7) The Achamian Gate (at 'AxapviKal ir.), 
leading to the demus Acharnae on the North. — 
8. The Knights' Gate(ai 'I7r7ra8es nv\at, Alciphr. 
iii. 51, 4) whose position is not known. Some 
take it to be an exit near the Olympieum lead- 
ing to Sunium. There were other unnamed 
gates : e.g. one leading to the Stadium prob- 
ably existed. It must be observed that near 
these gates (great double gates, and therefore 
usually, though not invariably, spoken of in 
the plural) there was a postern door (irv\'is), 
for foot-passengers : e.g. near the Achar- 
nian _ Gate (Plat. Lys. p. 203 a). — Chief 
Districts. The inner Ceramicus (Kepa- 
H^ikSs), or 'Potters' Quarter,' in the W. of 
the city, extending N. as far as the gate 
Dipylon by which it was separated from the 



mains now extant, standing in the modern 
' Poikile Street,' consist of four Doric columns 
with an architrave and a plain pediment. The 
demus Melite lay south of the inner Ceramicus, 
and W. of the Agora, reaching nearly as far as 
the Museum hill on the south and on the north 
to the Piraean gate and Colonos Agoraios 
(Dem. c. Con. p. 1258, § 7 ; Plut. Farm. 126). 
The position of the demus Scambonidae is 
disputed by recent writers. Some place it 
outside the city ; others make it a city 
deme to the south-west of the Acropolis : 
the latter view is on the whole the best. 
The demi Collytus and Cydathenaeum 
cannot be placed with certainty : probably 
the former lay in the northern part of the city, 
the latter south of the Acropolis. Coele^ 
a district south of Collytus and the Museum, 
along the Ilissus, in which were the graves of 
Cimon and Thucydides. Limnae, a district E. 
of Melite and Collytus, between the Acropolis 



ATHEXAE 



143 



md the Hissus. Diomea, a district in the E. still standing, belong to the completed temple 
jf the city, near the gate of the same name and of Hadrian (130 a.d.) The well-preserved 
the Cynosarges. Agrae, a district 3. of Diomea. Doric temple on the rising ground of Colonos 
—Hills. The Areiopagus ('Apei'ou irayos or Agoraios, which used to be known as ' the 
Apews irayos), the 'Hill of Ares,' W. of the temple of Theseus ' {Theseum), is probably the 
Acropolis (traditionally the hill from which the temple of Hephaestus (Paus. i. 14, 6.1. The 
Amazons attacked the Acropolis : Aesch. Eum. real temple of Theseus (of which no traces 
B80), which gave its name to the celebrated are discovered) stood near the temple of the 
council that held its sittings there (Diet, of Ant. j Dioscuri, which was under the N. side of the 
g. v.), was accessible on the S. side by a flight Acropolis near the temenos of Agraulos. The 
of steps cut out of the rock. On its X. , Temple of Ares stood on the XW. slope of the 
slope stood a temple of Ares : the chasm on the j Areiopagus. The Metrobn (Mtirp^ov), or temple 
SB. side near the top is supposed to be the | of the mother of the gods (in which the_ state 
;hrine of the 2€/*ecu (Eumenides) and lower archives were kept ) in the Agora on the XW. of 
down was the tomb of Oedipus. Traces of the Areiopagus, near the Bouleuterion and 
primitive houses, of an early date, like those on Tholos. The temple of Demeter and Kore and 
the Acropolis have been found on this hill, that of Triptolemus in the same precinct 
The Hill of the Nymphs, XW. of the Areiopa- (Eleusinion) just S. of the Areiopagus ; of 
gus, so called because an inscription notes it as Artemis Eucleia SE. of the Pnyx ; of Aphrodite 
sacred to the Nymphs : another has been found Pandemos under the SW. of the Acropolis ; of 
on it telling that part of the hill was a precinct Apollo Patrobs a little X. of the Metrobn ; of 
of Zeus. The Pynx (XAvvty, a semicircular hill, Dionysus just S. of the Theatre, and of 
SW. of the Areiopagus, where the assemblies of Asclepius, whose site has been excavated (dis- 
the people were held in earlier times, for after- j covering among other remains the ancient 
wards the people usually met in the Theatre of j well), under the Acropolis to the W. of the 
Dionysus (Diet. Ant. s. v. Ecclesia). The Theatre. The temple of Serapis, built after 
platform for speakers, or bema, which was the Ptolemy Philadelphus introduced that worship 
basis or steps of an altar to Zeus is still visible into Greece, seems to have stood XE. of the 
with three rows of seats cut in the reck behind Acropolis and XW. of the Olympieum. (2) The 




The Bema o( the Pnyx at Athens. 



it. The Prytanes seated on these faced the I 
people, who stood in a semicircular space (not 
originally a downward slope) between the bema 
■id the Agora. The Museum (or hill sacred to ' 
the Muses), S. of the Pnyx and the Areiopagus, 
on which was the monument of Philopappus, 
ami where the Macedonians built a fortress. — 
Streets. Of these we have little information. 
We read of the Piraean Street, which led from 
the Piraean gate to the Agora ; of the Street of 
the Hermae, which was probably an avenue 
at the N. side of the Agora formed by two 
lines of Hermae running towards the Dipylon 
from the ends of the Stoa Poecile and the Stoa 
Basileios respectively ; of the Street of the 
Tripods, on the E. of the Acropolis. This ' 
Btreet ran in a curve from the Prytaneum to 
the eastern entrance of the Theatre : it was 
bordered on each side by shrines surmounted 
by the gilt or bronze tripods dedicated by the 
tribe successful in the choregia. Of these the 
monument of Lysicrates remains, and the base 
ol another has been discovered. — Public 
Buildings. (1) Temples. Of these the most 
important was the Olympiium ('Ohvixiriiiov), 
or Temple of the Olympian Zeus, SE. of the 
Acropolis, near the Hissus and the fountain 
Callirrhoe. This temple was begun by Peisi- 
stratus and left unfinished by his sons: was 
carried on further by Antiochns Epiphanes, 
who employed the architect Cossutius, working 
in the Corinthian style : of this work traces 
have been found sufficient to recover the plan of 
Bit half-finished temple of Antiochns. The 
in Ik i ut remains, 16 Corinthian columns 



Senate House (0ov\fvri}piov), next to the 
Metrobn, XW. of the Areiopagus, and on the 
other side of this nearer the Areiopagus (3) 
the Tholos (86\os), a round building with 
umbrella-shaped roof in which the Prytanes 
and certain other officials (dfiViroi) dined in the 
period after Peisistratus, when the business 
quarter was shifted to the X. of the Areiopagus 
[see Diet. Ant. s.v. Prytaneum]. (i) The Pry- 
taneum, in which were the state hearth and sa- 
cred fire, and where foreign princes and envoys 
and specially honoured citizens, and in old times 
the Prytanes, dined at the state expense [see 
Diet. Ant. s. v.]. The Prytaneum formerly 
stood to the SW. of the Acropolis, in what was 
probably the old Agora. Later, probably after 
the Roman conquest, the new Prytaneum was 
built on the N W. side of the Acropolis. In it 
were preserved Solon's tables of law. 1 5 1 Stoae 
or Halls, supported by pillars, and used as 
places of resort in the heat of the day, of 
which there were several in Athens. (Diet, of 
A>it. art. Portieus.) In the Agora there were 
three: the Stoa Basileios (aroa f}aai\ttos), 
the court of the King-Archon, on the W. side of 
the Agora under the E. slope of the Colonus 
Agoraios; the Stoa Poecili (aroa 7toiki'\t)), on 
the X. side of the Agora, so called because 
it was adorned with fresco painting of the 
battle of Marathon bv Polygnotus ; and the 
Stoa Eleuth erius (aroa tAfvdtptos), or Hall of 
Zeus Eleutherius on the S. side of the Stoa 
Basileios. The Stoa of Attalus, which has 
been wrongly called ' the Gymnasium of 
Ptolemy,' can be identified by an inscription 



144 



ATHENAE 



of the epistyle. It was built by Attalos II., and 
stood, where its remains may now be seen, in 
the N. part of the Agora near the Stoa Poecile ; 
the Stoa of the Giants, apparently so called 
from the statues which adorned it, of which 
there are some remains of different dates, stood 
about 90 yards to the "West of the Stoa of 
Attalus ; the Stoa of Eumenes under the S. 
rocks of the Acropolis running from the Theatre 
to the Odeum of Herodes. The so-called ' Stoa 
of Hadrian ' was not strictly a Stoa, but formed 
part of the north front of the Gymnasium of 
Hadrian. The extant remains consist of a wall 
faced with a row of seven Corinthian columns. 
This formed the eastern portion of the north 
front. In the centre was originally a portico 
giving access to the interior, and to the west of 
that a wall faced with columns corresponding 
to what is now called Hadrian's Stoa. The ex- 
cavations, carried as far as the modern ' Aeolus ' 
Street, show that the gymnasium was of great 
size. Pausanias (i. 18, 9) says that it had 100 
columns of African marble. (6) Theatres. The 
Theatre of Dionysus, on the SE. slope of the 
Acropolis, was the great theatre of the state {Diet, 
of Ant. s.v. Theatrum) ; besides this there were 
three Odea (^J5e7a), for contests in vocal and in- 
strumental music (Diet, of Ant. s.v.), an ancient 
one near the fountain Enneacrounos [see below], 
a second built by Pericles, close to 
the Theatre of Dionysus, on the SE. 
slope of the Acropolis, and a third 
built by Herodes Atticus, in honour 
of his wife Regilla, on the SW. slope 
of the Acropolis, of which there are 
still considerable remains. (7) Sta- 
dium (rb STaSior), S. of the Ilissus, 
in the district Agrae. Its site hasbeen 
fixed by the excavations of 1870. It 
is said to date from the time of the 
orator Lycurgus, and to have been 
greatly improved and adorned with 
marble by Herodes. It is supposed to 
have had room for 40,000 spectators. 
Between the actual Stadium and the 
river remains of a portico are traced. 
(8) Monuments. The Monument of 
Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called the Tower of the 
Winds, an octagonal building N. of the Acro- 
polis, still extant, was a horologium. (Diet, 
of Ant. art. Horologium.) In the interior of 
this octagonal tower was a water-clock, which 
is said to have been served with water from 
the Clepsydra well on the Acropolis. Part of a 
covered aqueduct is traceable. The Choragic 
Monument of Lgsicrates, frequently but erro- 
neously called the Lantern, of Demosthenes, 
still extant, in the Street of the Tripods (see 
above). The Monument of Nicias (Chora- 
gus of boys in B.C. 320), of which the founda- 
tions are thought to be identified close to the 
Oileum of Herodes. Fragments of the facade 
were discovered built into the ' Beule ' Gate. 
It is probable that this Choragic monument 
was pulled down to make room for the road 
when this odeum was built. The Monument of 
Thrasyllus, victor with a chorus of men in the 
same year (320), stood against a cave in the 
rock above the Theatre of Dionysus. It seems 
to have been nearly perfect up to the Turkish 
siege in 1826 : there are still remains of 
pilasters and three inscriptions. The statues 
of the Eponymi (the heroes who gave their 
names to Attic tribes) stood in the Agora prob- 
ably just to tlie E. of the Areiopagus and S. of 
the Tholos : those of Harmodius and Aristo- 
geiton a little nearer to the Hill of the 



Nymphs. — Fountains. The wells of Asclepius, 

of the Eumenides on the Areiopagus and the 
Clepsydra on the Acropolis have been noticed 
above. Of still greater topographical and 
literary importance are the springs Callirrhoe 
and Enneacrounos about which there has been 
some confusion. The true acoount seems to be 
that Enneacrounos (' Nine Conduits) was 
between the Areiopagus and the Pynx, near 
the SW. corner of the former, being the water 
supply of the ancient Agora : the traces of the 
conduit made by Peisistratus are found here. 
It once bore the common name for springs, 
Callirrhoe, and this has caused a confusion 
with the Athenian Callirrhoe oftenest men- 
tioned (Thuc. ii. 15 ; Hdt. vi. 137 ; Plat. Phaedr. 
229), which was near the banks of the Ilissus, 
between that stream and the Olympieum, the 
vaults of which temple are connected by a 
subterranean passage with the spring. This 
Callirrhoe still bears the same name. In 
Plato's day there was already a confusion 
between the two springs in connexion with the 
legend of Oreithyia. — Suburbs. The Outer 
Ceramicus (6 e|co /caAovuevos), NW. of the 
city, was the finest suburb of Athens ; origin- 
ally the ' Potters' Quarter ' had been one 
single district, but the wall of Themistocles cut 
off the Inner from the Outer Ceramicus at t.ht. 




Coin of Athens. 

Obv„ head of Athene ; rev., owl and amphora— legend Etvv«Xci-A,ouipa- 
HpajtXct. Euryclides was one of the wporrarat. in 217 B.C. The three 
figures probably represent the seal of one of the magistrates named 

above. ) 



Dipylon Gate ; through this suburb passed the 
sacred road to Eleusis, and at the gate another 
road branched to the Academia which stood at 
the further end of the district, six stadia from 
the city. The Outer Ceramicus was used as a 
burial-place, and here those who had fallen in 
war had a public funeral and a monument (cf. 
Thuc. ii. 34 ; Aristoph. Av. 394 ; Dem. de Cor. 
§ 297). A vast number of sculptured grave 
stones and inscriptions have been found here. 
Of these monuments the finest were just outside 
the Dipylon Gate, where they had been pre- 
served by the debris of ruin and rubbish caused 
by Sulla's destruction of the neighbouring wall, 
under which they lay buried till 1863. Cynos- 
arges (rb KvvSo-apys-s), E. of the city, outside 
the gate Diomea, a gymnasium sacred to 
Heracles, where Antisthenes, the founder of 
the Cynic school, taught. Lyceum (rb Avtceiov), 
SE. of the Cynosarges, a gymnasium sacred to 
Apollo Lyceus, where Aristotle and the Peripa- 
tetics taught. Others place the Lyceum a little 
to the North of the Cynosarges. No certain 
means of identification have yet been dis- 
covered. The Gardens (Krjrrot) and temple of 
Aphrodite were close to the right bank of 
the Ilissus (on the opposite side to the Sta- 
dium), between the city wall and the river. 
Here was the famous statue of Aphrodite by 
Alcamenes. 



ATHENAE 

Athenae i'Adrjvai) : Atendh), a seaport town > 
of Pontus, named from its temple of Athene. 

Athenaeum. 1. In Arcadia, near Megalopolis 
(Paus. viii. 44; Plut. Cleom. 4). — 2. In Epirus, 
in the district of Athamania (Liv. xxviii. 1). 

Athenaeus ('A6rjvaios). 1. A learned Greek 
grammarian, of Naueratis in Egypt, lived about 
a.d. 230, first at Alexandria and afterwards at 
Rome. His extant work is entitled the Deipno- 
sophistae (AetirvoacxptaTal), i.e. the Banquet 
of the Learned, in 15 books, of which the first 
2 books, and parts of the 3rd. 11th, and 15th. 
exist only in an Epitome. The work may be 
considered one of the earliest collections of 
what are called Ana. being an immense mass 
of anecdotes, extracts from the writings of 
poets, historians, dramatists, philosophers, 
orators, and physicians, of facts in natural 
history, criticisms, and discussions on almost 
every conceivable subject, especially on Gas- 
tronomy. Athenaeus represents himself as de- 
scribing to his friend Timocrates a full account 
of the conversation at a banquet at Rome, at 
which Galen, the physician, and Ulpian, the 
jurist, were among the guests. — Editions. By 
Casaubon, Genev. 1897 ; bv Schweighauser, 
Argentorati, 1801-1807 ; by W. Dindorf, Lips. 
1827 ; by Meineke, Lips. 1867. — 2. A contempo- 
rary of Archimedes, wrote a work on military 
engines {trepi /j.t\x<>.w)u.4-twv), addressed to Mar- 
cellus; edited by C. Wescher, 18G7. — 3. A cele- 
brated physician, founder of the medical sect 
of the Pneumatici, born at AttalTa in Cilicia, 
practised at Rome about a.d. 50 (ed. C. Kiihn, 
1867). 

Athenagoras 'AO-nvayopas), an Athenian phi- 
losopher, converted to Christianity in the second 
cent. a.d. [See Diet, of Christ. Biogr.] 

Athenai8 \'A(h)t>ais). 1. Surnamed" Philo- 
storgus, wife of Ariobarzanes II., king of Cap- 
padocia, and mother of Ariobarzanes III. (Cic. 
adFam.w.i). — 2. Daughter of Leontius, after- , 
wards named Eudocia. 

Athenion I 'AStji-iW), a Cilician, one of the 
commanders of the slaves in the second Servile 
War in Sicily, defeated L. Licinius Lucullus, 
but was at length conquered and killed B.C. 101 
by the consul M'. Aquillius (Flor. iii. 19). 

Athenodorus CA0i)vo8a.posi. 1. Of Tarsus, a 
Stoic philosopher surnamed Cordylio, was the 
keeper of the library at Pergamus, and after- 
wards removed to Rome, where he lived with 
II. Cato, at whose house he died (Strab. p. 674 ; 
Plut. Cat. Min. 10).— 2. Of Tarsus, a Stoic 
philosopher, surnamed Cananites, from Cana 
in Cilicia, the birthplace of his father. He was 
a pupil of Posidonius at Rhodes, and taught at 
Apollonia in Epirus, where the young Octavius 
(subsequently the emperor Augustus) was one 
of his disciples. He accompanied the latter to 
Rome, and became one of his intimate friends. 
In his old age he returned to Tarsus, where he 
died at the age of eighty-two. He was the 
author of severul works, which are not extant 
(Suet. Claud. 4 ; Strab. p. 674.) — 3. A sculptor, 
the son and pupil of Agesander of Rhodes, 
whom he assisted in executing the group of 
Laocoon. [Aoesander.] 

Athesis (Adii/e or Etsch), rises in the Rhae- 
tian Alps, receives the Atagis ( Eitach), flows 
through Upper Italy, past Verona, and falls 
into the Adriatic by many mouths I Strab. p. 207). 

Athmone ('ABpovfi, also 'Adfiovia and "Afyio- 
vov : 'A"u h'«uj. fern. 'ABnovis), an Attic demus 
belonging to the tribe Cecropis, afterwards to 
the tribe Attalis. 

Athos ("Aflu/s, also "AQwv : 'AfleniTTjs : Haghion 



ATLAS 



145 



Oros, Monte Santo, i.e. Holy Mountain), the 
mountainous peninsula, also called Acte, which 
projects from Chaldice in Macedonia. It is 
mentioned in II. xiv. 229. At the extremity of 
the peninsula the mountain rises abruptly 
from the sea to a height of 6349 feet ; there is 
no anchorage for ships at its base, and the 
voyage round it was so dreaded by mariners 
that Xerxes had a canal cut through the 
isthmus which connects the peninsula with 
the mainland, tc afford a passage to his fleet 
(Hdt. vii. 23 ; Thuc. iv. 109 ; Diod. xi. 1 ; Mel. 
ii. 2, 10). The isthmus is about li mile across ; 
and there are distinct traces of the canal still 
to be seen ; so that we must not imitate the 
scepticism of Juvenal (x. 174), who refused to 
believe that the canal was ever cut. The 
peninsula contained several flourishing cities 
in antiquity, and is now studded with numerous 
monasteries, cloisters, and chapels, whence it 
derives its modem name. In these monas- 
teries some valuable MSS. of ancient authors 
have been discovered. 

Athxibis i'AOpiBis), a city in the Delta of 
Egypt ! capital of the Nomos Athribltes. 
Atla, mother of Augustus. 
Atilia or Atillia Gens, the principal members 
of which are given under their surnames Caxa- 
tixus, Regulus, and Serranus. 

Atilicinus, a Roman jurist of the first cent. 
a.d., is referred to in the Digest. 

Atilius or Acilius. 1. L., one of the earliest 
of the Roman jurists who gave public instruc- 
tion in law, probably lived about B.C. 100. In 
Pompon. Dig. i. 2, 2, 38, he appears as Atilius, 
but in Cic. de Senect. 2, 6 as Acilius. He wrote 
commentaries on the laws of the Twelve 
Tables. — 2. M., one of the early Roman poets, 
wrote comedies imitated from the Greek (pal- 
liatae) about 200 B.C. (Cic. ad Att. xiv. 20). He 
is probably the translator of Soph. Electra (Cic. 
Fin. i. 2, 5). 

Atina (Atlnas, -atis : Atina), a town of the 
Volsci in Latium, afterwards a Roman colony 
iVerg. Aen. viii. 6, 30; Plin. sxii. 11). 

Atintanes fArivravis), an Epirot people in 
Illyria, on the borders of Macedonia ; their 
country, Atintania, was reckoned part of Mace- 
donia (Thuc. ii. 80; Liv. xiv. 30). 
Atlus Varus. JVarus.] 
Atlanticum Mare. [Oceanus.] 
Atlantis i'AT\avris, sc. vr/crosl, according to 
an ancient tradition, a great island W. of the 
Pillars of Hercules in the Ocean, opposite 
Mount Atlas: it possessed a numerous popula- 
tion, and was adorned with every beauty ; its 
powerful princes invaded Africa and Europe, 
but were defeated by the Athenians and their 
1 allies ; its inhabitants af terwards became wicked 
and impious, and the island was in consequence 
swallowed up in the ocean in a day and a 
night. This legend is given by Plato in the 
Timaeus, and is said to have been related to 
Solon by the Egyptian priests. There was an 
old legend of a victory of Athens over the 
Atlantenes, which was worked on a peplos at 
the Panathenaea. (Schol. ad Plat. Hep. 327 ; 
Diod. iii. 58.) The Canary Islands, or the 
i Azores, which perhaps were visited by the 
Phoenicians, may have given rise to the legend ; 
but some modern writers regard it as indicative 
of a vague belief in antiquity in the existenco 
of the W. hemisphere. (Plat. Tim. p. 24, Crit. 
pp. 108, 118.) 

Atlas i'AtAoi), son of Iapetus and Clymene, 
and brother of Prometheus and Epimetheus. 
He made war with the other Titans upon Zeus, 



146 



ATLAS 



ATEEUS 



and being conquered, was condemned to bear 
heaven on his head and hands, standing in the 
far west where day and night meet, at the 
apparent junction of sky and sea. (Hes. Th. 
517, 746.) According to Homer (Od. i. 52, vii. 
245), Atlas bears the long columns which keep 
asunder heaven and earth (or, as some inter- 
pret, he was merely in charge of the pillars 
which keep apart, or which support on both 
sides), and he seems to be imagined there as a 
giant standing on the floor of the sea ; he is in 
that account the father of Calypso. It does 
not follow that Homer's idea of holding the 
pillars is necessarily older than the simpler 
idea of Hesiod, which makes Atlas himself the 
pillar ; and no explanation of the myth is pre- 
ferable to that which assumes it to have arisen 
from the idea that lofty mountains supported 
the heaven. Later traditions distort the ori- 
ginal idea still more, by making Atlas a man 
who was metamorphosed into a mountain. 
Thus Ovid (Met. iv. 626 seq.) relates that Per- 
seus came to Atras and asked for shelter, which 




Atlas. (From the Farnese Collection.) 



was refused, whereupon Perseus,by means of the 
head of Medusa, changed him into M. Atlas, on 
which rested heaven with all its stars. Others 
try to rationalise, and represent Atlas as a 
powerful king, who possessed great knowledge 
of the courses of the stars, and who was the 
first who taught men that heaven had the form 
of a globe. Hence the expression that heaven 
vested on his shoulders was regarded as a 
merely figurative mode of speaking. (Diod. iii. 
60, iv. 27 ; Paus. ix. 20.) At first, the story of 
Atlas referred to one mountain only, which was 
believed to exist on the extreme boundary of 
the earth ; but, as geographical knowledge ex- 
tended, the name of Atlas was transferred to 
other places, and thus we read of a Mauretanian, 
Italian, Arcadian, and even of a Caucasian, 
Atlas. The common opinion, however, was, that 
the heaven-bearing Atlas was in the NW. of 
Africa. [See below.] Atlas was the father of the 
Pleiades by Pleione or by Hesperis ; of the 
Hyades and Hesperides by Aethra; and of 
Oenomaus and Maia by Sterope. Dione and 



Calypso, Hyas and Hesperus, are likewise called 
his children. Atlas was represented as bearing 
a burden on his shoulders : in earlier times, 
before the idea of a sphere obtained, merely a 
rude mass of rock ; later, a sphere with zodiacal 
signs. — Atlantiades, a descendant of Atlas, es- 
pecially Mercury, his grandson by Maia (comp. 
Mercuri facunde nepos Atlantis, Hor. Od,. 
i. 10), and Hermaphroditus, son of Mercury. — 
Atlantias and Atlantis, a female descendant of 
Atlas, especially the Pleiads and Hyads. 

Atlas Mons ChrKas : Atlas), was the general 
name of the great mountain range which covers 
the surface of N. Africa between the Mediter- 
ranean and Great Desert (Sahara), on the N. 
and S., and the Atlantic and the Lesser Syrtis 
on the W. and E. ; the mountain chains SB. of 
the Lesser Syrtis, though connected with the 
Atlas, do not properly belong to it, and were 
called by other names (Hdt. iv. 184). The N. 
and S. ranges of this system were distinguished 
by the names of Atlas Minor and Atlas Major, 
and a distinction was made between the ij 
regions into which they divided the country. 
[Africa.] 

Atossa ("ATotrcra), daughter of Cyrus, and 
wife successively of her brother Cambyses, of 
Smerdis the Magian, and of Darius Hystaspis, 
over whom she possessed great influence. She 
bore Darius 4 sons, Xerxes, Masistes, Achae- 
menes, and Hystaspes. (Hdt. iii. 68, 133 ; 
Aesch. Pers.) 

Atrae or Hatra (" At pai, to." At pa : ' At pr)v6s, 
Atrenus : Hadr, SW. of Mosul), a strongly for- 
tified city on a high mountain in Mesopotamia, 
inhabited by people of the Arab race. 

Atratinus, Sempronms. 1. A., consul b.c. 
497 and 491. — 2. L., consul 444 and censor 443. 
— 3. C, consul 423, fought unsuccessfully 
against the Volscians, and was in consequence 
condemned to pay a heavy fine. — 4. L., accused 
M. Caelius Eufus, whom Cicero defended, 57 
(pro Gael. 1, 3, 7). 

Atrax ("ArpaQ, a town in Pelasgiotis in 
Thessaly, inhabited by the Perrhaebi, so called 
from the mythical Atrax, son of Peneus and 
Bura, and father of Hippodamla and Caenis 
(Liv. xxxii. 15). 

Atrebates ('Arpi^aroi), a people in Gallia 
Belgica, in the modern Artois, a corruption of 
their name. In Caesar's time (b.c. 57) they num- 
bered 15,000 warriors : their capital was Neme- 
tocenna. Part of them crossed over to Britain, 
where they dwelt in the upper valley of the 
Thames. (Caes. B.G. ii. 4, 16, 23.) 

Atreus ('Arpevs), son of Pelops and Hippo- 
damia, grandson of Tantalus, and brother of 
Thyestes and Nicippe. [Pelops.] He was first 
married to Cleola, by whom he became the 
father of Plisthenes ; then to Aerope, the widow 
of his son Plisthenes, who was the mother of 
Agamemnon, Menelaus, and Anaxibia, either 
by Plisthenes or by Atreus [Agamemnon] ; and 
lastly to Pelopia, the daughter of his brother 
Thyestes. In Homer there is no hint of tra- 
gedy: Atreus dies, leaving the kingdom to 
Thyestes ' rich in flocks ' (II. ii. 105) ; but in 
the post- Homeric epics a story appears which 
was adopted by the Tragedians. The strife 
with Thyestes is first traceable to a golden 
lamb, which Hermes gave as the pledge of 
sovereignty to the possessor (cf. Aesch. Ag. 
1585 ; Eur. Or. 988, El. 719). In consequence 
of the murder of their half-brother Chrysippus, 
Atreus and Thyestes were obliged to take to 
flight; they were hospitably received at My- 
cenae (Thuc. i. 9) ; and, after the death of 



ATRIA 



ATTICA 



147 



Eurystheus, Atreus became king of Mycenae. 1 of Alexander (B.C. 323), he served under Per- 
Thyestes seduced Aerope, the wife of Atreus, diccas, whose sister, Atalante, he had married ; 
and was in consequence banished by his and after the death of Perdiccas (321), he joined 
brother : from his place of exile he sent Plis- Alcetas, the brother of Perdiccas ; but their 
thenes, the son of Atreus, whom he had united forces were defeated in Pisidia by Anti- 
brought up as his own child, in order to slay gonus in 320. — 3. Kings of Pergamus. — (I.) 
Atreus; but Plisthenes fell by the hands of Nephew of Phtletaektjs, succeeded his cousin, 
Atreus, who did not know that he was his own Eumenes L, and reigned B.C. 241-197. He 
son. In order to take revenge, Atreus, pre- made head against the Gauls, and assumed the 
tending to be reconciled to Thyestes, recalled title of king after his success (Strab. p. 624 ; Liv. 
him to Mycenae, killed Iris 2 sons, and placed xxxviii. 16). He gained much of the territory of 
thc'r flesh before their father at a banquet, who the Seleucidae. He took part with the Romans 
unwittingly partook of the horrid meal. Thy- against Philip and the Achaeans. In 201 he 
estes fled with horror, and the gods cursed fought with the Rhodians against Philip, whose 
Atreus and his house. The kingdom of Atreus attack on Pergamus he repelled. He died in 197, 
was now visited by famine, and the oracle when he was joining the Romans against Philip, 
advised Atreus to call back Thyestes. 
Atreus, vainly searching for him in the 
land of king Thesprotus, married as his 
third wife, Pelopia, the daughter of Thy- 
estes, whom he believed to be a daughter 
of Thesprotus. Pelopia was at the time 
with child by her own father. This child, 
Aegisthus, afterwards slew Atreus because 
the latter had commanded him to slay 
his own father Thyestes. [Aegisthus.] 
Atria. [Adria.] 

Atrides ('ATpei'Sijs), a descendant of 
Atreus, especially Agamemnon and Me- 
nelaus. 

Atropatene Chrpoirarrivri), or Media 
Atropatia the NW. part of Media, adja- 
cent to Armenia, named after Atropates, 
a native of the country, who, having been made He was celebrated not only in war, but for his en- 
its governor by Alexander, founded there a couragement of literature and art. He founded 
kingdom, which long remained independent ; the library of Pergamus : the Pergamene 
alike of the Seleucidae, the Parthians, and the 1 sculpture began with representations of his 
Romans, but was at last subdued by the Par- 1 Gallic victories, one of which is the dying Gaul 
thians (Strab. p. 523 ; Just. xiii. 4). | (the so-called Gladiator) of the Capitoline 

Atropates {ArpoTrarns), a Persian satrap, Museum. — (II.) Surnamed Philadelphus, 2nd 
fought at the battle of Gaugamela, B.C. 331, and son of Attalus L, succeeded his brother Eu- 




Coin of Attalus I. 
Ohr.. head of Philetaerub. the louiiutjr of the dynasty ; rev., 
Athene, seated, crowning with wreath name of ijaetaipoy 
between bunch of grapes and a. 



ifter the death of Darius, was made satrap of 
Media by Alexander. His daughter was mar- 
ried to Perdiccas in 324 ; and he received from 
his father-in-law, after Alexander's death, the 
province of the Greater Media. (Diod. xviii. 3 ; 
Arrian, iv. 18.) [Atropatene.] 
Atropos. Mora 

Atta, T. Quintlus, a poet of the national or 
Roman Comedy (togatu), which represented 
Italian scenes, died B.C. 77. He is praised for 
his vivid delineation of character. Horace lEp. 
ii. I, 79) speaks of his plays as acted in his time. 

Attaginus {'ArrayTvos), son of Phrynon, a 
Theban, betrayed Thebes to Xerxes, B.C. 480. 
After the battle of Plataeae (479) the other 
Greeks required Attaginus to be delivered up 
to them, but he made his escape. (Hdt. ix. 88 ; 
Paus. vii. 10.) 

Attalia CATraKeta : 'ArraAf £t7;s or -a-r^s). — 



menes II., and reigned 159-133. Like his father 
he was an ally of the Romans, and he also en- 
couraged the arts and sciences. — (III.) Sur- 
named Philometor, son of Eumenes II. and 
Stratonice, succeeded his uncle Attalus II., and 
reigned 138-133. He is known to us chiefly for 
the extravagance of his conduct and the murder 
of his relations and friends. In his will he 
made the Romans his heirs; but his kingdom 
was claimed by Aristonicus. [Akistonicus.] — 
4. Roman emperor of the West, was raised to 
the throne by Alaric, but was deposed by the 
latter, after a reign of one year (a.d. 409, 410), 
on account of his acting without Alaric's advice. 
— 5. A Stoic philosopher in the reign of Ti- 
berius, was one of the teachers of Seneca, who 
speaks of him in the highest terms (Ej>. 108). 

Atthis or Attis f AtSis or "AttisI, daughter 
of Cranaus, from whom Attica was believed to 



1. A city of Lydia, formerly called Agroira I have derived its name. The two birds into 



('Ayp6(ipa), and nfounded by one of the kin 
of Pergamus. — 2. (Adalia), a city on the coast 
of Pamphylia, for which it was the port, near 
the mouth of the river Catarrhactes, founded 
by Attalus II. Philadelphus, and subdued by 
the Romans under P. Servilius Isauricus (Strab. 
p. 007). 

Attalus i "AttoAos). 1. A Macedonian, uncle 
of Cleopatra, whom Philip married in B.C. 887. 
At the nuptials of his niece, Attalus offered an 
insult to Alexander, and, on the accession of 
the latter, was put to death by his order in Asia 
Minor, whither Philip had previously sent him 
to secure the Greek cities to his cause (Diod. 
xvii.2). — 2. Son of AndromenestheStymphaean, 
and one of Alexander's officers ; after the death 



which Philomele and her sister Procne were 
metamorphosed were likewise called Attis. 
[Philomela.] 

Attica 'Atti/ct), sc. yrf), a division of Greece, 
has the form of a triangle, two sides of which 
are washed by the Aegaean sea, while the third 
is separated from Boeotia on the N. by the 
mountains Cithaeron and Parnes. Megaris, 
which bounds it on the NW., was formerly a 
part of Attica. In ancient times it was called 
Acte and Actice ('A/cHj and 'A/fTiKVj), or the 
' coastland ' [Acte], from which the later form 
Attica is said to have been derived : but accord- 
ing to traditions it derived its name from Atthis, 
the daughter of the mythical king Cranaus. 
Attica is divided by many ancient writers into 

L2 



148 



ATTICUS 



ATTILA 



3 districts. 1. The Highlands (r) Stcutpia, also 
bpuv^i 'ATTi/crj), the NE. of the country, con- 
taining the range of Parnes and extending S. 
to the promontory Gynosura : the only level 
part of this district was the small plain of Ma- 
rathon opening to the sea. 2. The Plain (fj 
■keS'ias, to ireStov), the NW. of the country, in- 
cluded both the plain round Athens and the 
plain round Eleusis, and extended S. to the 
promontory Zoster. 3. The Sea-coast District 
[r] irapaKla), the S. part of the country, termi- 
nating in the promontory Sunium. Besides 
these 3 divisions we also read of a 4th, The 
Midland District (jxz<r6'yaia), still called Me- 
sogia, an undulating plain in the middle of the 
country, bounded by M. Pentelicus on the N., 
M. Hymettus on the W., and the sea on the E. 
The soil of Attica is not very fertile : the greater 
part of it is not adapted for growing corn ; but 
it produces olives, figs, and grapes, especially 
the 2 former, in great perfection. The country 
is dry : the chief river is the Cephissus, which 
rises in Parnes and flows through the Athenian 
plain. The abundance of wild flowers in the 
country made the honey of M. Hymettus very 
celebrated in antiquity. Excellent marble was 
obtained from the quarries of Pentelicus, NE. 
of Athens, and a considerable supply of silver 
from the mines of Laurium near Sunium. The 
area of Attica, including the island of Salamis, 
which belonged to it, contained between 700 and 
800 square miles ; and its population in its flou- 
rishing period was probably about 500,000, of 
winch nearly 4-5ths were slaves. Attica is said 
to have been originally divided into 12 inde- 
pendent states (traditionally by Cecrops), which 
Philochorus names as Cecropia ( = Athens), 
Eleusis, Epacria, Decelea, Aphidnae, Thoricus, 
Brauron, Cythera, Sphettus, Cephisia, Phale- 
rum, and the Tetrapolis of N. Attica, formed 
by Marathon, Oenoe, Tricorythus, and Proba- 
linthus, and occupied by settlers of Dorian 
origin. These 12 communities probably pre- 
sent the names of the most important places 
in early times, and are marked by various 
local sacred rites, which reappear in the mytho- 
logy of literature. To Theseus is ascribed the 
union of Attica, which is thought to have been 
effected by an immigration of Ionian maritime 
people who combined with the old inhabitants 
of ' Cecropia ' in uniting the other districts with 
Athens as the head. At some time, which seems 
to be the period of Ionian immigration, the 
people were divided (in Ionian fashion) into 4 
tribes : Geleontes, Hopletes, Argadeis, Aegico- 
reis, a distribution which tradition assigns to 
Ion ; but there was also a triple division (Dorian 
fashion) into Eupatridae or nobles, Geomori or 
husbandmen, and Demiurgi or artisans : each 
of the 4 tribes seems to have had this threefold 
composition. Clisthenes (b.c. 510) abolished the 
old tribes and created 10 new ones, according 
to a geographical division : these tribes were sub- 
divided into 174 demi, townships or communes. 
(For detail.;, see Diet, of Ant. art. Tribus.) 

Atticus Herodes, Tiberius Claudius, a cele- 
brated Greek rhetorician, born about a.d. 104, at 
Marathon in Attica. He taught rhetoric both at 
Athens and at Rome, and his school was fre- 
quented by the most distinguished men of the 
age. The future emperors M. Aurelius and L. 
Verus were among his pupils, and Antoninus 
Pius raised him to the consulship in 143. He 
possessed immense wealth, a great part of which 
he spent in embellishing Athens, where he built 
the Odeum {Diet. Ant. s.v. Theatrum), and a 
Stadium. [Athenae.] He made gifts also of 



building and sculpture to Corinth, Olympia, and 
Delphi (Paus. i. 19, ii. 1, vi. 21, x. 32.) He 
had a friendship, sometimes interrupted, with 
Fronto. He died in 180. He wrote numerous 
works, none of which have come down to us, 
with the exception of an oration, entitled Tlepl 
iroXiTeLas, the genuineness of which, however, is 
very doubtful. It is printed in the collections 
of the Greek orators, and by Fiorillo, in Herodis 
Attici quae supersunt, Lips. 1801. 

Atticus, T. Pomponius, a Roman eques,born 
at Rome, B.C. 109. His proper name after his 
adoption by Q. Caecilius, the brother of his 
mother, was Q. Caecilius Pomponianus Atticus. 
His surname, Atticus, was given him on account 
of his long residence in Athens and his intimate 
acquaintance with the Greek language and lite- 
rature. He was educated along with L. Tor- 
quatus, the younger C. Marius, and M. Cicero. 
Soon after the breaking out of the civil war be- 
tween Marius and Sulla, he resolved to take no 
part in the contest, and accordingly removed to 
Athens. During the remainder of his life, he 
kept aloof from all political affairs, and thus 
lived on the most intimate terms with the most 
distinguished men of all parties. He was equally 
the friend of Caesar and Pompey, of Brutus 
and Cassius, of Antony and Augustus ; but his 
most intimate friend was Cicero, whose corre- 
spondence with him, beginning in 68 and con- 
tinued down to Cicero's death, is one of the 
most valuable remains of antiquity. He re- 
turned to Rome in 65, when he came into 
possession of the inheritance from Caecilius. 
He purchased an estate at Buthrotum in Epi- 
rus, between which place, Athens and Rome, 
he divided the greater part of his time, engaged 
in literary pursuits and in commercial under- 
takings, by which he greatly increased his 
wealth. He died at Rome in 32, at the age of 
77, of voluntary starvation, when he found that 
he was attacked by an incurable illness. His. 
wife, Pilia, to whom he was married in 56, when 
he was 53 years of age, bore him only one child, 
a daughter, Pomponia or Caecilia, whom Cicero- 
sometimes calls Attica and Atticula. She was 
married in the lifetime of her father to M. 
Vipsanius Agrippa. The sister of Atticus, Pom- 
ponia, was married to Q. Cicero, the brother of 
the orator. The life of Atticus by Cornelius. 
Nepos is to be regarded rather as a panegyric 
upon an intimate friend, than strictly speaking 
a biography. In philosophy Atticus belonged 
to the Epicurean sect. He was thoroughly 
acquainted with the whole circle of Greek and 
Roman literature. So high an opinion was 
entertained of his taste and critical acumen, 
that many of his friends, especially Cicero, were 
accustomed to send him their works for revision 
and correction. None of his own writings have 
come down to us. 

Attila ('ATi-rjAas or 'Arrtkas, German Etzel,. 
Hungarian Ethele), king of the Huns, attained 
in a.d. 434, with his brother Bleda (in German 
Blodel), to the sovereignty of all the northern 
tribes between the frontier of Gaul and the. 
frontier of China, and to the command of an 
army of at least 500,000 barbarians. He gradu- 
ally concentrated upon himself the awe and 
fear of the whole ancient world, which ulti- 
mately expressed itself by affixing to his name 
the well-known epithet of ' the Scourge of God.' 
His career divides itself into two parts. The 
first (a.d. 445-450) consists of the ravage of the 
Eastern empire between the Euxine and the 
Adriatic and the negotiations with Theodosius 
II., which followed upon it. They were ended 



ATTILITJS 



AUGURINUS 



149 



by a treaty which ceded to Attila a large terri- 
tory S. of the Danube and an annual tribute. 
The second part of his career was the invasion 
of the Western empire (450-452). He crossed 
the Ehine at Strassburg, but was defeated at I 
Chalons by Aetius, and Theodoric, king of the 
Visigoths, in 451. He then crossed the Alps, 
and took Aquileia in 452, after a siege of 3 
months, but he did not attack Rome, in conse- 
quence, it is said, of his interview with Pope 
Leo the Great. He recrossed the Alps towards 
the end of the year, and died in 453, on the 
night of his marriage with a beautiful girl, vari- 
ously named Hilda, lldico, Mycolth, by the 
bursting of a blood-vessel. In person Attila 
was, like the Mongolian race in general, a short 
thickset man, of stately gait, with a large head, 
dark complexion, flat nose, thin beard, and bald 
with the exception of a few white hairs, his eyes 
small, but of great brilliancy and quickness. 
(Priscus, 33-76 ; Jornand. de Reb. Get. 32-50.) 
Attilius. [Atixius.] 

Attis, Atys, or Attin ("Attis, or'ATTTjs). 1. A 
Phrygian deity belonging to the myth of the 
Phrygian 'Great Mother' [Cybele]. In the 
mystical Eastern story current at Pessinus 
Agdistis had been mutilated by the gods, and 
from the blood sprang an almond tree, whose 
fruit was gathered by Nana, the daughter 
of the river-god Sangarius. She bore a son, 
the beautiful Attis (who in Ovid's version is 
the son of Nana and a shepherd), who was 
reared by goats in the mountains. Agdistis, 
who in this story becomes identified with 
Cybele, fell in love with him [other versions 
represent a rivalry between two personages, 
Cybele and Agdistis], and when Attis wished 
to marry the daughter of the king of Pessinus 
(or the nymph Sagaritis), the goddess drove 
him mad, so that he mutilated himself beneath 
a pine tree, into which his spirit passed ; at its 
foot violets sprang up from his blood (Paus. vii. 
17 ; Diod. iii. 58 ; Arnob. adv. Gent. v. 5 ; Catull. 
03; Ov. Fast. iv. 223). The fir tree wreathed 
with violets became a sacred emblem of Attis 
in the wild festivals of Cybele, whose priests, in 
memory of Attis, were eunuchs. Attis dead 
was mourned for two days, and then a feast of 
joy was celebrated for his recovery. [For the 
history of these ceremonies at Rome see Diet. 
Ant. s. v. Megalensia.] There is much resem- 
blance in the character of this myth, though 
not in its details, to the Eastern myth of Adonis. 
It symbolises the growth of life in nature, 
especially of plant and tree life, its death and 
its resurrection, as well as the twofold character 
of natural production, the male and the female. 
[For some further mysteries connected with 
these rites Hee Diet. Ant. s. v. Taurobolium.] — 

2. Son of Manes, king of the Maeonians, from 
whose son Lydus, his son and successor, the 
Maeonians were afterwards called Lydians. — 

3. A Latin chief, son of Alba, and father of 
Capys, from whom the Atia Gens derived its 
origin, and from whom Augustus was believed 
to be descended on his mother's side. — 4. Son 
of Croesus, slain by Aduastus. 

Attius. [AcciusJ 

Attius or Attus Navius. [Navius.] 

Attius Tullius. iTi llh 

Aturia CArovpia). [Assyria.] 

Aturus (Adour), a river in Aquitania, rises 
in the Pyrenees and flows through the territory 
of the Tarbelli into the ocean. 

Atymnius CAr6p.vios or "Arufwos ), son of Zeus 
and Cassiopea, a beautiful boy, beloved by Sar- 
pedon. Others call him son of Phoenix. He 



was worshipped especially at Gortyna. "When 
Sarpedon quarrelled with Minos he took Atym- 
nius with him to Asia Minor, where he seems 
to be identified with Miletus. 

Aufidena (Aufidenas, -atis : Alfidena), a 
town in Samnium on the river Sagrus. 

Aufidius. 1. Cn., a learned historian, cele- 
brated by Cicero (Tusc. v. 38; Fin. v. 19) for 
the equanimity with which he bore blindness, 
was quaestor B.C. 119, tribunus plebis 114, and 
finally praetor 103. — 2. T., a jurist, quaestor 
B.C. 86, and afterwards propraetor in Asia. — 
3. Bassus. [Bassus.] — C. lurco. [Lubco.] — 
5. Orestes. [Orestes.] 

Aufidus (Ofanto), the principal river of 
Apulia, rises in the Apennines, in the territory 
of the Hirpini in Samnium, flows at first with a 
rapid current (hence violens and acer, Hor. 
Od. iii. 30, 10, Sat. i. 1, 58), and then more 
slowly tstagna Aufida, Sil. ltal. x. 171), into 
the Adriatic. Venusia, the birthplace of Horace, 
was on the Aufidus. 
Augarus. [Abgaeus.] 

Auge or Augia (Av-yri or Avyda), daughter 
of Aleus and Neaera, was a priestess of Athene, 
and mother by Heracles of Telephus. ! he 
afterwards married Teuthras, king of the 
Mysians. 

Augeas or Augias (Avyeas or Abye'ias), son 
of Phorbas or Helios (the Sun), and king of the 
Epeans in Elis. He had a herd of 3000 oxen, 
whose stalls had not been cleansed for thirty 
years. It was one of the labours imposed upon 
Heracles by Eurystheus to cleanse these stalls 
in one day. As a reward the hero was to 
receive the tenth part of the oxen ; but when 
he had accomplished his task by leading the 
rivers Alpheus and Peneus through the stables, 
Augeas refused to keep his promise. Heracles 
thereupon killed him and his sons, with the 
exception of Phyleus, who was placed on the 
throne of his father. (Paus. v. 1, 7 ; Theocr. 25 ; 
Diod. iv. 13 ; Apollod. ii. 5.) Another tradition 
represents Augeas as dying a natural death at 
an advanced age, and as receiving heroic 
honours from Oxylus (Paus. v. 3, 4). 

Auglla (to At/ytAa: Aiijilaln, an oasis in the 
Great Desert of Africa, about 3| L S. of Cyrene, 
and 10 days' journey W. of the Oasis of Am- 
nion, abounding in date palms, to gather the 
fruit of which a tribe of the Nasamones, called 
Augilae (Au7i'A.oi), resorted to the Oasis, which 
at other times was uninhabited (Hdt. iv. 172). 

AugurmuB, Genucius. 1. T., consul b.o. 451, 
and a member of the first decemvirate in the 
' same year. — 2. M., his brother, consul 445. 
Augurinus, Minucius. 1. M., consul b.o. 
497 and 491. He took an active part in the 
defence of Coriolanus, who was brought to trial 
in 191, but was unable to obtain his acquittal. — 
2. L., consul 458, carried on war against the 
Aequians. and was surrounded by the enemy 
(Hi Mt. Algidus, but was delivered by the dic- 
tator Cincinnati's. — 3. L., was appointed prae- 
fect of the corn-market {praefectus annonae) 
139, us the people were suffering from grievouB 
t a 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 • - . The ferment occasioned by the assas- 
sination of Sp. Maelius in this year was ap- 
peused by Augurinus, who is said to have gone 
over to the plebs from the patricians, and to 
have been chosen by the tribunes one of their 
body. Augurinus lowered the price of corn in 
three market days, fixing as the maximum an 
as for a modius. The people in their gratitude 
presented him with an ox having its horns gilt, 
and erected a statue to his honour outside the 
Porta Trigemina. (Liv. iv. 12-16.) 



150 



AUGUSTA 



AUGUSTUS 



Augusta, the name of several towns founded 
or colonised by Augustus. 1. A. Asturlca. 
[Asttjbes.] — 2. A. Emerlta (Merida), in Lusi- 
tania on the Anas (Guadiana), colonised by 
Augustus with the veterans (emeriti) of the 
fifth and tenth legions, was a place of consider- 
able importance, and the capital of Lusitania 
(Strab.pp. 151, 156; Dio Cass. liii. 26 ; Aus. Ord. 
Nob. Urb. 8).— 3. A. Firma. [Astigi.]— 4. A. 
Praetoria (Aosta), a town of the Salassi in 
Upper Italy, at the foot of the Graian and 
Pennine Alps, colonised by Augustus with 
soldiers of the praetorian cohorts. The modern 
town still contains many Roman remains ; the 
most important of which are the town gates 
and a triumphal arch. (Strab. p. 106 ; Dio Cass, 
liii. 25.) — 5. A. Rauracorum (Augst), the capital 
of the Rauraci, colonised by Munatius Plancus 
B.C. 44, was on the left of the Rhine near the 
modern Basle : the ruins of a Roman amphi- 
theatre are still to be seen. Its first name was 
Colonia Baurica : the title Augusta was added 
under Augustus. — 6. A. Suessonum (Soissons), 
the capital of the Suessones in Gallia Belgica, 
probably the Noviodunum of Caesar (B.G. ii. 
12). — 7. A. Taurinorum (Turin), more anciently 
called Taurasia, the capital of the Taurini on 
the Po, was an important town in the time of 
Hannibal, and was colonised by Augustus 
(Polyb. iii. 60; Tac. Hist. ii. 66). Its import- 
ance was greatly owing to the fact that it 
led to the passes of the Cottian Alps, the 
M. Genevre, and the M. Cenis. [Alpes.] — 
8. Trevirorum. [Tbeviki.] — 9. Tricastinorum 
(Aouste), the capital of the Tricastini in Gallia 
Narbonensis. — 10. A. Vindelicorum (Augs- 
burg), capital of Vindelicia or Rhaetia Se- 
cunda on the Lisus (Lech), colonised by Drusus 
under Augustus, after the conquest of Rhaetia, 
B.C. 14. 

Augustlnus, Aurelius, the most illustrious 
of the Latin Fathers, born a.d. 354, at Tagaste, 
an inland town in Numidia. [Diet, of Christian 
Biogr.] 

Augustobona (Troyes), afterwards called 
Tricassae, the capital of the Tricasii or Tricasses 
in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Augustodunum. [Bibracte.] 

Augustonemetum. [Abverni.] 

Augustoritum. [Lemovices.] 

Augustus, the first Roman emperor, was 
born on the 23rd of September, B. c. 63, and 
was the son of C. Octavius by Atia, a daughter 
of Julia, the sister of C. Julius Caesar. His 
original name was C. Octavius, and, after his 
adoption by his great-uncle, C. Julius Caesar 
Octavianus ; the title Augustus was given him 
by the senate and the people in 27 as a mark of 
peculiar rank and claim to veneration. Octavius 
lost his father at 4 years of age, but his edu- 
cation was conducted with great care by his 
grandmother Julia, and by his mother and step- 
father, L. Marcius Philippus, whom his mother 
married soon after his father's death. C. Julius 
Caesar, who had no male issue, also watched 
over his education with solicitude. In 45 
he was sent by Caesar to Apollonia in Illy- 
ricum, where some legions were stationed, 
that he might acquire a more thorough prac- 
tical training in military affairs, and at the 
same time prosecute his studies. He was at 
Apollonia when the news reached him of his 
uncle's murder at Rome in March 44, and he 
forthwith set out for Italy, accompanied by 
Agrippa and a few other friends. On landing 
near Brundusium at the beginning of April, he 
heard that Caesar had adopted him in his testa- 



ment and made him his heir. On reaching" 
Rome about the beginning of May, he demanded 
nothing but the private property which Caesar 
had left him, but declared that he was resolved 
to avenge the murder of his benefactor. An- 
tony had spent a great part of the money left 
by Caesar in bribes to Dolabella and others ; 
and Octavius gained popularity by paying all 
the legacies out of what remained to him. The 
state of parties at Rome was most perplexing ; 
and one cannot but admire the extraordinary 
tact and prudence which Octavius displayed, 
and the skill with which a youth of barely 20 
contrived to blind the most experienced states- 
men in Rome, and eventually to carry all his 
designs into effect. He had to contend against, 
the republican party as well as against Antony, 
who foresaw that Octavius would stand in the 
way of his views, and had therefore attempted, 
though without success, to prevent him from 
accepting the inheritance from his uncle. 
Octavius, therefore, resolved to crush Antony 
first as the more dangerous of his two enemies,, 
and accordingly made overtures to the republi- 
can party. These were so well received, espe- 
cially when 2 legions went over to him, that, 
the senate conferred upon him the title of 
praetor, and sent him with the two consuls of 
the year, C. Vibius Pansa and A. Hirtius, to 
attack Antony, who was besieging D. Brutus 
in Mutina. Antony was defeated and obliged 
to fly across the Alps ; and the death of the 
2 consuls gave Octavius the command of all 
their troops. Cicero now showed his distrust 
of his motives : the senate became alarmed, 
and determined to prevent Octavius from ac- 
quiring further power. But he soon showed 
that he did not intend to become the senate's 
servant. Supported by his troops he marched 
upon Rome, from which Cicero had retired, 
and demanded the consulship, which the terri- 
fied senate was obliged to give him. He was 
elected to the office along with Q. Pedius, and 
the murderers of the dictator were outlawed. 
He was formally admitted into the patrician 
gens Julia, and henceforth known as Octavianus. 
He now marched into the N. of Italy, pro- 
fessedly against Antony, who had been joined 
by Lepidus and was descending from the Alps, 
at the head of the combined 17 legions. Octa- 
vianus and Antony now became reconciled ; and, 
at a meeting on an island on the river Rhenus 
near Bononia (Bologna), it was agreed that the 
Western provinces should be divided between 
Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus, under the 
title of triumviri rei publicae constituendae,. 
and that this arrangement should last for the 
next five years. Octavianus received Sicily, 
Sardinia, and Africa; Lepidus, Spain and 
Gallia Narbonensis ; Antony, the rest of the 
two Gauls. Octavianus and Antony with 19 of 
the legions were to wrest the Eastern provinces 
from Brutus and Cassius. They published a 
proscriptio or list of all their enemies, whose 
lives were to be sacrificed and their property 
confiscated: upwards of 2000 equites and 
300 senators were put to death, among whom 
was Cicero. Soon afterwards Octavianus and 
Antony crossed over to Greece, and defeated 
Brutus and Cassius at the battle of Philippi in 
42, by which the hopes of the republican party 
were ruined. The triumvirs thereupon made a 
new division of the provinces. Lepidus obtained 
Africa, Octavianus the rest of the Western 
provinces, and Antony all the Eastern : Octa- 
vianus returned to Italy to reward his veterans 
with the lands he had promised them. Here a. 



AUGUSTUS 



151 



new war awaited him (41), excited by Fulvia, 
the wife of Antony. She was supported by 
L. Antonius, the consul and brother of the 
triumvir, who threw himself into the fortified 
town of Perusia, which Octavianus succeeded in 
taking in 43. Antony now made preparations 
for war, but the opportune death of Fulvia led 
to a reconciliation between the triumvirs, who 
concluded a peace at Brundusium. A new 
division of the provinces was again made : 
Octavianus obtained all the parts of the empire 
W. of the town of Scodra in Ulyricum, and 
Antony the E. provinces, while Italy was to 
belong to them in common : Lepidus retained 
Africa. It is probable that this reconciliation 
gave the theme for Virgil's Fourth Eclogue. 
Antony married Octavia, the sister of Octavi- 
anus, in order to cement their alliance. In 39 
Octavianus concluded a peace with Sext. Porn- 
peius, whose fleet gave him the command of 
the sea, and enabled him to prevent corn from 
reaching Rome. For a short time Pompeius, 
as a fourth ruler, received a share of provinces. 
But this peace was only transitory. As long as 
Pompeius was independent, Octavianus could 
not hope to obtain the dominion of the "West, 
and he therefore eagerly availed himself of the 
pretext that Pompeius allowed piracy to go on 
in the Mediterranean, for the purpose of 
declaring war against him. In 30 the contest 
came to a final issue. The fleet of Octavianus, 
under the command of M. Agrippa, gained a 
decisive victory off the east coast of Sicily over 
that of Pompeius, who abandoned Sicily and fled 
to Asia. Lepidus, who had landed in Sicily to 
support Octavianus, was impatient of the sub- 
ordinate part which lie had hitherto played, 
and claimed the island for himself ; but he was 
easily subdued by Octavianus, stripped of his 
power, and sent to Rome, where he resided for 
the remainder of his life, being allowed to retain 
the dignity of Pontifex Maximus. In 35 and 
34 Octavianus was engaged in war with the 
Illyriana and Dalmatians. Meantime, Antony 
had repudiated Octavia, and had al'enated the 
minds of the Roman people by 1 is arbitrary 
and arrogant proceedings in the East. This feel- 
ing was increased when Octavianus learnt from 
Plancus and published the will which Antony 
had prepared directing that his body should he 
placed, like that of an Egyptian king, in Cleo- 
patra's mausoleum. Octavianus found that the 
Romans were quite prepared to desert his rival, 
and accordingly in 32 the senate declared war 
against Cleopatra, for Antony was looked upon 
only as her infatuated slave. In the spring of 31 
Octavianus passed over to Epirus, and in Sep- 
tember in the same year his fleet gained a bril- 
liant victory over Antony's near the promontory 
of Actium in Acarnania. The next eleven 
months lie spent in founding the city of Nico- 
polis, in making settlements for his veterans, and 
in arranging the Eastern provinces. In the 
following year (30) Octavianus sailed to Egypt. 
Antony and Cleopatra, who had escaped in 
safety from Actium, put an end to their lives 
to avoid falling into the hands of the conqueror. 
Octavianus returned to Rome in 29 and cele- 
brated the 'triple triumph' (Verg. Aen. viii. 
714) for victories in Dalmatia, at Actium, and 
in Egypt. Ho was now master of the Roman 
world with an authority which no party at 
Rome really wished that he should resign. The 
senatorial management was, as Julius Caesar 
well understood, worn out and no longer possible 
to renew : it was necessary that the executive 
power should be concentrated in one strong 



ruler, such as could be found in Octavianus 
alone, and also that this should be legally 
established : it was advisable, moreover, that it 
should outwardly agree with the old republican 
forms, so as to avoid as far as possible the 
appearance of breach of continuity and revo- 
lution. Accordingly in his 6th consulship, 
b. c. 28, he resigned by an edict to the senate 
and people the extraordinary power which he 
had wielded since he became triumvir in 43. 
Thus nominally the republic was restored on 
its old footing; but by a vote obtained from 
the senate and people he received all his old 

I powers (theoretically for 10 years). His pro- 
vincia with the consulare imperium gave him 
absolute control of the frontier provinces and 
the appointment of their governors, the com- 

■ mand of all armies, the right of levying troops, 
and of making peace or war. This was strictly 

> an enlarged proconsular power, but he held it 
until 23 with the consulship, and thus continued 
it, unlike any proconsul, in Rome, where he 
was rendered inviolable and secured from inter- 
ference with his authority by the tribunicia 
potestas, which had already in 36 been granted 
him for life. Now also he received the cog- 
nomen of Augustus. In 23, when he gave up 
the consulship, the principate assumed the 
character, which 
it retained, with 
some changes in its 
development, till 
Diocletian. While 
he held the pro- 
vincia above men- 
tioned, since he no 
longer became con - 
sul and two other 
consuls were an- 
nually elected, it 
was now a pro- 
consulare impe- 
rium : to compen- 
sate for this he 
received in 23 the 
majus imperium, 
which, if nominally 
on a level with 
that of the consuls, 
ranked over every other magistrate ; in 22 the 
right of convening the senate and initiating busi- 

1 ness ; in 19 the 12 fasces : finally to give a name 
to that power which made him superior to the 
consuls and their routine domestic duties, he 
relied on the perpetual tribu nicia potestas, under 
cover of which he had supreme control over all 
departments. Though Augustus had nominally 
recognised the senate as the council of advisers 

1 to the executive magistrates, yet it did not 
really check absolutism: for (1) the most im- 
portant provinces were altogether transferred 
from its control to that of the emperor, and the 
number of senatorial provinces was always de- 

! creasing; and (2) though the emperor sat in the 
senate as a senator, his opinion was really 
decisive. Augustus officially, he was called also 
Caesar from his adoption : the title Imperator 
which he shared with others so saluted did not 
distinguish the emperor till later times ; but a 
common designation for Augustus and his suc- 
cessors in the first century a. n. was princeps, 
i.e. the foremost man of the state. Augustus 
had no regular cabinet ministers, but his trusted 
friends Agrippa, Maecenas, Corvinus and Pollio, 
especially the first two, served him as a privy 
council. The almost uninterrupted festivities, 
games, distributions of corn, and the like, made 




Bust of Oetavius (Augustus). 
(British Museum.) 



152 



AUGUSTULUS 



AURELIANUS 



the people forget the substance of their republi- 
can freedom, and obey contentedly their new 
ruler. The wars of Augustus were not aggress- 
ive, but were chiefly undertaken to protect the 
frontiers of the Roman dominions. Most of 
them were carried on by his relations and friends, 
but he conducted some of them in person. 
Thus, in 27, he attacked the warlike Cantabri 
and Astures in Spain, whose subjugation, how- 
ever, was not completed till 19 by Agrippa. 
In 21 Augustus travelled through Sicily and 
Greece, and spent the winter following at 
Samos. Next year (20) he went to Syria, where 
he received from Phraates, the Parthian mon- 
arch, the standards and prisoners which had 
been taken from Crassus and Antony. In 16 
the Romans suffered a defeat on the Lower 
Rhine by some German tribes ; whereupon 
Augustus went himself to Gaul, and spent 
4 years there, to regulate the government of 
that province, and to make the necessary 
preparations for defending it against the 
Germans. In 9 he again went to Gaul, where 
he received German ambassadors, who sued for 
peace ; and from this time forward, he does not 
appear to have taken any active part in the 
wars that were carried on. Those in Germany 
were the most formidable, and a Roman army 
under Quintilius Varus was defeated and anni- 
hilated b i Arminius. [Varus.] Augustus died 




Coin of Augustus. 
Obv., head of Augustus laureate, with legend CAESAR 
AVGVSTVS DIVI F. PATER PATRIAE : rev., Caius and 
Lucius Caesar ; between them, shields, spears, &c. ; 
legend, C. L. CAESARES AVGVSTI F. COS. DESIG. 
PRINC. IVVENT. 

at Nola, on the 29th of August, a.d. 14, at the 
age of 76. Augustus was first married, though 
only nominally, to Clodia, a daughter of Clodius 
and Fulvia. His 2nd wife, Scribonia, bore him 
his only daughter, Julia. His 3rd wife was 
Livia Drusilla, the wife of Tiberius Nero. 
Augustus had at first fixed on M. Marcellus as 
his successor, the son of his sister Octavia, who 
was married to his daughter Julia. After his 
death Julia was married to Agrippa, and her 
2 sons, Caius and Lucius Caesar, were now 
destined by Augustus as his successors. On 
the death of these 2 youths, Augustus was per- 
suaded to adopt Tiberius, the son of Livia, and 
to make him his colleague and successor. [For a 
full account of the imperial power, as constituted 
by Augustus, see Diet. Ant. s.v. Princeps^] 

Augustiilus, Romulus, last Roman emperor 
of the West, was placed upon the throne by his 
father Orestes (a.d. 475), after the latter had 
deposed the emperor Julius Nepos. In 476 
Orestes was defeated by Odoacer and put to 
death ; Romulus Augustulus was allowed to 
live, but was deprived of the sovereignty. 

Aulerci, a powerful Gallic people dwelling 
between the Sequana (Seine) and the Liger 
(Loire), were divided into three great tribes. 
1. A. Eburovices, near the coast on the left 
bank of the Seine in the modern Normandy : 
the capital was Mediolanum, afterwards called 
Eburovices (Evreux). — 2. A. Cenomani, SW. 
of the preceding, near the Liger : their capital 
was Subdinnum (le Mans). At an early period 



some of the Cenomani crossed the Alps and 
settled in Upper Italy. — 3. A. Brannovices, E. 

of the Cenomani near the Aedui, whose clients 
they were. The Diablintes mentioned by 
Caesar are said by Ptolemy to have been like- 
wise a branch of the Aulerci (Caes. B. G. ii. 34, 
iii. 9, vii. 75). 

Aulis (AuAi's), a harbour in Boeotia on the 
Euripus, where the Greek fleet is said to have 
assembled before sailing against Troy : it had a 
temple of Artemis (Strab. p. 403 ; Paus. ix. 19, 6). 

Aulon (AvXiiv : AuAawi'TTjs.) 1. A district 
and town on the borders of Elis and Messenia, 
with a temple of Asclepius, who hence had the 
surname Aulonius (Strab. p. 350 ; Paus. iv. 
36). — 2. A town in Chalcidice in Macedonia, on 
the Strymonic gulf (Thuc.iv. 103).— 3. (Melone), 
a hill and valley near Tarentum celebrated for 
its wine (amicus Aulon fertili Saccho, Hor. 
Od. ii. 6, 18 ; Mart. xiii. 125). 

Auranitis (Avpav7Tis : Hauran), a district S. 
of Damascus and E. of Ituraea and Batanaea, 
on the E. side of the Jordan, belonging either 
to Palestine or to Arabia. 

Aurea Chersonesus (7) Xpva-rj XepcrSvyo-os), 
the name given by the late geographers to the 
Malay Peninsula. They also mention an 
Aurea Regio beyond the Ganges, which is sup- 
posed to be the country round Ava. 

Aurelia, thewifeof C. JuliusCaesar,by whom 
she became the mother of C. Julius Caesar, the 
dictator, and of 2 daughters. She died in B.C. 
54, while Caesar was in Gaul. 

Aurelia Gens, plebeian, of which the most 
important members are given under their 
family names, Cotta, Orestes, and Scaurus. 

Aurelia Orestilla, a beautiful but profligate 
woman, whom Catiline married. As Aurelia at 
first objected to marry him, because he had a 
grown-up son by a former marriage, Catiline is 
said to have killed his own offspring in order to 
remove this impediment to their union. 

Aurelia Via, the great coast road from 
Rome to Transalpine Gaul, at first extended to 
no further than Pisae, but was afterwards con- 
tinued along the coast to Genua and Forum 
Julii in Gaul. 
Aureliani. [Genabum.] 
Aurelianus, Roman emperor, a.d. 270-275, 
was born about a.d. 212, at Sirmium in Pan- 
nonia. He entered the army as a common 
soldier, but was adopted by a senator, Ulpius 
Crmitus, and by his extraordinary bravery was 
raised to offices of trust and honour by Valerian 
and Claudius II. On the death of the latter, 
he was elected emperor by the legions on the 
Danube. His reign presents a succession of 
brilliant exploits, which restored for a while 
their ancient lustre to the arms of Rome. He 
first defeated the Goths and Vandals, who had 
crossed the Danube, and were ravaging Pan- 
nonia. He next gained a great victory over the 
Alemanni and other German tribes ; but they 
succeeded notwithstanding in crossing the Alps. 
Near Placentia they defeated the Romans, but 
were eventually overcome by Aurelian in two 
decisive engagements in Umbria. After crush- 
ing a formidable conspiracy at Rome, Aurelian 
next turned his arms against Zenobia, queen of 
Palmyra, whom he defeated, took prisoner, and 
carried with him to Rome. [Zenobia.] On his 
return to Italy he marched to Alexandria and 
put Firmus to death, who had assumed the 
title of emperor. He then proceeded to the 
West, where Gaul, Britain, and Spain were 
still in the hands of Tetricus, who had been 
I declared emperor a short time before the death 



AURELIANUS 

of Gallienus. Tetricus surrendered to Aurelian 
in a battle fought near Chalons. [Tetricus.] 
The emperor now devoted his attention to 
domestic improvements and reforms. Many 
works of public utility were commenced : the 



AUREOLUS 



153 




Aurelianus, Roman Emperor, A.D. 270-275. 
dhz., bust of Aurelian, laureate and draped; rev.. Mars, 
urith spear and trophy ; P. 51. TR. P. VII. COS. II. P. P. ; 
Aureus, A.D. 275. 

most important of all was the erection of a new 
line of strongly fortified walls, embracing a 
much more ample circuit than the old ones, 
which had long since fallen into ruin ; but this 
vast plan was not completed until the reign of 
Probus. After a short residence in the city, 
Aurelian visited the provinces on the Danube. 
He now entirely abandoned Dacia, which had 
been first conquered by Trajan, and made the 
S. bank of the Danube, as in the time of Augus- 
tus, the boundary of the empire. A large force 
was now collected in Thrace in preparation for 
an expedition against the Persians ; but while 
the emperor was on the march between Hera- 
clea and Byzantium, he was killed by some of 
his officers. (Life in Script. August. ; Zosim. i. 
47 ; Eutrop. ix. 12.) 

Aurelianus, Caelius, or Coelrus, a celebrated 
Latin physician, a native of Xumidia, probably 
lived in the 4th century. Of his writings we 
possess three books On Acute Diseases, ' Cele- 
rum Passionum ' (or ' De Morbis Acutis,') and 
five books On Chronic Diseases, ' Tardarum 
Passionum ' (or ' De Morbis Chronicis '). Edited 
by Amman, Amstel. 1709. 

M. Aurelius Antoninus, Ptoman emperor, a.d. 
161-180, commonly called ' the philosopher,' 
was born at Rome on April 20, a.d. 121. He 
was adopted by Antoninus Pius immediately 
after the latter had been himself adopted by 
Hadrian, and was educated by Fronto. He 
received the title of Caesar, and married 
Faustina, the daughter of Pius (138). On the 
death of the latter, in 161, he succeeded to the 
throne, but he admitted to an equal share of 
the sovereign power L. Ceionius Commodus, 
who had been adopted by Pius at the same 
time as Marcus himself. The two emperors 




Iff, Aurellus Antoninus, Roman Emperor. A.D. 101-180. 
Obt., hood of Emperor Aurellus. laureate : rev., pile of 
German arms, ensigns. 4c.; IMP. VIII. COS. III. DE 
OEHMANIS. Struck A.I). 17'.. >>"t commemorating vic- 
tory over the Germanl In A.D. 173. 

henceforward bore respectively the names of 
M. Aurelius Antoninus and L. Aurelius Verus. 
Soon after their accession Verus was des- 
patched to the East, and for 4 years (a.d. 162- 
165) carried on war with great success against 



Vologeses III., king of Parthia, over whom his 
lieutenants, especially Avidius Cassius, gained 
man} - victories. At the conclusion of the war 
both emperors triumphed, and assumed the 
titles of Armeniacus, Parthicus Maximus, 
and Medicus. Meanwhile Italy was threatened 
by the numerous tribes dwelling along the 
northern limits of the empire, from the sources 
of the Danube to the filyrian border. Both 
emperors set out to encounter the foe ; and the 
contest with the northern nations was con- 
tinued with varying success during the whole 
life of M. Aurelius, whose head-quarters were 
generally fixed in Pannoma. After the death of 
Verus in 169, Aurelius prosecuted the war 
against the Marcomanni with great success, 
and in consequence of his victories over them 
he assumed in 172 the title of Germanicus, 
which he also conferred upon his son Commo- 
dus. In 174 he gained a decisive victory over 
the Quadi, mainly through a violent storm, 
which threw the barbarians into confusion. 
This storm is said to have been owing to the 
prayers of a legion chiefly composed of Chris- 
tians. It has given rise to a famous contro- 
versy among the historians of Christianity upon 
what is commonly termed the Miracle of the 
Thundering Legion. The Marcomanni and 
the other northern barbarians concluded a 
peace with Aurelius in 175, who forthwith set 
out for the East, where Avidius Cassius, urged 
on by Faustina, the unworthy wife of Aurelius, 
had risen in rebellion and proclaimed himself 
emperor. But before Aurelius reached the 
East, Cassius had been slain by his own officers. 
On his arrival in the East, Aurelius acted with 
the greatest clemency ; none of the accomplices 
of Cassius were put to death, and to establish 
perfect confidence in all, he ordered the papers 
of Cassius to be destroyed without suffering 
them to be read. During this expedition, Faus- 
tina, who had accompanied her husband, died, 
according to some, by her own hands. Aurelius 
returned to Rome towards the end of 176 ; but 
in 178 he set out again for Germany, where the 
Marcomanni and their confederates had again 
renewed the war. He gained several victories 
over them, but died in the middle of the war 
on March 17, 180, in Pannonia, either at Vin- 
dobona ( Vienna) or at Sirmium, in the 59th year 
of his age and 20th of his reign. — A notable 
feature in the character of M. Aurelius was his 
I devotion to philosophy and literature. "When 
only twelve years old he adopted the dress and 
! practised the austerities of the Stoics, and he 
continued throughout his life a warm adherent 
and a bright ornament of the Stoic philosophy. 
We still possess a work by M. Aurelius, written 
in the Greek language, and entitled Ta els 
iavrliv, or Meditations, in 12 books. It is a 
sort of common-place book, in which were 
registered from time to time the thoughts and 
feelings of the author upon moral and religious 
topics, without an attempt at order or arrange- 
ment. No remains of antiquity present a 
nobler view of philosophical heathenism. Edi- 
tions of the Meditations by Gataker, Cantab. 
1652; by Stich, Leips. 1882; translated by Long. 
— The chief and perhapH the only stain upon 
the memory of Aurelius is hispers( < ution of the 
Christians: in 166 the martyrdom of Polycarp 
occurred, and in 177, that of Irenaeus. Aure- 
lius was succeeded by his son Commodus. (Life 
in Script. August. ; cf. also Dio Cass. Ixxi.) 
Aurelius Victor. (Victor.] 
Aureolus, one of the Thirty Tyrants (a.d. 
200-201), who assumed the title of Augustus 



154 



AURORA 



AUXUME 



during the feeble rule of Gallienus. Aureolus 
was proclaimed emperor by the legions of 
Illyria in 267, and made himself master of N. 
Italy, but he was defeated and slain in battle in 
268, by Claudius II., the successor of Gallienus. 
(Treb. Poll. XXX. Tyr. 10.) 

Aurora. [Eos.] I 

Aurunci. [Italia .] 

Aurunculeius Cotta. [Cotta.] 

Ausa. [Ausetani.] 

Ausci or Auscii, a powerful people in Aquita- 
nia, who possessed the Latin franchise : their 
capital was called Climberrum or Elimberrum, 
also Augusta and Ausci (now Audi). (Strab. 
p. 191.) 

Auser (Serchio), a river of Etruria, north of 
the Arnus ; in old times it flowed into the 
Arnus near Pisa (Strab. p. 222; Plin. iii. 50). 
They now have separate mouths. 

Ausetani, a Spanish people in the modern 
Catalonia : their capital was Ausa (Vique). 

A us on (Avaaiv), son of Ulysses and Calypso 
or Circe, from whom the country of the Au- 
runcans was believed to have been called 
Ausonia. 

Ausdnes, Ausonia. [Italia.] 

Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, a Roman poet, 
born at Burdigala ('Bordeaux), about a.d. 310, 
taught grammar and rhetoric with such reputa- 
tion at his native town, that he was appointed 
tutor of Gratian, son of the emperor Valentinian 
(at which time probably he became a Christian), 
and was afterwards raised to the highest hon- 
ours of the state. He was appointed by Gratian 
praefectus of Latium, of Libya, and of Gaul, 
and in 379 was elevated to the consulship. 
After the death of Gratian, in 383, he retired 
from public life, and ended his days in a country 
retreat near Bordeaux, perhaps about 390. A 
prose work, Gratiarum Actio, in ornate rhetori- 
cal style, addressed to Gratian, is extant. His 
poems or metrical works are — 1. Epigramma- 
tum Liber, a collection of 150 epigrams. 2. 
Ephemeris, containing an account of the busi- 
ness and proceedings of a day. 3. Parentaha, 
a series of short poems in memory of deceased 
friends and relations. 4. Professores, notices 
of the Professors of Bordeaux. 5. Epitaphia 
Her own, epitaphs on the heroes who fell in 
the Trojan war and a few others. 6. A metrical 
catalogue of the first twelve Caesars. 7. Tetra- 
sticha, on the Caesars, from Julius to Elagabalus. 
8. Ordo nobiUum Urbium, the praises of 17 il- 
lustrious cities. 9. Litdus Septem Sapientuin, 
the doctrines of the 7 sages expounded by each 
in his own person. 10. Idyllia, a collection of 
20 poems. 11. Eclogarium, short poems con- 
nected with the Calendar, &c. 12. Epistolae, 
25 letters, some in verse and some in prose. 
13. Gratiarum Actio pro Consulatu, in prose, 
addressed to Gratian. 14. Periochae, short 
arguments to each book of the Iliad and Odys- 
sey. 15. Tres Praefatiunculae. Of these 
works the Idyls have attracted most notice, 
and of them the most pleasing is the Mosella, 
or a description of the river Moselle, in a jour- 
ney from Bingen on the Rhine up the Moselle 
to Treves. Ausonius possesses skill in versifi- 
cation, but is destitute of all the higher attri- 
butes of a poet. His poems are, however, both 
interesting and valuable for their notice of per- 
sons and their pictures of certain features of 
life at that time. He retains his pagan phrase- 
ology, and to some extent at least his pagan 
ideas, speaking of the emperor as Deus, and 
apparently doubting immortality [Prof. Burd. 
i. 39, xxiii. 13). — The best editions of his com- 



plete works are by Tollius, Amstel. 1671 ; Weber, 
Corp. Poetarum. 

Autariatae (Avrapiarai), an Illyrian people 
in the Dalmatian mountains, extinct in Strabo'a 
time. 

Autesiodorum, -urum (Auxerre), a town of 
( the Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Autesion (Ai>T€<nW), son of Tisamenus, 
father of Theras and Argia, left Thebes at the 
command of an oracle, and joined the Dorians 
in Peloponnesus (Hdt. iv. 147 ; Paus. iii. 15 ; 
Strab. p. 347). 
Autochthones (avrSx^oyes). [Aborigines.]' 
Aatololes, or -ae, a Gaetulian tribe on the 
W. coast of Africa, S. of the Atlas mountains. 

Autolycus (Avt6\vkos). 1. Son of Hermes 
and Chione, father of Anticlea, and thus mater- 
nal grandfather of Ulysses. He lived on Mount 
Parnassus, and was renowned for his cunning 
and robberies. He was able to defy detection 
by changing the colour and shape of the stolen 
property (Hes. Fr. 96 ; Ov. Met. xii. 314 ; II. x. 
260 ; Od,. xix. 392). Ulysses, when staying 
with him on one occasion, was wounded by a 
boar on Parnassus, and it was by the scar of 
this wound that he was recognised by his aged 
nurse, when he returned from Troy. — 2. A 
Thessalian, son of Dei'machus, one of the 
Argonauts, and the founder of Sinope. — 3. A 
mathematician of Pitane in Aeolis, lived about 
B.C. 340, and wrote 2 astronomical treatises, 
which are the most ancient existing specimens 
of the Greek mathematics. 1. On the Motion 
of the Sphere (wepl KtvovfMej/rjs crcpaipas). 2. 
On the Misings and Settings of the fixed Stars 
(irepl iiriToKuv Kcd Sucreoie). Edited by Dasy- 
podius in his Sphaericae Doctrinae Proposi- 
tiones, Argent. 1572. 

Automala (ra Aut ^jxaXa), a fortified place 
on the Great Syrtis in N. Africa (Strab. p. 123). 

Automedon (AvTo/xeSwv). 1. Son of Diores,. 
the charioteer and companion of Achilles, and, 
after the death of the latter, the companion of 
his son Pyrrhus (II. xvi. 148). Hence Autome- 
don is the name of any skilful charioteer. (Cic. 
pro Rose. Am. 35 ; Juv. i. 61.) — 2. Of Cyzicus, 
a Greek poet, 12 of whose epigrams are in the 
Greek Anthology, lived in the reign of Nerva. 

Autonoe (AvTov6t]), daughter of Cadmus and 
Harmonia, wife of Aristaeus, and mother of 
Actaeon. With her sister Agave, she tore 
Pentheus to pieces in Bacchic fury : her tomb 
was shown in Megara (Paus. x. 17). 
Autricum. [Carnutes.] 
Autrigones, a people in Hispania Tarraco- 
: nensis between the ocean (Bay of Biscay) and 
the upper course of the Iberus : the chief town 
was Flaviobriga. 
Autronius Paetus. [Paetus.] 
Auxesia (Avfycria), the goddess who grants. 
: growth and prosperity to the fields, honoured 
at Troezen and Epidaurus, was another name 
: for Persephone. Damia, who was honoured 
, along with Auxesia at Epidaurus and Troezen, 
, was only another name for Demeter. They 
■ seem to have been local deities of Crete, who 
s became identified with Demeter and Perse- 

- phone, and were then said to have been Cretan 

- maidens who migrated to Troezen. The festi- 
i val of Lithobolia in their honour, explained by 

- a tradition that they were stoned themselves, is 
E perhaps a reminiscence of human sacrifice. 

- (Paus. ii. 30, 31.) 

i Auximum (Auximas, -atis : Osmio), an im- 
1 portant town of Picenum, and a Roman colony. 
Auxume or Ax- (Av£ovfiri, or 'A^co/xr], and 

- other forms : Av^ov/xTrai or 'A|ai^iTai, &c. : 



AUZEA 



AXIUS 



155 



Axum, En., SW. of Adowa), the capital of a 
powerful kingdom in Ethiopia, to the SE. of 
Meroe, in Habesh or Abyssinia, which either 
first arose or first became known to the Greeks 
and Eomans in the early part of the 2nd cen- 
tury of our aera. It grew upon the decline of 
the kingdom of Meroe', and extended beyond 
the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb into Arabia. 
Being a mountainous region, watered by the 
numerous upper streams of the Astaboras and 
Astapus, and intersected by the caravan routes 
from the interior of Africa to the Red Sea and 
the Gulf of Bab-el-Mandeb, the country pos- 
sessed great internal resources and a flourishing 
commerce. 

Auzea, or -ia. or Audia (Sur-Guzlan or 
Hatnza, Ru.), a city in the interior of Maure- 
tania Caesariensis ; a Eoman colony under M. 
Aurelius Antoninus. 

Avalltes (Ava\'ir^s : Zeilah), an emporium 
in S. Aethiopia, on a bay of the Erythraean Sea, 
called Avalltes Sinus ('A. koKttos} probably the 
Gulf of Bab-el Mandeb, or its innermost part, 
S. of the Straits. A people, Avalltae, are also 
mentioned in these parts. 

Avaricum. [Bituriges.] 

Avaris. [Ababis." 

Avenio (Avignon), a town of the Cavares in 
Gallia Narbonensis on the left bank of the 
Ehone (Strab. p. 185). 

Aventicum (Avenches), the chief town of the 
Helvetii, and subsequently a Eoman colony 
with the name Pia Flavia Constans Emerita, 
of which ruins are still to be seen in the modern 
town (Tac. Hist. i. 68 ; Ammian. xv. 11 ; see 
also C. I. Helvet. 179, &c). 

Aventinensis. Genucius. 1. L., consul b.c. 
305, and again 362, was killed in battle against 
the Hernicans in the latter of these years, and 
his army routed. — 2. Cn., consul 363. 

Aventinus. 1. Son of Hercules and the 
priestess Ehea (Verg. Aen. vii. 695.). — 2. King 
of Alba, son of Eomulus Silvius, or of Allodius, 
buried on the Aventine, which was called after 
him (Liv. i. 3; Dionys. i. 71). 

Aventinus Mons. [Eoma.] 

Avernus Lacus (rj "Kopvos K'lfiVTj : Lago 
Aver no), a lake close to the promontory which 
runs out into the sea between Cumae and 
Puteoli. This lake fills the crater of an extinct 
volcano; it is circular, about 1J mile in circum- 
ference, is very deep, and was enclosed by steep 
lava rocks and a gloomy cypress forest. From 
its waters mephitic vapours arose, which are 
said to have killed the birds that attempted to 
fly over it, from which circumstance its Greek 
name was supposed to be derived (from o priv. 
and opvn) (Lucret. vi. 738 ; Plin. iii. 61 ; Dio 
Cass, lxviii. 27). The lake was celebrated in 
mythology as being the entrance to the under- 
world, and hence was sacred to Proserpine 
(Diod. iv. 22; Verg. Aen. vi. 126). Strabo cites 
Ephorus as saying that the Cimmerians, the 
people of dark dwellings, were connected once 
with this spot. The idea may have sprung 
from the name Cliimerium belonging to a pro- 
montory in Thesprotia, near Acherusia and the 
other Aornus. There is much interchange of 
names in the stories belonging to these places. 
Near Avernus was the cave of the Cumaean 
Sibyl, through which Aeneas descended. Later 
writers placed the scene of the descent of 
Odysseus here also (Strab. p. 248) ; and there 
was an oracle by which the spirits of the dead 
were consulted iixKuofxavrtTov), as at the simi- 
larly named Thesprotian lake [Aornus]. Some 
such rites may have belonged to Hannibal's 



sacrifice here (Liv. xxiv. 12). The god Avernus, 
whose statue sweated during the works of 
Agrippa and was propitiated by sacrifices 
(Serv. ad Georg. ii. 161), was a local Hades or 
Dis Pater. Some of the pagan rites lingered 
here in the time of Theodosius (C. I. L. x. 1,. 
j 3792), and a good deal of the superstition to the 
1 present day. Agrippa, in the time of Augustus, 
cut down the forest which surrounded the lake, 
and connected the latter with the Lucrine 
I lake ; he also caused a tunnel to be made from 
[ the lake to Cumae, of which a considerable 
! part remains and is known under the name of 
Grotta di Sibylla. The Lucrine lake was filled 
up by an eruption in 1530, so that Avernus is 
again a separate lake. 

Avianus, Flavins, the author of 42 Aesopic 
fables in Latin elegiac verse, which were much 
used as a school book. The date of Avianus is 
uncertain ; he probably lived in the 4th century 
of the Christian aera. — Editions. By Canne- 
gieter, Amstel. 1731 ; by Nodell, Amstel. 1787 ; 
and by Lachmann, Berol. 1845. 

Avienus, Rufus Festus, a Latin poet to- 
wards the end of die 4th century of the Chris- 
tian aera. His poems are chiefly descriptive, 
and are some of the best specimens of the poetry 
of that age. His works are : — 1. Descriptio 
Orbis Terrae, also called Metaphrasis Perie- 
geseos Dionysii, in 1394 hexameter lines, de- 
rived directly f rom the Trepiriynais of Dionysius, 
and containing a succinct account of the most 
remarkable objects in the physical and political 
geography of the known world. — 2. Ora Mari- 
tima, a fragment in 703 Iambic trimeters, 
describing the shores of the Mediterranean from 
Marseilles to Cadiz. — 3. Aratea Phaenomena, 
and Aratea Prognostica, both in hexameter 
verse, the first containing 1325, the second 552 
lines, being a paraplu-ase of the two works of 
Aratus. The poems are edited by Wernsdorf, 
in his Poetae Latini Minores, vol. v. pt. 2, 
which, however, does not include the Aratea. 

Aviones, a people in the N. of Germany on 
the W. coast of Cimbrica Chersonesus (Den- 
mark). 

Avitus, Alphius, a Latin poet under Augus- 
tus and Tiberius, the fragments of some of 
whose poems are preserved in the Anthologia 
Latina. 

Avitus, Cluentius. [Cluentius.] 

Avitus, M. Maecilius, emperor of the West, 

was raised to the throne by the assistance of 

Theodoric II. king of the Visigoths in a.d. 455 ; 

but, after a year's reign, was deposed by 

Ricimer. 

Avona or Aufona, the Gloucestershire Avon 
(Tac. Ann. xii. 31). 

Axenus. [Euxinus Pontus.] 

Axia (Castel d'Asso), a fortress in the terri- 
tory of Tarrjuinii in Etruria (Cic. pro Caec. 7). 

Axion CA{iW), son of Phegeus, brother of 
Temenus, along with whom he killed Alcmaeon. 

Axiothea ('Afiofa'a), a maiden of Plilius, who 
came to Athens, and putting on male attire, was 
for some time a hearer of Plato, and afterwards 
of Speusippus (Diog. Lai : rt. iii. 46). 

Axius, Q., an intimate friend of Cicero and 
Varro, one of the speakers in the 3rd book of 
Varro's De Re Rustica. 

Ax i us fA£ios : Wardar or Vardhari), the 
chief river in Macedonia, rises in Mt. Scardus, 
receives many affluents, of which the most im- 
portant is the Erlgon, and flows SE. through 
Macedonia into the Thermaie gulf. As a river- 
god, Axius begot by Periboea a son Pelegon, 
the father of AsteroPaEUS. 



156 



AXONA 



Axona (Aisne), a river in Gallia Belgica, 
•which falls into the Isara (Oise). (Caes. JB.G. 
ii. 5 ; Auson. Id. x. 461.) 

Axume. [Auxume.] 

Axus. [Oaxus.] 

Azan {'A(dv), son of Areas and the nymph 
Erato, brother of Aphldas and Elatus. The 
part of Arcadia which he received from his 
father was called Azania : it was on the borders 
of Elis. (Paus. viii. 4, 2, x. 9, 3.) 

Azani {'A(avo'i : Tchardir Risar), a town of 
Phrygia, on the river Rhyndacus, and 20 miles 




Ruins at Azani. 

SW. of Cotyaium. The priestly dynast of the 
temple (of Zeus) ruled the city, as in the case 
of Pessinus, Comana, &c. Euphorbus is men- 
tioned as having instituted the rites — a sacrifice 
of the hedgehog and the fox. There are fine 
ruins of the temple, and remains of the theatre 
and stadium. (Strab. p. 575 ; Stephan. s.u.) 

Azania or Barbaria ('A£avla, Bap/3ap(a : 
Ajari), the region on the E. coast of Africa, S. 
of AromataPr. (C. Guardafui), as far as Rhap- 
tum Pr. (Ptol. iv. 7, 28). 

Azenia ('A(r)via ; 'A&vmvs), a demus in the 
SW. of Attica, near Sunium, belonging to the 
tribe Hippothoontis. 

Azeus ('A(zvs), son of Clymenus of Orcho- 
menos, brother of Erginus, Stratius, Arrhon, 
and Pyleus, father of Actor and grandfather of 
Astyoche (II. ii. 512 ; Paus. ix. 37). 

Aziris ('A(ipls). 1. A town of Armenia, west 
of the Euphrates (Ptol. v. 7, 2). — 2. A district in 
theE. of Cyrenaica, where silphium was grown 
(Hdt. iv. 157). 

Azorus or Azorium ("Afoipos, 'A(<ipiov : 'A(w- 
piTTjs, 'Afapidr-qs, 'A{oipevs), a town in the N. 
of Thessaly, on the W. slope of Olympus, formed, 
with Doliche and Pythium, the Perrhaebian 
Tripolis (Liv. xlii. 53, xliv. 2). 

Azotus CA(wtos : 'A(wtios : Ashdod or Ash- 
doud), a city of Palestine, near the sea-coast, 9 
miles NE. of Ascalon. It was one of the free 
cities of the Philistines, which were included 
within the portion of the tribe of Judah. (Jos. 
Ant. xiv. 5 ; B.J. i. 7.) 



B. 



Babba, in full Babba Julia Campestris, a 
Roman colony in Mauretania Tingitana founded 
by Augustus (Plin. v. 5). 

Babrius (Ba/3pios), whose full name seems to 
have been Valerius Babrius, by birth an Italian, 
lived at the court of Alexander Severus and 
versified in Greek choliambics a collection of 
fables. They are probably adapted and para- 
phrased by him from an older prose collection 
of fables such as were ascribed to ' Aesop,' but 



BABYLON 

were partly old apologues such as Aristophanes 
mentions [see Aesopus], of which we find ex- 
amples even in Hesiod (Op. 203), partly exer- 
cises set by rhetors to their pupils. It is sug- 
gested that the foundation used by Babrius was 
a prose collection in ten books by Nicostratus, 
a contemporary of Hermogenes (Hermog. 7repi 
IS. ii. 12, 3) : many of his fables are merely old 
proverbs expanded. He wrote in Attic Greek 
with occasional Latinisms and other indications 
that Greek was to him an adopted language. 
The writings of Babrius were discovered on 
Mount Athos by a Greek named Minoides 
Menas in a codex containing 122 fables, of which 
the editio princeps was issued by Boissonade in 
1844. A second MS. containing 21 more fables 
was found in the Vatican, and was first cor- 
rectly published by Knoell in 1878. The best 
complete edition of Babrius is by Rutherford, 
1883. Menas produced another set of 95 fables 
which were edited by Cornewall Lewis in 1859 ; 
but there is no doubt that they were forgeries. 

Babylon (Ba/3v\d>v : Ba&vXcouios, fem. Baj3v- 
\oivls : Babel in O.T. : Ru. at and around Hillah), 
one of the oldest and greatest cities of the 
ancient world, the capital of a great empire, was 
built on both banks of the river Euphrates, in 
about 32° 28' N. lat. It was of unknown anti- 
quity, though its foundation (which is mythically 
ascribed to the god Belus = Marduk or Mero- 
dach) was probably after Egypt had a settled 
empire. According to an inscription of Nabo- 
aldus (B.C. 554) now in the British Museum, the 
temple of the sun-god Samas was founded by 
Nasar-Sin, the son of Sargon, 3200 years earlier. 
This gives a date of about 3800 B.C. for Sargon 
the earliest king named. In several periods of 
her history Babylon fell under the dominion of 
the Assyrian monarchs [see Assyeia] ; but Nabo- 
polassar, viceroy of Babylon, made an alliance 
with Pharaoh Necho and the Median king 
Cyaxares (Kastarit) and revolted from Assyria. 
The allies took Nineveh B.C. 609 [see Sardana- 
palus]. Nabopolassar was succeeded by his 
son Nebuchadnezzar, under whom (b.c. 604- 
562), the Babylonian empire reached its height, 
and extended from the Euphrates to Egypt, and 
from the mountains of Armenia to the deserts 
of Arabia. After his death it again declined, 
until the reign of Nabu-Nahid ( = Nabonidus), 
who reigned from B.C. 556 with his son Belshaz- 
zar as commander of the army. In the 17th 
year of his reign (b.c 539) Babylon was cap- 
tured by Cyrus (the turning of the river is not 
mentioned in inscriptions), and Gobryas was 
made governor of Babylon. Nabonidus died in 
captivity the same year. [See Cyrus.] Babylon 
became one of the capitals of the Persian 
empire, the others being Susa and Ecbatana. 
Under his successors the city rapidly sank. 
Darius I. dismantled its fortifications, in conse- 
quence of a revolt of its inhabitants ; Xerxes 
carried off the golden statue of Belus, and the 
temple in which it stood became a ruin. After 
the death of Alexander, Babylon became a part 
of the Syrian kingdom of Seleucus Nicator, who 
contributed to its decline by the foundation of 
Seletjcia on the Tigris, which soon eclipsed it. 
At the commencement of our era, the greater 
part of the city was in ruins ; and at the present 
day all its visible remains consist of mounds of 
earth, ruined masses of brick walls, and a few 
scattered fragments. Its very site has been 
turned into a dreary marsh by repeated inun- 
dations from the river. — The city of Babylon 
had reached the summit of its magnificence in 
the reign of Nebuchadnezzar. The accounts of 



BABYLON 



BACTRIA 



157 



its dimensions vary somewhat. Herodotus 
makes the circuit of the walls 480 furlongs : in 
Ctesias, Clitarchus, Curtius and Strabo the 
estimate is about 100 furlongs less. The breadth 
of the walls was said to be 50 feet ; the height, 
according to Herodotus and Ctesias was 200 
cubits, according to Strabo 75 cubits. Probably 
the last estimate is right, and the higher number 
arose from stating 200 cubits instead of 200 
hands. (Hdt. i. 178 ; Strab. p. 738.) The Eu- 
phrates, which divided the city into 2 equal \ 
parts, was embanked with walls of brick, the 
openings of which at the ends of the transverse I 
streets were closed by gates of bronze. A bridge, 
built on piers of hewn stone, united the 2 quar- 
ters of the city ; and at each end of it stood a 
royal palace. Of two other public buildings of the 
greatest celebrity, the one was the temple of 
Belus, rising to a great height, and consisting 
of 8 stories, gradually diminishing in widtb, and 
ascended by a flight of steps, which wound 
round the whole building on the outside ; in 
the uppermost story was the golden statue of 
Belus, with a golden altar and other treasures. 
The ' hanging gardens ' of Nebuchadnezzar were 
laid out upon terraces which were raised abore 
one another on arches. The houses of tlie city 
were 3 or 4 stories in height, and the streets 
were straight, intersecting one another at right 
angles. The buildings were almost universally J 
constructed of bricks, some burnt and some 
only sun-dried, cemented together with hot 
bitumen and in some cases with mortar. — The 
Babylonians were a people of Turanian or Ural- I 
Altaic origin. The original name of their 
country (afterwards called Babylonia from its 
capital) was Kaldu, and its people were called 
Kaldai or Chaldaeans. — Their religion was • 
Sabaeism, or the worship of the heavenly bodies, 
not purely so, but symbolised in the forms of 
idols, besides whom they had other divinities, , 
representing the powers of nature. The three 
chief deities were Anu, Ea, and Bel or Belus 
( = Zeus), whose feminine counterpart Belit or 
Beltis is the Mylitta of Herodotus fi. 199) : the 
BOH of Ea, named Marduk or Merodach, was the 
mediator for men and the god of healing : Istar 
[see Aphkomte] was the daughter of the moon- 
god, and was the spirit of the planet Venus. 
Her husband was Tammuz. [See Adonis.] The 
priests formed a caste, and cultivated science, 
especially astronomy ; in which they knew the 
apparent motions of the sun, moon, and 5 of the 
planets, the calculation of eclipses of the moon, 
the division of the zodiac into 12 constellations, 
and of the year into 12 months, and the mea- 
surement of time by the sun-dial. They must 
also have had other instruments for measuring 
time, such as the water-clock, for instance ; and 
it is highly probable that the definite methods 
of determining such quantities, which the Chal- 
daean astronomers invented, were the origin of 
the systems of weights and measures used by 
the Greeks and Romans. Their buildings 
prove their knowledge of mechanics ; and their 
remains, slight as they are, show considerable 
progress in the fine arts. — The position of the 
city on the lower course of the Euphrates, by 
which it was connected with the Persian Gulf, 
and at the meeting of natural routes between j 
E. Asia and India on the one side, and Europe, 
Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, on the 
other, made it tho seat of a flourishing com- 
merce and of immense wealth and Luxury . — 
The district around the city, bounded by tin- 
Tigris on the E., Mesopotamia on the N., the 
Arabian Desert on the \V., and extending to the 



head of the Persian Gulf on the S., was known 
in later times by the name of Babylonia. [See 
above, and comp. Chaldaea.] This district was 
a plain, subject to continual inundations from 
the Tigris and Euphrates, which were regulated 
by canals, the chief of which was the Naar- 
malcha, i.e Royal River or Canal (iroTa.ij.bs 
Raa'ihzios, 8i<£pu£ j8o<riA.(ic7), flumen regium). 
which extended from the Tigris at Seleucia due 
W. to the Euphrates, and was navigable. 

Babylon {Ra,&v\djv : nr. Fostat or Old Cairo), 
a fortress in Lower Egypt, on the right bank of 
the Nile, exactly opposite to the pyramids, and 
at the beginning of the canal which connected 
the Nile with the Red Sea. Its origin was 
ascribed by tradition to a body of Babylonian 
deserters. It first became an important place 
under the Romans. Augustus made it the sta- 
tion of one of the 3 Egvptian legions. (Strab. 
pp. 807, 812.) 
Babylonia. [Babylon.] 
Bacchae. [Maenabes ; Dionysus.] 
Baccbiadae (BaKxiaSai), a Heraclid clan, 
derived their name from Bacchis, king of 
Corinth ; for their history see Corinthus. 

Bacchius (BaKx^Tos). 1. The author of a 
short musical treatise called (laaywyri re'xi/Tjs- 
fiov<TiKrjs, printed by Meibomius, in the An- 
tiquae Musicae Auctores Septem, Amst. 1G52. 
— 2. Of Miletus, the author of a work on agri- 
culture, referred to by Pliny and Varro. 
Bacchus. [Dionysus.] 

Bacchylides (Bo/cxuAi'Stjs). one of the lyric 
poets of Greece, born at Iulis in Ceos, and 
nephew as well as fellow-townsman of Simo- 
nides. He flourished about B.C. 470, and lived 
a long time at the court of Hiero in Syracuse, 
together with Simonides and Pindar (Strab. 
p. 426; Aelian, V. H. iv. 15). He wrote in the 
Doric dialect Hymns, Paeans, Dithyrambs, &c. ; 
but all his poems have perished, with the excep- 
tion of a few fragments, and two epigrams in 
the Creek Anthology. The fragments have 
been published by Neue, Bacchylidis Cei 
Fragmentd, Berol. 1823, and by Bergk, 
Poet/in Lijrici Graeci. 

Bacenis Silva, a forest which separated the 
Suevi from the Chatti, at the sources of the 
river Visurgis [Weser), probably = the Thurin- 
gian Forest (Caes. B. G. vi. 10). 

Bacis (Beutis), the name of several prophets, 
of whom the most celebrated was the Boeotian 
seer, who delivered his oracles in hexameter 
verse at Heleon in Boeotia. In later times 
there existed a collection of his oracles, similar 
to the Sibylline books at Rome. (Hdt. viii. 20, 
77, ix. 43 ;*Plat. Theag. 124 D ; Paus. iv. 27, 2, 
ix. 17, x. 12 ; Cic. Div. i. 18, 34.) 

Bactra or Zanaspa (to BaVrpa, to Zapiaawa 
and r\ Zapi&oirr) : Balkh), the capital of Bac- 
tria, appears to have been founded by the early 
Persian kings, but not to have been a consider- 
able city till the time of Alexander, who settled 
in it his Greek mercenaries and his disabled 
Macedonian soldiers. It stood at the N. foot of 
tin- M. I'uropmnisus (the Hindoo Kuosh) on 
the river Bactrus (Adirsiah or Delias) about 
25 miles S. of its junction with the Oxtis. 
It was the centre of a considerable traffic. The 
existing ruins, 20 miles in circuit, are all of 
tin- Mohammedan period. (Strab. p. 513; Curt, 
vii. 4-10.) 

Bactria or -iana (BoKTpiaW) : Bo/tTpoi, -101, 
■lavol : Bokhara), a province of tho Persian 
empiFe ( bounded on the S. by M. Pa-opainisus 
which separated it from Ariana, on the E. by 
the N. branch of the same range, which divided 



158 



BADUHENNAE 



BALBUS 



it from the Sacae, on the NE. by the Oxus, 
which separated it from Sogdiana, and on the 
"W. by Margiana. It was inhabited by a rude 
and warlike people, who were subdued by Cyrus 
or his next successors. It was included in the 
conquests of Alexander, and formed a part of 
the kingdom of the Seleucidae, until B.C. 255, 
when Theodotus, its governor, revolted from 
Antiochus II., and founded the Greek kingdom 
of Bactria, which lasted till B.C. 134 or 125, 
when it was overthrown by the Parthians, with 
whom, during its whole duration, its kings were 
sometimes at war, and sometimes in alliance 
against Syria. This Greek kingdom extended 
beyond the limits of the province of Bactria, 
and included at least a part of Sogdiana. 
Bactria was watered by the Oxus and its tribu- 
taries, and contained much fertile land ; and 
much of the commerce between W. Asia and 
India passed through it. (Strab. p. 516; Hdt. 
iv. 204 ; Arrian, iii. 29.) 

Baduhennae Lucus, a wood in W. Friesland. 
(Tac. Ann. iv. 73). 

Baebia Gens, plebeian, the most important 
members of which are given under their sur- 
names, Dives, Sulc.a, Tamphilus. 

Baecula, a town in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
W. of Castulo, in the neighbourhood of silver 
mines (Polyb. x. 38 ; Liv. xxvii. 18). It may 
correspond to the modern Baylen. 

Baeterrae (Beziers), also called Biterrensis 
urbs, a town in Gallia Narbonensis on the 
Obris, not far from Narbo, and a Boman 
colony : its neighbourhood produced good wine 
(Plin. iii. 36, xiv. 68). 

Baetica. [Hispania.] 

Baetis (G uadalquiver) , a river in S. Spain, 
formerly called Tartessus, and by the inhabit- 
ants Certis, rises in Hispania Tarraconensis in 
the territory of the Oretani, flows SW. through 
Baetica, to which it gives its name, past the 
cities of Corduba and Hispalis, and falls into 
the Atlantic Ocean, by two mouths, N. of Gades 
(Strab. p. 139). 

Bagacum (Bavai), the chief town of the 
Nervii in Gallia Belgica : there are many 
Roman remains in the modern town. 

Bagaudae, a Gallic people, who revolted 
under Diocletian, and were with difficulty sub- 
dued by Maximian, a.d. 286 (Eutrop. ix. 20). 

Bagistanus Mons, and Bagistana (Behis- 
tun), a range of hills and a town in Media, SW. 
of Ecbatana (Diod. vi. 13, xvii. 110), celebrated 
for its rock sculptures and inscriptions. 

Bagoas (Bayutas), a eunuch, highly trusted 
and favoured by Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) , whom 
he poisoned, B.C. 338. He was put to death 
by Darius III. Codomannus, whom he had 
attempted likewise to poison, 336. The name 
Bagoas frequently occurs in Persian history, 
and is sometimes used by Latin writers as 
synonymous with a eunuch. 

Bagradas (BaypdSas : Mejerdah), a river of 
N. Africa, falling into the Gulf of Carthage 
near Utica (Caes. B. C. ii. 24 ; Liv. xxx. 10 ; 
Lucan, iv. 588). It is the same as the Macaras 
of Polyb. i. 75. 

Baiae (Baianus), a town in Campania, on a 
small bay W. of Naples, and opposite Puteoli, 
was situated in a beautiful country, which 
abounded in warm mineral springs. The baths 
of Baiae were the most celebrated in Italy, and 
the town itself was the favourite watering-place 
of the Romans, who flocked thither in crowds 
for health and pleasure. Seneca calls it ' diver- 
sorium vitiorum.' The whole country was 
studded with the palaces of the Roman nobles 



and emperors, which covered the coast from 
Baiae to Puteoli : many of these places were 
built out into the sea. (Hor. Od. ii. 18, 20, Ep. 
i. 15, 2 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 21, xiv. 9 ; Senec. Ep. 51 ; 
Plin. xxxi. 4 ; Strab. p. 245.) Nero here matured 
his plot for the murder of Agrippina : Hadrian 
died here, and Alexander Severus built several 
villas (Tac. Ann. xiv. 4 ; Vit. Hadr. 25 ; Alex. 
Sev. 26). The site of ancient Baiae is now for 
the most part covered by the sea. 

Baiucasses, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, 
whose capital was Augustodurum (Bayeux). 

Balblnus, D. Caelius, was elected emperor 
by the senate along with M. Clodius Pupienus 
Maximus, after the murder of the two Gordians 




Balbinus, Roman Emperor. A.D. 238. 
Obv.. bust of Balbinus ; rev.. Emperor holding olive-branch 
as a sceptre, P.M. TE. P. COS.II. P.P. 

in Africa, at the beginning of a.d. 238 ; but the 
new emperors were slain by the soldiers at 
Rome in June in the same year (Eutrop. ix. 2). 

Balbus, M\ Acilius, the name of two consuls, 
one in B.C. 150, and the other in 114. 

Balbus, T. Ampius, tribune of the plebs B.C. 
63, was a supporter of Pompey, whom he joined 
in the civil war b.c. 49. He was pardoned by 
Caesar through the intercession of Cicero (ad 
Earn. vi. 12 ; Suet. Jul. 77). 

Balbus, M. Atius, married Julia, the sister 
of Julius Caesar, who bore him a daughter, 
Atia, the mother of Augustus Caesar. [Aha.] 

Balbus, L. Cornelius. 1. Of Gades, served 
under Q. Metellus and Pompey against Serto- 
rius in Spain, and received from Pompey the 
Roman citizenship. He accompanied Pompey 
on his return to Rome, B.C. 71, and was for a 
long time one of his most intimate friends. At 
the same time he gained the friendship of 
Caesar, who placed great confidence in him. 
As the friend of Caesar and Pompey, he had 
numerous enemies, who accused him in 56 of 
having illegally assumed the Roman citizen- 
ship ; he was defended by Cicero, whose speech 
has come down to us, and was acquitted. In 
the civil war (49) Balbus did not take any open 
part against Pompey ; but he attached himself 
to Caesar, and, in conjunction with Oppius, had 
the entire management of Caesar's affairs at 
Rome. After the death of Caesar (44) he was 
equally successful in gaining the favour of 
Octavian, who raised him to the consulship in 
40. Balbus wrote a diary (Ephemeris), which 
has not come down to us, of the most remark- 
able occurrences in Caesar's life (Suet. Jul. 81). 
He took care that Caesar's Commentaries on 
the Gallic war should be continued ; and we 
accordingly find the 8th book dedicated to him. 
His letters to Cicero are in Cic. ad Att. viii. 15, 
ix. 7, 13. — 2. Nephew of the preceding, received 
the Roman franchise along with his uncle. He 
served under Caesar in the civil war ; he was 
quaestor of Asinius Pollio in Further Spain in 
B.C. 43, and while there added to his native 
town Gades a suburb ; many years afterwards 
he was proconsul of Africa, and triumphed over 
the Garamantes in 19. He built a magnificent 
theatre at Rome, which was dedicated in 13. 
(Veil. Pat. ii. 51 ; Cic. Att. viii. 9.) 



BALBUS 

Balbus, LuciHus. 1. L. s jurist and brother 
of the following. — 2. Q., a Stoic philosopher, 
and a pupil of Panaetius, is introduced by 
Cicero as one of the speakers in his De Natura 
Deorum, iii. 40 (cf. Div. i. 5). 

Balbus, Octavius, a contemporary of Cicero, 
bore a high character as a judex ; he was put 
to death by the triumvirs, B.C. 43 (Cic. -pro Clu. 
38 ; Val. Max. v. 7, 3). 

Balbus, Sp. Thorrus, tribune of the plebs, 
about B.C. Ill, proposed an agrarian law. See 
Diet, of Ant., art. Lex Thoria. 

Baleares (BaAeapi'Ses, Ba\iapi8es), also called 
Gymnesiae (rV/ufTjinai) by the Greeks, two 
islands in the Mediterranean, off the coast of 
Spain, distinguished by the epithets Major and 
Minor, whence their modern names Majorca 
and Minorca. They were early known to the 
Carthaginians, who established settlements 
there for the purposes of trade ; they afterwards 
received colonies from Bhodes ; and their 
population was at a later time of a very mixed 
kind. Their inhabitants, also called Baleares, 
were celebrated. as slingers, and were employed 
as such in the armies of the Carthaginians and 
Romans. In consequence of their piracies they 
provoked the hostility of the Bomans, and were 
finally subdued, B.C. 123, by Q. Metellus, who 
assumed accordingly the surname Balearicus. 
(Strab. pp. 167, 654 ; Polyb. i. 67, iii. 113 ; Diod. 
v. 16 ; Flor. iii. 8 ; Oros. i. 2, v. 13.) 

Balista, prefect of the praetorians under 
Valerian, whom he accompanied to the East. 
After the defeat and capture of that emperor 
(a.d. 260), he rallied a body of Roman troops, 
and defeated the Persians in Cilicia. His sub- 
sequent career is obscure ; he is mentioned as 
one of the Thirty Tyrants, and was probably 
put to death, about 264, by Odenathus. (Trebell. 
Poll. Trig. Tyr. 17.) 

Bambalio, M. Fulvius, father of Fulvia, the 
wife of M. Antonius, the triumvir, received the 
nickname of Bambalio on account of a hesitancy 
in his speech (Cic. Phil. ii. 36, iii. 6). 
Bambyce. [Hierapolis.] 
Banasa (Mamora ? Bu.), a city of Mauretania 
Tingitana, on the river Subur (Sebou), near the 
W. coast: a colony under Augustus (Plin. v. 5). 

Banduslae Fons, a fountain celebrated by 
Horace (Od. iii. 13). According to the scholiast 
Acron it was in the neighbourhood of Horace's 
Sabine farm ; and the spring called Fontana 
degli Oratini, which gushes out under a small 
rock on the hill side between the two supposed 
sites of his farm, answers the description. 
In the 12th century a church was standing 
about six miles from Venusia in Apulia de- 
scribed in old documents as ' Eccles. SS. Gervasi 
etProtasi in Bandusino Fonte apud Venusiam,' 
whence some conclude that the spring men- 
tioned by Horace was near his birthplace, not 
at his farm : but the expressions in the ode 
itself point inevitably to the conclusion that 
Horace speaks of a spring near his dwelling. 

Bantia (Bantinus ; Banzi or Vanzi), a town 
near Venusia, in a woody district (saltua 
Bantini, Hor. Od. iii. 4, 15), on the borders of 
Lucania and Apulia (Liv. xxvii. 25 ; Plin. iii. 10). 

Barbana (Bojana), a river in Illyria, Sows 
through the Palus Labeatis (Liv. xliv. 3l). 
Barbarla. [Azaota.] 

BarbatlO, commander of the household troops 
under Gallus, whom he arrested by command 
of Constantius, a.d. 854. In 835 he was sent 
into Gaul to assist Julian against the Alcuia 1 1 n i . 
He was put to death by Constantius in 859. 
(Amm. Marc. xiv. 11, xviii. 8.) 



BABIUM 



159 



Barbatus, M. Horatrus, consul b.c. 449 with 
Valerius Publicola after the overthrow of the 
decemvirs. [Publicola.] 

Barbosthenes, a mountain E. of Sparta. 

Barbula, Aemilrus. 1. Q., consul b.c. 317, 
when he subdued Apulia, and consul again in 
311, when he fought against the Etruscans. — 
2. L., consul in 281, carried on war against the 
Tarentines, Samnites, and Sallentines. — 3. M. 
consul in 230, fought against the Ligurians. 

Barca, the surname of Hamelcar, the father 
of Hannibal, is probably the same as the 
Hebrew Barak, which signifies lightning. His 
family was distinguished as the ' Barcine 
family,' and the democratical party, which 
supported this family, as the ' Barcine party.' 

Barca or -e (BapKTj : Ba.pK.irqs, Bapxaios, 
Barcaeus). 1. (Merjeh, Ru.), the second city of 
Cyrenaica, in N. Africa, 100 stadia (10 geog. 
miles) from the sea, appears to have been at 
first a settlement of a Libyan tribe, the 
Barcaei, but about B.C. 560 was colonised by the 
Greek seceders from Cyrene, and became so 
powerful as to make the W. part of Cyrenaica 
virtually independent of the mother city. In 
B.C. 510 it was taken by the Persians, who 




Obv., head of Zeus 



Barca in Africa. 

rev., silphium plant, cultivated in 
that district. 



removed most of its inhabitants to Bactria, and 
under the Ptolemies its ruin was completed by 
the erection of its port into a new city, which 
was named Ptolemais, and which took the 
place of Barca as one of the cities of the 
Cyrenai'c Pentapolis. (Hdt. iv. 160, 164, 167, 
171, 200 ; Strab. p. 837 ; Plin. v. 32 ; Cyhene.) 
— 2. A town in Bactria peopled by the removed 
inhabitants of the Cyrenaic Barca. 

Baremo (Barcelona), a town of the Laeetani, 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, afterwards a Roman 
colony : the town was not large, but possessed 
an excellent harbour (Ptol. ii. 6; Oros. vii. 143). 

Bardanes. [Arsaces XXL] 

Bardylisor Bardyllis (BdpSvMs, BdpSvWis), 
an Illyrian chieftain, carried on frequent wars 
with the Macedonians, but was at length de- 
feated and slain in battle by Philip, the father 
of Alexander the Great, B.C. 859 (Diod. xvi. 4 ; 
Cic. Off ii. 11, 40). 

Barea Soranus, consul suffectus in a.d. 52 
under Claudius, and afterwards proconsul of 
Asia, was a man of justice and integrity. He 
was accused of treason in the reign of Nero, 
and also of employing his daughter Servilia to 
use magic, and was condemned to death together 
with her. The chief witness against him was 
P. Egnatius Celer, a Stoic philosopher, and the 
teacher of Soranus. (Juv. iii. 116; Dio Cass, 
lxii. 26; Tac. Ann. xvi. 80.) 

Bargusii, a people in the NE. of Spain, be- 
tween the Pyrenees and the Iberus (Polyb. iii. 
35.) 

Barium fHarinus: Bari), a town in Apulia, 
on the Adriatic, a municipium, and celebrated 
for its fisheries (Barium piscosum, Hor. Sat. i. 



160 



BAESAENTES 



BATTIADAE 



5, 97; Strab. p. 283). In the 10th century the 
Greek emperors made it the capital of Apulia. 

Barsaentes (Bapo-aevr-qs) orBarzaentus (Bap- 
(dzvTos), satrap of the Arachoti and Drangae, 
took part in the murder of Darius III., and tied 
to India, where he was seized by the inhabitants 
and delivered up to Alexander, who put him to 
death (Arrian, iii. 8, 21 ; Diod. xvii. 74). 

Barsine (BapcriVr;). 1. Daughter of Artabazus, 
and wife of Memnon the Rhodian, subsequently 
married Alexander the Great, to whom she bore 
a son, Heracles. She and her son were put to 
death by Polysperchon in 309. — 2. Also called 
Statlra, elder daughter of Darius III., whom 
Alexander married at Susa. Shortly after Alex- 
ander's death she was murdered by Roxana. 

Basanitis. [Batanaea.] 

Basilia (Basel or Bale), a town on the Rhine, 
in the neighbourhood of which Valentinian built 
a fortress (Amm. Marc. xxx. 8). It became im- 
portant after the ruin of Augusta Rauracorum. 

Basilina, the mother of Julian the apostate, 
being the second wife of Julius Constantius, 
brother of Constantine the Great. 

BasillUS, commonly called Basil the Great, 
was born a.d. 329, at Caesarea. (See Diet, of 
Christ. Biogr.) 

Basilus, L. Minucius, served under Caesar 
in Gaul, and commanded part of Caesar's fleet 
in the civil war. He was one of Caesar's assas- 
sins (b.c. 44), and in the following year was 
murdered by his own slaves. (Caes. B. G. vi. 29, 
vii. 92 ; Appian, B. C. iii. 96 ; Oros. vi. 18 ; Cic. 
Fam. vi. 15.) 

Bassareus. [Dionysus.] 

Bassus, Aufidrus, an orator and historian 
under Augustus and Tiberius, wrote an account 
of the Roman wars in Germany, and a work 
upon Roman history of a more general cha- 
racter, which was continued in 31 books by the 
elder Pliny (Quint, x. 1, 108 ; Plin. vi. 27). 

Bassus, Q,. Caecilius, a Roman eques, and an 
adherent of Pompey, fled to Tyre after the battle 
of Pharsalia, B.C. 48. Shortly afterwards he ob- 
tained possession of Tyre, and subsequently 
settled down in Apamea, where he maintained 
himself for 3 years (46-43). On the arrival of 
Cassius in Syria in 43, the troops of Bassus 
Went over to Cassius. (Dio Cass, xlvii. 26 ; Veil. 
Pat. ii. 69 ; Cic. Fam. xi. 1, xii. 11.) 

Bassus, Caeslus, a Roman lyric poet, and a 
friend of Persius, who addresses his 6th satire 
to him, was destroyed along with his villa in a.d. 
79 by the eruption of Vesuvius which over- 
whelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii (Quint, x. 
1, 96 ; Pers. vi. 1 ; Schol. ad loc. ; Plin. Bp. vi. 
16). He also wrote a poem on metres, of which 
it is thought fragments remain in a prose 
version (Gaisford, Script. Metr. 1837 ; Keil, 1874). 

Bassus, Saleius, a Roman epic poet of con- 
siderable merit, contemporary with Vespasian 
(Tac. Dial. 5; Quint, x. 1, 90; Juv. vii. 80). 
The poem ad Pisonem (in Poet. Bat. Min.) has 
been ascribed to this Bassus, but probably 
erroneously : it seems to belong to the age of 
Claudius. 

Bastarnae or Basternae, a warlike German 
people, who migrated to the country near the 
mouth of the Danube. They are first mentioned 
in the wars of Philip and Perseus against the 
Romans, and at a later period they frequently 
devastated Thrace, and were engaged in wars 
with the Roman governors of the province of 
Macedonia. In B.C. 30, they were defeated by 
M. Crassus, and driven across the Danube ; and 
we find them, at a later time, partly settled be- 
tween the Tyras (Dneister) and Borysthenes 



(Dnieper), and partly at the mouth of the 
Danube, under the name of Peucini, from their 
inhabiting the island of Peuce, at the mouth of 
this river. (Strab. pp. 93, 118, 291, 294, 305; 
Liv. xl. 57 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 265, Germ. 46.) 

Bastitani (also Bastetani, Bastuli), a people 
in Hispania Baetica on the coast (Strab. p. 139). 

Batanaea or Basanitis (Baravaia, Baaaviris : 

0. T. Bashan, Basan), a district of Palestine, E. 
of the Jordan, extending from the river Jabbok 
on the S. to Mt. Hermon, in the Antilibanus 
chain, on the N. [Judaea.] 

Batavi or Batavi (Juv. viii. 51 ; Lucan, i. 431), 
a Celtic people who abandoned their homes in 
consequence of civil dissensions, before the time 
of Julius Caesar, and settled in the island 
formed by the Rhine, the "Waal, and the Maas, 
which island was called after them Insula 
Batavorum. They were for a long time allies 
of the Romans in their wars against the Ger- 
mans, and were of great service to the former 
by their excellent cavalry ; but at length, ex- 
asperated by the oppressions of the Roman 
officers, they rose in revolt under Claudius 
Civilis, in A.D. 69, and were with great difficulty 
subdued. On their subjugation they were 
treated by the Romans with mildness, and were 
exempt from taxation. Their country, which 
also extended beyond the island S. of the Maas 
and Waal, was called, at a later time, Batavia. 
Their chief towns were Lugdunum (Leyden) 
and Batavodurum, between the Maas and the 
Waal. The Caninefates or Canninefates were 
a branch of the Batavi, and dwelt in the W. of 
the island. (Caes. B. G. iv. 10 ; Tac. Hist. iv. 
12-37, v. 14, Germ. 29.) 

Batavodurum. [Batavi.] 

Bathycles (BadvK \rjs), a sculptor of Magnesia 
on the Maeander, constructed for the Lacedae- 
monians the colossal throne of the Amyclaean 
Apollo, a sort of carved screen surrounding 
the statue and ornamented with mythological 
figures. He belongs to the early Ionian school 
soon after 600 B.C. (Paus. iii. 18, 6.) 

Bathyllus. 1. Of Samos, a beautiful youth 
beloved by Anacreon. — 2. Of Alexandria, the 
freedman and favourite of Maecenas (Tac. Ann. 

1. 54), brought to perfection, together with 
Pylades of Cilicia, the imitative dance of the 
Pantomimus. Bathyllus excelled in comic, and 
Pylades in tragic personifications. (See Diet. 
Ant. s.v. Pantomimus.) 

Batnae (Bdrvat : Ba.Tva.ios). 1. (Saruj), a 
city of Osroene in Mesopotamia, E. of the Eu- 
phrates, and SW. of Edessa, at about equal 
distances ; founded by the Macedonians ; cele- 
brated for its annual fair of Indian and Syrian 
merchandise (Amm. Marc. xiv. 3). — 2. (Dahab), 
a city in Syria, between Beroea and Hierapolis. 

Bato (Bdra>v). 1. The charioteer of Amphia- 
raus, was swallowed up by the earth along with 
Amphiabaus. — 2. The name of 2 leaders of the 
Pannonians and Dalmatians in their insurrec- 
tion in the reign of Augustus, a.d. 6. Tiberius 
finally subdued Dalmatia ; Bato surrendered 
to him in 9 upon promise of pardon, and accom- 
panied him to Italy. (Dio Cass. Iv. 32, lvi. 11 ; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 110-115.) 

Battiadae (BarridSai), kings of Cyrene during 
3 generations. 1. Battus I., of Thera, led a 
colony to Africa at the command of the Delphic 
oracle, which he consulted about his stammering 
speech, and founded Cyrene about B.C. 631. He 
was the first king of Cyrene, his government was 
gentle and just, and after his death in 599 he was 
worshipped as a hero. (Hdt. iv. 157 ; Pind. Pyth. 
iv. 10, v. 89.) According to the Scholiast on 



BATTIADES 

Pindar, the founder was an Aristoteles, who was 
called Battus because that was the title of Libyan 
native kings. — 2. Arcesilaus I., son of No. 1, 
reigned B. c. 599-583. — 3. Battus II., surnamed 
' the Happy,' son of No. 2, reigned b. c. 583-560 ? 
In his reign, Cyrene received a great number 
of colonists from various parts of Greece ; and 
in consequence of the increased strength of his 
kingdom Battus was able to subdue the neigh- 
bouring Libyan tribes, and to defeat Apries, 
king of Egypt (570), who had espoused the 
cause of the Libyans (Hdt. iv. 150).— 4. Arces- 
ilaus II., son of No. 3, surnamed ' the Oppres- 
sive,' reigned about B. c. 560-550. In conse- 
quence of dissensions between himself and his 
brothers, the latter withdrew from Cyrene, and 
founded Barca. He was strangled by his 
brother or friend, Learchus (Hdt. iv. 160). — 
5. Battus III., or ' the Lame,' son of No. 4, 
reigned about B. c. 550-530. In his time, 
Demonax, a Mantinean, gave a new consti- 
tution to the city, whereby the royal power was 
reduced within very narrow limits. — 6. Arces- 
ilaus III., son of No. 5, reigned about B. c. 
530-514, was driven from Cyrene in an attempt 
to recover the ancient royal privileges, but 
recovered his kingdom with the aid of Samian 
auxiliaries. He endeavoured to strengthen 
himself by making submission to Cambyses in 
525. He was, however, again obliged to leave 
Cyrene ; he fled to Alazir, king of Barca, whose 
daughter he had married, and was there slain 
by the Barcaeans and some Cyrenaean exiles. 
(Hdt. iv. 162-167.)— 7. Battus IV., prolmbly son 
of No. 6, of whose life we have no accounts. — 
8. Arcesilaus IV., probably son of No. 7, 
whose victory in the chariot-race at the Pythian 
games, B. c. 466, is celebrated by Pindar in his 
4th and 5th Pythian odes. At his death, about 
450, a popular government was established. 

Battiades. [Callimachus.] 

Battus (Burros), a shepherd whom Hermes 
turned into a stone, because he broke a promise 
of silence regarding the cattle stolen by Hermes 
(Ov. Met. ii. 688; cf. Ant. Lib. 23). 

Batulum, a town in Campania (Verg. Aen. 
viL 739 ; Sil. viii. 566). 

Baucis. [Philemon.] 

Bauli IBacolo), a collection of villas rather 
than a town, between Misenum and Baiae in 
Campania. 

BaviUB and Maevius, two malevolent poet- 
asters, who attacked the poetry of Virgil and 
Horace (Verg. Eel. iii. 90; Hor. Epod. 10). 

Bazira or Bezira (Bd(ipa : Bafipoi : Bajowr, 
N\V. of Peshaivur), a city in the Paropamisus, 
taken by Alexander on his march into India. 

Bebryces (Bt&pvKfs). 1. A mythical people 
in Bithynia, said to be of Thraeian origin 
(Strab. p. 295) whose king, Amycus, slew Pollux 
[Argonautae ]. — 2 An ancient Iberian people 
on the coast of the Mediterranean, N. and S. 
of the Pyrenees : they possessed numerous 
herds of cattle (Sil. It. iii. 420; Zonar. viii. 21). 

Bedriacum (Calvatone), also spelt Bebri- 
acum and Betriacum, a small place in Cisal- 
pine Gaul, between Cremona and Verona, cele- 
brated for the defeat both of Otho and, a few 
months later, of the Vitellian troops, a. n. 69 
(Tac. Hist. ii. 43, iii. 15). 

Begorritis Lacus (Ostrovo), a lake in 
Eordaea of Macedonia (Liv. xlii. 53). 

BelbIna(BfA/3ii'a: BeA/3ii'/TT)sl. l.{St. George 
d'Arbori), an island in tlx? Aegoean sea, off the 
G. coast of Attica (Hdt. viii. 125 ; Strab. p. 375). 
—2. See Bf.lkmina. 

Belemina (BeAe/uiVa), also called Bclmina 



BELISAKIUS 



161 



J and Belbina, a town in theNW. of Laconia.on 
| the borders of Arcadia. The surrounding dis- 
trict was called Belminatis and Belbinatis. 
(Strab. p. 343 ; Paus. viii. 35.) 

Belesis or Belesys (Be'Aeo-<s, BeAecrvs), a 
Chaldaean priest at Babylon, who is said, in 
conjunction with Arbaces, the Mede, to have 
overthrown the old Assyrian empire. [Arbaces.] 
Belesis afterwards received the satrapy of 
Babylon from Arbaces. (Diod. ii. 24.) 

Belgae, one of the three great people into 
which Caesar divides the population of Gaul. 
The5 T were bounded on the N. by the Rhine, on 
the W. by the ocean, on the S. by the Sequana 
(Seine) and Matrona (Marne), and on the E. 
by the territory of the Treviri. They were of 
German origin, and had settled in the country, 
expelling or reducing to subjection the former 
I inhabitants. They were the bravest of the 
; inhabitants of Gaul, were subdued by Caesar 
j after a courageous resistance, and were the 
, first Gallic people who threw off the Roman 
( dominion. The Belgae were subdivided into 
the tribes of the Ner\u, Bellovaci, Remi, 
Suessiones, Mobjnt, Menapii, Aduatici, and 
others ; and the collective forces of the whole 
nation were more than a million. (Caes. B. G. 

i. 1, ii. 4, v. 24 ; Strab. p. 192.) There were also 
Belgae in the south of Britain, whom Caesar 
seems to place in Kent and Sussex ; Ptolemy 
more inland, in parts of Wilts, Hants, and 
Somerset (Caes. B. G. v. 12 ; Ptol. ii. 3, 28). 
Ptolemy gives their real settlement, whereas 
Caesar speaks of stray bodies of immigrants 
whom he came across. 

Belgica. [Gallia.] 

Belgium, the name generally applied to the 
territory of the Bellovaci, and of the tribes 
dependent upon the latter — namely, the Atre- 
bates, Ambiani, Velliocasses, Aulerci, and 
Caleti. Belgium did not include the whole 
country inhabited by the Belgae, for we find 
the Nervii, Remi, &c, expressly excluded from 
it. (Caes : .B. G. v. 24.) 

Belisarius, the greatest general of Justinian, 
was a native of Illyria and of mean extraction. 
In A. D. 534, he overthrew the Vandal kingdom 
in Africa, which had been established by 
Genseric about 100 years previously, and took 
prisoner the Vandal king, Gelimer, whom he 
led in triumph to Constantinople (Procop. 
Vand. i. 11, ii. 8). In 535-540, Belisarius 
carried on war against the Goths in Italy, and 
conquered Sicily, but he was recalled by the 
jealousy of Justinian. In 541-544 he again 
carried on war against the Goths in Italy, 
but was again recalled by Justinian, leaving 
his victories to be completed by his rival 
Narses in the complete overthrow of the 
Gothic kingdom, and the establishment of 
the exarchate of Ravenna (Procop. Goth. i. 0, 

ii. 80; iii. 1-S2, iv. 21). The last victory of 
Belisarius was gained in repelling an inroad of 
the Bulgarians, 559 (Theoph. 198). In 563 he 
was accused of a conspiracy against the life of 
Justinian ; according to a popular tradition 
(which rests merely on the authority of Tzetzes 
in the 12th cent, and an anonymous writer 
of the 11th) he was deprived of his property, 
his eyes were put out, and he wandered as a 
beggar through Constantinople ; but according 
to the more authentic account, he was merely 
imprisoned for a year in his own palace, and 
then restored to his honours (Theoph. 160, 198). 
He died in 565. — The story of his blindness and 
beggarj — ''lit" nboliini Melisario' — though it 
should be rejected absolutely inasmuch as the 

M 



152 



BELLEROPHON 



silence of tlie earlier writers practically contra- 1 killed the Chimaera with his arrows. Iobates, 
dicvs it, was revived by some modern writers and j thus disappointed, sent Bellerophon against 
popularised by Marmontel ; and it was even : the Solymi and next against the Amazons. In 
said that the statue in the Borghese collection, these contests he was also victorious ; and on 
which Winckelmann showed to represent I his return to Lycia, being attacked by the 
Augustus propitiating Nemesis, was 
Belisarius begging. As a military 
commander, and as the preserver of 
the empire against barbarian in- 
roads, Belisarius ranks among the 
great men of antiquity : his private 
life was rendered unattractive by 
avarice and by his submission to his 
wife, the infamous Antonina. 

Bellerophon or Bellerophontes 
(BeAAepo pa>v or BeAAepocptWrjs), son 
of the Corinthian king Glaucus and 
Eurymede and grandson of Sisyphus 
(II. vi. 15u ; Apoliod. i. 9, 3) ; but ac- 
cording to Hyg. Fab. 191 he was son 
of Poseidon (cf. Schol. ad Pind. 01. 
xiii. 66). Some said that he was 
originally called Hipponous, and re- 
ceived the name Bellerophon from 
slaying the Corinthian Bellerus (pro- 
bably a later addition to his story, Q 

manufactured to explain his name ; 
Schol. ad II. 6. 155, and Apoliod. ii. 
3). To be purified from the murder he fled to 
proetus, whose wife, Antea, fell in love with the 
young hero ; but as her offers were rejected by 
him, she accused him to her husband of having 
made attempts on her honour. Other ac- 
counts name the wife Sthenoboea. Her punish- 
ment is related in Apoliod. ii. 3, 2, and was a \ Bellerophon became the father of Isander, 
subject for the Stheneboea of Euripides. She is 1 Hippolochus, and Laodamia. At last Bellero- 
said to have mounted Pegasus and to have been phon drew upon himself the hatred of the gods, 
thrown into the sea. Proetus, unwilling to kill ] and, consumed by grief, wandered lonely 
Bellerophon with his own hands, sent him to his through the Alei'an field, avoiding the paths of 




Bellerophon taking leave of Proetus. (Hamilton vases.) 



bravest Lycians, whom Iobates had placed in 
ambush for the purpose, Bellerophon slew them 
all. Iobates, now seeing that it was hopeless 
to kill the hero, gave him his daughter 
(Philonoe, Anticlea, or Cassandra) in marriage, 
and made him his successor on the throne. 



father-in-law, Iobates, king of Lycia, with 
letter begging that the messenger should be 




Bellerophon, Pegasus, and Chimaera. (Hamilton vases.) 



put to death. Iobates accordingly sent him to 
kill the monster Chimaera, thinking that he 
was sure to perish in the contest. After ob- 
taining possession of the winged horse, Pega- 
sus, Bellerophon rose with him in the air, and 



men. This is all that Homer says respecting 
Bellerophon's later fate : some traditions related 
that he attempted to fly to heaven 
upon Pegasus, but that Zeus sent a 
gad-fly to sting the horse, which 
threw off the rider upon the earth, 
who became lame or blind in con- 
sequence. (Pind. Isth. vi. 44 ; Schol. 
ad 01. xiii. 90 ; Hor. Od. iv. 11, 26.) 
Bellerophon was honoured as a god 
at Corinth (on whose coins and on 
those of her colonies Pegasus often 
appears), and also in Lycia (Paus. ii. 
2, 24 ; Q. Smyrn. x. 162).— As regards 
the history and meaning of the 
story, it must be observed that the 
characteristic parts are the con- 
nexion with Pegasus and the fight 
with the Chimaera. The story of 
Proetus is one which is often re- 
lated of others in much the same 
form. Homer tells nothing of Pega- 
sus : it is not, however, necessary 
to suppose that the Pegasus story is 
everywhere post-Homeric. Homer 
may have adopted the Corinthian 
hero for his Lycian romance before 
the connexion with Pegasus was 
fully established : for it is clear that 
the local Corinthian myths com- 
bined the two at some time or 
other. In Bellerophon some seo 
merely a sun-god akin to Perseus. 
Others lay stress on his descent from Glaucus, a 
sea-god, and Poseidon, combining this with the 
descent of Pegasus from Poseidon ; the winged 
horse, they say, symbolises the clouds, and the 
fight with the Chimaera, a thunderstorm in 



BELLI 



BERENICE 



103 



which Bellerophon, the heavenly rider, destroys 
the evil elements of the storm. [See further 
under Chmaeba and Pegasus.] Though 
Bellerophon is sometimes represented as an 
armed warrior, he most commonly appears, 
when mounted on Pegasus, clad in chlamys and 
petasus, with a spear in his right hand. 

Belli, a Celtiberian people in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis. 

Belldna (originally Duellona, Varr. L. L. v. 
73), the Roman goddess of war, was probably a 
Sabine divinity = Nerio, the wife of Mars or tb.2 
personification of his power. [See Maes.] She 
has all the attributes of Enyo in the litera- 
ture influenced by Greek, following Mars with 
weapons, or described as armed with a bloody 
scourge. (Verg. Aen. viii. 703.) During the 
Samnite wars, in B.C. 296, App. Claudius Caecus 
vowed a temple to her, which was erected in 
the Campus Martius, outside the Pomerium, 
as a deity of trouble (Liv. x. 19 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 
199). A further development came from Asia 
Minor after the Mithridatic wars and the attri- 
butes of the goddess of Comana (a moon-goddess 
and a war-goddess) were transferred to Bellona. 
Hence the fanatic character of the Bellonarii, 
her priests, who wounded themselves in the 
processions, attended with trumpets and cvm- 
bals (Plut. Sull. 9 ; Strab. p. 535 ; Tibull. i. 6, 
43 ; Mart. xii. 57 ; Lucan, i. 565). 

Bellovaci, the most powerful of the Belgae, 
dwelt in the modern Beauvais, between the 
Seine, Oise, Somme, and Bresle. In Caesar's 
time they could bring 100,000 men into the 
field, but they were subdued by Caesar with 
the other Belgae (Caes. B. G. ii. 4, 8, vii. 59). 

Belon or Baelon (BeKuv, BcuKiiv, nr. Bolonia, 
Ru.), a seaport town in Hispania Baetica on a 
river of the same name (now Barbate), the usual 
place for crossing over to Tingis in Mauretania 
(Strab. p. 140). 

Belus (Bt)\os), son of Poseidon and Libya or 
Eurynome, twin-brother of Agenor, and father 
of Aegyptus and Danaus (Apollod. ii. 1, 4 ; 
Hdt. vii. 61; Paus. iv. 23; Aesch. Suppl. 318). 
He was properly the national deity of various 
Semitic nations, worshipped as Baal or Bel, 
and, while sometimes identified by the Greeks 
with Zeus, was also regarded as the ancestral 
hero of those nations from whom the legends 
about him were transplanted to Greece and 
there became mixed up with Greek myths. 

Belus (BijAos : Nahr Naman), a river of 
Phoenicia, rising at the foot of M. Carmel, and 
falling into the sea close to the S. of Ptolemais 
(Acre), celebrated for the tradition that its fine 
sand first led the Phoenicians to the invention 
of glass (Plin. v. 75). 

Benacus Lacus (Lago di Garcia), a lake in 
the N. of Italy (Gallia Transpadana), out of 
which the Mincius flows (Verg. Georg. ii. 160, 
Aen. x. 205; Plin. iii. 131). 

Bendis (BeeSi's, Bee5?5os), aThracian goddess 
whose worship was at an early period intro- 
duced into Attica by Thracian metoeci (Plat. 
Rep. 327 ; Strab. p. 470 ; Hesych. s.v.). Livy 
(xxxviii. 41) mentions a temple in her honour 
near the Thracian Hebrus, B.C. 189. She was 
identified by the Greeks with Artemis and with 
Hecate for reasons which are easily understood 
if she was, as is stated, a goddess of the moon 
and also of hunting among the Thnicians. The 
epithet of the Thracian Bendis was Sl\oyxos 
(Cratin. ap. Hesych.), which, according to 
Hesychius, signifies either the huntress or the 
goddess who, like Hecate (Hes. Th. 113), reigns 
both in earth and in heaven. It is clear that 



Herodotus (v. 7) identifies her with Artemis. 
As a goddess of light she was honoured with a 
torch-race at the Bendideia in the Peiraeus, 
with the peculiarity, doubtless Thracian, that 
' it was a mounted race. [Diet. Ant. s.v. Lam- 
padedromiaJ] 

Tseneventxim JBenevento), a town in Sarn- 
nium on the Appia Via, at the junction of the 
two valleys through which the Sabatus and 
Calor flow, formerly called Maleventum or 
Nla\6evTov (probably from an original Maloeis). 
J It was one of the most ancient towns in Italy, 
i having been founded, according to tradition, 
j by Diomede. In the Samnite wars it was sub- 
j dued by the Romans, who sent a colony thither 
I in B.C. 268, and changed its name Maleventum 
| into Beneventum (Liv. ix. 27 ; Fest. s.v. Bene- 
ventum). It was colonised a second time, by 
Augustus, and was hence called Colonia Julia 
Concordia Augusta Felix (Strab. p. 250 ; Orell. 
907). The modem town has several Roman 
remains, among others a triumphal arch of 
Trajan. 
Berecyntla. [Rhea.] 

Berenice (Bepepfjnj), a Macedonic form of 
1 Pherenlce (<pep€f/i/c7)), i.e. " Bringing Victory." — 
; 1. A daughter of Lagos, first the wife of an 
obscure Macedonian, and afterwards of Ptolemy 
I. Soter, who fell in love with her when she 
came to Egypt in attendance on his bride 
Eurydice, Antipater's daughter. She was cele- 
brated for her beauty and virtue, and was the 
mother of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. (Paus. i. 
6 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 4 ; Just. xvi. 2 ; Theocr. xvii. 
34).— 2. Daughter of Ptolemy H. Philadelphus, 
and wife of Antiochus Theos, king of Syria, 
who divorced Laodice in order to marry her, 
B.C. 249. On the death of Ptolemy, B.C. 247, 
Antiochus recalled Laodice, who notwithstand- 
ing caused him to be poisoned, and murdered 
Berenice and her son (A.th<?n. p. 45 ; Just, xxvii. 
1). — 3. Daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, and 
wife of Ptoiemy III. Euergetes. She was put 




Berenice, wife of Ptolemy III. Euergetea. King of Egypt. 
Obv.. bead of Berenice, veiled ; rev., cornucopia bound 

■with fillet, between caps of Dioscuri ; uepekikiii uaXI- 

AIIZHX. 



to death by her son Ptolemy IV. Philopator on 
his accession to the throne, 221. The famous 
hair of Berenice, which she dedicated for her 
husband's safe return from his Syrian expedi- 
tion in the temple of Arsinoe at Zephyrium, 
was said to have become a constellation. It 
was celebrated by Callimachus in a poein, of 
which we have a translation by Catullus. (Just, 
xxvi. 3, xxx. 1 ; Polyb. v. 36, xv. 25.) — 4. Other- 
wise called Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy 
VHI. Lathyrus, succeeded her father on the 
throne, B.C. 81, and married Ptolemy X. (Alex- 
ander II.), but was murdered by her husband 
nineteen days after her marriage (Paus. i. 9 ; 
Appian, B. C. i. 414). — 5. Daughter of Ptolemy 
XI. Auletes, and eldest sister of the famous 
Cleopatra, was placed on the throne by the 
Alexandrines when they drove out her father, 

M 2 



164 



BERENICE 



BIANOR 



B.C. 58. She next married Archelaus, but was 
put to death with her husband, when Gabinius 
restored Auletes, 55. (Dio Cass, xxxix. 12, 
55-58 ; Plut. Ant. 3.)— 6. Sister of Herod the 
Great, married Aristobulus, who was put to 
death, B.C. 6. She afterwards went to Rome, 
where she spent the remainder of her life. She 
was the mother of Agrippa I. — 7. Daughter of 
Agrippa L, married her uncle Herod, king of 
Chalcis, by whom she had two sons. After the 
death of Herod, a.d. 48, Berenice, then twenty 
years old, lived with her brother Agrippa II., 
not without suspicion of incestuous commerce 
with him. She gained the love of Titus, who was 
only withheld from making her his wife by fear 
of offending the Romans by such a step ( Juv. vi. 
158 l Tac. Hist. ii. 2, 81 ; Dio Cass. lxvi. 15, 18). 

Berenice (Bepev'iKri : BtpeviKtvs), the name of 
several cities of the period of the Ptolemies. 
1. Formerly Eziongeber (Ru. nr. Akabah), in 
Arabia, at the head of the Sinus Aelanites, or 
E. branch of the Red Sea (Joseph. Ant. viii. 
6.) — 2. In Upper Egypt (for so it was con- 
sidered, though it lay a little S. of the parallel 
of Syene), on the coast of the Red Sea, on a 
gulf called Sinus Immundus (cutaOapTOS k6\ttos, 
now Foul Bay), where its ruins are still visible. 
It was named after the mother of Ptolemy II. 
Philadelphus, who built it, and made a road 
hence to Coptos, so that it became a chief em- 
porium for the commerce of Egypt with Arabia 
and India. Under the Romans it was the 
residence of a praefectus. (Strab. pp. 770, 815.) — 
3. B. PanchrySOS (B. irayxpvaos or fi Kara 2a- 
/3as), on the Red Sea coast in Aethiopia, con- 
siderably S. of the above ; so called from the 
neighbouring gold mines worked by the Egyp- 
tians. (Strab. p. 771 ; Plin. vi. 170.)— 4. B. Epi- 
dires (B. eV! Aeipijs), on the Prom. Dira, on the 
W. side of the entrance to the Red Sea (Straits 
of Bab-el- Mandeb). (Strab. p. 769.)— 5. (Ben 
Ghazi, Ru.), in Cyxenaica, formerly Hesperis 
('KffTrepts), the fabled site of the Gardens of the 
Hesperides, a colony of Arcesilas IV. It took 
its later name from the wife of Ptolemy III. 
Euergetes, and was the westernmost of the five 
cities of the Lj'bian Pentapolis. 

Bergistani, a people in the NE. of Spain 
between the Iberus and the Pyrenees, whose 
capital was Bergiuni (Liv. xxxiv. 16, 21). 

Bergomum (Bergomas, -atis : Bergamo), a 
town of the Orobii in Gallia Cisalpina, between 
Comum and Brixia, afterwards a municipium. 

Bermius Mons (rb Bep/.ucw lipos : Verria), a 
mountain in Macedonia between the Haliacmon 
and Ludias (Hdt. viii. 138 ; Strab. p. 330 ; Bora, 
Liv. xlv. 29). 

Beroe (Bep6ri). 1. A Trojan woman, wife of 
Doryclus, whose form Iris assumed when she 
persuaded the women to set fire to the ships of 
Aeneas in Sicily (Verg. Aen. v. 620). 2. A 
Nereid (Verg. Georg. iv. 341).— 3. Daughter of 
Adonis and Aphrodite. 

Beroea (Be'poia, also Btppoia, Beporj : Btpotevs, 
Bepoiaios). 1. (Verria), one of the most ancient 
towns of Macedonia, on one of the lower ranges 
of Mt. Bermius, and on the Astraeus, a tributary 
of the Haliacmon, SW. of Pella, and about twenty 
miles from the sea. It was attacked unsuccess- 
fully by the Athenians, under Callias, who de- 
viated from their line of march between Pydna 
and Potidaea (Thuc. i. 61). — 2. (Beria),&, town 
in the interior of Thrace, was under the later 
Roman empire, together with Philippopolis, 
one of the most important military posts (Axnm. 
Blare, xxvii. 4, xxxi. 9). — 3. (Aleppo ovHaleb), a 
town in Syria, near Antioch, enlarged by Seleu- 



cus Nicator, who gave it the Macedonian name 
of Beroea (Strab. p. 751 ; Procop. B. P. ii. 7). It 
is called Helbon or Chelbon in Ezekiel (xxvii. 
18), and Chalep in the Byzantine writers, a 
name still retained in the modern Haleb, for 
which Europeans have substituted Aleppo. 

Berosus (Bripoj<r6s or Bripwa , a6s), a priest of 
Belus at Babylon, lived in the reign of An- 
tiochus II. (B.C. 261-246), and wrote in Greek a 
history of Babylonia in three books (called 
BafivKuviKa, and sometimes XaA.8ai'/ca or icrro- 
picu XaA.5ai7ccu) . It embraced the earliest tra- 
ditions about the human race, a description of 
Babylonia and its population, and a chrono- 
logical list of its kings down to the time of the 
great Cyrus. Berosus says that he derived the 
materials for his work from the archives in the 
temple of Belus. The work itself is lost, but 
considerable fragments of it are preserved in 
Josephus, Eusebius, Syncellus, and the Chris- 
tian Fathers ; and even these remnants are of 
great value. — Editions. By Richter, Lips. 1825, 
and in Didot's Fragmenta Historicorum Grae- 
corum, vol. ii. Paris, 1848. 

Berytus (By)pvr6s : B-qpvnos : Beirut, Ru.), 
one of the oldest seaports of Phoenicia, stood 
on a promontory near the mouth of the river 
Magoras (Nahr Beirut), half way between 
Byblus and Sidon. It was destroyed by the 
Syrian king Tryphon (b.c. 140), and restored by 
Agrippa under Augustus, who made it a colony. 
It afterwards became a celebrated seat of learn- 
ing. (Strab. p. 756.) 

Besa. [Antinoopolis.] 

Bessi, a fierce and powerful Thracian people, 
who dwelt along the whole of Mt. Haemus as 
far as the Euxine. After the conquest of Mace- 
donia by the Romans (B.C. 168), the Bessi were 
attacked by them, and subdued. (Hdt. vii. Ill ; 
Strab. p. 318 ; Liv. xxxix. 53.) 

Bessus (Brjacros), satrap of Bactria under 
Darius III., seized Darius soon after the battle 
of Arbela, b.c. 331. Pursued by Alexander in 
the following year, Bessus put Darius to death, 
and fled to Bactria where he assumed the title 
of king. He was betrayed by two of his 
followers to Alexander, who put him to death. 
(Curt. v. 7, vii. 3, 10 ; Arrian, hi. 19, 28.) 

Bestla, Calpurnrus. 1. L., tribune of the 
plebs, B.c. 121, and consul 111, when he carried 
on war against Jugurtha, but having received 
large bribes he concluded a peace with the 
Numidian king. On his return to Rome he 
was in consequence accused and condemned 
(Sail. Jug. 27, 40, 65 ; Cic. Brut. 34 ; Appian, 
B. C. i. 37). — 2. L., one of the Catilinarian con- 
spirators, B.C. 63, was at the time tribunus 
plebis designatus, and not actually tribune as 
Sallust says. In 49 he was aedile, and in 57 
was an unsuccessful candidate for the praetor- 
ship, notwithstanding his bribery, for which 
offence he was brought to trial in the following 
year and condemned, although defended by 
Cicero. (Sail. Cat. 17, 43; Appian, B. O. ii. 3.) 

Betasii, a people in Gallia Belgica, between 
the Tungri and Nervii, in the neighbourhood of 
Beetz in Brabant (Tac. Hist. iv. 56, 66). 

Beudos Vetus (Aghigi Kara), a town of Phry- 
gia five miles from Synnada, between that 
town and Anabura, mentioned in the march of 
Manlius (Liv. xxxviii. 15). Its name Vetus: 
probably is opposed to the newer Synnada. 

Bezira. [Bazira.] 

Bianor. 1. Also called Ocnus or Aucnus, 
son of Tiberis and Manto, is said to have built 
the town of Mantua, and to have called it after 
his mother (Serv. ad Aen. x. 198).— 2. A Bithy- 



BIAS 



BISTONES 



165 



liian, the author of twenty-one epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology, lived under Augustus and 
Tiberius. 

Bias (Bi'ar). 1. Son of Amythaon, and brother 
of the seer Melampus. He married Pero, 
daughter of Neleus, whom her father had re- 
fused to give to any one unless he brought him 
the oxen of Iphiclus. These Melampus obtained 
by his courage and skill, and so won the pri«- 
cess for his brother. Melampus also gained for 
Bias a third of the kingdom of Argos, in con- 
sequence of his curing the daughters of Proetus 
and the other Argive women of their mad- 
ness. (Pans. iv. 36; Hdt. ix. 34; Od. xv. 
225.) — 2. Of Priene in Ionia, one of the Seven 
Sages of Greece, nourished about B.C. 550. He 
is the reputed author of <pi\e7v as fj.icrr)crovTas 
(Arist. Bhet. ii. 13 ; cf. Soph. Aj. 680 ; Cic. de 
Am. 16, 59; Diog. Lae'rt. i. 84, 88). He also 
advised his countrymen, hard pressed by Cyrus, 
to abandon their city and settle in Sardinia. 

Bibaculus, M. Furius, a Roman poet, born at 
Cremona, B.C. 103, wrote iambics, epigrams, and 
a poem on Caesar's Gaulish wars ; the opening 
line in the latter poem is parodied by Horace. 
('Furius hibernas cana nive conspuet Alpes ': 
Sat.'ii. 5, 41). Bibaculus had written ' Jupiter '&c, 
in his poem, in which he praised Caesar, attack- 
ing him later in his career, probably because 
he aimed at the monarchy. It is probable that 
Bibaculus also wrote a poem entitled Aethiopis, 
containing an account of the death of Memnon 
by Achilles, and that the turyidus Alpinus of 
Horace (Sat. i. 10, 36) is no other than Bibacu- 
lus, as Aero asserts. Porphyrio, however, says 
that this refers to a Cornelius Alpinus : so that 
the matter remains doubtful. He is mentioned 
also in Quint, x. 1, 96 ; Plin. praef. 24 ; and 
from Suet. Gramm. 4 it may be gathered that 
he lived to a great age, and may therefore have 
been living when Horace wrote his Satires. 
The attacks of Horace against Bibaculus may 
probably be owing to the fact that the poems 
of Bibaculus contained insults against the 
Caesars. (Tac. Ann. iv. 34.) 

Bibracta (Autun), the chief town of the 
Aedui in Gallia Lugdunensis, afterwards A ugus- 
todunum (Caes. B. G. i. 23). 

Bibrax (Bieure), a town of the Remi in Gal- 
lia Belgica, not far from the Aisne. 

Bibulus, Calpurnius. 1. M., curule aedile 
B.C. 65, praetor 62, and consul 59, in each of 
which years he had C. Julius Caesar as his 
colleague. He was a staunch adherent of the 
aristocratical party, but was unable in his 
consulship to resist the powerful combination 
of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. After an in- 
effectual attempt to oppose Caesar's agrarian 
law, he withdrew from the popular assemblies 
altogether ; whence it was said in joke, that it 
was the consulship of Julius and Caesar. (Suet. 
Jul. 9, 49; Cic. pro Dom. 15; ad Att. ii. 19, 
20.) In 51 Bibulus was proconsul of Syria ; 
and in the civil war he commanded Pompey's 
fleet in the Adriatic, but without success, for 
Caesar succeeded in crossing the Adriatic. 
Bibulus then kept the sea to prevent other 
forces of Caesar from following, and died near 
Corcyra B.C. 48, before the battle of Dyr- 
rachium (Caes. B. C. iii. 5-1H; Dio Cass. xli. 
48). He married Porcia, the daughter of Cato 
Uticensis, by whom ho had three sons, two of 
whom were murdered by the soldiers of Gabi- 
nius, in Egypt, 50. — 2. L., son of No. 1, was a 
youth at his father's death, and was brought 
up by M. Brutus, who married his mother 
Porcia, and whose memoirs he wrote (Plut. 



Brut. 13, 23). He fought with Brutus at the 
battle of Philippi in 42, but he was afterwards 
pardoned by Antony, whose legate he was in 
Syria. He died there B.C. 31, shortly before 
the battle of Actium. (Appian, B. C. iv. 38, 
104, 136, v. 132.) 

Bidis (Bidinus, Bidensis), a small town in 
Sicily, TV. of Syracuse (Cic. Verr. ii. 22 ; Plin. 
iii. 91). 

Biennus (Viano), a town of Crete, S. of Mt. 
Dicte and E. of Gortyna. 

Bigerra (Becerra?), a town of the Oretani 
in Hispania Tarraconensis (Liv. xxi. 41). 

Bigerriones or Bigerri, a people in Aquitania 
near the Pyrenees, whose name remains in 
j Bigorre (Caes. B. G. iii. 27). Their capital was 
Turba, now Tarbes. 

Bilbilis (Cerro de Bambola), a town of the 
Celtiberi in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a 
municipium with the surname Augusta, on the 
river Salo, also called Bilbilis (Xalon), was the 
birthplace of the poet Martial, and was cele- 
brated for its manufactories in iron and gold 
(Strab. p. 162; Plin. xxxiv. 144; Mart. i. 49, iv. 
55, x. 103). 

Billaeus (BiWalos: Filiyas), a river of Bi- 
thynia, rising in the Hypii M., and falling into 
the Pontus Euxinus 20 stadia (2 geog. miles) E. 
of Tium. Some made it the boundary between 
Bithynia and Paphlagonia, but it lies east of 
the strict Bithynian boundary. 

Bingi.um (Binyen), a town on the Rhine in 
Gallia Belgica (Tac. Hist. iv. 70 ; A mm. Marc, 
xviii. 2). 

Bion (BiW). 1. Of Smyrna, a bucolic poet, 
about B.C. 280 : he spent the last years of his 
life in Sicily, where he was poisoned. He was 
older than Moschus, who laments his untimely 
death, and calls himself the pupil of Bion 
(Mosch. Id. iii.). Bion is best known to us from 
his lament for Adonis. He is refined, and his 
versification fluent and elegant, but he is inferior 
to Theocritus in strength and depth of feeling. 
— Editions, including Moschus, by Jacobs, 
Gotha, 1795; Wakefield, London, 1795; Har- 
tung, 1858; Ahrens, 1875.— 2. Of Borysthenes, 
near the mouth of the Dnieper, flourished about 
B.C. 250. He was sold as a slave, when young, 
and received his liberty from his master, a rhe- 
torician. He studied at Athens, and embraced 
the later Cyrenaic philosophy, as expounded by 
Theodokus. He laved a considerable time at 
the court of Antigonus Gonatas, king of Mace- 
donia. Bion was noted for his sharp sayings, 
whence Horace speaks of persons delighting 
Bioneis scrmonibus ct sale niyro (Epist. ii. 
2, 00; cf. Cic. Tusc. iii. 26; Athen. p. 591). 

Birtha iDeir), on the Tigris, below Zenobia, 
was a fortress built by Alexander (Ptol. v. 18 ; 
Amm. Marc. xx. 7, 17). 

Bisaltla (BiiraA-n'a: BirraA.Tr;sl, a district in 
Macedonia on the W. bank of the Strymon. 
The Bisaltae were Thracians, and at the inva- 
sion of Greece by Xerxes (b.c. 480) they were 
ruled by a Thracian prince, who was indepen- 
dent of Macedonia; but at the time of the 
; Peloponnesian war they wero subject to Mace- 
donia (Hdt. vii. 115, viii. 110 ; Thuc. iv. 109). 

Bisanthe (BktravQi) : BiaavOnvcU '■ Bodosto), 
\ subsequently Bhaedcstum or Bhaedcstus, a 
town in Thraco on the Propontis, with a good 
harbour, was founded by the Samians, and was 
in later times one of the great bulwarks of the 
neighbouring Byzantium (Hdt. vii. 137; Procop. 
de Aedif. iv. 9). 

Bistones (Birrroves), n Thracian people be- 
I twees Mt. Khodope and the Aegean nca, on the 



166 



BITHYNIA 



BLOSIUS 



lake Bistonis in the neighbourhood of Abdera, 
through whose land Xerxes marched on his in- 
vasion of Greece (B.C. 480). — From the worship 
of Dionysus in Thrace the Bacchic women are 
called Bistomdes. (Hdt. vii. 110 ; Strab. p. 331 ; 
Plin. iv. 42 ; Hor. Od. ii. 19, 20.) 

Bithynia (BiQvvia: BiBvvos), a district of Asia 
Minor, bounded on the W. by Mysia and Mt. 
Olympus, on the N. by the Pontus Euxinus, 
on the E. by Paphlagonia, and on the S. by 
Phrygia Epictetus and Galatia, was possessed 
at an early period by Thracian tribes from the 
neighbourhood of the Strymon, called Thyni 
(Qvvoi) and Bithyni (BiBvvot), of whom the 
former dwelt on the coast, the latter in the 
interior. The earlier inhabitants, who had been 
subdued by the Thracian immigrants and had 
amalgamated with them, were the Bebbyces, 
Caucones, and Mygdones, and in the NE. part 
of the district the Maeiandyni (Hdt. i. 28, vii. 
75; Strab. pp. 541, 563). The country was sub- 
dued by the Lydians, and afterwards became a 
part of the Persian empire under Cyrus, and was 
governed by the satraps of Phrygia. During 
the decline of the Persian empire, the N. part 
of the country became independent, under native 
princes, called eirapxoi, who resisted Alexander 
and his successors, and established a kingdom, 
which is usually considered to begin with Zi- 
poetes (about B.C. 287) or his son Nicomedes I. 
(B.C. 278), and which lasted till the death of 
Nicomedes III. (b.c. 74), who bequeathed his 
kingdom to the Romans (Appian, B. C. i. Ill ; 
Liv. Bp. 93). It was at first a separate province, 
but in 65 was combined with Pontus, forming 
one province which extended to the Halys, and 
included at first Amisus, being divided by 
Pompey into 11 districts (Plut. Pomp. 38; Liv. 
Bp. 102; Strab. p. 541). It was governed by a 
propraetor at first, by a proconsul after 27 (Dio 
Cass. liii. 13 ; Tac. Ann. i. 74, xvi. 18), with the 
designation Bithynia Pontus. It was taken 
back into the imperial jurisdicti6n by Trajan, 
who sent Pliny the Younger with the title lega- 
tas pro praetore. About a.d. 380 Theodosius 
divided the combined provinces into Bithynia 
and Pontica prima. Bithynia was a fertile 
country, intersected with wooded mountains, 
the highest of which was the Mysian Olympus, 
on its S. border. Its chief rivers were the 
Sangabius and the Billaeus : its chief towns 
Nicomedia,Chalcedon, Heracleia, Prusa, Nicaea, 
and Dascylium. 

Bithymum (bMvlov : Boli), aft. Claudio- 
polis, a city of Bithynia, the birthplace of Ha- 
drian's favourite Antinoiis (Dio Cass. Ixix. 11). 

Biton (B'itwv), a mathematician, the author 
of an extant work on Military Machines 
(KaTatTKeval iroAe fwcwv opydvwv Kal K<XTaire\Ti- 
ku>v), whose history is unknown. Edited in 
Wescher's Poliorcetica, Paris, 1867. 

Biton and Cleobis (KAeo/3is),sohs of Cydippe, 
a priestess of Hera at Argos. They were cele- 
brated for their affection to their mother, 
whose chariot they once dragged during a 
festival to the temple of Hera, a distance of 45 
stadia. The priestess prayed to the goddess to 
grant them what was best for mortals ; and 
during the night they both died while asleep 
in the temple. (Hdt. i. 31 ; Paus. ii. 20 ; Cic. 
Tusc. i. 47 ; Val. Max. v. 4.) 

Bituitus, in inscriptions Betultus, king of 
the Arverni in Gaul, joined the Allobroges in 
their war against the Romans. Both the 
Arverni and the Allobroges were defeated, B.C. 
121, at the confluence of the Rhone and the 
Isara, by Q. Fabius Maximus. Bituitus was I 



subsequently taken prisoner and sent to Rome. 
(Liv. Epj 61 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 10.) 

Bituriges, a numerous and powerful Celtic 
people in Gallia Aquitanica, had in early times 
the supremacy over the other Celts in Gaul 
(Liv. v. 34). They were divided into, 1. Bit. 
Cubi, separated from the Carnutes and Aedui 
by the Liger, and bounded on the S. by the 
Lemovices, in the country of the modern 
Bourges; their capital was Avakicum. (Strab. 
p. 190 : Cass. B. G. vii. 15.) 2. Bit. Vivisci or 
TJbisoi on the Garumna : their capital was 
Bukdigala. 

Blaesus, C. Sempronius, consul with Cn. 
Servilius Caepio, B.C. 253, in the 1st Punic war. 
The two consuls sailed to the coast of Africa, 
and on their return were overtaken off Cape 
Palinurus by a tremendous storm, in which 
150 ships perished (Polyb. i. 39). 

Blaesus, Junius. 1. Governor of Pannonia 
at the death of Augustus, A.D. 14, when the 
formidable insurrection of the legions broke 
out in that province. He obtained the govern- 
ment of Africa in 21, where he gained a victory 
over Tacfarinas. On the fall of his uncle 
Sejanus in 31, he was deprived of the priestly 
offices which he held, and in 36 put an end to 
his own life, to avoid falling by the hand of the 
executioner. (Tac. Ann. i. 16, iii. 72, v. 7, vi. 40 ; 
Dio Cass. lvii. 4 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 125.)— 2. Son 
of the above, who died with his father. — 3. Pro- 
bably a grandson : governor of Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis a.d. 70 ; an adherent of Vitellius, but 
poisoned by him on a suspicion of his wealth 
and popularity (Tac. Hist. i. 59, ii. 59, iii. 38.) 

Blanda. 1. (Blanos), a town of the Laeetani 
in Hispania Tarraconensis. — 2. (St. Biasio), a 
town in Lucania. 

Blandus, a town on the borders of Cappa- 
docia and Pontus, on the road from Sebasteia 
to Melitena, 23 miles from the former. 

Blariacum (Blerijk), a town of the Menapii 
on the Mosa or Maas. 

Blascon (Breseou), a small island in the 
Gallicus Sinus, off the town of Agatha. 

Blasio, M. Helvius, praetor b.c 197, defeated 
the Celtiberi in Spain, and took Illiturgi (Liv. 
xxxii. 27). 

Blaundus (Suleimanli), a town of Lydia 
(sometimes reckoned in Phrygia) ; it formed 
part of the conventus of Sardis. It stood on 
the river Hippourios between Tripolis and 
Trajanopolis. There are fine architectural 
remains. The supposed Blados of Mysia near 
Ancyra (Strab. p. 567) is probably a loose re- 
ference to this place. 

Blavia (Blaye), a town of the Santones, in 
Gallia Aquitanica, on the Garumna. 

Blemyes (BXefives, B\4/.ifj.vis), an Aethiopian 
people, on the borders of Upper Egypt, to 
which their predatory incursions were very 
troublesome in the times of the Roman em- 
perors (Strab. p. 819 ; Vit. Aurelian. 33; Procop. 
B. Pers. i. 19). 

Blera (Bleranus : Bieda), a town in Etruria, 
on the Via Clodia, between Forum Clodii and 
Tuscania: there are many remains of the 
ancient town and of Etruscan tombs at Bieda, 
(Strab. p. 226). 

Blosius or BloSSlUS, the name of a noble 
family in Campania. — One of this family, C. 
Blosius of Cumae, was a philosopher, a disciple 
of Antipater of Tarsus, and a friend of Tib. 
Gracchus. After the death of Gracchus (b.c. 
133) he fled to Aristonicus, king of Pergamus, 
and on the conquest of Aristonicus by the 
Romans, Blosius put an end to his own life for 



BOADICEA 

/ear of falling into the hands of the Romans. 
(Cic. de Am. 11, 37 ; Plut. Tib. Gracch. 20.) 

Boadicea, more correctly spelt Boudicca, 
queen of the Iceni in Britain, having been 
shamefully treated by the Romans, who violated 
her two daughters, incited an insurrection of 
the Britons against their oppressors during the 
absence of Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman go- 
vernor, on an expedition to the island of Mona. 
She took the Roman colonies of Camulodunum. 
Londinium, and other places, and slew nearly 
70,000 Romans and their allies. She was at 
length defeated by Suetonius Paulinus, and put 
an end to her own life, a.d. 61. (Tac. Ann. xiv. 
31, Agr. 15; Dio Cass. lxii. 1-12.) 

Boagrlus (Boiypios), a river in Locris, also 
called Manes, flows past Thronium into the 
Sinus Maliacus. 

Bocchus (Bj/cx oj )- King of I>Iauretania, 
and father-in-law of Jugurtha, with whom at 
first he made war against the Romans, but 
whom he afterwards delivered up to Sulla, the 
quaestor of Marius, B.C. 106 (Sail. Jug. 80- 
120; Plut. Mar. 8-32).— 2. Son of the preced- 
ing, reigned along with his brother Bogudes 
over Mauretania. Bocchus and Bogudes 
assisted Caesar in his war against the Pom- 
peians in Africa, B.C. 46; and in 45 Bogudes 
joined Caesar in his war in Spain. After the 
murder of Caesar, Bocchus sided with Octa- 
vianus, and Bogudes with Antony. When 
Bogudes was in Spain in 38, Bocchus usurped 
the sole government of Mauretania, in which 
lie was confirmed by Octavianus. He died 
about 33, and his kingdom became a Roman 
province. Bogudes had previously betaken him- 
self to Antony, and was killed on the capture 
of Methone by Agrippa in 31. (Appian, B. C. 
ii. 96, iv. 54 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 45, xlix. 33.) 

Bodencns or Bodincus. [Padus.] 

Bodotrla or Boderia Aestuarium (Firth of 
Forth), an aestuary on the E. coast of Scot- 
land (Tac. Agr. 23). 

Boeae (Boiaf: Boiarvs: Vatka), a town in 
the S. of Laconica, near C. Malea (Strab. p. 
304 ; Paus. i. 27, iii. 22). 

Boebe (Bolfi-q : Boi/3eus), a town in Pelasgiotis 
in Thessaly, on the W. shore of the lake Boe- 
beis (Karla), into which several rivers of 
Thessaly flow (II. ii. 712 ; Hdt. vii. 129 ; Strab. 
pp. 430, 441). 

Boedrdnuus (Boij5p<fyuos), ' the helper in dis- 
tress,' a surname of Apollo at Athens, because 
he had assisted the Athenians. (See Diet, of 
Ant. art. Boedromia.) 

Boenoa. [Ephyha.] 

Boeotia (Boiwria: Boiur6s : part of Liuadia), 
a district of Greece, bounded N. by Opuntian 
Locris, E. by the Euboean sea, S. by Attica, 
Megaris, and the Corinthian Gulf, and W. by 
Phocis. It is nearly surrounded by mountains : 
namely, Helicon and Parnassus on the W., 
Cithaeron and Parnes on the S., the Opuntian 
mountains on the N., and a range of mountains 
along the whole sea-coast on the E. The 
country contains several fertile plains, of which 
the two most important were the valley of the 
Asopus in the S., the inhabitants of which 
were called Parasopii, and the valley of the Ce- 
phissus in the N. (the upper part, however, 
belonged to Phocis), the inhabitants of which 
were called Epicephisii. In the former valley 
the chief towns were Theiiae, Tanagka, Tiie- 
spiae, a:\d Plataeae; in the hitter the chief 
towns were Orchomenus,Chakkonea,Coronea, 
Lehadea, and Haliaktus ; Che latter valley 
included the lake Cop.vis. The surface of 



BOETHIUS 



167 



Boeotia is about 10SO square miles. The 
atmosphere was damp and thick, to which 
circumstance some of the ancients attributed 
the dullness of the Boeotian intellect, with 
wliich the Athenians frequently made merry , 
but the deficiency of the Boeotians in this 
respect was more probably owing, as has been 
well remarked, to the extraordinary fertility of 
their country, which probably depressed their 
intellectual and moral energies. — In the earliest 
legendary times Boeotia was inhabited by vari- 
ous tribes, the Aones (whence the country was 
called Aonia), Temmices, Hyantes, Leleges, 
&c. (Strab. p. 401 ; Paus. ix. 5). Orchomenus 
was inhabited by the powerful tribe of the 
Minyans, and Thebes by the Cadmeans, the 
reputed descendants of Cadmus. It is pro- 
bable that the whole of Boeotia then formed 
two principalities, one subject to Orchome- 
nus (the older city of the two), the other 
to Thebes. The Boeotians or Amaeans who 
conquered both these cities were an Aeolian 
people, who originally occupied Arne in 
Thessaly, from which they were expelled by 
the Thessalians, according to Thuc. i. 12, 
about 60 years after the Trojan war. Boeotia 
was then divided into 14 independent states, 
which formed a league, with Thebes at its 
head. The chief magistrates of the con- 
federacy were the Boeotarchs, elected annually, 
2 by Thebes and 1 by each of the other states ; 
but as the number of the states was different at 
different times, that of the Boeotarchs also 




Boeotia. 

06r.,head of Persephone ; rev., Poseidon with trident and 
dolphin: buiqtdn. Struck about B.C. 2-14-197. 

varied. The government in most states was an 
aristocracy. (See Diet, of Ant. art. Bueot- 
arches.) 

Boethius, or Boetius, whose full name was 
Anicius Manlius Severixus Boetrtus, a Ro- 
man statesman and author, belonging to the 
family of the Anicii, was born at Rome between 
a.d. 470 and 475. He was famous for his gene- 
ral learning, and especially for his knowledge of 
Greek philosophy, which according to a com- 
mon account (though of doubtful authority) he 
studied under Proclus at Athens. His wife was 
Rustieiana, the daughter of Symmachus. He 
was consul in 510, and was treated with great 
distinction by Theodoric the Great ; but having 
incurred the suspicion of the latter, by advoca- 
ing the cause of the Italians against the oppres- 
sions of the Goths, he was involved in the 
ruin of the Senator Albinus who was accused 
of a treasonable correspondence with Byzan- 
tium, and whom he defended, declaring that, if 
Albinus was guilty, ho and the whole senate 
were: guilty also. Upon this, being accused of 
upholding the senatorial authority against 
Theodoric, and of being privy to an address 
from the senate to the Emperor of the East 
(his signature to which he alleged to be a for- 
gery), he was imprisoned in a castle near Porta 
and was executed in 625. During his impri- 
sonment ho wrote his celebrated work Do 
Consolatione Philoxrrphiae, in 5 books, which 
is composed as a dialogue, and, like the Menip- 
pean saturae, alternately in prose and verso. 



168 



BOETHUS 



BONA 



The diction is pure and elegant, and the senti- 
ments are noble and exalted, showing that the 
author had a real belief in prayer and Provi- 
dence, though he makes no reference to 
Christianity. Boethius was the last Roman of 
any note who understood the language and 
studied the literature of Greece. He translated 
many of the works of the Greek philosophers, 
especially of' Aristotle, and wrote commentaries 
upon them, several of which have come down 
to us. He also wrote a commentary, in 6 
books, upon the Topica of Cicero, which is also 
extant. In the ignorance of Greek writers 
which prevailed from the 6th to the 14th cen- 
tury, Boethius was looked upon as the head 
and type of all philosophers, as Augustin was 
of all theology and Virgil of all literature ; but 
after the introduction of the works of Aristotle 
into Europe in the 13th century, Boethius's 
fame gradually died away. — The best edition of 
his collected works was printed at Basel, 1570; 
the last edition of his De Consolatione is by 
Obbarius, Jenae, 1843. 

Boethus (Bo-qOos). 1. A Stoic philosopher of 
the 2nd century B.C., a pupil of Diogenes the 
Stoic (the Babylonian) : he wrote several 
works, from one of which Cicero quotes (de Div. 
i. 8, ii. 21 ; Diog. Laijrt. vii. 148).— 2. A Peripa- 
tetic philosopher, was a native of Sidon in 
Phoenicia, a disciple of Andronicus of Rhodes, 
and an instructor of the philosopher Strabo. 
He therefore flourished about B.C. 30. He 
wrote several works, all of which are now lost 
(Strab. p. 757). — 3. A sculptor and engraver of 
Chalcedon (according to the probable reading in 
Paus. v. 17, 4). His most famous work was a 
bronze of a boy strangling a goose, of which there 
is a marble copy in the Vatican (Plin. xxxiv. 84). 

Boeum (Boiiv, BS'iov, Boiov : Boiarijs), an 
ancient town of the Dorian Tetrapolis. 

Bogudes. [Bocchus, No. 2.] 

Boii, one of the most powerful of the Celtic 
people, said to have dwelt originally in Trans- 
alpine Gaul, but in what part of the country 
is uncertain. At an early time they migrated 
in two great swarms, one of which crossed the 
Alps and settled in the country between the Po 
and the Apennines ; the other crossed the 
Rhine and settled in the part of Germany 
called Boihemum (Bohemia) after them, and 
between the Danube and the Tyrol (Polyb. ii. 
17 ; Liv. v. 35). The Boii in Italy long carried 
on a fierce struggle with the Romans, co-operat- 
ing with Hannibal in the second Punic war ; 
but they were at length subdued by the consul 
P. Scipio in B.C. 191, and were subsequently 
incorporated in the province of Gallia Cisal- 
pina (Polyb. ii. 20, iii. 40, 67 ; Liv. xxi. 25, 
xxiii. 24, xxxii. 29, xxxiii. 46, xxxvi. 38). The 
Boii in Germany maintained their power longer, 
but were at length subdued by the Marco- 
manni, and expelled from the country. "We 
find 32,000 Boii taking part in the Helvetian 
migration ; and after the defeat of the Helve- 
tians (b.c. 58), Caesar allowed these Boii to 
dwell among the Aedui (Caes. B. G. i. 4, 28). 

Boiorix, a chieftain of the Boii, fought 
against the Romans, B.C. 194 (Liv. xxxiv. 46). 

Boium, a town of Doris (Thuc. i. 108 ; Strab. 
p. 427). 

Bola, Bolae or Volae (Bolanus), an ancient 
town of the Aequi, belonging to the Latin 
league, not mentioned in later times (Verg. 
Aen. vi. 776 ; Liv. iv. 49, vi. 2). 

Bolanus, Vettius, governor of Britain in 
a.d. 69, is praised by Statius in the poem (Silv. 
,7, 2) addressed to Crispinus, the son of Bo- 



lanus (Tac. Ann. xv. 3, Hist. ii. 65, 97, Agr. 
3, 16). 

Bolbe (B6\$-q : Beshek), a lake in Macedonia, 
empties itself by a short river into the Strymo- 
nic gulf near Bromiscus and Aulon : the lake is 
now about twelve miles in length, and six or 
eight in breadth. — There was a town of the 
same name upon the lake (Thuc. i. 58, iv. 103 ; 
Aesch. Pers. 486). 

Bolbitine (BoAf}iTlvT]),a> city of Lower Egypt, 
near the mouth of a branch of the Nile (the 
W.-most but one), which was called the Bolbi- 
tine mouth (rb BoXfi'mvov 076)10) (Diod. i. 33 ; 
Nilus). 

Boline (BoKivr) : Bokivaios), a town in Achaia, 
the inhabitants of which Augustus transplanted 
to Patrae. 

Bolissus (Bo\ia<r6s : Volissos), a town on 
the W. coast of Chios. •. 

Bomilcar (Bo/xiXKas, Boafil\Kas). 1. Com- 
mander, with Hanno, of the Carthaginians 
against Agathocles, when the latter invaded 
Africa, b.c 310. When Hanno had fallen, 
Bomilcar is said to have lost the battle pur- 
posely, with the object of making himself tyrant 
of Carthage. This he attempted again in 308, 
but failed and was crucified (Diod. xx. 10, 43 ; 
Just. xxii. 7). — 2. Commander of the Carthagi- 
nian supplies sent to Hannibal after the battle 
of Cannae, 216. He afterwards attempted to 
relieve Syracuse, when besieged by Marcellus, 
but was unable to accomplish anything (Liv. 
xxiii. 13, 41, xxiv. 36, xxv. 25). — 3. A Numidian, 
deep in the confidence of Jugurtha. When 
Jugurtha was at Rome, 109, Bomilcar effected 
for him the assassination of Massiva. In 107 
he plotted against Jugurtha (Sail. Jug. 35, 52, 
61, 70). 

Bonvius Mons (Bco/nios and oi Baifioi), the W. 
part of Mt. Oeta in Aetolia, inhabited by the 
Bomienses (Bezels) (Thuc. iii. 94 ; Strab. p. 451). 

Bona Dea, a Roman goddess of the earth 
(Macrob. i. 12, 21) described as the female 
counterpart of Faun us, his daughter or, in other 
accounts, his wife, and was herself called Fauna, 
and identified also with Maia and Ops. She 
thus represented the fruitfulness of nature and 
blessed all the gifts of the earth. Hence we 
find in inscriptions the titles Bona Dea Agrestis 
Felix, Bona Dea Nutrix, Pagana (C. I. L. vi. 
67-74). She was also the goddess of chastity, 
one of the deities specially worshipped by the 
Vestals. Her temple on the Aventine was built 
by the Vestal Claudia and restored by Livia 
(Ov. Fast. v. 155). The festival of the dedication 
of her temple was kept on the 1st of May. On 
the night between the 3rd and 4th of December 
(Plut. Cic. 19) the secret rites were celebrated in 
the house of the consul or praetor, as the sacri- 
fices on that occasion were offered on behalf of 
the whole Roman people. The solemnities 
were conducted by the Vestals, and no male 
person was allowed to be in the house at one of 
the festivals. P. Clodius profaned the sacred 
ceremonies, by entering the house of Caesar in 
the disguise of a woman, B.C. 62. [See 
Clodius.] Offerings of first-fruits were made 
during May 5j and she was specially worshipped 
at the Vestalia on June 9th. The story of 
Hercules being denied entrance at her May 
festival, when he asked for a drink of water, is 
told in Propert. v. 9, Macrob. i. 12, 28. The 
animal sacrificed to her was a sucking pig, and 
in her temple were sacred serpents, the rem- 
nants of an ancient worship and perhaps 
regarded as showing her oracular power. 
(Hence came the story that Faunus was turned 



BONIFACIUS 

into a serpent.) The wine jar beside her 
statue shows her as patroness of vineyards. 

Bonifacrus, a Roman general, governor of 
Africa under Valentinian III. Believing that 
the empress Placidia meditated his destruction, 
he revolted against the emperor, and invited 
Genseric, king of the Vandals, to settle in 
Africa. In 430 he was reconciled to Placidia, 
and attempted to drive the Vandals out of 
Africa, but without success. He quitted Africa 
in 431, and in 432 he died of a wound received 
in combat with his rival Ae'tius (Procop. Bell. 
Vand. i. 3). 

Bonna {Bonn), a town on the left bank of the 
Rhine in Lower Germany, and in the territory 
of the Ubii, was a strong fortress of the Romans 
and the regular quarters of a Roman legion. 
Here Drusus constructed a bridge across the 
Rhine (Flor. iv. 12). 

Bononia (Bononiensis). 1. (Bologna), a 
town in Gallia Cispadana, originally called 
Felsina, was in ancient times an Etruscan 
city, and the capital of N. Etruria. It after- 
wards fell into the hands of the Boii, but it was 
colonised by the Romans on the conquest of 
the Boii, B.C. 191, and its name of Felsina was 
then changed into Bononia (Liv. xxxvii. 57). 
It was one of the 12 most recent Latin colonies 
[see ARnnNUJi] and then obtained the full 
franchise. It fell into decay in the civil wars, 
but it was enlarged and adorned by Augustus, 
32. — 2. (Boulogne) a town in the N. of Gaul. 
See GEKORiACUJr. — 3. (Banostor?), a town of 
Pannonia on the Danube. 

Bonosus, a Spaniard by birth, served with 
distinction under Aurelian, and usurped the 
imperial title in Gaul in the reign of Probus. 
He was defeated and slain by Probus, a.d. 280. 

Bootes. [Arctubus.] 

Borbetomagus (Warms), also called Van- 
giones, at a later time "Wormatia, a town of 
the Vangiones on the left bank of the Rhine in 
Upper Germany. 

Boreas (Bop /as or BopSr), the N. wind, or 
more strictly the wind from the NNE., was, in 



BOSPORUS 



169 




Boreas. (From the monument ot Cyrrhestes at Athens 



mythology, a son of Astraeus and Eos, and 
brother of Hesperus, Zephyrus, and Notus. Ho 
dwelt in a cave of mount Haemus in Thrace. 
He carried off Orithyia, daughter of Erechtlieus, 
king of Attica, by whom he begot Zetes, Calais, 
and Cleopatra, wife of Phineus, who are there- 
fore called Boreades. (Hdt. vii. 18!) ; Apollod. 
iii. 16, 2.) Some have seen in this story the N. 
wind snatching away the more genial rain- 
cloud : others regard Orithyia as a Nereid who 
was later identified with an Attic princess, and 
think that the rape signifies the wind driving 
the waves, and that the horses of Boreas have 
the same connexion. In the Persian war, 
Boreas showed his friendly disposition towards 



the Athenians by destroying the ships of the 
barbarians. According to a Homeric tradition 
(II. xx. 223), Boreas begot 12 horses by the 
mares of Erichthonius, which is commonly ex- 
plained as a figurative mode of expressing the 
extraordinary swiftness of those horses. Boreas 
was worshipped at Athens, where a festival, 
Boreasmi, was celebrated in liis honour. [Diet. 
Ant. s.v. ; see also Calais, Zetes.] 

Boreum (Bupeiou). 1. (Matin Head), the N. 
promontory of Hibemia (Ireland) (Ptol. ii. 2). 
— 2. (Has Teyonas), a promontory on the W. 
coast of Cyrenaiea, forming the E. headland of 
the Great Syrtis.— 3. The N. extremity of the 
island of Taprobane (Ceylon) (Ptol. vii. 4). 

Boreus Mons (Bipeiov opos), a mountain in 
Arcadia, on the borders of Laconia, containing 
the sources of the rivers Alpheus and Eurotas. 

Boreus Portus (Bops' * \ipA\v), a harbour in 
the island of Tenedos, at the mouth of a river 
of the same name. 

Borsippa (to Bupanrno. : Birs-Nimrud), a 
city of Babylonia, on the W. bank of the Eu- 
phrates, S. of Babylon, celebrated for its manu- 
factures of linen, and as the chief residence of 
the Chaldaean astrologers. The Greeks held it 
sacred to Apollo and Artemis. (Strab. p. 738.) 

Borysthenes (Bopvo-dcvris ■ Dnieper), after- 
wards Danapris, a river of European Sarmatia, 
flows into the Euxine, but its sources were un- 
known to the ancients. Near its mouth and at 
its junction with the Hypanis, lay the town 
Borysthenes or Borysthenis (Kudak), also 
called Olbia, Olhiopolis, and Miletopolis, a 
colony of Miletus, and the most important 
Greek city on the N. of the Euxine. (Ethnic, 
Bopvtrdeu'iTris, 'OA/3i07roAiT7)s.) (Hdt. iv. 17,53; 
Strab. pp. 107, 289.) 

Bosporus (Boa-n-opos), the Ox-ford, the name 
of many straits among the Greeks, but espe- 
cially applied to the 2 following. — 1. The 
Thracian Bosporus (Channel of Constanti- 
nople), unites the Propontis or Sea of Marmora 
with the Euxine or Black Sea. According to 
the legend it was called Bosporus from Io, who 
crossed it in the form of a heifer. At the 
entrance of the Bosporus were the celebrated 
Symplegades. Darius constructed a bridge 
across the Bosporus, when he invaded Scythia. 
(Strab. p. 125; Hdt. i v. 85; Polyb. iv. 39.)— 2. The 
Cimmerian Bosporus {Straits of Kaffa), uniti s 
the Palus Maeotis or Sea of Azof with the 
Euxine or Black Sea. It formed, with the 
Tanais (Don) the boundary between Asia and 
Europe, and it derived its name from the Cim- 
meiiii, who were supposed to have dwelt in the 
neighbourhood. On the European side of the 
Bosporus, the modern Crimea, the Milesians 
founded the town of Panticapaeum, also called 
Bosporus, and the inhabitants of Panticapaeum 
subsequently founded the town of Phunagoria 
on the Asiatic side of the straits. (Hdt. iv. 12, 
100; Strab. pp. 807, 809, 494.) These cities, being 
favourably situated for commerce, soon became 
places of considerable importance ; and a king- 
dom gradually arose, of which Panticapae um 
was the capital, and which eventually included 
the whole of the Crimea. The first kings we 
read of were the Archaeanactidae, who reigned 
49 years, from B.C. 480 to 438. They were 
succeeded by Spartucus L and his descendants. 
Several of these kings were in closo alliance 
with the Athenians, who obtained annually a 
large supply of corn from the Bosporus. The 
last of these kings was PaerisadcB, who, being 
hard pressed by the Scythians, voluntarily 
ceded his dominions to Mitliridatcs the Great. 



170 



BOSTAR 



BRENNUS 



On the death of Mithridates, his son Pharnaces 
was allowed by Pompey to succeed to the do- 
minion of Bosporus ; and we subsequently find 
a series of kings, who reigned in the country 
till king Rescuporis VIII. a.d. 336, but ac- 
knowledging the suzerainty of the Roman 
emperors, whose image appeared on their coins : 
as an instance of these rights being exercised, 
the Romans freed the town of Heraclea in the 
Chersonesus (Plin. iv. 85; cf. Procop. B. Goth. 
iv. 5). In this country, especially at Panti- 
capaeum (Kertch), there have been important 
discoveries of antiquities, described by Koehne, 
1857, and in more recent numbers of the Peters- 
burg Compte Rendu. 

Bostar (BaiffTwp, Bdicrrapos:). 1. A Cartha- 
ginian general, who, with Hamilcar and Has- 
drubal, the son of Hanno, fought against M. 
Atilius Regulus, in Africa, B.C. 256, but was 
defeated, taken prisoner, and sent to Rome, 
where he is said to have perished in conse- 
quence of the barbarous treatment which he 
received from the sons of Regulus (Polyb. i. 28 ; 
Eutrop. ii. 21). — 2. A Carthaginian general, 
under Hasdrubal, in Spain, set at liberty the 
Spanish hostages kept at Saguntum (Liv. xxii.22). 

Bostra (to. Bocrrpa: O. T. Bozrah : BodTT]vis 
and -aios : Susrah^ Ru.), a city of Arabia, in an 
Oasis of the Syrian Desert, a little more than 
1° S. of Damascus. It was enlarged and beau- 
tified by Trajan, who made it a colony. Under 
the later emperors the seat of an archbishopric. 

Bottia, Bottiaea, Bottiaeis (BoTria,BorTia(a } 
BoTTiaus : Bottlolos), a district in Macedonia, 
on the right bank of the river Axius, extended 
in the time of Thucydides to Pieria on the W. 
It contained the towns of Pella and Ichnae 
near the sea. The Bottiaei were a Thracian 
people, who, being driven out of the country by 
the Macedonians, settled in that part of the 
Macedonian Chalcidice N. of Olynthus, which 
was called Bottice (Bottikt)). (Hdt. vii. 185, 
viii. 127 ; Arrian, i. 2, 5.) 

Boudicca. [Boadicea.] 

Bovianum (Bovianius : Bojano), the chief 
town of the Pentri in amnium, was taken by 
the Romans in the Samnite wars, and was 
colonised by Augustus with veterans (Liv. ix. 
31, x. 12 ; Plin. iii. 107 ; Sil. It. viii. 566). It is 
probable that the site of the ancient Samnite 
city Bovianum Vetus was about 20 miles to the 
N. of the Roman Bovianum, at the spot where 
Pieirabbondante now stands. 

Bovillae (Bovillensis), an ancient town inLa- 
tium at the foot of the Alban mountain, on the 
Appian Way about 12 miles from Rome. Near 
it Clodius was killed by Milo (b.c. 52) ; and 
here was the sacrarium of the Julia gens. (Pro- 
pert, iv. 1, 33 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 667 ; Mart. ii. 6, 15 ; 
Tac. Ann. ii. 41, Hist. iv. 2.) 

Bracara Augusta (Br ago), the chief town of 
the Callaici Bracarii in Hispania Tarraconensis : 
at Braga there are the ruins of an amphi- 
theatre, aqueduct, and other buiidings. 

Brachmanae or -i (Bpaxnaves), is a name 
used by the ancient geographers, sometimes for 
a caste of priests in India (the Brahmins), 
sometimes, apparently, for all the people whose 
religion was Brahminism, and sometimes for a 
particular tribe (Strab. pp. 712-719; Arrian, 
Anab. vii. 3 ; Cic. Tusc. v. 25). 

Brachodes or Caput Vada (BpaxuSris aicpa. : 
Mas Kapoudiah), a promontory on the coast of 
Byzacena in N. Africa, forming the N. headland 
of the Lesser Syrtis. 

Bracnylles or Brachyllas (BpaxvKX-qs, Bpa- 
XvAAas), a Boeotian, supported the Blacedonian 



interests in the reigns of Antigonus Doson and 
Philip V., and was murdered in 196 at Thebes 
by the Roman party in that city (Polyb. xvii. 1, 
xx. 5 ; Liv. xxxiii. 27). 

Branchidae (ol Bpayx'iSat : Jeronda, Ru.), the 
priestly family who administered the oracle of 
Apollo Didymaeus at Didyma (to AiSvfia.), a 
place on the sea-coast of Ionia, a little S. of 
Miletus. This oracle, which the Ionians held 
in the highest esteem, was said to have been 
founded by Branchus, son of Apollo or Smicrus 
of Delphi, and a Milesian woman, and the 
Branchidae were his reputed descendants. They 
delivered up the treasures of the temple to 
Darius or Xerxes ; and, when Xerxes returned 
from Greece, the Branchidae, fearing the re- 
venge of the Greeks, begged him to remove 
them to a distant part of his empire. They 
were accordingly settled in Bactria or Sogdiana, 
where their descendants are said to have been 
punished by Alexander for the treason of 
their forefathers. The temple, called Didy- 
maeum, which was destroyed by Xerxes, was 
rebuilt, and its ruins contain some beautiful 
specimens of the Ionic order of architecture. 
(Hdt. i. 157, vi. 19 ; Strab. pp. 517, 634 ; Paus. 
vii. 2 ; Diet, of Antiq. s.v. Oraculum.) 

Branchus (Bpdyxos). [Bbanchtdae.] 

Brannovices. [Auleeci.] 

Brasidas (BpaaiSas), son of Tellis, the most 
eminent Spartan in the first part of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. He distinguished himself first 
in the relief of Methone B.C. 431, and was soon 
after made ephor (Thuc. ii. 25, 93 ; Xen. Sell. 
ii. 3, 10) : afterwards, at Sphacteria, he was 
wounded in the attempt to land, B.C. 425. In 
B.C. 424, at the head of a small force, he effected 
a dexterous march through the hostile country 
of Thessaly, and joined Perdiccas of Macedonia, 
who had promised co-operation against the 
Athenians. By his military skill, and the confi- 
dence which his character inspired, he gained 
possession of many of the cities in Macedonia 
subject to Athens ; his greatest acquisition was 
Amphipolis. In 422 he gained a brilliant victory 
over Cleon, who had been sent, with an Athe- 
nian force, to recover Amphipolis, but he was 
slain in the battle. He was buried within the 
city, and the inhabitants honoured him as a 
hero, by yearly sacrifices and games. (Thuc. iv. 
78, 120, v. 6 ; Diod. xii. 72 ; Paus. iii. 14 ; Diet, 
of Ant. s.v. Brasideia.) 

Bratuspantium (Breteuil), a town of the 
Bellovaci in Gallia Belgica (Caes. B. G. ii. 13). 

Brauron (Bpavpwv : BpavpSivios : Vraona or 
Vrana), a demus in Attica on the E. coast on 
the river Erasinus, with a celebrated temple of 
Artemis, who was hence called Brauronia, and 
in whose honour the festival Brauronia was cele- 
brated in this place. [Artemis.] 

Bregetio (nr. Szony, Ru., E. of Comorn), a 
Roman municipium in Lower Pannonia on the 
Danube, where Valentinian I. died (Amm. 
Marc. xxx. 5). 

Brennus ( = chief or petty prince). 1. The 
leader of the Senonian Gauls, who in B.C. 390 
crossed the Apennines, defeated the Romans at 
the Allia, and took Rome. After besieging the 
Capitol for 6 months, he quitted the city upon 
receiving 1000 pounds of gold as a ransom for 
the Capitol, and returned home safe with his 
booty. (Polyb. ii. 18.) The version of this in 
popular legends was that Camillus and a Ro- 
man army appeared at the moment that the 
gold was being weighed, that Brennus was de- 
feated by Camillus, and that he himself and 
his whole army were slain to a man (Liv. v. 



BEEUCI 



BBITAXXIA 



171 



S3 ; Pint. Cam. 14 ; Just. vi. 6 ; Dionys. xiii. 7). 
— 2. The chief leader of the Gauls who invaded 
Macedonia and Greece, B.C. 280, 279. In 280 
Ptolemy Ceraunus was defeated by the Gauls 
under Belgius and slain in battle ; and Bremius 
in the following year penetrated into the S. of 
Greece, but he was defeated near Delphi by the 
Greeks, who hurled down rocks upon them in 
the midst of a violent storm, aided, as tradition 
asserted, by Apollo himself : most of his men 
were 'slain, and he himself put an end to his 
own life. (Paus. x. 19-22 ; Just. xxiv. 6-8.) 

Bread, a powerful people of Pannonia in the 
district between the Save and the Brave, took 
an active part in the insurrection of the Panno- 
nians and Dalmatians against the Eomans, 
a.d. 6 (Strab. p. 314 ; Dio Cass. lv. 29). 

Breuzii, orBreones, a Ehaetian people, dwelt 
in the Tyrol near the Brenner. They were 
among the tribes conquered in the reign of 
Augustus iPlin. iii. 136; Strab. p. 206; Hor. 
Od. iv. 14, 11). 

Briareus. [Aegeon.] 

Bricinniae (Bpucivviai), a place in Sicily not 
far from Leontini. 

Brigantes, the most powerful of the British 
tribes, inhabited the whole of the N. of the 
island from the Abus (Humber) to the Eoman 
Wall, with the exception of the SE. corner of 
Yorkshire, which was inhabited by the Parisii. 
The Brigantes consequently inhabited the 
greater part of Yorkshire, and the whole of '[ 
Lancashire, Durham, Westmoreland, and Cum- 
berland. Their capital was Eboracum. The 
Eomans found them hard to subdue : they were 
reduced by Petilius Cerealis in the reign of 
Vespasian (Tac. Ann. xii. 32, Hist. iii. 45, 
Agr. 17), but not thoroughly conquered till 
Hadrian's reign. — There was also a tribe of 
Brigantes in the S. of Ireland, between the ] 
rivers Birgus (Barrow) and Dabrona (Black- 
Water), in the counties of Waterford and Tip- 
perary (Ptol. ii. 2, 7). 

Brigantii, a tribe in Vindelicia on the lake 
Brigantinus, noted for their robberies ; their 
chief town was Brigantium (Bregenz). 

Brigantinue Lacus (Bodensee or Lake of 
Constance), also called Venetus and Acronius, 
through which the Ehine flows, was inhabited I 
by the Helvetii on the S., by the Ehaetii on the 
BE., and by the Vindelici on the N. Near an j 
island on it, probably Iteichenau, Tiberius 
defeated the Vindelici in a naval engagement. | 
(Plin. ix. 63 ; Strab. pp. 192, 207, 292, 813 ; j 
Mela, iii. 2 ; An. Marc. xv. 4). 

Brigantium. 1. (Briancon), a town of the 
Segusiani in Gaul at the foot of the Cottian 
Alps and the pass of Mount Genevre, which 
was probably the pass crossed by Hannibal. If 
so, the rock on which the present forts are 
placed is probably the Af vK('mnpov of Polybius 
(iii. 53). At Brigantium the road branched, the , 
older and easier following the valley of the j 
Durance to Vapincum (Gap) ; the later road, 
certainly not followed by Hannibal, is the 
more direct route to the valley of the Isere, 
Grenoble and Vienna (Vienne), and was used 
by the Romans in and after the time of Caesar, 
but it involved crossing the Col dc Lauteret, 
higher than the Genevre itself, between Brigan- 
tium and the valley of the Isere (Strab. p. 179 ; 
Itin.). — 2. (Corunna), a seaport town of the 
Lucenses in Gallaecia in Spain, with a light- 
house, which is still used for the same purpose, I 
having been repaired in 1791, and which is now 
called La Torre dc Hercules (Ptol. ii. 6, 4 ; I 
Oros. ii. 2).— 3. (Bregenz.) [Brigantii.] 



Erilessus (BpiK-qaaos), a mountain in Attica 
NE. of Athens. 

Brimo (Bpi/id), ' the angry or the terrifying,' 
a surname of Hecate and Persephone. 

Briniates, a people in Liguria S. of the Po, 
near the modern Brignolo (Liv. xli. 19). 

Briseis (Bpiarjis), daughter of Brises of Lyr- 
nessus, fell into the hands of Achilles, but was 
seized by Agamemnon. Hence arose the feud 
between the two heroes. [Achilles.] Her pro- 
per name was Hippodamla (Schol. II. i. 392). 

Britannia (rj BptTTaviK-i) or BperaviKr;, r] 
BptTravla. or Bperavia : Bperravoi, Bperavo'i [also 
npeT-1 : Britanni, Brittones), the island of Eng- 
land and Scotland, which was also called 
Albion ("AABiov, 'AXoviaii/, Insula Albionum). 
Hibernia or Ireland is usually spoken of as a 
separate island, but is sometimes included 
under the general name of the Insulae Britan- 
nicae (BperaviKal vrj<roi), which also compre- 
hended the smaller islands around the coast of 
Great Britain. The name Bipyiov (if that read- 
ing is correct) in the earliest Greek writer who 
mentions this country (Pytheas), was derived 
from Celtic mariners, and probably represents 
Verg>jn = Western. It was afterwards in the 
form Ierne confined to Ireland. The name Bri- 
tannia first occurs as the Bperavvol in [Aristot.] 
imp] K.iap.00, written probably about 200 B.C., 
and next in Polybius, iii. 57. It represents the 
name used in the Gaelic language, Brython, 
of which the derivation is probably brith, 
1 painted,' from the custom which the inhabi- 
tants had of staining their bodies with a blue 
colour. The name Albion is by some supposed 
to describe the white cliffs of Dover : it more 
probably is an old Celtic word, Alba-inn (cf. 
Alpes), signif5 r ing 'mountainous ' : but the de- 
rivation and original use of the word are un- 
certain. — In history andnationality these islands 
had agreed with the neighbouring continent of 
Gaul. In pre-historic times the inhabitants 
were probably Iberian (a fact which Tacitus sur- 
mised when he noticed Iberian characteristics 
in the Silures, Agric. 11) ; but the Britons of 
whom we have earliest record_were various 
branches of the Celtic race. Their manners 
and customs were in general the same as those 
of the Gauls ; but, separated more than the 
( i auls from intercourse with civilised nations 
they preserved the Celtic religion in a purer 
state than in Gaul, and hence Druidism, 
according to Caesar, was transplanted from 
Gaul to Britain. The Britons also retained 
many of the barbarous Celtic customs, which 
the more civilised Gauls had laid aside, although 
they had a coinage earlier than B.C. 100. They 
painted their bodies with a blue colour extracted 
from woad, in order to appear more terrible in 
battle, and Caesar even states that they had 
wives in common. The Belgae had crossed 
over from Gaul, and settled on the S. and E. 
coasts, driving the Britons into the interior of 
the island. It was not till a lnte period that 
the Greeks and Romans obtained any know- 
ledge of Britain. There is great reason to 
doubt whether it is correct to state that tin- 
Phoenicians visited the Scilly islands and the 
coast of Cornwall for the purpose of obtaining 
tin. It is more likely that the Tin Islands were 
off the N. coast of Spain. CCassiteiudes.] At 
the time when Caesar landed, the Cornish tin 
was brought by land to the coast of Kent and 
Hants, and thence by the trade route throuirli 
Gaul. (Caes. B. G. v. 12; Diod. v. 22.) The 
first certain knowledge which the Greeks ob- 
tained of Britain was from the merchants of 



172 



BEITANNIA 



Massilia about the time of Alexander the Great, 
and especially from the voyages of Pytheas, 
who sailed round a great part of Britain. From 
this time it was generally believed that the 
island was in the form of a triangle, an error 
which continued to prevail even at a later 
period. Another important mistake, which like- 
wise prevailed for a long time, concerned the posi- 
tion of Britain in relation to Gaul and Spain. As 
the NW. coast of Spain was supposed to extend 
too far to the N., and the W. coast of Gaul to 
run NE., the lower part of Britain was believed 
to lie between Spain and Gaul. (For descrip- 
tion of Britain and its inhabitants see especially 
Caes. B. G. iv. 33, v. 12 ; Strab. pp. 124-116, 
199-201; Mela, iii. 6; Plin. iv. 102; Tac. Agr. 
10-13.) The arrangement of territory, as the 
Romans found it, was roughly as follows : — the 
Cantii in Kent, the Begni in Sussex ; the Belgae 
in Hants, Wilts, and part of Somerset ; the Duro- 
triges in Dorset and W. Somerset ; the Dum- 
nonii in Devon and Cornwall ; the Dobuni in 
Gloucester ; the Atrebates in Oxford and 
Berks ; the Catavellauni in Herts, Cambridge, 
and Rutland ; the Trinobantes in Essex and 
Suffolk ; the Iceni in Norfolk ; Coritani in 
Lincoln ; Parish on the Humber ; to the east 
of these two the Cornovii ; in the country 
between the Humber and Hadrian's Wall the 
Brigantes ; in North Wales the Ordovices ; in 
S. Wales the Silures and Demetae. The Ro- 
mans first became personally acquainted with 
the island by Caesar's invasion. He twice landed 
in Britain (B.C. 55, 54), and though on the 
second occasion he overran the greater part of 
the SE. of the island, yel he did not take per- 
manent possession, imposing only a nominal 
tribute ; and the Britons continued practically 
as independent as before (Caes. B. G. iv. 20, v. 
5). The Romans at that time regarded it as a 
poor island hardly worth the conquest (Cic. Att. 
iv. 18, Fam. vii. 7), and made no further at- 
tempts to conquer it for nearly 100 years, though 
S trabo (p. 200) mentions some communication 
with the British chieftains. In the reign of 
Claudius (a.d. 43) they again landed in Britain, 
and permanently subdued the southern parts of 
the island (Suet. Claud. 17, Vesp. 4 ; Dio Cass, 
lx. 19 ; Tac. Agr. 13 ; C. I. L. vi. 920). They 
probably soon extended their conquests as far 
as Yorkshire, but had to crush frequent re- 
volts. The great victory (61) of Suetonius Pau- 
linus over the Britons who had revolted under 
Boumcca, still further consolidated the Roman 
dominions. In the reign of Vespasian, Peti- 
lius Cerealis and Julius Frontinus made several 
successful expeditions against the Silubes and 
the Bbigantes; and the conquest of S. Britain 
was consolidated by Agricola, who in 7 cam- 
paigns (78-84), overran the whole of the island 
as far N. as the Frith of Forth and the Clyde, 
between which he erected a series of forts to 
protect the Roman dominions from the incur- 
sions of the barbarians in the N. of Scotland 
(Tac. Agr. 8-38, Ann. xiv.' 29-39). The Roman 
part of Britain was now called Britannia Bo- 
mana, and the N. part, inhabited by the Cale- 
donians, Britannia Barbara or Caledonia. 
The Romans, however, gave up the N. con- 
quests of Agricola in the reign of Hadrian, who, 
about 123 a.d., built a stone wall from New- 
castle to Carlisle, which formed the N. boun- 
dary of their dominions. In the reign of Anto- 
ninus Pius the Romans extended their boundary 
as far as the conquests of Agricola, and erected 
a turf-built rampart connecting the Forth and 
the Clyde, the remains of which are now called 



Grimes Dyke, Grime in the Celtic language 
signifying great or powerful. The Caledonians 
afterwards broke through this wall ; and in con- 
sequence of then- repeated devastations of the 
Roman dominions, the emperor Severus went 
to Britain in 208, in order to conduct the war 
against them in person. He died in the island 
at Eboracum (York) in 211. After the death of 
Severus, the Romans probably relinquished for 
ever all their conquests N. of Hadrian's wall. In 
287 Carausius assumed the purple in Britain, and 
reigned as emperor, independent of Diocletian 
and Maximian, till 
his assassination 
by Allectus in 293. 
Allectus reigned 3 
years, and Britain 
was recovered for 
the Empire in 296. 
Upon the resig- 
nation of the em- 
pire by Diocle- 
tian and Maximian 
(305), Britain fell to 
the share of Con- 
stantius, who died 
at Eboracum in 306, 
and his son Con- 
stantine assumed 
in the island the 
title of Caesar. 
Shortly afterwards 
the Caledonians, 
who now appear 
under the name of 
Picts and Scots, 
broke through the 
wall of Severus, 
the Saxons ravaged 
the SE. coasts of 
Britain, and the 
declining power of 
the Roman empire 
was unable to af- 
ford the province 
any effectual assis- 
tance. In the reign 
of Valentinian I., 
Theodosius, the 
father of the em- 
peror of that name, 
defeated the Picts 
and Scots (367) ; 
but in the reign of 
Honorius, Constan- 
tine, who had been 
proclaimed empe- 
ror in Britain (407), 
withdrew all the 
Roman troops from 
the island, in order 
to make himself 
master of Gaul. 
The Britons were 
thus left exposed 
to the ravages of 

the Picts and Scots, and at length, in 447, they 
called in the assistance of the Saxons, who be- 
came the masters of Britain. — Caledonia, which 
appears to mean ' forest country,' was not occu- 
pied by the Romans beyond the walls above 
mentioned. — The Roman dominions of Britain 
formed a single province till the time of 
Severus, and were governed by a legatus of the 
emperor, with whom was a procurator. Seve- 
rus divided the country into 2 provinces, Bri 
tannia Superior and Inferior, of which the latter 



BRITANNICUS 



BRUNDUSIUM 



173 



perhaps contained the earlier conquests of the j 
Romans in the S. of the island, and the former 
the later conquests in the N., the territories of 
the Silures, Brigantes, &c. (Herodian, hi. 8, 2 ; cf . 
Dio Cass. lv. 23). Upon the new division of the 
provinces in the reign of Diocletian, Britain 
was governed by a Vicarius (who resided usu- 
ally at Eboracum) subject to the Praefectus 
Praetorio of Gaul, and was divided into 4 pro- 
vinces : Britannia Prima, probably the coun- 
try S. of the Thames, and three others, of which 
the limits are uncertain, viz. : Britannia Se- 
cunda, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia 
Caesariensis. Besides these, there was also a 
fifth province, Valentia, which existed for a I 
short time, including the conquests of Theodo- 
sius beyond the Roman wall. — The only colonies j 
in Britain were Camulodunum {Colchester) in 
the east, sometimes called simply Colonia, and 
Glevum (Gloucester) in the west ; Lindum [Lin- 
coln) and Eboracum (York). Of these colonies 
the capital was at first Camulodunum, but 
afterwards Eboracum, while the other three 
retained comparatively little importance. The 
occupation being chiefly military, the most im- 
portant towns were the three great fortresses, 
Eboracum, Deva (Chester), and Isca (Caerleon). 
Other considerable places were Verulamium 
(St. Albans), a municipium : Londinium, fa- 
mous for its commerce, and Aquae Solis (Bath), 
as a watering-place. The following among the 
native towns also deserve notice : Yiroconium 
(Wroxeter) and Calleva (Silchester), both fa- 
mous, and especially the latter, for the excava- 
tions which afford a complete ground-plan of 
the Roman town ; Venta Belgarum (Winches- 
ter), Regnum (Chichester), Durovernum (Can- 
terbury). The harbours for crossing to Gaul 
were Rutupiae (ffichborough), Portus Dubris 
(lJnnrr), Portus Lemanae (Lympne). The 
chief minerals worked in Roman times con- i 
sisted of lead in the Mendips and in Flint ; iron 
in Sussex and Forest of Dean ; copper in N. 
Wales, and tin in Cornwall ; but there are no 
traces of Roman workings in the Cornish tin- 
mines before the fourth century a.d. Some 
little gold was also found in Wales. 

Britannicus (Claudius Tiberius Britannicus 
Caesar), son of the emperor Claudius and Mes- 
salina, was born a.d. 42. He was brought up 
with Titus as companion, who afterwards put 
up a golden statue to him in memory of his 
youthful friendship (Suet. Tit. 2). He was 
treated more as a state prisoner, when Agrip- 
pina, the second wife of Claudius, induced the 
emperor to adopt her own son, and give him 
precedence over Britannicus. This son, the 
emperor Nero, ascended the throne in 54. When 
Agrippina found that her son revolted from het j 
control, she induced Britannicus to lend his 
name to a movement against Xero, who caused 
him to be poisoned in 55. Witli him ended 
the Claudian line. (Tac. Ann. xii. 25, 41, xiii. 
14 ; Suet. Ner. 33 : Dio Cass.lx. 82.) 

Britomartis IBpiT^apris). The name is 
said to mean ' the sweet maiden ' or the 
'maiden who brings blessings' (Solin. 11.; 
Hesych.). She was a Cretan deity presiding over 
the natural gifts of the earth, the fruits of tin; 
soil as well as of hunting and fishing. From 
the last attribute she was known also as 
Bictynna, i.e. the goddess of the nets (Sliervov). 
When the Doric colonists absorbed her worship 
into that of Artemis, whom she resembled, 
they transformed the native deity into a nymph 
favoured by Artemis, explaining the name 
Dictynna by the story that she was a Cretan 



nymph, daughter of Zeus and Carme, and 
beloved by Minos, who pursued her 9 months, 
till at length she leaped into the sea from a 
rock, was saved by falling into some nets spread 
out below, and was changed by Artemis to a 
goddess (Paus. ii. 30, 3 ; Strab. p. 479 ; Ant. 
Lib. 40 ; Callimach. Dian. 200 ; Eur. 1.27. 126; 
Verg. Cir. 301). Some have fancied an allu- 
sion to the setting of the moon in this leap into 
the sea, and take her to have been a moon 
goddess under her other name Aphaea, which 
she bore specially at Aegina (Paus. I.e.). Her 
worship was earned not only to islands and 
coasts of the Aegean, but even to Marseilles 
(C. I. G. 6764) ; whence the story of her wan- 
derings in Anton. Lib. 

Brixellum (Brixellanus : Bregella or Bre- 
scella), a town on the Po in Gallia Cisalpina, 
where the emperor Otho put himself to death, 
a.d. 69 (Tac. Hist. ii. 33, 39, 51). 

Brixia (Brixianus : Brescia), a town in Gallia 
Cisalpina on the road from Comum to Aquileia, 
through which the river Mella flowed (flavus 
quam molli percurrit flumine Mella, Catull. 
lxvii. 33). It was probably founded by the 
Etruscans, was afterwards a town of the Libui 
(a,pagus or head of a community of villages), 
and then of the Cenomani, and finally became 
a Roman municipium, and, under Augustus, a 
colony (Strab. p. 213 ; Plin. iii. 138 ; Liv. v. 35, 
xxxii. 30 ; Orell. 6G). It was sacked by Attila 
in 452, but recovered and flourished under the 
Lombards. 

Bromius (Bp<htios), a surname of Dionysus. 

Brontes. [Cyclopes.] 

Bruchium. [Alexandria.] 

Bructeri, a people of Germany, dwelt on each 
side of the Amisia (Ems) and extended S. as 
far as the Luppia (Lijipe) (Strab. p. 290 ; Tac. 
Ann. xiii. 55). The Bructeri joined the Batavi 
in their revolt against the Romans in a.d. 69, 
and the prophetic virgin, Veleda, who had so 
much influence among the German tribes, was 
a native of their country. A few years after- 
wards the Bructeri were almost annihilated by 
the Chamavi and Angrivarii. (Tac. Hist. iv. 61, 
Germ. 33 ; Plin. Ep. ii. 7.) 

Brundusium or Brundislum (BpevTTjaiov, 
Bptvriruov: Brundusinus: Brindisi), a town in 




Plan of Uruniluhium. 
A V Inner harbour : I;, outer hurbour : C. entrance which 
Caesur tried to block ; D, modern town of ItrindlH ; 
E. IttletH of liarra (S. Andrea). 



Calabria, on a small bay of the Adriatic, form- 
ing an excellent harbour (mentioned in Hero- 
dotus iv. UU), to which the place owed its ini- 



174 



BEUTTIUM 



BRUTUS 



portance. The outer harbour was sheltered by 
the islets of Barra, on which stood a lighthouse 
(Mel. ii. 7) : from this a narrow channel led into 
the inner harbour, formed by two arms running 
inland. The Appia Via terminated at Brundu- 
sium, and it was the usual place of embarkation 




Coin of Brundusium. 
Obi'., head of Poseidon : behind, mark of value S (Semis! ; 
before, magistrate's initials; rev., Taras on Dolphin: 
mark of value and initials of city ; struck 2nd cent. B.C. 

for Greece and the East. Hence it was the 
scene of numerous historical incidents, of which 
one of the most important was the attempt of 
Caesar to block up the entrance to the inner 
port, so as to prevent the departure of Pompey's 
fleet (Caes. B. C. i. 24-28). It was an ancient 
town of the Sallentines, and probably not of 
Greek origin, althoughits foundation is ascribed 
by some writers to the Cretans, and by others 
to Diomede (Just. xii. 2 ; but cf. Strab. p. 282 ; 
Lucan, ii. 610). It was at first governed by 
kings of its own, but was conquered and colo- 
nised by the Romans, B.C. 245. The poet Pacu- 
vius was born at this town, and Virgil died here 
on his return from Greece, B.C. 19. 

Bruttmm, Bruttius and Bruttiorum Ager 
(Bperria : Bruttius), more usually called Bruttii 
after the inhabitants, the S. extremity of Italy, 
separated from Lucania by a line drawn from 
the mouth of the Laus to Thurii, and sur- 
rounded on the other 3 sides by the sea. It 
was the country called in ancient times Oeno- 
+ria and Italia. The country is mountainous, 
as the Apennines run through it down to the 
Sicilian Straits ; it contained excellent pastu- 
rage for cattle, and the valleys produced good 
corn, olives, and fruit. — The earliest inhabi- 
tants of the country were Oenotrians, a Pe- 
lasgian people from whom, with an admixture 
of Samnite invaders, came the ' Lucanians. 
Subsequently some Lucanians, who had re- 
volted from their countrymen in Lucania, took 
possession of the mountainous district, and 
were hence called Bruttii or Brettii, which word 
is said to mean fugitives or rebels in the 
language of the Lucanians. This people, how- 
ever, inhabited only the interior of the land ; 
the coast was almost entirely in the possession 
of the Greek colonies. They rose to greater 
power about 356 B.C., and conquered the Greek 
cities of Hipponium, Terina, and Thurii (Diod. 
xvi. 15 ; Strab. p. 255). Hence they had a 
considerable admixture of Greek in race and 
language, and are called ' bilingues ' by Ennius. 
They joined the Lucanians in repelling Alex- 
ander of Epirus, B.C. 326, and the Samnites 
against Rome (Liv. Bp. 12) ; and though re- 
duced by the Romans after the defeat of 
Pyrrhus, they rose again and joined Hannibal 
after Cannae (Liv. xxii. 61). At the close of 
the 2nd Punic war, in which the Bruttii had 
been the allies of Hannibal, they lost their inde- 
pendence and were treated by the Romans with 
great severity. It is said by some that the 
Bruttiani or public slaves employed as lictors 
and servants of magistrates (Appian, Ann. 61 ; 
Strab. p. 251 ; Gell. x. 3) originated in this 
punishment : others think that the institution 



was probably older, and that the connexion with 
measures taken after the Punic war was a later 
invention (see Diet. Ant. s.v. Bruttiani). Under 
Diocletian, Bruttii and Lucania were joined as 
the 3rd region under the Vicarius Urbis, with a 
Corrector immediately in charge. 

Brutus, Junius. 1. L., son of M. Junius and 
of Tarquinia, the sister of Tarquinius Superbus. 
His elder brother was murdered by Tarquinius, 
and Lucius escaped his brother's fate only by 
feigning idiotcy, whence he received the sur- 
name of Brutus. After Lucretia had stabbed 
herself, Brutus roused the Romans to expel the 
Tarquins ; and upon the banishment of the 
] atter he was elected first consul with Tarquinius 
Collatinus. He loved his country better than 
his children, and put to death his 2 sons, who 
had attempted to restore the Tarquins. He fell 
in battle the same year, fighting against Aruns, 
the son of Tarquinius. Brutus was the great 
hero in the legends about the expulsion of the 
Tarquins, but we have no means of determining 
what part of the account is historical. (Liv. i. 
56-60, ii. 1 ; Dionys. iv. 67, v. 1 ; Macrob. ii. 16 ; 
Dio Cass. xlii. 45.) — 2. D., sumamed Scaeva, 
magister equitum to the dictator Q. Publilius 
Philo, B.C. 339, and consul in 325, when he 
fought against the Vestini (Liv. viii. 12). — 3. B\, 
surnamed Scaeva, consul 292, conquered the 
Faliscans (Liv. x. 43). — 4. Iff,, tribune of the 
plebs 195, praetor 191, when he dedicated the 
temple of the Great Idaean Mother, one of the 
ambassadors sent into Asia 189, and consul 178, 
when he subdued the Istri. He was one of the 
ambassadors sent into Asia in 171. (Liv. xxxiv. 
1, xxxvii. 55, xli. 9, xlii. 5, xliii. 16.). — 5. P., tri- 
bune of the plebs 195, curule aedile 192, praetor 
190, propraetor in Further Spain, 189 (Liv. 
xxxiv. 1, xxxvii. 50). — 6. D., surnamed Gallae- 
ctjs (Callaecus) or Callaictjs, consul 138, 
commanded in Further Spain, and conquered 
a great part of Lusitania. From his victory 
over the Gallaeci he obtained his surname. 
(Liv. Bp. 55 ; Appian, Hist. 71 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 5.) 
He was a patron of the poet L. Accius, and well 
versed in Greek and Roman literature (Cic. 
Brut. 28). — 7. D., son of No. 6, consul 77, and 
husband of Sempronia, who carried on an 
intrigue with Catiline (Sail. Cat. 40). — 8. D., 
adopted by A. Postumius Albinus, consul 99, 
and hence called Brutus Albinus. He served 
under Caesar in Gaul and in the civil war. He 
commanded Caesar's fleet at the siege of Mas- 
silia, 49, and was afterwards placed over Further 
Gaul. On his return to Rome Brutus was 
promised the praetorship and the government 
of Cisalpine Gaul for 44. Nevertheless, he 
joined the conspiracy against Caesar. After 
the death of the latter (44) he went into Cis- 
alpine Gaul, which he refused to surrender to 
Antony, who had obtained this province from 
the people. Antony made war against him, and 
kept him besieged in Mutina, till the siege was 
raised in April 43 by the consuls Hirtius and 
Pansa, and Octavianus. But Brutus only ob- 
tained a short respite. Antony was preparing 
to march against him from the N. with a large 
army, and Octavianus, who had deserted the 
senate, was marching against him from the S. 
His only resource was flight, but he was be- 
trayed by Camillus, a Gaulish chief, and was 
put to death by Antony 43. (Caes. B. G. iii. 11, 
B. C. i. 36, 45 ; App. B. C. iii. 97 ; Dio Cass, 
xlvi. 53; Cic. ad Fam. xi. 5, 6, 13.).— 9. M., 
praetor 88, belonged to the party of Marius, and 
put an end to his own life in 82, that he might 
not fall into the hands of Pompey, who com- 



BRYANIUM 



BUPRASIUM 



175 



manded Sulla's fleet. — 10. L., also called Da- ' 
jiAsrppus, praetor 82, when the younger Marias 
was blockaded at Praeneste, put to death at 
Rome by order of Marius several of the most 
eminent senators of the opposite party (Appian, 
B. C. i. 88).— 11. M., married Servilia, the half- 
sister of Cato of Utica. He was tribune of the 
plebs, 83 ; and in 77 he espoused the cause of 
Lepidus, and was placed in command of the 
forces in Cisalpine Gaul, where he was slain by 
command of Pompey (Appian, B. C. ii. Ill I. — 
12. M., the so-called tyrannicide, son of Xo. 11 
and Servilia, the half-sister of Cato Uticensis. 
He lost his father when he was only 8 years 
old, and was trained by his uncle Cato in the 
principles of the aristocratieal party. He was 
adopted by his uncle, Q. Servilius Caepio. as his 
heir ; hence he sometimes appears as Q. Caepio 
Brutus. Accordingly, on the breaking out of 
the civil war, 49, he joined Pompey, although 
he was the murderer of his father. After the 
battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was not only pardoned 
by Caesar, but received from him the greatest 
marks of confidence and favour. Caesar made 
him governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 46, and 
praetor in 44, and also promised hhn the go- 
vernment of Macedonia. But notwithstanding 
all the obligations he was under to Caesar, he 
was persuaded by Cassius to murder his bene- 
factor under the delusive idea of again establish- 
ing the republic. [Caesar.] After the murder 
of Caesar Brutus spent a short time in Italy, 
and then took possession of the province of 
Macedonia. He was joined by Cassius, who 
commanded in Syria, and their united forces I 
were opposed to those of Octavian and Antony. 
Two battles were fought in the neighbourhood 
of Philippi (42), in the former of wliich Brutus 
was victorious though Cassius was defeated, but 
in the latter Brutus also was defeated and put 
an end to his own life. — Brutus's wife was 
Porcia, the daughter of Cato. — Brutus was an 
ardent student of literature and philosophy, but 
he appears to have been deficient in judgment 
;md original power. He wrote several works, 
nil of which have perished. He was a literary 
friend of Cicero, who dedicated to him his Tuscu- 
lanae Disputationes, De Finibus, and Orator, 
« nd who has given the name of Brutus to his 
dialogue on illustrious orators. (Plut. Brut ; 
Dio Cass. xliv. 12-35 ; Appian, B. C. ii., hi., iv.) 

Brvanium, a town of Paeonia in Macedonia 
(Liv. xxxi. 39 ; Strab. p. 327). 

Bryaxis (Bpua£<$), an Athenian sculptor, 
about 850 B.C. He was employed, along with 
Scopas, Leochares, and Timotheus, for the 
sculptures which adorned the sides of the Mau- 
soleum (see Diet. Antiq. s.v. Mausoleum). 

Brygi or BrygesfBpiryoi, Bptyt s), a barbarous 
people in the N. of Macedonia, probably of 
Illyrian or Thracian origin, who were still in 
Macedonia at the time of the Persian war. The 
Phrygians were believed by the ancients to have 
been a portion of this people, who emigrated to 
Asia in early times. [Pkkygia.] 

Bryseae (Bpitrecu), a town of Laconia, 8W. ol 
Sparta (27. ii. 583 ; Paus. iii. 20). 

BubassUB (Bu/3ct<r(ros),an ancient city of Caria, 
E. of Cnidus, which gave name to the bay (Bu- 
bassius Sinus) and the peninsula (r) Xtpaoirqaos 
r> BufWiriri), on which it stood (Hdt. i. 174 ; 
Diod. v. 62; Plin. v. 1041. Ovid speaks of 
Biibiisides nurus (Met. ix. 643). 

Bubastis tBovBaaris), the Egyptian goddess 
Bast, whose name has been confused with Pa- 
Bast, i.e. the house of Bast. The Greeks identi- 
fied her with Artemis, since she was the goddess 



of the moon, and also of childbirth. The cat 
was sacred to her, and she was represented in 
the form of a cat, or of a female with the head 
of a cat. (Hdt. ii. 59, 137, 156 ; Ov. Met. v. 330.) 

Bubastis or -US CBov&aaris or -o> : BovfSaarl- 
rrjs : Tel Basta, Ru.), strictly ' the house of 
Bast ' (see above), the Pibeseth of the Bible, 
was the capital of the Nomos Bubastltes in 
Lower Egypt, stood on the E. bank of the Pelu- 
siac branch of the Nile, and was the chief seat 
of the worship of Bubastis, whose annual festival 
was kept here. It was the capital of the 22nd 
Dynasty, 966-766 B.C. Under the Persians the 
city was dismantled, and lost much of its im- 
portance. (Hdt. ii. 59, 137 ; Strab. p. 805.) 
Bubona. [Epona.] 

Eubulcus/C. Junius (C. Junius Bubulcus 
Brutus), consul B.C. 317, a second time in 313, 
and a third time in 311 ; in the last of these 
years he carried on the war against the Sam- 
nites with great success. He was censor in 
309, and dictator in 302, when he defeated the 
Aequians ; in his dictatorship he dedicated the 
temple of Safety which he had vowed in his 
third consulship. The walls of this temple were 
adorned with paintings bv C. Fabius Pictor. 
(Liv. ix. 38, x. 1 ; Val. Max. viii. 14 ; Plin. 
xxxv. 19.) 

Bucephala or -ia (BovKe<pa\a or -dkeia: JJie- 
lum), & city on the Hydaspes (Jlielum) in N. 
India (the Punjab), built by Alexander, after 
his battle with Porus, in memory of his fa- 
vourite charger Bucephalus, whom he buried 
here. It stood at the place where Alexander 
crossed the river. (Arrian, Anab. v. 19; Curt, 
ix. 3, 23 ; Diod. xvii. 95.) 

Bucephalus ,'Bou/ce'<paAos), the celebrated 
horse of Alexander the Great, which Philip 
purchased for thirteen talents, and which no 
one was able to break in except the youthful 
Alexander. This horse carried Alexander 
through his Asiatic campaigns, and died in 
India B.C. 327. (Plut. Alex. 6, 61.) 

Budalia, a town in Lower Pannonia near 
Sirmium, the birth-place of the emperor Decius. 

Budini (BovSivot), a Scythian people, who 
dwelt N. of the Bastamae in Sarmatia. Hero- 
dotus (iv. 108) calls the nation yXavKOV tc «al 
■nuppiv, which some interpret ' with blue eyes 
and red hair,' and others ' painted blue and 
! red.' The former view is the more likely, and 
' they were probably a Slavonian race, dwelling 
about the Borysthenes (Dnieper). 

Budoron (Boioopov), a fortress in Salamis on 
a promontory of the same name opposite 
I Megara. 

Buli8 (BouAis) and Sperthias (2irep6lr)s), two 
; Spartans, voluntarily went to Xerxe6 and offered 
themselves for punishment to atone for the 
{ murder of the heralds whom Darius had sent 
to Sparta; but thev were dismissed uninjured 
by the king (Hdt. v'ii. 134). 

Bulis (BoCAis: BovKtos), a town in Phocis on 
the Corinthian gulf, and on the borders of 
Boeotia (Paus. x. 87 ; Strab. pp. 409, 423). 

Bullis (Bulliiius, Bullio -onis, Bulliensis), a 
town of Illvria on the coast, S. of Apollonia 
(Strab. p. 316). 

Bupalus and his brother Athenis, sculptors 
of Chios, lived about B.C. 500, and are said to 
have made caricatures of the poet Hipponax, 
which the poet requited by the bitterest satires 
(Plin. xxxvi. 11 ; Hor. Epod. vi. 14). 

Buphras (Bov<ppds), a mountain in Messenia 
near Pylos. 

Bupraeium (Bowpiatov: -aitv^, -aiiav, 
-<7i8r)s), an ancient town in Elis, mentioned in 



176 



BURA 



BYZANTINI 



the Iliad, which had disappeared in the time of 
Strabo (II. ii. 615 ; Strab. p. 340). 

Bura (Bovpa: Bovpcuos, Bovpios), one of the 
twelve cities of Achaia, destroyed by an earth- 
quake, together with Helice, but subsequently 
rebuilt (Hdt. i. 145 ; Strab. p. 386 ; Paus. vii. 25). 

Burdigala (BovpSiyaXa: Bordeaux), the 
capital of the Bituriges Vivisci in Aquitania, on 
the left bank of the G-arumna (Garonne), was a 
place of great commercial importance, and at a 
later time one of the chief seats of literature 
and learning : under Diocletian the chief town 
of Aquitania Secunda. It was the birthplace 
of the poet Ausonius. (Strab. p. 190 ; Auson. 
Ord. Nob. Urb. 14 ; Amm. Marc. xv. 11.) 

Burgundiones or Burgundii, a powerful 
nation of Germany, dwelt originally between 
the Viadus (Ode?-) and the Vistula, and were of 
the same race as the Vandals or Goths. They 
pretended, indeed, to be descendants of the 
Romans, whom Drusus and Tiberius had left 
in Germany as garrisons, but this descent was 
evidently invented by them to obtain more 
easily from the Romans a settlement W. of the 
Rhine (Amm. Marc, xviii. 5). They were driven 
out of their original abodes between the Oder 
and the Vistula by the Gepidae, and the greater 
part of them migrated W. and settled in the 
country on the Main, where they carried on 
frequent wars with their neighbours the Ale- 
manni. In the fifth century they settled W. of 
the Alps in Gaul, where they founded the 
powerful kingdom of Burgundy. Their chief 
towns were Geneva and Lyons. (Zosim. i. 27, 
68 ; Oros. vii. 32.) 

Burii, a people of Germany, dwelt near the 
sources of the Oder and Vistula, and sided with 
the Romans in the wars of Trajan against the 
Dacians, and of M. Aurelius against the Marco- 
manni (Tac. Germ. 43 ; Dio Cass, lxviii. 8, 
lxxi. 18). 

Burrus, Afraruus, was appointed by Claudius 
praefectus praetorio, a.d. 52, and in conjunc- 
tion with Seneca conducted the education of 
Nero. He opposed Nero's tyrannical acts, and 
was poisoned by command of the emperor, 63. 
(Tac. Ann. xii. xiii. xiv. ; Dio Cass. lii. 13 ; 
Suet. Ner.) 

Bursa. [Plancus.] 

Bursao (Bursaoensis, Bursavolensis), a town 
of the Autrigonae in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Busiris (Bovaipis), king of Egypt, son of 
Poseidon and Lysianassa, is said to have sacri- 
ficed all foreigners that visited Egypt. Heracles, 
on his arrival in Egypt, was likewise seized and 
led to the altar, but he broke his chains, and 
slew Busiris. This myth seems to point out a 
time when the Egyptians were accustomed to 
offer human sacrifices to their deities. (Hdt. ii. 
45 ; Pherecyd. fr. 33 ; Diod. iv. 27 ; Ov. Met. 
ix. 183 ; Verg. Georg. iii. 5.) 

Busiris (Bovcrtpis : Bov(npirijs). 1. (Abousir, 
Ru.), the capital of the Nomos Busirites in 
Lower Egypt, stood just in the middle of the 
Delta, on the W. bank of the Nile, and had a 
great temple of Isis, the remains of which are 
still standing (Hdt. i. 59 ; Strab. p. 802). — 
2. (Abousir near Jizeh), a small town, a little 
NW. of Memphis. 

Buteo, Fabius. 1. N., consul b.c. 247, in 
the first Punic war, was employed in the siege 
of Drepanum. — 2. M., consul 245, also in the 
first Punic war. In 216 he was appointed 
dictator to fill up the vacancies in the senate 
occasioned by the battle of Cannae. — 3. Q., 
praetor 181, with the province of Cisalpine 
Gaul. In 179 he was one of the triumvirs for 



founding a Latin colony in the territory of the 
Pisani. (Liv. xlv. 13.) 

Butes (BovT-qs). 1, Son of Teleon, an Athe- 
nian. He was one of the Argonauts, and when 
the Argo passed the island of the Sirens swam 
ashore, but was saved by Aphrodite, by whom 
he became father of Eryx (Ap. Rh. iv. 914 ; 
Hyg. Fab. 260).— 2. Son of Pandion and 
Zeuxippe, brother of Erechtheus. He became 
priest of Poseidon Erechthonius ; from him was 
named the deme Butadae in the tribe Aegeis, 
and his descendants were the priestly family of 
the Eteobutadae. An altar to the hero Butes 
stood in the Erechtheum (Paus. i. 26. 5 ; cf. 
Chthonia ; Erectheus), and the priestess of 
Athene Polias was chosen from the family of 
the Eteobutadae. 

Buthrotum [BovQpoiTov : BouBpwrcos : Butrin- 
to), a town of Epirus on a small peninsula, 
opposite Corcyra, a seaport and colonised by 
the Romans (Strab. p. 324 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 291). 

Buto (Bovrd), an Egyptian divinity, wor- 
shipped principally in the town of Buto. She 
was the nurse of Horus and Bubastis, the 
children of Osiris and Isis, and she saved them 
from the persecutions of Typhon by concealing 
them in the floating island of Chemmis. The 
Greeks identified her with Leto, and repre- 
sented her as the goddess of night. The shrew- 
mouse (fivya\ri) and the hawk were sacred to 
her. (Hdt. ii. 59, 67, 155.) 

Buto (Bovtw, Bovrr), or Bovros : Boi/ToiVijs : 
Baltimt Ru.), the chief city of the Nomos 
Chemmites in Lower Egypt, stood near the 
Sebennytic branch of the Nile, on the Lake of 
Buto (Bovtik^i \i/ivri, also SeySevvvTi/c^), and 
was celebrated for its oracle of the goddess 
Buto, in honour of whom a festival was held at 
the city. 

Butuntum (Bitonto), a town of Apulia, 
12 miles W. of Barium and 5 from the sea. 

Buxentum (Buxentlnus, Buxentius : Poli- 
castro), originally Pyxus (Tlv^ovs), a town on 
the W. coast of Lucania and on the river 
Buxentius, was founded by Micythus, tyrant 
of Messana, B.C. 471, and was afterwards a 
Roman colony (Diod. xi. 59 ; Strab. p. 253). 

Byblllli Montes (ri BvBAiva opt)), the moun- 
tains whence the Nile is said to flow in the 
mythical geography of Aeschylus (Prom. 811). 

Byblis (Bv&xls), daughter of Miletus, was in 
love with her brother Caunus, whom she pur- 
sued through various lands, till at length, worn 
out with sorrow, she was changed into a 
fountain (Ov. Met. ix. 450 ; Paus. vii. 5). 

Byblus (Bu/3Aoy : Jebeil), an ancient city 
on the coast of Phoenicia, between Berytus and 
Tripolis, a little N. of the river Adonis, the chief 
seat of the worship of Adonis. (Strab. p. 755.) 

Bylazora (Veles), a town in Paeonia, on 
the river Astycus (Pol. v. 97 ; Liv. xliv. 26). 

Byrsa (Bvpaa), the citadel of Cabthago. 

Byzacium or Byzacena Regio (Bv£dtciov, 
Bv(<xkIs x^P a: S. part of Tunis), the S. portion 
of the Roman province of Africa. [Africa.] 

Byzantini Scriptores, the general name of 
the historians who have given an account of 
the Eastern or Byzantine empire from the 
time of Constantine the Great, a.d. 325, to the 
destruction of the empire, 1453. They all 
wrote in Greek, and may be divided into 
different classes. 1. The historians, whose 
collected works form an uninterrupted history 
of the Byzantine empire, and whose writings 
are therefore called Corpus Historiae Byzan- 
tinae. They are : (1) Zonaras, who begins 
with the creation of the world, and brings 



BYZANTIUM 

his history down to 1188. (2) Nicephorus 
Acominatus, whose history extends from 1188 
to 1206. (3) Nicephorus Gregoras, whose 
history extends from 1204 to 1331. (4) Laonicus 
Chalcondyles, whose history extends from 
1297 to 1462 : his work is continued by an 
anonymous writer to 1565. — 2. The chrono- 
graphers, who give a brief chronological sum- 
mary of universal history from the creation of 
the world to their own times. These writers 
are very numerous : the most important of them 
are Georgius Syncellus, Theophanes, Nice- 
phorus, Cedrenus, Simeon Metaphrastes, 
Michael Glycas, the authors of the Chronicon 
JPaschale, <tc. — 3. The writers who have treated 
of separate portions of Byzantine history, such 
as Zosurus, Procopius, Agathias, Anna Com- 
nena, Cwhamus, Leo Diaconus, &c. — 4. The 
writers who have treated of the constitution, 
antiquities, &c, of the empire, such as Joannes 

LYDUS, CONSTANTINUS VI. PoRPHYROGENNETUS. 

A collection of the Byzantine writers was pub- 
lished at Paris by command of Louis XIV. in 
30 vols. fol. 1645-1711. A reprint of this edition, 
with additions, was published at Venice in 23 
vols. fol. 1727-1733. The Corpus Scriptorum 
Eistoriae Byzantinae, to include all the above, 
was commenced by Niebuhr, Bonn, 1828, con- 
tinued by Bekker, Dindorf, and others. 

Byzantium iBv(a.uriou : BufwTios, Byzan- 
tius: Constantinople), a town on the Thracian 



CABIRI 



177 



great importance to its security because they 
derived corn supplies from the shores of the 
Black Sea. Afterwards it became subject in 
succession to the Macedonians and the Romans. 
In the civil war between Pescennius Niger and 
Severus, it espoused the cause of the former : it 
was taken by Severus a.d. 196 after a siege of 
three years, and a considerable part of it was 
destroyed. A new city was built by its side 
(330) by Constantine, who made it the capital 
of the empire, and changed its name into Con- 
stantinopolis. The circumference of Byzan- 
tium was five miles ; that of Constantinople 
about thirteen. In imitation of Rome it was 
divided into fourteen regions, the thirteenthbeing 
Galata, across the Golden Horn. It continued 
the capital of the Roman empire in the East 
until its capture by the Turks in 1453. An 
account of its history does not fall within the 
scope of this work. 

C. 

Cabalia or -is (Ka^a\la, Ka0aXls : Kaj3a- 
Acvs, KafidXios), a small district of Asia Minor, 
between Phrygia, Caria, Lycia, and Pamphylia : 
the chief town was Cibyra (Hdt. iii. 90 ; Strab. 
p. 631 ; Plin. v. 27). 

Cabasa or -us (KiQaaos : Kafitxrirris), the 
chief city of the Nomos Cabasites, in Lower 
Egypt. 





USTANTf^NOPOLIS S.Sophla^^ ^ 



P~R"0-P-0^N T I S 



S E A 



O F 



.1/ A R MARA 




Walker £r Boutall >c. 



Plan of Byzantium and Constantlnopolls. 



Bosporus, founded by the Megarians, B.C. 658, 
is said to have derived its name from Byzas, 
the leader of the colony and the son of Posei- 
don. It was said that the oracle of Apollo told 
them to build their city opposite 1 the city of the 
blind,' i.e. Clialcedon, whose founders had 
blindly neglected the better site of Byzantium 
(Hdt. iv. 144 ; Strab. p. 320; Tac. Ann. xii. 68 ; 
Diod. iv. 49). It was situated on two hills, 
was forty stadia in circumference, and its acro- 
polis stood on the site of the present seraglio. 
Its favourable position, commanding as it did 
the entrance to the Euxine, soon rendered it a 
place of great commercial importance. It was 
taken by Pausanias after the battle of Plataea, 
B.C. 479 ; and it was alternately in the posses- 
sion of the Athenians and Lacedaemonians 
during the Peloponnesian war. The Lacedae- 
monians were expelled from Byzantium by 
Thrasybulus in 390, and the city remained inde- 
pendent for some years. It was besieged by 
Philip in 340. and relieved by the Athenian 
fleet under Chares. The Athenians attached 



Cabellio (Cnnttillon), a town of Caul on the 
Druentia between Vapincum (Gap) and Are- 
late (Aries). 

Cabillonum (Chdlons-sur-Saone), a town of 
the Aedui on the Arar (Saone) in Gallia Lug- 
dunensis, a place of some commercial activity 
when Caesar was in Gaul (B.C. 58) (Strab. p. 
192 ; Caes. B. G. vii. 42 ; Amm. xv. 11). 

Cabira (to. Ka/3eipa: Niksor), a place in Pon- 
tus (Polemoniacus) on the borders of Armenia, 
B little NE. of Comana, and on the road from 
Amasen to Colonia ; a frequent residence of 
Mithridates, who was defeated here by Lucullus, 
B.C. 71. Pompey made it a city, and named it 
Diospolis. Under Augustus it was called 
Sebaete (Strab. p. 557), afterwards Neocaesarea. 

C'abiri (Kafittpot), mystic divinities of the 
Pelasgi (Hdt. ii. 51) ; i.e. of some tribeB of the 
Greek race dating from prehistoric times. 
They were chiefly worshipped in the islands of 
the North Aegaean, in Lemnos and Imbros, 
and especially in Samothrnce, but also on the 
coabts of Asia Minor, at Thebes, Andania, and 

N 



178 



CABYLE 



CADITIS 



even in parts of Western Europe (Strab. pp. 
198, 472). They seem to have formed a group 
of four deities, a mother goddess, Axieros, from 
whom were born the god Axiocersos and the 
goddess Axiocersa, whose son Casmilos was 
the orderer of the universe. The Pelasgi are 
said to have offered tithes to them for fruitful 
harvests and escape from famine (Dionys. i. 
'I'd) ; and their mysteries as celebrated in Samo- 
thrace (into which Cicero may perhaps have 
been initiated : see N. D. i. 42,119) revealed the 
manner of the creation of the world with which 
the Cabiri themselves were concerned. From 
similarity in their functions, as well as from 
some resemblance in their mysteries to the 
Eleusinia, these deities have been identified 
with various Greek and Eoman deities: Axi- 
eros with Demeter (but also with Aphrodite 
and with Juno), Axiocersos with Hades but 
also with Zeus, Apollo, and Dionysus), Axio- 
cersa with Persephone (but also with Athene), 
Casmilos with Eros and with Hermes. In the 
1 Chablais' sculptures of the Vatican the figures 
of Apollo, Aphrodite, and Eros are represented 
at the base of the statues of Axiocersos, Aphro- 
dite, and Eros respectively. A different view 
of the Cabiri is presented in the traditions 
which make them two youthful deities or 
avcucres, compared to the Dioscuri and often so 
regarded. One of these was slain by the other, 
by which myth it is sought to explain the single 
Cabirus deity worshipped at Thessalonica. 
This myth (which recalls certain features in 
the myth of Dionysus Zagreus, of Adonis, and 
of Attis) is further varied by the representation 
of three youthful Cabiri, one of whom is slain by 
his two brothers and afterwards recalled to life. 
This murder and the resurrection are repre- 
sented on Etruscan mirrors. With the Cabiric 
rites of Etruria the Romans seem to have con- 
nected alike the Penates and the Dioscuri. 

Cabyle [KajivTvq), a town on the river Tonsus 
in Thrace (Strab. p. 330). 

Cacus, son of Vulcan, was a huge giant, who 
inhabited a cave on Mt. Aventine, and plun- 
dered the surrounding country. When Hercules 
came to Italy with the oxen which he had 
taken from Geryon in Spain, Cacus stole part 
of the cattle while the hero slept ; and, as he 
dragged the animals into his cave by their tails, 
it was impossible to discover their traces. But 
when the remaining oxen passed by the cave, 
those within began to bellow, and were thus 
discovered, whereupon Cacus was slain by 
Hercules. In honour of his victory, Hercules 
dedicated the ara maxima, which continued 
to exist ages afterwards in Rome. (Ov. Fast. 
i. 543 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 185 ; Liv. i. 7.) 

Cacyparis (KaKvirapis or Ka.ic6Tra.pis : Cassi- 
MU), a river in Sicily, S. of Syracuse. 

Cadena (to KdS-qva), a city of Cappadocia, 
residence of king Archelaiis (Strab. p. 537). 

Cadi (KdSot : KaSrjvos : Gsdiz), a city of 
Phrygia Epictetus, on the borders of Lydia 
(Strab. p. 576 ; Prop. v. 6, 8). 

Cadmea. [Thebae.] 

Cadmus (Kdfifios). 1. Son of Agenor, king of 
Phoenicia, and of Telephassa, and brother of 
Europa. When Europa was carried off by Zeus 
to Crete, Agenor sent Cadmus in search of his 
sister, enjoining him not to return without her. 
Unable to find her after journeying to Crete, 
Rhodes, Thasos, and Thera, where local tradi- 
tions about him were preserved, Cadmus settled 
in Thrace ; but having consulted the oracle at 
Delphi, he was commanded by the sod to follow 
a cow of a certain kind, and to build a town on 



the spot where the cow should sink down with 
fatigue. Cadmus found the cow in Phocis and 
followed her into Boeotia, where she sank down 
on the spot on which Cadmus built Cadmea, 
afterwards the citadel of Thebes. (Diod. v. 58 ; 
Apollod. ii. 1, 3 ; Hdt. ii. 44, iv. 147 ; Paus. iii. 
1, ix. 12.) Intending to sacrifice the cow to 
Athene, he sent some persons to the neighbour- 
ing well of Ares to fetch water. This well was 
guarded by a dragon, a son of Ares, who killed 
the men sent by Cadmus. Thereupon Cadmus 
slew the dragon, and, on the advice of Athene, 
sowed the teeth of the monster, out of which 
armed men grew up called Sparti or the Sown. 
who killed each other, with the exception of 
five, who were the ancestors of the Thebans. 
(Eur. Plwen. 656 ; Pind. Pyth. iii. 167, Isthm. 
vi. 13 ; Ov. Met. iii. 32.) Athene assigned to 
Cadmus the government of Thebes, and Zeus 
gave him Harmoma, the daughter of Ares and 
Aphrodite, for his wife. The marriage solemnity 
was honoured by the presence of all the Olym- 
pian gods in the Cadmea. Cadmus gave to 
Harmonia the famous peplus and necklace 
which he had received from Hephaestus or 
from Europa, and he became by her the father 
of Autonoe, Ino, Semele, Agave, and Polydorus. 
Subsequently Cadmus and Harmonia quitted 
Thebes, and went to the Enchelians; this 
people chose Cadmus as their king, and with 
his assistance they conquered the Illyrians. 
After this, Cadmus had another son, whom he 
called Illyrius (Hdt. v. 57, 61; Eur. Bacch. 
1314 ; Apollod. iii. 5. 4 ; Paus. ix. 5 ; Strab. p. 
326). In the end, Cadmus and Harmonia were 
changed into serpents, and were removed by 
Zeus to Elysium. — Cadmus is said to have 
introduced into Greece from Phoenicia or Egypt, 
an alphabet of sixteen letters, and to have been 
the first who worked the mines of Mount Pan- 
gaeon in Thrace. The story of Cadmus seems 
to suggest the establislnnent of a Phoenician 
settlement in Greece, by means of which the 
alphabet, the art of mining, and civilization, 
came into the country. The name Cadmus is 
taken to represent a Phoenician word Cadmon, 
meaning ' the Oriental.' Some have preferred 
to connect the stories of Cadmus with the 
Cabiri, and to identify his name with Casmilos 
[Cabiki]. — 2 Of Miletus, a son of Pandion, the 
earliest Greek historian or logographer, lived 
about B.C. 540. He wrote a work on the founda- 
tion of Miletus and the earliest history of 
Ionia generally, in four books. (Strab. p. 18.) 
Fragments in Muller, Fragm. Hist. Qraec. 

Cadmus (KdS/xos). (Khonas Dagh), a moun- 
tain in Caria, on the borders of Phrygia. A 
river of the same name flowed into the Lycus 
(Strab. p. 578). 

Cadurci, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, in 
the country now called Querci (a corruption of 
Cadurci), were celebrated for their manufac- 
tories of linen, coverlets, &c. Their capital 
was Divona, afterwards Civitas Cadurcorum, 
now Cahors, where are the remains of a Roman 
amphitheatre and of an aqueduct. A part of 
the town still bears the name les Cadurcas 
(Caes. B.G. vii. 4, 64, 75). 

Cadusii (KaSovcrioi), or Gelae (r^Aai), a. 
powerful Scythian tribe in the mountains SW. 
of the Caspian, on the borders of Media Atro- 
patene. Under the Medo-Persian empire they 
were troublesome neighbours, but the Syrian 
kings reduced them to tributary auxiliaries. 
(Strab. pp. 506, 525 ; Diod. xv. 18 ; Polyb. v. 79.) 

Cadytis (KdSuris). according to Herodotus, a 
great city of the Syrians of Palestine, not much. 



CAECILIA 



CAENAE 



179 



smaller than Sardis, was taken by Neeho, king 
of Egypt, after his defeat of the ' Syrians ' at 
Magdolus. Some have thought it to be the 
Greek form of a name Kadesh (i.e. the holy) 
given to Jerusalem ; but Herodotus seems to 
reckon it among the seaports of Palestine ; and 
it is more probable that the Cadytis of Hero- 
dotus = Gaza, of which name Klazita and 
Ghuzza are other forms (Hdt. ii. 159, hi. 5). 

Caecilia. [Xanaquil.] 

Caecilia Metella. [Metella.] 

Caecilia Gens, plebeian, claimed descent 
from Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste, or 
Caecas, the companion of Aeneas. Most of the 
Caecilii are mentioned under their cognomens, 
Bassus, Hetellus, Rufus : for others see 
below. 

Caecilius. 1. Q., a wealthy Somen eques, 
who adopted his nephew Atticus in his will, 
and left him a fortune of ten millions of 
sesterces. — 2. Caecilius Calactinus, a Greek 
rhetorician at Rome in the time of Augustus, 
was a native of Cale Acte in Sicily (whence his 
name Calactinus). He wrote a great number of 
works on rhetoric, grammar, and historical 
subjects, which have perished. — 3. Caecilius 
Statius, a Roman comic poet, the immediate 
predecessor of Terence, was by birth an Insu- 
brian Gaul, and a native of Milan. Being a 
slave he bore the servile appellation of Statius, 
which was afterwards, probably when he 
received his freedom, converted into a sort of 
cognomen, and he became known as Caecilius 
Statius. He died B.C. 168. We have the titles 
of forty of his dramas, but only a few fragments 
of them are preserved. They belonged to the 
class of Palliatae, or adaptations of the works 
of Greek writers of the New Comedy. Caecilius 
ranked high as a writer of comedy with the 
Romans, and apparently as a critic, since 
Terence is said to have trusted to his verdict 
when he began to write (Suet, de Vir. Illust.; cf. 
Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 59 ; Gell. iv. 20 ; Cic. Brut. 74, 
258). Cicero finds fault with his Latinity (ad 
Att. vii. 3, de Opt. Gen. Or. 1). 

Caecilia, the name of a family of the Etrus- 
can city of Volaterrae, probably derived from 
the river Caecina, which flows by the town. — 
1. A. Caecina, whose cause Cicero pleaded in 
an action to recover property from which he 
had been ejected, b. c. 69. — 2. A. Caecina, son 
of the preceding, published a libellous work 
against Caesar, and was in consequence sent 
into exile after the battle of Pharsalia, b.c. 48. 
He afterwards joined the Pompeians in Africa, 
and upon the defeat of the latter in 40, he 
surrendered to Caesar, who spared his life. 
Cicero wrote several letters to Caecina, and 
speaks of him as a man of ability. Caecina 
was the author of a work on the Etrusca 
Disciptina. (Suet. Jul. 75 ; Sen. Q.N. ii. 39, 49, 
56; Cic. ad Fain. vi. 0, 9.) — 3. A. Caecina 
Volaterranus assisted Oeiavianus in his nego- 
tiations with Antony B.C. 41, and was much 
valued by him (Appian, B. C. v. 60 ; Cic. ad Att. 
xvi. 8).— 4. A. Caecina Severus, a distinguished 
general in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. 
He was governor of Moesia in a.d. 6, when he 
fought against the two Batos in the neighbour- 
ing provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia. 
[Bato.] In 15 he fought as the legate of 
Germanicus, against Arminiua, and in conse- 
quence of his success received the insignia of a 
triumph. (Tac. Ann. i. 81, 63, iii. 33.) — 5. Cae- 
cina Tuscus. son of Nero's nurse, appointed 
governor of Egypt by Nero, but banished for 
making use of the baths which had been erected 



in anticipation of the emperor s arrival in 
Egypt. He returned from banishment on the 
death of Nero, a.d. 68. — 6. A. Caecina Alienus, 
I was quaestor in Baetica in Spain at Nero's 
death, and was one of the foremost in joining 
| the party of Galba. He was rewarded by Galba 
with the command of a legion in Upper Ger- 
many ; but, being detected in embezzling some 
of the public money, the emperor ordered him 
to be prosecuted. Caecina, in revenge, joined 
Vitellius, and was sent by the latter into Italy 
with an army of 30,000 men towards the end of 
68. After ravaging the country of the Helvetii, 
he crossed the Alps by the pass of the Great St. 
Bernard, and laid siege to Placentia, from 
which he was repulsed by the troops of Otho, 
who had succeeded Galba. Subsequently he 
was joined by Fabius Valens, another general 
of Vitellius, and their united forces gained 
a victory over Otho's army at Bedriacum. 
Vitellius having thus gained the throne, 
Caecina w r as made consul on the 1st of Septem- 
ber, 69, and was shortly afterwards sent against 
Antonius Primus, the general of Vespasian. 
But he again proved a traitor, and espoused the 
cause of Vespasian. Some years afterwards (79), 
he conspired against Vespasian, and was slain 
by order of Titus. (Tac. Hist. i. 53, 61, iii. 13; 
Dio Cass. lxiv. 7, lxvi. 16; Suet. Tit. 6.) — 
7. Decius Albinus Caecina, a Roman satirist 
in the time of Arcadius and Honorius. 

Caecinus (Kcukii>6s or KaiKivos), a river 
in Bruttium flowing into the Sinus Scyla- 
cius by the town Caecinum (Thuc. iii. 103. 
Paus. vi. 6, 4). 

Caeciibus Ager, a marshy district in Latium, 
bordering on the gulf of Amyclae close to Fundi, 
and including the marshy district which sur- 
rounded Tarracina, celebrated for its wine 
(Caecubum) in the age of Horace (Hor. Od. i. 
20, ii. 14 ; cf. Strab. p. 234). In the time of Pliny 
(xiv. 01) the reputation of this wine was entirely 
gone. (See Diet, of Ant. s.v. Vinum.) 

Caeculus, an ancient Italian hero, son of 
Vulcan, is said to have founded Praeneste. 
In the region of Praeneste there were two 
brothers Depidii (some have read this into 
Indigites), living as herdsmen. As their 
sister sat by the fireside in their hut, a 
spark fell upon her lap, and she became the 
[ mother of Caeculus. The child grew up as a 
! robber, and eventually collected a number of 
shepherds and founded Praeneste. When a 
| proof of his divine origin was demanded, Vulcan 
sent a flame of fire. It is clearly a local Prae- 
' nestine story based upon the custom of a state- 
i hearth established at the foundation of cities, 
I the fratres Depidii being probably regarded as 
the Lares of Praeneste ; there are also points 
I of resemblance to the stories of Romulus and 
| Servius Tullius (Verg. Aen. vii. 679, x. 544 ; 
I Serv. ad Aen. vii. 681). 

Caeles or Caelius Vibenna, the leader of an 
Etruscan army, is said to have come to 
Home in the reign either of Romulus or of 
Tarquinius Priscus, and to have settled on the 
hill called after him the Caelian. 

Caelia (KaiAi'a: Ceglie), a town in Apulia 
| between Canusium and Barium on the road to 
Brundusium (Strab. p. 282). 

Caellum (Ceglie), a town in Calabria about 
25 miles west of Brundusium. 

Caelius or Coelius. 1. Antipater. [Anti- 
pater.] — 2. Aurelianus. f Aurei.ianuh.J — 
3. Caldus. [Cai.dub.] — 4. Bufus. [Rufus.J 
Caelius or Coelius Mons. [Roma.] 
Caenae (Kaicai : Senn), a city of Mesopo- 

n 2 



180 



CAENE 



CAESAR 



tamia, on the W. bank of the Tigris, oppo- 
site the mouth of the Lycus (Xen. Anab. ii. 
4, 28). 

Caene, Caenepolis, or Neapolis (Kcuci; ttoMs, 
Ne'ij w6\is: Keneli), a city of Upper Egypt, on 
the right bank of the Nile, a little below Coptos 
and opposite to Tentyra (Hdt. ii. 91). 

Caeneus (Kawevs), one of the Lapithae, son 
of Elatus, was originally a maiden named 
Caenis, who was beloved by Poseidon, and was 
by this god changed into a man, and rendered 
invulnerable. As a man he took part in the 
Argonautic expedition and the Calydonian 
hunt. In the battle between the Lapithae and 
the Centaurs at the marriage of Pirithous, he 
was buried by the Centaurs under a mass of 
trees, as they were unable to kill him, but he 
was changed into a bird. In the lower world 
Caeneus recovered his female form. (Verg. 
Aen. vi. 448; Ov. Met. xii. 172, 459.) 

Caeni or Caerrici, a Thracian people between 
the Black Sea and the Panysus. 

Caenina (Caeninensis), a town of the Sabines 
in Latium, whose king Acron carried on the 
first war against Rome (Liv. i. 10 ; Dionys. ii. 
35). 

Caenis. [Caeneus.] 

Caenys (Kaivvs: Canitello), a promontory of 
Bruttium opposite Sicily. 

Caeparius, M., of Tarracina, one of Catiline's 
conspirators : he escaped from the city, but was 
overtaken, and executed with the other con- 
spirators B.C. 63 (Sail. Cat. 47, 55). 

Caepio, Servilius. 1. Cn., consul b.c. 253, 
in the first Punic war, sailed with his colleague, 
C. Sempronius Blaesus, to the coast of Africa. 
— 2. Cn., curule aedile 207, praetor 205, and 
consul 203, when he fought against Hannibal 
near Croton in the S. of Italy. He died in the 
pestilence in 174. (Liv. xli. 26.) — 3. Cn., son of 
No. 2, curule aedile 179, praetor 174, with Spain 
as his province, and consul in 169. — 4. Q., son 
of No. 3, consul 142, was adopted by Q. Pabius 
Maximus. [Maximus.] — 5. Cn., son of No. 3, 
consul 141, and censor 125. — 6. Cn., son of No. 
3, consul 140, carried on war against Viriathus 
in Lusitania, and induced two of the friends of 
Viriathus to murder the latter. — 7. Q., son of 
No. 6, was consul 106, when he proposed a law 
for restoring the judicia to the senators, of 
which they had been deprived by the Sem- 
pronia lex of C. Gracchus. He was afterwards 
sent into Gallia Narbonensis to oppose the 
Cimbri, and was in 105 defeated by the Cimbri, 
along with the consul Cn. Mallius or Manlius. 
80,000 soldiers and 40,000 camp-followers are 
said to have perished. Shortly before this cata- 
strophe he had sacked Tolosa, which had revolted 
to the Cimbri, and plundered a temple, for 
which his disaster was regarded as a punish- 
ment ; and the proverb arose ' Aurum Tolosa- 
num habet ' (Strab. p. 18S ; Gell. iii. 9 ; Liv. Ep. 
67; Val. Max. iv. 7). Caepio survived the 
battle, but ten years afterwards (95) he was 
brought to trial by the tribune C. Norbanus on 
account of his misconduct in this war. He was 
condemned and cast into prison, where accord- 
ing to one account he died, but it was more 
generally stated that he escaped from prison, 
and lived in exile at Smyrna. — 8. Q., quaestor 
urbanus 100, opposed the lex frumentaria of 
Saturninus. In 91 he opposed the measures of 
Drusus, and accused two of the most distin- 
guished senators, M. Scaurus and L. Philippus. 
He fell in battle in the Social War, 90. (Appian, 
B. C. i_44.) 

CaepiO, Fannius, conspired with Murena 



against Augustus b.c. 22, and was put to death 
(Suet. Aug, 19, Tib. 8). 

Caere (Caerites, Caeretes, Caeretani : Cerve- 
tri), called by the Greeks Agylla {AyvAAa: 
Agyllina urbs, Verg. Aen. vii. 652), a city in 
Etruria situated on a small river (Caeritis 
amnis), W. of Veii and 50 stadia from the coast. 
It was an ancient Pelasgic city, the capital of 
the cruel Mezentius, and was afterwards one of 
the twelve Etruscan cities, with a territory ex- 
tending apparently as far as the Tiber. In early 
times Caere was closely allied with Rome ; and 
when the latter city was taken by the Gauls, 
b.c. 390, Caere gave refuge to the Vestal 
virgins. In 353 Caere joined Tarquinii in 
making war against Rome, but was obliged to 
purchase a truce with Rome for 100 years by 
the forfeiture of half of its territory, and received 
only the civitas sine suffragio, i.e. an incom- 
plete Roman citizenship, without the privilege 
of electing or being elected * (Gell. xvi. 13 ; 
Liv. vii. 70). From this time Caere gradually 
sank in importance, and was probably destroyed 
in the wars of Marius and Sulla. It was 
restored by Drusus, who made it a municipium ; 
and it continued to exist till the 13th century, 
when part of the inhabitants removed to a site 
about three miles off, on which they bestowed the 
same name (now Ceri), while the old town was 
distinguished by the title of Vetus or Caere 
Vetere, corrupted into Cervetri, which is a 
small village with 100 or 200 inhabitants. 
Here have been discovered, within the last few 
years, the tombs of the ancient Caere, many of 
them in a state of complete preservation. — The 
country round Caere produced wine and a great 
quantity of corn, and in its neighbourhood were 
warm baths which were much frequented. 
Caere used as its seaport the town of Pykgi. 

Caerellia, a Roman lady frequently men- 
tioned in the correspondence of Cicero as 
distinguished for her acquirements and her 
love of philosophy (ad Fain. xiii. 72 ; ad Att. 
xii. 51, xiii. 21, 22, xiv. 19, xv. 1, 26 ; cf. Dio 
Cass. xlvi. 18). 

Caesar, the name of a patrician family of the 
Julia gens, which traced its origin to lulus, the 
son of Aeneas. [Julia Gens.] It maybe con- 
nected with caesaries, and may have marked 
a personal peculiarity in the man who first 
adopted it. Pliny (vii. 47) derives it ' a caeso 
matris utero.' The name was assumed by Au- 
gustus as the adopted son of the dictator C. 
Julius Caesar, and was by Augustus handed 
down to his adopted son Tiberius. It continued 
to be used by Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, as 
members either by adoption or female descent 
of Caesar's family. Though the family be- 
came extinct with Nero, succeeding emperors 
still retained the name not only for themselves 
(e.g. Imperator Caesar Domitianus Augustus), 
but also to mark the members of the reigning 
house ; but when Hadrian adopted Aelius Verus, 
he allowed him to take the title of Caesar ; and 
from this time, while the title of Augustus con- 
tinued to be confined to the reigning prince, that 
of Caesar was granted also to the second person 
in the state, heir presumptive to the throne, but 
not to other members of the imperial family. 



* The Caerites appear to have been the first body of 
Roman citizens who did not enjoy the suffrage. Thus, 
when a Roman citizen was struck out of his tribe by 
the Censors and made an aerarian, he was said to 
become one of the Caerites, since he had lost the 
suffrage : hence we find the expressions in talmlas 
Caeritum referre aud aerai ium facere used as synony- 
mous. 



CAESAR 



181 



Caesar, Julius. 1. Sex., praetor b.c. 20b, 
with Sicily as his province I Li v. xxvii. 21). — 
2. Sex., curule aedile, 165, when the Hecyra of 
Terence was exhibited at the Megalesian games, 
and consul 157. — 3. L.. consul 90. fought against 
the Socii, and in the course of the same year 
proposed the Lex Julia de Civitate, which 
granted the citizenship to the Latins and the 
Socii who had remained faithful to Rome. 
Caesar was censor in 89 ; he belonged to the 
aristocratical part}', and was put to death by 
Marius in 87. (Appian, B. C. i. 40, 72; Cic. de 
Or.iii.3,9.) — 4, C, surnamed Stkabo Vopiscus, 
brother of No. 3, was curule aedile 90, was a 
candidate for the consulship in 88, and was 
slain along with his brother by Marius in 87. 
He was one of the chief orators and poets of 
his age, and is one of the speakers in Cicero's 
dialogue De Oratore. Wit was the chief cha- 
racteristic of his oratory ; but he was deficient 
in power and energy. The names of two of his 
tragedies are preserved, the Adrastus and Tec- 
messa (Vol. Max. v. 3, 3). — 5. L., son of No. 3, 
and uncle by his sister Julia of M. Antony the 
triumvir. He was consul 04, and belonged, like 
his father, to the aristocratical party. He ap- 
pears to have deserted this party afterwards ; 
we find him in Gaul in 52 as one of the legates 
of C. Caesar, and he continued in Italy during 
the civil war (Caes. B. G. vii. 65, B. C. i. 8). 
After Caesar's death (44) he sided with the 
senate in opposition to his uncle Antony, and 
was in consequence proscribed by the latter in 
43, but obtained his pardon through the influ- 
ence of his sister Julia. — 6. L.. son of No. 5, I 
usually distinguished from his father by the 
addition to his name of filius or adolescens. 
He joined Pompey on the breaking out of the 
civil war in 49, and was sent by Pompey to 
Caesar with proposals of peace. In the course 
of the same year, he crossed over to Africa, 
where the command of Clupea was entrusted to j 
him. In 46 he served as proquaestor to Cato 
in Utica, and after the death of Cato he sur- 
rendered to the dictator Caesar, and was shortly 
afterwards put to death, but probably not by 
the dictator's orders (Dio Cass, xliii. i2; Suet. 
Jul. 75). — 7. C, the father of the dictator, was 
praetor, but in what year is uncertain, and died 
suddenly at Pisae in 84 (Suet. Jul. 1). — 8. Sex., 
brother of No. 7, consul HI. — 9. C, the Dictator, 
son of No. 7 and of Aurelia, is usually con- 
sidered to have been bom in B.C. 100 (July 12th), 
since we are told by several writers that he had 
nearly completed his 56th year at the time of 
his murder, 15th of March, 44 (Suet. Jul. 88 ; 
Plut. Caes. 69 ; Appian, B. C. ii. 149 ; cf. Veil. ; 
ii. 41); but Mommsen gives strong reasons for 
fixing the year of his birth in B.C. 102, since 
otherwise Caesar would have filled all the curule 
offices two years before the legal period, and 
there is no mention that he did so. The nu- 
meral LII on tin- denarii struck at the begin- 
ning of the civil war will, according to this 
view, denote his age at the time. He was 
taught in his boyhood by a tutor of Gallic birth 
named M. Antoniu-, Gnipho, whose school of 
rhetoric Cicero is said to have attended after 
he was fully grown up (Suet, de Gramm. 7). 
Caesar was closely connected with the popular 
party by the marriage of his aunt Julia with 
the great Marius; and in 83. though only 17 
years of age, he married Cornelia, the daughter 
of L. Cinna, the chief leader of the Marian 
party. Sulla commanded him to put away his 
wife, but he refused to obey him, and was con- 
sequently proscribed. He concealed himself 



for some time in the country of the Sabines, 
till his friends obtained his pardon from Sulla, 
I who is said to have observed, when they pleaded 
his youth, ' that that boy would some day or 
another be the ruin of the aristocracy, for that 
there were many Mariuses in him.' Seeing 
| that he was not safe at Rome, he went to Asia, 
where he served his first campaign under M. 
J Minucius Thermus. He was sent by Minucius 
to Xicomedes in Bithynia to fetch the fleet, and 
after his return, at the capture of Mytilene (80), 
was rewarded with a civic crown for saving the 
life of a fellow-soldier. On the death of Sulla 
in 78, he returned to Rome, and in the following 
year gained renown as an orator, though he was 
only 22 years of age, by his prosecution of Cn. 
Dolabella on account of extortion in his pro- 
vince of Macedonia. He did not, however, win 
his case in this trial, nor in a similar prosecu- 
tion of C. Antonius ; and to perfect himself in 
oratory, he resolved to study in Rhodes under 
Apollonius Molo, but on his voyage thither he 
was captured by pirates, and only obtained his 
liberty by a ransom of 50 talents. At Miletus 
he manned some vessels, overpowered the pi- 
rates, and conducted them as prisoners to Per- 
gamus, where he crucified them, a punishment 
with which he had frequently threatened them 
I in sport when he was their prisoner (Suet. Jul. 
4 ; Plut. Caes. 2). He then repaired to Rhodes, 
where he studied under Apollonius, and shortly 
afterwards returned to Rome. He now devoted 
all his energies to acquire the favour of the 
people. He was regarded as the rising man in 
the democratic party ; became quaestor in 68, 
and aedile in 05, when he spent enormous sums 
upon the public games and buildings. His 
liberality increased his favour with the people, 
but also caused him to contract large debts. 
He was said by many to have been concerned 
in Catiline's conspiracy in 63, and the correct 
conclusion from the evidence is probably that 
both Caesai and Crassus were privy to it, 
Caesar was deeply involved in debt, and more- 
over the democratic party was not unlikely to 
hope for the success of the anarchists as a 
counterpoise to the military power of Pompey. 
Both Crassus and Caesar had supported Cati- 
line as candidate for the consulship : Suetonius 
directly implicates Caesar in the conspiracy, 
and Plutarch (Crass. 13 ; cf. Caes. 8) tells us 
that Cicero, in his later life, stated Caesar to 
have been guilty, though his name was sup- 
pressed when the senate received the informa- 
tion. As regards the account in Sallust, it 
must be recollected that he was strongly preju- 
diced in Caesar's favour. In the debate in the 
senate on the punishment of the conspirators, 
Caesar opposed their execution in an able speech, 
which made such an impression that their lives 
would have been spared but for the speech of 
Cato in reply. In the course of this year (63), 
Caesar was elected Pontif. x Maximus, defeating 
the other candidates, Q. Catulus and Serviliua 
Isauricus, who had both been consuls, and were 
two of the most illustrious men in the state. 
He had told his mother that if he did not suc- 
ceed in this election he would leave Rome for 
ever. In 62 Caesar was praetor, and took an 
active part in supporting the tribune Metellus 
in opposition to liis colleague Cato ; in conse- 
quence of the tumults that ensued, the senate 
suspended both Caesar and Metellus from their 
offices, but were obliged to reinstate him in his 
dignity after a few days. In the following year 
(Bl) Caesar went as propraetor into Further 
Spain, where he gained victories over the Lusi. 



182 



CAESAR 



taniane. On his return to Rome, he became a 
candidate for the consulship, and was elected 
notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of 
the aristocracy, who succeeded, however, in 
carrying the election of Bibulus as his colleague, 
who was one of the warmest supporters of the 
aristocracy. After his election, but before he 
entered upon the consulship, he formed that 
coalition with Pompey and M. Crassus, usually 
known by the name of the first triumvirate. 
(It was, however, a secret combination, not an 
open assumption of power.) Pompey had be- 
come estranged from the aristocracy, since the 
senate had opposed the ratification of his acts 
in Asia and an assignment of lands which he 
had promised to his veterans. Crassus, in con- 
sequence of his immense wealth, was one of the 
most powerful men at Rome, but was a personal 
enemy of Pompey. They were reconciled by 
means of Caesar, and the three entered into 
an agreement for mutual support to aid each 
other in political measures and in obtaining 
commands and provinces. In 59 Caesar was 
consul, and being supported by Pompey and 
Crassus he was able to carry all his measures. 
Bibulus, from whom the senate had expected 
so much, could offer no effectual opposition, 
and, after making a vain attempt to resist 
Caesar, shut himself up in his own house, and 
did not appear again in public till the expiration 
of his consulship. Caesar's first measure was 
an agrarian law, by which the rich Campanian 
plain was divided among the poorer citizens. 
He next gained the favour of the equites by 
relieving them from one- third of the sum which 
they had agreed to pay for the farming of the 
taxes in Asia. He then obtained the confirma- 
tion of Pompey's acts. Having thus gratified 
the people, the equites, and Pompey, he was 
easily able to obtain for himself the provinces 
which he wished. By a vote of the people, 
proposed by the tribune Vatinius, the provinces 
of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum were granted 
to Caesar with three legions for five years ; and 
the senate added to his government the pro- 
vince of Transalpine Gaul, with another legion, 
for five years also, as they saw that a bill would be 
proposed to the people for that purpose, if they 
did not grant the province themselves. Caesar 
foresaw that the struggle between the different 
parties at Rome must eventually be terminated 
by the sword, and he had therefore resolved to 
obtain an army, which he might attach to him- 
self by victories and rewards. . In the course of 
the same year Caesar united himself more 
closely to Pompey by giving him his daughter 
Julia in marriage. During the next nine years 
Caesar was occupied with the subjugation of 
Gaul. He conquered the whole of Transalpine 
Gaul, which had hitherto been independent of 
the Romans, with the exception of the SE. part 
called Provincia ; he twice crossed the Rhine, 
and twice landed in Britain, which had been 
previously unknown to the Romans. — In his first 
campaign (58) Caesar conquered the Helvetii, 
who had emigrated from Switzerland with the 
intention of settling in Gaul. He next defeated 
Ariovistus, a German king, who had taken pos- 
session of part of the territories of the Aedui 
and Sequani, and pursued him as far as the 
Rhine. At the conclusion of the campaign 
Caesar went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to 
the civil duties of his province and to keep up 
his communication with the various parties at 
Rome. During the whole of his campaigns in 
Gaul, he spent the greater part of the winter in 
Cisalpine Gaul. — In his second campaign (57; 



Caesar carried on war with the Belgae, who 
dwelt in the NE. of Gaul between the Sequana 
(Seine) and the Rhine, and after a severe 
struggle completely subdued them. — Caesar's 
third campaign in Gaul (56) did not commence 
till late in the year. He was detained some 
months in the N. of Italy by the state of affairs 
at Rome. At Luca (Lucca) he had interviews 
with most of the leading men at Rome, among 
others with Pompey and Crassus, who visited 
him in April. He made arrangements with 
them for the continuance of their power ; it was 
agreed between them that Crassus and Pompey 
should be the consuls for the following year, 
that Crassus should have the province of Syria, 
Pompey the two Spains, and that Caesar'sgovern- 
ment, which would expire at the end of 54, 
should be prolonged for five years after that date. 
Caesar's main object just now was to finish the 
work which he had begun in Gaul, and he prob- 
ably always looked to his troops trained in 
that war as a support if needed against his 
rivals. After making these arrangements he 
crossed the Alps, and carried on war with the 
Veneti and the other states in the NW. of Gaul, 
who had submitted to Crassus, Caesar's legate, 
in the preceding year, but who had now risen 
in arms against the Romans. They were de- 
feated and obliged to submit to Caesar, and 
during the same time Crassus conquered Aqui- 
tania. Thus, in three campaigns, Caesar subdued 
the whole of Gaul ; but the people made several 
attempts to recover their independence ; and it 
was not till their revolts had been again and 
again put down by Caesar, and the flower of 
the nation had perished in battle, that they 
learnt to submit to the Roman yoke. — In his 
fourth campaign (55) Caesar crossed the Rhine in 
order to strike terror into the Germans, but he 
only remained eighteen days on the further side of 
the river. It is impossible rightly to condone, 
as some historians have tried to do, his slaughter 
of the Usipetes and Tencteri in this campaign. 
Late in the summer he invaded Britain, but 
more with the view of obtaining some knowledge 
of the island from personal observation than 
with the intention of permanent conquest at 
present. The places of his departure and land- 
ing are still subjects of dispute. It is on the 
whole most probable that Portus Itius from 
which he sailed is Wissant, and that he landed 
at Homney. Another view makes him start 
from Boulogne and land at Pevensey. The 
tides could not have taken him, as was once 
thought, to Deal. The late period of the 
year compelled him to return to Gaul after 
remaining only a short time in the island. In 
this year, according to his arrangement with 
Pompey and Crassus, who were now con- 
suls, his government of the Gauls and Illy- 
ricum was prolonged for five years, namely, 
from the 1st of January, 53, to the end of De- 
cember, 49. — Caesar's fifth campaign (54) was 
chiefly occupied with his second invasion of 
Britain. He landed in Britain at the same 
place as in the former year, defeated the Britons 
in a series of engagements, and crossed the 
Tamesis (Thames). The Britons submitted, 
and promised to pay an annual tribute; but 
their subjection was only nominal, for Caesar 
left no garrisons or military establishments be- 
hind him, and Britain remained nearly 100 years 
longer independent of the Romans. During 
the winter one of the Roman legions, which had 
been stationed under the command of T. 
Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta, in 
the country of the Eburones, was cut to pieces 



CAESAR 



18S 



by Ambiorix and the Eburones. Ambiorix 
then proceeded to attack the camp of Q. Cicero, 
the brother of the orator, who was stationed 
with a legion among the Nervii ; but Cicero 
defended himself with bravery, and was at 
length relieved by Caesar in person. In Sep- 
tember of this year, Julia, Caesar's only 
daughter and Pompey's wif e, died in childbirth. 
— In Caesar's sixth campaign (53) several of the 
Gallic nations revolted, but Caesar soon com- 1 
pelled them to return to obedience. The Tre- 
viri, who had revolted, had been supported by 
the Germans, and Caesar accordingly again I 
crossed the Rhine, but made no permanent 
conquests on the further side of the river. — 
Caesar's seventh campaign 152) was the most 
arduous of all. Almost all the nations of Gaul 
rose simultaneously in revolt, and the supreme 
command was given to Veroingetorix, by far 
the ablest general that Caesar had yet encoun- 
tered. Caesar, after taking Avaricum {Bourges), 
sustained his only reverse in Auvergne, where 
he failed to take Gergovia, and, after a repulse 
from its fortifications, was obliged to retreat ; 
but he was successful in the famous siege of 
Alesia which ended in the defeat of the Gauls 
and the surrender of Vercingetorix. It is to be 
regretted that he did not spare the life of the 
Gallic prince ; but it must be remembered that 
such clemency was contrary to Roman custom. 
— The eighth and ninth campaigns (51, 50) were 
employed in the final subjugation of Gaul, which 
had entirely submitted to Caesar by the middle 
of 50. Meanwhile, an estrangement had taken 
place between Caesar and Pompey. Caesar's 
brilliant victories had gained him fresh popu- 
larity and influence; and Pompey saw with 
ill-disguised mortification that he was becoming 
the second person in the state. He was thus 
led to join again the aristocrat ical party, by the 
assistance of which alone he could hope to re- 
tain his position as the chief man in the Roman 
state. The great object of this party was to 
deprive Caesar of his command, and to compel 
him to come to Rome as a private man to sue 
for the consulship. They would then have 
formally accused him, and as Pompey was in 
the neighbourhood of the city at the head of an 
army, the trial would have been a mockery, and 
his condemnation would have been certain. 
Caesar offered to resign his command if Pompey 
would do the same ; but the senate would not 
listen to any compromise. Accordingly, on the 
1st of January, 49, the senate passed a resolu- 
tion that Caesar should disband his army by a 
certain day, and that if he did not do so, he 
should be regarded as an enemy of the state. 
Two of the tribunes, M. Antonius and Q. 
Cassius, put their veto upon this resolution, 
but their opposition was set at nought, and they 
fled for refuge to Caesar's camp. Under the 
plea of protecting the tribunes, Caesar crossed 
the Rubicon, which separated his province from 
Italy, and marched towards Rome. Pompey, 
who had been entrusted by the senate with the 
conduct of the war, soon discovered how greatly 
he had overrated his own popularity and influ- 
ence. His own troops deserted to his rival in 
crowds ; town after town in Italy opened its 
gates to Caesar, whose march was like a trium- 
phal progress. The only town which offered 
Caesar any resistance was Corfinium, into whic h 
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus had thrown himself 
with a strong force ; but even this place was 
obliged to surrender at the end of a few days. 
Meanwhile, Pompey, with the magistrates and 
senators, had lied from Rome to Capua, and 



now, despairing of opposing Caesar in Italy, he 
marched from Capua to Brundusium, and on 
the 17th of March embarked for Greece. Caesar 
pursued Pompey to Brundusium, but he was 
unable to follow him to Greece for want of ships. 
He therefore marched back from Brundusium, 
and repaired to Rome, having thus in three 
months become master of the whole of Italy. 
After remaining a short time in Rome, he set 
out for Spain, where Pompey's legates, Afranius, 
Petreius, and Varro, commanded powerful 
armies. After defeating Afranius and Petreius, 
and receiving the submission of Varro, Caesar 
returned to Rome, where he had meantime been 
appointed dictator by the praetor M. Lepidus. 
He resigned the dictatorship at the end of eleven 
days, after holding the consular comitia, in 
which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia Isau- 
ricus were elected consuls for the next year. — 
At the beginning of January, 48, Caesar crossed 
over to Greece, where Pompey had collected a 
formidable army. At first the campaign was in 
Pompey's favour ; Caesar was repulsed before 
Dyrrhachium with considerable loss, and was 
obliged to retreat towards Thefsaly. In this 
country on the plains of Pharsalus or Pharsalia, 
a decisive battle was fought between the two 
armies on the 9th of August, 48, in which 
Pompey was completely defeated. Pompey fled 
to Egypt, pursued by Caesar, but he was mur- 
dered before Caesar arrived in the country. 
[PoMPErus.] His head was brought to Caesar, 
who turned away from the sight, shed tears at 
the untimely death of his rival, and put his 
murderers to death. When the news of the 
battle of Pharsalia reached Rome, various 
honours were conferred upon Caesar. He was 
appointed dictator for a whole year and consul 
for five years, and the tribunician power was 
conferred upon him for life. He declined the 
consulship, but entered upon the dictatorship 
in September in this year (48), and appointed 
M. Antony his master of the horse. On his 
arrival in Egypt, Caesar became involved in a 
war, which gave the remains of the Pompeian 
party time to rally. This war, usually called 
the Alexandrine war, arose from the determi- 
nation of Caesar that Cleopatra, whose fascina- 
tions had won his heart, should reign in common 
with her brother Ptolemy ; but this decision 
was opposed by the guardians of the young 
king, and the war which thus broke out was not 
brought to a close till the latter end of March, 
47. It was soon after this, that Cleopatra had 
a son by Caesar. [Caesarion.] Caesar re- 
turned to Rome through Syria and Asia Minor, 
and on his march through Pontus attacked 




Ohr., Cfiesnr In his fourth confiulhhlp wilh anffural 
lltaag ; nr., crocodile, ilh blgn of the conquered Egypt. 

Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates the Great, 
who had assisted Pompey. He defeated Phar- 
naces near Zela with such ease, that he informed 
the senate of his victory by the words, Veni, 
vidi, vici. (Cf. Bell. Alex. 77.) He reached 
Rome in September (47), was appointed consul 
for the following year, and before the end of 
September set sail for Africa, where Scipio and 
Cato had collected a large army. The war wan 
terminated by the defeat of the Pompeian army 



184 



CAESAR 



at the battle of Thapsus, on the 6th of April, 
46. Cato, unable to defend Utica, put an end 
to his own life. — Caesar returned to Borne in 
the latter end of July. He was now the undis- 
puted master of the Roman world, but he used 
his victory with the greatest moderation. Un- 
like other conquerors in civil wars, he freely 
forgave all who had borne arms against him, 
and declared that he would make no difference 
between Pompeians and Caesarians. His cle- 
mency was one of the brightest features of his 
character. At Rome all parties seemed to vie 
in paying him honour : the dictatorship was 




C. Julius Caesar, the Dictator. In this coin the natural 
baldness of his head is concealed by a crown of laurel. 
On the reverse the name of the quaestor L. Aem. Buca, 
who struck the coin, is surmounted by a palm as sign 
of victory, and a winged caduceus and joined hands as 
signs of peace. 

bestowed on him for ten years, and the censor- 
ship, under the new title of Praefectus Morum, 
for three years. He celebrated his victories in 
Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa by four magni- 
ficent triumphs. Caesar now proceeded to 
correct the various evils which had crept into 
the state, and to obtain the enactment of several 
laws suitable to the altered condition of the 
commonwealth. The most important of his 
measures this year (46) was the reformation of 
the calendar. As the Roman year was now three 
months in advance of the real time, Caesar 
added ninety days to this year, and thus made the 
whole year consist of 445 days ; and he guarded 
against a repetition of similar errors for the 
future by adapting the year to the sun's course, 
adding ten days to the original 355 days of the 
year. (Diet, of Ant. art. Calendarium.) — Mean- 
time the two sons of Pompey, Sextus and Cneius, 
had collected a new 
army in Spain. Caesar- 
set out for Spain 
towards the end of 
the year, and brought 
the war to a close by 
the battle of Munda, 
on the 17th of March, 
45, in which the 
enemy were only de- 
feated after a most 
obstinate resistance. 
Cn. Pompey was 
killed shortly after- 
wards, but Sextus 
made good his es- 
cape. Caesar reached 
Rome in Septem- 
ber, and entered 
Fresh honours awaited 
him. His portrait was to be struck on coins ; 
the month of Quintilis was to receive the name 
of Juli us in his honour ; he received the title 
of imperator for life; and the whole senate 
took an oath to watch over his safety. To re- 
ward his followers, Caesar increased the number 
of senators and of the public magistrates, so 
that there were to be sixteen praetors, forty 
quaestors, and six aediles. He began to revolve 
vast schemes for the benefit of the Roman world. 
Among his plans of internal improvement, he 




Bust of Julius Caesar. 
(British Museum.) 

the city in triumph. 



proposed to frame a digest of all the Roman 
laws, to establish public libraries, to drain the 
Pomptine marshes, to enlarge the harbour of 
Ostia, and to dig a canal through the isthmus 
of Corinth. To protect the boundaries of the 
Roman empire, he meditated expeditions 
against the Parthians and the barbarous tribes 
on the Danube, and had already begun to make 
preparations for his departure to the East. It 
is questionable whether he wished to assume 
the title of rex. Some have asserted that he 
intended to rule the Romans as Imperator, the 
non- Romans as Rex, but this story rests only 
on Plut. Cass. 60, 64, and Appian, B.C. ii. 110 : 
it is not apparently credited by Suetonius or 
Dio Cassius, and Cicero speaks of it as a fiction 
(de Div. ii. 54, 110). It is not like Caesar's 
clear-sighted wisdom to have desired it. How- 
ever that may be, Antony offered him the 
diadem in public on the festival of the Luper- 
calia (the 15th of February) ; the proposition 
was not favourably received by the people, and 
Caesar declined it. — But Caesar's power was not 
witnessed without envy. The Roman aristo- 
cracy, who had been so long accustomed to rule 
the Roman world, could ill brook a master, and 
resolved to remove him by assassination. The 
conspiracy against Caesar's life had been set 
afoot by Cassius, a personal enemy of Caesar's, 
and there were more than sixty persons privy to 
it. Many of these persons had been raised by 
Caesar to wealth and honour ; and some of them, 
such as M. Brutus, lived with him on terms of 
the most intimate friendship. It has been the 
practice of rhetoricians to speak of the murder 
of Caesar as a glorious deed, and to represent 
Brutus and Cassius as patriots ; but the mask 
ought to be stripped off these false patriots : 
their object in murdering Caesar was to gain 
power for themselves and their party. Caesar 
had many warnings of his approaching fate, but 
he disregarded them all, and fell by the daggers 
of his assassins on the Ides or 15th of March, 
44. At an appointed signal the conspirators 
surrounded him; Casca dealt the first blow, 
and the others quickly drew their swords and 
attacked him ; Caesar at first defended himself, 
but when he saw that Brutus, his friend and 
favourite, had also drawn his sword, he is said by 
some accounts to have exclaimed ' Et tu Brute ! ' 
or in Greek ' Ka! <rb t4kvov ! ' then to have pulled 
his toga over his face, and sunk pierced with 
wounds at the foot of Pompey's statue. Sue- 
tonius, however, who is the safest authority, 
expressly says that he uttered no word during 
the struggle, and that the exclamation attributed 
to him is an invention. — Julius Caesar was per- 
haps the greatest man of antiquity. He was 
gifted by nature with the most various talents, 
and was distinguished by the most extraordi- 
nary attainments in the most diversified pur- 
suits. He was at one and the same time a 
general, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, an 
orator, a poet, an historian, a philologer, a 
mathematician, and an architect. His main 
work as a statesman, to which all his efforts 
tended, was to reorganise the government of 
the state, which had. been fitted for the con- 
trol of Italy, but not for the rule of an empire. 
But he was not only a consummate statesman 
and general : during the whole of his busy life 
he found time for literary pursuits, and was the 
author of many works, the majority of which 
has been lost. The purity of his Latin and the 
clear-ness of his style were celebrated by the 
ancients themselves, and are conspicuous in his 
Commentarii, which are his only works that 



CAESAR 



CALABRIA 



185 



have come down to us. They relate the history 
of the first seven years of the Gallic war in seven 
books, and the history of the Civil war down 
to the commencement of the Alexandrine in 
three books. Neither of these works completed 
the history of the Gallic and Civil wars. The 
history of the former was completed in an eighth 
book, which is usually ascribed to Hirtius, and 
the history of the Alexandrine, African, and 
Spanish wars were written in three separate 
bco'.cs, which are also ascribed to Hirtius, but 
their authorship is uncertain. It is not impro- 
bable that Hirtius wrote the Belluni Alexan- 
drinum: the Bella »> Africa/nwm is attributed 
by some to Asinius Pollio, but without any strong 
reason. The lost works of Caesar are : — 1. Anti- 
cato, in reply to Cicero's Cato, which Cicero 
wrote in praise of Cato after the death of the 
latter in 46. 2. De Analogia, or, as Cicero ex- 
plains it, De Iiatione Latine loquendi, dedi- 
cated to Cicero, contained investigations on the 
Latin language, and was written by Caesar 
while he was crossing the Alps. 3. Libri Au- 
8picioru?n, or Auguralia. 4. De Astris. 5. Apo- 
phthegmata, or Dicta collectanea, a collec- 
tion of good sayings. 0. Poemata. Two of 
these written in his youth, Laudes Herculis 
and a tragedy Oedipus, were suppressed by 
Augustus. Among the numerous editions of 
Caesar's Commentaries may be noticed those by 
Nipperdey, Leipz. 1872 ; Diibner, Paris, 1807; 
Long, 1868 ; Kramer, 1877. 

C. Caesar and L. Caesar, the sons of 51. Vip- 
sanius Agrippa and Julia, and the grandsons of 
Augustus. L. Caesar died at Massilia, on his 




C. Caesar and L. Caesar, grandsons of Augustas. 

way to Spain, a.d. 2, and C. Caesar in Lycia, 
A.D. 4, of a wound which he had received in 
Armenia. 

Caesaraugusta I Zaragoza or Saragoxsa), 
more anciently Salduba, a town of the Edetani 
on the Iberus in Hispania Tarraconensis, was 
colonised by Augustus, B.C. 27. and was tin- si-at 
of a Conventus Juridicus, and a centre through 
which most of the great roads of Spain passed. 
It was the birthplace of the poet Prudentius. 

Caesarea ( Kanrapeia : Koiirapevs: Caesarien- 
sia), a name given to several cities of the Roman 
empire in honour of one or other of the Caesars. 
— 1. C. ad Argaeum, formerly Mazaca, also 
Eusebia i K. t) irphs t<£ 'Apyaitv, to MriTaKct, 
EiirrtBaa : Kesarieh, Ru.l, one of the oldest 
cities of Asia Minor, stood upon Mount Argaeus, 
about the centre of Cappadocia, in the district 
(praefectura) railed CillCia. It was the capital 
of Cappadocia, and when that country was 
made a Roman province by Tiberius (aj>. 18), it 
received the name of Cncsiiri-a i Strab. |>. ; 
Eutrop. vii. 11 ; Plin. vi. 81.— 2. C. Phihppi 01 
Paneas (K. v <l>iAiWou, N. T. ; K. Uavnas : 
.Baniat), a city of Palestine, at the S. foot of 
M. Hermon, mi the Jordan, just below its source 
[PANruM], built by Philip the tetrarch, B.C. 8; 
King Agrippa called it Neronias, but it soon lost 

this name. — 3. C. Palaestinae, formerly Stra- 
tonis Turris (2TpaTa>j>os Trvpyos : Kaisariych, , 



Ru.), an important city of Palestine, on the sea- 
coast, just above the boundary line between 
Samaria and Galilee. It was surrounded with 
a wall and decorated with splendid buiidmgs 
by Herod the Great (b.c. 13J, who called it 
Caesarea, in honour of Augustus. He also 
made a splendid harbour for the city. Under 
the Romans it was the capital of Palestine and 
the residence of the procurator. Vespasian 
made it a colon}-, and Titus conferred additional 
favours upon it ; hence it was called Colonia 
Flavia (Jos. Ant. xv. 10, B.J. i. 21 ; Tac. Hint. 
ii. 79). — 4. C. Mauretaniae, formerly Iol \'lwK 
Kaiadpeia: Zershelh, a Phoenician city on the 
X. coast of Africa, with a harbour, the residence 
of King Juba, who named it Caesarea, in 
honour of Augustus. When Claudius erected 
Mauretania into a Roman province, he made 
Caesarea a colony, and the capital of the middle 
division of the province, which was thence called 
Mauretania Caesariensis (Strab. p. 831 ; Plin. v. 
20). — 5. C. ad Anazarbum. [Anazabbus.] 

Caesarlon, son of C. Julius Caesar and of 
Cleopatra, originally called Ptolemaeus as an 
Egyptian prince, was born B.C. 47. Li 42 the 
triumvirs allowed him to receive the title of 
king of Egypt, and in 34 Antony conferred 
upon him the title of king of kings. After the 
death of his mother in 3D he was executed by 
order of Augustus (Suet. Jul. 52, Aug. 17; 
Plut. Cues. 4!), Ant. 54, 81). 

Caesarodunum [Tours), chief town of the 
Tnrones or Turoni, subsequently called Turoni, 
on the Liger I Loire), in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Caesaromagus. 1. (Brauvais), chief town 
of the Bellovaci in Gallia Belgica. — 2. (Chelms- 
ford), a town of the Trinobantes in Britain. 

Caesena (Caesenas, -atis : Cesena), a town in 
Gallia Cispadana on the Via Aemilia not far 
from the Rubico (Strab. p. 216; Cic. ad Fam. 
xvi. 27), used as a fortress by Justinian's 
generais (Procop. B. G. i. 1, ii. 11). 

Caesennius Lento. [Lento.] 

Caesennius Paetus. Pun-. 

Caesetlus Flavus. [Edavus.] 

Caesia, a surname of Minerva, a translation 
of the Greek y\avKonris. 

Caesia Silva (Hnsernwald), a forest in Ger- 
many between the Lippe and the Yssel (Tac. 
Ann. i. 50). 

Caesonla, first the mistress and afterwards 
the wife of the emperor Caligula, was a woman 
of the greatest licentiousness, and was put to 
death by Caligula with her daughter, A.D. 41. 

M. Caesonius, a judex at the trial of Oppi- 
anicus for the murder of Cluentius, B.C. 74, and 
aedile with Cicero in 89. 

CaiCUS i KaiKos : Bakir), a river of Mysia, 
rising in 51. Temnus and flowing past Pergamus 
ink) the Cumaean Gulf iHes. Th. 843; Hdt. vi. 
28 ; Strab. p. 615 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 370). 

Caieta (Caietiinus: Gaeta),a. town in Latium 
on the borders of Campania, 40 stadia S. of 
Fonniae, situated on a promontory of the same 
name and on a bay of the sea called after it 
Sinus Caietanus. It possessed an excellent 
harbour (Cic. pro. Leg. Man. 121, and was said 
to have derived its name from Caicta, the 
nurse of Aeneas, who, according to some 
traditions, was buried at this place (Verg. Aen. 
vii. 1 ; Or. Met. xiv. 441). 

Cains, the jurist. [Gaius.] 

Caius Caesar. [Calioula.] 

Calaber. [Quimtub smyiinaeus.] 

Calabria (Calabri), the peninsula in the SE. 
of Italy, extending from Tarentum to the Prom. 
Iapygium, formed part of Apulia. 



186 



CALACTA 



CALES 



Calacta (Ka\?j 'Akt4) : KaXaKrlvos : nr. Caro- ' 
nia), a town on the N. coast of Sicily, founded 
by Ducetius, a chief of the Sicels, about B.C. 
447. Calacta was, as its name imports, origi- 
nally the name of the coast. (Herod, vi. 22.) 
Calactinus. [Caecilius Caiactinus.] 
Calagurris. 1. (Calagurritanus : Calahorra), 
a town of the Vascones and a Eoman muni- 
cipium in Hispania Tarraconensis near the 
Iberus, memorable for its adherence to Sertorius 
and for its siege by Pompey and his generals, 
B.C. 71. It was the birthplace of Quintilian. 
(Juv. xv. 93 ; Auson. de Prof. i. 7 ; Strab. p. 161 ; 
Val. Max. vii. 6). — 2. A town of Aquitania 
(Cazeres). 

Calais, brother of Zetes. [Zetes.] 
Calama. 1. (Gelma) a town in Numidia, 
between Cirta and Hippo Regius, on the E. 
bank of the Rubricatus (Seibous). — 2. (Kalat- 
al-Wad), a town in the W. of Mauretania 
Caesariensis, on the E. bank of the Malva, near 
its mouth. 

Calamine, in Lydia, a lake with floating 
islands, sacred to the nymphs (Plin. ii. 209). 

Calamis (KaAafjus), a famous sculptor of 
Athens about 470 B.C. He was the representa- 
tive of the Ionic-Attic school in the first half of 
the 5th century, bringing to a high point of 
grace and delicacy the ' development from the 
stiff drapery and grimacing smile of the Ionic 
art to the graceful drapery and unconscious 
smile (ffefxvbv Kai \€\r)8bs fxaS'iaixa) noted by 
Lucian.' He was specially celebrated for his 
representation of female beauty, which still 
retained something of the austerity belonging 
to the more antique sculpture. Especially 
noticeable were the statues of Aphrodite on 
the Acropolis, and of the Sosandra (which 
some take to be the same statue). None of his 
work survives, but it is possible that the terra- 
cotta of Hermes Criophoros, now in the British 
Museum, is a copy from the statue by Calamis. 
He was famous also for repousse work in silver. 
(Plin. xxxiv. 71 ; Cic. Brut. 18, 70 ; Lucian, 
Dial. Mere.tr. iii. 3 ; Paus. i. 23, 2 ; Diet. Antiq. 
art. Statuaria Ars.) 

Calamus (Kakafxos ■ Kahnon), a town on the 
coast of Phoenicia, a little S. of Tripolis. 

Calanus (KaAavos), an Indian gymnosophist, 
followed Alexander the Great from India, and 
having been taken ill, burnt himself alive in 
the presence of the Macedonians, three months 
before the death of Alexander (b.c. 323), to whom 
he had predicted his approaching end (Strab. 
p. 715 ; Cic. Tusc. ii. 22, Div. i. 23). 

Calasiries (Ka\aalpies), one of the two divi- 
sions (the other being the Hermotybii) of the 
warrior-caste of Egypt. Their greatest strength 
was 250,000 men, and their chief abode in the 
W. part of the Delta. They formed the king's 
body guard. 

Calatia (Calatlnus). 1. (Galazze), a town in 
Campania on the Appia Via between Capua and 
Beneventum, colonised by Julius Caesar with 
his veterans. — 2. (Caiazzo), a town of Samnium, 
frequently confounded with No. 1. 

Calatlnus, A. Atilius, consul b.c. 258, in the 
first Punic war, carried on the war with success 
inSicily. He was consul a second time, 254, when 
he took Panormus ; and was dictator, 249, when 
he again carried on the war in Sicily, the first 
instance of a dictator commanding an army 
out of Italy. _ (Polyb. i. 24, 38 ; Liv. Ep. 19.) 

Calaurea -la (KaXavpeia, KaAavpia : Ka\av- 
peirris : Poro), a small island in the Saronic 
gulf off the coast of Argolis and opposite 
Troezen, possessed a celebrated temple of 



Poseidon, which was regarded as an inviolable 
asylum. Hither Demosthenes fled to escape 
Antipater, and here he took poison, B.C. 322. 
This temple was originally the place of meeting 
of an Amphictyonia for the worship of Poseidon, 
in which Hermione, Epidaurus, Aegina, Athens, 
Orchomenus, Nauplia, and Prasiae joined. 
After the Dorian conquest Argos and Sparta 
took the places of Nauplia and Prasiae. (Strab. 
p. 374; Paus. ii. 33, 2; Plut. Bern. 29.) 

Calavius, the name of a distinguished family 
at Capua, the most celebrated member of which 
was Pacuvius Calavius, who induced his fellow- 
citizens to espouse the cause of Hannibal after 
the battle of Cannae, B.C. 216. (Liv. xxiii. 2-9.) 

Calbis (6 Kt£\/3is), also Indus (Dalian), a con- 
siderable river of Caria, which rises in M. 
Cadmus, above Cibyra, and after receiving 
(according to Pliny, v. 103) sixty small rivers 
and 100 mountain torrents, falls into the sea W. 
of Caunus and opposite to Rhodes. 

Calchas (KdAx as )> son °f Thestor of Mycenae 
or Megara, the wisest soothsayer among the 
Greeks at Troy, foretold the length of the 
Trojan war, explained the cause of the pes- 
tilence which raged in the Greek army, and 
advised the Greeks to build the wooden horse. 
An oracle had declared that Calchas should die 
if he met with a soothsayer superior to himself ; 
and this came to pass at Claros, near Colophon, 
for here Calchas met the soothsayer Mopsus, 
who predicted things which Calchas could not. 
Thereupon Calchas died of grief. After his 
death he had an oracle in Daunia. (II. i. 68 ; 
ii. 300 ; Ov. Met. xii. 19.) 

Caldus, C. Caelius. 1. Rose from obscurity 
by his oratory, was tribune of the plebs B.C. 107, 
when he proposed a lex tabellaria, and consul 
94. In the civil war between Sulla and the 
party of Marius, he fought on the side of the 
latter, 83 (Cic. de Orat. i. 25). — 2. Grandson of 
the preceding, was Cicero's quaestor in Cilicia, 
50 (Cic. ad Earn. ii. 15). 

Cale (Oporto), a port-town of the Callaeci in 
Hispania Tarraconensis at the mouth of the 
Durius. From Porto Cale the name of the 
country Portugal is supposed to have come. 

Caledonia. [Britannia.] 

Calentum, a town probably of the Calenses 
Emanici in Hispania Baetica, celebrated for its 
manufacture of bricks so light as to swim upon 
water (Plin. xxxv. 171 ; Strab. p. 615 ; Vitruv. ii. 3). 

Calenus, Q. Fuflus, tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 61, when he succeeded in saving P. Clodius 
from condemnation for his violation of the 
mysteries of the Bona Dea (Cic. ad Att. i. 16). 
In 59 he was praetor, and from this time 
appears as an active partisan of Caesar. In 51 
he was legate of Caesar in Gaul, and served 
under Caesar in the civil war (Caes. B. O. viii. 
39). In 49 he joined Caesar at Brundusium 
and accompanied him to Spain, and in 48 he 
was sent by Caesar from Epirus to bring over 
the remainder of the troops from Italy, but 
most of his ships were taken by Bibulus. After 
the battle of Pharsalia (48) Calenus took many 
cities in Greece. In 47 he was made consul by 
Caesar. After Caesar's death (44) Calenus 
joined M. Antony, and subsequently had the 
command of Antony's legions in the N. of Italy. 
At the termination of the Perusinian war (41) 
Calenus died, and Octavianus was thus enabled 
to obtain possession of his army. (Caes. B. C. 
i. 87, iii. 26, 55 ; Cic. Phil. viii. 4.) 

Cales or -ex (KoA.t/j or : Halabli), a river 
of Bithynia (Thuc. iv. 75). 

Cales (-is, usually PI. Cales -ium : Calenus: 



CALETES 

Calvi), chief town of Caleni, an Ausonian 
people in Campania, on the Via Latina, said to 
nave been founded by Calais, son of Boreas, 
and therefore called Thre'icia by the poets. 
Cales was taken and colonised by the Romans, 
B.C. 335. It was celebrated for its excellent 



CALIGULA 



187 




Cales in Campania. B.C. 3*5-268. 
OOp., head of Pallas ; rev., ' Caleno,' and Victory in a biga. 

wine. (Strab. p. 237 ; Liv. viii. 16, xxii. 13 ; Tac. 
Ann. vi. 15 ; Hor. Od. i. 20, iv. 12 ; Juv. i. 69.) 

Caletes or -i, a people in Belgic Gaul near 
the mouth of the Seine, whose name is pre- 
served in Caux (Caes. B. G. ii. 4 ; Strab. p. 189) ; 
their capital was Jitlioboxa. 

Caletor (KaATjTuip), son of Clytius, slain at 
Troy by the Telamonian Ajax. 

Calidlus. 1. Q., tribune of the plebs b.c. 99, 
carried a law for the recall of Q. Metellus Numi- 
dicus from banishment. He was praetor 79, 
and had the government of one of the Spains, 
and on his return was accused by Q. Lollius, 
and condemned. (Cic. Plane. 28, Verr. i. 13, 
iii. 25.) — 2. M., son of the preceding, distin- 
guished as an orator. In 57 he was praetor, 
and supported the recall of Cicero from banish- 
ment. In 51 he was an unsuccessful candidate 
for the consulship, and on the breaking out of 
the civil war, 49, he joined Caesar, who placed 
him over Gallia Togata, where he died in 48. 
(Cic. Brut. 79, 274, ad Fam. viii. 4 ; Quint, x. 
1, 23 J Caes. B.C. i. 2.) 

Caligula, Roman emperor, a.d. 37-41, son of 
Germanicus and Agrippina, was born a.d. 12, and 
was brought up among the legions in Germany. 
His real name was Gaius (Cuius) Caesar, and 
he was always called Gaius by his contem- 
poraries : Caligula was a surname given him 
by the soldiers from his wearing in his boy- 
hood small caligae, or soldier's boots. Having 
escaped the fate of his mother and brother, he 
gained the favour of Tiberius, who raised him 
to offices of honour, and held out to him hopes 
of the succession. On the death of Tiberius 
(37), which was either caused or accelerated by 
him, he succeeded to the throne (Tac. Ann. 
vi. 45 ; Suet. Cal. 12, Tib. 73). He was saluted 
by the people with the greatest enthusiasm as 
the son of Germanicus. His first acts gave 
promise of a just and beneficent reign. He 
pardoned all the persons who had appeared as 
witnesses or accusers ugainst his family ; he 




Callirula. rtomnn Emperor. a.t>. R7-41. 
Obr.. heid of Caligula legend. C. CM.SM; IVO. OF.RM. 
P. M. TH. POT ; nr.. head of AuguntuH. radiate— legend. 
DIVVS. AVG. PATEK PATRIAE— a memorial typo. 

released all the state-prisoners of Tiberius ; he 
restored to the magistrates full power of juris- 
diction without appeal to his person, and pro- 
mised the senate to govern according to the 



laws. Towards foreign princes he behaved 
with great generosity. He restored Agrippa, 
the grandson of Herod, to his kingdom of 
Judaea, and Antiochus IV. to his kingdom of 
Commagene. But at the end of eight months 
the conduct of Caligula became suddenly 
changed. After a serious illness, which pro- 
bably weakened his mental powers, he appears 
as a sanguinary and licentious madman. He 
put to death Tiberius, the grandson of his pre- 
decessor, compelled his grandmother Antonia 
and other members of his family to make away 
with themselves, often caused persons of both 
sexes and of all ages to be tortured to death for 
his amusement while taking his meals, and on 
one occasion, during the exhibition of the 
games in the Circus, he ordered a great number 
of the spectators to be seized, and to be thrown 
before the wild beasts. Such was his love of 
blood that he wished the Roman people had only 
one head, that he might cut it off with a blow. 
His obscenity was as great as his cruelty. He 
carried on an incestuous intercourse with his 
own sisters, and no Roman woman was safe 
from his attacks. 
His marriages 
were disgrace- 
fully contracted 
and speedily dis- 
solved ; and the 
only woman who 
exercised a per- 
manent influ- 
ence over him 
was his last wife 
Caesonia. In his 
madness he con- 
sidered himself 
a god ; he even 
built a temple 
to himself as 
Jupiter Latiaris, 
and appointed 
priests to attend 
to his worship. 
He sometimes 
officiated as his 
own priest, mak- 
ing his horse 
Incitatus, which 
he afterwards 
raised to the 

consulship, his statue of Caligula. iFound at GabiD 

colleague. His 

monstrous extravagancies soon exhausted the 
coffers of the state. One instance may show 
the senseless way in which he spent his 
money. He constructed a bridge of boats be- 
tween Baiae and Puteoli, a distance of about 
three miles, and after covering it with earth he 
built houses upon it. When it was finished, 
he gave a splendid banquet in the middle of 
the bridge, and concluded the entertainment by 
throwing numbers of the guests into the sea. 
To replenish the treasury he exhausted Italy 
and Rome by his extortions, and then marched 
into Gaul in 40, which he plundered in all 
directions. With his troops he advanced to the 
ocean, as if intending to cross over into Britain ; 
he drew them up in buttle array, and then gave 
them the signal — to collect shells, which he 
called the spoils of conquered Ocean. The 
Roman world at length grew tired of such a 
mad tyrant. Four months after his return to the 
city, on the 2 1th of January, 11, he was murdered 
by Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a praetorian 
cohort, Cornelius Sabinus, and others. His 




188 



CALINGAE 



CALLIMACHUS 



wife Caesonia and his daughter were likewise 
put to death. (Suet. Caligula ; Tac. Ann. i. 
41, vi. 20 ff ; Dio Cass, lix.) 

Calingae, a people of India, on the E. coast, 
below the mouths of the Ganges (Plin. vi. 64). 

Calinipaxa, a city on the Ganges, N. of its 
confluence with the Jomanes (Jumna), said to 
have been the furthest point in India reached 
by Seleucus Nicator (Plin. vi. 63). 

Callaici, Callaeci. [Gallaeci.] 

Callatebus (KaAAaT7j/3os), a city of Lydia 
between Colossae and Sardis, where the inhabi- 
tants made sugar out of wheat and the tamarisk 
(Hdt. vii. 31). 

CallatiS (KaAAaris, KaAa-ns : Kahariavds : 
Mangalia), a town of Moesia, on the Black Sea, 
originally a colony of Bliletus, and afterwards 
of Heraclea (Strab. p. 319 ; Mel. ii. 2). 

Calleva (Silchester), a town of Britain, 22 
Eoman miles from Venta Belgarum (Winches- 
ter). It is remarkable as the best preserved 
Roman town in the north of Europe. 

Calliarus (KotAAi'apos), a town in Locris (II. 
ii. 531 ; Strab. p. 426). 

Callias and Hipponlcus (KaAAi'as, 'l-rm6vi- 
kos), a noble Athenian family, celebrated for 
their wealth. They enjoyed the hereditary 
dignity of torch-bearer at the Eleusinian mys- 
teries, and claimed descent from Triptolemus. 
1. Hipponicus, acquired a large fortune by 
fraudulently making use of the information he 
had received from Solon respecting the intro- 
duction of his ffeiffdxBeia, B.C. 594 (Plut. Sol. 
15 ; cf. Arist. 'A0. iroA. 7). — 2. Callias, son of 
Phaenippus, an opponent of Pisistratus, and a 
conqueror at the Olympic and Pythian games 
(Hdt. vi. 121). — 3. Hipponicus, surnamed Am- 
nion, son of No. 2.-4. Callias, son of No. 3, 
fought at the battle of Marathon, 490. He was 
afterwards ambassador from Athens to Arta- 
xerxes, and according to some accounts nego- 
tiated a peace with Persia, 449, on terms most 
humiliating to the latter. On his return to 
Athens, he was accused of having taken bribes, 
and was condemned to a fine of 50 talents. 
(Dem. de Fals. Leg. p. 428, § 311.) — 5. Hippo- 
nicus, son of No. 4, one of the Athenian gene- 
rals in their incursion into the territory of 
Tanagra, 426, also commanded at the battle of 
Delium, 424, where he was killed (Thuc. iii. 
91). It was his divorced wife, and not his 
widow, whom Pericles married. His daughter 
Hipparete was married to Alcibiades, with a 
dowry of 10 talents ; another daughter was 
married to Theodoras, and became the mother 
of Isocrates the orator. — 6. Callias, son of No. 
5, by the lady who married Pericles, dissipated 
all his ancestral wealth on sophists, flatterers, 
and women. The scene of Xenophon's Ban- 
quet, and also that of Plato's Protagoras is 
laid at his house. He is said to have ultimately 
reduced himself to absolute beggary. In 400 
he was engaged in the attempt to crush Ando- 
cides. In 392 he commanded the Athenian 
heavy-armed troops, -when Iphicrates defeated 
the Spartans; and in 371 he was one of the 
envoys empowered to negotiate peace between 
Athens and Sparta, called 'the peace of Cal- 
lias,' which was followed by the war between 
Sparta and Thebes (Xen. Hell. vi. 3, 4). 

Callias. 1. A wealthy Athenian, who, on con- 
dition of marrying Cimon's sister, Elpinice, 
paid for him the fine of 50 talents which had 
been imposed on Miltiades. He appears to 
have been unconnected with the nobler family 
of Callias and Hipponicus. — 2. Tyrant of Chalcis 
in Euboea, and the rival of PlutarchuSj tyrant 



of Eretria. He was defeated by the Athenians 
under Phocion, B.C. 350, and thereupon betook 
himself to the Macedonian court; but as he 
could not obtain aid from Philip, he formed 
an alliance with the Athenians, and by their 
j means obtained the supremacy in the island. 
(Dem. de Cor. p. 252, § 101).— 3. A poet of the 
Old Comedy, flourished B.C. 412 ; the names of 
6 of his comedies are preserved (Fragments 
by Meineke). — i. Of Syracuse, a Greek histo- 
rian, was a contemporary of Agathocles, and 
wrote a history of Sicily in 22 books, embracing 
the reign of Agathocles, B.C. 317-289. (Miiller, 
Fragm. Hist. Graec.) 

Callicrates (KaWLKpdrris). 1. An Achaean, 
exerted all his influence in favour of the Romans. 
On the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 
B.C. 168, Callicrates pointed out 1,000 Achaeans, 
as having favoured the cause of Perseus, who 
were taken to Rome ; and among them was the 
historian Polybius. Callicrates died at Rhodes, 
149. — 2. One of the architects of the Parthe- 
non at Athens. 

Callicratidas (KaWiKpariSas), a Spartan, 
succeeded Lysander as admiral of the Lacedae- 
monian fleet, B.C. 406, took Methymna, and 
shut up Conon in Mytilene ; but the Athenians 
sent out a fleet of 150 sail, and defeated Calli- 
cratidas off the Arginusae. Callicratidas fell 
in the battle. Callicratidas was a plain, blunt 
Spartan of the old school. "Witness his answer, 
when asked what sort of men the Ionians were : 
' Bad freemen, but excellent slaves.' (Xen. 
Hell. i. 6 ; Plut. Lys. 7.) 

Callicula Mons, the ridge in Campania, which 
separates the plain called ' Ager Falernus ' on 
the north of the Voltumus from the country 
about Allifae, and is continued in M. Tifata (Liv. 
xxii. 15, 16). 

Callidromus or -um (Ha.Wl8pofj.os), part of 
the range of Mt. Oeta, near Thermopylae. 

Callifae (Calvisi?),a, town in Samnium, per- 
haps in the territory of Allifae (Liv. viii. 25). 

Calllmachus (KaWi/j-axos). 1. The Athenian 
polemarch, commanded the right wing at 
Marathon, where he was slain, after behaving 
with much gallantry, B.C. 490 (Hdt. vi. 109). 
This is the last recorded instance of the polem- 
arch performing the military duties which his 
name implies. (Diet. Ant. s.v. Archon.) — 2. A 
celebrated Alexandrine grammarian and poet, 
was a native of Cyrene in Africa, and a descen- 
dant of the Battiadae, whence he is sometimes 
called Battiades (Ov. Fast. ii. 367). He 
lived at Alexandria in the reigns of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus and Euergetes, and was chief 
librarian of the famous library of Alexandria, 
from about B.C. 260 until his death about 240. 
He compiled the UlvaKts, which was a cata- 
logue of the library in chronological order, with 
notes on the genuineness and contents of the 
books. Though, like all his prose work, this 
has perished, it formed a basis for later literary 
criticism. He founded a celebrated grammati- 
cal school at Alexandria, and among his pupils 
were Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, 
and Apollonius Rhodius. His enmity with his 
former pupil Apollonius Rhodius is related else- 
where. [Apollonius, No. 6.] He is said to have 
written 800 works, in prose and in verse, on an 
infinite variety of subjects, but of these we pos- 
sess only some of his poems, which are charac- 
terised rather by labour and learning than by 
real poetical genius. Hence Ovid (Am. i. 15, 
14) says of Callimachus, Qua/mvis ingenio non 
valet, arte valet. He had great influence in 
spreading a love of science and learning, and left 



CALLIMEDON 



CALLISTRATUS 



1S9 



his impress on the Alexandrian school of poetry, 
which became learned and affected rather than 
spontaneous. The extant works of Callimachus 
are 6 Hymns in hexameter verse, 5 in the Ionic 
dialect, and 1, on the bath of Pallas, in the 
Doric dialect, and 72 Epigrams, which belong 
to the best specimens of this kind of poetry, 
and were incorporated in the Greek Anthology 
at an early time. We have only a few frag- 
ments of his elegies, which enjoyed great 
celebrity, and were imitated by the Roman 
poets, the most celebrated of whose imitations 
is the De Coma Berenices of Catullus. Of the 
iost poems of Callimachus the most important 
were, Atria, Origins, in 4 books, on the origins 
of the various mythical stories, from which 
Ovid took the idea of his Fasti (the Ibis also 
was imitated from a poem of Callimachus 
attacking Apollonius), and an epic poem en- 
titled Hecale, the name of an aged woman who 
received Theseus hospitably when he went out to 
fight against the Marathonian bull. — Editions. 
By Spanheim, Ultraj. 1697, re-edited by Ernesti, 
Lugd. Batav. 1761 ; by Blomfield, Lond. 1815 ; 
by Volzer, Lips. 1817 ; Meineke, 1861 ; Schnei- 
der, 1870. — 3. A sculptor, probably of Athens, 
who lived about 420 B.C., and is said to have 
invented the Corinthian column. Among his 
works was the golden chandelier in the Erech- 
theum, with a bronze palm-tree above to draw 
off the smoke (Paus. i. 26, 7), and a statue of 
Hera at Plataea. He was so anxious to give 
his works the last touch of perfection that he 
lost the grand and sublime ; whence Dionysius 
compares him to the orator Lysias, but in deli- 
cacy to Calamis (Isocr. 3). Callimachus was 
never satisfied with himself, and therefore re- 
ceived the epithet KcuciCrfTex" *. which Pliny 
interprets as calumniator sui (Plin. xxxiv. 92 ; 
Vitruv. iv. 1, 10). 

CalHmedon (KaAAiTteSoie), surnamed b 
Kdpa&os, one of the orators at Athens in the 
Macedonian interest, and a friend of Phocion, 
condemned to deatli by the Athenians in his 
absence, B.C. 317 (Plut. Phoc. 27, 33 ; Bern. 27). 

Callinlcus Seleucus. [Seleucus.] 

Callinus (KaKKtvos), of Ephesus, the earliest 
Greek elegiac poet, probably lived about B.C. 
700. Only one of his elegies is extant, consist- 
ing of 21 vigorous lines, in which he exhorts 
his countrymen to courage. Printed in Bergk's 
Poetae Lyrici Graeci. 

Calliope. [Musae.] 

Calliope (KaAA.!<JTT7)), a considerable city in 
the W. of Parthia, founded, or else enlarged, by 
Seleucus Nicator (Appian. Syr. 57). 

Calliphon (KaAAiipoip), a Greek philosopher, 
and probablyNi disciple of Epicurus, is con- 
demned by Cicero as making the chief good of 
man to consist in a union of virtue (Uonestas) 
and bodily pleasure (voluptas). [do. Fin. ii. 6, 
11, v. 8, 25; Tusc. v. 30, 85; Off. iii. 33, 119). 

Callipolis (KaAAiVoAis : KaAAnroAiT7)s|. 1. 
IGallipoli), a Greek town on a rocky peninsula 
on the Tarentine gulf in Calabria. — 2. A town 
on the E. coast of Sicily not far from Aetna 
iHdt. vii. 154 ; Strab.p. 272).— 3. (Gallipoli), a 
town in the Thracian Chersonese opposite 
Lampsacus. — 4. A town in Paeonia between the 
Strymon and the Axius. — 5. See Callium. 

Callippldes (KaAAtirm'5i7s), of Athens, a cele- 
brated tragic actor, a contemporary of Alci- 
biades and Agesilaus. 

Callippus I KoAAi7T7ros). 1. An Athenian, ac- 
companied Dion to Syracuse. In B.C. 353 he 
murdered Dion, and usurped the government 
of Syracuse, but was expelled the city at the 



end of 13 months, and after wandering about 
Sicily with his mercenaries was at length put 
to death by his own friends. — 2. An astrono- 
mer of Cyzicus, came to Athens, where he 
assisted Aristotle in rectifying and completing 
the discoveries of Eudoxus. Callippus invented 
the period or cycle of 76 years, estimated as = 
27759 days, which more nearly approached 
correctness than the estimate of Meton. This 
was called after him the Callippic cycle, and 
commenced B.C. 330 (Diod. xii. 36). 

Callirrhoe (KaAAippo7)l. 1. Daughter of 
Oceanus, wife of Chrysaor, and mother of 
Geryones and Echidna (Hes. Th. 981). — 2. 
Daughter of Achelous and wife of Alcmaeon, 
induced her husband to procure her the peplus 
and necklace of Harmoniii, by which she caused 
his death. [Alcmaeon.]— 3. Daughter of Sca- 
mander, wife of Tros, and mother of Ilus and 
Ganymedes. 

Callirrhoe. [Athenae, p. 144 &.] 

Callisthenes (KaAAicrfleVrjs), of Olynthus, a 
relation and a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied 
Alexander the Great to Asia. In his inter- 
course with Alexander he was arrogant and 
bold, and took every opportunity of exhibiting 
his independence. He expressed his indigna- 
tion at Alexander's adoption of Oriental cus- 
toms, and especially at the requirement of the 
ceremony of adoration. He thus rendered him- 
self so obnoxious to the king, that he was 
accused of being privy to the plot of Hermolaus 
to assassinate Alexander ; and after being kept 
in chains for 7 months, was either put to death 
or died of disease (Curt. viii. 5 ; Arrian, iv. 
14 ; Plut. Alex. 52 ; Alexander). Callisthenes 
wrote an account of Alexander's expedition ; a 
history of Greece, in 10 books, from the peace 
of Antalcidas tq the seizure of the Delphic 
temple by Philomelus (B.C. 387-357) ; and 
other works, all of which have perished, except 
fragments collected by Miiller in Hist. Graec. 

Callisto (KaAAi(TT£u), an Arcadian nymph, 
hence called Xonacrinavirgo (Ov. Met. ii. 409J 
from Nonacris, a mountain in Arcadia, was 
daughter either of Lycaon or of Nycteus or of 
Ceteus, and a companion of Artemis in the 
chase. She was beloved by Zeus, who meta- 
morphosed her into a she-bear that Hera might 
not become acquainted with the amour. But 
Hera learnt the truth, and caused Artemis to 
slay Callisto during the chase. Zeus placed 
Callisto among the stars under the name of 
Arctos, or the Bear. Arcas was her son by 
Zeus. According to Ovid, Jupiter (Zeus) over- 
came the virtue of Callisto by assuming the 
form of Artemis; Juno iHera) then metamor- 
phosed Callisto into a bear ; and when Arcas 
during the chase was on the point of killing his 
mother Jupiter placed both among the stars. 
(Apollod. iii. 8, 2 ; Paus. viii. 85, x. 31 ; Ov. Met. 
ii. 410 ; Auctos). In this story Artemis is 
interchanged with Callisto. There can be 
little doubt that originally Callisto was the 
bear-goddess who received a totemistic worship 
in Arcadia, and who was identified with Arte- 
mis, when the animal worship had left only 
survivals of names and rituals. Artemis 
having united the worship of Callisto with her 
own, Callisto became in legend the mere atten- 
dant of the goddess. ^See Artemis.] 

Callistratla (KaAAi fTTpaTi'a), a town in 
Paphlagonia, on the coast of the Euxine. 

Callistratus (KoAAiVtpotoj). 1. An Athe- 
nian orator, son of C'allicrates of Aphidna. 
His speech on the afTair of Oropus, B.C. 366, 
is said to have excited the emulation of De- 



190 



CALLISTUS 



CALYPSO 



mosthenes, and to have caused the latter to 
devote himself to oratory. After taking an 
active part in public affairs, generally in favour 
of Sparta, Callistratus was condemned to death 
by the Athenians in 361, and went into banish- 
ment to Methone in Macedonia. He ultimately 
returned to Athens, and was put to death. 
During his exile he is said to have founded the 
city of Datum, afterwards Philippi (Xen. Hell. 
vi. 2, 29; Lycurg. Leocr. 93). — 2. A Greek 
grammarian, and a disciple of Aristophanes of 
Byzantium. — 3. A Roman jurist, frequently 
cited in the Digest, wrote at least as late as the 
reign (a.d. 198-211) of Severus and Antoninus 
(i.e. Septimius Severus and Caracalla). 

Callistus, C. Julius, a freedman of Caligula, 
possessed influence in the reigns of Caligula 
and Claudius, and is the person to whom the 
physician Scribonius Largus dedicates his work. 

Callium (KdWiov : KaAAiew), called Calli- 
polis by Livy (xxxvi. 30), a town in Aetolia in 
the valley of the Spercheus, SW. of Hypata. 

Callixenus (KaAAifej/os), the leader in the 
prosecution of the Athenian generals who had 
conquered at Arginusae, B.C. 406. Not long 
after the execution of the generals, the Athe- 
nians repented of their unjust sentence, and 
decreed the institution of criminal accusations 
against Callixenus, but he escaped from Athens. 
On the restoration of democracy, 403, Callixe- 
nus took advantage of the general amnesty, and 
returned to Athens, but no man would give him 
either water or light for his fire, and he 
perished miserably of hunger. (Xen. Sell. i. 7.) 

Gallon (KaAAcuc). 1. A sculptor of Aegina, 
about 520 B.C., whose style is described as stiff 
and archaic (Quint, xii. 10 ; Paus. vii. 18, 6). 
— 2. A sculptor of Elis, early in the 5th century 
b.c. ; author of a Hermes and of a group of 
boy fluteplayers at Olympia (Paus. v. 25, 27). 

Calor. 1. A river in Samnium, flows past 
Beneventum and falls into the Vulturnus. 
Here Gracchus defeated Hanno B.C. 214 (Liv. 
xxiv. 14). — 2. A river in Lucania, falls into the 
Silarus. These rivers keep their name Colore. 

Calpe (KaA7rr; : Gibraltar), a mountain in 
the S. of Spain on the Straits between the 
Atlantic and Mediterranean (Strab. p. 139). This 
and M. Abyla opposite to it on the African 
coast, were called the Columns of Hercules. 

Calpe (KaA7ri7 : Kirpeh), a river, promontory, 
and town on the coast of Bithynia (Strab. p. 
543 ; Xen. Anab. vi. 4). 

Calpurnia, daughter of L. Calpurnius Piso, 
consul B.C. 58, and last wife of the dictator 
Caesar, to whom she was married in 59. The 
reports respecting the conspiracy against 
Caesar's life filled Calpurnia with the liveliest 
apprehensions ; she in vain entreated her hus- 
band not to leave home on the Ides of March, 
44. [Caesar.] 

Calpurnia Gens, plebeian, pretended to be 
descended from Calpus, a son of Numa. It 
was divided into the families of Bestia, 
Bibulus, Flamma, and Piso. 

T. Calpurnius Siculus, a poet of Nero's 
reign and imitator of Virgil. Of his writings 
we have 7 Eclogues and the Aetna (at one time 
attributed to Virgil). Four other Eclogues by 
a later writer (probably Nemesianus) have 
been attributed to Calpurnius. His versifica- 
tion is good and as an imitation (especially Eel. 
ii.) not unsuccessful. In Eel. i. and iv. he seems 
to praise Nero and to predict a wise rule. 

Calva. [Venus.] 

Calventius, an Insubrian Gaul, of the town 
of Placentia, whose daughter married L. Piso, 



the father of L. Piso Caesoninus, consul B.C. 58. 
In his speech against the latter, Cicero up- 
braids him with the origin of his mother, calling 
him Caesoninus Semiplacentinus Calventius. 

Calvinus, Domitius. 1, Cn., curule aedile, 
B.C. 299, consul 283, and dictator and censor 
280. In his consulship he, together with his 
colleague Dolabella, defeated the Gauls and 
Etruscans, and hence received the surname 
Maximus (Polyb. ii. 19). — 2. Cn., tribune of 
the plebs, 59, when he supported Bibulus against 
Caesar, praetor 56, and consul 53, through the 
influence of Pompey. In the civil war he joined 
Caesar. In 49 he fought under Curio in Africa ; 
and in 48 he fought under Caesar in Greece, 
and commanded the centre of Caesar's army at 
the battle of Pharsalia (Caes. B. C. ii. 42, iii. 78, 
79). In 47 he had the command in Asia, and in 
46 he fought in Africa against the Pompeian 
party. After Caesar's death (44) he fought 
under Octavian and Antony against the re- 
publicans. In 40 he was consul a second time, 
and in 39 went as proconsul to Spain. 

Calvinus, L. Sextius, consul b.c. 124, de- 
feated the Salluvii and other people in Trans- 
alpine Gaul ; in 123 founded the colony of Aquae 
Sextiae (Aix) (Liv. Ep. 61 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15). 

Calvinus, T. Veturius, twice consul, b.c. 334 
and 321. In his second consulship he and his 
colleague Sp. Postumius Albinus were defeated 
by the Sabines at Caudium. For details see 
Albinus, No. 3. 

Calvisius Sabinus. [Sabinus.] 

Calvus, Licinius. [Lictnius.] 

Calycadnus (KaAvxaSuos : Gok-su), a con- 
siderable river of Cilicia Tracheia, navigable as 
far up as Seleucia, where it is 180 feet wide. 
It rises in Isauria (Strab. p. 670). Thepromon- 
tory at its mouth is mentioned by Polybius 
(xxii. 26) and Livy (xxxviii. 38). 

Calydnae (KaAvSvcu v?i<roi), a group of small 
islands off the coast of Troas, N. of Tenedos. 
The name Lagussae is also applied to the 
group, and Calydnae to the largest island, now 
Tauschan adalar, or ' hare island." 

Calydon (KaAvbav : KaAvSdvios : Kurtaga),. 
an ancient town of Aetolia on the Evenus in 
the land of the Curetes, said to have been 
founded by Aetolus or his son Calydon. The 
surrounding country produced wine, oil, and. 
corn. Homer calls it ipavvi] (II. ix. 577, xiii. 
217, xiv. 116 ; cf. Strab. pp. 450, 460). In the 
mountains in the neighbourhood took place 
the celebrated hunt of the Calydonian boar. 
[Meleageb.] The inhabitants were removed 
by Augustus to Nicopolis. 

Calymna [KaAvfiua: Kalymnos), an island 
off the coast of Caria, between Leros and Cos, 
said to have been originally occupied by 
Carians and then colonised by Dorians under 
Heraclid leaders. In the Persian war it was 
subject to Artemisia (Hdt. vii. 99 ; Diod. v. 54 ; 
Ov. A. A. ii. 81). 

Calynda (KaAvvSa : KaAvvSevs : Doloman), 
a city of Caria, E. of Caunus, and 60 stadia (6 
geog. miles) from the sea. The Calyndians 
formed a part of the fleet of Xerxes : afterwards 
they were subject to the Caunians; and both 
cities were added by the Romans to the terri- 
tory of Rhodes. (Hdt. viii. 87 ; Polyb. xxxi. 17 ; 
Strab. p. 561.) 

Calypso (KaAu\f/d), daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, or of Nereus, or, according to Homer, 
of Atlas (Hes. Th. 359; Horn, Od. i. 50; 
Apollod. 1, 2 ; Atlas), was a nymph inhabiting 
the island of Ogygia, on which Ulysses was 
shipwrecked. "Calypso loved him, and pro- 



CAMARINA 

mised him immortality if he would remain with 
her. Ulysses refused, and after she had de- 
tained him 7 years, the gods compelled her to 



CAMICUS 



191 




Calypso- Trom a vase painting.) 

allow him to continue his journey homewards. 
(Od. v. 28, vii. 259.) 

Camarilla (Kafidpiva : Kafj.apiva.ios : Came- 
rina), a town on the S. coast of Sicily, at the 
mouth of the Hipparis, founded by Syracuse, 
B.C. 599. It attempted to throw off the yoke of 
Syracuse and was destroyed B.C. 552 ; recolo- 
nised in 495, and destroyed by Gelon ten years 
later ; a third time colonised 461 ; suffered 
severely from the ravages of the Carthaginians 




Camarina In Sicily. 
Obc. head of Heracles in lion'B skin, and legend ha^j/n- 
v«fiu» ; rcc, Athene In a chariot crowned by Victory. 

under Himilco 405, and in the wars of Agatho- 
cles (Hdt. vii. 154; Thuc. vi. 5; Pind. Ol. v.; 
Diod. xiii. 108-114, xxiii. 1-9). In the 1st 
Punic war it was taken by the Romans, and 
most of the inhabitants sold as slaves (Polyb. i. 
29 ; Strab. p. 272i. Scarcely any vestiges of the 
ancient town remain. In the neighbourhood 
was a marsh, which the inhabitants drained 
contrary to the command of an oracle, and thus 
opened away to their enemies to take the town : 
hence arose the proverb /ti; \tlvei Kafxapivav, 
ne moveas Camarinam (cf. Verg. Aen. iii. 700). 

Cambodunum i Slack), a town in Britain 
between Eboracum (York) and Mancunium 
(Manchester). 

Camboritum (prob. Cambridge or Gran- 
cheater), a town in Britain on the road from 
Camulodunum (Colchester) to Lindum (Lin- 
coln). 

Cambuni Montes, the mountains which sepa- 
rate Macedonia and Thessaly. 

Cambysene [KanQuartur,), a district of Ar- 
menia Major, on the borders of Iberia and 
Colchis. 

Cambyses IKo.uflwn-ns). 1. Father of (,'viu IB 
the Great. — 2. Second king of Persia, suc- 



ceeded his father Cyrus, and reigned B.C. 529- 
522. In 525 he conquered Egypt ; but an army 
which he sent against the Ammonians perished 
in the sands, and the forces, which he led in 
person against the Aethiopians S. of Egypt, 
were compelled by failure of provisions to 
return. On his return to Memphis he treated 
the Egyptians with great cruelty ; he insulted 
their religion, and slew their god Apis with his 
own hands. He also acted tyrannically towards 
his own family and the Persians in general. 
He caused his own brother Smerdis to be mur- 
dered ; but a Magian personated the deceased 
prince, and set up a claim to the throne. 
[SsrjBKDlS.] Cambyses forthwith set out from 
Egypt against this pretender, but died in Syria, 
at a place named Ecbatana, of an accidental 
wound, 522. (Hdt. ii. 1, iii. 17, 30, 61.) 

Cambyses (Kafi^va-ns : Iora), a river of Iberia 
and Albania (in the Caucasus) which, after unit- 
ing with the Alazon. falls into the Cyrus (Mel. 
iii. 5 ; Plin. vi. 15 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 3). 

Camenae, also called Casmenae, Carmenae. 
The name is connected with carmen, a ' pro- 
phecy.' The Camenae were water nymphs at 
whose spring was an oracle, and they belonged to 
the religion of ancient Italy. Their sacred 
spring at Koine was near the Porta Capena, 
where, it was said, N'uraa had dedicated spring 
and grove (Liv. i. 21 ; Plut. Num. 13) : the 
Ulcus Camenartim (C. I.L. vi. 975) was hence 
named. Yet their worship disappeared early, 
because in the 2nd century B.C. it was replaced 
by the Greek worship of the Muses, who were 
identified with them. Hence Juvenal (iii. 10) 
does not speak of it as an existing worship. 

Cameria, an ancient town of Latium, con- 
quered bv Tarquinius Priscus (Liv. i. 38, iii. 
51 ; Dionys. v. 49). 

Camermum or Camarinum, more anciently 
Camers (Camertes: Camerino), a town in 
Umbria on the borders of Picenum, an ally of 
the Romans against the Etruscans, B.C. 308, 
also an ally of the Romans in the 2nd Punic 
war, appears as a place of importance in the 
war between Caesar and Pompey, subsequently 
a Roman colony (Liv. ix. 30, xxviii. 45 ; Caes. 
B.C. i. 15 ; Cic. ad Att. viii. 12). 

Camerinus, the name of a patrician family 
of the Sulpicia gens, the members of which 
frequently held the consulship in the early 
times of the republic (b.c. 500, 490, 401, 393, 
845 ; see Liv. ii. 19, iii. 10, 31, v. 8, vi. 5, 22, vii. 
28). After B.C. 845 the Camerini disappear 
from history for 350 years, but they are men- 
1 tioned again as one of the noblest Roman 
families in the early times of the empire. (Juv. 
vii. 90, viii. 38 ; Dio Cass, lxiii. 18.) 

Camerinus, a Roman poet, contemporary 
with Ovid, wrote a poem on the capture of 
Troy by Hercules (Ov. Pont. iv. 16, 19), per- 
haps the Sulpicius Camerinus consul A.n.9. 
Camers, legendary founder of the old Latin 
I town Amyclae: Virgil introduces him as an ally 
of Turnus (Verg. Aen. x. 502). 

Cameses, a legendary Italian king, appa- 
rently brother of .Janus. Part of Latium mi> 
once called Camesene after him (Plut. Q. It. 22 1. 

Camicus i Kcuiiko's : Kan'iKios), an ancient 
town of the Sicani, near Aohioentum, to the 
NE. on the S. coast of Sicily on a river of the 
same name, said to have built by Daedalus 
for Cocalus theSicanian king, who when Minos 
came in pursuit of Daedalus put him to death. 
To revenge the death of Minos the Cretans 
besieged Camicus in vain for 5 years. The story 
formed the plot of Sophocles's Ka/i(«ioi. (Hdt. 



192 



CAMILLA 



CAMPI 



vii. 170 ; Diod. iv. 78 ; Ar. Pol. ii. 10 ; Strab. 
p. 273 ; Athen. pp. 86, 388.) 

Camilla, daughter of king Metabus of the 
Volscian town of Privernuni, was one of the 
swift-footed servants of Diana, accustomed to 
the chase and to war. She assisted Turnus 
against Aeneas, and after slaying numbers of 
the Trojans was at length killed by Aruns. 
(Verg. Aen. vii. 803, xi. 531-838.) 

Camillus, Furius. 1, M., one of the great 
heroes of the Roman republic. He was censor 
B.C. 403, in which year Livy erroneously places 
his first consular tribunate. He was consular 
tribune for the first time in 401, and for the 
second time in 398. In 396 lie was dictator, 
•when he gained a glorious"~victory over the 
Faliscans andFidenates, took Veii, and entered 
Rome in triumph, seated in a chariot drawn 
by white horses. ' In 394 he was consular tri- 
bune for the third time, and reduced the Fali- 
scans. The story of the schoolmaster who 
attempted to betray the town of Falerii to 
Camillus, belongs to this campaign. In 391, 
Camillus was accused of having made an unfair 
distribution of the booty of Veii, and went 
voluntarily into exile at Ardea. Next year 
(390) the Gauls took Rome, and laid siege to 
Ardea. According to the mythical traditions 
(see below), the Romans in the Capitol recalled 
Camillus, 1 having appointee! him dictator in his 
absence. Camillus hastily collected an army, 
attacked the Gauls, and defeated them com- 
pletely, having appeared on the scene just as 
the Romans were weighing Out gold to their 
conquerors. [Bbennus.] His fellow-citizens 
saluted him as the Second Romulus. In 389 
Camillus was dictator a third time, and defeated 
the Volscians, Aequians, and other nations. 
In 386 he was consular tribune for the fourth, 
in 384 for the fifth, and in 381 for the sixth time. 
In 368 he was appointed dictator a fourth time 
to resist the rogations of C. Licinius Stolo. 
Next year, 367, he was dictator a fifth time, 
and though 80 years of age, he completely 
defeated the Gauls (Liv. v. 10-vi. 4 ; Plut. 
Camill.). He died of the pestilence, 365. 
These legends of Camillus are late inventions 
for the glorification of the house of the Furii, 
from whose archives they were adopted doubt- 
less by Livy. We have the truer account in 
Polybius, that the Gauls on their own terms 
restored the town to the Romans, and retired 
unmolested with their gold and their plunder, 
having heard of an attack by the Veneti on 
their own country (Polyb. ii. 18). — 2. Sp., son 
of No. 1, first praetor 367. — 3. L., also son of 
No. 1, was dictator 350 in order to hold the 
comitia, and consul 349, when he defeated the 
Gauls (Liv. vii. 24). — 4. L., son of No. 2, 
consul 338, when he took Tibur, and in con- 
junction with his colleague Maenius completed 
the subjugation of Latium, for which he was 
honoured with a triumph and an equestrian 
statue in the Forum. In 325 lie was consul a 
second time. (Liv. viii. If.).— 5. M., proconsul of 
Africa in the reign of Tiberius, defeated the 
Numidian .Tacfarinas, a.d. 17 (Tac. Ann. ii. 
52). — 6. M., surnamed Scbibonianus, consul 
a.d. 32, under Tiberius. At the beginning of 
the reign of Claudius he was legate of Dal- 
matia, where he revolted, but was conquered, 
42, sent into exile, and died 53. (Tac. Ann. 
xii. 52.) 

Camirus (Kdueipos), on the W. coast of the 
island of Rhodes, founded by Camirus, son of 
Cercaphus and Cydippe, and the principal town 
in the island before the foundation of Rhodes. 



It was the birthplace of the poet Pisander. 
(II. ii. 656 ; Hdt. i. 144 ; Strab. p. 655.) 

Camisa (Kamtrct), a fortress in Cappadocia, 
23 Roman miles E. of Sebaste. 

Camoenae. [Cajienae.] 

Campania (Campanus : Terra cli Lavoro), a 
district of Italy, the name of which is probably 
(like that of Capua) connected with campus 
' a plain,' was bounded- on the NW. by Latium, 
N. and E. by Samnium, SE. by Lueania, and 
S. and SW. by the Tyrrhenian sea. It was 
separated from Latium by the river Liris, and 
from Lueania at a later time by the river 
Silarus, though in the time of Augustus it did 
not extend further S. than the promontory of 
Minerva. In still earlier times the Ager Cam- 
panus included only the country round Capua. 
The country along the coast from the Liris 
to the Promontory of Minerva is - a plain 
inclosed by the Apennines which sweeps round 
it in the form of a semicircle. Campania is a 
volcanic country, to which circumstance it was 
mainly indebted for its extraordinary fertility. 
It produced corn, wine, oil, and every kind of 
frnty in the greatest abundance, and in many 
parts crops could be gathered 3 times in the 
year. The fertility of the soil, the beauty of 
the scenery, and the softness of the climate, 
procured for Campania the epithet Felix, a 
name which it justly deserved (Strab. p. 242 ; 
Polyb. iii. 91 ; Cic. cle Leg. Agr. i. 7). It was 
the favourite retreat in summer of the Roman 
nobles, whose villas studded a considerable 
part of its coast, especially in the neighbour- 
hood of Baiae. The principal river was the 
Vultubnus : the minor rivers were the Lntis, 
Savo, Clanius, Sebethus, Saenus, and 
Silaktjs. The chief lakes were Ltjcbinus, 
Achebusia, Aveenus, and Litebna, most of 
them craters of extinct volcanos. — The earliest 
inhabitants of the country were the Ausones 
and Osci or Opioi, whence the older Greek 
name for the country was 'Owucy. They were 
subsequently conquered by the Etruscans, who 
became the masters of almost all the country, 
with a confederation of twelve cities, the chief 
of which was Capua or Volturnum. In the 
time of the Romans we find 3 distinct peoples, 
besides the Greek population of Cumae : 1. The 
Campani, properly so called, a mixed race, 
consisting of Etruscans and the original inhabi- 
tants of the country, dwelling along the coast 
from Sinuessa to Paestum. They were the 
ruling race : their history is given under Capua, 
their chief city. 2. Sidicini, an Ausonian 
people, in the NW. of the country on the 
borders of Samnium. 3. Picentini in the SE. 
of the country. 

Campe (Ka^m?), a monster which guarded 
the Cyclopes in Tartarus, was killed by Zeus 
when he wanted the assistance of the Cyclopes 
against the Titans. 

Campi Lapidei (ireSiov AiBafes : la Crau), 
' Plain of Stones ' in the S. of Gaul, E. of the 
Rhone, near the Mediterranean, and on the 
road from Aries to Marseilles. These stones 
were probably deposited by the Rhone and the 
Druentia (Durance), when their course was 
different from what it is at present, and had 
formed a lake. This singular plain was known 
even to Aeschylus, who says that Zeus rained 
down these stones from heaven to assist 
Heracles in his fight with the Ligurians, after 
the hero had shot away all his arrows. A sweet 
herbage grows underneath and between the 
stones, and consequently in ancient as well as 
i in modern times, flocks of .sheep were pastured 



CAMPI 



CANTHUS 



193 



on this plain. (Strab. p. 182 ; Plin. ii... 34, xvi. 
97.) 

Campi Maori (Manpol Kdpjroi : Magreta), the 
' Long Plains,' a tract of country between 
Parma and Modena, celebrated for the wool of 
its sheep (Colum. vii. 2, 3). There appears to 
have been a place of the same name, where 
annual meetings of the neighbouring people 
were held. (Strab. p. 216 ; Liv. xli. 18.) 

Campi Raudii, a plain in the N. of Italy near 
Vercellae, where Marius and Catulus defeated 
the Cimbri, B.C. 101 (Plut. Mar. 26). 

Campi Veteres, in Lucania, the scene of the 
death of Ti. Sempronius Gracchus B.C. 212 
(Liv. xxv. 16). Some take its position to be 
marked by Vietri a little W. of Potenza. 
Campus Martins. [Roma.] 
Camulodunum, or Camalodnnum (Colches- 
ter), chief town of the Trinobantes in Britain, 
named from Camulus, the Celtic Mars. A 
Roman colony was established here in the reign 
of Claudius. It was sacked in the insurrection 
of Boudicca (Tac. Ann. xii. 32, xiv. 31) ; but 
afterwards became the civil capital of Ro- 
man Britain, while Eboracum was the military 
centre. Eventually, however, its importance 
diminished, as that of Eboracum increased. 

Camuni (Katwvvot), an Alpine tribe in the 
valley of the Ollius (Oglio) N. of L. Selinus (L. 
d' Iseo), now called Val Camonica (Strab. 
p. 206; Plin. iii. 134, 136). 

Cana.ce (Kava/oj), daughter of Aeolus and Ena- 
rete, had several children by Poseidon. She 
entertained an unnatural love for her brother, 
Macareus, and on this account was forced by her 
father to kill herself (Ov. Her. 11, Trist. ii. 384). 

Canachus (Kdvaxos). 1. A Sicyonian sculp- 
tor, belonged to the later archaic period about 
520 B.C., and executed, among other works, a 
colossal statue of Apollo Philesius at Branchi- 
dae, which was carried to Ecbatana by Xerxes, 
479. Cicero speaks of his works as ' rigidiora 
quam ut imitentur veritatem' (Brut. 18,70; 
Pans. ii. 10, 4, ix. 10, 2).— 2. Probably grand- 
son of the former, from whom he is not dis- 
tinguished by the ancients. He and Patrocles 
cast the statues of 2 Spartans, who had fought 
at Aegospotamos, B.C. 405. (Paus. x. 9, 4.) 

Canastrum or Canastraeum (Kdvacrrpov, 
Kavaarpcuov, sc. cucpoyr^piov , tj KavacrTpa'nq 
&Kp7) : C. Paliuri), the S.E. extremity of the 
peninsula Pallene in Macedonia. 

Candace (Kavhaxi)), a queen of the Aethio- 
pians of Meroe, invaded Egypt B.C. 22, but was 
driven back and defeated by Petronius, the 
Roman governor of Egypt. Her name seems 
to have been common to queens of Aethiopia. 
(Strab. p. 820 ; Plin. vi. 186.) 

Candaules (KavSauKi)s>, also called Myrsilus, 
last Heraclid king of Lydia. His wife com- 
pelled Gyges to put her husband to death, 
because he had exhibited to Gyges her unveiled 
charms. Gyges then married the queen and 
mounted the throne, B.C. 716. (Hdt. i. 8.) 

Candavia, Candavli Montes, the mountains 
separating Illyricum from Macedonia, across 
which the Via Egnatia ran (Strab. p. 323 ; Caes. 
B. C. iii. 79). 

Candldum Pr. (Bas-eUAbiad, Cap Bianco), 
N.W. of Hippo Zaritus on the N. coast of 
Zeugitana, in Africa, forms the W, headland of 
the Sinus Hipponensis (Mel. i. 7, 2). 

Cane or Canae (Kdvr\: Kara dagn), a promon- 
tory and town in Aeolis between Atarneus and 
Pitane, opposite the S. extremity of Lesbos. 
(Strab. pp. 581, 584, 615; Hdt. vii. 42; Liv. 
xxxvi. 45.) 



Canens, a nymph wedded to Picus. When 
Circe in jealousy changed Picus to a bird 
[Picus], Canens after a vain search for her 
husband sank in the Tiber, whence her song 
was heard floating in the air. (O v. Met. xiv. SfcU.) 

Canicula. [Canis.] 

Canidia, whose real name was Gratidia, wag 
a Neapolitan courtesan Deloved by Horace ; 
but when she deserted him, he revenged him- 
self by holding her up to contempt as an old 
sorceress (Epod. 5, 17, Sat. i. 8). 

Canidius Crassus, P. [Crassus.] 

Caninlus Gallus. [Gallus.] 

Caninius Eebilus. [Rebilus.] 

Canis (Kvoev), the constellation of the Great 
Dog. The most important star in this con- 
stellation was specially named Canis or Ca- 
nicula, and also Sircus. About B.C. 400 the 
heliacal rising of Sirius at Athens, corre- 
sponding with the entrance of the sun into the 
sign Leo, marked the hottest season of the year, 
and this observation being taken on trust by 
the Romans, without considering whether it 
j suited their age and country, the Dies Canicu- 
lar es became proverbial among them, as the 
Dog Days are among ourselves. — The con- 
: stellation of the Little Dog was called Procyon 
(TlpoKvaiv), literally translated Ante canem, 
j Antecanis, because in Greece this constellation 
rises heliacally before the Great Dog. When 
I Bootes was regarded as Icarius [Aectos], 
I Procyon became Maera, the dog of Icarius. 

Cannae (Cannensis: Canne), a village in 
Apulia, N.E. of Canusium, situated in an 
extensive plain E. of the Aufidus and N. of the 
small river Vergellus, memorable for the defeat 
of the Romans by Hannibal, B.C. 216 (Liv. 
xxii. 46; Polyb. iii. 113; Appian, Hann. 20). 

Canninefates. [Batavi.] 

Canobus or Canopus (Kdvaflos or Kdvuiros) 
according to Grecian story, the helmsman of 
Menelaus, who on his return from Troy died in 
Egypt, and was buried on the site of Canobus, 
which derived its name from him (Strab. p. 801). 

Canobus or Canopus (KdvwfSos, Kavamos : 
K(ww0Lrris : Ru. W. of Aboukir), an important 
city on the coast of Lower Egypt, near the 
W.-most mouth of the Nile, which was hence 
called the Canopic Mouth (rb KavufjiKbi/ cr6p.a). 
It was 120 stadia (12 geog. miles) E. of Alex- 
andria, and was (at least at one time) the 
capital of the Nomos Menelaites. It bad a 
great temple of Serapis, and a considerable 
commerce ; and its inhabitants were proverbial 
for their luxury fKa/oi)9io><is). After the esta- 
blishment of CI ristianity, the city rapidly de- 
clined. (Hdt. ii. 15, 97, 113 ; Strab. pp. 666, 800 ; 
Aesch. Suppl. 112; Verg. Georg. iv. 287.) 

Canonium, in Britain, 8 miles from Camu- 
lodununi (Colchester) on the road to Venta 
Icenorum (Norwich): probably about Kelvedon. 

Cantabri, a people in the N. of Spain. The 
Romans originally gave this name to all the 
people on the N. coast of Spain ; but when 
they became better acquainted with the country, 
the name was restricted to the people bounded 
on the E. by the Astures and on theW. by the 
Autrigones. The Cantabri were a fierce and 
warlike people, and were only subdued by 
Augustus after a struggle, of several years (B.C. 
25-19). (Strab. pp. 155, 164 ; Dio Cass. liii. 25, 
liv. 20 ; Hor. Od. ii. 6, iii. 8.) 

Cantharus (KdvSapos), a sculptor of Siryon, 
about B.C. 268 (Plin. xxxiv. 85). 

Can thus (KdvBot), an Argonaut, son of Cane- 
thus or of Abas of Euboea, was slain in Libya, 
by Cephalion or Caphaurus. 

O 



194 



CANTIUM 



CAPPADOCIA 



Cantium (Cantii : Kent), a district of Britain, 
nearly the same as the modern Kent, but in- 
cluded Londinium. 

Canuleius, C, tribune of the plebs, b.c. 445, 
proposed the law, establishing conubium, or 
the right of intermarriage, between the patri- 
cians and plebs. He also proposed that the 
people should have the right of choosing the 
consuls from either the patricians or the plebs ; 
hut this proposal was not carried, and it was 
resolved instead, that military tribunes, with 
consular power, should be elected from either 
order in place of the consuls. [Diet. Ant. s.v. 
Lex Oanuleia.1 

Canusium (Canusinus: Canosa), a town in 
Apulia, on the Aufidus, and on the high road 
from Rome to Brundusium, founded, according 
to tradition, by Diomede (Strab. p. 284), whence 
the surrounding country was called Campus 
Diomedis. It was at all events a Greek colony, 
and both Greek and Oscan were spoken there 
in the time of Horace. (Canusmi more bilin- 
guis, Hor. Sat. i. 10, 30.) Canusium was a town 
of considerable importance, but suffered greatly, 
like most of the other towns in the S. of Italy, 
during the second Punic war. Here the remains 
of the Roman army took refuge after their de- 
feat at Cannae, B.C. 216. It was celebrated for 
its mules and its woollen manufactures, but it 
had a deficient supply of water. (Hor. Sat. i. 
5, 91.) There are still ruins of the ancient town 
near Canosa. 

Canutius, or Cannutius. 1. P., a distin- 
guished orator, frequently mentioned in Cicero's 
oration for Cluentius. — 2. Ti., tribune of the 
plebs, b.c. 44, a violent opponent of Antony, and, 
after the establishment of the triumvirate, of 
Octavian also. He was taken prisoner at the 
capture of Perusia, and was put to death 40. 

Capaneus (Kairavevs), son of Hipponous and 
Astynome or Laodice, and father of Sthenelus, 
was one of the seven heroes who marched from 
Argos against Thebes. He was struck by Zeus 
with lightning, as he was scaling the walls of 
Thebes, because he had dared to defy the god. 
While his body was burning, his wife Evadne 
leaped into the flames and destroyed herself. 

Capella, the star. [Capba.] 

Capella, an elegiac poet of whom nothing re- 
mains ; contemporary of Ovid (Pont. iv. 16, 36). 

Capella, Martianus Mineus Felix, a native 
of Carthage, probably flourished towards the 
close of the fifth century of our era. He is the 
author of a work in nine books, composed in a 
medley of prose and various kinds of verse, after 
the fashion of the Satyra Menippea of Varro. 
It is a sort of encyclopaedia, and was much 
esteemed in the middle ages. The first two 
books, which are an introduction to the rest, 
consist of an allegory, entitled the Nuptials of 
Philology and Mercury, while in the remaining 
seven are expounded the principles of the seven 
liberal arts, Grammar, Dialectics, Rhetoric, 
Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music, 
including Poetry. — Editions. By Hugo Grotius, 
Lugd. Bat. 1599; by Kopp, Francf. 1836; Eys- 
<;enhardt, Lips. 1886. 

Capena (Capenas, -atis : Civitucola, an unin- 
habited hill), an ancient Etruscan town founded 
by and dependent on Veii, submitted to the 
Romans B.C. 395, the year after the conquest of 
Veii, and subsequently became a Roman muni- 
cipium (Liv. v. 8-24). In its territory was the 
celebrated grove and temple of Feronia on the 
small river Capenas. [Feronia.] 

Capena Porta. [Roma.] 

Caper, Flavius, a Roman grammarian of un- 



certain date, whose works are quoted repeatedly 
by Priscian, and of whom we have two short 
treatises extant : printed by Putschius, Gram- 
mat. Latin, pp. 2239-2248, Hanov. 1605. 

Capetus Silvius. [Silvtus.] 

Caphareus (Kacp-qp^vs : Capo a" Oro), a rocky 
and dangerous promontory on the SE. of 
Euboea, where the Greek fleet was wrecked on 
its return from Troy (Hdt. viii. 7 ; Strab. p. 
368 ; Eur. Troad. 90 ; Verg. Aen. xi. 260 ; Ov. 
Met. xiv. 472, 481). 

Caphyae (Kcupvai), a town in Arcadia, NW. 
of Orchomenus (Strab. p. 608; Paus. viii. 23). 

Capito, C. Ateius. 1. Tribune of the plebs 
B.C. 55 ; opposed the triumvirs Pompeius and 
Crassus as regards their levies of troops and 
disposition of provinces (Plut. Crass. 19 ; Dio 
Cass, xxxix. 33 ; Cic. ad Att. iv. 13). — 2. Son of 
No. 1, an eminent Roman jurist, was appointed 
Curator aquarum publicarum in a.d. 13, and 
held this office till his death, 22. He gained 
the favour of both Augustus and Tiberius by 
flattery and obsequiousness. (Suet. Gramm. 
22 ; Dio Cass. lvii. 17 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 75.) He 
wrote numerous legal works, which are cited in 
the Digest and elsewhere. Capito and his con- 
temporary Labeo were reckoned the highest 
legal authorities of their day, and were the 
founders of two legal schools, to which most of 
the great jurists belonged. The schools took 
their respective names from distinguished dis- 
ciples of those jurists. The followers of Capito 
were called from Mastjritjs Sabinus, Sabiniani; 
and afterwards from Cassius Longinus, Cas- 
siani. The followers of Labeo took from Pro- 
culus the name Proculeiani. [Labeo.] 

Capito, C. Fonteius, a friend of M. Antony, 
accompanied Maecenas to Brundusium, b.c. 37, 
when the latter was sent to effect a reconciliation 
between Octavianus and Antony (Hor. Sat. i. 
5. 32). Capito remained with Antony, and went 
with him to the East. 

Capitolinus, Julius, one of the Scriptores 
Historiae Augustae, lived in the reign of Dio- 
cletian (a.d. 284-305). The Lives of Antoninus 
Pius, M. Aurelius, Verus, Pertinax, Clodius 
Albinus, the two Maximians, three Gordiani, 
Maximus and Balbinus, are attributed to him. 

Capitolinus, Manlius. [Manlius.] 

Capitolinus Hons. [Roma.] 

Capitolinus, Petillius, was, according to the 
Scholiast on Horace (Sat. i. 4. 94), entrusted with 
the care of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol 
(whence he was called Capitolinus), and was ac- 
cused of having stolen the crown of Jupiter, but 
was acquitted by the judges in consequence of 
his being a friend of Augustus. The surname 
Capitolinus appears, however, to have been a 
regular family-name of the gens. The story, 
therefore, is doubtful, and it remains uncertain 
for what peculation he was tried. 

Capitolinus, Quintius. [Quinttos.] 

Capitolium. [Roma.] 

Cappadocia (KcwnraSo/cia : KaTiraSol, Cappa- 
dox), a district of Asia Minor, to which different 
boundaries were assigned at different times. 
Under the Persian empire it included the whole 
country inhabited by a people of mixed origin, 
the old Cimmerian stock being combined with a 
large immigration of Assyrian colonists, whence 
the inhabitants were called (from their com- 
plexion) White Syrians (AevK6<rvpoi), as well as 
Cappadoces, which appears to have been a word 
of Persian origin. Their country seems to have 
embraced the whole NE. part of Asia Minor E. 
of the Halys and N. of the Taurus. Under the 
later Persian kings the country was divided 



CAPPADOX 



CAPUA 



195 



into two satrapies, which were named respec- 
tively from their proximity to the Euxine and 
to the Taurus, the N. part being called Cappa- 
docia ad Pontum and then simply Pontus, the 
S. part Cappadocia ad Taurum, and then simply 
Cappadocia : the former was also called Cappa- 
docia Minor and the latter Cappadocia Major. 
In the time of Strabo Amisus (Samsun) was, as 
now, the seaport for Cappadocia ; but in earlier 
times Sinope was the port for this district and 
for merchandise from Central Asia. The change 
seems to have come about the second century 
B.C. Under the Persian Empire, the whole 
country was governed by a line of hereditary 
satraps, who traced their descent from Anaphas, 
an Aehaemenid, one of the seven chieftains that 
slew the pseudo-Smerdis, and who soon raised 
themselves to the position of tributary kings. 
After a temporary suspension of their power 
during the wars between the successors of Alex- 
ander, when Ariarathes I. was defeated and 
slain by Perdiccas (b. c. 322}, the kings of S. 
Cappadocia (respecting the other part see 
Pontus) recovered their independence under 
Ariai'atnes EL, whose history and that of his 
successors will be found under Akiaeathes and 
Ariobabzanes. In a. D. 17, Archelaiis, the last 
king, died at Rome, and Tiberius made Cappa- 
docia a Roman province, governed by a procu- 
rator till the reign of Vespasian (Dio Cass. lvii. 
17; Tac. Ann. xii. 45; 0. I. L. ii. p. 1970.) 
Soon afterwards the districts of Cataonia and 
Melitene, which had before belonged to Cilicia, 
were added to Cappadocia, and the province then 
comprised the ten praefecturae (crrparriylai) of 
Melitene, Cataonia, Cilicia, Tyanitis, Garsau- 
ritis, Laviniasene, Sargarausene, Sarauravene, 
Chamauene, and Morimene (Strab. p. 534). The 
W.frontierof the Roman province was formed by 
Lake Tatta and a line passing S. to the Taurus, 
so as just to include Cybistra : the Taurus 
formed the southern and the Euphrates the 
eastern boundary : on the NW. it just included 
Parnassus and Zama : the northern frontier 
seems to have varied, extending at one time 
nearly as far as Sebastopolis and Zela, but in 
Strabo's time falling south of Sibora. Vespa- 
sian in a. d. 70 placed the province of Cappadocia 
under a consular legatus (Suet. Vesp. 8). 
About A. r>. 78 it was united with the province 
Galatia ; but Trajan reverted to the original 
division, and added Pontus Galaticus and Pole- 
moniacus to Cappadocia. In the fourth century 
the province was divided into Cappadocia 
Prima and Secunda, and Justinian again 
divided Cappadocia Secunda into two parts, 
making Mociasus, which he named Justiniano- 
polis, the capital of Cappadocia Tertia. Cap- 
padocia was a rough and generally sterile 
mountain region ; bordered by the chains of the 
Paryadres on the N., the Scydisses on the E., 
and the Tauuus on the S., and intersected by 
that of the Anti-Taurus, on the side of whose 
central mountain, Akgaels, stood the capital 
Mazaca, aft. Caesauea ai> Akoaeum. Its chief 
rivers were theHiLYS and the Melas. Its fine 
pastures supported good horses and mules. 

Cappadox (Ka7nra8o{: JJilit/j/.irmak), a tri- 
butary of the Halys, rising in M. Litlirus, in 
the chain of Paryadres, and forming the NW. 
boundary of Cappadocia, on the side of Galatia. 

Capra, or Capella (Af{J, the brightest star in 
the constellation of the Auriga, or Charioteer, 
is sometimes called Olcnia Capella, because it 
rested on the shoulder (ivl ri)s wKft>T)S) of the 
Auriga. This star was said to have been origi- 
nally the nymph or goat who nursed the infant 



Zeus in Crete. [Amaxthea.] Its heliacal ris- 
, ing took place soon before the winter solstice, 
and thus it was termed signum pluviale. 

Capraria. 1. (Capraja), a small island off 
I the coast of Etruria between Populonia and the 
N. extremity of Corsica, inhabited only by wild 
goats, whence its name : called by the Greeks 
AtytAov. — 2 (Cabrera), a small island off the 
S. of the Balearis Major (Majorca), dangerous 
to ships. — 3. See Aegates. — 4. See Fortu- 

NATAE INSULAE. 

Caprasia, a town of Bruttium, 28 miles from 
Consentia : probably the modern Tarsia. 
Capreae (Capri), a small island, 9 miles in 
• circumference, off Campania, at the S. entrance 
of the gulf of Puteoli, and 2£ miles from the 
' promontory of Minerva, from which the island 
j had been separated by an earthquake. It is 
composed of calcareous rocks, which rise to two 
summits, the highest of which is between 1000 
and 1700 feet above the sea. The scenery is 
beautiful, and the climate soft and genial. Ac- 
cording to tradition, it was originally inhabited 
by the Teleboae, but afterwards belonged to the 
inhabitants of Neapolis, from whom Augustus 
either purchased it or obtained it in exchange 
for the island Pithecusa. Here Tiberius lived 
the last ten years of his reign, indulging in secret 
debauchery, and accessible only to his creatures. 
He erected many magnificent buildings on the 
island, the chief of which was the Villa Jovis, 
and the ruins of which are still to be seen. (Tac. 
Ann. iv. 67; Suet. Aug. 92, Tib. 40-65.) 

Capria (Kairpia), a large salt lake in Pam- 
phylia, between Perge and Aspendus. 

Capricornus lAiy6icepws), the Goat, a sign of 
the Zodiac, between the Archer and the Water- 
man, fought with Jupiter against the Titans. 

Caprus (Kairpos). 1. (Little Zab), a river of 
Assyria, rising in Mt. Zagros, and flowing SW. 
into the Tigris, opposite to Caenae (Strab. p. 
738). — 2. A little river of Phrygia, rising at 
the foot of M. Cadmus, and flowing N. into the 
Lycus. 

Capsa (Capsetanus: Ghafsah), a strong city 
i in the SW. of Byzacena in N. Africa, in a 
fertile oasis, surrounded by a sandy desert 
abounding in serpents. Its foundation was 
ascribed by tradition to the Libyan Hercules. 
In the war with Jugurtha it was destroyed by 
Marius ; but it was afterwards rebuilt and made 
a colony (Strab. p. 831 ; Sail. Jug. 89). 

Capua (Capuanus, Capuensis, but more com- 
monly Campanus: Capua), originally called 
Vulturnum, the chief city of Campania after 
the fall of Cumae, is said to have derived its 
name from Capys. Capua was either founded 
or colonised by the Etruscans, according to 
some 50 years before the foundation of Koine, 
and it became at an early period the most 
prosperous, wealthy, and luxurious city in the 
S. of Italy (Liv. iv. 37 ; Strab. p. 242 j Veil. Pat. 
i. 7). In B.C. 420 it was conquered by the war- 
like Samnites; and the population, which had 
always been of a mixed nature, now consisted 
of Ausonians, Oscans, Etruscans, and Samnites. 
At a later time Capua, again attacked by the 
Samnites, placed itself under the protection of 
Rome, 348. It revolted to Hannibal after the 
battle of Cannae, 216, but was taken by the 
Romans in 211, was fearfully punished, and 
never recovered its former prosperity. It was 
now governed by a praefectus, who was sent 
annually to the city from Rome. It received 
a Roman colony by the lex agraria of Julius 
Caesar, 59, and under Nero a colony of veterans 
was settled there (Suet. Jul. 20; Tac. Ann. xiii. 

o9 



196 



CAPUT 



CABBO 



31). It was subsequently destroyed by the 
barbarians who invaded Italy. The modern 
town of Capua is built about 3 miles from the 
ancient one, the site of which is indicated by 
the ruins of an amphitheatre. 

Caput Vada Prom. [Bbachodes.] 

Capys (Kdirvs). 1. Son of Assaracus and 
Hieromnemone, and father of Anchises. — 2. A 
companion of Aeneas, from whom Capua was 
said to have been named (Verg. Aen. x. 145). 

Capys Silvius. [Silvius.] 

Capytium or Capitium (Capizzi), called by 
Cicero (Verr. iii. 43) Capitina Civitas, a town 
in Sicily near Mt. Aetna (Ptol. iii. 4, 12). 

Car (Kdp), son of Phoroneus, and king of 
Megara, from whom the acropolis of this town 
was called Caria. 

Caracalla, emperor of Borne, a.d. 211-217, 
was son of Septimius Severus and his 2nd wife 
Julia Domna, and was born at Lyons, a.d. 188 
(Herodian, iv. 1 ; Dio Cass, lxxvii. 2). He was 
originally called Bassianus after his maternal 
grandfather, but afterwards M. Aurelius Anto- 
ninus, which became his legal name, and ap- 
pears on medals and inscriptions. Caracalla 
was a nickname derived from a long tunic worn 
by the Gauls, which he adopted as his favourite 
dress after he became emperor (Dio Cass, 
lxxviii. 3). In 198 Caracalla, when 10 years 
old, was declared Augustus, and in the same 
year accompanied his father, Severus, in the 
expedition against the Parthians. He returned 
with Severus to Borne in 202, and married 
Plautilla, daughter of Plautianus, the praeto- 
rian praefect. In 208 he went with Severus to 
Britain ; and on the death of the latter at 
York, 211, Caracalla and his brother Geta 




Caracalla, Roman Emperor, A.D. 211-217. 
Obv., head of Caracalla laurelled with legend ANTO- 
NINVS P1VS AVG. BRIT. : rev., figure of Mars with 
legend MARTI PROPUGNATORI. 

succeeded to the throne, according to their 
father's arrangements. Caracalla obtained 
the sole government by the murder of his 
brother, 212 (Dio Cass, lxxvii. 2; Herodian, iv. 
8 ; Vita Carac. 6). The assassination of Geta 
was followed by the execution of many of the 
most distinguished men of the state, whom 
Caracalla suspected of favouring his brother's 
cause: the celebrated jurist Papinian was one 
of his victims. His cruelties and extravagan- 
cies knew no bounds; and after exhausting 
Italy by his extortions, he resolved to visit the 
different provinces of the empire, which became 
the scenes of fresh atrocities. In 214 he visited 
Gaul, Germany, Dacia, and Thrace; and, in 
consequence of a campaign against the Ale- 
manni, he assumed the surname Alemannicus. 
In 215 he went to Syria and Egypt ; his sojourn 
at Alexandria was marked by a general slaughter 
of the inhabitants, in order to avenge certain 
sarcastic pleasantries in which they had in- 
dulged against himself and his mother. In 216 
he crossed the Euphrates, laid waste Meso- 
potamia, and returned to Edessa, where he 
wintered. Next year he again took the field, 
intending to cross the Tigris, but was murdered 
near Edessa by Macrinus, the praetorian prae- 
fect. Caracalla gave to all free inhabitants of 



the empire the name and privileges of Boman 
citizens. (Vita Sever. ; Vita Carac; Dio Cass, 
lxxvii. ; Herodian, iv.) 

Caralis or Carales (Caralitanus: Cagliari), 
the chief town of Sardinia, with an excellent 
harbour, situated on the Sinus Caralitanus 
and on a promontory of the same name (Capo 
S. Elia). It was founded by the Carthaginians ; 
under the Bomans it was the residence of the 
prastor, and at a later period enjoyed the Soman 
franchise. (Paus. x. 17, 9 ; Liv. xxx. 39 ; Caes. 
B. C. i. 30; Strab. p. 224.) 

Carambis (Kapd[xf3is &Kpa : Kerempe), a pro- 
montory, with a city of the same name, on the 
coast of Paphlagonia, almost exactly opposite 
the Kriu Metopon or S. promontory of the Cher- 
sonesus Taurica (Crimea) (Strab. p. 545). 

Car anus (Kdpavos). 1. Of Argos, a descendant 
of Heracles, and a brother of Phidon, is said to 
have settled at Edessa in Macedonia with an 
Argive colony about B.C. 750, and to have 
become the founder of the dynasty of Mace- 
donian kings. — 2. Son of Philip and half -brother 
of Alexander the Great. — 3. A general of Alex- 
ander the Great. 

Caratacus, or Caractacus, king of the Silures 
in Britain, defended his country against the 
Bomans, in the reign of Claudius. He was at 
length defeated by the Bomans, and fled to Car- 
timandua, queen of the Brigantes ; but she be- 
trayed him to the Bomans, who carried him to 
Borne, a.d. 51. When brought before Claudius, 
he addressed the emperor in so noble a manner 
that he pardoned him and his friends. (Tac. 
Ann. xii. 33 ; Hist. iii. 45.) 

Carausius, born among the Menapii in Gaul, 
was entrusted by Maximian with the command 




Carausius, Roman Emperor, A.D. 287-295. 
Obv., bust of Carausius laureate with legend IMP. CAEAV- 
SIVS P. F. AVG. ; rev., within wreath, MVLTIS XX 
IMP. ; around, VOTO PVBLICO. E. S. E. 

of the fleet which was to protect the coasts of 
Gaul against the ravages of the Franks. But 
Maximian, having become dissatisfied with the 
conduct of Carausius in this command, and 
suspecting that he aimed at independent rule, 
gave orders for his execution. Carausius forth- 
with crossed over to Britain, where he assumed 
the title of Augustus, A.D. 287. After several 
ineffectual attempts to subdue him, Diocletian 
and Maximian acknowledged him as their col- 
league in the empire, and he continued to reign 
in Britain till 293, when he was murdered by 
his chief officer, Allectus. (Eutrop. ix. 20-25 ; 
Aurel. Caes. 39.) 

Carbo, Papirius. 1. C, a distinguished 
orator, and a man of great talents, but of no 
principle. He commenced public life as one of 
the 3 commissioners or triumvir* for carrying 
into effect the agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus. 
His tribuneship of the plebs, B.C. 131, was cha- 
racterised by the most vehement opposition to 
the aristocracy ; and he was thought even to 
have murdered Scipio Africanus, the champion 
of the aristocratical party, 129. But after the 
death of C. Gracchus (121), he suddenly de- 
serted the popular party, and in his consulship 
(120) actually undertook the defence of Opimius, 



CARCASO 

who had murdered C. Gracchus. In 119 Carbo 
was accused by L. Licinius Crassus, who 
brought a charge against him, and as he fore- 
saw his condemnation, he put an end to his 
life. Valerius Maximus is probably mistaken 
in saying that he went into exile. (Liv. Ep. 
59, 61 ; Appian, B. C. 1, 18 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 4 ; 
Cic. de Or. ii. 25, ad Fam. ix. 21 ; Val. Max. 
iii. 7, 6.) — 2. Cn., consul 113, was defeated by 
the Cimbri near Noreia, and being afterwards 
accused by M. Antonius, he put an end to his 
•own life (Liv. Ep. 63). — 3. C, with the surname 
-Arvina, son of No. 1, was a supporter of the 
aristocracy. In his tribuneship (90), Carbo and 
his colleague, M. Plautius Silvanus, carried a 
law (Lex Papiria Plautia), giving the Roman 
franchise to the citizens of the federate towns. 
Carbo was murdered in 82, by the praetor 
Brutus Damasippus, at the command of the 
younger Marius. (Veil. Pat. ii. 26.) [Brutus, 
No. 10.] — 4. Cn., son of No. 2, was one of the 
leaders of the Marian party. He was thrice 
consul — namely, in 85, 84, and 82. In 82 he 
carried on war against Sulla and his generals, 
but was at length obliged to abandon Italy : he 
fled to Sicily, where he was taken prisoner, and 
put to death by Pompey at Lilybaeum. (Plut. 
Pomp. 5 ; Appian, B. C. i, 67-96.) 

Carcaso (Carcassone), a town of the Tecto- 
sages in Gallia Narbonensis, on the river Atax 
(Aude). P. Crassus drew troops from it in his 
Aquitanian campaign of B.C. 56 (Caes. B. G. 

iii. 20; Carcasum, Plin. iii. 36; Ptol. ii. 10). 
Carcathaocerta (KapKaBidKepra : Kartpurt 

•or Diarbekr), the capital of the district of 
Sophene in Armenia Major (Strab. p. 527). 

Carcinus (KapKivos). 1. A comic poet and a 
contemporary of Aristophanes (Nub. 1263, Pax, 
794). — 2. A tragic poet of Agrigentum, contem- 
porary of Sophocles and father of Xenocles, 
who defeated Euripides in B.C. 415. — 3. Son of 
Xenocles and grandson of No. 2, wrote trage- 
dies, which are characterised as sententious, 
and careless in versification (Ar. Poet. 16, 17.) 

Cardamyle (KapSa/j.v\ri : KapSafxvKhris). 1. 
A town in Messenia, one of the 7 towns pro- 
mised by Agamemnon to Achilles (II. ix. 150, 
292). It stood on a rock 1 mile from the sea 
and 7 from Leuctra; by Augustus it was trans- 
ferred from Messenia to Laconia (Strab. p. 360 ; 
Paus. iii. 26, 7). Ruins are seen NE. of the 
modern Skardamula. — 2. An island near or 
perhaps a town in Chios. 

Cardea, a Roman divinity protecting the 
hinges of doors (cardo), was a nymph beloved 
by Janus. Ovid (Fast. vi. 101, seq.) confounds 
this goddess with Carna. 

Cardia (KapBla : VLaphicwis : Bakla-burun), a 
town on the W. side of the Thracian Chersonese 
on the gulf of Melas, founded by Miletus and 
Clazomenae, and subsequently colonised by tin: 
Athenians under Miltiades (Hdt. vii. D8, ix. 
115). It was destroyed by Lysimachus, who 
built the town of Lyhimaciiia in its immediate 
neighbourhood. Cardia was the birthplace of 
Eumenes and of the historian Hieronymus. 
(Paus. i. 9, 10 ; Strab. p. 331 ; Nep. Hum. 1.) 

Carduchi {Kaphovxui). a powerful and warlike 
people in the SE. of Great Armenia, on the 
NE. margin of the Tigris valley, probably the 
same as the Topbvcuoi and Vophvn]voi of the late 
geographers and the Kurds of modern times. 
They dwelt in the mountains which divided 
Assyria on the NE. from Armenia (Mts. of 
Kurdistan), and were never thoroughly sub- 
dued. (Strab. pp. 523, 734, 747; Xen. Anab. 

iv. 1 ; Diod. xiv. 27-1 



CARTA 



197 



Caresus (Kapricros), a town of the Troad, on a 
river of the same name : destroyed before the 
time of Strabo (X/. xii. 20 ; Strab. p. 602). 

Caria (Kapia : KSp), a district of Asia Minor, 
in its SW. corner, bounded on the N. and NE. 
by the mountains Messogis and Cadmus, which 
divided it from Lydia and Phrygia, and adjacent 
to Phrygia and Lycia on the E. and SE. It is 
intersected by low mountain chains running 
out far into the sea in long promontories, the 
N.-most of which was called Mycale, ending in 
the point 1'rogilium (opposite to Samos), the 
next Posidium (on which stood Miletus and 
Branchidae), the next is the long tongue of 
land terminated by the two headlands of 
Zephyrium and Termerium (with Halicarnassus 
on its S. side), next the Cnidian Chersonesus, 
terminated by the cape Triopium and the city 
of Cnidus, then the Rhodian Chersonesus, the 
S. point of which was called Cynossema, oppo- 
site to Rhodes, and, lastly, Pedalium or Arte- 
misium, forming the W. headland of the bay of 
Glaucus. The chief gulfs formed by these pro- 
montories were the Maeandrian, between Tro- 
gilium and Posidium ; the Iassiau, between 
Posidium and Zephyrium ; and the Sinus Cera- 
micus, between Termerium and Ti iopium. The 
valleys between these mountain chains were 
well watered and fertile. The chief river was 
the Maeander, between the chains of Messogis 
and Latmus, to the S. of which the country was 
watered by its tributaries, the Marsyas, Har- 
pasus, and Mosynus, besides some streams 
flowing W. and S. into the sea, the most con- 
siderable of which was the Calbis. (See the 
articles.) The chief products of the country 
were com, wine, oil, and figs; for the last of 
which Caunus, on the S. coast, was very famous. 
An extensive commerce was carried on by the 
Greek colonies on the coast. — -Even before the 
great colonisation of the coasts of Asia Minor, 
Dorian settlements existed on the Triopian and 
Cnidian promontories, and this part of Caria, 
with the adjacent islands, received at that time 
other Dorian colonies, and obtained the name 
of Dolus; while to the N. of the Iassian Gulf, 
the coast was occupied by Ionian colonies, and 
thus formed the S. part of Ionia. The iidia- 
bitants of the rest of the country were Carians 
(KSpes), a race probably of Semitic origin, which 
appears, in the earliest times of which we know 
anything, to have occupied the greater part of 
the W. coast of Asia Minor and several islands 
of the Aegaean, with Mylasa as their chief town, 
in conjunction with the Leleges, from whom 
the Carians are not easily distinguishable. [See 
under Leleoes.] The Carians, Lydians, and 
Mysians were connected by their common won- 
ship of Zeus Carios at Mylasa (Hdt. i. 171): the 
Carians had also a common sanctuary of Zeus 
Stratius at Labranda (Strab. p. 659 ; Hdt. v. 119). 
Their language was reckoned by the Greeks 
as a barbarian tongue (i.e. unintelligible), though 
it early received an intermixture of Greek 
(//. ii. 865 ; cf. Strab. p. 661). The people were 
warlike and were employed us mercenaries. 
e.u. by Egyptian kings (Hdt. ii. 163, iii. 11). 
The Greeks are said to have borrowed from the 
Carians the fashions of handles for shields and 
devices on the shields, and of plumed helmets 
(Hdt. i. 171). — The country was governed by a 
race of native princes, who fixed their abode at 
Halicarnassus after its exclusion from the 
Dorian confederacy. [Halicaknakhis.I These 
princes were subject allies of Lydia mid Persia, 
and some of them rose to great distinction in 
war and peace. [.See Aiuemisia, Mausolus, 



198 



CABIN AE 



CABNUNTUM 



and Ada.] After the Macedonian conquest, 
the S. portion of the country became subject to 
Ehodes [Ehodus], and the N. part to the kings of 
Pebgamtjs. Under the Eomans, Caria formed a 
part of the province of Asia. [See these articles.] 
Carinae. [Roma.] 

Carinus, M. Aurelius, the elder of the 2 sons 
of Carus, was associated with his father in the 
government, a.d. 283, and remained in the W., 
while his father and brother Numerianus pro- 
ceeded to the E. to carry on war against the 
Persians. On the death of his father, in the 
course of the same year, Carinus and Nume- 
rianus succeeded to the empire. In 284 Nume- 
rianus was slain, and Carinus marched into 




Carinus, Eoman Emperor, A.D. 283-285. 
0U\, head of Carinus, with legend M. AVE. CAEINVS 
NOB. CAES. ; rev., Pax, with legend PAX AETEHNA. 

Moesia to oppose Diocletian, who had been 
proclaimed emperor. A decisive battle was 
fought near Margum, in which Carinus gained 
the victory, but, in the moment of triumph, he 
was slain by some of his own officers, 285. Cari- 
nus was one of the most profligate and cruel of 
the Roman emperors. (Vopisc. Carin. ; Eutrop. 
ix. 18-20 ; Aurel. Oaes. 39 ; Oros. vii. 25.) 

Carmana (Ka.pij.ava: Herman), the capital 
of Carmania Propria, 3° long. E. of Persepolis. 

Carmania (Kap/j.auia: Kir man), a province 
of the ancient Persian empire, bounded on the 
"W. by Persis, on the N. by Parthia, on the E. 
by Gedrosia, and on the S. by the Indian 
Ocean. It was divided into 2 parts, C. Propria 
and C. Deserta, the former of which was well 
watered by several small streams, and abounded 
in corn, wine, and cattle. The country also 
yielded gold, silver, copper, salt, and cinnabar. 
The people were akin to the Persians (Strab. 
p. 726 ; Arrian, Anab. vi. 28, Ind. 37). 

Carmanor (Kap/xdvwp), a Cretan, purified 
Apollo and Artemis, after slaying the Python. 

Carmelus, and-um (KdpunAos: Jebel-Elyas), 
a range of mountains in Palestine, branching 
off, on the N. border of Samaria, from the 
central chain (which extends S. and N. between 
the Jordan and the Mediterranean), and run- 
ning N. and NW. through the SW. part of 
Galilee, till it terminates in the promontory of 
the same name (Cape Carmel), the height of 
which is 1200 feet above the Mediterranean 
(Strab. p. 758). Here was an oracle consulted by 
Vespasian (Suet. Vesp. 5 ; cf. Tae. Hist. ii. 78). 

Carmenta, Carmentis, according to the pre- 
valent tradition, was an Arcadian nymph, 
mother of Evander, Hermes being the father. 
She accompanied her son in his migration to 
Italy 60 years before the Trojan war. She was 
famed for her prophetic power, and an altar was 
erected to her at the Porta Carmentalis 
(Verg. Aen. viii. 333; Ov. Fast. i. 461 ; Liv. i. 
7; Dionys. i. 38; Plut. Q. B. 56). At her 
festival on January 11th two sister 1 Carmen- 
tes,' known as Porrima or Prosa and Postverta, 
were worshipped with her, as deities of child- 
birth : their names seem to imply her attributes 
as an oracular goddess who could declare alike 
the past events and the future. One peculiar fea- 
ture of her ritual was the prohibition against 



bringing leather into her sanctuary (Ov. Fast. 
i. 629). She is said to have had a 2nd temple 
and 2nd festival on January 15th in accordance 
with the vow of Roman matrons when they 
secured their right of going in carriages. There 
is mention also of a flamen Carmentalis 
(Macrob. Sat. i. 16, 6 ; Plut. Bom. 21 ; Ov. 
Fast. 617; Cic. Brut. 59; Gell. xvi. 6, 4). 
Carmenta, whose name is no doubt connected 
with carmen, seems originally to have been an 
Italian deity of streams, of oracles and of help 
in child-birth, with whom tradition connected 
other legends making her the mother of the 
Arcadian Evander, or in other accounts giving 
as her original names NtKocrrpdrr] and ®e/j.is f 
(Plut. Q. B. 56). 

Carmo (Carmona), a fortified town in 
Hispania Baetica, NE. of Hispalis (Strab. p. 141). 

Carna, a Eoman divinity, who was regarded 
as the protector of the physical well-being of 
man : at her festival on June 1st, offerings of. 
the most nutritious food, especially of beans,, 
were made and part was eaten by the worship- 
pers : hence the name 1 Kalendae fabariae ' for 
the 1st, of June. Her temple on the Caelian 
hill was founded by M. Junius Brutus in the 
first year of the republic (Macrob. Sat. i. 12,, 
31; C. I. L. i. p. 394 ; Tertull. ad Nat. ii. 9). 
Ovid confounds this goddess with Caedea. 

Carneades (Kapved8r]s), a celebrated philoso- 
pher, born at Cyrene about B.C. 213, was the 
founder of the Third or New Academy at, 
Athens. In 155 he was sent to Eome, with 
Diogenes and Critolaus, by the Athenians, to 
deprecate the fine of 500 talents which had 
been imposed on the Athenians for the de- 
struction of Oropus. At Eome he attracted 
great notice, and it was here that he first 
delivered his famous orations on Justice. The 
1st oration was in commendation of the 
virtue, and the next day the 2nd answered all 
the arguments of the 1st, and showed that' 
justice was not a virtue, but a matter of com- 
pact for the maintenance of civil society. 
Thereupon Cato moved the senate to send the 
philosopher home to his school, and save the 
Eoman youth from his demoralising doctrines. 
Carneades died in 129, at the age of 85. He 
was a strenuous opponent of the Stoics, and 
brought Academic scepticism to its extreme 
point, maintaining that neither our senses nor 
our understanding supply us with a sure 
criterion of truth (Cic. de Or. ii. 37, 155, Tusc. 
iv. 3, 5 ; Gell. vi. 14 ; Diog. Lae'rt. iv. 62). 

Carneus (Kapve7os), a surname of Apollo, 
under which he was worshipped by the Dorians, 
is derived by some from Camus, a son of Zeus 
and Leto, and by others from Carnus, an 
Acarnanian soothsayer. The latter was mur- 
dered by Hippotes, and it was to propitiate 
Apollo that the Dorians introduced his worship 
under the surname of Carneus. The festival 
of the Camea, in honour of Apollo, was one of 
the great national festivals of the Spartans. 
(Diet, of Ant. s. v.). [Apollo.] 

Carol, a Celtic people, dwelling N. of the Ve- 
neti in the Alpes Carnicae. [Alpes.] 

Carnuntum (Kapuovs, -ovvtos : ruins be- 
tween Deutseh-Altenburg and Petronell), an 
ancient Celtic town in Upper Pannonia on the 
Danube, E. of Vindobona (Vienna), and sub- 
sequently a Eoman municipium or a colony. 
It was one of the chief fortresses of the Eomans 
on the Danube, and was the residence of the 
emperor M. Aurelius during his wars with the 
Marcomanni and Quadi (Eutrop. viii. 13). It 
i was the station of the Boman fleet on the 



CARNUS 

Danube and the regular quarters oi the 14th 
legion. It was destroyed by the Germans in 
the 4th century (Ammian. xxx. 5), but was re- 
built and was finally destroyed by the Hun- 
garians in the middle ages. 
Camus. [Cabxeus.] 

Carnutes or -i, a powerful people in Gallia 
Lugdunensis between the Liger and Sequana ; 
their capital was Genabusi. 

Carpasia fKapiroo-i'a : Karpass), a town in the 
SE. of Cyprus (Strab. p. 682 ; Diod. xx. 48). 

Carpates, also called Alpes Bastarmcae 
(Carpathian Mountains), the mountains 
running through Dacia, a continuation of 
the Hercynia Silva. Strictly this name seems 
to have belonged to that part of the range, 
next to the Hercynia S., in which the Vistula 
has its source, and the part actually in Dacia 
should be termed only Alpes Bastarnicae (Ptol. 
iii. 5, 6-20). 

Carpathus (KapiraOos : Karpathos, or Scar- 
panto), an island between Crete and Ehodes, in 
the sea named after it : a Dorian country 
under the rule of Rhodes (Strab. p. 488; Diod. 
v. 24) ; chief towns, Posidium and Nisyrus. 

Carpetani, a powerful people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, with a fertile territory on the 
rivers Anas and Tagus, in the modern Castille 
and Estremadura : their capital was Toletum. 

Carpi or Carpiani, a German people between I 
the Carpathian mountains and the Danube. 

Carrae or Carrhae (Kdppai : Haran or ! 
Charran, SS.: Sarran), a city of Osroe'ne in 
Mesopotamia, not far from Edessa, where Cras- 
sus was defeated by the Parthians, B.C. 53 (Strab. 
p. 747 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 5, xl. 25). 

Carrinas or Carinas. 1. C, one of the com- 
manders of the Marian party, fought B.C. 83 
against Pompey, and in 82 against Sulla and 
his generals. After the battle at the Colline 
gate at Rome, in which the Marian army was 
defeated, Carrinas took to flight, but was 
seized, and put to death (Eutrop. v. 8 ; Appian, 
B. C. v. 92).— 2. C, son of No. 1, sent by Caesar, 
in 45, into Spain against Sext. Porapeius. In 
43 he was consul, and afterwards served as a 
general of Octavian against Sext. Pompeius 
in Sicily, in 36, and as proconsul in Gaul in 31 
(Appian, B. C. v. 96-112; Dio Cass. li. 22).— 
3. Secundus, a rhetorician, expelled by Cali- 
gula from Rome, because he had declaimed 
against tyrants in his school (Tac. Ann. xiii. 10, , 
XV. 45). 

Carseoli (Carseolanus : ruins at Civitd, near 
Carsoli), a town of the Aequi in Latium, colo- 
nised by the Romans at an early period (Liv. 
x. 8, 13 ; Strab. p. 288 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 688). 

Carsiilae (Carsulanus: Monte Casfrilli), a 
town in Umbria, was originally of considerable 
importance, but afterwards declined (Strab. 
p. 227 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 60). 

Carteia (also called Carthaoa, Carpia, Carpes- 
sus : remains near Algeciras), more anciently 
TartesSUS, a celebrated town and harbour in 
the S. of Spain, at the head of the gulf of which 
M. Calpe forma one side, founded by the 
Phoenicians, and colonised B.C. 171 by 4000 
Roman soldiers, whose mothers were Spanish 
women (Liv. xliii. 8 ; cf. C. I. L. ii. p. 152). Some 
have thought that Calpe is the same as Carteia: 
it is more probable that there was a town of 
Calpe on the site of Gibraltar and that Carteia 
was distinct from it. (Strab. pp. 141, 145, 151 ; 
Mela, ii. 6, 8 ; Plin. iii. 17 ; Appian, Iber. 3). 

Cartenna or Cartinna (Tmncz), a colony on 
the coast of Matiretania Caesariensis, founded 
by Augustus (Plin. v. 20 ; Ptol. iv. 2, 4). 



CARTHAGO 



199 



Carthaea (Kapdaia: Poles, Ru.), a town on 
the S. side of the island of Ceos. 

Carthago, Magna Carthago (KapxyticLv : 
KapxnS6vios, Carthaginiensis, Poenus : Ru. 
near El-Marsa, NE. of Tunis), one of the most 
celebrated cities of the ancient world, stood in 
the recess of a large bay (Sinus Carthaginiensis) 
enclosed by the headlands Apollinis and 
Mercurii (C. Farina ani C. Bon), in the middle 
and N.-most part of the N. coast of Africa, in 
lat. about 36° 55' N., and long, about 10° 20' E. 
The Tyrian colony of Carthage was founded, 
according to tradition, about 100 years before 
the building of Rome — that is, about B.C. 853 
— but of its date it would not be safe to assert 
more than it was a later Phoenician settlement 
than Utica, of which it may have been first a 
dependency. The mythical account of its 
foundation is given under Dmo. The part of 
the city first built was called, in the Phoenician 
language, Betzura or Bosra, i.e. a castle, which 
was corrupted by the Greeks into Byrsa. 
(Bvp<ra), i.e. a hide, and hence probably arose 
the story of the way in which the natives were 
cheated out of the ground. As the city grew, 
the Byrsa formed the citadel. The coast of 
this part of Africa has been much altered by 
the deposits of the river Bagradas and the 
sand which is driven seawards by the NW. 
winds. Hence it must be understood that the 
identification of ancient sites at Carthage 
cannot be regarded as ascertained. In ancient 
times Carthage stood upon a peninsula sur- 
rounded by the sea on all sides except the W. ; 
but now the whole space between the N. side of 
this peninsula and the S. side of the Apollinis 
Pr. (C. Farina) is filled up and converted into 
a marsh ; Utica, which was on the sea-shore, 
being left some miles inland ; and the course of 
the Bagradas itself being turned considerably 
N. of its original channel, so that, instead of 
flowing about half-way between Utica and Car- 
thage, it now runs close to the ruins of Utica, 
and falls into the sea just under C. Farina. 
The NE. and SE. sides of the peninsula are 
still open to the sea, which has indeed rather 
encroached here, for ruins are found under 
water. The S. side of the peninsula was formed 
by an enclosed bay, the Lake or Bay of Tunis, 
connected with the sea only by a narrow open- 
ing (now called the Goletta, or, in Arabic, 
Haket-et-Wad, i.e. Throat of the River), which 
was once much deeper than it ii now. The 
circuit of the old peninsula may be estimated 
at about 25 miles, and this space was occupied 
by the city itself, its gardens, suburbs, and 
cemeteries : the width of the isthmus is 8 miles. 
The N. and E. points of the peninsula are two 
headlands, Cape Ghammart and Cape Car- 
thage : the space between them seems to have 
been occupied by suburbs and cemeteries : to 
the south of a line between the promontories 
came the city proper as well as part of the 
suburb Megara, and in the south portion of 
the city proper was the citadel, Byrsa itself. 
South again of the citadel were the two defen- 
sible harbours, of which we have an accurate 
description (taken no doubt from an older 
writer, possibly from Polybius) in Appian (Pun. 
96). The outer harbour had an entranco from 
the sea 70 feet wide, closed by chains : this was 
used for merchantmen. The inner harbour, 
which communicated only with the outer, was 
for ships of war, and all round it, as well as 
round the island in the middle of it, were docks 
for 220 ships, witli two Ionic columns in front of 
each dock, having the effect of colonnades: on 



200 



CAETHAGO 



the island were quarters for the admiral. There 
seems no adequate ground for doubting that 
the name Cothon (kuBcov) was given to the inner 
harbour. Strabo (p. 832) refers it especially to 
the island in the inner harbour; but in its 
origin it was probably meant to signify the oup- 




Ifalker £r Boutall sc. 



Plan of Carthage. 

shaped harbour dug out with the island left in 
the middle. According to Festus the name was 
sometimes given to harbours on the sea coast 
which had been ' artificially withdrawn inland,' 
i.e. hollowed out of the land (cf . ' portus effodi- 
unt,' Verg. Aen. i. 427). It is generally considered 
that two pools on the shore S. of the citadel 
mark these two harbours : this is by no means 
impossible, but cannot be regarded as certain : 
it has recently been disputed (see Classical 
Review, v. 280). They were probably larger at 
one time than they are now. These two har- 
bours were in times of peace supplemented to 
any extent for the great commerce of Carthage 
by the Lake of Tunis (see above). The Ro- 
man city, which was built after the destruc- 
tion of the original Carthage, lay to the S. of it. 
The fortifications of the city consisted of a 
single wall on the side towards the sea, where 
the steep shore formed a natural defence, and 
a triple wall of great height, with battlements 
and towers, cutting off the peninsula from the 
mainland. On this side were barracks for 
40,000 soldiers, and stables for 300 elephants 
and 4000 horses. The suburb called Megara — 
probably a corruption of Magal, which Virgil 
(Aen. i. 421, iv. 259) has Latinised into Magalia — 
also called Neapolis, containing many beauti- 
ful gardens and villas, lay to the N. of the city 
proper. The aqueduct which brought water 
to the city is still traceable to a great distance 
inland. The most remarkable buildings men- 
tioned within the city were the temple of the 
god Esmun, whom the Greeks and Romans 
identified with Asclepius, and that of Apollo 
(Baal-Moloch or the Sun) in the market-place. 
The population of Carthage, at the time of the 
3rd Punic war, is stated at 700,000 (Strab. p. 832 ; 
Appian, Pun. 95, 119; Polyb. i. 73; Liv. Ep. 
51 ; Diod. xxxii.). — The constitution of Carthage 
was a municipal oligarchy, somewhat resem- 
bling that of Venice. The government was, by 
the original constitution, in the hands of the 



Gerusia, or council of Ancients, formed of 28 
members chosen (as it seems, annually) by the 
citizens : at their head were two chief magis- 
trates, also elected annually, who were called 
' kings ' by Greek and Roman writers, but had 
little real power, and acted chiefly as supreme 
judges: their title Suffetes or Shofetes is the 
same as the Hebrew Shophetim, the ' Judges ' 
in our translation of the Bible. A general in 
chief was appointed by the Gerusia and had a 
practical dictatorship during a campaign, but 
was called to account at the end of his office. 
The real power, however, at Carthage was in 
the hands of the council of ' The Hundred ' (in 
number 104), who were called ' Judges,' and 
were an oligarchic institution of the aristocratic 
party about B.C. 450, originally intended to 
check the power of the Suffetes and any 
attempt at tyranny. As they held office for 
life, and could punish, even with death, the 
suffetes, gerusiasts, or generals at the expira- 
tion of their office, they became practically 
supreme, and their approval of measures was 
generally sought beforehand. This council of 
' The Hundred ' was first formed when the 
power of the house of Mago excited suspicion ; 
and its efficacy was shown in the defeat of the 
attempts made by Hanno (b.c. 340) and Hamil- 
car (b.c. 306) to seize the supreme power. Its 
members were elected by the pentarchies, which 
appear to have been committees of five, who 
held office for life, and filled up vacancies in 
their number by co-option. Originally the 
general assembly of citizens decided on matters 
about which the gerusia and the suffetes dis- 
agreed ; but when the power fell really into 
the hands of the Hundred, it is probable that 
the general assembly had no functions beyond 
the duty of electing the suffetes and the geru- 
siasts. — The general tone of social morality at 
Carthage appears to have been high, at least 
during its earlier history : there was a censor- 
ship of public morals, under the care of the 
gerusia ; and all the magistrates were required, 
during their term of office, to abstain from 
wine : the magistrates were also unpaid. Their 
punishments were very severe, and the usual 
mode of inflicting death was by crucifixion.- 
The religion of Carthage was that of the mother 
country : Baal-Moloch, the Sun and Fire God, 
was appeased with cruel human sacrifices by 
fire, especially in time of reverses : the tutelary 
deity of Carthage was Melcarth (' the king of 
the city '), whom the Greeks called the Phoe- 
nician Heracles : they worshipped also Tanith 
or Astarte [see Aphbodite], and Esmun or 
Asclepius. — The chief occupations of the people 




Carthage, about B.C. 190. 
Obv., head of Persephone ; rev., Pegasus -with Punic 
legend, taken to be Byrsa. 

were commerce and agriculture : in the former 
they rivalled the mother city, Tyre; and the 
latter they pursued with such success that the 
country around the city was one of the best 
cultivated districts in the ancient world, and a 



CARTHAGO 



201 



.great work on agriculture, in 28 books, was 
composed by Mago, a suffete. — The revenues 
of trie state were derived from the subject pro- 
vinces ; and its army was composed of merce- 
naries from the neighbouring country, among 
whom the Numidian cavalry were especially 
distinguished. It was in this mercenary army 
and the aversion of the citizens to military 
service, devoted as they were to commerce and 
wealth, that the eventual weakness of Carthage 
was found. — Of the History of Carthage a 
brief sketch will suffice ; as the most important 
portions of it are related in the ordinary his- 
tories of Rome. The first colonists preserved 
the character of peaceful traders, and main- 
tained friendly relations with the natives of the 
country, to whom they long continued to pay 
a rent or tribute for the ground on which the 
city was built. Gradually, however, as their 
commerce brought them power and wealth, 
they were enabled to reduce the natives of the 
district round the city, first to the condition of 
allies, and then to that of tributaries. Mean- 
while they undertook military expeditions at 
sea, and possessed themselves, first of the small 
islands near their own coast, and afterwards of 
Malta, and the Lipari and Balearic islands : 
they also sent aid to Tyre, when it was besieged 
by Nebuchadnezzar (b.c. 600), and took part in 
wars between the Etruscans and the Bhocaean 
colonies. On the coast of Africa they founded 
numerous colonies, from the Pillars of Hercules 
to the bottom of the Great Syrtis, where they 
met the Greek colonists of Cyrenaica : the 
people of these colonies became intermixed with 
the Libyans around them, forming a population 
who are called Libyo-Phoenicians. In connex- 
ion with their commercial enterprises, they no 
doubt sent forth various expeditions of mari- 
time discovery ; among which we have mention 
of two, which were undertaken during the long 
peace which followed the war with Gelon in 
B.C. 480, to explore the W. coasts of Europe 
and Africa respectively. The record of the 
latter expedition, under Hanno, is still pre- 
served to us in a Greek translation [Hanno], 
from which we learn that it reached probably 
aa far S. as 10° N. lat, if not further. The 
relations of the Carthaginians with the interior 
of N. Africa appear to have been very extensive, 
but the country actually subject to them, and 
which formed the true Carthaginian territory, 
was limited to the district contained between 
the river Tusca (Zain) on the W. and the lake 
and river Triton, at the bottom of the Lesser 
Syrtis, on the S., corresponding very nearly to 
the modern regency of Tunis ; and even within 
this territory there were some ancient Phoe- 
nician colonies, which, though in alliance with 
Carthage, preserved their independent munici- 
pal government, such as Hippo Zaritus, Utica, 
Hadrumetum, and Leptis. — The first great 
development of the power of Cartilage for 
foreign conquest was made by Mago (about 
B.C. 550-500), who is said to have first esta- 
blished a sound discipline in the armies of the 
Tepublic, and to have freed the city from the 
tribute which it still paid to the Libyans. His 
sons, Hasdrubal and Hamilcur, reduced a pan 
of the island of Sardinia, where the Carthagi- 
nians founded the colonies of Caralis and Sulci ; 
and by this time the fame of Carthage had 
spread so far, that Darius is said to have sent 
to ask her aid against the Greeks, which, how- 
ever, was refused. The Carthaginians, however, 
took advantage of the Persian war to attempt 
the conquest of Sicily, whither Hamilcar was. 



sent with a great force, in B.C. 480, but his 
army was destroyed and himself killed in a 
great battle under the walls of Himera, in 
which the Sicilian Greeks were commanded by 
Gelon, the tyrant of Syracuse, and which was 
said to have been fought on the same day as 
the battle of Salamis. It was, in fact, a con- 
certed part of the great struggle between 
Grecian and Asiatic powers for the mastery 
of Southern Europe, to be fought out in the 
west, while the other attack was made from the 
east. It is impossible to overrate the import- 
ance of this and of other attempts of Carthage 
against Sicily and later against Italy. Their 
next attempt upon Sicily, in B.C. 410, led to a 
protracted war, which resulted in a treaty 
between the Syracusans, under Timoleon, and 
the Carthaginians, by which the latter were 
confirmed in the possession of the W. part of 
the island, as far as the river Halicus. From 
B.C. 310-307 there was another war between 
Syracuse and the Carthaginians, which was 
chiefly remarkable for the bold step taken by 
Agathocles, who invaded the Carthaginian 
territory in Africa, and thus, though unable to 
maintain himself there, set an example which 
was followed a century later by Scipio, with 
fatal results to Carthage. Passing over the 
wars with Pykrhus and Hxero, we come to 
the long struggle between Rome and Carthage, 
known as the Punic "Wars, which are fully 
related in the Histories of Bome. [See also 
Hamilcab.] The first lasted from B.C. 265-242, 
and resulted in the loss to Carthage of Sicily 
and the Lipari islands. It was followed by a 
fierce contest of some years between Carthage 
and her disbanded mercenaries, which is called 
the Libyan War, and which was terminated by 
Hamilcar Barcas. After a hollow peace, during 
which the Romans openly violated the last 
treaty, and the Carthaginians conquered Spain 
as far as the Iberus (Ebro), the Second Punic 
War, the decisive contest between the two rival 
states, which were too powerful to co-exist, 
began with the siege of Saguntum (B.C. 218) 
and terminated (b.c. 201) with a peace by which 
Carthage was stripped of all her power. [Han- 
nibal ; Scipio.] Her destruction was now only 
a question of time, and, though she scrupu- 
lously observed the terms of the last peace for 
50 years, in spite of every provocation from the 
Romans and their ally Masinissa, the king of 
Numidia, a pretext was at length found for a 
new war (b.c. 149), which lasted only 8 years, 
during which the Carthaginians, driven to de- 
spair by the terms proposed to them, sustained 
a siege so destructive that, out of 700,000 
persons, who were living in the city at its 
commencement, only 50,000 surrendered to the 
Romans. The city was razed to the ground, 
and remained in ruins for 80 years. At the 
end of that time a colony was established on 
the old site by the Gracchi (Plut. C. Gracch. 
8-14; Appian Pun. 186), which remained in a 
feeble condition till the times of Julius and 
Augustus, under whom a new city was built S. 
of the former, on the SE. side of the peninsula, 
with the name of Colonia Carthago. It soon 
grew so much as to cover a great part (if not 
the whole) of the site of the ancient TyTian 
city : it became the first city of Africa, and 
occupied an important place in ecclesiastical as 
well as in civil history. It was taken by the 
Vandals in a.d. 430, retaken by BeliHiirius in a.d. 
533, and destroyed by the Arab conquerors in 
a.d. 6'JH. — Respecting the territory of Carthage 
under the Romans, see Akuica, No. 2. 



'202 



CARTHAGO NOVA 



CASINUM 



Carthago Nova (KapxwSuv v v4a\ Cartha- 
ge-no), a town on the E. coast of Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, founded by the Carthaginians under 
Hasdrubal, B.C. 243, and subsequently con- 
quered and colonised by the Romans, from 
which time its full name was Colonia Victrix 
Julia Nova Carthago. It is situated on a pro- 
montory running out into the sea, and possesses 
one of the finest harbours in the world : at the 
entrance of the harbour was a small island 
called Scombraria, from the great number of 
scombri or mackerel caught here, from which 
such famous pickle was made. In ancient 
times Carthago Nova was one of the most im- 
portant cities in all Spain ; its population was 
numerous, its trade flourishing, and its temples 
and other public buildings handsome and 
imposing. It was, together with Tarraco, the 
residence of the Soman governor of the pro- 
vince. In the time of Strabo it was still 
flourishing, but was almost destroyed by the 
Goths. Isidore, who was a native, speaks of 
its desolation, a.d. 595 (Orig. xv. 1). In the 
neighbourhood were silver mines ; and the coun- 
try produced a quantity of Sparbum or broom, 
whence the town bore the surname Spartaria, 
and the country was called Campus Spartarius. 
(Strab. p. 158; Polyb. ii. 13; Liv. xxvi. 42; 
Plin. hi. 19.) 

Carura (to Kapo'jpd : Sarilzivi), a Phrygian 
city, in Caria, on the Maeander, celebrated for 
its hot springs (Strab. pp. 578, 663). 

Carus, M. Aurelms, Roman emperor a.d. 
282-283, probably born at Narbo in Gaul, was 
praefectus praetorio under Probus, and on the 




Carus. Roman Emperor. A.D. 282 288. 
Obv., head of Emperor, with name and titles; rev., Pax, 
■with legend PAX AUGG. 

murder of the latter was elected emperor. 
After defeating the Sarmatians, Carus invaded 
the Persian dominions, took Seleucia and Ctesi- 
phon, and was preparing to push his conquests 
beyond the Tigris, when he was, according to 
some accounts, struck dead by lightning, 
towards the close of 283. Others infer that he 
was murdered by Aper. He was succeeded by 
his sons Carinus and Numebianus. Carus 
was a victorious general and able ruler. (Vo- 
pisc. Car. 5-8, Prob. 22; Oros. vii. 24.) 

Carusa (j] Kapov<ra : Kerzeh), a city on the 
coast of Paphlagonia, S. of Sinope (Plin. vi. 7). 

Carventum, a town of the Volsci, to which 
the Carventana Arx mentioned by Livy be- 
longed, a town of the Volsci between Signia 
and the sources of the Trerus (Liv. iv. 53, 55). 

Carvilius Maximus. 1. Sp., twice consul, 
B.C. 293 and 273, both times with L. Papirius 
Cursor. In their first consulship they gained 
brilliant victories over the Samnites, and in 
their second they brought the Samnite war to a 
close (Liv. x. 9, 33, 46, Bp. 14).— 2. Sp., son of 
the preceding, twice consul, 234, when he 
conquered the Sardinians and Corsicans, and 
228, was alive at the battle of Cannae, 216, 
after which he proposed to fill up the vacancies 
in the senate from the Latins. This Carvilius 
was the first person at Rome who divorced his 
wife. (Liv. xxvi. 23 ; Dionys. ii. 25.) 



Caryae (Kapvai : Kapvarns, fem. Kapvarts), a 
town in Laconia near the borders of Arcadia, 
originally belonged to the territory of Tegea in 
Arcadia. It revolted from Sparta in B.C. 371 
after the battle of Leuctra, and was punished 
by Archidamus, who took the town and slaugh- 
tered the citizens (Xen. Sell. vi. 5, 24, vii. 1, 28). 
It possessed a temple of Artemis Caryatis, and 
an anrmal festival in honour of this goddess 
was celebrated here by the Lacedaemonian 
maidens (Paus. iii. 10, 9, iv. 16, 9). Respecting 
the female figures in architecture called Carya- 
tides, see Diet . of Ant. s.v. 

Caryanda (to KapvavSa : KapvavSeis : Kara- 
hoyan), a city of Caria, on a little island, once 
probably united with the mainland, at the NW. 
extremity of the peninsula on which Hali- 
carnassus stood. It once belonged to the 
Ionian League ; and it was the birthplace of the 
geographer Scylax. (Strab. p. 658.) 

Caryatis. [Cabyae.] 

Carystius (Kapvarws), a Greek grammarian 
of Pergamus, lived about B.C. 120, and wrote 
numerous works, all of which are lost. 

Carystus (Kdpvaros : Kapvanrios : Karysto or 
Castel Rosso), a town on the S. coast of Euboea, 
at the foot of Mount Oche, founded by Dryopes ; 
called, according to tradition, after Carystus, 
son of Chiron. Datis and Artaphernes landed 
here in 490. In the neighbourhood was ex- 
cellent marble (Cipolino), which was exported 
in large quantities ; and the mineral called 
Asbestos was also found here. (11. ii. 539; 
Thuc. vii. 57 ; Hdt. vi. 99 ; Strab. p. 446.) 




Coin of Carystus. 
Obv., cow suckling calf ; rev., within incuse square, 
cock, K (Carystus.) 



Casca, P. Servilius, tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 44, was one of the conspirators against 
Caesar, and aimed the first stroke at his assassi- 
nation. He fought in the battle of Philippi 
(42), and died shortly afterwards. — C. Casca, 
the brother of the preceding, was also one of 
the conspirators against Caesar. 

Cascellius, A., an eminent Roman jurist, 
contemporary with Caesar and Cicero, was a 
man of stern republican principles, and spoke 
freely against the proscriptions of the triumvirs. 
(Hoi: A. P. 371; Plin.viii. 144.) 

Casillnum (Casilinas, -atis : Capua nuova), 
a town in Campania on the Vulturnus, and on 
the same site as the modern Capua, celebrated 
for its heroic defence against Hannibal B.C. 216. 
It received Roman colonists by the Lex Julia, 
but had greatly declined in the time of Pliny. 
(Liv. xxii. 15, xxiii. 17 ; Strab. p. 237.) 

Casinum (Casinas, -atis : S. Germano or 
Casino), a town in Latium on the river Casinus, 
and on the Via Latina near the borders of 
Campania ; colonised by the Romans in the 
Samnite war3 ; subsequently a municipium ; 
its citadel containing a temple of Apollo occu- 
pied the same site as the celebrated convent 
Monte Cassino : the ruins of an amphitheatre 
are found at S. Germano. Varro had a villa 
there. (Strab. p. 237 ; Liv. ix. 28 ; Varr. L. L. 
vii. 29, B. B. iii. 5.) 



CASIOTIS 



CASSANDER 



203 



Caaiotis. [CAsros.] 

Casius. 1. (Has Kasaroun), a headland on 
the coast of Egypt, E. of Pelusium, separating 
Lake Serbonis from the sea, with a temple of 
Zeus-Ammon on its summit. Here also was 
the grave of Pompey. At the foot of the 
mountain, on the land side, on the high road 
from Egypt to Syria, stood the town of Casium 
(Katieh). The surrounding district was called 
Casiotis (Strab. p. 758 ; Lucan, viii. 539). — 2. ( Je- 
bel Akra), a mountain on the coast of Syria, S. 
of Antioch and the Orontes, 5318 feet above the 
level of the sea. The mountain was sacred to 
Zeus, and also to Triptolemus (Strab. p. 750 ; 
Ammian. xxii. 14, 8). In the life of Hadrian (14) 
it is said that he passed a night on the top in 
the vain hope of seeing day on one side and 
night on the other, according to a belief men- 
tioned in Plin. v. 80. The name of Casiotis was 
applied to the district on the coast S. of Casius, 
as far as the N. border of Phoenicia. 

Casmena, -ae (Kaa>€Vij, Herod. : Kacrfievai, 
Thuc. : Spaccaforno), a town in Sicily, founded 
by Syracuse about B.C. 643. Here the Gamori, 
or oligarchical party expelled from Syracuse, 
found shelter (Hdt. vii. 155 ; Thuc. vi. 5). It 
was in the interior, but not far from the coast, 
and was one of the outposts of Syracuse to con- 
trol the Sicels. 

Casperia or Casperiila, a town of the 
Sabines, NW. of Cures, on the Himella (Aspra). 

Caspiae Portae or Pylae (Kdo-n-iai -n-vKai : 
Tengi Sirdara), the principal pass from Media 
into Parthia and Hyrcania, through the Caspu 
Montes, was a deep ravine, made practicable 
by art, but still so narrow that there was only 
room for a single wagon to pass between the 
lofty overhanging walls of rock. The Persians 
erected iron gates across the narrowest part of 
the pass, and maintained a guard for its defence. 
This pass was near the ancient Rhagoe or Arsacia. 
Alexander passed through it in pursuit of Darius 
(Arrian, Anab. iii. 19). The Caspian gates, being 
the most important pass from Western to 
Central Asia, were regarded by many of the 
ancients as a sort of central point, common to 
the boundaries between W. and E. Asia and N. 
and S. Asia; and distances were reckoned 
from them. (Strab. pp. 04, 514, 522.) 

Caspu (Ka<T7rioi),the name of certain Scythian 
tribes near the Caspian Sea, is used rather 
loosely by the ancient geographers. The C'uspii 
of Strabo are on the W. side of the sea, and 
their country, Caspiiine, forms a part of 
Albania. Those of HerodotUB and Ptolemy are 
in the E. of Media, on the borders of Parthia, 
in the neighbourhood of the Caspiae Pylae 
(Strab. p. 502; Hdt. iii. 29 ; Ptol. vi. 2, 5). Pro- 
bably it would not Vie far wrong to apply the 
name generally to the people round the S\V. 
and S. shoreH of the Caspian in and about the 
Cabpii Montks. 

Caspli Montes i'to Kda-rria opy : Elbwre Mts.) 
or Caspius Mons, in a name applied generally 
to the whole range of mountains which surround 
the Caspian Sea, on the H. and SW., at the 
distance of from 15 to 30 miles from its shore, 
on the borders of Armenia, Media, Hyrcania, 
and Parthia; and more specifically to that part 
of this range S. of the Caspian, in which was 
the pass called Caspiae Pylae. The term was 
also loosely applied to other mountains near 
the Caspian, especially, by Strabo, to the E. 
part of the Caucasus, between Colchis and the 
Caspian. 

Caspiri or Caspiraei (Kdvvtipoi, Karrmpdioi), 
a people of India, probably in (Janhmir. 



Casplum Mare (ij Kaa-Kia 6dAa.o-<ra, the- 
1 Caspian Sea), also called Hyrcanium, Alba- 
num, andScythicum, all names derived from the 
people who lived on its shores, is a great salt- 
water lake in Asia, according to the ancient 
division of the continents, but now on the 
boundary between Europe and Asia. Its 
average width from E. to W. is about 210 miles, 
and its length from N. to S., in a straight line, 
is about 740 miles ; but, as its N. part makes a 
great bend to the E., its true length, measured 
along a curve drawn through its middle, is 
about 900 miles ; its area is about 180,000 
square miles. The notions of the ancients 
about the Caspian varied very much ; and it is 
curious that two of the erroneous opinions of 
the later Greek and Roman geographers — 
namely, that it was united both with the Sea of 
Aral and with the Arctic Ocean — expressed what, 
at some remote period, were probably real facts. 
Their other error, that its greatest length lay 
W. and E., very likely arose from its supposed, 
union with the Sea of Aral. Another conse- 
quence of this error was the supposition that 
the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes flowed into the 
Caspian. That the former really did so at some 
time subsequent to the separation of the two 
lakes (supposing that they were once united) is 
pretty well established ; but whether this has 
been the case within the historical period 
cannot be determined [Oxus]. The country 
I between the two lakes has evidently been 
[ greatly changed, and the sand-hills which cover 
1 it have doubtless been accumulated by the 
force of the E. winds bringing down sand from 
the steppes of Tartary. Both lakes have their 
surface considerably below that of the Black 
Sea, the Caspian being nearly 350 feet, and 
the Aral about 200 feet, lower than the level of 
the Black Sea, and both are still sinking by 
evaporation. Moreover, the whole country 
between and around them for a considerable 
' distance is a depression, surrounded by lofty 
mountains on every side, except where the 
valley of the Irtish and Obi stretches away to 
the Arctic Ocean. Besides a number of smaller 
streams, two great rivers flow into the Caspian ; 
the Rha {Volga) on the N., and the united 
Cyrus and Araxes (Kour) on the W. ; but it 
■ loses more by evaporation than it receives from 
these rivers. (Strab. pp. 507, 519 ; Mel. iii. 5 ; 
Plin. vi. 30 ; Diod. xviii. 5 ; Arist. Meteor, i. 
13, 29.) 

Cassandane (Kacra-avSdvri), wife of Cyrus the 
Great, and mother of Cambyses. 

Cassander (KdrrrravSpos), son of Antipater. 
His father, on his death-bed (n.c. 821), appointed 
Polysperchon regent, and conferred upon Cas- 
sander only the secondary dignity of Chiliarch. 
Being dissatisfied with this arrangement, 
Cassander strengthened himself by an alliance 
with Ptolemy and Antigonus, and entered into 
war with Polysperchon. In 318 Cassander ob- 
tained possession of Athens and most of the 
cities in the S. of Greece. In 317 he was re- 
called to Macedonia to oppose Olympias. Ho 
kept her besieged in Pydna throughout the 
winter of 317, and on her surrender in the 
spring of the ensuing year, he put her to death. 
The way now seemed open to him to the throne 
of Macedon. He placed Roxana and her young 
son, Alexander Aegus, in custody at Amphipo- 
lis, not thinking it Bafe as yet to murder them ; 
and he connected himself with the regal family 
by a marriage with Theasalonica, half-sister to 
Alexander the Great (Diod. xix. 49). In 815 
CaBBander joined Soleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysi- 



204 



CASSANDEA 



machus in their war against Antigonus, of 
whose power they had all become jealous. 
This war was upon the whole unfavourable to 
Cassander, who lost most of the cities in Greece. 
By the general peace of 311, it was provided 
that Cassander was to retain his authority in 
Europe till Alexander Aegus should be grown 
to manhood. Cassander thereupon put to 
death the young king and his mother Roxana 
(Diod. xix. 105, xx. 26). In 310 the war was 
renewed, and Heracles, the son of Alexander 
by Barsine, was brought forward by Polysper- 
chon as a claimant to the Macedonian throne ; 
but Cassander bribed Polysperchon to murder 
the young prince and his mother, 309. In 306 
Cassander allowed himself to be called by the 
title of king, when it was assumed by Antigonus, 
Lysimachus, and Ptolemy (Plut. Demetr. 18). 




Coin of Cassander. 
Obv., head of Heracles; rev., boy on horse — legend 1SA2I- 

AEO.2 KA22ANAPOY. 

In the following years, Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
the son of Antigonus, carried on the war in 
Greece with great success against Cassander ; 
hut in 302 Demetrius was obliged to pass into 
Asia, to support his father; and next year, 301, 
the decisive battle of Ipsus was fought, in 
which Antigonus and Demetrius were defeated, 
and the former slain, and which gave to Cas- 
sander Macedonia and Greece. Cassander died 
of dropsy in 297, and was succeeded by his son 
Philip (Diod. xx. 112 ; Plut. Demetr. 31). 

Cassandra (KaffcrdvSpa,), daughter of Priam 
and Hecuba, and twin-sister of Helenus (II. 




Cassandra and Apollo. (Pitture d'Ercolana, vol. ii. tav. 17.) 



xiii. 365). According to a post-Homeric story, 
she and her brother, when young, were left 
asleep in the sanctuary of Apollo, when their 
ears were purified by serpents, so that they 



CASSIOPEA 

could understand the divine sounds of nature 
and the voices of birds. When she grew up 
her beauty won the love of Apollo, who con- 
ferred upon her the gift of prophecy, upon her 
promising to comply with his desires ; but after 
she had become possessed of the prophetic art, 
she refused to fulfil her promise. Thereupon 
the god in anger ordained that no one should 
believe her prophecies. She predicted to the 
Trojans the ruin that threatened them, but no 
one believed her ; she was looked upon as a 
madwoman, and, according to a late account, 
was shut up and guarded. On the capture of 
Troy she fled into the sanctuary of Athene, but 
was torn away from the statue of the goddess 
by Ajax, son of Oi'leus, and, according to some 
accounts, was even ravished by him in the 
sanctuary. On the division of the booty, Cas- 
sandra fell to the lot of Agamemnon, who took 
her with him to Mycenae. Here she was 
killed by Clytaemnestra. (Od. xi. 421 ; Verg. 
Aen. ii. 343 ; Aesch. Ag. 1300 ; Strab. p. 264.) 
Cassandrea. [Potidaba.] 
Cassia Gens. [Cassius.] 
Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius, a distin- 
guished statesman, and one of the few men of 
learning at the downfall of the Western Empire, 
was born about a.d. 468, at Scylacium in Brut- 
tium, of an ancient and wealthy Roman family. 
He enjoyed the full confidence of Theodoric the 
Great and his successors, and under a variety 
of different titles he conducted for a long series 
of years the government of the Ostrogothic 
kingdom. At the age of 70 he retired to the 
monastery of Viviers, which he had founded in 
his native province, and there passed the last 
30 years of his life. His time was devoted to 
study and to the composition of elementary 
treatises on history, metaphysics, the 7 liberal 
arts, and divinity ; while his leisure hours were 
employed in the construction of philosophical 
toys, such as sun-dials, water-clocks, &c. Of 
his numerous writings the most 
important is his Variarum 
(Epistolarum) Libri XII, an as- 
semblage of state papers drawn 
up by Cassiodorus in accordance 
with the instructions of Theo- 
doric and his successors. The 
other works of Cassiodorus are 
of less value to us. The prin- 
cipal are : 1. Chronicon, a sum- 
mary of Universal History giv- 
ing a catalogue of Roman con- 
suls ; 2. De Orthographia Liber ; 
3. De Arte Grammatica ad 
Donati Mentem ; 4. De Artibus 
ac Disciplines LiheraliumLite- 
rarum, much read in the middle 
ages ; 5. De Anima ; 6. Libri 
XII de Bebus Gestis Gothorum, 
known to us only through the 
abridgment of Jornandes ; 7. De 
Institutions Divinarum Lite- 
rarum, an introduction to the 
profitable study of the Scrip- 
tures. There are also several 
other ecclesiastical works of 
Cassiodorus extant. — The best 
edition of his collected works is 
by D. Garet, Rouen, 1679, 2 vols, 
fol., reprinted at Venice, 1729. 
Cassiope (Ka<rrri6ir-q), a town 
in Corcyra on a promontory of the same name, 
with a good harbour and a temple of Zeus. 

Cassiopea, Cassiepea, or Cassiope (Kac- 
(rieVeia, KacrtnoVeia, or Kaaadirri), wife of 



CASSITERIDES 

Cepheus in Aethiopia, and mother of Andro- 
meda, whose beauty she extolled above that of 
the Nereids. [Andromeda.] 

Cassiterides Insulae (Kaa<riTep'i8es vri<roi), 
' the Tin Islands,' from which the Phoenicians 
at an early period procured tin. Herodotus 
(iii. 125) has heard of their name, but doubts 
their real existence, apparently thinking that 
the Phoenicians merely concealed under this ■ 
name the spot where the metal was found. It 
has been usual to identify them with the Scilly 
Islands, and to say that the Phoenicians there 
bought the tin which the Britons brought over 
from Cornwall, but there is no authority for 
any such idea, and it is from a common sense 
point of view highly improbable that the Phoe- 
nician ships should have halted at this incon- 
venient anchorage instead of going on to get 
the metal in the Cornish harbours. The ' Ictis' 
of Diodorus (v. 38) may be St. Michael's Mount, 
but certainly is not the Scilly Isles. Strabo 
seems to fix the Cassiterides Insulae as off the 
coast of the Artabri, at the extreme NW. of 
Spain, not far from Cape Finisterre. He says 
that they lie out to sea northwards, but it is 
inconceivable that he could have meant 500 
miles away. He says that there are ten of 
these islands (pp. 120, 129, 147, 175). Pliny 
also places them off the north coast of Spain, 
and though he seems to distinguish them from 
the islands off the coast of the Artabri, it is not 
certain that he should be so read (iv. 119). On 
the whole, if these islands are to be fixed defi- 
nitely anywhere, there is most authority for 
taking them to be small Spanish islands off the 
Galician coast. But it is probable that some 
ancient writers spoke of the British isles gene- | 
rally under this name. 

Cassius, the name of one of the most distin- 
guished of the Roman gentes, originally 
patrician, afterwards plebeian. 1. Sp. Cassius 
Viscellinus, thrice consul : first B.C. 502, when 
he conquered the Sabines ; again, 498, when he 
made a league with the Latins ; and, lastly, 
486, when he made a league with the Hernicans, 
and carried his celebrated agrarian law, the 
first wliich was proposed at Rome. It was an j 
attempt to take the control of the public lands 
from the senate and to provide for a more 
equitable and less selfish appropriation. His 
proposal was to have the public land measured ; 
to lease a part for the benefit of the public trea- | 
sury, and to assign a part to the plebeians ; that 
the share of patricians in the public land should 
bestrictlydefined,and that the remainder should 
be divided among the plebeians. In the follow- 
ing year he was accused of aiming at regal power, 
and was put to death. The manner of his death 
is related differently, but it is most probable 
that he was accused before the comitia curiata 
by the quaestores parricidii, and was sentenced 
to death by his fellow patricians. His house 
was razed to the ground, and his property con- 
fiscated. His guilt is doubtful ; lie had made 
himself hateful to the patricians by his agrarian 
law, and it is most likely that the accusation 
was invented for the purpose of getting rid of 
a dangerous opponent. At his death his law 
fell into neglect, and it remained for others to 
bring in the required legislation. (See Diet. 
Ant. s.v. Agrariac Leges!) He left 8 sons; but 
as all the subsequent Cassii are plebeians, his 
sons were perhaps expelled from the patrician 
order, or may have voluntarily passed over to 
the plebeians, on account of the murder of their 
father. — 2. C. Cass. Longinus, consul 171, 
obtained as his province Italy and Cisalpine 



CASSIUS 



205 



Gaul, and without the authority of the senate 
attempted to march into Macedonia through 
Ulyricum, but was obliged to return to Italy. 
In 154 he was censor with M. Messala ; and a 
theatre wliich these censors had built was 
pulled down by order of the senate, at the sug- 
gestion of P. Scipio Nasica, as injurious to 
public morals. (Liv. xliii. l,Ep. 48; Veil. Pat. i. 
15.) — 3. Q. Cass. Longinus, praetor urbanus 

B. C. 167, and consul 164, died in his consulship. 
— 4. L. Cass. Longinus Ravilla, tribune of the 
plebs, 137, when he proposed a law for voting 
by ballot (tabellaria lex) ; consul 127, and 
censor 125. He was severe in his justice. 
(Cic. Legg. iii. 16, 35, Bosc. Am. 30, 86; cf. 
Val. Max. viii. 1, 7.)— -5. L. Cass. Longinus, 
praetor 111, when he brought Jugurtha to 
Rome ; consul 107, with C. Marius, and received 
as his province Narbonese Gaul, in order to 
oppose the Cimbri, but was defeated and killed 
by the Tigurini. — 6. L. Cass. Longinus, tribune 
of the plebs 104, brought forward many laws to 
diminish the power of the aristocracy. — 7. C. 
Cass. Longinus Varus, consul 73, brought for- 
ward, with his colleague M. Terentius, a law 
(lex Terentia Cassia), by which corn was to be 
purchased and then sold in Rome at a small 
price. In 72 he was defeated by Spartacus near 
Mutina ; in 66 he supported the Manilian law 
for giving the command of the Mithridatic war 
to Pompey ; and in his old age was proscribed 
by the triumvirs and killed, 43. (Cic. Verr. v. 
21, 52 ; Oros. v. 24 ; Appian, B. C. iv. 28.)— 8. 

C. Cass. Longinus, the murderer of Julius 
Caesar. In 53 he was quaestor of Crassus in 
his campaign against the Parthians, in which 
he distinguished himself (Plut. Crass. 27 ; Dio 
Cass. xl. 28). After the death of Crassus, he 
collected the remains of the Roman army, and 
made preparations to defend Syria against the 
Parthians. In 52 he defeated the Parthians, 
who had crossed the Euphrates, and in 51 he 
again gained a still more important victory over 
them (Cic. Phil. xi. 14, 35). Soon afterwards 
he returned to Rome. In 49 he was tribune of 
the plebs, joined the aristocratical party in the 
civil war, and fled with Pompey from Rome. 
In 48 he commanded the Pompeian fleet ; after 
the battle of Pharsalia he went to the Helles- 
pont, where he accidentally fell in with Caesar, 
and surrendered to him. He was not only par- 
doned by Caesar, but in 44 was made praetor, 
and the province of Syria was promised him 
for the next year (Dio Cass. xlii. 13 ; Cic. ad 
Fam. xv. 15 ; Plut. Caes. 62; Appian, B. C. ii. 
111). But Cassius had never ceased to be 
Caesar's enemy; it was he who formed the con- 
spiracy against the dictator's life, and gained 
over M. Brutus to the plot (Plut. Brut. 14 ; 
Cic. ad Att. xiv. 21). After the death of Caesar, 
on the 15th of March, 44 [Caesar], Cassius 
remained in Italy for a few months, but in July 
he went to Syria, which he claimed as his pro- 
vince, although the senate had given it to Do- 
labella, and had conferred upon Cassius Cyrene 
in its stead. He defeated Dolabella, who put 
an end to his own life ; and after plundering 
Syria and Asia most unmercifully, lie crossed 
over to Greece with Brutus in 42, in order to 
oppose Octavian and Antony. At the battle of 
Phalippi, Cassius was defeated by Antony, 
while Brutus, who commanded the other wing 
of the army, drove Octavian off the field ; but 
Cassius, ignorant of the success of Brutus, 
coinmnnided his freedman to put an end to his 
life. Brutus mourned over his companion, 
calling him the last of the Romans (Plut. Brut. 



206 



CASSIUS 



CASTULO 



39 ; Dio Cass, xlvii. 42). Cassius was married 
to Junia Tertia or Tertulla, half-sister of M. 
.Brutus. Cassius was well acquainted with 
■Greek and Bornan literature ; he was a follower 
•of the Epicurean philosophy ; his abilities were 
■considerable, but he was vain, proud, and re- 
vengeful. — 9. C. Cass. Longinus, brother of 
No. 8, assisted M. Laterensis in accusing Cn. 
Plancius, who was defended by Cicero in 54. 
He joined Caesar at the commencement of the 
Civil war, and was one of Caesar's legates in 
Greece in 48. In 44 he was tribune of the 
plebs, but was not one of the conspirators 
against Caesar's life. He subsequently espoused 
the side of Octavian, in opposition to Antony ; 
and on their reconciliation in 43, he fled to 
Asia : he was pardoned by Antony in 41. — 10. 
Q. Cass. Longinus, the frater or first-cousin 
of No. 8. In 54 he went as the quaestor of 
Pompey into Spain, where he was universally 
hated on account of his rapacity and cruelty. 
In 49 he was tribune of the plebs, and a warm 
supporter of Caesar, but was obliged to leave 
the city and take refuge in Caesar's camp. In 
the same year he accompanied Caesar to Spain, 
and after the defeat of Afranius and Petreius, 
the legates of Pompey, Caesar left him governor 
of Further Spain. His cruelty and oppressions 
excited an insurrection against him at Corduba, 
but this was quelled by Cassius. Subsequently 
2 legions declared against him, and M. Mar- 
cellus, the quaestor, put himself at their head. 
He was saved from this danger by Lepidus, 
and left the province in 47, but his ship sank, 
and he was lost, at the mouth of the Iberus. 
(Dio Cass.xlii. 15; Bell. Alex. 48.)— 11. L. 
•Cass. Longinus, a competitor with Cicero for 
the consulship for 63 ; was one of Catiline's 
conspirators, and undertook to set the city on 
fire ; he escaped the fate of his comrades by 
quitting Rome before their apprehension. — 12. 
L. Cass. Longinus, consul a.d. 30, married to 
Drusilla, the daughter of Germanicus, with 
whom her brother Caligula afterwards lived. 
•Cassius was proconsul in Asia a.d. 40, and was 
commanded by Caligula to be brought to 
Rome, because an oracle had warned the em- 
peror to beware of a Cassius : the oracle was 
fulfilled in the murder of the emperor by 
•Cassius Chaerea. — 13. C. Cass. Longinus, the 
■celebrated jurist, governor of Syria, A.D. 50, in 
the reign of Claudius. He was banished by 
Nero in a.d. 66, because he had, among his 
;ancestral images, a statue of Cassius, the mur- 
derer of Caesar (Tac. Ann. xvi. 7; Suet. Ner. 
37; Plin. Bp. vii. 24). He was recalled from 
"banishment by Vespasian. Cassius wrote 10 
books on the civil law (Libri Juris Civilis), 
•and Commentaries on Vitellius and Urseius 
Ferox, which are quoted in the Digest. He was 
:a follower of the school of Ateius Capito ; and 
:as he reduced the principles of Capito to a more 
scientific form, the adherents of this school re- 
ceived the name of Cassiani (Tac. Ann. xii. 12). 
— 14. L. Cass. Hemina, a Roman annalist, 
lived about B.C. 140, and wrote a history of 
Rome from the earliest times to the end of the 
3rd Punic war (Plin. xiii. 84, xxix. 6). — 15. Cass. 
Parmensis, so called from Parma, his birth- 
place, was one of the murderers of Caesar, B.C. 
43 ; took an active part in the war against the 
triumvirs ; and, after the death of Brutus and 
Cassius, carried over the fleet which he com- 
manded to Sicily, and joined Sex. Pompey ; 
upon the defeat of Pompey, he surrendered 
himself to Antony, whose fortunes he followed 
until after the .battle of Actium, when he went 



to Athens, and was there put to death by the 
command of Octavian, B.C. 30 (Cic. ad Earn, xii. 
13 ; Appian, B. C. v. 2 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 87). Cas- 
sius was a poet, and his productions were prized 
by Horace (Ep. i. 4, 3). He wrote 2 tragedies, 
entitled Thijestes and Brutus, epigrams, and 
other works (Quintil. v. 11, 24 ; Varr. L. L. vi. 
7, vii. 72).— 16. Cass. Etruscus, apoet censured 
by Horace (Sat. i. 10, 61), must not be con- 
founded with No. 15. — 17. Cass. Avidius an 
able general of M. Aurelius, was a native of 
Syria. In the Parthian war (a.d. 162-165), he 
commanded the Roman army as the general of 
Verus, and after defeating the Parthians, he 
took Seleucia and Ctesiphon. He was after- 
wards appointed governor of all the Eastern 
provinces, and discharged his trust for several 
years with fidelity ; but in a.d. 175 he pro- 
claimed himself emperor. He reigned only a 
few months, and was slain by his own officers, 
before M. Aurelius arrived in the East (Dio 
Cass. lxxi. 21 ff. ; Capitol. Ver. 7 ; M. Aurel. 
25). — 18. Dionysius Cassius, of Utica, a 
Greek writer, lived about B.C. 40, and translated 
into Greek the work of the Carthaginian Mago 
on agriculture. — 19. Cass. Felix, a Greek phy- 
sician, probably lived under Augustus and 
Tiberius ; wrote a small work entitled 
'larpiKal 'Airopiai real T\po$\-l)fjLa.Ta, 4>U(riKa, 
Questiones Medicae et Problemata, Natu- 
ralia : printed in Ideler's Physici et Medici 
Graeci Minores, Berol. 1841. — 20, Cass. 
Chaerea. [Chaebea.1 — 21. Cass. Dion. [Dion 
Cassius.] — 22. Cass. Severus. [Seveeus.] 

Cassivelaunus, a British chief, ruled over 
the country N. of the Tamesis (Thames), and 
was entrusted by the Britons with the supreme 
command on Caesar's 2nd invasion of Britain, 
B.C. 54. He was defeated by Caesar, and was 
obliged to sue for peace, and give hostages. 
(Caes. B. G. v. 11-12 ; Dio Cass. xl. 3.) 

Cassope (Kaffffdnri), a town in Thesprotia 
near the coast (Strab. p. 324). At one time it 
ruled over neighbouring towns such as Pandosia 
and Elateia (Dem. de Salon. 33). Its ruins 
are near Lelovo. 

Castabala (to KacrTaflaXa). 1. A city of 
Cappadocia, near Tyana, celebrated for its 
temple of Artemis Perasia (Strab. p. 537 ; Plin. 
vi. 8). — 2. A town in Cilicia Campestris, near 
Issus (Curt. iii. 7; Plin. v. 93). 

Castalia (KacrTaXta), a celebrated fountain 
on Mt. Parnassus, sacred to Apollo and the 
Muses, who were hence called Castalides ; 
said to have derived its name from Castalia, 
daughter of Achelous, who threw herself into the 
fountain when pursued by Apollo. [Delphi.] 

Castolus (Kda-raiKos) a plain in which the 
troops of the Persian satrap over Lydia, 
Phrygia and Cappadocia were mustered. It is 
mentioned only in Xen. Anab. i. 1, 2 and Hell. 

1. 4, 3. We have no clue to its position except 
that Stephanus of Byzantium (s. v.) states it to 
have been in Lydia. 

Castor, brother of Pollux. [Dioscubi.] 
Castor (KctCTcop). 1. A Greek grammarian, 
surnamed Philoromaeus, probably lived about 
B.C. 150, and wrote several books; a portion of 
his Tex^T) faropiKT) is still extant and printed in 
Walz's Bhetores Graeci, vol. iii. p. 712, seq. — 

2. Grandson of Deiotarus. [Deiotabus.] 
Castrimoenium (Marino) a town in the 

Alban hills just N. of the Alban lake, a muni- 
cipium under the Roman empire (Orell. 1393). 

Castillo (KatrraAoji/ or KacrrXtiv : Cazlona), a 
town of the Oretani on the Baetis, and near the 
frontiers of Baetica, at the foot of a mountain 



CASUENTUS 



CATILINA 



207 



which resembled Parnassus, was under the Ro- 
mari8 an important place, a munieipium with 
the Jus Lath, and included in the jurisdiction 
of Carthago Nova. In the mountains (Saltus 
Castulonensis ) in the neighbourhood were silver 
and lead mines. The wife of Hannibal was a 
native of Castulo. (Strab. p. 142; Liv. xxiv. 41 ; 
Plin. in. 17, 25 ; Sil. It. iii. 97.) 

Casuentus (Basiento), a river in Lucania, 
flows into the sea near Metapontum. 

Casus (Kdaos : Kasos) an island between 
Carpathus and Crete : remains are found of its 
ancient port (II. ii. 676; Strab. p. 489). 

Casystes (Kaowr-ns : Chismeh), on the coast 
of Ionia, the harbour of Ebythrae. 

Catabathmus Magnus I Kara^aO^s : i.e. de- 
scent ; Marsa Sollern), a mountain and sea- 
port, at the bottom of a deep bay on the N. coast 
of Africa, was generally considered the boundary 
between Egypt and Cyrenaica (Plin. v. 32, 38). 
Ptolemy distinguishes from this a place c ailed 
Catabathmus Parvus, near the borders of Egypt, 
above Paraetonium. (Strab. p. 791). 

Catacecaumene YiaTaKeKav^ivi), ' the 
burnt country '), a volcanic region in the 
Maeonian district of Lydia (Strab. p. 628). 

Catadupa oi -i (to KardSovira, ol KaTaSounoi), 
a name given to the cataracts of the Nile, and 
to the adjoining parts of Aethiopia. [Nilus.] 

Catalauni or Catelauni, a people in Gaul in 
the modern Champagne, mentioned only by 
later writers : their capital was Durocatelauni 
or Catelauni \Chdlons - sur - Marne), m the 
neighbourhood of which Attila was defeated by 
Aetius and Theodoric, a.d. 451. 

Catamitus, the Roman name for Ganymedes, 
of which it is only a corrupt form. 

Catana or Catina I Karavri : Karavalos : Cata- 
nia), an important town in Sicily on the E. 
coast at the foot of Mt. Aetna, founded B.C. 730 
by Naxos, which was itself founded by the 
Chalcidians of Euboea. In B.C. 476 it was taken 
by Hiero I., who removed its inhabitants to 
Leontini, and settled 5000 Syracusans and 
5000 Peloponnesians in the town, the name of 
which he cbanged into Aetna. Soon after the 
death of Hiero 1467), the former inhabitants of 
Catana again obtained possession of the town, 
and called it by its original name, Catana. 




Coin of Catana. 
Obr., head of Apollo, laureate, HI'AKAE I ami (artist's name) ; 
r«c, quadriga ; abovo. Nike ; KATANA1QN and cray fleh. 



Subsequently Catana was conquered by Diony 
sius, was then governed by native tyrants, next 
became subject to Agathocles, and finally in 
the 1st Punic war fell under the dominion of 
Romo. It was colonised by Augustus with 
some veterans. Catana frequently suffered 
from earthquakes and eruptions of Mt. Aetna. 
It is now one of the most flourishing cities in 
Sicily. (Thuc. vi. 3 ; Strab. p. 268 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 
83, 192 ; Liv. xxvii. 8 ; Dio Cass. liv. 7.) It has 
important remains of the Roman period. 

Catadnla iKaraovla), a district in the SE. 
part of Cappadocia, to which it was first added 
under the Romans, with Melitene, which lies E. 



I of it. These two districts form a large and 
fertile plain, lying between the Anti-Taurus 
and the Taurus and Amanus, and watered by 
the river Pyramus. (Strab. p. 535.) 

Catarrhactes i KaTappa/cTTjs). 1. (Duden-Su), 
a river of Pamphylia, which descends from the 
mountains of Taurus, in a great broken water- 
fall (whence its name, fr. Karappiiyvviu), and 
which, after flowing beneath the earth in two 
parts of its course, falls into the sea E. of 
Attalia (Strab. p. 667 ; Mel. i. 14).— 2. The term 
is also applied to the cataracts of the Nile, 
which are distinguished as C. Major and C. 
Minor [Nilus]. 
Catelauni. [Catalauni.] 
Cathaei (KaSaioi), a great and warlike people 
of India intra Gangem, upon whom Alexander 
made war (Arrian. Anab. v. 22). It is said that 
the name is not that of a tribe, but of a warrior 
caste of the Hindoos, the Kshatriijas. 

Catilina, L. Sergius, the descendant of an 
ancient patrician family which had sunk into 
poverty. His youth and early manhood were 
stained by every vice and crime. He first 
appears in history as a zealous partisan of 
Sulla ; and during the horrors of the proscrip- 
tion, he killed, with his own hand, his brother- 
in-law, Q. Caeeilius, a quiet inoffensive man, and 
put to death by torture M. Maiius Gratidianus, 
the kinsman and fellow-townsman of Cicero. 
He was suspected of an intrigue with the vestal 
Fabia, sister of Terentia, and was said and 
believed to have made away with his first wife 
and afterwards with his son, iu order that he 
might marry Aurelia Orestilla, who objected 
to the presence of a grown-up step-child ; but 
notwithstanding this infamy he attained to the 
dignity of praetor in B.C. 68, was governor of 
Africa during the following year, and returned 
to Rome in 66, in order to sue for the consul- 
ship. The election for 65 was carried by P. 
Autronius Paetus and P. Cornelius Sulla, both 
of whom were soon after convicted of bribery, 
and their places supplied by their competitors 
and accusers, L. Aurelius Cotta and L. Manlius 
Torquatus. Catiline had been prohibited by 
the senate from becoming a candidate, in con- 
sequence of a pending impeachment for oppres- 
sion in his province, preferred by P. Clodius 
Pulcher, afterwards so celebrated as the enemy 
of Cicero. Exasperated by their disappoint- 
ment, Autronius and Catiline formed a project, 
along with Cn. Piso, to murder the new consuls 

i when they entered upon their office upon the 
1st of January. This design is said to have 
been frustrated solely by the impatience of 
Catiline, who, upon the appointed day, gave 

I the signal prematurely, before the whole of 
the armed agents had assembled. He was 
acquitted in 65 on his trial for extortion, and 

; began to organise a more extensive conspiracy, 
in order to overthrow the existing govern- 

| ment. The time was propitious to his schemes. 

I The younger nobility were thoroughly de- 
moralised, with ruined fortunes; the Roman 
populace were restless and discontented, ready 
to follow at the bidding of any demagogue ; 
while many of the veterans of Sulla, who had 
squandered their ill-gotten wealth, were now 

j anxious for a renewal of those scenes of blood 
which they had found so profitable. Among 

I such men Catiline soon obtained numerous 

1 supporters, and the difficult position of the 
democratic party, whose Bafety was threatened 
by the increased military power of Pompey, 
caused them to view with more or less favour 
the schemes of the anarchists: hence it was 



208 



CATILINA 



CATO 



that (as seems probable) Catiline was secretly ' 
encouraged by Crassus and Caesar [see those 
articles]. These circumstances of the time, ; 
rather than their own capacity, explain the 
influence which Catiline and the other conspi- 
rators attained ; for neither Catiline himself 
nor his associates were really brilliant or 
capable leaders. Had they been such, they 
would not have allowed their hand to be forced 
by Cicero, or permitted themselves, as in fact 
they did, to play the game of the senatorial 
party. The most distinguished men who joined 
him, and were present at a meeting of the 
conspirators which he called in June, 64, were 
P. Cornelius Lentulus Sura, who had been 
consul in B.C. 71, but having been passed over 
by the censors, had lost his seat in the senate, 
which he was now seeking to recover by stand- 
ing a second time for the praetorship ; C. 
Cornelius Cethegus, distinguished throughout 
by his headstrong impetuosity and sanguinary 
violence ; P. Autronius, spoken of above ; L. 
Cassius Longinus, at this time a competitor for 
the consulship ; L. Vargunteius, who had been 
one of the colleagues of Cicero in the quaestor- 
ship, and had subsequently been condemned for 
bribery; L. Calpurnius Bestia, tribune elect; 
Publius and Servius Sulla, nephews of the 
dictator ; M. Porcius Laeca, &c. The first 
object of Catiline was to obtain the consulship 
for himself and C. Antonius, whose co-operation 
he confidently anticipated. But in this object 
he was disappointed : Cicero and Antonius were 
elected consuls. This disappointment rendered 
him only more vigorous in the prosecution of 
his designs ; more adherents were gained, and 
troops were levied in various parts of Italy, 
especially in the neighbourhood of Faesulae, 
under the superintendence of C. Manlius, one 
of the veteran centurions of Sulla. Meantime, 
Cicero, the consul, was unrelaxing in his efforts 
to preserve the state from the threatened 
danger. Through the agency of Pulvia, the 
mistress of Curius, one of the conspirators, he 
became acquainted with every circumstance as 
soon as it occurred, and was enabled to counter- 
act all the machinations of Catiline. Cicero 
at the same time gained over his colleague 
Antonius, by promising him the province of 
Macedonia. At length Cicero openly accused 
Catiline, and the senate, now aware of the 
danger which threatened the state, passed the 
decree, ' that the consuls should take care that 
the republic received no harm,' in virtue of 
which the consuls were invested for the time 
being with absolute power, both civil and mili- 
tary. In the consular elections which followed 
soon afterwards, Catiline was again rejected. 
On the night of the 6th of November, B.C. 63, 
he met the ringleaders of the conspiracy at the 
dwelling of M. Porcius Laeca, and informed 
them that he had resolved to wait no longer, 
but at once to proceed to open action. Cicero, 
informed as usual of these proceedings, sum- 
moned the senate on the 8th of November, 
and there delivered the first of his celebrated 
orations against Catiline, in which he displayed 
a most intimate acquaintance with all the pro- 
ceedings of the conspirators. Catiline, who 
was present, attempted to justify himself, but 
scarcely had he commenced when his words 
Were drowned by the shouts of ' enemy ' and 
' parricide ' which burst from the whole as- 
sembly. Finding that he could at present effect 
nothing at Eome, he quitted the city in the 
night (8th-9th November), and proceeded to 
the camp of Manlius, after leaving the chief 



control of affairs at Borne in the hand's of 
Lentulus and Cethegus. On the 9th, when the 
flight of Catiline was known, Cicero delivered 
his second speech, addressed to the people in. 
the forum, in which he justified his recent 
conduct. The senate declared Catiline and 
Manlius public enemies, and soon afterwards 
Cicero obtained legal evidence of the guilt of 
the conspirators within the city, through the 
ambassadors of the Allobroges. These men 
had been solicited by Lentulus to join the plot, 
and to induce their own countrymen to take 
part in the insurrection. They revealed what 
they had heard to Q. Fabius Sanga, the patron 
of their state, who in his turn acquainted Cicero. 
By the instructions of the latter, the ambas- 
sadors affected great zeal in the undertaking, 
and having obtained a written agreement, 
signed by Lentulus, Cethegus, and Statilius, 
they quitted Borne soon after midnight on the 
3rd of December, but were arrested on the 
Milvian bridge, by Cicero's order. Cicero in- 
stantly summoned the leaders of the conspiracy 
to his presence, and conducted them to the 
senate, which was assembled in the temple of 
Concord (4th of December). He proved the 
guilt of the conspirators by the testimony of wit- 
nesses and by their own signatures. They were 
thereupon consigned to the charge of certain 
senators. Cicero then summoned the people, 
and delivered what is called his third oration 
against Catiline, in which he informed them 
of all that had taken place. On the following- 
day, the nones (5th) of December, the day so> 
frequently referred to by Cicero in after times- 
with pride, the senate was called together to' 
deliberate respecting the punishment of the 
conspirators. After an animated debate, of 
which the leading arguments are expressed in 
the two celebrated orations assigned by Sallusfc 
to Caesar and to Cato, a decree was passed,, 
that Lentulus and the conspirators should be 
put to death. The sentence was executed the 
same night in the prison. Cicero's speech in 
the debate in the senate is preserved in his, 
fourth oration against Catiline. The consul 
Antonius was then sent against Catiline, and 
the decisive battle was fought early in 62. 
Antonius, however, unwilling to fight against 
his former associate, gave the command on the 
day of battle to his legate, M. Petreius. Cati- 
line fell in the engagement, after fighting with 
the most daring valour. — The history of Cati- 
line's conspiracy has been written by Sallust : 
see also Dio Cass, xxxvi. 27, xxxvii. 10, 29-42 ;: 
Liv. Ep. 101, 102; Plut. Cat. Min. 23, Cic. 
10-22 ; Cic. in Catil., pro Sulla, ad Att. i. 19, 
ii. 1, xii. 21, xvi. 14. 

Catillus or Catilus (in Statius Catillus), the 
founder of Tibue. According to the prevalent 
tradition there were three brothers, Tiburtus, 
Coras, and Catillus (some make them sons of 
Catillus the son of Amphiaraus), who migrated 
from Argos and founded Tibur, having driven 
away the Sicani from that territory; Virgil 
makes Catillus and Coras fight against Aeneas 
(Aen. vii. 670 ; Serv. ad loc. ; Hor. Od. i. 18, 2 ; 
Sil. viii. 366 ; Stat. Silv. i. 3, 100 ; Solin. ii. 8). 

Catius, an Epicurean philosopher, a native 
of Gallia Transpadana (Insuber), composed a 
treatise in 4 books, de Rerum Natura et de 
Summo Bono ; died b.c. 45 (Cic. ad Fam. xv. 
16 ; Quint, x. 1, 124). This is not the Catius of 
Hor. Sat. ii. 4, of whom nothing is known. 

Cato, Dionysius, the author of a small work, 
entitled Distich a de Moribus ad Filium, con- 
sisting of a series of sententious moral precepts- 



CATO 



209 



Nothing is known of the author or the time 
when he lived, but many writers place him 
under the Antonines. He was first quoted by 
Vindicianus in the reign of Valentinian. He 
was quoted also by Isidore, Alcuin, and Chaucer, 
and was made of more account by Erasmus 
than his writings seem to deserve. Editions 
by Arntzenius, Amsterdam, 1754 ; F. Hauthal, 
Berl. 1869. 

Cato, Porcius. 1. M., frequently sumamed 
Censorius or Censor, also Cato Major, to dis- 
tinguish him from his great-grandson Cato 
Uticensis [No. 8J. Cato was born at Tusculum 
B.C. 234, and was brought up at his father's 
farm, situated in the Sabine territory. In 217 
he served his first campaign in his 17th year, 
and during the remaining years .of the 2nd 
Punic war he greatly distinguished himself by 
his courage and military abilities. In the in- 
tervals of war, he returned to his Sabine farm, 
which he had inherited from his father, and 
there led the same frugal and simple life, which 
characterised him to his last days. Encouraged 
by L. Valerius Flaccus, a young nobleman in 
the neighbourhood, he went to Home, and 
became a candidate for office. He obtained 
the quaestorship in 204, and served under the 
proconsul Scipio Africanus in Sicily and Africa. 
From this time we may date the enmity which 
Cato always displayed towards Scipio; their 
habits and views of life were entirely different ; 
and Cato on his return to Rome denounced in 
the strongest terms the luxury and extravagance 
of his commander. On his voyage home he is 
said to have touched at Sardinia, and to have 
brought the poet Ennius from the island to 
Italy. In 199 he was aedile, and in 198 praetor ; 
he obtained Sardinia as his province, which he 
governed with justice and economy, and a sim- 
plicity of life carried to excess, but intended 
doubtless as a rebuke to the luxury which was 
growing with conquest. He entered the towns of 
his province on foot, followed by a slave bearing 
the sacrificial ladle. In 195 he was consul with 
his old friend and patron L. Valerius Flaccus. 
He carried on war in Spain with the greatest 
success ; he reduced an insurrection in Hisp. 
Citerior, winning a battle at Emporiae. It is 
to be regretted that he did not depart from the 
custom of his age and country in the cruelty 
with which the revolt was subdued. He received 
the honour of a triumph on his return to Rome 
in 194 ; but sold his horse before leaving Spain 
because he thought it wrong to expend public 
money on its transport. In 191 he served, 
under the consul M'. Acilius Glabrio, in the cam- 
paign against Antiochus in Greece, and the deci- 
sive victory at Thermopylae was mainly owing 
to Cato : in this also he followed the old cus- 
toms, and rebuked the pride, which made it now 
unfashionable for a consular to serve as a sub- 
ordinate. From this time Cato's military career, 
which had been a brilliant one, appears to have 
ceased. He now took an active part in civil 
affairs, and distinguished himself by his vehe- 
ment opposition to the Roman nobles, who 
introduced into Rome Greek luxury and refine- 
ment. It was especially against the Scipios 
that his most violent attacks were directed and 
whom he pursued with the bitterest animosity. 
He obtained the condemnation of L. Scipio, the 
conqueror of Antiochus, and compelled his 
brother P. Scipio to quit Rome in order to avoid 
the same fate. [Scipio.] In 184 he was elected 
censor witli L. Valerius Flaccus, having been 
rejected in his application for the office in 189, 
His censorship was a great epoch in his life. 



I He applied himself strenuously to the duties of 
( his office, regardless of the enemies he was 
i making ; but all his efforts to stem the tide of 
■ luxury which was now setting in proved un- 
availing. He degraded men of high rank : ir 
some cases justly (as Flamininus who had been 
guilty of gross and wanton cruelty : Liv. xxxix. 
42 1 ; in some for trifling departure from his own 
code of simplicity and reserve. He placed heavy 
taxes on luxury and extravagance in slaves and 
in dress (Liv. xxxix. 44) ; while zealous in public 
works he diminished the contract prices for 
I them. He showed his disapproval of the idlers 
of the day by proposing in jest that the market- 
place should be paved with sharp-pointed stones, 
to make lounging as unpleasant as it was un- 
j profitable. His strong national prejudices ap- 
pear to have diminished in force as he grew 
older and wiser. He applied himself in old age 
to the study of Greek literature, with which in 
youth he had no acquaintance, although he was 
not ignorant of the Greek language. But his 
i conduct continued to be guided often by narrow- 
! minded prejudices against classes and nations, 
j whose influence he deemed to be hostile to the 
; simplicity of the old Roman character. He had 
an antipathy to physicians, because they were 
mostly Greeks, and therefore unfit to be trusted 
with Roman lives. When Athens sent Car- 
neades, Diogenes, and Critolaus as ambassadors 
to Rome, he recommended the senate to send 
them from the city an account of the dangerous 
doctrines taught by Carneades. [Cabneades.] 
j It is noticeable that his influence procured the 
release of Polybius and his fellow-prisoners, 
many of whom were dying in prison, but his 
speech in the senate was characteristic : ' Have 
we nothing to do but to sit debating whether a 
parcel of Greeks are to die here or at home '? ' 
Cato retained his bodily and mental vigour in his 
I old age. In the year before his death he was one 
of the chief instigators of the 3rd Punic war. 
He had been one of the Roman deputies sent 
to Africa to arbitrate between Masinissa and 
the Carthaginians, and he was so struck with 
the flourishing condition of Carthage that on 
his return home he maintained that Rome would 
never be safe as long as Carthage was in exist- 
ence. From this time forth, whenever he was 
called upon for his vote in the senate, though 
the subject of debate bore no relation to Car- 
thage, his words were Delenda est Carthago. 
Very shortly before his death, he made a 
powerful speech in accusing Galba on account 
of his cruelty and perfidy in Spain. He died 
in 149, at the age of 85. His Life 1ms been 
written by Plutarch, Nepos, and Aurelius Vic- 
tor; see also Liv. xxxiv., xxxvi., xxxix. 40. — 
Cato was not only a man of ac tion. He was 
the first prose writer among the Romans 
of any value, and composed the first Roman 
| history in the Latin tongue (Quint, xii. 11, 23), 
an important work entitled ChiffitUS, of whic h 
only fragments have been preserved. The 1st 
j book contained the history of the Roman kings ; 
the 2nd and 3rd treated of the origin of the 
i Italian towns, and from these two books the 
whole work derived its title. The 4th book treated 
of the first Punic war, and t he other books con 
tinued the narrative to the year of (.'ato's death. 
\ He wrote Prarrepta ail Filium, conveying in 
; the form of advice to his son his views on 
country life, sanitary rules, public speaking. 
Arc, and rules for conduct in verse ICarnn n 
rlc Moribim) : he alHo left 150 speeches, which 
are highly praised by Cicero (Unit. l>5i. Of all 
his works his manual of agriculture alone has 

P 



210 



CATO 



CATULLUS 



been preserved, and even this is only a later 
revision of the original work in a somewhat in- 
complete form. It is for the use of L. Manlius, 
who had an estate near Casinum. The syste- 
matic beginning on the subject of agriculture 
and country life is followed, as we now have 
it, by disconnected rules for housekeeping, sa- 
crifices, forms of sale, receipts, &c. The style 
is less archaic, no doubt, than the original 
work. Edition in the Scriptores JBei Rusticae, 
Schneider, Lips. 1794 ; fragments of Origines 
by Kotk 1852, Peter 1871 ; of other works by 
Wordsworth 1874. — 2. M., son of No. 1, by his 
first wife Licinia, and thence called Licinianus, 
was distinguished as a jurist. In the war 
against Perseus, 168, he fought with great 
bravery under the consul Aemilius Paulus 
(Val. Max. iii. 12), whose daughter, Aemilia 
Tertia, he afterwards married. He died when 
praetor designatus, about 152. — 3. M., son of 
No. 1, by his second wife Salonia, and thence 
called Salonianus, was born 154, when his 
father had completed his 80th year. — i.. M., 
son of No. 2, consul 118, died in Africa in the 
same year. — 5. C, also son of No. 2, consul 114, 
obtained Macedonia as his province, and fought 
unsuccessfully against the Scordisci. He was 
accused of extortion in Macedonia, and was 
sentenced to pay a fine. He afterwards went 
to Tarraco in Spain, and became a citizen of 
that town. (Veil. Pat. ii. 18 ; Cic. pro Balh. 
11.) — 6. M., son of No. 3, tribunus plebis, died 
when a candidate for the praetorship. — 7. L., 
also son of No. 3, consul 89, was killed in the 
Social war. — 8. M., son of No. 6 by Livia, 
great-grandson of Cato the Censor, and sur- 
named Uticensis from Utica, the place of his 
death, was born 95. In early childhood he lost 
both his parents, and was brought up in the 
house of his mother's brother, M. Livius Drusus, 
along with his sister Porcia and the children of 
his mother by her second husband, Q. Servilius 
Caepo. In early years he discovered a stern 
and unyielding character ; he applied himself 
with great zeal to the study of oratory and 
philosophy, and became a devoted adherent of 
the Stoic school ; and among the profligate 
nobles of the age he soon became conspicuous 
for his rigid morality. He served his first 
campaign as a volunteer, 72, in the servile war 
of Spartacus, and afterwards, about 67, as tri- 
bunus militum in Macedonia. In 65 he was 
quaestor, when he corrected numerous abuses 
which had crept into the administration of the 
treasury. In 63 he was tribune of the plebs, 
and supported Cicero in proposing that the 
Catilinarian conspirators should suffer death. 
[Catilina.] He now became one of the chief 
leaders of the aristocratical party, and opposed 
with the utmost vehemence the measures of 
Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. In order to get 
rid of him, he was sent to Cyprus in 58 with 
the task of annexing the island to the Eoman 
dominions. He returned in 56, and continued 
to oppose the triumvirs ; but all his efforts were 
vain, and he was rejected when he became a 
candidate for the praetorship. On the break- 
ing out of the civil war (49), he was entrusted, 
as propraetor, with the defence of Sicily ; but, 
on the landing of Curio with an overwhelming 
force, he abandoned the island and joined Pom- 
pey in Greece. After Pompey's victory at 
Dyrrachium, Cato was left in charge of the 
camp, and thus was not present at the battle 
of Pharsalia (48). After this battle, he set sail 
for Corcyra, and thence crossed over to Africa, 
where he joined Metellus Scipio, after a terrible 



march across the desert. The army wished to 
be led by Cato ; but he yielded the command 
to the consular Scipio. In opposition to the 
advice of Cato, Scipio fought with Caesar, and 
was utterly routed at Thapsus (April 6th, 46). 
All Africa now, with the exception of Utica, 
submitted to Caesar. Cato wanted the Eomans 
in Utica to stand a siege ; but when he saw 
that they were inclined to submit, he resolved 
to die rather than fall alive into the hands of 
the conqueror. Accordingly, after spending 
the greater part of the night in perusing Plato's 
Phaedo, he stabbed himself below the breast. In 
falling he overturned an abacus : his friends, 
hearing the noise, ran up, found him bathed in 
blood, and, while he was fainting, dressed his 
wound. When, however, he recovered feeling, 
he tore open the bandages, and expired, at the 
age of 49. — Cato soon became the subject of 
biography and panegyric : his life was written 
by Plutarch (Cato Min.) ; shortly after his 
death appeared Cicero's Cato, which provoked 
Caesar's Anticato. In Lucan the character of 
Cato is a personification of virtue. In modern 
times, the closing events of his life have been 
dramatised, especially in the famous Cato of 
Addison. — 9. M., a son of No. 8, fell at the battle 
of Philippi, 42. 

Cato, Valerius, a distinguished grammarian 
and poet, lost his property in his youth during 
the usurpation of Sulla, and taught for his 
living. He is the 

Cato grammaticus Latina Siren, 

Qui solus legit et facit poetas. 

He wrote love elegies and mythological poems, 
of which nothing has been preserved. The 
Dirae and Lydia, printed in Virgil's Catalecta, 
were attributed to him, but it is generally con- 
sidered that this is an error. (Suet. Gr. 11.) 

Cattigara (to Karrlyapa}, the easternmost 
town of ancient geography, a port S. of Thinae 
and near the mouth of the river Cottiaris (prob. 
Yang-tse-kiang). It may correspond with Han- 
chow. (Ptol. i. 11, 14, 17, vii. 3, viii. 27, 14.) 

Catti. [Chatti.] 

Catullus. 1. C. Valerius, one of the greatest 
Eoman poets, born at Verona or in its imme- 
diate vicinity, B.C. 87. It is probably an error 
of Jerome when he says that Catullus died in 
his 30th year, and it seems impossible to believe 
that the later date of B.C. 84 which some fix as 
the year of his birth can be correct. His death 
should probably be placed in B.C. 54, since he 
mentions (113, 2) the 2nd consulship of Pompey, 
which was in 55, and no later event is alluded 
to in his poems. This date would still make 
him a young man at his death, and would agree 
with the 'juvenalia' of Ov. Am. iii. 9, 61. 
Catullus inherited considerable property from 
his father, but he squandered a great part of it. 
In order to better his fortunes, he went to 
Bithynia in the train of the propraetor Mem- 
mius B.C. 57, but it appears that the speculation 
was attended with little success (10, 6 ; 28, 7 ; 
31, 5; 46, 1). On his return he visited the 
grave of his brother, who had died in the 
Troad — a loss which he deplores in the affect- 
ing elegy to Hortalus. For the rest of his life 
he continued to reside at Eonie or at his 
country-seats on the promontory of Sirmio and 
at Tibur. Among his friends were Nepos, 
Calvus, Cinna, Pollio, and Cicero, whom he- 
addresses as the most eloquent of Eomans (49, 
1). His special enemy was Mamurra, whom he 
attacks under the name of Mentula when he 
wished not to offend Caesar. Caesar himself 
he had attacked, but not beyond the possibility 



CATULUS 



CATJC0NE3 



211 



of reconciliation (Suet. Jul. 73). The strongest 
j ersonal feeling traceable in his poems, besides 
his love for his brother, was his passion for 
Clodia (if, as is probable, the Lesbia of his 
poems was Clodia, the beautiful and infamous 
sister of P. Clodius and wife of Metellus Celer), 
to whom he addressed his most ardent lyrics. 
It seems that he was disillusioned at last as to 
her character, but so far still under the spell 
that it made his life unhappy (76 and 01 ). The 
most perfect poems of Catullus are his lyrics, 
especially his ode on Sirmio, on Acme and 
Septimius, the poem to Lesbia, and the nuptial 
ode for Manlius Torquatus ; but though he is 
less great in dactylic metres, there is much 
grandeur and beauty in his long hexameter 
poem on the nuptials of Peleus. In this poem, 
which, though original, is modelled on the 
Greek style, appears the influence of the Alex- 
andrian school, and especially in the Coma Be- 
renices, a translation or paraphrase of a poem 
of Callimachus. In consequence of the intimate 
acquaintance which Catullus displays with 
Greek literature and mythology, he was called 
doctus by Tibullus, Ovid, and others. The 
Attis in the galliambic metre is due to Greek 
study, but has all the fire and passion of the 
poet's own genius. — Editions. R. Ellis, Oxon. 
1878 ; Schwabe, Berlin, 18H6 ; Postgate, 1890 ; 
Monro's Criticisms, 1878. — 2. A writer of mimes 
in the first century a.d. (Juv. xiii. Ill ; ' facundi 
scena Catulli,' Mart. v. '60). One of his mimes 
was called Laureolus, in which a robber was 
crucified on the stage (Tertull. Valentin. 14 ; 
Suet. Cal. 57; Joseph. Ant. xix. 1, 13; Mart. 
Sped. 7; Juv. viii. 187) ; another was Phasma, 
or the Ghost (Juv. viii. 180). — 3. Catullus Mes- 
salillUS, an informer in the reign of Domitian 
I Juv. iv. 115 ; Plin. Ep. iv. 22, 5 ; Tac. Agr. 45). 

Ca.tu.lus, Lutatms. 1. C, consul b.c. 242, 
defeated as proconsul in the following year the 
Carthaginian fleet off the Aegates islands, and 
thus brought the first Punic war to a close, 241 
(Polyb. i. 58-64; Liv. Ep. 19).— 2. Q.. consul 
102 with C. Marius IV., and as proconsul next 
year gained along with Marius a decisive vic- 
tory over the Cimbri near Vercellae (Vercelli), 
in the N. of Italy. Catulus claimed the entire 
honour of this victory, and asserted that Ma- 
rius did not meet with the enemy till the day 
was decided; but at Rome the whole merit 
was given to Marius. The accounts of Plu- 
tarch, who attributes the victory mainly to 
Cutulus, are taken from the annals of Sulla, 
naturally adverse to the fame of Marius : both 
Cicero and Juvenal speak of Marius as having 
the chief merit (Plut. Mar. 27 ; Cic. Tusc. v. 
19, 56; Juv. viii. 253 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 12; Appian, 
B. C. i. 74). Catulus belonged to the aristo- 
cratical party; he espoused the cause of Sulla, 
was included by Marius in the proscription of 
87, and, as escape was impossible, put an end 
to his life by the vapours of a charcoal fire. 
Catulus was well acquainted with Greek litera- 
ture, and famed for the grace and purity with 
which he spoke and wrote his own language. 
He was the author of severul orations, of a 
historical work on his own consulship and the 
Cimbric war, and of poems; but all these have 
perished, with the exception of two epigi'ams 
(Cic. N. D. i. 28, 79; Gell. xix. 9).— 3. Q., son 
of No. 2, a distinguished leader of the aristo- 
cracy, also won the respect and confidence of 
the people by his upright character and con- 
duct. Being consul with M. Lepidus in 78, he 
resisted the efforts of his colleague to abrogate 
the acts of Sulla, and the following spring he 



defeated Lepidus in the battle of the Milvian 
bridge, and forced him to take refuge in Sar- 
dinia. He opposed the Gabinian and Manilian 
laws which conferred extraordinary powers upon 
Pompey (67 and 66). He was censor with 
Crassus in 65, and died in 60 (Plut. Crass. 13). 

Caturiges, a Ligurian people in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, whose territory extended from Vapin- 
cum (Gap) to the Cottian Alps: their chief 
I towns were Eburodunum, and Caturigae or 
Catorimagus (Chorges) (Caes. B. G. i. 10 ; 
Plin. iii. 137 ; Strab. p. 204). 

Catus Decianus, procurator of Britain in 
the reign of Nero, was by his extortion one of 
the chief causes of the revolt of the people 
under Boudicca or Boadicea, a.d. 62. He fled 
to Gaul (Tac. Ann. xiv. 32). 

Catuvellauni or Catyeuclani, a British tribe 
in Rutland, Bedfordshire, Northampton, and 
Huntingdon (Ptol. iii. 3, 21 ; Dio C ss. lx. 20). 

Cauca (Coca), a town of the Vaccaei in His- 
pania Tarraconensis ; birthplace of the emperor 
Theodosius 1. (Zosim. iv. 24). 

Caucasiae Pylae. [Caucasus.] 

Caucasus, Caucasii Montes (6 KavKaaos, rt> 
KavKaa iov opos, ra KavKaata uptj'. Caucasus). 

1. A great chain of mountains extending WJN W. 
and ESE. from the E. shore of the Pontus 
Euxinus (Black Sea) to the W. shore of the 
Caspian. Its length is about 700 miles; its great- 
est breadth 120, its least 60 or 70. Its greatest 
height exceeds that of the Alps, its loftiest 
summit (Mt. Elbruz, nearly in 43° N. lat. and 

I 43° E. long.) being 18,000 feet above the sea, 
and therefore reckoning now as the highest 
European mountain, and to the E. of this there 

I are several other summits above the line of 
perpetual snow, which, in the Caucasus, is from 

( 10,000 to 11,000 feet above the sea. At both 
extremities the chain sinks. Two chief passes 
over the chain were known to the ancients : the 
one, between its E. extremity and the Caspian, 
near Derbent, was called Albanicae Pylae; the 
other, nearly in the centre of the range, was 
called Caucasiae or Sarmaticae Pylae (Pass of 
Dariel). In ancient times, as is still the case, 
the Caucasus was inhabited by a great variety 
of tribes, speaking different languages (Strabo 
says, at least 70), but all belonging to that 
family of the human race which has peopled 

i Europe and W. Asia, and which has obtained 
the name of Caucasian. — That the Greeks had 
some vague knowledge of the Caucasus in 
very early times, is proved by the myths re- 
specting Prometheus and the Argonauts, from 
which it seems that the Caucasus was regarded 
as at the extremity of the earth, on the border 
of the river Oceanus. The account which Hero- 
dotus gives is good as far as it goes (i. 203) ; 
but it was not till the march of Pompey, in 
the Mithridatic War, extended to the bunks of 
the Cyrus and Araxes and to the foot of the 
great chain, that means were obtained for that 
accurate description of the Caucasus which 
Strabo gives in his 11th book. Pompey in his 
pursuit of Mithridates penetrated into this 
country (Plut. Pomp. 34; Lucull. 14; Appian, 
Mithrid. 108). The country about the E. part 
of the Caucasus was called Albania ; the rest 
of the chain divided Lbekia and Colchis, on 
the S., from Sakmatia Ahiatica on the N. — 

2. Caucasus Indicus [Pajiopamisus.] 
Cauci. [Chauci.] 

Caucones I Kamuvts], the name of peoples both 
in Greece and Asia. In Greece they belonged 
mainly to Elis as aboriginal : i.e., they preceded 
any historical Greek immigration (Strub. pp. 

P2 



212 



CAUDIUM 



CELAENAE 



342-353; Hat. i. 147; Od. iii. 366). In Asia 
Homer joins them with Leleges ana Pelasgi as 
allies of the Trojans (II. x. 429, xx. 329). Strabo 
places them on the coast of Bithynia (pp. 345, 
542). The Caucones in the NW. of Greece, in 
Elis ana Achaia, were supposea by the ancient 
geographers to be an Arcaaian people. The 
Caucones in the NW. of Asia Minor are men- 
tioned by Homer as allies of the Trojans, ana 
are placea in Bithynia ana Paphlagonia by the 
geographers, who regaraea them as Pelasgians, 
though some thought them Scythians. 

Caudium (Montesarchio) , a town in Samnium 
on the road from Capua to Beneventum (Hor. 
Sat. i. 5, 51; Strab. 249). In the neighbour- 
hooa were the celebratea Furculae Caudinae, 
or Caudine Forks, narrow passes in the moun- 
tains, where the Roman army surrenaerea to 
the Samnites, ana was sent unaer the yoke, 
B.C. 321 : it is probably the valley of Isclero. 

Cauloilia (KauAaw'a : KauAwnaTrjs), an 
Achaean town on the E. coast of Bruttium, 
NE. of Locri, originally called Aulonia ; founaed 
first by the Achaeans of Aegium, afterwaras of 
Croton ; aestroyea by Dionysius the eiaer, who 
removed its inhabitants to Syracuse ana gave 
its territory to Locri (Paus. vi. 3, 12 ; Strab. p. 




Coin of Caulonia. (Circ. B.C. 550-480.) 
Obv., naked male figure, holding in right hand a branch, 
and on his left arm a small naked figure, also holding a 
branch and -with winged sandals; in field a stag; rev., 
same type incuse, but without small figure. 



261 ; Diod. xiv. 106) ; afterwaras rebuilt, but 
again aestroyea in the war with Pyrrhus ; re- 
built a third time and destroyed a third time 
in the second Punic war (Liv. xxvii. 12-16; 
Polyb. x. 1). It was celebrated for its worship 
of the Delphian Apollo. 
Caunus. [Byblis.] 

Caunus (ri Kavvos : Kavvios : ruins at Baliar), 
one of the chief cities of Caria, on its S. coast, 
a little E. of the mouth of the Calbis, in a 
very fertile but unhealthy situation. It haa a 
citadel called Imbros, an enclosed harbour for 
ships of war, and safe roads for merchant 
vessels. It was founded by the Cretans : after 
B.C. 300 it was subject to the Rhodians. Its 
dried figs (Cauneae ficus) were celebrated. The 
painter Protogenes was born here (Strab. p. 652 ; 
Hdt. i. 172 ; Cic. ad Q. Fr. i. 1 ; Plin. v. 103). 

Caurus, the Argestes {'Apyc arris) of the 
Greeks, the NW. wind, in Italy a stormy wind. 

Cavari, a people on the E. bank of the 
Rhone, between the mouths of the Druentia 
and the Isara (Strab. p. 185). 

Cavarlnus, a Senonian, whom Caesar made 
king of his people, was expelled by his subjects 
and compelled to fly to Caesar, B.C. 54. 

Caystrus (KauoTpos, Ion. Kavarpas : or 
Kuchuk-Meinder, i.e. Little Maeander), a river 
of Lydia and Ionia, rising in the E. part of 
Mount Tmolus), and flowing between the ranges 
of Tmolus and Messogis into the Aegaean, a little 
NW. of Ephesus. To this day it abounds in 
swans, as it did in Homer's time. The valley 



of the Caystrus is called by Homer 1 the Asian 
meadow,' and is probably the district to which 
the name of Asia was first applied. There was 
an inland town of the same name on its S.bank 
(Horn. II. ii. 461 ; Strab. p. 627 ; Verg. Georg. 
i. 383, Aen. vii. 699). 

Caystrou Fedion (Kavcrrpov ireSlov), a town 
of Phrygia (Xen. An. i. 2, 11). It is probably 
right to identify it as the town afterwards called 
Julia, near Ipsus ana a little NE. of Synnaaa. 

Ceba (Ceva), a town in the Ligurian Apen- 
nines, near the source of the Tanarus, famous 
for its cheeses (Plin. xi. 241). 

Cebenna Mons (to Kep.txsvov lipos ' Cevennes), 
mountains in the S. of Gaul, separating the 
Arverni from the Helvii : Caesar founa them in 
the winter covered with snow 6 feet deep (Caes. 
B. G. vii. 8; Strab. p. 177). 

Cebes (K<=/3ijs), of Thebes, a disciple and 
friend of Socrates, was present at the death of 
his teacher. He wrote philosophical works, 
which have perished; for the treatise called 
riiVa£, or Picture, ascribed to him is spurious. 
This work is an allegorical picture of human 
life, which is explainea by an ola man to a circle 
of youths. — Editions. By Schweighauser, Ar- 
gent. 1806, ana by Coraes in his eaition of 
Epictetus, Paris, 1826. 

Cebrene (Ktfiprivrj), a city in the Troaa, on 
M. iaa, fell into aecay when Antigonus trans- 
planted its inhabitants to Alexanaria Troas. A 
little river, flowing past it, was callea Cebren 
(KtQp'qv), ana the aistrict Cebrenia. 

Cecropia. [Cecbops.] 

Cecrops (Ke/cpa>if<), said to have been the 
first king of Attica (Apollod. iii. 14). He was 
married to Agraulos, (laughter of Actaeus, by 
whom he haa a son, Erysichthon, who suc- 
ceeaea him as king of Athens, ana 3 daughters, 
Agraulos, Herse, and Pandrosos. [See these 
names.] In his reign Poseidon and Athene 
contenclea for the possession of Attica, but 
Cecrops aeciaed in favour of the goddess (Hdt. 
viii. 55; Paus. i. 26, 6; Athene). Cecrops is 
said to have founded Athens, the citadel of 
which was called Cecropia after him, to have 
divided Attica into 12 communities, and to 
have introduced the first elements of civilised 
life. (Paus. ix. 33; Strab. p. 407.) He is 
sometimes called Sicpvrjs or geminus (Diod. i. 
28 ; Ov. Met. ii. 555 ; cf . Aristoph. Vesp. 438), 
because the upper part of his boay was repre- 
sentea as that of a man ana the lower part as 
that of a serpent, by which was symbolisea his 
origin as earth-born or autochthonous : he is 
thus representea on an Athenian terracotta 
(now at Berlin) when -he is present at the birth 
of Erichthonius. Later Greek writers maae 
Cecrops to be a native of Sais in Egypt, who lea 
a colony of Egyptians into Attica (Dioa. i. 29). 

Cecryphalia (KtKpv<t>dAeia: Angistri), a small 
island in the Saronic gulf, between Aegina and 
Epidaurus (Thuc. i. 105 ; Diod. xi. 78). 

Cedreae (KeSpeat or -eicu, KeSpedrris or -cuos), 
a town of Caria, on the Ceramic Gulf. 

Cedrenus, Georgius, a Byzantine writer, 
author of a historical work, which begins with 
the creation of the world, and goes down to a.d. 
1057. Edited by Bekker, Bonn, 1838-39. 

Celaenae (KeAaiyai, KeAaiviVrjs : Dener), the 
greatest city of S. Phrygia, before the rise of 
its neighbour, Apamea Cibotus, reduced it to 
insignificance. It lay at the sources of the 
rivers Maeander and Marsyas. In the midst 
of it was a citadel built by Xerxes on a preci- 
pitous rock, at the foot of which, in the Agora 
of the city, the Marsyas took its rise, and near 



CELAENO 

the river's source was a grotto celebrated by 
tradition as the scene of the punishment of 
Marsyas by Apollo. Outside of the city was a 
royal palace, with pleasure gardens and a great 
park (irapatituTos) full of game, which was 
generally the residence of a satrap. The Mae- 
ander took its rise in the very palace, and 
flowed through the park and the city, below 
which it received the Marsyas iHdt. vii. 28; 
Xen. An. i. 2, 7 ; Li v. xxxviii. 13 ; Strab. p. 577 >. 

Celaeno (KeXaivd). 1. A Pleiad, daughter 
of Atlas and Pleione, beloved by Poseidon. — 

2. One of the Harpies. [Harpyiae.] 

Celela (Cilli), an important town in the SE. 
of Norieum, and a Roman colony with the 
surname Claudia, was in the middle ages the 
capital of a Slavonic state called Zellia (Plin. 
iii. 146 ; C. I. L. iii. 5154). 

Celenderis (K€\€v5epis : Khelindreh), a sea- 
port town of Cilicia, said to have been founded 
by the Phoenicians, and afterwards colonised 
by the Samians. The acropolis was strongly 
placed on a rock (Tac. Arm. ii. 60 ; Mel. i. 13). 

Celenna, a town of Campania (Verg. Aen. 
vii. 739). 

Celer, together with Severus. the architect of 
Nero's immense palace, the golden house. He 
and Severus projected and even began a canal 
from the lake Avernus to the Tiber. {Tac. Ann. 
xv. 42). 

Celer, P. Egnatlus. [Barea.] 

Celetrum (Kastoria), a town in Macedonia 
on a peninsula of the Lacus Castoris (Liv. 
xxxi. 40). 

Celeus (Kn\(6s), king of Eleusis, husband of 
Metanira, and father of Demophon and Tripto- 
lemus. He received Demeter with hospitality 
at Eleusis, when she was wandering in search 
of her daughter. The goddess, in return, 
wished to make his son Demophon immortal, 
and placed him in the fire in order to destroy 
his mortal parts; but Metanira screamed aloud 
at the sight, and Demophon was destroyed by 
the flames. Demeter then bestowed great 
favours upon Triptolemus. [Triptolemus.] 
Celeus is described as the first priest and his 
daughters as the first priestesses of Demeter 
at Eleusis. [See further under Demeter.] 

Celsa {Velilla Ru., nr. Xelsa), a town in 
Hispania Tarraconensis on the Tberus, with a 
stone bridge over this river, a Roman colony 
called Victrix Julia Ceha (Strab. p. 1G1). 

Celsus. 1, A military tribune in Africa who 
in the 12th year of Gallienus, a.d. 2G5, was 
proclaimed emperor by the proconsul of the 
province. He was slain on the 7th day of his 
usurpation (Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tgr.).—2. An 
Epicurean philosopher, lived in the time of 
the Antonines, and was a friend of Lucian. He 
is supposed to be the same as the Celsus who 
wrote the work against Christianity called 
A6yos dA7)0i')s, which acquired so much noto- 
riety from the answer written to it by Origen. — 

3. A. Cornelius Celsus, probably lived under 
the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He wrote 
several works, of which only one remains entire, 
his treatise De Mediciim, ' On Medicine,' in 
8 books. The first two books are principally 
occupied by the consideration of diet, and the 
general principles of therapeutics and patho- 
logy ; the remaining books are devoted to the 
consideration of particular diseases and their 
treatment ; the third and fourth to internal 
diseases ; the fifth and sixth to external diseases, 
and to pharmaceutical preparations; and the last 
two to those diseaseswhich more particularly be- 
long to surgery. — Editions. By Milligan, Edinb. 



CELTAE 



213 



1826 ; by Ritter and Albers, Colon, ad Rhen. 
1835. — 4. Julius Celsus, a scholar at Constan- 
tinople in the 7th century after Christ, made a 
recension of the text of Caesar's Commentaries.. 
Many modern writers have attributed do him- 
the Life of Caesar which was in reality written 
by Petrarch. — 5. P. Juventius Celsus, two 
Roman jurists, father and son, both of whom 
are cited in the Digest. Very little is known 
of the elder Celsus. The younger Celsus, who 
was the more celebrated, lived under Nerva 
and Trajan, by whom he was highly favoured. 
He wrote Digesta in 39 books, Epistolae, 
Quaestiones, and I?istitutio?ies in 7 books 
iPlin. Ep. vi. 5). — 6. P. Marius Celsus, an 
able general first of Galba and afterwards of 
Otho. After the defeat of Otho's army at the 
battle of Bedriacum, Celsus was pardoned by 
Vitellius, and was allowed by him to enter on 
the consulship in July (a.d. 69). 
Celsus Albinovanus. [ Albino vanus.] 
Celtae, a powerful race, which occupied a 
great part of W. Europe. The Greek and 
Roman writers call them by three names, 
which are probably only variations of one 
name, namely Celtae (KeAra/, KcAtoi), Galatae 
iTaAaTaij, and Galli. Their name was origi- 
nally given to all the people of N. and TV. 
Europe who were not Iberians, and it was not 
till the time of Caesar that the Romans per- 
ceived the distinction between the Celts and 
the Germans : the name of Celts then began to 

j be confined to the people between the Pyrenees 
and the Rhine. The Celts belonged to the great 
Indo-Germanic race, as their language proves, 
and, at a period long antecedent to all historical 
records, settled in the TV. of Europe. The most 
powerful part of the nation appears to have taken 
up their abode in the centre of the country called 
after them Gallia, between the Garumna in the 
S. and the Sequana and Matrona in the N. From 

; this country they spread over various parts of 
Europe, and they appear in early times as a 
migratory race, ready to abandon their homes, 
and settle in any district which their swords 
could win. Besides the Celts in Gallia, there 
were eight other different settlements of the 
nation, which may be distinguished by the fol- 
lowing names: — 1. Tberian Celts, who crossed 
the Pyrenees and settled in Spain [Celtiberi]. 
2. British Celts [Britannia.] 3. Belgic Celts, 
the inhabitants of Gallia Belgica, at a later 
time much mingled with Germans. 4. Italian 
Celts, who crossed the Alps at different periods, 
and eventually occupied the greater part of 
the N. of Italy, which was called after them 
Gallia Cisalpina. 5. Celts in the Alps and 
on the Danube, namely the Helvetii, Gothini, 
Osi, Vindelici, Raeti, Noriei, and Carni. (i. II- 
lyrian Celts, who, under the name of Scordisci, 
settled on Mt. Scordus. 7. Macedonian and 
Thracian Celts, who had remained behind in 
Macedonia, when the Celts invaded Greece, 
and who are rarely mentioned. 8. Asiatic 
Celts, the Tolistobogi, Trocmi, and Teetosages, 
who founded the kingdom of Galatia. — Some 
ancient writers divided the Celts into two great 
races, one consisting of the Celts in the S. and 
centre of Gaul, in Spain, and in the N. of Italy, 
who were the proper Celts, and the other con- 
sisting of the Celtic tribes on the shores of the 
Ocean and in the E. as far as Scythia, who 
were called Gauls : to the latter race the Cimbri 
belonged, and they are considered by some to 
be identical with the C'imnierii of the Greeks. 
— The Celts in outward appearance were dis- 
tinguished from Greek* and Romans by their 



214 



CELTIBEEI 



CENTAURI 



shaggy hair and long moustaches, and are de- 
scribed by the ancient writers as men of large 
stature, of fair complexion, and with flaxen or 
red hair, ' procera corpora, flava caesaries, truces 
oculi.' The Celtic element in France at the 
present time preserves the old Celtic charac- 
teristic of a quick and lively temper, but not 
those bodily characteristics which are nearer 
the German type than the French. They hold 
good more generally in the highlands of Scot- 
land and in Wales. They were brave and war- 
like, impatient of control and prone to change. 
They fought with long swords ; their first 
charge in battle was the most formidable, but 
if firmly resisted, they usually gave way. They 
■were long the terror of the Eomans ; once they 
took Rome, and laid it in ashes (b.c. 390). — For 
details respecting their later history and politi- 
cal organisation, see Gallia ; Galatia. 

Celtiberi (KeATi£7)pes), a powerful people in 
Spain, consisting of Celts who crossed the 
Pyrenees at an early period and became 
mingled with the Iberians, the original inhabi- 
tants of the country. They dwelt chiefly in the 
central part of Spain, in the highlands which 
separate the Iberus from the rivers which flow 
towards the W., and in which the Tagus and 
the Durius rise. They were divided into various 
tribes, the Abevacae, Beeones, and Pelen- 
dones, which were the three most important, the 
Lusones, Belli, Dittani, &c. Their chief 
towns were Segobbiga, Nujiantia, Bilbilis, 
&c. Their country called Celtiberia was 
mountainous and unproductive. They were a 
brave and warlike people, and proved formidable 
enemies to the Romans. They submitted to 
Scipio Africanus in the 2nd Punic war, but the 
oppressions of the Roman governors led them to 
rebel, and for many years they successfully 
defied the power of Rome. They were reduced 
to submission on the capture of Numantia by 
Scipio Africanus the younger (b.c. 134), but they 
again took up arms under Sertorius, and it was 
not till his death (72) that they began to adopt 
the Roman customs and language. (Diod. v. 
33 ; Liv. xxv. 33 ; Polyb. xxxv. 1 ; Strab. p. 151.) 

Celtlci. 1. A Celtic people in Lusitania be- 
tween the Tagus and Anas. — 2. A Celtic people 
in Gallaecia near the promontory Nerium, 
which was called Celticum after them (C. 
Finisterre). 

Cema, or Caenia, a mountain in the Maritime 
Alps, which Pliny (iii. 35) mentions as the source 
of the Varus (Var). 

Cemenelum (Cimella or Cimiez), a town in 
the Maritime Alps, two miles N. of Nice. 

Cenaeum (K-qvcuov a.Kpov : Kanaia or Litar), 
the NW. promontory of Euboea, opposite Ther- 
mopylae, with a temple of Zeus Cenaeus 
(Strab. p. 444). 

Cenchreae(K€Yxpe'cu). 1. The E. harbour of 
Corinth on the Saronic gulf, important for the 
trade and commerce with the E. — 2. A town in 
Argolis, S. of Argos, on the road to Tegea. 

Cenomani, apowerful Gallicpeople, originally 
a branch of the Aulebci, crossed the Alps at an 
early period, and settled in the N. of Italy in 
the country of Brixia, Verona, and Mantua, 
and extended N. as far as the confines of 
Rhaetia (Polyb. ii. 17 ; Liv. v. 35). They were 
at constant feud with the neighbouring tribes of 
the Insubres, Boii, &c., and hence usually assis- 
ted the Romans in their wars with these people. 
In the 2nd Punic war they sided with Rome, 
except during the Gallic revolt on Hasdrubal's 
approach. (Liv. xxi. 55, xxxi. 10 ; Strab. p. 216.) 

Censorinus. 1. One of the 30 tyrants, 



assumed the purple at Bologna, a.d. 270, but 
was shortly afterwards put to death by his own 
soldiers (Trebell. Trig. Tyr. 33).— 2. Author of 
a treatise entitled de Die Natali, which treats 
of the generation of man, of his natal hour, of 
the influence of the stars and genii upon his 
career, and discusses the various methods em- 
ployed for the division and calculation of time. 
The book is dedicated to Q. Cerellius, and was 
composed a.d. 238. A fragment de Metris and 
lost tracts de Accentibus and de Geometria are 
ascribed to this Censorinus. — Editions. Otto 
Jahn, 1845 ; Hultsch, 1867. 

Censorinus, Marcius. 1. C, son of C. Mar- 
cius Rutilus, first plebeian dictator (b.c. 356), 
was originally called Rutilus, and was the first 
member of the family who had the surname 
Censorinus. He was consul in B.C. 310, and con- 
ducted the war in Samnium. He was censor 294, 
and a second time 265, the only instance in which 
a person held the office of censor twice (Liv. ix. 
33, x. 47 ; Val. Max. iv. 1, 3).— 2. L., consul 149, 
the first year of the third Punic war, conducted 
the war against Carthage with his colleague 
M'. Manilius. — 3. C, one of the leaders of the 
Marian party, fought against Sulla in the battle 
near the Colline gate, was taken prisoner, and 
put to death by Sulla's order. Censorinus was 
one of the orators of his time, and versed in 
Greek literature (Appian, B. C. i. 71-93; Cic. 
Brut. 67, 90). — 4. L., a partisan of M. Antony, 
praetor 43, and consul 39. — 5 C, consul B.C. 8, 
died in Asia a.d. 2, while in attendance upon C. 
Caesar, the grandson of Augustus (Veil. Pat. 
ii. 102). 

Centauri (Kevravpoi), a mythical race in- 
habiting the mountains of Thessaly, represented 
as in form half horses and half men. In Horner 
there is no certain allusion to their semi-equine 
form. In the Iliad they are called tpripes ( = Oripes), 
possibly = ' wild men ' : in the Odyssey they 
bear the name Kevravpoi, and are spoken of as 
intemperate (II. i. 268, ii. 743 ; Od. xxi. 295). 
We have various genealogies : (4) that they 
sprang from Centaurus, the offspring of Ixion 
and a cloud, who mingled with Magnesian 
mares (Pind. Pyth. ii. 80), or that they were 
born directly from Ixion and the cloud (Diod. 
iv. 69) ; (2) that they were born from Apollo and 
Hebe, a daughter of Peneus (Diod. I.e.). The 
most famous of the legends connected with 
them, and a favourite subject for sculpture, is 
the fight of the Centaurs and the Lapithae, 
which arose from an insult offered to Hippo- 
damia by Eurytion, one of the Centaurs, in- 
flamed by wine, at the marriage-feast of 
Peieithous : the Centaurs were driven away to 
Mt. Pindus. Theseus is brought into the story 
as aiding Peirithous in the battle (Pind. Fr. 
143; Plut. Thes. 30; Diod. iv. 70; Ov. Met. 
xii. 210 ; Hor. Od. i. 18, 8). Similar stories of 
the unbridled passions of the Centaurs are given 
in the attack of Nessus upon Deianira, and the 
fight between Heracles and the Centaurs at the 
cave of Pholus (Paus. vii. 18 ; Soph. Track. 
55 ; Eur. Here. Fur. 364 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 4). As 
regards the origin and significance of these 
myths, some adduce the story of Ixion to show 
that the idea of Centaurs arose from tracing a 
likeness to the Centaur shape in clouds ; others 
rely on their supposed descent from Apollo to 
prove that they represented rays of the sun ; 
others note their descent from a river god, and 
suggest that the Centaurs are the violent 
streams which rush from the mountains of 
Thessaly. It is indeed possible that a fancied 
likeness in cloud-shapes or torrents may have 



CENTRITES 

caused the various genealogies to be added to 
the traditions ; but the origin of the myth was 
probably simpler, and started with those who 
first beheld an equestrian tribe from the North 
settling in Thessaly at a time when horses were 
not ridden in Greece, and imagined the horse 
and its rider to be one being. The name 
' bull - spearers ' or ' bull - goaders ' (k e vreiv : 
ravpos) suggests either the hunting of bulls by 
mounted Thessalians (Schol. ad Pind. I.e.), or 
the driving of bulls by mounted 1 cowboys ' 
(Serv. ad Georg. iii. 115). But whatever the 
origin of the myth, the Centaurs, like the 
Satyrs, represented unbridled animal passions, 
and the combats with Centaurs recorded the 
strife between civilisation and barbarism. 
Chiron alone among them has been made an 
instance of learning and culture. In art of an 
archaic type they are represented with the fore 
part, including the legs, human, having the hind 
quarters of a horse attached : the more familiar 
type, from the sculptures of the Parthenon 
onwards, showed tbem as men from the head to 
the loins, while in the rest of the body, the four 



CEPHALUS 



215 




Centaur. (Metope from the Parthenon.) 

legs, and the tail, they are horses. The female 
Centaur is described by Lucian, Zeuxia, 8 (cf. 
Ov. Met. xii. 898), and appears in a Florentine 
cameo suckling an infant Centaur. 

Centrites i Kfvrpirrjs : Bohtan-tschai), a small 
river of Armenia, which it divided from the land 
of the Carduchi, N. of Assyria. It rises in the 
mountains S. of the Arsissa Palus (L. Van), 
and flows into the Tigris. (Xen. Anab. iv. 8.) 

Centumalus. Fulvius. 1. Cn., legate of the 
dictator M. Valerius Corvus B.C. 801 ; consul 
'298, when he gained a victory over the Sam- 
nites ; and propraetor 2!)5, when he defeated the 
Etruscans (Liv. x. 26).— 2, Cn., consul 229, de- 
feated the Illyrians subject to the queen Teuta 
(Polyb. ii. 5). — 3. Cn., eurule oedile 214 ; praetor 
213, with Suessula as his province ; and consul 
211 ; in the next year he was defeated by 
Hannibal near Herdonia in Apulin, and was 
killed in the battle (Liv. xxiv. 48, 44, xxvii. 1). 
— 4. M., praetor urbanus 192, superintended the 
preparations for the war against Antiochus the 
Great (Liv. xxxv. 20). 

Centumcellae <('nitd. Yecchia), a seaport 
town in Etruria, 47 miles from Rome, first be- 



came a place of importance under Trajan, who 
built a villa there and constructed an excellent 
harbour with a lighthouse at each end of the 
breakwater (Plin. Ep. vi. 31). It was destroyed 
by the Saracens in the 9th century, but was 
rebuilt on its ancient site, and was hence called 
Civitd Vecchia. 

Centuripae (ra Kevropnra, at KevTovpiwai : 
Kevropmlvos, in Thuc. ol KeeTopi7rer, Centuri- 
plnus : Centorbi), an ancient town of the Siculi 
in Sicily, at the foot of Mt. Aetna, on the road 
from Catana to Panormus, and not far from the 
river Symaethus ; in its neighbourhood a great 
quantity of corn was grown, and it became 
under the Romans one of the most flourishing 
cities in the island. (Thuc. vi. 96 ; Diod. xiv. 
78 ; Strab. p. 272 ; Cic. Verr. ii. 67, 69, iii. 6, 45.) 

Ceos (Kecuy, Ion. Keos : Ke?os, Ion. Krji'oj, 
Ceus : Zea), an island in the Aegaean Sea, one 
of the Cyclades, between the Attic promontory 
Sunium and the island Cythnus, celebrated for 
its fertile soil and its genial climate. It was 
inhabited by Ionians, and originally contained 4 
towns, Iulis, Carthaea, Coressus, and Poee'essa ; 

but the two latter perished by an 
earthquake. Semonides was a native 
of the island. 

Cephale (Ke<f>aA->j), an Attic demus, 
on the right bank of the Erasinus, 
belonging to the tribe Acamantis. 

Cephallenia (KecpaAATjj'i'a, KecpaAr;- 
vla: Ke^aAATjv.pl. KetpaAArjees : Cepha- 
loniu), called, by Homer Same 12^17) 
or Samos C2.ap.os) (II. ii. 634 ; Od. iv. 
671, ix. 24), the largest island in the 
Ionian sea, separated from Ithaca on 
the E. by a narrow channel, contains 
348 square miles. It is said to have 
been originally inhabited by Taphians, 
and to have derived its name from the 
mythical Cephalus. Even in Homer 
its inhabitants are called Cephallenes, 
and are the subjects of Odysseus : but 
the name Cephallenia first occurs in 
Herodotus (II. ii. 631 ; Od. xx. 210 ; 
Hdt. ix. 28). The island is very moun- 
tainous (izanrixKoiaa-t]) ; and the highest 
mountain, called Aenos, on which stood 
a temple of Zeus, rises more than 4OU0 
feet above the sea. Cephallenia was 
a tetrapolis, containing the 4 towns, 
Same, Pale, Cranii, and Proni. It 
never attained political importance. In the 
Persian wars the inhabitants of Pale are alone 
mentioned. In the Peloponnesian war Cephal- 
lenia surrendered to the Athenians. Same 
ventured to oppose the Romans, but was taken 
by M. Fulvius, B.C. 189. (Strab. pp. 455, 461 ; 
Thuc. ii. 30 ; Liv. xxxvii. 13 ; Polyb. xxii. 13, 23.) 

Cephaloedium iKf<paAoi'5io>' : Cephaloedita- 
nus; Cefali or Ccphalu), a Sicel town, which 
took a Greek name, on the N. coast of Sicily in 
the territory of Himera. (Diod. xiv. 56 ; Strab. 
p. 206.) 

Cephalns (Ktr/iaAoj). 1. A young man of great 
beauty, beloved by Eos (Aurora) and carried off 
by her. He is generally explained as represent- 
ing the morning star which disappears at the 
approach of dawn. One legend makes him the 
son of Hermes and Herse (dew) : he dwells with 
Eos in the East, and their son is Tithonus 
(Apollod. iii. 14). In other accounts Tithonus is 
the husband of Eos ; and the son of Eos and 
Cephalus is Phaethon (Hes. 'I'll. 986 ; Paus. i. 8). 
The most famous and poetical story of Cepha- 
lus makes him the son of Deion and Diomede, 
and husband of l'rocrig or Procne, daughter of 



216 



CEPHEUS 



CERCETAE 



Ereehtheus, whom he tenderly loved. He was 
beloved by Eos, but as he rejected her advances 
from love to his wife, she advised him to try 
the fidelity of Procris. The goddess then meta- 
morphosed him into a stranger, and sent him 
with rich presents to his house. Procris was 
tempted by the brilliant presents to yield to the 
stranger, who then discovered himself to be her 
husband, whereupon she fled in shame to Crete. 
Artemis made her a present of a dog called 
Laelaps (Kcu\a\f/, storm) and a spear which were 
never to miss their object, and then sent her 
back to Cephalus in disguise. In order to 
obtain this dog and spear, Cephalus promised 
his love : Procris then made herself known to 
him as his wife, and this led to a reconcilia- 
tion between them. Procris, however, still 
feared the love of Eos, and therefore jealously 
watched Cephalus when he went out hunting. 
Once, having heard him call upon the breeze 
(aura), and taking this to imply a mistress 
named Aura, she watched him, hidden in a 
bush. Cephalus, thinking that some animal was 
stirring the leaves, killed her with the never- 
erring spear. (Ov. Met. vii. 660-865 ; Apollod. 
iii. 15 ; Hyg. Fab. 189.) He is said to have been 
banished for this homicide by the Areiopagus 
and to have gone to Thebes, where his dog 
became useful for hunting a destructive fox 
(Paus. ix. 19). Subsequently Cephalus fought 
with Amphitryon against the Teleboans, upon 
the conquest of whom he was rewarded with 
the island which he called after his own name 
Cephallenia (Strab. p. 456). Clearly a number 
of local traditions, Athenian, Cretan, Theban, 
and Cephalonian, have gathered round the name 
of Cephalus ; some from legends of hunters and 
huntresses, the last from the similarity of name. 
—3. A Syracusan, and father of the orator Lysias, 
came to Athens at the invitation of Pericles. 
He is one of the speakers in Plato's Republic. 
- — 3. An eminent Athenian orator of the Colly- 
tean demus, flourished B.C. 402. 

Cepheus (Kr/tpeus). 1. King of Ethiopia, son 
of Belus, husband of Cassiopeia, and father of 
Andromeda, was placed among the stars after 
his death (Hdt. vii. 61; Hor. Od. iii. 29; 
Andbomeda). — 2. Son of Aleus and Neaera or 
Cleobule, one of the Argonauts. He was king 
of Tegea in Arcadia, and perished, with most of 
his sons, in an expedition against Heracles. 

Cephislaor Cephissia (K??<pi<n'ct more correct 
than Kycpiacria : Kri<piai€vs : Kivisia), one of the 
12 Cecropian towns of Attica, and afterwards a 
demus belonging to the tribe Erechtheis, NE. 
of Athens, on the W. slope of Mt. Pentelicus. 

Cephisodorus (Krj<pi<r<(8e«>pos). 1. An Athenian 
comic poet of the Old Comedy, about B.C. 402. 
— 2. An Athenian orator, a disciple of Isocrates, 
wrote an apology for Isocrates against Aristotle, 
entitled of wpbs 'AptcnortKri avTiypatpai: it is 
probable that it was this Cephisodorus who wrote 
a History of the Sacred War. 

Cephisodotus {Kr)<pi<r68oTos). 1. An Athenian 
who led a fleet to Thrace in B,c. 359 with so little 
success that he was recalled and prosecuted : 
whether he was the same person as the orator 
Cephisodotus is disputed (Dem. c. Lept. p. 501, 
§ 146 ; c. Aristocr. p. 670, § 153).— 2. An Athe- 
nian sculptor, father of Praxiteles. He be- 
longed to that younger school of Attic artists who 
early in the 4th cent. B.C. were passing from the 
sterner majesty of Phidias to the idealised grace 
and beauty which were perfected by Praxiteles. 
The statue, now at Munich, of Eirene and the 
infant Plutus (called the Leucothea) is a copy of 
his work (Paus. ix. 16). It is interesting to trace 



a similar position of the infant Dionysus in the 
great statue of Praxiteles. (Plin. xxxiv. 74 ; 
Paus. viii. 30, 5.) — 3. An Athenian sculptor, 
called the Younger, a son of the great Praxiteles, 
flourished 300 (Plin. xxxvi. 24). 

Cephisophon (Kr)(pi(TO<t>wv), a friend of Euri- 
pides, is said not only to have been the chief 
actor in his dramas, but also to have aided him 
with his advice in the composition of them. 

CepMsus or Cephissus (Kri<pi<r6s, Kri4>i<T<r6s). 
1. The chief river in Phocis and Boeotia (now 
Mavroneri), rises near Lilaea in Phocis, flows 
through a fertile valley in Phocis and Boeotia, 
and falls into the lake Copais, which is hence 
called Cephisis in the Iliad (v. 709). [Copais.] 
— 2. The largest river of the Athenian plain, 
rises in the W. slope of Mt. Pentelicus, and 
flows past Athens on the W. into the Saronic 
gulf between Phalerum and Peiraeus. — 3. An- 
other river of Attica, rising in Mt. Icarius 
on the borders of Megaris, and flowing into the 
sea at Eleusis, now Sarantaporos. — 4. A river 
of Argolis, tributary of the Inachus. 
Cer (Krjp, Kvpes). [Moibae.] 
Ceramicus Sinus (Gulf of Giova), a bay in 
Caria between Halicarnassus and Cnidus : on the 
north side of this bay stood the town of Ceramus 
which gave the name (Strab. p. 656). — Cera- 
micus, a district of Athens. [Athenab.] 

Ceramon Agora [Islam Keui),& town of Phry- 
gia on the ' royal road ' from Susa to Sardis. 
(Xen. Anab. i. 2, 10). 

Cerasus (KepcuroOs : KepaaovvTws : nr. Khere- 
soun), a flourishing colony of Sinope, on the 
coast of Pontus, at the mouth of a river of the 
same name ; chiefly celebrated as the place 
from which Europe obtained both the cherry 
and its name. Lucullus is said to have brought 
back plants of the cherry with him to Borne, 
but this refers probably only to some particular 
sorts, as the Romans seem to have had the 
tree much earlier. — Cerasus fell into decay 
after the foundation of Pharnacia (Kheresoun). 
(Xen. Anab. v. 3, 2 ; Plin. xv. 102.) 

Cerata (ja Ktspara), the Horns, a mountain 
on the frontiers of Attica and Megaris. 

Ceraunii Montes (Kepavvia Spy : Ehimara), 
a range of mountains extending from the fron- 
tier of Illyricum along the coast of Epirus,. 
derived their name from the frequent thunder- 
storms which occurred among them. These 
mountains made the coast of Epirus dangerous 
(Hor. Od. i. 3, 20). They were also called Acro- 
ceraunia, though this name was properly applied 
to the promontory separating the Adriatic and 
Ionian seas. The inhabitants of these moun- 
tains were called Ceraunii (Caes. B.C. iii. 6). 

Cerberus (Ke'p/3epos), the dog that guarded 
the entrance of Hades, is mentioned as early 
as the Homeric poems, but simply as ' the dog,' 
and without the name of Cerberus (II. viii. 368, 
Od. xi. 623.) Hesiod calls him a son of Typhon 
and Echidna, and represents him with 50 heads. 
Later writers describe him as a monster with 
only 3 heads, with the tail of a serpent and with 
serpents round his neck. Some poets again 
call him many-headed or hundred-headed. The 
den of Cerberus is placed on the further side of 
the Styx, at the spot where Charon landed 
the shades of the departed. [Hades.] 

Cercasorum or -us or -esura (Kep/cda-copor 
■k6Kis, Hdt., KepKecrovpa, Strab. : El-Arkas), 
a city of Lower Egypt, on the W. bank of the 
Nile, at the point where the river divided into 
its 3 principal branches, the E. or Pelusiac, the 
W. or Canopic, and the N. between them. 
Cercetae or -ii (KepKeVai, the Circassians), 



CEECETIUS 



CETEI 



217 



a people of Sarmatia Asiatica, beyond the Cim- 
merian Bosporus, on the E. coast of the Palus 
Maeotis (Strab. p. 496 ; Plin. vi. 16). 




Cerberus. (From a bronze statue.) 



Cercetlus, a mountain in Thessaly, part of 
the range of Pindus. 

Cercina and Cercinltis (Kep/aVa, Kepfciclnj : 
Karkenah Is., Bamlah, and Gherba), 2 low 
islands off the N. coast of Africa, in the mouth 
of the Lesser Syrtis, united by a bridge, and 
possessing a fine harbour. Cercina was the 
larger, and had on it a town of the same name. 
(Strab. pp. 123, 631.) 

Cercine {KepKtvt) : Kara-dagh), a mountain 
in Macedonia, between the Axius and Strymon. 

Cercinltis (KfpKicms), a lake in Macedonia, 
near the mouth of the Strymon, through which 
this river flows. 

Cercinlum, a town in Thessaly between 
Larissa and Pherae. 

Cerco, Q. Lutatius, consul with A. Manlius 
Torquatus, B.C. 241, in conjunction with his col- 
league, subdued theFalisci or people of Falerii, 
who revolted from the Romans. 

Cercopes (Kf'pKoiTres), droll and thievish 
gnomes, robbed Heracles in his sleep, but were 
taken prisoners by him, and either given to 
Omphale, or killed, or set free again. Some 
placed them at Thermopylae (Hdt. vii. 216) ; 
but the comic poem Cercopes, which bore the 
name of Homer, probably placed them at 
Oechalia in Euboea. Others transferred them 
to Lydia, or the islands called Pithecusae, 
which derived their name from the Cercopes 
who were changed into monkeys by Zeus for 
having deceived him. (Ov. Met. xiv. 90 ; Diod. 
iv. 31 ; Mela, ii. 7 ; Suid. s.v.) 

Cercops (Kf'pKo4). 1. One of the oldest 
Orphic poets, also called a Pythagorean, was 
the author of an epic poem, ' on the descent of 
Orpheus to Hades' (Clem. Alex. Strom, p. 333; 
cf. Cic. N. D. i. 38.)— 2. Of Miletus, the con- 
temporary and rival of Hesiod, is said to have 
been the author of an epic poem called 
Aegimuis, which is also ascribed to Hesiod 
(Diog. Laert. ii. 4G; Athen. p. 503). 

Cercyon (KfpictW), son of Poseidon or He- 
phaestus, a cruel tyrant at Eleusis, put to death 
his daughter Alope, and killed all strangers 
whom he overcame in wrestling ; he was in the 
end conquered and slain by Theseus. 



Cerdylium (KepSuA.ioi'), a small town in Mace- 
donia on the right bank of the Strymon, oppo- 
site Amphtpolis. 

Cerealis, Petilius, served under Vettius 
Bolanus, in Britain, a.d. 61 ; was one of the 
generals who supported the claim of Vespasian 
to the empire, 69 ; suppressed the revolt of 
Civilis on the Rhine, 70 ; and was governor of 
Britain, 71, when he conquered a great part of 
the Brigantes (Tac. Hist. v. 14, Agr. 8, 17). 

Cereatae (Casamari), a town in Latium, in 
the territory of Arpinum, and the actual birth- 
place of Marius (Kippearai, Plut. Mar. 3), who 
probably made it a municipium (Plin. iii. 63). 

Ceres. [Dejieter.] 

Cerfenina, a town of the Marsi on the Via 
Valeria, at the pass leading to Corfmium. 

Cerilli (Cirella Vecclua), a town in Bruttium 
on the coast, S. of the mouth of the Laus. 

Cerinthus (KriptvBos), a town on the E. coast 
of Euboea, on the river Budorus. 

Cerne (Ke'pi/7j : prob. Arguin), an island oft 
the TV. coast of Africa, to which the Phoenicians 
traded (Ptol. vi. 4 ; Scyl. Peripl. 53). 

Cerretani, an Iberian people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, in the modern Cerdagna, in the 
Pyrenees, subsequently divided into two tribes, 
the Juliani and Augnstani (Plin. iii. 23). 

Cersohleptes i Kep<ro£Ae7rT7js), son of Cotys, 
king of Thrace, on whose death in B.C. 358 he 
inherited the kingdom in conjunction with 
' Berisades and Amadocus. As an ally of the 
! Athenians, Cersohleptes became involved in 
war with Philip, by whom he was defeated 
and reduced to the condition of a tributary, 343. 
j (Dem. Phil. iii. 114 ; Diod. xvi. 70.) 

Cersus (Kepcros : Merkes), a river of Cilicia, 
flowing through the Pylae Syro-Ciliciae, into 
the E. side of the Gulf of Issus. 

Certomum IKepToviov), a town in Mysia, 
mentioned by Xenophon (Anab. vii. 8, 8). 

Cervidius Scaevola. [Scaevola.] 

Cerus, an old Latin name for the deity of 
creative power, is from the same root as creare 
and Ceres : hence in the hymns of the Salii 
' Cerus manus,' or ' Cerus duonus ' = creator 
bonus (Van. L. L. vii. 26 ; C. I. L. i. 46). 

Cerynla {Ktpvvia : Girne), a town of Cyprus 
on the north coast between Lapethus and 
Aphrodisium. 

Ceryx (Kripv(), an Attic hero, son of Hermes 
and Aglauros, from whom the priestly family of 
' the Ceryces at Athens derived their origin 
According to the Eleusinian tradition, however. 
Ceryx, from whom they were descended, was a 
younger son of Eumolpus. It is probable that 
the Ceryces were an Athenian family which at 
some time took the place of an Eleusinian 
family of priests. [Diet. Ant. art. Eleusinia.] 

Cestrine fKeo-TpiV7j), a district of Epirus 
in the S. of Chaonia and N. of the Thyamis, 
said to have been formerly called Cammania, 
and to have derived its later name from Cestri- 
nus, son of Helenus. (Thuc. i. 46 ; Paus. i. 11.) 

Cestrus (Kirrrpos: Ak-su), a considerable 
river of Pamphylia, flowing from the Taurus 
southwards into the Mediterranean. It was 
navigable in its lower course, at least as far as the 
city of Perge, which stood on its W. bank, 00 
stadia above its mouth. (Strab. p. 667.) 

Cetei (Ki^Tfioi). mentioned in Od. xi. 521 as 
fighting on the Trojan side under Eurypylus, a 
prince from the southern part of Asia Minor. 
In this people (and in the legends of Memnon) 
we have probably the Homeric tradition of the 
Hittites (the Kheta of Egyptian monuments), 
who seem to have migrated from Armenia into 



218 



CETHEGUS 



CHALCE 



the Semitic countries, and founded a great 
empire, extending from their two capitals, 
Kadesh on the Orontes and Carchemish ( = Ni- 
nus Vetus) on the Euphrates, through a great 
part of Asia Minor as far as the Aegaean. The 
time of their greatest power was about the 
14th century B.C., when they united the tribes 
of a great part of Asia Minor in their wars 
against Ramses II., which ended after the great 
battle of Kadesh in an alliance on no unequal 
terms with Egypt. The monuments between 
Smyrna and Ephesus, mentioned by Herodotus 
(ii. 106) as Egyptian, are really Hittite, and 
mark their conquests westward. Their empire 
gradually dwindled and ended with the fall of 
Carchemish B.C. 717. Their chief deity was the 
goddess Atargates [see Aphrodite], whose 
priestesses are held by some to be the origin of the 
myths of the Amazons. [Amazones ; Memnon.] 

Cethegus, Cornelius, an ancient patrician 
family. They seem to have kept up an old fashion 
of wearing the toga without a tunica beneath, 
the toga being folded round the body like a 
girdle as in the ductus Gabinus [see Diet. Ant. 
art. Toga], to which Horace alludes in the words 
cinctuti Cethegi (Ars Poet. 50) ; and Lucan (ii. 
543) describes the associate of Catiline thus, 
exsertique manus vesana Gethegi. 1. M., 
curule aedile and pontifex maximus B.C. 213 ; 
praetor 211, when he had the charge of Apulia, 
censor 209, and consul 204. In the next year 
he commanded as proconsul in Cisalpine Gaul, 
where he defeated Mago, brother of Hannibal. 
He died 196. His eloquence was rated very 
high, so that Ennius gave him the name of 
Suadae medulla, and Horace twice refers to 
him as an ancient authority for the usage of 
Latin words. (Cic. de Sen. 14, 50 ; Hor. Epist. 
ii. 2, 116, Ars Poet. 50.) — 2. C, commanded in 
Spain as proconsul 200 (Liv. xxxi. 49) ; was 
aedile 199 ; consul 197, when he defeated the 
Insubrians and Cenomanians in Cisalpine Gaul ; 
and censor 194. — 3. P., curule aedile 187, 
praetor 185, and consul 181. The grave of 
Numa was discovered in his consulship (Plut. 
Num. 22). — 4. M., consul 160, when he drained a 
part of the Pomptine Marshes. — 5. P., a friend of 
Marius, proscribed by Sulla, 88, but in 83 went 
over to Sulla, and was pardoned. — 6. C, one of 
Catiline's crew, was a profligate from his early 
youth. When Catiline left Rome, 63, after 
Cicero's first speech, Cethegus stayed behind 
under the orders of Lentulus. His charge was 
to murder the leading senators ; but the tardi- 
ness of Lentulus prevented anything being 
done. Cethegus was arrested and condemned 
to death with the other conspirators. (Sail. Cat. 
46-55 ; Lucan, ii. 543.) 

CetlUS (K7)T6!oy), a small river of Mysia, 
flowing from the N., and falling into the Caicus 
close to Pergamum (Plin. v. 126). 

Ceutrones or Centrones, a people in Gallia 
Belgica, dependents of the Nervii. 

Ceyx (K7)i)|), king of Trachys, husband of 
Alcyone. His death is differently related. 
[Alcyone.] He was the father of Hippasus, 
who fell fighting as the ally of Heracles. 

Chaboras (Xa/3<ipas : Khabur), a river of 
Mesopotamia which rises in Bit. Marius and 
flows S. into the Euphrates at Circesium (Ptol. 
v. 18 ; Procop. B. P. ii. 5). Its name varied 
(prob. in different parts of its course) : it ap- 
pears as Aborrhas in Strab. p. 747 ; Ammian. 
xiv. 3 ; and as Araxes in Xen. Anab. i. 4, 19. 

Chabrias (Xafipias), a celebrated Athenian 
general. In B.C. 392 he succeeded Iphicrates in 
the command of the Athenian forces at Corinth. 



Tn 388 he assisted Evagoras in Cyprus against 
the Persians. In 378 he was one of the 
commanders of the forces sent to the aid of 
Thebes against Agesilaus, when he adopted for 
the first time that manoeuvre for which he 
became so celebrated, — ordering his men to 
await the attack with their spears pointed 
against the enemy and their shields resting on 
one knee. A statue was afterwards erected at 
Athens to Chabrias in this posture. In 376 he 
gained an important victory off Naxos over the 
Lacedaemonian fleet under the command of 
Pollis. In 361 he took the command of the naval 
force of Tachos, king of Egypt, who was in 
rebellion against Persia. In 358 he was sent as 
the Athenian commander in Thrace, but was 
compelled by Charidemus to make a peace 
unfavourable to Athens. On the breaking out 
of the Social war in 357, Chabrias commanded 
the Athenian fleet. At the siege of Chios he 
sailed into the harbour before the rest of the 
fleet, and, when his ship was disabled, he 
refused to save his life by abandoning it, and 
fell fighting. (Nep. Chabrias ; Xen. Sell. v. 
1-4 ; Diod. xv. 29-34, xvi. 7.) 

Chaerea, C. Cassius, tribune of the praetorian 
cohorts, formed the conspiracy by which Cali- 
gula was slain, A.D. 41. Chaerea was put to 
death by Claudius upon his accession. (Suet. 
Cal. 56 ; Dio Cass. lix. 29 ; Tac. Ann. i. 32.) 

Chaeremon (Xaipyixwv). 1. One of the most 
celebrated of the later tragic poets at Athens, 
about B.C. 380. He was one of the y Avayvw<T- 
tikoi, or 'Reading Tragedians,' who in the 
decline of tragedy composed subtle and over- 
strained plays which were not acted but read 
before a select audience. Some of his plays 
were for acting. (Athen. p. 607.) — 2. Of Alexan- 
dria, a Stoic philosopher, chief librarian of the 
Alexandrian library, was afterwards called to 
Rome, and became the preceptor of Nero. He 
wrote a history of Egypt, on Hieroglyphics, on 
Comets, and a grammatical work. Martial (xi. 
56) wrote an epigram upon him. 

Chaerephon (XatpeQwv), a pupil of Socrates, 
was banished by the Thirty, and returned to 
Athens on the restoration of democracy, B.C. 
403. He was dead when the trial of Socrates 
took place, 399. (Xen. Mem. i. 2, 48, ii. 3, 1.) 

Chaeronea (Xoapwvzia : Xaipoovevs : Capurna), 
the Homeric Arne according to Pausanias, a 
town in Boeotia on the Cephisus near the 
frontier of Phocis, a dependant of Orchomenus. 
It stood where the valley of the Cephissus nar- 
rows to two miles, and thus it commanded the 
approach from the north. It was memorable for 
the defeat of the Athenians and the Boeotians 
in B.C. 338 by Philip, king of Macedon, and for 
Sulla's victory over the army of Mithridates, 86. 
Chaeronea was the birthplace of Plutarch. 
Several remains of the ancient city have been 
discovered at Capurna : a theatre excavated in 
the rock, an aqueduct, and the marble lion (broken 
in pieces) which adorned the sepulchre of the 
Boeotians who fell at the battle of Chaeronea. 
(Thuc. iv. 76 ; Paus. ix. 41, 6 ; Strab. p. 414 ; 
Plut. Sull. 17.) 

Chalaeum (Xa\aioy : XaAatos), a port-town 
of the Locri Ozolae on the Crissaean gulf, on 
the frontiers of Phocis (Thuc. iii. 101). 

Chalastra (XaKaarpa), a town in Mygdonia in 
Macedonia, at the mouth of the river Axius 
(Hdt. vii. 123 ; Strab. p. 330). 

Chalce or -ae or -ia (XaKKf), Xa\Kai, XaXKia : 
Charki), an island of the Carpathian sea, near 
Rhodes, with a town of the same name, and 
temple of Apollo (Strab. p. 488 ; Thuc. viii. 41). 



CHALCEDON 



CHALYBE8 



219 



Chalcedon (Xa^Kr/Sdv, more correctly, KoA- 
^jjScuv : XoAkijSoVios : Chalkedon, Grk., Kadi- 
Kioi, Turk., Bu.), a Greek city of Bithynia, on 
the coast of the Propontis at the entrance of 
the Bosporus, nearly opposite to Byzantium, 
was founded by a colony from Megara in B.C. 
685. As occupying an inferior site to that of 
Byzantium it was spoken of by the oracle as 
' the city of the blind ' (Strab. p. 320 ; Tac. Ann. 
xii. 63). After a long period of independence 
it became subject to the kings of Bithynia, who 




Coin of Chalcedon. 
Obv., head of Demeter veiled : ivr., Apollo seated on om- 
phalos ; below kaax ; struck circ. B.C. 2kO-*270. 

removed most of its inhabitants to the new city 
of Nicomedia (B.C. 140). The Romans restored 
its fortifications, and made it the chief city of 
the province of Bithynia, or Pontica Prima. It 
was entirely destroyed by the Turks. — The 
fourth oecumenical council of the Church met 
here a.d. 451. (Horn. II. ii. 537 ; Strab. p. 320 ; 
Thuc. iv. 75 ; Xen. An. vii. 1, 20 ; Plut. Lucull. 8.) 

Chalcidice (Xa\K iSIkti), a peninsula in Mace- 
donia between the Thermaic and Strymonic 
gulfs, runs out into the sea like a 3-pronged fork, 




Coin of Chalcldian league, struck at Olynthus B.C. 392-380. 
Obv.. head of Apollo laureate ; rev., lyre, xaakuEuN ; ma- 
gistrate s name, En! apiitqnox. 



ending in 3 smaller peninsulas, Pallese, Sitho- 
nia, and Acte or Athos. It derived its name 
from Chalcidian colonists. [Chalcis, No. 1.] 

Chalcidius, a Platonic philosopher who lived 
probably in the 5th century of the Christian 
era, translated into Latin the TimileuH of Plato, 
on which he likewise wrote a voluminous com- 
mentary. Edited by Meursius, Leyden, 1617, 
and by Fabricius, Hamburg, 1718. 

Chalcioecus (XoAkioikos), ' the goddess of the 
brazen house,' a surname of Athene at Sparta, 
from the brazen temple there. [Athene.] 

Chalciope (XaA.Kid'Tnj). 1. Daughter of 
Eurypylus, king of Cos, mother of Thessalus 
by Heracles (//. ii. 676; Apollod. ii. 7, 8).— 2. 
Daughter of Aeetes, and sister of Medea, mar- 
ried to Phrixus (Ap. Rh. ii. 1140; Apollod. i. 9). 

Chalcis (XaKxii : Xa\Kt5(vs, Chalcidensis). 
1. (Egripo or Negropontc), the principal town 
of Euboea, situated on the narrowest part of the 
Euripus, and united, as early as B.C. 411, with 
the mainland by a bridge (Thuc. viii.95 ; Diod. 
xv. 80). It was a very ancient town, originally 
inhabited by Abantes or Curetes, and colonised 
by Attic Ionians under Cothus. In the time of 
Hesiod {Op. 655) Chalcis was ruled by a king : in 
the next century by an oligarchy of the richer 
class called Hippobotae (Strab. p. 447 ; Hilt. v. 
77). The Athenians planted 4,000 cluruchshere 



in B.C. 506, who retired on the Persian invasion 
(Hdt. v. 77, vi. 100). Its flourishing condition 
at an early period is attested by the numerous 
colonies which it planted in various parts of the 
Mediterranean. It founded so many cities in the 

■ peninsula in Macedonia between the Strymonic 
and Thermaic gulfs, that the whole peninsula 
was called Chalcidice. In Italy it founded 

! Cuma, and in Sicily Naxos. Chalcis was usually 
subject to Athens during the greatness of the 
latter city, and afterwards passed into the hands 
of the Macedonians, Antiochus, Mithridates, and 
the Romans. It was a place of great military 
importance, as it commanded the navigation 
between the N. and S. of Greece, and hence it 
was often taken and retaken by the different 
parties contending for the supremacy in Greece. 
— The orator Isaeus and the poet Lycophron 
were born at Chalcis, and Aristotle died here. 




Coin of Chalcis in Euboea. 
Obt., head of Hera (?); rev., eagle flying and holding ser- 
pent, xaa ; struck circ. B.C. 350. 

— 2. A town in Aetolia at the mouth of the 
Evenus, situated at the foot of the mountain 
Chalcis, and hence also called Hyjiochalcis 
(Horn. II. ii. 640 ; Thuc. ii. 83 ; Strab. p. 451).— 
3. (Kinnesrin, Ru.), a city of Syria, in a fruitful 
plain, near the termination of the river Chalus : 
the chief city of the district of Chalcidice, which 
lay to the E. of the Orontes. — 4. A city of Syria 
on the Belus, in the plain of Marsyas. 

Chalcodon iXakKwhwv), king of the Abantes 
in Euboea, was said to be a son of Abas, the 
descendant of Erechtheus. He was father of 
Elphenor, who fought at Troy (27. ii. 541, iv. 
464). He was killed by Amphitryon, fighting 
against Thebes. His descendants were called 
the Chalcodontidae, and ruled over parts of 
Boeotia as well as of Euboea. (Eur. Ion. 59 ; 
Paus. viii. 15, 3, ix. 19, 3.) 

Chaldaea (Xa\Sala: XaKSaios), in the nar- 
rower sense, was a province of Babylonia, about 
the lower course of the Euphrates, the border 
of the Arabian Desert, and the head of the Per- 
sian Gulf. It was intersected by numerous 
canals, and was extremely fertile. In a wider 
sense, the term is applied to the whole of Baby- 
lonia, and even to the Babylonian empire, on 
account of the supremacy which the Chaldaeans 
acquired at Babylon. They seem to have been 
settled on the shores of the Persian Gulf when 
'■ they are first heard of in the 9th cent. B.C. 
Under Merodach Baladan, about B.C. 700, they 
became masters of Babylonia and gave their 
name to the whole country. [Babylon.] 

Chalus (XaAos : Koweik), a river of N. Syria, 
flowing S. past Beroea and Chalcis, and ter- 
minating in a marshy lake. 

Chalybes (XaAu/3fs), a people apparently of 
. Scythian origin (later called Chaldaei), said to 
be descended from Chalybs son of Ares. They 
represent the earliest workers in iron of whom 
the Greeks had heard; they are generally re- 
presented as dwelling on the S. shore of the 
Black Sea, about Themiscyra and theThermodon 
(and probably to a wider extent, for Herodotus 
| clearly mentions them among the nations W. 
of the Halys), and occupying themselves in the 
j working of iron. (Strab. p. 549, 551 ; Hdt. i. 28 ; 



220 



CHALYBON 



CHABIDEMUS 



Aesch. Pr. 717 ; Ap. Eh. ii. 1002 ; Verg. Georg. 
i. 58.) 

Chalybon (Xo.\v(3wv : O. T. Helbon), a city of 
N. Syria, afterwards Beroea. 

Chamaeleon (XajuaiAecuv), a Peripatetic philo- 
sopher, or, rather, student of literature, of 
Heraclea on the Pontus, one of the disciples of 
Aristotle, wrote works on several ancient Greek 
poets, and on philosophical subjects. 

Chamavi, a people in Germany, who were 
compelled by the Roman conquests to change 
their abodes several times. They first appear 
in the neighbourhood of the Rhine, but after- 
wards migrated E., defeated the Bructeri, and 
settled between the Weser and the Harz. At 
a later time they dwelt on the lower Rhine, and 
were auxiliaries of the Franks. (Strab. p. 291 ; 
Tac. Germ. 2, 33, Ann. xiii. 55 ; Ammian. xvii. 8.) 

Cha6n.es (Xdoi/€s), one of the 3 peoples in- 
habiting Epntus, were at an earlier period in 
possession of the whole country, but sub- 
sequently dwelt along the coast from the river 
Thyamis northwards to the Acroceraunian pro- 
montory, which district was therefore called 
Chaonia. By the poets Ghaonius is used as 
equivalent to Epirot. 

Chaos (Xd.os), the vacant and infinite space 
which existed according to the ancient cosmo- 
gonies previous to the creation of the world, and 
out of which the gods, men, and all things arose. 
Chaos was the mother of Erebos and Nyx, from 
whom again were born Aether and Hemera (Hes. 
Th. 116 ff.). In the Orphic cosmogony Chaos 
and Aether are born from Chronos. 

Charadra (XapdSpa : XapaSpaios). 1. A town 
in Phocis on the river Charadrus, situated on 
an eminence not far from Lilaea (Hdt. viii. 33 ; 
Paus. x. 3). — 2. A town in Epirus, SW. of Am- 
bracia. — 3. A town in Messenia, built by Pelops. 

Charadrus (XdpaSpos). 1. A small river in 
Phocis, a tributary of the Cephisus. — 2. A small 
river in Argolis, a tributary of the Inachus. — 
3. A small river in Messenia, rises near Oechalia. 

Charadrus (XdpaSpos, Khaladran), a town in 
Cilicia on the coast road from Arsinoe to Selinus 
(Trajanopolis). 

Charax (Xapa£), of Pergamum, a historian 
of the 2nd cent. B.C., wrote a work in 40 books, 
called 'EAArjM/ciz, and another named Xpovatd. 
(In Miiller, Fragm. Hist. Graec.) 

Charax (Xapaf, i.e. a palisaded camp : Xapa- 
Kr\v6s), the name of several cities, which took 
their origin from military stations. The most 
remarkable of them stood at the mouth of the 
Tigris. [Alexandria, No. 4.] There were 
others in the Chersonesus Taurica, in N. Media, 
near Celaenae in Phrygia, in Corsica, and on 
the Great Syrtis in Africa. 

Charaxus (Xdpa^os) of Mytilene, son of Sca- 
mandronymus and brother of Sappho, fell in 
love with Rhodopis. 

Chares (Xapijs). 1. An Athenian general, 
who for a long series of years contrived by pro- 
fuse corruption to maintain his influence with 
the people, in spite of his very disreputable 
character. In b.c. 367 he was sent to the aid 
of the Phliasians, who were hard pressed by the 
Arcadians and Argives, and he succeeded in 
relieving them (Xen. Sell. vii. 2, 18 ; Diod. 
xv. 75). In the Social war, after the death of 
Chabrias, 356, he had the command of the 
Athenian fleet along with Iphicrates and 
Timotheus. His colleagues having refused, in 
consequence of a storm, to risk an engagement, 
Chares accused them to the people, and they 
were recalled (Diod. xvi. 21 ; Nep. Tim. 4). 
Being now left in the sole command, and being 



in want of money, he entered into the service of 
Artabazus, the revolted satrap of Western Asia, 
but was recalled by the Athenians on the com- 
plaint of Artaxerxes III. In the Olynthian 
war, 349, he commanded the mercenaries sent 
from Athens to the aid of Olynthus. In 340 
he commanded the force sent to aid Byzantium 
against Philip ; but he effected nothing, and 
was accordingly superseded by Phocion. In 
338 he was one of the Athenian commanders at 
the battle of Chaeronea. "When Alexander 
invaded Asia in 334, Chares was living at 
Sigeum ; and in 333 he commanded for Darius 
at Mytilene. (Arrian, Anab. ii. 1, hi. 2.) — 2. Of 
Mytilene, an officer at the court of Alexander 
the Great, wrote a history of Alexander in 
10 books. — 3. An artist of Lindus in Rhodes, 
the favourite pupil of Lysippus, flourished B.C. 
290. He belonged to a period when it was 
sought to replace the old grandeur and sim- 
plicity by mere size and dramatic effect. His 
chief work was the statue of the Sun, which, 
under the name of ' The Colossus of Rhodes,' 
was celebrated as one of the 7 wonders of the 
world. Its height was upwards of 105 English 
feet (70 cubits), the fingers being larger than 
most statues (Plin. xxxiv. 41) ; it was 12 years 
in erecting, and cost 300 talents. It stood 
at the entrance of the harbour of Rhodes, but 
there is no truth in the tradition that its legs 
extended over the mouth of the harbour. It was 
overthrown and broken to pieces by an earth- 
quake 56 years after its erection, B.C. 224. (Cf. 
Strab. p. 652; Polyb. v. 88.) The fragments 
remained on the ground 900 years, till they 
were sold by the general of the caliph Othman 
IV. to a Jew of Emesa, who carried them away 
on 980 camels, a.d. 672. 

Charicles (XaptKKris). 1. An Athenian dema- 
gogue, son of Apollodorus, was one of the com- 
missioners appointed to investigate the affair of 
the mutilation of the Hermae, B.C. 415 ; was one 
of the commanders of the Athenian fleet, 413 ; 
and one of the Thirty on the capture of Athens 
by Lysander, 404 (Xen. Bell. ii. 3, 2).— 2. An 
eminent physician at Rome, attended the em- 
peror Tiberius. 

Chariclo (XapMXtii). 1. A nymph, daughter 
of Apollo, wife of the centaur Chiron, and 
mother of Carystus and Ocyroe (Pind. Pyth. iv. 
103). — 2. A nymph, wife of Eueres and mother 
of Teibesias. 

Charidemus {XapiSrifios). 1. Of Oreus in 
Euboea, of mean origin, became the captain of 
a band of mercenaries, and served in this capa- 
city undeT the Athenian generals Iphicrates and 
Timotheus. He next entered the service of the 
satrap Artabazus, who had revolted against 
Artaxerxes III., and subsequently of Cotys, 
king of Thrace, whose daughter he married. 
On the murder of Cotys, 360, Charidemus ad- 
hered to the cause of his son Cersobleptes, and 
on behalf of the latter carried on the struggle 
with the Athenians for the possession of the 
Chersonesus. The Athenians, however, con- 
sidered that they were in some way indebted to 
him for the surrender of the Chersonese, since 
they voted him a golden crown. In 349 he was 
appointed by the Athenians commander in the 
Olynthian war, but next year was superseded 
and replaced by Chares. (Dem. c. Aristocr. ; 
Athen. p. 436.) — 2. An Athenian, one of the ora- 
tors whose surrender was required by Alexander 
in B.C. 335, after the destruction of Thebes, fled 
to Asia, and took refuge with Darius, by whose 
orders he was put to death, 333, shortly before 
the battle of Issus (Plut. Phoc. 16 ; Curt. iii. 2.) 



CHARILAUS 

Charilaus (XapiKaos), king of Sparta, son of 
Polydeetes, is said to have received his name 
from tke general joy excited by the justice of 
his uncle Lycurgus when he placed him, a new- 
born infant, on the royal seat, and bade the 
Spartans acknowledge b.im for their king. He 
carried on war against Argos and Tegea ; he 
was taken prisoner by the Tegeans, but was dis- 
missed without ransom on giving a promise 
(which he did not keep) that the Spartans 
should abstain in future from attacking Tegea. 
(Plut. Lyc. 5; Hdt. viii. 131; Paus. iii. 7.) 

Charis, Charites iXapis,XdpiTes). Charis was 
the personification of Grace and Beauty. In 
the Iliad (xviii. 382 ; cf. Hes. Th. 945) she is de- 
scribed as the wife of Hephaestus, but in the 
Odyssey Aphrodite appears as the wife of 
Hephaestus, from which we may infer, not 
indeed the identity of Aphrodite and Charis, 
but a likeness of their attributes. The idea of 
personified grace and beauty was at an early 
period divided into a plurality of beings, and 
even in the Homeric poems the plural Charites 
occurs several times. — The Charites (called 
Gratiae by the Romans) are usually described 
as the daughters of Zeus, and as 3 in number, 
namely Euphrosyne, Aglaia, and Thalia. (In 
Cic. N.D. iii. 17, 44, they are children of Erebus 
and Nox, which may perhaps, like the theory of 
their birth from Lethe, symbolise the perish- 
able nature of gratitude). The names of the 
Charites sufneiently express their character. 
They were the goddesses who enhanced the en- 
joyments of life by refinement and gentleness. 
They are mostly described as in the service of 
other divinities, and they lend their grace and 
beauty to everything that delights and elevates 
in heaven, on earth, and in the under world. 
(Pind. 01. xiv. 5; Theocr. xvi. 108.) The gen- 
tleness and gracefulness which they impart to 
man's ordinary pleasures are expressed by their 
moderating the exciting influence of wine (Hor. 
Od. iii. 19, 15 ; cf. Athen. p. 30), and by their 
accompanying Aphrodite as her tire-maidens 
(II. v. 338 ; Od. viii. 302 ; Hes. Op. 72 ; Paus. 
vi. 24). Poetry, however, is the art which is 
especially favoured by them, and hence they are 
the friends of the Muses, with whom they live 
together in Olympus iPind. 01. xiv. 10). With 
Athene also as the goddess of all arts, with 
Hermes as the god of ready and winning speech, 
and with Peitho for the same reason,the Charites 
were often connected. The worship of the 



CHARMIDE8 



221 



art the familiar representation of the Graces as 
three naked figures belongs to the Hellenistic 
period ; in the earlier periods they were repre- 
sented as full} - clothed ; it is probably right to 
recognise a transition period when they were re- 
presented in transparent chiton without a girdle 
( solutis zonis,' Hor. Od. i. 30; 'soluta ac 





Charites (From a coin of Gornia.) 

Charites from an early period was especially 
noticeable at Orchomenus. where they had n 
temple, and were regarded as the givers of 
increase (cf. Paus. ix. 35; Pind. xii. 20; Strab. 
p. 414), to whom probably corresponded the two 
Charites, Auxo and Hegemone worshipped at 
Athens (Pans. i. 32, ix. 85 ; Pollux, viii. 106). In 



Charites. 'Pitture d'Ercolano, vol. iii. tav. 11.) 

perlucida veste.' Sen. de Bene/, i. 3), in statues 
of (probably) about B.C. 300-200, after which 
the naked type became more common. 

Charisius. 1. Aurelius Arcadius, a Roman 
jurist, lived in the reign of Constantine the 
Great, and wrote 3 works, De Testibus, De 
Muneribus civilibus, and De Officio Praefecti 
praetorio. all of which are cited in the Digest. 
— 2. Flavius Sosipater. a Latin grammarian, 
a.d. 400, author of a treatise in 5 books, drawn 
up for the use of his son, entitled Institutiones 
Grammaticae, which has come down to us in a 
very imperfect state. The work is of import- 
ance because he quotes largely from earlier 
writers, and, besides his grammatical informa- 
tion, preserves facts of value in archaeology. 
Edited by Putschius in Grammaticae Latinae 
Auctores Antiqui, Hanbv. 1005, and by Linde- 
mann, in Corpus Grammat. Latin. Yeterutn, 
Lips. 1840 ; Keil, Lips. 1857. 

Charites. [Charis.] 

Chariton (Xapiraiv). of Aphrodisias, a town of 
Caria, the author of a Greek romance, in * 
books, on the Loves of Chaereas andCallirrhoi'. 
The names are probably feigned (from x"P' s 
and 'A(ppo5iT7)i, as the time and position of the 
author certainly are. He represents himself as 
the secretary of the orator Athenagoras, evi- 
dently referring to the Syracusan orator men- 
tioned by Thucydides (vi. 35, 30) as the political 
opponent of Hermocrates. Nothing is known 
respecting the real life or the time of the author ; 
but he probably did not live earlier than the 4th 
century after Christ. Edited by D'Orville, 3 
vols.Arast. 1750, with a valuable commentary; 
reprinted with additional notes by Beck, 
Lips. 1783. 

Charmande i XapjudvSij : nr. Hit), in Mesopo- 
tamia, on the Euphrates (Xen. An. i. 5, 10). 

Charmides fXapjui'Sijs). 1. An Athenian, si>n 
of Glaucon, cousin to Critias, and uncle by the 
mother's side to Plato, who introduces him in 
the dialogue which bears his name as a very 
' young man at the commencement of the Pelo- 
' ponnesian war. In B.C. 404 he was one of the 
. Ten, and was slain fighting against Thrasybulus 
j at the Piraeus I Xen. Hcu. ii. 4, Mem. iii. 7). — 
2. Called also Charmadas by Cicero, a friend of 
Philo of Larissa, in conjunction witli whom he 
is unid by some to linvi- been the founder of u 
4th Academy. He lived B.C. 100. Cicero praises 



222 



CHARON 



CHEOPS 



his powers of memory and his eloquence (de Or. 
i. 11, 18; Tusc. i. 24, 59; Acad. i. 6,16). 

Charon (Xdpau). 1. Son of Erebos, conveyed 
in his boat the shades of the dead across the 
rivers of the lower world. For this service he 
was paid with an obolus or danaces : the coin 
was placed in the mouth of every corpse before 
its burial (Lucian, Mort. Dial. i. 3, xi. 4). It 
should be noticed that Charon is not mentioned 
in Homer, and appears first in the Minyas of 
the Theban epic cycle. He is represented as an 




Charon, Hermes, and Soul. (From a Roman lamp.) 



ugly bearded man clothed in the exomis. — 2. A 
distinguished Theban, concealed Pelopidas and 
his fellow conspirators in his house, when they 
returned to Thebes with the view of delivering 
it from the Spartans, B.C. 379. — 3, A historian 
of Lampsacus, lived about 460 B.C., and wrote 
works on Aethiopia, Persia, Greece, &c, the 
fragments of which are collected by Miiller, 
Fragm. Histor. Graec. 

Charondas (XapdvSas), a lawgiver of Catana, 
who legislated for his own and the other cities 
of Chalcidian origin in Sicily and Italy. His 
date is uncertain. He is said by some to have 
been a disciple of Pythagoras ; and he must 
have lived before the time of Anaxilaus, tyrant 
of Khegium, B.C. 494-476, for the Ehegians used 
the laws of Charondas till they were abolished 
by Anaxilaus. The latter fact sufficiently re- 
futes the common account that Charondas drew 
up a code of laws for Thurii, since this city was 
not founded till 443. A tradition relates that 
Charondas one day forgot to lay aside his sword 
before he appeared in the assembly, thereby 
violating one of his own laws, and that on being 
reminded of this by a citizen, he exclaimed, 
' By Zeus, I will establish it,' and immediately 
stabbed himself. The laws ascribed to him by 
Diodorus and Stobaeus cannot be regarded as 
genuine, and belong to a later date. (Plat. Sep. 
600 ; Arist. Pol. ii. 12, 5, 7, iv. 11, 10 ; Diod. 
xii. 19, 35 ; Stob. xliv. 20.) 

Charops (Xdpo\\i). 1. A chief among the Epi- 
rots, sided with the Romans in their war with 
Philip V., B.C. 198 (Polyb. xvii. 3).— 2. A grand- 
son of the above. He was educated at Rome, 
and after his return to his own country adhered 
to the Roman cause ; but he is represented by 
Polybius as a monster of cruelty. He died at 
Brundisium, 157. (Polyb. xxx. 14, xxxii. 21.) 

Charybdis. [Scylla.] 

Chasiiari, a people of Germany, allies or 
dependents of the Cherusci, to the N. and N¥. 
of whom they dwelt, on the W. bank of the 



Visurgis (Weser), and to the E. of the Bructeri 
(Tac. Germ. 34; Ptol. ii. 11, 22). 

Chatti (sometimes written Catti), one of the 
most important German tribes who occupied a 
territory between the Rhine and the upper part 
of the Weser. As they remained more stationary 
than some other German tribes, they have left 
their name in this, their earliest settlement, in 
the name Hesse. The Adrana (Eder) flowed 
through their land, and Mattium (Maden) was 
their chief town. "We hear of them as fighting 
against the Romans under Drusus, defeated, 
but never really subdued, and as engaged in 
hostilities with the Hermandures and Cherusci. 
(Tac. Ann. i. 55, xii. 27, Hist. iv. 37, Germ. 36 ; 
Dio Cass. liv. 33, lv. 1.) 

Chattuarii, a Frisian people who dwelt S. of 
Flevo (Zuyder See) between the Amisia (Ems) 
and the Rhine (Strab. p. 291). 

Chauci or Cauci, a powerful people in the 
NE. of Germany between the Amisia (Ems) 
and the Albis (Elbe), divided by the Visurgis 
(Weser), which flowed through their territory, 
into Majores and Minores, the former W. and 
the latter E. of the river. They are described by 
Tacitus as the noblest and the justest of the 
German tribes, and skilful seamen. They formed 
an alliance with the Romans A.D. 5, and assisted 
them in their wars against the Cherusci; but 
this alliance did not last long. They were 
at war with the Romans in the reigns of Clau- 
dius and Nero, but were never subdued. They 
are mentioned for the last time in the 3rd cen- 
tury, when they devastated Gaul, and sub- 
sequently became merged in the general name 
of Saxons. (Tac. Germ. 35, Ann. ii. 8, xi. 18; 
Dio Cass. liv. 62, lx. 30 ; Lucan, i. 463.) 

Chelidon. 1. Daughter of Pandareos, sister 
of Aedon, changed into a swallow [see Aedon]. 
— 2. The mistress of Verres (Cic. Verr.). 

Chelidonis (XeAiSom), wife of Cleonymus, to 
whom she proved unfaithful in consequence of 
a passion for Acrotatus, son of Areus I. 

Chelidoniae Insulae (XeAiSoVicu vfiooi : Khe- 
lidoni), a group of 5 (Strabo mentions only 3) 
small islands, surrounded by dangerous shal- 
lows, off the promontory called Hiera or Cheli- 
donia (Khelidoni) on the S. coast of Lycia. 

Chelonatas (XeAwearas : C. Tornese), a pro- 
montory in Elis, opposite Zacynthus, the most 
westerly point of the Peloponnesus. 

Chelone (XeAwer)), a maiden who neglected 
the invitation to the wedding of Zeus and Hera, 
and was changed by Hermes into a tortoise. 

Chemmis, aft. Panopolis (Xi^fxis, Tlav6iroXis : 
Xepfilrris : Ekhmim, Ru.), a great city of the 
Thebais, or Upper Egypt, on the E. bank of the 
Nile, celebrated for its manufactures of linen, its 
stone quarries, and its temples of Pan and Per- 
seus. It was the birthplace of the poet Nonnus. 

Chenoboscia (Xrivo&offKia : Easees-Said, 
Ru.), a city of Upper Egypt, on the right bank 
of the Nile, opposite Diospolis Parva. 

Cheops (Xtoi)/), is the name by which Hero- 
dotus speaks of the Egyptian king Khufu, who 
belonged to the 4th dynasty and reigned about 
3733 B.C. with Memphis as his capital. He is 
famous as the builder of the Great Pyramid. 
The later traditions followed by Herodotus 
(ii. 124-127) and Diodorus (i. 63), who calls him 
Chemmis, represent him as tyrannical and cruel 
to his subjects and impious towards the gods. 
The more trustworthy record of the rock tablets 
describes him as a brave and wise ruler, and a 
founder of temples. Rhampsinitus (Ramses 
III.), whom Herodotus places before Cheops, 
lived about 2500 years later. 



CHEPHREN 

Chephren (Xe<pp7)v) is the name by which the 
Greek writers (Hdt. ii. 127) designated Khaf-Ra, 
the son-in-law of Cheops (or Khufn). He was 
king of Egypt about 3666 B.C. (Tatf-Ra, who is 
not mentioned by Herodotus, came between 
Chufu and Khaf-Ra). He built the second 
pyramid. A statue of Chephren (or Khaf-Ra) 
has been discovered ; a seated figure showing a 
high stage of art in its execution, with the name 
and title of the king on its base. 

Chersiphron (Xep<x'i<ppwvj or Ctesiphon, an 
architect of Cnossus in Crete, in conjunction 
with his son Metagenes, built, or commenced 
building, the great temple of Artemis at Ephe- 
sus early in the 6th century B.C. (Strab. p. 640 ; 
Vitruv. m. Praef. § 12; Ephesus.) 

Chersonesus IXepaov-naos, Att. Xeppovnaos), 
' a land-island,' that is, ' a peninsula ' (from 
yepcos 'land' and trqaos ' island ' ). 1. Cb.. 
Thracia (Peninsula of the Dardanelles or of 
Gallipoli), usually called at Athens ' The Cher- 
sonesus ' without any distinguishing epithet, 
the narrow strip of land, 420 stadia in length, 
running between the Hellespont and the Gulf of 
Melas, and connected with the Thracian main- 
land by an isthmus, which was fortified by a 
wall, 36 stadia across, near Cardia. The Cher- 
sonese was colonised by the Athenians under 
Miltiades, the contemporary of Pisistratus 
(Hdt. vi. 36 ; Xen. Hell. iii. 2, 10,1. It fell under 
the Persian power during the war with Greece, 
was under Athenian or Spartan control till its 
occupation by the Macedonians and by the 
successors of Alexander. After the defeat of 
Antiochus the Romans added it to the pro- 
vince of Macedonia. — 2. Taurica or Scythica 
(Crimea), the peninsula between the Pontus 
Euxinus, the Cimmerian Bosporus, and the 
Palus Maeotis, united to the mainland by an 
isthmus 40 stadia 
in width. The an- 
cients compared 
this peninsula with 
the Peloponnesus 
both in form and 
size. It produced a 
great quantity of 
corn, which was ex- 
ported to Athens 
and other parts of 
Greece. The E. part 
of the peninsula was 
called Tp7}Y_«) or 
the Rugged (Hdt. 
iv. 99). Respecting 
the Greek kingdom 
established in this 
country see Bos- 
porus : for the wor- 
ship of the Tauric 
goddess see Arte- 
mis. — There was a 
town on the S. coast 
of this peninsula 
called Chersonesus, 
founded by the in- 
habitants of the 
Pontic Heraclea, 
and situated on a 
small peninsula, 



CHIMAERA 



22S 



Cherusci, the most celebrated of all the tribes 
of ancient Germany. The limits of their terri- 
tory cannot be fixed with accuracy, since the 
ancients did not distinguish between the 
Cherusci proper and the nations belonging to 
the league of which the Cherusci were at the 
head. The Cherusci proper dwelt on both sides 
of the Visurgis [Weser), and their territories 
extended to the Harz and the Elbe. They were 
originally in alliance with the Romans, but they 
subsequently formed a powerful league of the 
German tribes for the purpose of expelling the 
Romans from the country, and under the chief 
Armixius they destroyed the army of Varus and 
drove the Romans beyond the Rhine, a.d. 9. 
In consequence of internal dissensions among 
the German tribes the Cherusci soon lost their 
influence. Their neighbours the Catti suc- 
ceeded to their power. (Caes. B. G. vi. 10 ; 
Tac. Germ. 36, Ann. xi. 16, 17.) 

Chesium (Xycriov), a promontory of Samos, 
with a temple of Artemis, who was worshipped 
here under the surname of Xriclas. Near it was 
a little river Chesius, flowing past a town of the 
same name. 

Chilius. [Thyh-i/us.] 

Chilon IX'.iKwv, XiAojc), of Lacedaemon, son 
of Damagetus, and one of the Seven Sages, 
B.C. 590. It is said that he died of joy when 
his son gained the prize for boxing at the Olym- 
pic games. The institution of the Ephoralty is 
erroneously ascribed by some to Chilon. A 
shrine was erected to him at Sparta. (Hdt. i. 
59 ; Diog. Lae'rt. i. 68 ; Paus. iii. 16, x. 24.) 

Chimaera (Xi'/xaipa),a fire-breathing monster, 
the fore part of whose body was that of a lion, 
the hind part that of a dragon, and the middle 
that of a goat (Horn. II. vi. 179, xvi. 328). Ac- 
cording to Hesiod (Th. 319), she was a daughter 




Bellcrcrhon and the Chimaera. (From the Terra cotta in the British Museum.) 



called r] fUKpa Xfp. to distinguish it from the i of Typhon and Echidna, and had 8 heads, one 
larger, of which it formed a part.— 3. Cimbrica of each of the three animals before mentioned. 
{Jutland). See Cimhri. — 4. (C. Chersonisi), a She made great havoc in Lycia and the sur- 
promontory in Argolis between Epidaurus and rounding countries, and was at length killed 
Troezen. — 5. (Chersoneso), a town in Crete on by Belleropbon. Virgil places her together 
the Prom. Zephyrium, the hurbour of Lyctuu in with other monsters at the entrance of Orcua. 
the interior. , The origin of the notion of this fire-breathing 



224 



CHIMEEION 



monster must probably be sought for in the vol- 
cano of the name of Chimaera near Phaselis, in 
Lycia (Plin. ii. 236). Servius (ad Aen. vi. 238) 
speaks of a mountain in Lyeia, which still in 
his time vomited flames from its summit, lions 
dwelt in the upper forests, goats in the pasture 
slopes, and serpents in the marshes at its foot. 



CHIRISOPHUS 

and powerful maritime state, under a demo- 
cratic form of government, till the great naval 
defeat of the Ionian Greeks by the Persians, 
B.C. 494, after which the Chians, who had taken 
part in the fight with 100 ships, were subjected 
to the Persians, and their island was laid waste 
and their young women carried off into slavery. 




Bellerophon expelling the Chimaera. (Lycian Gallery in the British Museum.) 



In the works of art discovered in Lycia, we 
find several representations of the Chimaera in 
the simple form of a species of lion still oc- 
curring in that country. [Belleeophon.] 

Chimerlon (Porto Hagianno), a promontory 
and harbour of Thesprotia in Epirus. 

Chion (XW), of Heraclea on the Pontus, a 
disciple of Plato, put to death Clearchus, the 
tyrant of his native town, and was in conse- 
quence killed, b.c. 353 (Justin, xvi. 5). There 
are extant 13 letters which are ascribed to Chion, 
but which are undoubtedly of later origin. 
Edited by Coberus, Lips, and Dresd. 1765, and 
by Orelli, in his edition of Memnon, Lips. 1816. 

Chlone (Xi6vn). 1. Daughter of Boreas and 
Orithyia, became by Poseidon the mother of 
Eumolpus 1 (Paus. i. 38 ; Apollod. iii. 15.) — 
2. Daughter of Daedalion, beloved by Apollo and 
Hermes, bore twins, Autolycus and Philanrmon, 
the former a son of Hermes and the latter of 
Apollo. She was killed by Artemis for having 
compared her beauty to that of the goddess. 
(Ov. Met. xi. 266.) 

Chionides {XiwviSris), an Athenian poet of the 
Old Comedy, lived about B.C. 460, and was the 
first poet who gave the Athenian comedy that 
form which it retained down to the time of 
Aristophanes (a few fragm. in Meineke). 

Chios (Xlos : Xtos, Chius : Grk. Khio, Ital. 
Scio, Turk. Saki- Andassi, i.e. Mastic island), 
one of the largest and most famous islands of 
the Aegaean, lay opposite to the peninsula of 
Clazomenae, on the coast of Ionia, and was 
reckoned at 900 stadia (90 geog. miles) in 
circuit. Its length from N. to S. is about 30 
miles, its greatest breadth about 10, and the 
width of the strait, which divides it from the 
mainland, about 8. It is said to have borne, in 
the earliest times, the various names of Aethalia, 
Maoris, and Pityusa, and to have been inhabited 
by Tyrrhenian Pelasgians and Leleges. It was 
colonised by the Ionians at the time of their 
great migration, and became an important 
member of the Ionian league ; but its popula- 
tion was mixed. It remained an independent 



The battle of Mycale, 479, freed Chios from the 
Persian yoke, and it became a member of the 
Athenian league, in which it was for a long 
time the closest and most favoured ally of 
Athens ; but an unsuccessful attempt to 
revolt, in 412, led to its conquest and devasta- 
tion. It recovered its independence, with Cos 
and Rhodes, in 358, and afterwards shared the 
fortunes of the other states of Ionia. — -Chios is 
covered with rocky mountains, clothed with the 
richest vegetation. It was celebrated for its 
wine, which was among the best known to the 
ancients, its figs, gum-mastic, and other natural 
products, also for its marble and pottery, and 
for the beauty of its women, and the luxurious 
life of its inhabitants. — Of all the states which 
aspired to the honour of being the birthplace 
of Homer, Chios was generally considered by 
the ancients to have the best claim ; and it 
numbered among its natives the tragedian Ion, 
the historian Theopompus, the sophist Theo- 
critus, and other eminent men. Its chief city, 
Chios (Khio), stood on the E. side of the island, 
at the foot of its highest mountain, Pelinaeus ; 




Coin of Chios. 

Obv.. sphinx seated, in front amphora, on -which grapes ; 
ri'r., incuse square divided by two bands, on one of 
-which magistrate's name KPATOPH2 ; struck circ. B.C. 
412-350. 

the other principal places in it were Posidium, 
Phanae, Notium, Elaeus, and Leuconium. 

Chirisophus (Xeiplcrocpos), a Lacedaemonian, 
was sent by the Spartans to aid Cyrus in his 
expedition against his brother Artaxerxes, B.C. 
401. After the battle of Cunaxa and the ar- 
rest of the Greek generals, Chirisophus was 



CHIRON 



CHRYSIPPUS 



225 



appointed one of the new generals, and in con- 
junction with Xenophon had the chief conduct 
of the retreat. 

Chiron (Xdpwv), the wisest and justest of all 
the Centaurs, son of Cronos and Philyra (some 
accounts make him the son of Poseidon or of 
Ixion : Schol. ad II. iv. 219 ; Schol. ad Ap. Rh. 
i. 554), and husband of Nais or Chariclo, lived 
on Mt. Pelion (ib. xi. 832 ; Hes. Th. 1002 ; 
Pind. Pyth. iii. 5, ix. 30). He was instructed 
by Apollo and Artemis, and was renowned for 
his skill in hunting,medicine, music, gymnastics, 
and the art of prophecy (II. xi. 831 ; Plin. vii. I 
196 ; Eur. I. A. 1064 ; Val. Flacc. Arg. i. 139 ; | 
Xen. Cyneg. 1.) All the most distinguished 
heroes of Grecian story, as Peleus, Achilles, 
Diomedes, Jason, are described as the pupils of 
Chiron in these arts. His friendship with Peleus, 
who was his grandson, is particularly cele- 
brated. Chiron saved him from the other Cen- 
taurs, who were on the point of killing him, and j 
he also restored to him the sword which Acastus 
had concealed. Chiron further informed him 
in what manner he might gain possession of ! 
Thetis, who was destined to marry a mortal 
(Pind. Nem. iv. 60 ; Apollod.iii. 13, 5, iv. 13, 3). 
Heracles, too, was his friend ; but one of the 
poisoned arrows of this hero was nevertheless 
the cause of his death. While fighting with 
the other Centaurs, one of the poisoned arrows 
of Heracles struck Chiron, who, although immor- 
tal, would not live any longer, and gave his 
immortality to Prometheus. According toothers, 
Chiron, in looking at one of the arrows, dropped 
it on his foot, and wounded himself. Zeus 
placed Chiron among the stars. (Ov. Fast. v. 
398 ; Plin. xxv. 66 ; Hyg. Ast. ii. 38 ; Centauri.) 

Chitone (Xtruvrt), a surname of Artemis, be- 
cause she was represented with a short chiton 
(Callim. Hymn. 77 ; Athen. 629 ; Artemis). 

Chloe (X\6t\), the Blooming, a surname of 
Demeter as the protectress of the green fields : 
hence Sophocles (Oed. Col. 1600) calls her 
y.rrrr\p tCx^oos (cf. Athen. p. 618). 

Chloris (XKapls). 1. Daughter of the Theban 
Amphion and Niobe : she and her brother Amy- 
clas were the only children of Niobe not killed 
by Apollo and Artemis (Pans. ii. 21, 10). — 2. 
Daughter of Amphion of Orchomenos, wife of 
Nelens, king of Pylos, and mother of Nestor. — 
3. Wife of Zephyrus, and goddess of flowers, 
identical with Flora (Ov. Fast. v. 195). 

Choarene (Xoap7)Wj), a fertile valley in the 
W. of Parthia, on the borders of Media, be- 
tween two ranges of the Caspii M. (Strab. p. 514 ; 
Plin. vi. 44). 

Choaspes (Xoao-wijj). 1. (Kerkha), a river of 
Susiana, falling into the Tigris, near its mouth. 
Its water was so pure that the Persian kings 
used to carry it with them when on foreign 
expeditions. Its Chaldaean name was Ulai ; 
whence the river was called also Eulaeus Susa 
stood upon its banks. (Hdt. i. 188 ; Strab. pp.46, 
728; Plin. vi. 130.)— 2. (Khonah) a river in the 
Paropamisus, falling into the Cophen (Cabut). 

Choerades (XoipdSfs : SS. Pietro e Paolo), 
two small rocky islands off the coast of Italy, 
near Tarentum (Thuc. vii. 88). 

Choerllus (Xotpl\os or Xo(piAAoi). 1. Of 
Athens, a tragic poet, contemporary with 
Thespis, Phrynichus, and Aeschylus, exhibited 
tragedies for 40 years, B.C. 523-483, and gained 
the prize 18 times. — 2. Of Samos, the author 
of an epic poem on (he Persian wars. He was 
born about 470, and died at the court of Arche- 
laus, king of Macedonia, consequently not later 
than 399, which was the last year of Amhelaus. 



— 3. Of Iasos, a worthless epic poet in the train 
! of Alexander the Great, is said to have received 
from Alexander a gold stater for every verse of 
his poem (Suid. s.v. ; Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 232, Art. 
Poet. 357). 

Chollidae (XoAAeiSai or XoWiSai : XoWdSvs, 
-:8i)s), a demus in Attica of the tribe Leontis. 

Chonia [Xwvia), the name in early times of a 
district in the S. of Italy, inhabited by the Chones 
[Xuves), an Oenotrian people, who derived their 
name from the town of Chone (Xuvr)). Chonia 
included the SE. of Lucania and the whole of 
the E. of Bruttium as far as the promontory 
Zephyrium. (Ar. Pol. vii. 9 ; Strab. p. 255). 

Ohorasmii (Xwpio-fiioi), a people of Sogdiana, 
who inhabited the banks and islands of the lower 
course of the Oxus, were a branch of the Sacae 
or Massagetae (Hdt. iii. 93 ; Strab. p. 513). 

Chosroes. 1. King of Parthia. [Arsaces 
xxv.J — 2. King of Persia. [Sassanidae.] 

Chrysa or -e (Xpvaa, -rj), a city on the coast 
of the Troad, near Thebes, with a temple of 
Apollo Smintheus ; celebrated by Homer, but 
destroyed at an early period, and succeeded by 
another city of the same name, on a height 
further from the sea, near Hamaxitos. This 
second city fell into decay in consequence of 
the removal of its inhabitants to Alexandria 
Troas. (II. i. 37, 390 ; Strab. p. 604.) 

Chrysantas (Xpv&dvras), described by Xeno- 
phon in the Cyropaedia as a Persian high in 
the favour of Cyrus, who rewarded him with 
the satrapy of Lydia and Ionia. 

Chrysaor (Xpvadwp). 1. Son of Poseidon and 
Medusa, husband of Callirrhoe, and father of 
Geryones and Echidna (Hes. Th. 278, 979; 
Diod. iv. 17 ; Medusa).— 2. The deity with the 
golden sword, a surname of Apollo, Artemis, 
and Demeter. 

Chrysas (Xpu<ras : Dittaino), a small river in 
Sicily, an affluent of the Symaethus, worshipped 
as a god in Assorus, near which there was a 
Fanum Chrysae (Cic. Verr. iv. 44). 

Chryse (Xpvar)), a Lemnian goddess, whose 
altar was guarded by the serpent which bit 
Philoctetes. It is possible, but by no means 
certain, that she should be identified with the 
Thracian Bendis. — 2. A district [see India: 
Chrysa]. 

Chryseis (Xpvayfis), daughter of Chryses, 
priest of Apollo at Chryse, was taken prisoner 
by Achilles at the capture of Lyrnessus or the 
Hypoplucian Tliebe. In the distribution of 
the booty she was given to Agamemon. Her 
father Chryses came to the camp of the Greeks 
to solicit her ransom, but was repulsed bj 
Agamemnon. Thereupon Apollo sent a plague 
into the camp of the Greeks, and Agamemnon 
was obliged to restore her to her father to 
appease the anger of the god. Her proper name 
was Astynome. (II. i. 306, 480.) 
Chryses. [Chryseis.] 

Chrysippus (Xpiat-wrros). 1. Son of Pelops 
and Axiocne, was hated by his stepmother 
Hippodamia, who induced her sons Atreus and 
Thyestes to kill him. According to another 
tradition Chrysippus was carried off from his 
father's house, or from the Nemean games, by 
Laius and killed himself, whereupon Pelops 
laid a curHe upon the house of Laius. (Apollod. 
iii. 5, 5; Athen. p. 602; Schol. Eur. Phoen. 66; 
Schol. Eur. Or. 5 ; cf. Thnc. i. 9; Paus. vi. 20, 
4.) — 2. A Stoic philosopher, son of Apollonius 
of Tarsus, born at Soli in Cilicia, B.C. 280. 
When young, he lost his paternal property, 
and went to Athens, where he became the dis- 
I ciple of the Stoic Cleanthes. Disliking tho 



226 CHRYSOCERAS 



CICERO 



Academic scepticism, he became one of the 
most strenuous supporters of the principle that 
knowledge is attainable and may be established 
on certain foundations. Hence though not the 
founder of the Stoic school, he was the first 
person who based its doctrines on a plausible 
system of reasoning, so that it was said, 1 If 
Chrysippus had not existed, the Porch could 
not have been.' He died 207, aged 73. He 
possessed great acuteness and sagacity, and 
left behind him an extraordinary number of 
writings, which have perished. (Diog. La'e'rt. 
vii. 7, 180 ; Zeno.) — 3. Of Cnidos, a physician, 
sometimes confounded with the Stoic philo- 
sopher, but he lived about a century earlier. 
He was son of Erineus, and pupil of Eudoxus 
of Cnidos : his works, which are not extant, 
are quoted by Galen. 

Chrysoceras. [Byzantium.] 

Chrysogonus, L. Cornelius, a favourite 
freedman of Sulla, and a man of profligate 
character, was the false accuser of Sex. Roscius, 
whom Cicero defended B.C. 80 (Cic. Bosc. Am.). 

Chrysopolis (Xpuo-diroKis : Scutari), on the 
Bosporus, opp'osite to Byzantium, at the spot 
where the Bosporus was generally crossed. It 
was originally the port of Chalcedon. (Polyb. 
iv. 44 ; Diod. xiii. 64; Plin. v. 150.) 

Chrysorrhoas (Xpvaoppias : JBarrada), also 
called Bardines, a river of Coele-Syria, flowing 
from the E. side of Anti-Libanus, past Damas- 
cus, into a lake now called Balir-el-Merj. 

Chrysostomus, Joannes, archbishop of Con- 
stantinople, one of the most celebrated of the 
Greek Fathers, born a.d. 347, died 407. [See 
Diet, of Christian Biog.~\ 

Chrysothemis (Xpvrr6d€fj.is). — 1. Daughter of 
Agamemnon and Clytemnestra ( II. ix. 145, 287 ; 
Soph. El. 157). — 2. Son of Carmanor, the priest 
of Apollo at Tarrha in Crete. In the first 
musical contest at Delphi he won the prize by 
his hymn on the victory of Apollo over the 
Python (Paus. x. 7, 2). 

Chthonia. [Erechtheus.] 

Chthonius (X66vws) and Chthonia (XBovia), 
epithets of the gods and goddesses of the earth 
and of the underworld, as opposed to the 
ovpdvioi 8(oi. The x^ouioi deol as deities of the 
earth had control of all the fruits of the earth, 
and as deities of the underworld were connected 
with the death of men and animals as well as of 
vegetation. The name therefore belongs to 
Demeter, Persephone, Pluto (-— Zeus x^ vl0S )> 
to Hermes as conductor of the Shades, to 
Dionysus Zagreus and to the Erinyes ; also to 
other deities who had taken to themselves 
attributes of gods of the underworld. The 
epithet is applied also differently to the Titans 
(as earth-born), to country nymphs and to the 
Erechtheidae (as indigenous). 

Chytri (Xvrpoi). 1. (Ghytri) a town in 
Cyprus on the road from Cerynia to Salamis. — 
2. Warm springs at Salamis. 

Ciaca, a fortress of the Romans, on the 
borders of Armenia and Cappadocia. 

Cibalae or Cibalis (Vinkovee), a town in 
Pannonia between the Dravus and Savus, near 
which Constantine gained a decisive victory 
over Lieinius, a.d. 314 : the birthplace of 
Valentinian and Gratian (Eutrop. x. 6 ; 
Ammian. xxx. 7.) 

Cibotus. [Alexandria, No. 1 ; Apamea, No. 
3-]' 

Cibyra (Klflvpa.: KifivpaT-qs, Cibyrdta). 1. 
Magna ( y\ fj.iya.\r) : Khorzmn), a great city of 
Phrygia Magna, in the fertile district of Milyas, 
on the borders of Caria, said to have been 



founded by the Lydians, but afterwards 
peopled by the Pisidians. In Strabo's time, four 
native dialects were spoken in it, besides 
Greek — namely, those of the Lydians, the Pisi- 
dians, the Milyae, and the Solymi. It was the 
head of a tetrapolis of which the other three cities 
were Bubon, Balbyra and Oenoanda, each of 
which had one vote, while Cibyra had two : its 
own government was a despotism under moderate 
princes : the city ruled over a large district 
called Cibyriitis (Kifivparis), and could send 
into the field an army of 30,000 men. In B.C. 
83, it was added to the Roman empire, and was 




Coin of Cibyra Magna. 
Obv., helmeted male head ; rev., armed horseman, bee, 
and magistrate s name : below v.i$vpdTwv ; date probably 
before Hi B.C. 



made the seat of a conventus juridicus, in which 
at a later time Laodicea was the chief city. 
After being nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 
it was restored by Tiberius, under the names of 
Caesarea and Civitas Cibyratica. The city was 
very celebrated for its manufactures, especially 
in iron. (Strab. p. 629 ; Liv. xxxviii. 14 ; Plin. 
v. 105.) — 2. Parva (K. /ui/cpct : Ibura), a city of 
Pamphylia, on the borders of Cilicia. 

C. Cicereius, praetor in B.C. 173, conquered 
the Corsicans, but was refused a triumph. In 
172 and 167 he was one of the ambassadors 
sent to the Illyrian king, Gentius : and in 168 
he dedicated on the Alban mount a temple to 
Juno Moneta. (Liv. xlii. 7, 21, 26.) 

Cicero, Tullius. 1. M., grandfather of the" 
orator, lived at his native town Arpinum, which 
received the full Roman franchise in B.C. 188. — 
2. M., son of No. 1, also lived at Arpinum, and 
died 64. — 3, L,, brother of No. 2, was a friend of 
M. Antonius the orator. — i. L., son of No. 3, 
schoolfellow of the orator, died 68 (Cic. ad 
Att. i. 5). — 5. M., the orator, eldest son of 
No. 2 and Helvia, was born on the 3rd of 
January, B.C. 106, at the family residence in the 
vicinity of Arpinum. He was educated along 
with his brother Quintus, and the two brothers 
displayed such aptitude for learning that his 
father removed with them to Rome, where they 
received instruction from the best teachers in 
the capital. One of their most celebrated 
teachers was the poet Archias of Antioch. 
After assuming the toga virilis (91) the young 
Marcus was placed under the care of Q. Mucius 
Scaevola, the augur, from whom he learnt the 
principles of jurisprudence. In 89 he served 
his first and only campaign under Cn. Pompeius 
Strabo in the Social war. During the civil 
wars between Marius and Sulla, Cicero identi- 
fied himself with neither party, but devoted his 
time to the study of law, philosophy, and 
rhetoric. He received instruction in philo- 
sophy from Phaedrus the Epicurean, Philo, the 
chief of the New Academy, and Diodotus the 
Stoic, and in rhetoric from Molo the Rhodian. 
Having carefully cultivated his powers, Cicero 
came forward as a pleader in the forum, as soon 
as tranquillity was restored by the final over- 



CICERO 



227 



throw of the Marian part} - . His first extant 
speech was delivered in 81, when he was 25 
years of age, on behalf of P. Quintius. Next 
year (80) he defended Sex. Roscius of Ameria. 
charged with parricide by Chrysogonus, a 
favourite freedman of Sulla. This was his first 
public cause and was creditable to him, not 
merely for the merits of the speech and its 
successful result, but also for the boldness 
of the protest against injustice sheltered by the 
power of the dictator. (Cf. de Off. ii. 14, 51.) 
Shortly afterwards (79) Cicero went to Greece, 
ostensibly for the improvement of his health, 
which was very delicate, but perhaps because 
he dreaded the resentment of Sulla. He first 
went to Athens, where he remained six months, 
studying philosophy under Antiochus of 
Ascalon, and rhetoric under Demetrius Syrus ; 
and here he made the acquaintance of Pom- 
ponius Atticus, who remained his firm friend 
to the close of his life. From Athens he passed 
over to Asia Minor, receiving instruction from 
the most celebrated rhetoricians in the Greek 
cities of Asia ; and finally passed some time at 
Rhodes (78), where lie once more placed himself 
under the care of Molo. After an absence of two 
years, Cicero returned to Rome (77), with his 
health firrnly established and his oratorical 
powers greatly improved. He again came for- 
ward as an orator in the forum, and soon 
obtained the greatest distinction. His success 
in the forum paved for him the way to the high 
offices of state. In 75 he was quaestor in Sicily 
under Sex. Peducaeus, praetor of Lilybaeum, 
and discharged the duties of his office with an 
integrity and impartiality which secured for 
him the affections and confidence of the pro- 
vincials, which they soon afterwards showed by 
selecting him to plead their cause against 
Verres. He returned to Rome in 74, and for the 
next four years was engaged in pleading causes. 
In 70 he distinguished himself by the impeach- 
ment of Vehkes, and in 09 he was curule aedile. 
In 06 he was praetor, and while holding this 
office he defended Cluentius in the speech still 
extant [Cluentius], and delivered his celebrated 
oration in favour of the Manilian law, which 
appointed Pompey to the command of the 
Mithridatic war. In 03 he defended with great 
eloquence and ability, as we are told, the tribune 
Cornelius, who was accused by the Optimates of 
treason (Quintil. iv. 3, 13, viii. 3, 3). In the 
following year he gained the great object of his 
ambition, and although a novas hovw was 
elected consul with C. Antonius as a colleague. 
He entered upon the office on the 1st of January, 
C3. Hitherto Cicero had taken little part in the 
political struggles of his time. It is unjust, as 
some modern historians have done, to speak of 1 
him as a ' trimmer 1 (cf. tirrinQoTtpi^t, Dio Cass. ( 
zxxvi. 43), who had sought the favour of the 
popular party in order to gain power, and then i 
deserted to the aristocracy. It is no proof what- 
ever to point to his earlier speeches: for a 
young Roman the first step in political life was 
advocacy, and he accepted those briefs by 
which lie was most likely to win fame for skill | 
and eloquence, doing his best for his client, as 
an advocate now would do, whether he agreed 
with him or not. Hence we cannot take his 
advocacy of Roscius or Cornelius as evidence 
that he was ' coquetting with the democracy ' at 
that time : nor can we fairly say that he 
changed his politics in order to secure the sup- 
port of the nobles in the consular elections. 
His sentiments can best be traced through his 
private letters. Cicero desired to maintain a 



middle course between the extreme Sullan 
party on the one hand, and the extreme demo- 
crats on the other. To counterbalance the 
former he allied himself to the equestrian order 
and supported Pompey, whom he expected to 
be the champion of the republic on its old lines. 
But at the time when he stood for the consul- 
ship the danger from the revolutionary party 
made him approach the party of the nobles as 
the surest bulwark against revolution. What, 
the aims of the revolutionary party were and 
how they were crushed by Cicero is related in 
the article Catllixa. For his prudence and 
energy in crushing the conspiracy Cicero re- 
ceived the highest honours ; he was addressed as 
'father of his country,' and thanksgivings in his 
name were voted to the gods. Cicero's hope now 
seemed to be that Pompey, returning after the 
Mithridatic war, would lead a conservative party 
formed from the senate and the equestrian order ; 
but this scheme proved abortive. Pompey was no 
political leader, the equestrian order quarrelled 
with the senate, and Caesar was able to bring 
about his coalition with Pompey and Crassus. 
Caesar was anxious to secure the adhesion of 
Cicero, and nothing can be wider from the truth 
than the idea of some modern writers that 
Caesar and his part}' wished to avenge the death 
of the C itibnan ans. In fact, Cicero might ha- e 
joined the coalition as a fourth member (Cic. de 
Prov. Cons. 17, 41; ad Att. ii. 3). His refusal 
to support the triumvirate lost him the protec- 
tion which he might have had against those 
whom he had made his enemies by his action 
in the affair of Catiline or from other causes. 
He had mortally offended Clodius by bearing 
witness against him when the latter was accused 
of a violation of the mysteries of the Bona Dea. 
Clodius vowed deadly vengeance against Cicero. 
To accomplish his purpose more securely, 
Clodius was adopted into a plebeian family, anil 
it is significant that this adoption took place 
immediately after a speech of Cicero's which 
appeared to reflect upon the triumvirs (Cic. pro 
Dom, 10, 41). Clodius was thus able to be 
elected tribune of the plebs, and as tribune (58) 
brought forward a bill, interdicting from fire and 
water (i.e. banishing) anyone who should be 
found to have put a Roman citizen to death un- 
tried. Caesar made another effort either to save 
Cicero from exile or to secure his acquiescence in 
the triumvirate — perhaps lie had both motives — 
he offered to make him an agrarian commissioner 
or a legatus to himself in Gaul. Cicero refused 
both offers, and, despairing of offering any 
successful opposition to the measure of Clodius, 
voluntarily retired from Rome before it was put 
to the vote, and crossed over to Greece. He 
took up his residence at Thessalonica in Mace- 
donia. Here he gave way to despair ; and his 
letters during this period are filled with lamen- 
tations. Meanwhile his friends at Rome had 
not deserted him ; and, notwithstanding the 
vehement opposition of Clodius, they obtained 
his recall from banishment in the course of next 
year. In August, 57, Cicero landed at Brundi- 
sium, and in September he was again at Rome. 
Taught by experience, Cicero would no longer 
join the senate in opposition to the trium- 
virs. The extent to which he had been broken 
in to support the triumvirate is shown by his 
speech against Caesar's recall from Gaul (tie 
Prov. Cons.), and his speeches in defence of 
Gubinius and Vatinius. How galling this was 
to him appears from many expressions in his 
letters (e.g. ad Att. iv. 5, 6, 10, x. 8). In 52 lie 
was compelled much uguinst his will to go to 

Q2 



228 



CICEEO 



the East as governor of Cilicia. Here he dis- 
tinguished himself by his integrity, but at the 
same time it was an absurd vanity which led him 
to assume the title of imperator and to aspire to 
the honours of a triumph after subduing some 
robber tribes in his province. He returned to 
Italy towards the end of 50, and arrived in the 
neighbourhood of Eome on the 4th of January 
49, just as the civil war between Caesar and 
Pompey broke out. After long hesitating which 
side to join, he finally determined to throw in 
his lot with Pompey, and crossed over to Greece 
in June. After the battle of Pharsalia (48), 
Cicero returned to Brundisium, where he lived 
in the greatest anxiety for many months. He 
was, however, not only pardoned by Caesar, but, 
when the latter landed at Brundisium in Sep- 
tember, 47, he greeted Cicero with the greatest 
kindness and. respect. Cicero was even able to 
exert influence with Caesar in favour of some 
of the Pompeian party, such as M. Marcellus 
and Q. Ligarius (ad Fam. iv. 4, vi. 7, 12; Plut. 
Cic. 39). But for the most part he retired from 
public affairs, and during the next three or four 
years composed the greater part of his philo- 
sophical and rhetorical works. The murder of 
Caesar on the 15th of March, 44, again brought 
Cicero into public life. He had begun to fear 
a coming despotism, and, though not privy to 
the plot, he certainly approved of the assassina- 
tion (ad Att. xiv. 11 ; ad Fam. xi. 8). He put 
himself at the head of the republican party, and 
in his Philippic orations attacked M. Antony : 
with unmeasured vehemence. But this proved j 
his ruin. The deaths of Hirtius and Pansa put 
an end to Cicero's hopes that Octavian might i 
be prevented from coming to terms with Antony ; 
and on the formation "ofrithe triumvirate be- 
tween Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus (27th of 
November, 43), Cicero's name was in the list of 
the proscribed. He was warned of his danger 
while at his Tusculan villa, and embarked at 
Antium, intending to escape by sea, but was 
driven by stress of weather to Circeii, from 
whence he coasted along to Formiae, where he 
landed at his villa. From Formiae his attendants 
carried him in a litter towards the shore, but 
were overtaken by the soldiers before they could 
reach the coast. They were ready to defend 
their master with their lives, but Cicero com- 
manded them to desist, and stretching forward 
called upon his executioners to strike. They 
instantly cut off his head and hands, which were 
conveyed to Rome, and, by the orders of Antony, 
nailed to the Rostra. Cicero perished on the 
7th of December, 43, and at the time of his 
death had nearly completed his 64th year. — By 
his first wife, Terentia, Cicero had two children, 
a daughter Tullia, whose death, in 45, caused 
him the greatest sorrow, and a son Marcus. 
[No. 7.] His wife Terentia, to whom he had 
been united for 30 years, he divorced in 46, in 
consequence, it would appear, of some disputes 
connected with pecuniary transactions ; and 
soon afterwards he married a young and wealthy 
maiden, Publilia, his ward, but found little com- 
fort in this new alliance, which was speedily dis- 
solved. — Cicero was not a great nor a strong 
statesman, but rather an eloquent and adroit 
politician. As astatesman he showed more judg- 
ment and foresight as well as greater firmness in 
his suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy 
than at any other time. As a judge of character 
and of the times he failed : for while his desire 
to maintain the republic unchanged was sincere 
and creditable, he was utterly wrong in his idea 
that Pompey could succeed as champion of the 



conservative party. That he was forced into 
a policy of opportunism by the coalition of 
Pompey with Caesar does not merit all the con- 
demnation which it has received. No opposi- 

! tion was possible : nor again can he rightly be 
charged with pusillanimity for acquiescing in 

j Caesar's rule after the overthrow of Pompey. 
There was no lack of courage in his attitude 
after the death of Caesar. Still less need we 
question the sincerity of his purpose to supports 
whatever person or policy was in his opinion 
most likely to preserve the republican constitu- 
tion. Plutarch (Cic. 49) tells us that Augustus 
himself pronounced him to have been truly a 
lover of his country. But it is as an author 
that Cicero deserves the highest praise. In his 
works the Latin language attains its highest 
perfection. They may be divided as follows. — 
I. Rhetorical Works. 1. Bhetoricorum s. de 
Inventione Bhetorica Libri II. This appears, 
to have been the earliest of Cicero's prose works. 




Bust of Cicsro. (From the bust in the possession of the 
Duke of Wellington.) 



It was intended to exhibit in a systematic foum 
all that was most valuable in the works of the 
Greek rhetoricians, but it was never completed. 
— 2. De Partitione Oratoria Dialogus. A 
catechism of Rhetoric, according to the method 
of the middle Academy, by way of question and 
answer, drawn up by Cicero for the instruction 
of his son Marcus, written in 46. Editions by 
Piderit, Lips. 1866 ; Sauppe, Gb'tt. 1877.— 3. De 
Oratore ad. Quintuvi Fratrem Libri III. A 
systematic work on the art of Oratory, written 
in 55 at the request of his brother Quintus 
This is the most perfect of Cicero's rhetorical 
works. Editions : Ellendt, 1840 ; Piderit, Lips. 
1886; Wilkins, Oxf. 1881-1892.— 4. Brutus s. 
de Claris Oratoribus. It contains a critical his- 
tory of Roman eloquence, from the earliest 
times down to Hortensius inclusive. Editions 
by Beck, Camb. U.S. 1853 ; Piderit, 1875.— 5. 
Ad M. Brutum Orator, in which Cicero gives 
his views of a faultless orator: written 45. 
Edited by Sandys, 1885. — 6. De Optimo Genere 



CICERO 



Orator um. An introduction to Cicero's trans- 
lation of the orations of Aeschines and Demo- 
sthenes in the case of Ctesiphon : the translation 
itself has been lost. — 7. Topica ad C. Treba- 
tium. An abstract of the Topics of Aristotle, 
illustrated by examples derived chiefly from 
Eoman law instead of from Greek philosophy : 
it was written in July 44. — lihetoricorum ad C. 
fferennium Libri IV. is generally printed with 
Cicero's works, but was not by his hand. — II. 
Philosophical "Works. I. Political Philo- 
sophy. — 1. De Hepublica Libri VI. A work 
on the best form of government and the duty 
of the citizen, in the form of a dialogue, founded 
on the liepublic of Plato; written in 54. This 
work disappeared in the 10th or 11th century of 
our era with the exception of the episode of the 
Somnium Scipionis, which had been preserved 
by Macrobius ; but in 1822, Angelo Mai found 
among the palimpsests in the Vatican a portion 
of the lost treasure. Thus the greater part of 
the 1st and 2nd books and a few fragments of 
the others were discovered. Editions by Mai, 
Rome, 1822, and by Creuzer and Moser, Frankf. 
1826. — 2. De Legibus Libri III. A dialogue, 
founded on the Laws of Plato ; probably written 
52. A portion of the three books is lost, and it 
originally consisted of a greater number. Edited 
by Moser and Creuzer, Frankf. 1824, and by 
Bake, Lugd. Bat. 1842. — LL Philosophy of 
Morals. 1. De Ofiiciis Libri III. Written 
in 44 for the use of his son Marcus, at that time 
residing at Athens. The first two books were 
chiefly taken from Panaetius, and the third book 
was founded upon the work of the Stoic Hecato ; 
but the illustrations are taken almost exclusively 
from Roman history and Roman literature. 
Edited by Holden, Carub. 1884 ; Schiche, Prag. 
1885. — 2. Cato Major s. de Senectute, ad- 
dressed to Atticus, and written at the beginning 
•of 44 : it points out how the burden of old age 
may be most easily supported. Editions, Shuck- 
burgh, 1880 ; Howson, 1887 ; Reid, 1883.— 3. 
Laelius s. de Amicitia, written after the pre- 
ceding, to which it may be considered as forming 
a companion ■ also addressed to Atticus. Edit. 
Reid, 1888 ; Shuckburgh, 1885.— 4. De Gloria 
Libri II, written in 44, is now lost, though 
Petrarch possessed a MS. of the work. — 5. De 
■Consolatione t. de Liictu minuendo, written in 
15, soon after the death of his daughter Tulliu, 
is also lost. — III. Spf.culative Philosophy'. 
I. Academicorum Libri II, a treatise upon 
the Academic philosophy, written 45. Edited 
by Goerenz, Lips. 1810 ; Orelli, Turic. 1827; 
J. S. Reid, 1885.— 2. De Finibas Bom/rum et 
Mulorum Libri V. Dedicated to M. Brutus, in 
which are discussed the opinions of the Epicu- 
reans, Stoics, and Peripatetics, on the Supreme 
Good — that is, the finis, or end, towards which 
all our thoughts and actions are or ought to be 
directed. Written in 45. Edited by Modvig, 
Copenhagen, 18!!!) ; J. S. Reid, 1800.— 3. Tuum- 
lanarum Disputationum Libri V. This work, 
addressed to M. Brutus, is a series of discussions 
on various important points of practical philo- 
sophy supposed to have been held in the Tus- 
culanum of Cicero. Written in 45-44. Edited 
by Kiihner, Jenae, 1874; O. Heine, Leips. 1881. 
— 4. Paradoxa, six favourite Paradoxes of the 
Stoics explained in familiar language, written 
early in 40. — 5. Horteitsins s. de I'hilosojiliia, 
a dialogue in praise of philosophy, of which 
fragments only are extant, written in 45. — 0. 
Timaeus s. de Univrrso, a translation of Plato's 
Tiinariis, of which we possess a fragment. — IV. 
Theology. 1. De Natitra Dcorum Ltbn I If. 



: An account of the speculations of the Epicu- 
reans, the Stoics, and the Academicians, on the 
, existence, attributes, and providence of a Divine 
' Being ; dedicated to M. Brutus, and written 
j early in 44. Edited by J. B. Mayor, 1885. — 2. 
) De Divinatioue Libri II, a continuation of the 
1 preceding work. It presents the opinions of the 
! different schools of philosophy upon the reality 
of the science of divination. Written in 44, 
after the death of Caesar. Edited by Creuzer, 
Kayser, and Moser, Frankf. 1828 ; Stamm, 
Ro'ssel, 1881. — 3. De Fato Liber Singularis, 
only a fragment. — III. Orations. The follow- 
ing is a list of Cicero's extant speeches, with the 
date at which each was delivered. Some ac- 
count of each oration is given separately with 
the- biography of the person principally con- 
cerned. 1. Pro P. Quintio, B.C. 31 (Klotz, Leips. 
1802). — 2. Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino, 80 (Donkm, 
' Lond. 1882 ; Landgraf, Erl. 1884).— 3. Pro Q. 
Roscio Comoedo, 70 (Schmidt, 1839).— 4. Pro M. 
Tullio, 71 (Richter, 1834).— 5. In Q. Caecilium, 
70 (C. Halm, Berl. 1882).— 0. In Verrem Actio!., 
5th August, 70). — 7. In Yerrern Actio II. Not 
delivered (Heitland, Camb. 1877 : C. Halm, 
1 1882).— 8. Pro M. Fonteio, 09 (Schneider, Leips. 
' 18701— 9. Pro A. Caecina, 09, probably (Klotz, 
Leips. 1800). — 10. Pro Lege Manilia, 00, or De 
Imperio Pompei (A. S. Wilkins, 1885). — 11. Pro 
A. Cluentio Avito, 06 (Ramsay, 1883).— 12. Pro 
C. Comelio, 55. — 13. Oratio in Toga Candida, 
04. — 14. De Lege Agraria, 3 orations, 63 
(Zumpt, Berl. 1861).— 15. Pro C. Rabirio, 63 
(Heitland, 1882). — 16. In Catilinam, 4 orations, 
63 (A. S. Wilkins, 1879).— 17. Pro Murena, 63 
(C. Halm, 1881).— 18. Pro P. Comelio Sulla, 02 
(J. S. Reid, 1882).— 19. Pro A. Licinio Archia, 
61 (J. S. Reid, 1884).— 20. Pro L. Valerio Flacco, 
59 (Mesnil, Leips. 1883). — 21. Post Reditum in 
Senatu, 5th Sept. 57.-22. Post Reditum ad 
Quirites, 6th or 7th Sept. 57.-23. Pro Dorao 
sua ad Pontifices, 29th Sept. 57. — 24. De Haru- 
spicum Responsis, 56. (The above four speeeheii 
ed. by H. Wagner, Leips. 1858).— 25. Pro P. 
Sextio, 56 (H. A. Holden. 1883).— 26. In Vati- 
nium, 56 (C. Halm, 1840). — 27. Pro M. Caelio 
Rufo, 56 lOrelli, 1832).— 28. Pro L. Comelio 
Balbo, 56 (J. S. Reid, 1879).— 29. De Provinciis 
Consularibus, 56 (Tischer, Berl. 1801).— 30. Li 
L. Pisonem, 55. — 31. Pro Cn. Plancio, 55 (H. 
A. Holden, 1881).— 32. Pro C. Rabirio Postunio, 
i 54. — 33. Pro M. Aemilio Scauro, 51. — 34. Pro 
T. Annio Milone, 52 (J. S. Purton, 1877 ; Bouter- 
wek, 1887).— 35. Pro M. Marcello, 47 (Rich- 
ter, Leips. 1880). — 30. Pro Q. Ligario, 4G 
(Richter, 1880).— 37. Pro Rege Deiotaro, 45 
(Richter, 1886). — 38. Orationes Philippicae, 14 
orations against M. Antonius, 44 and 43 (King, 
1M(18 ; J. E. B. Mayor, 1878 ; A. Peskett, 1887).— 
IV. Epistles. Cicero during the most important 
period of his life maintained a close correspond- 
ence with Atticus and with a wide circle of 
literary and political friends and connexions. 
We now have upwards of 800 letters, un- 
doubtedly genuine, extending over a space of 
twenty-six years, and commonly arranged in the 
following manner : — 1. Epistolarum ad Fami- 
liares s. Epistolarum ad Diversos Libri A' VI. 
a series of 426 letters, commencing with a 

1 letter to Pompey, written in 62, and terminating 
with a letter to Cassius, July 43. They are not 

! placed in chronological order, but those nil 
dressed to the same individuals, with their 
replies, where these exist, are grouped together 
without reference to the date of the rest. — 2. 
Epistolarum ad V. Fum/ioniuni Attuiiw 
Libri X VI, a Series of 390 letters addressed 



230 



CICERO 



CILICIA 



to Atticus, of which eleven were written in 68, 
67 , 65, and 62, the remainder after the end of 
62, and the last in Nov. 44. They are for the 
most part in chronological order, although dis- 
locations occur. — 3. Epistolarum ad Q. Fra- 
trein Libri III, a series of twenty-nine letters 
addressed to his brother, the first written in 59, 
the last in 54. — 4. We find in most editions Fpi- 
stolarum ad Brutum Liber, eighteen letters, all 
written after the death of Caesar. To these are 
added eight more, first published by Cratander. 
The genuineness of these two books, though 
disputed, has been fairly established. — The best 
edition of Cicero's letters, arranged in chrono- 
logical order, is by Tyrrell and Purser, 1879- 
1890. — Cicero also wrote a great number of 
other works on historical and miscellaneous 
subjects, all of which are lost. He composed 
several poems, most of them in his earlier 
years, but two at a later period, containing a 
history of his consulship, and an account of 
his exile and recall. A line in one of these 
poems contained the unlucky jingle so well 
known to us from Juvenal (x. 122), O fortuna- 
tam natavi vie consule Momam. — Editions of 
the collected works of Cicero by Orelli, Turic. 
1826-1837, 9 vols.; by Baiter and Kayser, 11 
vols., Leips. 1869 ; by Nobbe, 1 vol. Leips. 1869. 
— 6. Q., brother of the orator, was born about 
102, and was educated along with his brother. 
In 67 he was aedile, in 02 praetor, and for the 
next three years governed Asia as propraetor. 
He returned to Rome in 58, and warmly exerted 
himself to procure the recall of his brother from 
banishment. In 55 he went to Gaul as legatus 
to Caesar, whose approbation he gained by his 
military abilities and gallantry : he distinguished 
himself particularly by the resistance he offered 
to a vast host of Gauls, who had attacked his 
camp, when he was stationed for the winter with 
one legion in the country of the Nervii. In 51 
he accompanied his brother as legate to Cilicia ; 
and on the breaking out of the civil war in 49 
he joined Pompey. After the battle of Phar- 
salia, he was pardoned by Caesar. He was 
proscribed by the triumvirs, and was put to 
death in 43. Quintus wrote several works, 
which are all lost, with the exception of an ad- 
dress to his brother, entitled He Petitione Con- 
sulatus. Quintus was married to Pomponia, 
sister of Atticus ; but, from incompatibility of 
temper, their union was an unhappy one. — 7. M. , 
only son of the orator and his wife Terentia, 
was born 65. He accompanied his father to 
Cilicia, and served in Pompey's army in Greece, 
although he was then only 16 years of age. In 
45 he was sent to Athens to pursue his studies, 
but there fell into irregular and extravagant 
habits. On the death of Caesar (44) he joined 
the republican party, served as military tribune 
under Brutus in Macedonia, and after the battle 
of Philippi (42) fled to Sex. Pompey in Sicily. 
When peace was concluded between the trium- 
virs and Pompey in 39, Cicero returned to Rome, 
was favourably received by Octavian, who at 
length accepted him as his colleague in the con- 
sulship (b. c. 30, from 13th Sept.). By a singular 
coincidence, the despatch announcing the cap- 
ture of the fleet of Antony, which was immedi- 
ately followed by his death, was addressed to 
the new consul in his official capacity, and thus, 
says Plutarch, ' the divine justice reserved the 
completion of Antony's punishment for the house 
of Cicero.' — 8. Q., son of No. 6, and of Pomponia, 
sister of Atticus, was born 66 or 67, and perished 
with his father in the proscription, 43. 
Cichyrus. [Ephyba.] 



Cicones (KiVoyes), a Thracian people on the 
coast, west of the Hebrus, near Mt. Ismarus (II. 
ii. 846; Od. ix. 39; Hdt. vii. 59; Verg. Georg. 
iv. 520). 

Cicynna (K'lKvvua : KiKvuvevs), a dermis of 
Attica, belonging to the tribe Cecropis, and 
afterwards to the tribe Acamantis. 

Cilicia (KiAi/a'a : Ki'Aif , fern. K'iKuraa), a dis- 
trict in the SE. of Asia Minor, bordering to the 
E. on Syria, to the N. on Cappadocia and Ly- 
caonia, to the NW. and W. on Pisidia and 
Pamphylia. On all sides, except the W., it is 
enclosed by natural boundaries : namely, the 
Mediterranean on the S., M. Amanus on the E., 
and M. Taurus on the N. The W. part of 
Cilicia is intersected by the offshoots of the 
Taurus, while in its E. part the mountain chains 
enclose much larger tracts of level country : 
and hence arose the division of the country into 
C. Aspera (K. % rpax^a, or Tpaxt'&Tts), and C. 
Campestris (K. 7) ireSids) ; the latter was also 
called Cilicia Propria [r) tSi'cos K.). It united for 
religious festivals in the Koivhv KiAi/ci'as, which 
met at Tarsus under the presidency of a KiXik- 
dpxys. Numerous rivers, among which are the 
Pykamus, Sabus, Cydnus, Calycadnus, and. 
smaller mountain streams, descend from the 
Taurus. The E. division, through which most, 
of the larger rivers flow, was extremely fertile,, 
and the narrower valleys of Cilicia Aspera con- 
tained some rich tracts of land ; the latter dis- 
trict was famed for its fine breed of horses. 
The inhabitants of the country seem to have 
been of a Semitic stock from Syria. [See below, 
Crux.] The country remained independent 
till the time of the Persian Empire, under which 
it formed a satrapy, but appears to have been 
still governed by its native princes. Alexander 
subdued it on his march into Upper Asia ; and, 
after the division of his empire, it formed a part 
of the kingdom of the Seleucidae: its plains 
were settled by Greeks, and the old inhabitants 
were for the most part driven back into the 
mountains of C. Aspera, where they remained 
virtually independent, practising robbery by 
land and piracy by sea. In B.C. 102 the Romans 
sent a fleet under the praetor M. Antonius, who 
not only destroyed the fleet of the Cilician pi- 
rates, but occupied ports in Cilicia. The Roman 
province of Cilicia, therefore, really dates from 
that year, and we find actual mention of Gover- 
nors of Cilicia, Sulla as praetor B.C. 92 (Appian, 
Mithr. 57, Aurel. Vict. 75), Oppius in B.C. 89, 
whom Livy calls proconsul (Fp. 78) ; Mithri- 
dates got possession of it for a time, but after 
the year 84 the province of Cilicia had its 
regular succession of proconsuls (cf. Cic. Verr. 
i. 16, 44). Down to the war against Tigranes 
the plains of Eastern Cilicia (C. Pedias or 
Campestris) belonged to the Syrian empire 
(Appian, Syr. 48). After the defeat of Ti- 
granes, Pompey in B.C. 64 constituted as the 
complete province of Cilicia the following dis- 
tricts : Cilicia Campestris, Cilicia Aspera, Pam- 
phylia, Pisidia, Isauria, Lycaonia, and the- 
districts of Laodicea, Apamea and Synnada, and 
to these Cyprus was added in 58. The chief 
city of Cilicia Campestris was Tarsus, as caput 
Ciliciae (Cic. Fain. i. 7, 4), later called Me- 
tropolis: the chief town of Lycaonia was. 
Iconium : the other centres, which each formed 
a conventus, were Laodicea and Lycum for the 
forum Cibyraticum (a group of 25 towns about 
Cibyra) ; Perge, for the forum Bamphylium ; 
Philomelium for the forum Isauricum ; Apa- 
mea, Synnada and Cyprus. This was broken up 
under Antony after Caesar's death, but Augus- 



CILICIAE 



CIMOX 



231 



tus reconstituted the province of Cilicia on a 
smaller scale, embracing only C. Campestris and 
Cyprus, while Lycaonia and Isauria were joined 
to Galatia, and C. Aspera was given to Arche- 
laus, king of Cappadocia. In 22 B.C. Cyprus was 
separated, and Cilicia Campestris either then or 
in the reign of Tiberius was placed under the 
proconsul of Syria. Under Hadrian C. Cam- 
pestris and Trachea became an imnerial province 
under a legatus. 

CiHcIae Pylae or Portae (<u ITuA.ai Trjs Ki- 
Ai/ci'aj : Gulek-Boghaz), the chief pass between 
Cappadocia and Cilicia, through the Taurus, on 
the road from Tyana to Tarsus. This was the 
way by which Alexander entered Cilicia. 

Cillcium Mare or Anion. Cilicius, the straits 
between Cilicia and Cyprus, as far as the Gulf 
of Issus. 

CIlix (Ki'Ai£), son of Agenor and Telephassa, 
was, with his brothers, Cadmus and Phoenix, 
sent out by their father in search of Europa, 
who had been carried off by Zeus. Cilix settled 
in the country called after him Cilicia. 

Cilia (KlWa), a small town in the Troad, on 
the river Cilleus, at the foot of 31. Cillaeus, in 
the range of Gargarus, with a temple of Apollo 
Cillaeus ; its foundation was ascribed to Pelops 
(27. i. 36; Hdt. i. 119; Strab. p. 612). 

Cilnii, a powerful family in the Etruscan 
town of Arretium, were driven out of their 
native town in B.C. 301, but were restored by 
the Romans. The Cilnii were nobles or Lucu- 
mones in their state, and some of them in 
ancient times may have held even the kingly 
dignity. (Comp. Hor. Od. i. 1.) The name has 
been rendered chiefly memorable by C. Cilnius 
Maecenas. [Maecenas.] 

Cimber, C. Annius, had obtained the praetor- 
ship from Caesar, and was one of Antony's sup- 
porters, B.C. 43, on which account he is attacked 
by Cicero. He was charged with having killed 
his brother, whence Cicero calls him ironically 
Pltiladelphus. (Phil. xi. 6, 13, xiii. 12, 26.) 

Cimber, L. Tillius (not Tullius), a friend of 
Caesar, who gave him the province of Bithynia, 
but subsequently one of Caesar's murderers, 
B.C. 41. On the fatal day, Cimber was foremost 
in the ranks, under pretence of presenting a 
petition to Caesar for his brother's recall from 
exile. After the assassination, Cimber went to 
his province and raised a fleet, with which he 
aided Cassius and Brutus. 

Cimbri, a Celtic people, probably of the same 
race as the Cymry. [Celtae.] They appear to 
have inhabited the peninsula which was called 
after them Chersonesus Cimbrica (Jutland), 
though the greatest uncertainty prevailed among 
the ancients respecting their original abode. 
The Cimbrians were probably a Celtic people 
with some Teutonic admixture. In conjunction 
with theTeutones, Ambroneg, and Tigurini, they 
migrated S., with their wives and children, 
towards the close of the second century B.C. ; 
and the whole host is said to have contained 
300,000 fighting men. They defeated several 
Koman armies, and caused the greatest alarm 
at Rome. In B.C. 113 they defeated the consul 
Papirius Carbo, near Noreia, and then crossed 
over into Gaul, which they ravaged in all direc- 
tions. In 10!) they defeated the consul Junius 
Silanus, in 107 the consul Cassius Longinus, 
who fell in the battle, and in 105 they gained 
their most brilliant victory near the Rhone over 
the united armies of the consul Cn. Mallius and 
the proconsul Servilius Caepio. Instead of 
crossing the Alps, the Cimbri, fortunately for 
Rome marched into Spain, where they remained 



two or three years. The Romans meantime had 
been making preparations to resist their formid- 
able foes, and had placed their troops under the 
command of Marius. The barbarians returned 
to Gaul in 102. In that 5 r ear the Teutones were 
I defeated and cut to pieces by Marius, near 
! Aquae Sextiae (Aix) in Gaul ; and next year 
i (101) the Cimbri and their allies were likewise 
destroyed by Marius and Catulus, in the decisive 
battle of the Campi Raudii, near Verona, in the 
X. of Italy. In the time of Augustus, the Cim- 
bri, who were then a people of no importance, 
sent an embassy to the emperor. 
Ciminus or Ciminius Mons (Monte Cimino), 
j a range of mountains in Etruria, reaching a 
height of 3000 feet, thickly covered with wood 
(Saltus Ciminius), near a crater lake of the 
same name, between Volsinii and Falerii (Liv. 
ix.36). 

Cimmerii (Ki^.uepioi), the name of a mythical 
and of a historical people. The mythical Cim- 
merii, mentioned by Homer, dwelt in the fur- 
thest W. on the ocean, enveloped in constant 
mists and darkness (Od. xi. 14). Later writers 
sought to localise them, and accordingly placed 
them either in Italy near the lake Avernus, or 
in Spain, or in the Tauric Chersonesus. — The 
historical Cimmerii dwelt on the Palus Maeotis 
(Sea of Azov), in the Tauric Chersonesus, and 
in Asiatic Sarmatia. Driven from their abodes 
by the Scythians, they passed into Asia Minor 
on the XE., and penetrated W. as far asAeolis 
and Ionia. They conquered and held for some 
time the Milesian colony of Sinope ; in 696 B.C. 
they invaded Phrygia : took Sardis in 635 ; 
burnt the temple of Artemis at Ephesus ; and 
destroyed Magnesia on the Maeander. They 
were defeated by Assurbanipal of Assyria, and 
by Gyges of Lydia, but held their ground, 
until they were expelled from Asia by Alyattes. 
(Hdt. i. 6, 15, 103, iv. 11 ; Strab. pp. 627, 633.) 

Cimmerius Bosporus. [Bosporus.] 

Cimolis (Kijua'Ais: Cimoli or Argentiera), an 
island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades, 
between Siphnos and Melos, celebrated for its 
fine white earth 17; KifiwAla yrj, Cimolia creta), 
used by fullers for cleaning cloths. (Strab. 
p. 484 ; Plin. xxxv. 198; cf. Ov. Met. viii. 463.) 

CimonlKi'/xwcj. 1. Sonof Stesagoras,and father 
of Miltiades, victor at Marathon, gained three 
Olympic victories with his four-horse chariot 
and after his third victory was secretly murdered 
by order of the sons of Pisistratus (Hdt. vi. 
103). — 2. Grandson of the preceding, and son of 
the great Miltiades and Hegesipyle, daughter of 
the Thracian prince Olorus, born B.C. 504. On 
the death of his father (B.C. 489), he was im- 
prisoned because he was unable to pay his fine 
of 50 talents, which was eventually paid by Cal- 
lias on his marriage with Elpinice, Cimon's half- 
sister. [Elpinice.] Cimon first distinguished 
himself on the invasion of Greece by Xerxes(480), 
and after the battle of Plataea was brought for- 
ward by Aristides. He frequently commanded 
the Athenian fleet in the aggressive war against 
tin' Persians. His most brilliant success was 
in 160, when he defeated a large Persian fleet, 
and on the same day landed and routed their 
, land forces also on the river Eurymedon in 
Pamphylia. The death of Aristides and the 
banishment of Themistocles left Cimon without 
a rival at Atliens for some years. But his in- 
fluence gradually declined as that of Pericles 
increased. In 161 Cimon marched at the head 
of some Athenian troops to the assistance of 
the Spartans, who wen; hard pirs-ed by their 
revolted subjects. The Athenians were deeply 



232 CINADON 
mortified by the insulting manner in which 
their offers of assistance were declined, and 
were enraged with Cimon who had exposed them 
to this insult. His enemies in consequence suc- 
ceeded in obtaining his ostracism this year. He 
was subsequently recalled, in what year is un- 
certain, and through his intervention a five years' 
truce was made between Athens and Sparta, 
450. In 449 the war was renewed with Persia, 
Cimon received the command, and with 200 
ships sailed to Cyprus ; here, while besieging 
Citium, illness or the effects of a wound carried 
him off. — Cimon was of a cheerful convivial 
temper; frank and affable in his manners. 
Having obtained a great fortune by his share 
of the Persian spoils, he displayed unbounded 
liberality. His orchards and gardens were 
thrown open ; his fellow demesmen were free 
daily to his table, and his public bounty verged 
on ostentation. [For his buildings at Athens 
see Athenae.] (Plut. Cimon, Pericles ; Thuc. i. 
98, 112.). — 3. Of Cleonae, a painter of great 
renown, flourished about B.C. 460, and appears 
to have been the first painter of perspective. 

Cinadon (KivaSav), formed a conspiracy against 
the Spartan peers (ofioioi) in the first year of 
Agesilaus II. (B.C. 398-397). The plot was 
discovered, and Cinadon and the other con- 
spirators were put to death. (Xen. Hell. iii. 
3, 4.) 

Cinaethon. [Cyclici Poetae.] 

Cinara or Cinarus (Zinara), a small island 
in the Aegaean sea, E. of Naxos, celebrated for 
its artichokes (Kivapa : Athen. p. 70). 

Cincinnatus, L. Quintius, a favourite hero 
of the old Roman republic, and a model of old 
Roman frugality and integrity. He lived on 
his farm, cultivating the land with his own 
hand. In B.C. 460 he was appointed consul 
suffectus in the room of P. Valerius. In 458 
he was called from the plough to the dictator- 
ship, in order to deliver the Soman consul and 
army from the perilous position in which they 
had been placed by the Aequians. He saved 
the Roman army, defeated the enemy, and, 
after holding the dictatorship only 16 days, 
returned to his farm. In 439, at the age of 
80, he was a second time appointed dictator, to 
oppose Sp. Maelius. (Liv. iii. 25 ; Dionys. x. 
25 ; Flor. i. 11.) Several of the descendants of 
Cincinnatus held the consulship and consular 
tribunate, but none of them is of sufficient 
importance to require a separate notice. 

Cincius Alimentus. [Alimentus.] 

Cineas (Kice'as), a Thessalian, the friend and 
minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He was 
the most eloquent man of his day, and reminded 
his hearers of Demosthenes, whom he heard 
speak in his youth. Pyrrhus prized his persua- 
sive powers so highly, that 'the words of 
Cineas,' he was wont to say, ' had won him more 
cities than his own arms.' The most famous 
passage in his life is his embassy to Rome, with 
proposals for peace from Pyrrhus, after the 
battle of Heraclea (b.c. 280). Cineas spared 
no arts to gain favour. Thanks to his wonder- 
ful memory, on the day after his arrival he was 
able (we are told) to address all the senators 
and knights by name. The senate, however, 
rejected his proposals mainly throughthe dying 
eloquence of old App. Claudius Caecus. The 
ambassador returned and told the king that 
there was no people like that people — their city 
was a temple, their senate an assembly of kings. 
Two years after (278), when Pyrrhus was about 
to cross over into Sicily, Cineas was again sent 
to negotiate peace. He appears to have died 



CINNAMUS 

in Sicily shortly afterwards. (Plut. Pyrrh. 
11-21 ; Just, xviii. 2 ; Eutrop. ii. 12.) 

Cinesias (KivTjcn'as), a dithyrambic poet of 
Athens, ridiculed by Aristophanes and other 
comic poets. But he had his revenge ; for he 
succeeded in procuring the abolition of the 
Choragia, as far as regarded comedy, about 
B.C. 390. 

Cinga (Cinca), a river in Hispania Tarracon- 
ensis, falls with the Sicoris into the Iberus. 

Cingetorix, a Gaul, one of the first men 
among the Treviri, attached himself to the 
Romans, though son-in-law to Indutiomarus, the 
head of the independent party. When Indutio- 
marus had been put to death by Caesar, he 
became chief of his native city. (Caes. B.G-. v. 
3, vi. 8.} 

Cingilia (perh. Civitd Bitenga) a town of 
the Vestini (Liv. viii. 29). 

Cingulum (Cingulanus: Cingolo), a town in 
Picenum on a rock, rebuilt and fortified by 
Labienus, shortly before the breaking out of 
the Civil war, B.C. 49 (Caes. B. C. i. 15 ; Cic. 
ad Att. vii. 11 ; Sil. x. 34). 

Cinna, Cornelius. 1. L., the famous leader 
of the popular party during the absence of 
Sulla in the East (b.c. 87-84). In 87 Sulla 
allowed Cinna to be elected consul with Cn. 
Octavius, on condition of his taking an oath 
not to alter the constitution as then exist- 
ing. But as soon as Sulla had left Italy, he 
began his endeavour to overpower the senate, 
and to recall Marius and his party. He was, 
however, defeated by his colleague Octavius in 
the forum, was obliged to fly the city, and was 
deposed by the senate from the consulate ; but 
the troops at Nola acknowledged him as consul, 
and with the assistance of Marius, who came 
back to Italy, he collected a powerful army 
and laid siege to Rome. The capture of the 
city, and the massacre of Sulla's friends which 
followed, more properly belong to the life of 
Makius. For the next three years (86, 85, 84) 
Cinna was consul. In 84 Sulla prepared to 
return from Greece ; and Cinna was slain by 
his own troops, when he ordered them to cross 
over from Italy to Greece, where he intended to 
encounter Sulla. (Plut. Mar. ; Appian, B. C. i. 
64-78 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 24).— 2. L., son of No. 1., 
joined M. Lepidus in his attempt to overthrow 
the constitution of Sulla (78); and on the 
defeat of Lepidus in Sardinia, he went with 
M. Perperna to join Sertorius in Spain. Caesar 
procured his recall from exile. He was made 
praetor by Caesar in 44 ; but was notwithstand- - 
ing one of the enemies of the dictator. Though ^ 
he would not join the conspirators, he approved 
of their act ; and so great was the rage of the 
mob against him, that they nearly murdered 
him. See below, Cinna, Helvius. (Plut. Caes. 
68 ; Suet. Jul. 5, 85.) 

Cinna, C. Helvius, a poet of considerable re- 
nown, the friend of Catullus. In B.C. 44 he was 
tribune of the plebs, when he was murdered by 
the mob, who mistook him for his namesake 
Cornelius Cinna, though he was at the time 
walking in Caesar's funeral procession. His 
principal work was an epic poem entitled 
Smyrna, containing the story of Myrrha. (Verg. 
Ed. ix. 35 ; Catull. 95, 1.) 

Cinnamus, Joannes ('Itoacvrjs Kifvafios), one 
of the most distinguished Byzantine historians, 
lived under the emperor Manuel Comnenus 
(who reigned a.d. 1143-1180), and wrote the 
history of this emperor and of his father Calo- 
Joannes. in 6 books, which have come down to 
us. Edited by Du Cange, Paris, 1670, fol., and 



CINYPS 

by Meineke, Bonn, 1860, 8vo. [Byzanttni Scrip- ! 

TORES.] 

Cinyps or CiB.yph.us (KlvxAp, Klvvfyos : Kinifo), ' 
-a small river on the N. coast of Africa, between ! 
the Syrtes, forming the E. boundary of the 
proper territory of the African Tripolis. The 
•district about it was called by the same name, 
and was famous for its fine-haired goats. (Plin. 
-v. 27 ; Verg. Georg. iii. 312 ; Mart. vii. 94.) 

Cinyras (Kivvpas), son of Apollo, king of 
'Cyprus, and priest of the Paphian Aphrodite, 
"which latter office remained hereditary in his 
family, the Cinyradae. He founded temples of 
Aphrodite both at Paphos and at Byblus in 
Syria. In Cyprus he was regarded as the in- 
ventor of useful arts, of mining, of brick-making 
•and of the implements of the smithy (Plin. vii. 
195). He was married to Metharne, the daughter 
-of the Cyprian king Pygmalion, by whom he 
had several children, and among them was 
Adonis. According to some traditions, he un- 
wittingly begot Adonis by his own daughter 
Smyrna, and killed himself on discovering the 
crime he had committed. According to other 
traditions, he had promised to assist Agamem- 
non with a certain number of ships, and gave 
him only small clay models of ships ; but as he 
■did not keep his word, he was cursed by Aga- 
memnon, and perished like Marsyas, in a con- 
test of music with Apollo. (Pind. Pijtk. ii. 26; 
II. xi. 20; Ov. Met. x. 310; Hyg. Fab. 58, 
242 ; Tac. Sist. ii. 3.) His tomb was honoured 
with that of Aphrodite in Paphos (Clem. Alex. 
Protr. 3, Horn. v. 23). 

Cipus or Cippus, Genucius, a Roman praetor 
on whose head it is said that horns suddenly 
grew, as he was going out of the gates of the 
city, and, as the haruspices declared that if he 
returned to the city he would be king, he im- 
posed voluntary exile upon himself (Ov. Met. 
xv. 565 ; Val. Max. v. 6 ; Plin. xi. 123). 

Circe (K/pKTj), a mythical sorceress, daughter 
■of Helios (the Sun) by the Oceanid Perse, and 




etaitot «lfAH caixxcrz 

TEouernMe- 

Circc and OdysBcuH, and his Companions. (From an 
undent bua-rclief.j 



sister of Aeetes, lived in the island of Aeaea, 
upon which Odysseus was cast. His companions, 



9 




Clrco oBcrinK the Cup. (Ooll 8 PomftUmO, pi. 7i.) 



whom he sent to explore the land, tasted of tin- 
magic cup which Circe offered them, and were 



CITIUM 233 

forthwith changed into swine, with the excep- 
tion of Eurylochus, who brought the sad news 
to Odysseus. The latter, having received from 
Hermes the root moly, which fortified him 
against enchantment, drank the magic cup 
without injury, and then compelled Circe to 
restore his companions to their former shape. 
After this he tarried a whole year with her, and 
she became by him the mother of Agrius and 
Telegonus, the reputed founder of Tuseulum. 
The Latin poets relate that she metamorphosed 
Scylla, and Picus king of the Ausonians. (Od. 
x.-xii; Hyg. Fab. 125; Hes. Th. 10, 11; Ov. 
Met. xiv. 9.) 

Circeii (Circeiensis : Circello, and the Ru. 
Cittd Vecchia), an ancient town of Latium on 
the promontory Circeium founded by Tarquinius 
Superbus, never became a place of importance, 
in consequence of its proximity to the unhealthy 
Pomptine marshes (Liv. i. 56 ; Diod. xiv. 102 ; 
Strab. p. 232). The oysters caught off Circeii 
were celebrated (Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 33 ; Juv. iv. 140). 
Some writers say that Circe resided on this 
promontory, and that hence it derived its name. 

Circesium ( Kip/o';<no" : Kerkesiah), a city of 
Mesopotamia, on the E. bank of the Euphrates, 
at the mouth of the Chaboras ; the extreme 
border fortress of the Roman Empire. (Ammian. 
xxiii. C.) 

Circus. [Roma.] 

Cirphis (Kiptpis), a mountain in Phocis, 
separated by the valley of the Pleistus from 
Parnassus (Strab. p. 418). 
Cirrha. [Crissa.] 

Cirta, ail. Constantina (Constantino, Ru.), a 
city of the Massylii in Numidia, 50 Roman 
miles from the sea ; the capital of Syphax, and 
of Masinissa and his successors. Its position 
on a height, surrounded by the river Ampsagas, 
made it almost impregnable, as the Romans 
found in the Jugurthine, and the French in the 
Algerine, wars. It was restored by Constan- 
tino the Great, in honour of whom it received 
its later name. (Strab. p. 828; Polyb. xxxvii. 3.) 

Cisseus (Kicrereus), a king in Thrace, and 
father of Theane and of Hecuba, who is hence 
called Cisseis (Ktacrri'is) (II. xi. 223, vi. 297 ; 
Eur. Hec. 3). 

Cissia (Kitro-i'a), a fertile district of Susiana, 
on the Choaspes (Hdt. iii. 91 ; Strab. p. 723). 

Cissus (Kicrtroj : Klwrtiazi), a town in Mace- 
donia on a mountain of the same name, S. of 
Thessalonica, to which place its inhabitants 
were transplanted by Cassander (Dion vs. i. 49). 

Cisthene (KhtBtivt)). 1. A town on the coast 
of Mysia, on the promontory of I'yrrha, on the 
Gulf of Adramyttiuin (Strab. p. 606). — 2. (Cas- 
tel-Hoffo\, an island and town on the coast of 
Lycia. — 3. In the mythical geography of 
Aeschylus (Prom. 799) the ' plains of Cis- 
thene' are made the abode of the (ioigons. 

Cithaeron iKttiaipwv; Cithaeron, and its 
highest summit Elatia), a lofty range of 
mountains, separated Boeotia from Megaris and 
Attica, it was covered with wood, abounded 
in game, and was the scene of several cele- 
brated legends in mythology. It was said to 
have derived its name from Cithaeron, a my- 
thical king of Boeotia. Its highest summit was 
sacred to the Cithaeronian Zeus, and here was 
celebrated the festival colled JJarilnta. (1'aus. 
IX. 2, I ; Diet, of Ant. s. v.) 

Citharista, a seaport town (Cri rente), and a 
promontory (C.d'Aigle) in Gallia Nurbonensia, 
near Massilia. 

Cltium IKi'tioi/: Kmfus). 1. (.Vr. Larncea, 
Ru.), one of the 9 chief towns of Cyprus, with a 



234 



CIUS 



CLAUDIANUS 



harbour and salt-works, 200 stadia from 
Salamis, near the mouth of the Tetius : here 
Cimon, the celebrated Athenian, died, and 
Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school was born. 
(Strab. p. 682; Time. i. 12; Plut. Cim. 18.)— 2. 
A town in Macedonia, on a mountain Citius, 
NW. of Beroea. 

Cius (Kios : Kios or Keioy, Cianus : Ghio, or 
KemliJc), a city in Bithynia, on a bay of the 
Propontis called Cianus Sinus, was colonised 
by the Milesians, and became a place of com- 
mercial importance. It joined the Aetolian 
league, and was destroyed by Philip III., of 
Macedonia, but rebuilt by Prusias, king of 
Bithynia, from whom it was called Prusias. 
(Strab. p. 564; Hdt. v. 122; Polyb. xvi. 21.)^ 

Civilis, Claudius, sometimes called Julius, 
the leader of the Batavi in their revolt from 
Home, A.D. 69-70. He was of the Batavian 
royal race, and, like Hannibal and Sertorius, 
had lost an eye. His brother Julius Paulus 
was put to death on a false charge of treason 
by Fonteius Capito (a.d. 67 or 68), who sent 
Civilis in chains to Nero at Borne, where he 
was heard and acquitted by Galba. He was 
afterwards prefect of a cohort, but under Vitel- 
lius he became an object of suspicion to the 
army, and with difficulty escaped with his life. 
He vowed vengeance. His countrymen, who 
were shamefully treated by the officers of Vitel- 
lius, were easily induced to revolt, and they 
were joined by the Canninefates and Frisii. 
He took up arms under pretence of supporting 
the cause of Vespasian, and defeated in succes- 
sion the generals of Vitellius in Gaul and 
Germany, but he continued in open revolt even 
after the death of Vitellius. In 70 Civilis 
gained fresh victories over the Romans, and 
took Castra Vetera (Tac. Hist. iv. 11, 33, 55, 
62). At length he was defeated in the course of 
the year by Petilius Cerealis, who had been 
sent into Germany with an immense army (ib. 
v. 14). Tacitus describes the meeting between 
Civilis and the Roman general on a bridge over 
the Nabalia, broken in the middle ; but at that 
point the fragment of the fifth book comes to an 
end ; and we know no more of Civilis. It 
seems that, though the actual independence of 
the Batavi was not achieved, yet the terms 
granted were favourable, and they gained a 
remission of tribute (cf. Tac. Germ. 29). 

Cizara (Ki^apa), a fortress in the district of 
Phazemonitis in Pontus ; a royal residence, but 
destroyed before Strabo's (p. 560) time. 

Cladaus (KAaSaos or KAaSeos), a river in 
Elis, flows into the Alpheus at Olympia. 

Clampetia, called by the Greeks Lampetia 
(Aa,u7rfTi'a, Aa/j.w^Teia), a town of Bruttium, on 
the W. coast : in ruins in Pliny's time (iii. 72). 

Clanis (Chiana), a river of Etruria, rises S. of 
Arretium, forms two small lakes near Clusium, 
and flows into the Tiber E. of Vulsinii. 

Clanius. [Liternus.] 

Clarus (t) KKa.pos), a small town on the 
Ionian coast, near Colophon, with a celebrated 
temple and oracle of Apollo, surnamed Clarius 
(Paus. vii. 3 ; Strab. p. 642). Germanicus con- 
sulted this oracle (Tac. Ann. ii. 54). 

Clarus, Sex. Erucius, a friend of the 
younger Pliny, fought under Trajan in the E., 
and took Seleucia, a.d. 115. — His son Sextus 
was a patron of literature, and was consul 
A.D. 146 (Plin. Bp. ii. 9 ; Gell. vi. 6). 

Classicus, Julius, a Trevir, was prefect of 
an ala of the Treviri in the Roman army under 
Vitellius, a.d. 69, but afterwards joined Civilis 
iuhis rebellion against the Romans. [Clvilis.] 



! Clastidium (Casteggio), a fortified town of 
the Ananes in Gallia Cispadana, not far from 
the Po, on the road from Dertona to Placentia. 
It was the scene of the victory of Marcellus over 
the Insubrians in B.C. 222 (Polyb. ii. 34 ;■ Cic. 
Tusc. iv. 22 ; Strab. p. 217). It was betrayed to 
Hannibal by its commander (Liv. xxi. 48 •• 
Polyb. iii. 69). 

Claterna, a fortified town in Gallia Cispa- 
dana, near Bononia ; its name is retained in the 
small river Quaderna (Strab. p. 216). 

Claudia. 1. Quinta, a Roman matron, not 
a Vestal Virgin, as is frequently stated. When 
the vessel conveying the image of Cybele from 
Pessinus to Rome, had stuck fast in a shallow 
at the mouth of the Tiber, the soothsayers 
announced that only a chaste woman could 
move it. Claudia, who had been accused of in- 
continency, took hold of the rope, and the 
vessel forthwith followed her, B.C. 204. (Liv. 
xxix. 14; Ov. Fast. iv. 305; Suet. Tib. 2.)— 2. 
Or Clodia, eldest of the three sisters of P. Clo- 
clius Pulcher, the enemy of Cicero, married Q. 
Marcius Rex (Plut. Cic. 29).— 3. Or Clodia 
(probably the ' Lesbia ' of Catullus), second 
sister of P. Clodius, married Q. Metellus Celer, 
but became infamous for her debaucheries, and 
was suspected of having poisoned her husband. 
Cicero in his letters calls her Bowiris. (Cic. pro' 
Gael. 14-20; ail Att. ii. 9.)— 4. Or Clodia, 
youngest sister of P. Clodius, married L. Lucul- 
lus, to whom she proved unfaithful (Plut. 
LucaU.21, 38). 

Claudia Gens, patrician and plebeian. The 
patrician Claudii were of Sabine origin and came 
to Rome in B.C. 504, when they were received 
among the patricians. [Claudius, No. l.] : 
They were noted for their pride and haughti- 
ness, their disdain for the laws, and their 
hatred of the plebeians. They bore various, 
surnames, which are given under Claudius,. 
with the exception of those with the cognomen 
Nero, who are better known under the latter 
name. — The plebeian Claudii were divided into 
several families, of which the most celebrated. 
was that of Marcellus. 

Claudianus, Claudius, the last of the Latin 
classic poets, flourished under Theodosius and 
his sons Arcadius and Honorius. He was a 
native of Alexandria and removed to Rome, 
where we find him in A.D. 395. He enjoyed the 
patronage of the all-powerful Stilicho, by whom 
he was raised to offices of honour and emolu< 
ment. A statue was erected to his honour in 
the Forum of Trajan by Arcadius and Honorius, 
the inscription on which was discovered at 
Rome in the 15th century (Mommsen, I. JR. N. 
6794; G.I.G. iii. 6246). He also enjoyed the 
patronage of the empress Serena, through 
whose interposition he gained a wealthy wife. 
The last historical allusion in his writings 
belongs to 404 ; whence it is supposed that he 
may have been involved in the misfortunes of 
Stilicho, who was put to death 408. His extant 
works are : — 1. The 3 panegyrics on the 3rd, 4th, 
and 6th consulships of Honorius. 2. A poem 
on the nuptials of Honorius and Maria. 3. 
Four short Fescennine lays on the same subject. 
4. A panegyric on the consulship of Probinus. 
and Olybrius. 5. The praises of Stilicho, in 2 
books, and a panegyric on his consulship, in 
1 book. 6. The praises of Serena, the wife of 
Stilicho. 7. A panegyric on the consulship of 
Flavius Mallius Theodorus. 8. The Epithal- 
amium of Palladius and Celerina. 9. An invec- 
tive against Rufinus, in 2 books. 10. An invec- 
tive against Eutropius, in 2 books. 11. De. 



CLAUDIOPOLIS 

Bello Gildonico, the first book of an historical 
poem on the war in Africa against Gildo. 12. 
De Bello Getico, an historical poem on the snc- 
cesful campaign of Stilicho against Alaric and 
the Goths, concluding with the battle of 
Pollentia. 13. Baptus Broserpinae, 3 books of 
an unfinished epic on the rape of Proserpine. 
14. Gigantomachia, a fragment extending to 
128 lines only. 15. 5 short epistles. 10. 
Eidyllia, a collection of 7 poems chiefl}" on 
subjects connected with natural history. 17. 
Epigrammata, a collection of short occasional 
pieces. — Claudian was a Pagan, and the Chris- 
tian hymns found among his poems in most 
editions are certainly spurious. — The poems of 
Claudian are distinguished by purity of lan- 
guage, and real poetical genius : his descriptions 
are often too grandiose, but many, such as the 
Rape of Proserpine, reach a high order of poetry. 
Editions by Burmann, Amst. 1700 ; Jeep. Lips. 
1872. 

Claudiopolis (KAavSiS-rroKis), the name of 
some cities called after the emperor Claudius, 
the chief of which were : 1. In Bithynia 
[Bithyxium]. 2. A town in Cappadocia, a little 
S. of Mytilene. 3. A town in Cilicia, near the 
Calycadnus. 

Claudius, patrician. See Claudia Gens. — 1. 
App. Claudius Sabinus Regillensis, a Sabine 
of the town of Begillum or Regilli, who in his 
own country bore the name of Attus Cluusus, 
being the advocate of peace with the Romans, 
when hostilities broke out between the two 
nations, withdrew with a large train of followers 
to Rome, B.C. 504. He was received into the 
ranks of the patricians, and lands beyond the 
Anio were assigned to his followers, who were 
formed into a new tribe called the Claudian. 
He exhibited the characteristics which marked 
his descendants, and showed the most bitter 
hatred towards the plebeians. He was consul 
495, and his conduct towards the plebeians led 
to their secession to Mons Sacer 494. (Liv. 

ii. 10-29 ; Dionys. v. 40 ; Suet. Tib. 1.)— 2. App. 
CI. Sab. Reg ill SO n of No. 1, consul 471, treated 
the soldiers whom he commanded with such 
severity that his troops deserted him. Next 
year he was impeached, but died or killed 
himself before the trial. (Liv. ii. 59, 01 ; 
Dionys. ix. 54.)— 3. C. CI. Sab. Regill., brother 
of No. 2, consul 400, when App. Herdonius 
seized the Capitol. Though a staunch sup- 
porter of the patricians, he warned the decemvir 
Appius against an immoderate use of his power. 
His remonstrances being of no avail, he with- 
drew to Regillum, but returned to defend Appius 
when impeached (Liv. iv. (ii. — 4. App. CI. Cras- 
SUS Regill. Sab., the decemvir, son of No. 2, 
was consul 451, and on the appointment of the 
decemvirs in that year, lie became one of them, 
and was reappointed the following year. His 
real character now betrayed itself in the most 
tyrannous conduct towards the plebeians, till 
his attempt against Virginia led to the over- 
throw of the decemvirate. App. was impeached 
by Virginius, but did not live to abide his 
trial. He either killed himself, or was put to 
death in prison by order of the tribunes. (Liv. 

iii. 82-58 ; Dionys. xi. 8.| — 5. App. Claudius 
Caecus. became blind before his old age. In 
his censorship (812), to which he was elected 
without having been consul previously, he built 
the Appian aqueduct, and commenced the 
Appian road, which was continued to Capua 
(Liv. ix. 29; Diod. xx. 80). He retained the 
censorship four years in opposition to the law 
which limited the length of the office to eighteen 



CLAUDIUS 



235 



months. He was twice consul, in 307 and 296 > 
and in the latter year he fought against the 
Samnites and Etruscans. In his old age, 
Appius by his eloquent speech induced the 
senate to reject the terms of peace which Cineas 
had proposed on behalf of Pyrrhus (Liv. x. 
13 ; Plut. Byrrh. 19 ; Cic. Brut. 14, 55 ; de Sen. 
6.) Appius was the earliest Roman writer in 
prose and verse whose name has come down to 
us. He was the author of a poem known to 
Cicero through the Greek, and he also wrote a 
legal treatise, De Usurpationibus (Cic. Tusc. iv. 
2, 4). He left four sons and five daughters. — 6. 
App. CI. Caudex, brother of No. 5, derived his 
surname I = ' ship's timber ') from his attention 
to naval affairs (Sen. de Brev. Vit. 13). He was 
consul 264, and conducted the war against the 
Carthaginians in Sicily (Polyb. i. 11).— 7. P. CI. 
Pulcher, son of No. 5, consul 249, attacked the 
Carthaginian fleet in the harbour of Drepana, 
in defiance of the auguries, and was defeated, 
with the loss of almost all his forces. He was 
recalled and commanded to appoint a dictator, 
and thereupon named M. Claudius Glycias or 
Glicia, the son of a freedman, but the nomina- 
tion was immediately superseded. He was im- 
peached and condemned. (Liv. Bp. 19 ; Cic. 
Div. i. 16, 29, N.D. ii. 3 ; Gell. x. 2 ; Polyb. i. 
52.1—8. C. CI. Centho or Cento, son of No. 5, 
consul 240, and dictator 213.— 9. Tib. CI. Nero, 
son of No. 5. An account of his descendants is 
given under Nebo. — 10. App. CI. Pulcher, son 
of No. 7, aedile 217, fought at Cannae 210, and 
was praetor 215, when he was sent into Sicily. 
He was consul 212, and died 211 of a wound 
which he received in a battle with Hannibal 
before Capua. (Liv.xxv. 41.) — 11. App. CI. Pul- 
cher, son of No. 10, served in Greece for some 
years under Flamininus, Baebius, and Glabrio 
1197-191). He was praetor 187 and consul 
185, when he gained some advantages over the 
Ingaunian Ligurians. He was sent as ambas- 
sador to Greece 184 and 170. (Liv. xxxix. 33.) — 
12. P. CI. Pulcher, brother of No. 11, curule 
aedile 189, praetor 188, and consul 184. — 13. C. 
CI. Pulcher, brother of Nos. 11 and 12, praetor 
180 and consul 177, when he defeated the 
Istrians and Ligurians. He was censor 10O 
witli Ti. Seinpronius Gracchus. He died 107. 
(Liv. xlv. 44.1—14. App. CI. Cento, aedile 178 
and praetor 175, when he fought with success- 
against the Celtiberi in Spain. He afterwards 
served in Thessaly (178), Macedonia (172), and 
□lyricnm (170).— 15. App. CI. Pulcher, son of 
No. 11, consul 143, defeated the Salassi, an 
Alpine tribe. On his return a triumph was 
refused him ; and when, on his persistence, one 
of the tribunes attempted to drag him from his 
car, his daughter Claudia, one of the Vestal 
Virgins, walked by his side up to the Capitol. 
He was censor 136. He gave one of his 
daughters in marriage to Tib. Gracchus, and in 
133 with Tib. and C. Gracchus was appointed 
triumvir for the division of the lands. He 
died shortly after Tib. Gracchus. (Cic. Carl. 1 1, 
84; Val. Max. v. 4, 0; Veil. Pat. ii. 2.)— 16. C. 
Claudius Pulcher, curule aedile 99, praetor in 
Sicily 95, consul in 92 (Cic. pro Dam. 31, 88). 
— 17. App. CI. Pulcher, consul 79, and after- 
wards governor of Macedonia. — 18. App. CI. 
Pulcher, praetor M9, belonged to Sulla's party, 
and perished in the great battle before Rome H2 
(Plat. Hull. 29;.— 19. App. CI. Pulcher, eldest 
son of No 18. In 70 he served in Asia Under 
his brother-in-law, Lucullus; in 57 he wu3 
praetor, and though ho did not openly oppose 
Cicero's recall from banishment, he tacitly 



•236 



CLAUDIUS 



. abetted the proceedings of his brother Publius. 
In 56 he was propraetor in Sardinia ; and in 
54 was consul with L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
when a reconciliation was brought about be- 
tween him and Cicero, through the intervention 
of Pompey. In 53 he went as proconsul to 
Cilicia, which he governed with tyranny and 
rapacity. (Cic. ad AH. vi. 1, ad Fam. xv. 4.) 
In 51 he was succeeded in the government by 
Cicero, whose appointment Appius received 
with displeasure. On his return to Borne he 
was impeached by Dolabella, but was acquitted. 

:(Cic. ad Fam. iii. 11.) In 50 he was censor 
with L. Piso, and expelled several of Caesar's 
friends from the senate. On the breaking 

• out of the civil war, 49, he fled with Pompey 
from Italy, and died in Greece before the 
battle of Pharsalia. He was an augur, and 
wrote a work on the augural discipline, which 
he dedicated to Cicero. He was also dis- 
tinguished for his legal and antiquarian know- 
ledge. (Cic. ad Fam. iii. 4, 9, 11.)— 20. C. CI. 

- Pulcher, second son of No. 18, was a legatus 

■ of Caesar, 58, praetor 56, and propraetor in 
Asia 55. On his return he was accused of ex- 
tortion by M. Servilius, who was bribed to 

•drop the prosecution. He died shortly after- 
wards. (Cic. ad Fam. viii. 8.)— 21. P. CI. Pul- 
cher, usually called Clodius and not Claudius, 
the youngest son of No. 18, the notorious enemy 

■ of Cicero, and one of the most profligate cha- 
racters of a profligate age. In 70 he served 
under his brother-in-law, L. Lucullus in Asia ; 
but, displeased at not being treated by Lucullus 
with the distinction he had expected, he en- 
couraged the soldiers to mutiny. He then betook 
himself to his other brother-in-law, Q. Marcius 
Bex, proconsul in Cilicia, and was entrusted 
by him with the command of the fleet. He 
fell into the hands of the pirates, who, however, 

■ dismissed him without ransom, through fear of 
Pompey. He next went to Antioch, and joined 
the Syrians in making war on the Arabians. 
On his return to Eome in 65 he impeached 
Catiline for extortion in his government of 
Africa, but was bribed by Catiline to let him 
escape. In 64 he accompanied the propraetor 
L. Murena to Gallia Transalpina, where he re- 
sorted to the most nefarious methods of pro- 
curing money. In 62 he profaned the mysteries 

■ of the Bona Dea, which were celebrated by the 
Boman matrons in the house of Caesar, who 
was then praetor, by entering the house dis- 
guised as a female musician, in order to meet 
Pompeia, Caesar's wife, with whom he had an 
intrigue. He was discovered, and next year, 61, 
when quaestor, was brought to trial, but obtained 
an acquittal by bribing the judges. He had 
attempted to prove an alibi, but Cicero's evi- 
dence showed that Clodius was with him in 
Bome only three hours before he pretended to 
have been at Interamna. Cicero attacked Clo- 
dius in the senate with great vehemence. In 
order to revenge himself upon Cicero, Clodius 
was adopted into a plebeian family that he 
might obtain the formidable power of a tribune 
of the plebs. He was tribune 58, and, supported 
by the triumvirs Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, 
drove Cicero into exile ; but notwithstanding 
all his efforts he was unable to prevent the re- 
call of Cicero in the following year. [Cicero.] 
In 56 Clodius was aedile and attempted to 
bring his enemy Milo to trial. Each had a 
large gang of gladiators in his pay, and frequent 
fights took place in the streets of Bome between 
the two parties. In 53, when Clodius was a 
candidate for the praetorship, and Milo for the 



consulship, the contests between them became 
more violent and desperate than ever. At 
length, on the 20th of January, 52, Clodius and 
Milo met, apparently by accident, on the Appian 
road near Bovillae. An affray ensued between 
their followers, in which Clodius was murdered. 
The mob was infuriated at the death of their 
favourite ; and such tumults followed at the 
burial of Clodius, that Pompey was appointed 
sole consul in order to restore order to the 
state. For the proceedings which followed 
see Milo. The second wife of Clodius was 
the notorious Fulvia. — 22. App. CI. Pulcher, 
the elder son of No. 20, was one of the accusers 
of Milo on the death of P. Clodius, 52.-23. App. 
CI. Pulcher, brother of No. 21, joined his 
brother in prosecuting Milo. As the two 
brothers both bore the praenomen Appius, it is 
probable that one of them was adopted by their 
uncle Appius. [No. 19.] — 24. Sex. Clodius, 
probably a descendant of a freedman of the 
Claudia gens, was a man of low condition, and 
the chief instrument of P. Clodius in all his 
acts of violence. (Cic. pro Gael. 32.) On the 
death of the latter in 52, he urged on the people 
to revenge the death of his leader. For his 
acts of violence on this occasion, he was brought 
to trial, was condemned, and after remaining 
in exile eight years, was restored in 44 by M. 
Antonius. (Cic. ad Att. xiv. 13.) 

Claudius I., Boman emperor a.d. 41-54. His 
full name was Tib. Claudius Drusus Nebo 
Geemanicus. He was the younger son of 
Drusus, the brother of the emperor Tiberius, 
and of Antonia, and was born on August 1st, 
B.C. 10, at Lyons in Gaul. In youth he was 
weak and sickly, and was neglected and de- 
spised by his relatives. When he grew up he 
devoted the greater part of his time to literary 
pursuits, but was not allowed to take any part 
in public affairs. (Suet. Claud. 2; Dio Cass, 
lx. 2.) He had reached the age of 50, when he 
was suddenly raised by the soldiers to the 
imperial throne after the murder of Caligula. 
He proclaimed an amnesty excepting the actual 
murderers of Caligula. Claudius was not cruel, 
but the weakness of his character made him 
the slave of his wives and freedmen, and thus 
led him to consent to acts of tyranny which he 
would never have committed of his own accord. 
He was married four times. At the time of his 
accession he was married to his third wife, the 
notorious Valeria Messallina, who governed him 
for some years, together with the freedmen 




Claudius I.. Roman Emperor. A.D. 41-54. 
Bust of Emperor, laureate. TI. CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG. 
P. M. TR. P. IMP. P. P. (Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augus- 
tus, Pontifex Maximus, Tribunitia Potestate, Imperator, 
Pater Patriae). 

Narcissus, Pallas, and others. After the execu- 
tion of Messallina, 48, a fate which she richly 
merited, Claudius was still more unfortunate in 
choosing for his wife his niece Agrippina. She 



CLAUDIUS 



CLEARCHUS 



23V 



prevailed upon him to set aside his own son, 
Britannicus, and to adopt her son, Nero, that 
she might secure the succession for the latter. 
Claudius soon after regretted this step, and 
was in consequence poisoned by Agrippina, 54. 
— Several public works of great utility were 
executed by Claudius. He built, for example, 
the famous Claudian aqueduct (Aqua Claudia), 
the port of Ostia, and the emissary by which 
the water of lake Fucinus was carried into the 
river Liris. In his reign the southern part 
of Britain was made a Roman province, and 
Claudius himself, though naturally timid, wished 
to make some show of military vigour, and 
went to Britain in 43, where he remained, how- 
ever, only a short time, leaving the conduct of 
the war to his generals. — Claudius wrote several 
historical works, but without force or value, and 
among them were a history of Borne from the 
death of Julius Caesar, in 43 volumes, and an 
Etruscan history written in Greek (Suet. Claud. 
41 j. He also devised additions to the alphabet : 




Claudius L, Roman Emperor, A.D. 41-54. 
Obv., head of Claudius, laureate. On the reverse is the 
head of his wife Agrippina. This coin was struck in 
Bosporus during the reign of Cotys I. 



an inverted digamma for the consonant V ; the 
left half of H for the sound of the Greek v, and 
an inverted sigma for ps. These (except the 
last) appear in some inscriptions of that reign, 
but soon fell into disuse. 

Claudius II. (M. Aurelius Claudius, sur- 
named Gothicus), Roman emperor a.d. 208- 
270, was descended from an obscure family in 
Dardania or Illyria, and by his military talents 
rose to distinction under Decius, Valerian, and 
Gallienus. He succeeded to the empire on the 
death of Gallienus (268), and soon after his 
accession defeated the Alemanni in the N. of 
Italy. Next year he gained a great victory over 
an immense host of Goths near Naissus in 
Dardania, and received in consequence the sur- 
name Gothicus. He died at Sinnium in 270, 
and was succeeded by Aurelian. (Trebell. Poll. 
Claud. ; Zosim. i. 40-43.) 

Clazomenae (of KAafyixtvai '. KXa(ofiivios : 
Keluman), an important city of Asia Minor, 
and a member of the Ionian Dodecapolis, lay 
on the N. coast of the Ionian peninsula, upon 
the gulf of Smyrna. The city was said to have 




Coin of Clazomenae in Asia Minor. 
Obr., Head of Apollo; rrv., swan (sacred to Apollo and 
abundant on the HorrouB) : legend KA.ifo, and llpacJutd 
(a magistrate's name?): date Uh cent. D.c. 



been founded by the Colophonians under Para- 
lus, on the site of the later town of Chytrium, 
but to have been removed further E., as a 



1 defence against the Persians, to a small island, 
which Alexander afterwards united to the main- 
land by a causeway. It was one of the weaker 
members of the Ionian league, and was chiefly 
peopled, not by Ionians, but by Cleonaeans and 
Phliasians. Under the Romans it was a free ■ 
I city. It had a considerable commerce, and was 
celebrated for its temples of Apollo, Artemis, 
! and Cybele, and still more as the birthplace of 
Anaxagoras. (Hdt. i. 142, ii. 178 ; Paus. vii. 3, . 
; 8 ; Strab. p. 644 ; Liv. xxxviii. 39.) 

Oleander (KAeavdpos). 1. Tyrant of Gela,. 
reigned seven years, and was murdered B.C. 498. 
He was succeeded by his brother Hippocrates, 
one of whose sons was also called Cleander. 
The latter was deposed by Gelon when he 
seized the government, 491. (Hdt. vii. 154.) — 
2. A Lacedaemonian, harmost at Byzantium 
400, when the Cyrean Greeks returned from 
] Asia (Xen. An. vi. vii). — 3. One of Alexander's 
officers, was put to death by Alexander in 
Carmania, 325, in consequence of his oppressive 
government in Media. (Arr. An. vi. 27.) — 
\ 4. A Phrygian slave, and subsequently the 
profligate favourite and minister of Commodus. 
In a tumult, occasioned by a scarcity of corn, 
he was killed by the mob. (Dio Cass. lxii. 12.) 

Cleanthes (KAeoVe-nj). 1. A Stoic, born at 
Assos in Troas about B.C. 300. He entered life 
as a boxer, and had only four drachmas of his 
own when he began to study philosophy. He 
first placed himself under Crates, and then 
' under Zeno, whose disciple he continued for 
nineteen years, with marvellous strength of 
purpose and endurance. Stories are told of his 
taking notes on bones and potsherds of Zeno's 
lectures, when he was too poor to buy tablets 
or paper. In order to support himself, he 
worked all night at drawing water for gardens ; 
but as he spent the whole day in philosophical 
pursuits, and had no visible means of support, 
he was summoned before the Areiopagus to 
account for his way of living. The judges were 
| so delighted by the evidence of industry which 
he produced, that they voted him ten minae, 
though Zeno would not permit him to accept 
them. He was naturally slow, but his iron 
industry overcame all difficulties ; and on the 
death of Zeno in 263, Cleanthes succeeded him 
in his school. He died about 220, at the age of 
80, of voluntary starvation. He placed especial 
value on strength of will (toVos, (vrovla, tax^s), 
making it the source of all virtues, which Zeno 
j sought rather in <pp6vrj(ns, and Chrysippus in 
! <To<pia. A hymn of his to Zeus is still extant, 
\ and contains some striking sentiments. Edited 
by Sturz, 1785, and Mersdorf, Lips. 1835. — 
2. A painter of Corinth, in the 6th cent. B.C. 
Though Pliny mentions him among the in- 
ventors of linear drawing, he seems to come 
after Ecphantus. Strabo mentions two paint- 
ings of his in the temple of Artemis. (Plin. 
xxxv. 15; Strab. p. 343; Athen. p. 346; Diet. 
A7it. s.v. PicturaS 

Clearchus i KAf ap^os). 1. A Spartan, distin- 
guished himself in several important commands 
during the latter part of the Peloponnesian war, 
and at the close of it persuaded the Spartans 
to send him as harmost to Byzantium, to pro- 
' tect the Greeks in that quarter against the 
Thracians. But having been recalled by the 
Ephors, and refusing to obey their orders, he 
was condemned to death. He thereupon 
crossed over to Cyrus, collected for him a 
large forco of Greek mercenaries, and marched 
with him into Upper Asia, 401, in order to de- 
- throne Artaxerxes, being the only Greek whe 



238 



CLEINIAS 



CLEOMENES 



was aware of the prince's real object. After 
the battle of Cunaxa and the death of Cyrus, 
' Clearchus and the other Greek generals were 
:made prisoners by the treachery of Tissa- 
phernes, and were put to death (Xen. Anab. i. 
ii; Diod. xiv. 12, 22). — 2. A citizen of Heraclea 
■ on the Euxhie, obtained the tyranny of his 
native town, B.C. 365, by putting himself at the 
head of the popular party. He governed with 
cruelty, and was assassinated 353, after a reign 
of twelve years. He is said to have been a pupil 
both of Plato and Isocrates (Diod. xv. 81 ; 
Athen. p. 85). — 3. Of Soli, one of Aristotle's pu- 
pils, author of a number of works, none of 
which are extant, on various subjects (Athen. 
pp. 4, 255, 399, 648, 697). — 4. An Athenian poet 
of the New Comedy, whose time is unknown 
(Athen. p. 426). 
Cleinias. [Clinias.] 

Clemens. 1. T. Flavins, consul a.d. 95, son 
of the brother of Vespasian, married Domitilla, 
the daughter of Vespasian, and was put to death 
by Domitian on a charge of ' atheism ' — that is, 
Christianity (Suet. Dorn. 15 ; Dio Cass, lxvii. 
14). [Domitilla.] — 2. Romanus, bishop of 
Rome at the end of the first century (Diet, of 
Christian Biog.). — 3. Alexandrinus, a dis- 
tinguished Christian writer, died about a.d. 220 
i (Diet, of Christian Biog.). 

Cleobis. [Biton.] 

Cleobuline (Kteo&vklvri), or Cleobule (KAeo- 
0ov Ay), daughter of Cleobulus of Lindus, cele- 
brated for her composition of riddles ; to her 
is ascribed a well-known one on the subject of 
the year : — ' A father has twelve children, and 
each of these thirty daughters, on one side 
white, and on the other side black, and though 
immortal they all die.' (Diog. Laert. i. 89.) 

Cleobulus (K\e60ov\os), one of the Seven 
Sages, of Lindus in Bhodes, son of Evagoras, 
lived about B.C. 580. He wrote lyric poems, as 
well as riddles ; he was said by some to have 
been the author of the riddle on the year, gene- 
rally attributed to his daughter Cleobuline. 
He was greatly distinguished for strength and 
beauty of person. (Diog. Laert. i. 89-93.) 

Cleochares (K\eoxapris), a Greek orator of 
Myrlea in Bithynia, contemporary with the 
orator Demochares and the philosopher Arces- 
ilas, towards the close of the 3rd century B.C. 
(Strab. p. 56(i). 

Cleombrotus (K\e6/x0poros). 1. SonofAnax- 
andrides, king of Sparta, became regent after 
the battle of Thermopylae, B.C. 480, for Plist- 
archus, infant son of Leonidas, but died in the 
same year, and was succeeded in the regency 
by his son Pausanias (Hdt. v. 41, viii. 71, ix. 
10). — 2 I. King of Sparta, son of Pausanias, 
succeeded his brother Agesipolis I., and reigned 
B.C. 380-371. He commanded the Spartan troops 
several times against the Thebans, and fell 
fighting bravely at the battle of Leuctra (371) 
(Xen. Hell. v. 4, 15, vi. 1 ; Paus. ix. 13, 2).— 
3. II. King of Sparta, son-in-law of Leonidas II., 
in whose place he was made king by the party 
of Agis IV. about 243. On the return of Leoni- 
das, Cleombrotus was deposed and banished to 
Tegea, about 240 (Plut. Agis, 11-17).— 4. An 
Academic philosopher of Ambracia, said to have 
killed himself, after reading the Phaedo of 
Plato ; not that he had any sufferings to escape 
from, but that he might exchange this life for a 
better. (Cic. Tusc. i. 34, 84; Lucian, Philop. 1.) 

Cleomedes (K\eofj.ifiris). 1. Of the island As- 
typalaea, an athlete of gigantic strength, who is 
said, in his anger with the judges at the Olym- 
pic games, to have shaken down the pillars 



which supported a roof (Paus. vi. 9). — 2. A Greek 
mathematician, probably lived in the 2nd and 
3rd centuries of the Christian era; the author of 
a Greek treatise in two books on The Circular 
Theory of the Heavenly Bodies (KvKKiKrjs 
Oeaiplas Merecuptue B£/3Aia Svo), which is still 
extant. It is rather an exposition of the system 
of the universe than of the geometrical prin- 
ciples of astronomy. Edited by Balfour, Bur- 
digal. 1605 ; by Bake, Lugd. Bat. 1820 ; and by 
Schmidt, Lips. 1832. 

Cleomenes (K\(o/j.(vqs). 1. King of Sparta, 
son of Anaxandrides, reigned B.C. 520-491. He 
was a man of an enterprising but wild character. 
His greatest exploit was his defeat of the 
Argives, in which 6000 Argive citizens fell ; 
but the date of this event is doubtful. In 510 
he commanded the forces by whose assistance 
Hippias was driven from Athens, and not long 
after he assisted Isagoras and the aristocratical 
party, against Clisthenes. He expelled 700 
families opposed to Isagoras, and tried to abolish 
the senate ; the populace rose, and Cleomenes 
and Isagoras were forced to take refuge in the 
acropolis, whence they were allowed to depart 
with their Spartan troops under a truce, but 
their Athenian adherents were put to death 
(Hdt. v. 64-91; Aristot. 'A0. ttoA.. 19, 20). Abi- 
stagobas tried to bribe him to assist the 
Ionians, but failed, owing it was said to the 
rebuke of Gorgo, the little daughter of Cleo- 
menes (Hdt. vii. 239). By bribing the priestess 
at Delphi, he effected the deposition of his col- 
league Demabatus, 491. Soon afterwards he 
was seized with madness and killed himself 
(Hdt. vi. 75). — 2. King of Sparta, son of Cleom- 
brotus I., reigned 370-309 ; but during this long 
period we have no information about him of any 
importance (Diod. xx. 29). — 3. King of Sparta, 
son of Leonidas II., reigned 236-222. While 
still young, he married Agiatis, the widow of 
Agis IV. ; and following the example of the 
latter, he endeavoured to restore the ancient 
Spartan constitution, and to regenerate the 
Spartan character. He was endowed with a 
noble mind, strengthened and purified by philo- 
sophy, and possessed great energy of purpose. 
He desired to unite Sparta to the Achaean 
League, but stipulated for the chief direction of 
the Peloponnesian states. It is probable that 
if Aratus had consented to this the Confedera- 
tion would have been strong enough to resist 
Macedonia, but unfortunately he refused to 
admit the pretensions of Sparta ; and a war be- 
tween Sparta and the League followed, in which 
Cleomenes was successful. Having thus gained 
military renown, he felt himself sufficiently 
strong in the winter of 226-225 to put the 
Ephors to death and restore the ancient consti- 
tution. The Achaeans now called in the aid of 
Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, and for 
the next three years Cleomenes carried on war 
against their united forces. He was at length 
completely defeated at the battle of Sellasia 
(222), and fled to Egypt, where he was kindly 
received by Ptolemy Euergetes, but on the 
death of that king he was imprisoned by his 
successor Philopator. He escaped from prison, 
and attempted to raise an insurrection, but 
finding no one join him, he killed himself, 210. 
(Polyb. ii. v. ; Plut. Cleom., Arat.) 

Cleomenes. 1. A Greek of Naucratis in 
Egypt, appointed by Alexander the Great 
nomarch of the Arabian district (v6/j.os) of 
Egypt, and receiver of the tribute from the 
districts of Egypt, B.C. 331. His rapacity knew 
no bounds, and he collected immense wealth by 



CLEON 

his extortions. After Alexander's death, he was 
put to death by Ptolemy, who took possession of 
his treasures. (Arrian, iii. 5 ; Diod. xviii. 14.) — 
2. A sculptor, the author of a group of Bacchan- 
tes (Plin. xxxvi. 33), possibly the same Cleo- 
menes as the sculptor whose name appears on 
the so-called Germanicas, in the Louvre, which 
is a Eoman of the early empire, represented as 
Hermes Logins. The famous statue called the 
Venus de' Medici, at Florence [p. 86], has com- 
monly been attributed to Cleomenes, on the 
strength of an inscription on the base, which 
states it to be the work of ' Cleomenes, son of 
Apollodorus of Athens.' Michaelis, however 
{Arch. Ztg. 1880), argues that the inscription 
dates only from the seventeenth century, and 
his opinion is adopted hy the best critics. 

Cleon (KAcW), son of Cleanetus, was ori- 
ginally a tanner, and first came forward in pub- 
lic as an opponent of Pericles. On the death of 
this great man, B.C. 429, Cleon became the 
favourite of the people, and for about six years 
of the Peloponnesian war (428-422) was the 
head of the party opposed to peace. He is 1 
represented by Aristophanes as a demagogue of 
the lowest kind, mean, ignorant, cowardly, 
and venal ; and this view of his character is 
confirmed by Thueydides. But much weight 
cannot be attached to the satire of the poet, who 
was not only on the aristocratic side in politics, 
but also had a quarrel with Cleon for the com- I 
plaint laid against the Babylonians; and the 
usual impartiality of the historian may have 
been warped by the sentence of his banishment, • 
if it be true, as has been conjectured with great 
probability, that it was through Cleon that 
Thueydides was sent into exile. But the facts 
which were beyond dispute seem to indicate 
violence in his political attacks, cruelty (in his 
speeches on the Mytilenaeans, Thuc. iii. 30), and 
a boastful self-confidence, which made him as- 
sume commands for which he was incompetent, 
as at Pylos and Amphipolis. It is impossible 
therefore, to regard him as a statesman of high 
character, though he had more merit probably 
than Thueydides and Aristophanes allow him. 
Cleon may be considered as the representative 
of the middle classes of Athens, and by his 
ready, though somewhat coarse, eloquence, 
gained great influence over them. In 427 he 
strongly advocated in the assembly that the 
Mytilenaeans should be put to death. In 424 
he obtained his greatest glory by taking prison- 
ers the Spartans in the island of Sphaeteria, 
and bringing them in safety to Atliens. Puffed 
up by this success, he obtained the command of 
an Athenian army, to oppose Brasidas in 
Thrace ; but he was defeated by Brasidas, under 
the walls of Amphipolis, and fell in the battle, 
422 (Thuc. iv. 21-89, v. 2-10).— The chief attack 
of Aristophanes upon Cleon was in the Knights 
(424), in which Cleon figures as an actual dra- 
matis persona, and, in default of an artificer 
bold enough to make the mask, was represented 
by the poet himself with his face smeared with 
wine lees. 

Clednae (KKfaival: KKewvaiosi. 1. An an- 
cient town in Argolis, on the road from Corinth 
to Argos, on a river of the same name which 
flows into the Corinthian gulf, and at the foot 
of Mt. Apesas; said to have been built by 
Cleones, son of Pelops (II. ii. STO ; Strab. 
p. 877). — 2. A town in the peninsula Atlios in 
Chalcidice. — 3. [Hy.vmi'oi.is. | 

Cleonymus (KAcciwpor). 1. An Athenian, fre- 

quently attacked bv Aristophanes us a pestilent 
demagogue (Arh. ms, 7,7/. 953, Vesp. 19, &c). 



CLEOPATRA 



230 



— 2. A Spartan, son of Sphodrias, much be- 
loved by Arcliidamus, the son of Agesilaus : he 
fell at Leuctra, B. c. 371 (Plat. Ages. 25, 28 ; 
Xen. Hell. v. 4, 25). — 3. Younger son of Cleo- 
menes II., king of Sparta, was excluded from 
the throne on his father's death, 309, in conse- 
quence of his violent and tyrannical temper. 
In 303 he crossed over to Italy to assist the 
Tarentines against the Lueanians. He after- 
wards withdrew from Italy, and seized Corcyra ; 
and in 272 he invited Pyrrhus to attempt the 
conquest of Sparta. (Diod. xx. 104 ; Liv. x. 2 ; 
Strab. p. 280 ; cf. Acrotatus.) 

Cleopatra l KAeoTraTpa). 1. (Myth.) Daughter 
of Idas and Marpessa, and wife of Meleager, is 
said to have hanged herself after her husband's 
death, or to have died of grief. Her real name 
was Alcyone. [Meleager.] — 2. (Hist.) Niece 
of Attalus, married Philip, b. c. 337, on whose 
murder she was put to death by Olympias. — 
3. Daughter of Philip and Olympias, and sister 
of Alexander the Great, married Alexander, 
king of Epirus, 330. It was at the celebration 
of her nuptials that Philip was murdered. Her 
husband died 320. After the death of her 
brother she was sought in marriage by several 
of his generals, and at length promised to 
marry Ptolemy ; but having attempted to 
escape from Sardis, where she had been for years 
in a sort of honourable captivity, she was 
assassinated by Antigonus. (Diod. xviii. 23, 
xx. 37.) — 4. Daughter of Antiochus III. the 
Great, married Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, 193. — 

5. Daughter of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes and 
No. 4, married her brother Ptolemy VI. Philo- 
metor, and on his death, 140, her other brother 
Ptolemy VI. Physcon. She was soon afterwards 
divorced by Physcon, and fled into Syria. — 

6. Daughter of Ptolemy VI. Philometor and of 
No. 5, married first Alexander Balas (150), the 
Syrian usurper, and on his death Demetrius 
Nicator. During the captivity of the latter in 
Parthia, jealous of the connexion which he 
there formed with Rhodogune, the Parthian 
princess, she married Antiochus VII. Sidetes, 
his brother, and also murdered Demetrius on 
his return. She likewise murdered Seleucus, 
her son by Nicator, who on his father's death 
assumed the government without her consent. 
Her other son by Nicator, Antiochus VIII. 
Grypus, succeeded to the throne (125) through 
her influence ; and he compelled her to drink 
the poison which she had prepared for him also. 




Cl.^opntrti (No. O. 
Obr.. head* of Cleopittnt uud her Hon AntlochuH VIII Qry- 
pun: nr.. eagle- -legend ll.lSMEOS AN TIUXOY UASIAI12HI 
K A EOfl AT PAZ. 

[ANTIOCHTJB VJLLL.] She had a son by Sidetes, 
Antiochus IX., surnamcd Cyzicenus. (Just, 
xxxix. 1 ; Appian, Si/r. 09.) — 7. Another 
daughter of Ptolemy VI. Philometor and No. 
5, married her uncle Physcon, when he di- 
vorced her mother. On the death of Physcon 
she reigned in conjunction with her elder son, 
Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, and then in conjunc- 
tion with her younger son, Alexander. She was 



240 



CLEOPATRA 



put to death by the latter in 89. — 8. Daughter 
of Ptolemy Physeon and No. 7, married first 
her brother Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, and next 
Antioehus IX. Cyzicenus. She was put to death 
by Tryphaena, her own sister, wife of Antioehus 
Grypus. — 9. Usually called Selene, another 
daughter of Ptolemy Physeon, married first her 
brother Lathyrus (on her sister No. 8 being 
divorced), secondly Antioehus XI. Epiphanes, 
and thirdly Antioehus X. Eusebes. — 10. Daugh- 
ter of Ptolemy VIII. Lathyrus, usually called 
Berenice. [Berenice, No. 4.] — 11. Eldest 
daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, celebrated for her 
beauty and fascination, was 17 at the death of 
her father (51), who appointed her heir of his 
kingdom in conjunction with her younger 
brother, Ptolemy, whom she was to marry. She 
was expelled from the throne by Pothinus and 
Achillas, his guardians. She retreated into 
Syria, and there collected an army with which 
she was preparing to enter Egypt, when Caesar 
arrived in Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, 47 
(Caes. B. C. iii. 103, 107). Her charms gained 
for her the support of Caesar, who replaced her 
on the throne in conjunction with her brother. 
This led to the Alexandrine war, in the course 
of which young Ptolemy perished (Sell. Alex. 
31 ; Dio Cass. xlii. 43). Cleopatra thus ob- 
tained the undivided rule. She was, however, 
associated by Caesar with another brother of 




Cleopatra, (No. 11). 
O&tt., head of Cleopatra; rev., eagle— legend A2KAA[nxn'n]N 
A2YNOY. In the field the monogram J^J, and the date 
55 B.C. (The head of Cleopatra also appears on a coin of 
tonius figured on p. 82.) 

the same name, and still quite a child, to whom 
she was also nominally married. She had a 
son by Caesar, called Caesarion, and she after- 
wards followed him to Rome, where she appears 
to have been at the time of his death, 44. She 
then returned to Egypt, and in 41 she met An- 
tony in Cilicia. She was now in her 28th year, 
and in the perfection of matured beauty, which, 
in conjunction with her talents and eloquence, 
completely won the heart of Antony, who hence- 
forth appears as her devoted lover and slave. 
He returned with her to Egypt, but was obliged 
to leave her for a short time, in order to marry 
Octavia, the sister of Augustus. But Octavia 
was never able to gain his affections ; he soon 
deserted his wife and returned to Cleopatra, 
upon whom he conferred the most extravagant 
titles and honours. In the war between Augus- 
tus and Antony, Cleopatra accompanied her 
lover, and was present at the battle of Actium 
(31), in the midst of which she retreated with 
her fleet, and thus hastened the loss of the day. 
She fled to Alexandria, where she was joined by 
Antony. Seeing Antony's fortunes desperate, she 
entered into negotiations with Augustus, and 
promised to make away with Antony. She fled 
to a mausoleum she had built, and then caused 
a report of her death to be spread. Antony, 
resolving not to survive her, stabbed himself, | 
and was drawn up into the mausoleum, where [ 



CLISTHENES 

he died in her arms. She then tried to gain 
the love of Augustus, but her charms failed to- 
soften his colder heart. Seeing that he de- 
termined to carry her captive to Rome, she put 
an end to her own life, either by the poison of 
an asp or by a poisoned comb, the former suppor. 
sition being adopted by most writers. She died 
in the 39th year of her age (b. c. 30), and with 
her ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies in 
Egypt, which was now made a Roman pro- 
vince. (Plut. Ant. 29-85 ; Dio Cass, xlix.-li.) — 
12. Daughter of Antony and No. 11, born with 
her twin brother Alexander in 40, along with 
whom she was carried to Rome after the death 
of her parents. Augustus married her to Juba, 
king of Numidia. (Dio Cass. li. 15 ; Plut. Ant. 
87.) — 13. A daughter of Mithridates, married, 
Tigranes, king of Armenia. 
Cleopatris. [Arsinoe, No. 6.] 
Cleophantus (K\e6(t>ai>Tos). 1. A Greek phy- 
sician early in the third century b. c. He is. 
mentioned for his use of wine as a remedy. 
(Plin. xx. 31.) — 2. A physician of a much later' 
date mentioned in the Cluentius of Cicero. 

Cleophon {KAto<p£>v), an Athenian demagogue,, 
of obscure, and, according to Aristophanes, of 
Thracian origin, vehemently opposed peace with 
Sparta in the latter end of the Peloponnesian 
war. During the siege of Athens by Lysander, 
B. c. 404, he was brought to trial by the aristo- 
cratical party, and was condemned and 
put to death. (Aristoph. Ban. 677 ; Xen. 
Sell. i. 7, 40.) 

Cleostratus {KXeSo-rparos). 1. An 
astronomer of Tenedos, said, to have^ 
introduced the division of the Zodiac 
into signs, probably lived between B.C. 
548 and 432. (Plin. ii. 31.)— 2. A youthi 
of Thespiae who, when a dragon was 
devastating his country, armed himself 
in a coat of mail with spikes projecting 
from it, and offered himself to the dra- 
gon, whom he destroyed by the sacrifice' 
of his own life. The name of ' Deliverer ' 
((Tol&ttis) was, however, given, not to* 
him, but to Zeus. (Paus. ix. 26, 7.) 
Clevum, also Glevum and Glebon. 
{Gloucester), a Roman colony in Britain. 

Clides {at KAeiSes : C. S. Andre), ' the Keys,' 
a promontory on the NE. of Cyprus, with two* 
islands of the same name lying off it. 

Climax (KMjuaf : Ekder), the name applied 
to the W. termination of the Taurus range,, 
which extends along the W. coast of the Pam- 
phylian Gulf, N. of Phaselis in Lycia. Alexan- 
der made a road between it and the sea. Ifc 
was in fact a name applied to a narrovf pass over- 
a ridge here and elsewhere. 
Climberrum. [Ausci.] 

Clinias (KAetvi'as). 1. Father of the famous 
Alcibiades, fought at Artemisium b. c. 430, in a, 
ship built and manned at his own expense : he' 
fell 447, at the battle of Coronea. — 2. A younger 
brother of Alcibiades. — 3. Father of Aratus of 
Sicyon, was murdered by Abantidas, who seized 
the tyranny, 264.-4. A Pythagorean philo- 
sopher, of Tarentum, a contemporary and friend 
of Plato. 

Clio. [Musae.] 

Clisthenes (KAcio-fleVTjs). 1. Tyrant of Sicyon.. 
In b. c. 595, he aided the Amphictyons in the 
sacred war against Cirrha, which ended, after 
ten years, in the destruction of the guilty city. 
He was possessed by an anti-Dorian spirit,, 
which led him to give contemptuous names to> 
the Dorian tribes. The Hylleis, Dymanes, and! 
Pamphyli he changed to Hyatae, Choireatae,, 



IEPAS 
LNE= 
M. An- 



CLITARCHTJ3 

and Oneatae (Pigs and Asses). In the same 
feeling he made war on Argos, apparently with 
success, and suppressed the rhapsodists of 
Homer, because they told of the glories of the 
Argives. His death cannot be placed earlier 
than 532, in which year he won the victory in 
the chariot-race at the Pythian games. (Hdt. 
v. 67 ; Thuc. i. IS.) His daughter Agarista was 
given in marriage to ^legacies the Alcmaeonid. 
The famous anecdote of the marriage feast is 
told in Hdt. vi. 125. — 2. An Athenian, son of 
Megacles and Agarista, and grandson of No. 1, 
appears as the head of the Alcmaeonid clan on 
the banishment of the Pisistratidae. He was 
opposed by Isagoras and the great body of the 
nobles, to whom the Solonian constitution gave 
all political power. Clisthenes, as Herodotus 
says, took the people into partnership, and in 
his reforms aimed at placing the constitution 
on a democratic basis ; so that he was the real 
founder of Athenian democracy. Aristotle calls 
his reforms the fifth change of constitution 
in Athenian history : they consisted in (1) the 
abolition of the four ancient tribes and the 
establishment of ten tribes, with a further sub- 
division into denies, which became the local 
units in political arrangements. In all this he 
desired to get rid of old associations. From the 
number of ten tribes followed the number 500 
for the Boule ; (2) he introduced the law of 
ostracism as a machinery for getting rid of a 
violent party leader without civil war; (3) he 
re-established election by lot ; (4) he so arranged 
the Heliaea as to give greater judicial power to 
all citizens (Diet, of Ant. art. Dicastes). Isa- 
goras and his party called in the aid of the Spar- 
tans, but were defeated [see Cleomenes], and 
Clisthenes, who had retired for a time, when the 
Spartans demanded the expulsion of the ac- 
cursed Alcmaeonids, was recalled and made 
good his reforms, b. c. 508. Nothing certain is 
known of his after life. (Hdt. v. 03-73, vi. 131 ; 
Aristot. 'A0. iroA. 20, 21, 41 ; Diet. Ant. a. w. 
Boule, Demus, Exsilium, Tribus). — 3. An Athe- 
nian, whose foppery and effeminate profligacy 
brought him under the lash of Aristophanes 
(Nub. 354, Thesm. 574). 

Clitarchus < KAe irapxos). 1. Tyrant of Ere- 
tria in Euboea, was supported by Philip against 
the Athenians, but was expelled from Eretria 
by Phocion, b. c. 341 (Dem. Phil. iii. 125 ; 
Pint. Phoc. 13, Dem. 17,i.— 2. Son of the his- 
torian Dinon, accompanied Alexander the Great 
in his Asiatic expedition, and wrote a history of 
it. This work was deficiency in veracity and 
inflated in style, but appears nevertheless to 
have been much read, owing to the interest of 
his narrative. His work was largely used by 
Curtius and Diodorus. (Quintil. x. 1, 74 ; Cic. 
Brut. 11, 42, de Ley. i. 2; Plut. Them. 27.) 

Cliternum or Cliternla (Cliterninus), a town 
of the Frentani, in the territory of Larinum. 

Clitomachus (KKarifxaxosI, a Carthaginian 
by birth, and called Hasdrubal in his own coun- 
try, came to Athens in the fortietli year of his 
age, and there studied under Carneades, on 
whose death he became the head of the New 
Academy, b. c. 129. Of his works, which 
amounted to 400 books, only a few titles are 
preserved. His main object in writing them 
was to make known the philosophy of his master 
Carneades. When Carthage was taken in 146, 
he wrote a work to console his countrymen. 

Clitor or Clitorium (KAfiroip: KA« nopios : 
near Klituras. Ru.), a town in the N. of Arcadia 
on a river of the same name, a tributary of the 
Aroanius: it was traditionally founded by Azan, 



CLUENTITJS 



241 



and was part of the Azanian district : it had 
temples of Demeter, Asclepius, and Eileithyia ; 
and a temple of the Dioscuri half a mile from 
the gates (Paus. viii. 4, 21). There was a 
fountain in the neighbourhood, the waters of 
which are said to have given to persons who 
drank of them a dislike for wine (Ov. Met. xv. 
322; Athen. p. 43). It joined the Achaean 
League and bravely repelled the Aetolians 
(Polyb. iv. 18). 

Clitumnus (Clitumno), a small river in Dm- 
bria, springs from a beautiful rock in a grove of 
cypress-trees, where was a sanctuary of the god 
Clitumnus, and falls into the Tinia, a tributary 
of the Tiber. The valley of the Clitumnus was 
famed for a breed of white cattle. (Verg. Georg. 
ii. 146 ; Prop. ii. 19 ; Juv. xii. 13.) 

ClitUS (KAerros or KAeiTOs). 1. Son of Bar- 
dylis, king of Illyria, defeated by Alexander the 
Great, B. c. 335. — 2. A Macedonian, one of 
Alexander's generals and friends, surnamed the 
Black (Me'Aas). He saved Alexander's life at 
the battle of Granicus, 334. In 328 he was slain 
by Alexander at a banquet, when both parties 
were heated with wine, and Clitus had provoked 
the king's resentment by a taunt. Alexander 
was inconsolable at his friend's death. [Alex- 
ander.] — 3. Another of Alexander's officers, sur- 
named the White (Aevicds) to distinguish him 
from the above (Arrian, Anab. vii. 12). — 4. An 
officer who commanded the Macedonian fleet 
for Antipater in the Lamian war, 323, and 
defeated the Athenian fleet. In 321, he ob- 
tained from Antipater the satrapy of Lydia, 
from which he was expelled by Antigonus, 319. 
He afterwards commanded the fleet of Poly- 
sperchon, and was at first successful, but his 
ships were subsequently destroyed by Antigo- 
nus, and he was killed on shore, 318. (Diod. 
xviii. 15, 39, 52, 72.) 

Cloaclna or Cluacina, the ' Purifier ' (from 
cloare or cluere, ' to wash ' or ' purify '), a sur- 
name of Venus. 

Clodius. [Claudius.] 

Clodius, Albinns. [Albinus.] 

Clodlns Macer. [Macer.] 

Cloella, a Roman virgin, one of the hostages 
given to Porsena, escaped from the Etruscan 
camp, and swam across the Tiber to Rome. 
She was sent back by the Romans to Porsena, 
who was so struck with her gallant deed, that 
he not only set her at liberty, but allowed her 
to take with her a part of the hostages. Hi; 
also rewarded her with a horse adorned with 
splendid trappings, and the Romans with the 
statue of a woman on horseback, which was 
erected in the Sacred Way. (Liv. ii. 13 ; Dionys. 
v. 33 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 651.) 

Cloelia or Clnilia Gens, of Alban origin, 
said to have been received among the patricians 
on the destruction of Alba. A few of its 
members with the surname Siculus obtained 
the consulship in the early years of the republic. 

Clonas (KAovos), of Thebes, a poet, and one 
of the earliest musicians of Greece, probably 
lived about B.C. 620. In music he is noticeable 
for composing hymns for a flute accompani 
ment, instead of the accompaniment of (be 
cithara. (Paus. x. 7, 3; Terpander.) 

Clonlus (KAdeios), leader of the Boeotians in 
the war against Troy, slain by Agenor (II. ii. 
495, xv. 310 ; Diod. iv. 67). 

Clota Aestuarlum (Frith of Clyde), on the 
W. coast of Scotland. 

Clotho. [Moihae.] 

Cluentlus Habitus, A., of Larinum, accused 
in B.C. 74 his Btepfather, Statius Albius Oppia- 

R 



242 



CLUNIA 



CNOSUS 



nious, of having attempted to procure his death 
by poison. Oppianicus was condemned, and 
it was generally believed that the judges had 
been bribed by Cluentius. In 66, Cluentius 
was himself accused by young Oppianicus, son 
of Statius Albius who had died in the interval, 
of three acts of poisoning. He was defended 
by Cicero in the brilliant oration still extant, 
and acquitted. Quintilian (ii. 17, 21) speaks of 
Cicero having boasted that he misled the 
judices. 

Clunia (Eu. on a hill between Coruna del 
Conde and Pennalba de Castro), a town of the 
Arevacae in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a 
Roman colony. 

Cliipea or Clypea. [Aspis.] 

Clusium (Cluslnus : Chiusi), one of the most 
powerful of the 12 Etruscan cities, situated 
on an eminence above the river Clanis, and 
SW. of the Lacus Clusinus (L. di Chiusi), 
(Strab. p. 226). It was more anciently called 
Camers or Camars, whence we may conclude 
that it was founded by the Umbrian race of the 
Camertes. It was the royal residence of 
Porsena, and at Poggio Gajella, three miles 
NNE. of Chiusi is a hill, in which can be traced 
the remains of the celebrated sepulchre of this 
king in the form of a labyrinth (Diet, of Ant. 
art. Labyrinthus). Subsequently Clusium was 
in alliance with the Romans, by whom it was 
regarded as a bulwark against the Gauls. Its 
siege by the Gauls, B.C. 391, led, as is well 
known, to the capture of Rome itself by the 
Gauls. Clusium probably became a Roman 
colony, since Pliny (iii. 52) speaks of Clusini 
Veteres et Novi. In its neighbourhood were 
cold baths (Hor. Ep. i. 15, 9). 

Clusrus (Chiese), a river in Cisalpine Gaul, 
a tributary of the Ollius, and the boundary be- 
tween the Cenomani and Insubres (Pol. ii. 82). 

Cluvius, a family of Campanian origin, of 
which the most important person was M. 
Cluvius Rufus, consul suffectus a.d. 45, and 
governor of Spain under Galba, 69, on whose 
death he espoused the cause of 'Vitellius. He 
was a historian, and wrote an account of the 
times of Nero, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. (Tac. 
Hist. i. 8, ii. 65, iv. 43, Ann. xiii. 20, xiv. 2; 
Plin. Ep. ix. 19.) It is probable that his writ- 
ings were a chief source of information for 
Tacitus, Plutarch and Suetonius as regards the 
above-mentioned reigns. 

Clymene (YLKvutvq). 1. Daughter of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and wife of Iapetus, to whom she 
bore Atlas, Prometheus, and others (Hes. Th. 
351, 507 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 345). — 2. Daughter 
of Iphis or Minyas, wife of Phylacus or Cepha- 
lus, to whom she bore Iphiclus and Alcimede. 
According to Hesiod and others she was the 
mother of Phaeton by Helios. (Paus. x. 29 ; 
Od. xi. 325 ; Apollod. iii. 9.) — 3. A companion of 
Helena, with whom she was carried off by Paris 
(II. iii. 144). 

Clytaemnestra (KAvTai/iv^arpa), daughter 
of Tyndareus and Leda, sister of Castor, and 
half-sister of Pollux and Helena. She was 
married to Agamemnon. During her husband's 
absence at Troy she lived in adultery with 
Aegisthus, and on Agamemnon's return to 
Mycenae she murdered him with the help of 
Aegisthus. [Agamemnon.] She was subse- 
quently put to death by her son Orestes, who 
thus avenged the murder of his father. For 
details see Orestes. 

Caemis (Kurj^is; Spartia), a range of moun- 
tains on the frontiers of Phocis and Locris, 
from which the N. Locrians were called Epi- 



cnemidii. A branch of these mountains runs 
out into the sea, forming the promontory 
Cnemldes (KvyifuSes), with a town of the same 
name upon it, opposite the promontory 
Cenaeum in Euboea. (Strab. pp. 416, 426.) 

Cnemus (Kvrinos), Spartan admiral in B.C. 
430, when he made a descent upon Zacynthus. 
In the following year he operated without 
success against Phormio. (Thuc.ii. 66, 80.) 

Cnidus or Gnidus (KiaSos- : KviSios : Ru. at 
Cape Krio), a celebrated city of Asia Minor, 
on the promontory of Triopium on the coast 
of Caria, was a Lacedaemonian colony, and 
the chief city of the Dorian Hexapolis. It 
was built partly on the mainland and partly 
on an island joined to the coast by a cause- 
way, and had two harbours. It had a con- 
siderable commerce ; and it was resorted to 
by travellers from all parts of the civilised 
world, that they might see the statue of 
Aphrodite by Praxiteles, which stood in her 
temple here. The city possessed also temples 




Harbour and ruins of Cnidus. 



of Apollo and Poseidon. The great naval 
defeat of Pisander by Conon (b.c. 394) took 
place off Cnidus. Pliny mentions it as a free 
city (v. 104). Among the celebrated natives 
of the city were Ctesias, Eudoxus, Sostratus, 
and Agatharchides. It is said to have been 
also called, at an early period, Triopia, from 
its founder Triopas, and, in later times, 
Stadia. (Strab. p. 656; Paus. v. 24, 7, viii. 
30, x. 11.) 

Cnosus or Gnosus, subsequently Cnossus or 
Gnossus (Kvaicos, Tvwaos, Kvoxrcrds, Tvutrcros : 
Kvdxrios, Kvuaffios : Makro Teikho), an an- 
cient town of Crete, and the capital of king 
Minos, was situated in a fertile country on the 
river Caeratus (which was originally the name 
of the town), at a short distance from the 
N. coast. It was at an early time colonised 




Coin of Cnosus. 



Obv., Head of Hera with wreath of flowers; rev., laby- 
rinth, spear-head and thunderbolt (for Zeus). Coin of 
4th cent. B.C. 

by Dorians, and from it Dorian institutions 
spread over the island. Its power was weak- 
ened by the growing importance of Gortyn 
and Cydonia; and these towns, when united, 
were more than a match for Cnosus. — Cnosus 



/ 



COBUS 

is frequently mentioned by the poets in conse- 
quence of its connexion with Minos, Ariadne, 
the Minotaur, and the Labyrinth; and the 
adjective Cnosius, Cnossius, or Gnossius is fre- 
quently used as equivalent to Cretan. The 
marriage of Zeus with Hera was celebrated as 
an annual festival, and Hera appears on the 
coins as a bride. {Oil. xix. ITS ; Strab. p. 477 ; 
Polyb. iv. 53 : Diod. i. 61. I 

Cobus or Cohibus iKuPos), a river of Asia, 
flowing from the Caucasus into the E. side of 
the Euxine. 

Cocalus (Kioko\os), king of Sicily, received 
Daedalus on his flight from Crete, and with 
the help of his daughters put Minos to death, 
when the latter came in pursuit of Daedalus 
(Diod. iv. 78, 80 ; Hyg. Fab. 44 ; Paus. vii. 4). 

Cocceius Nerve . [Nebva.] 

Coche (Ka>xri), a city on the Tigris, near Cte- 
siphon. 

Cocinthum or Cocinttrm tPunta di Stilo), 
a promontory on the SE. of Bruttium in 
Italy, with a town of the same name upon it. 
(Pol. ii. 14). 

Codes, Horatlns — that is, Horatius the 
'one-eyed' — a hero of the old Roman lays, is 
said to have defended the Sublician bridge 
along with Sp. Lartius and T. Herminius 
against the whole Etruscan army under 
Porsena, while the Romans broke down the 
bridge behind them. When the work was 
nearly finished, Horatius sent back his two 
companions. As soon as the bridge was quite 
destroyed, he plunged into the stream and swam 
across to the city in safety amid the arrows of 
the enemy. The state raised a statue to his 
honour, which was placed in the Comitium, and 
allowed him as much land as he could plough 
round in one day. Polybius relates that Hora- 
tius defended the bridge alone, and perished in 
the river. (Liv. ii. 10 ; Dionys. v. 24 ; Plut. 
Poplic. 16; Polyb. vi. 55; Gell. iv. 5.) 

Cocossates. a people in Aquitania, mentioned 
with the Tarbelli (Caes. B. G. iii. 27). 

Cocylium fKo/cvAioyi, an Aeolian city in 
Mysia, whose inhabitants iKoki/Aitoi) are men- 
tioned by Xenophon; but it was abandoned 
before Pliny's time (Xen. Hell. iii. 1, 16; Plin. 
v. 122). 

Cocytus (KaiKuros ; Yuvos), a river in Epirus, 
a tributary of the Acheron. Like the Acheron, 
the Cocytus was supposed to be connected with 
the lower world, and hence came to be de- 
scribed as a river in the lower world. 
[Acheron ; Avebnus.] 

Codanus Sinus, the SW. part of the Baltic, 
whence the Danish islands are called Coda- 
nonia (Mela, iii. 4). 

Codomannus. [Dabius.] 

Codrus (KdSpos). 1. Son of Melanthus, and 
last king of Athens. "When the Dorians invaded 
Attica from Peloponnesus (about B.C. 1068 ac- 
cording to mythical chronology), an oracle 
declared that they should be victorious if the 
life of the Attic king was spared. Codrus 
thereupon resolved to sacrifice himself for his 
country. He entered the camp of the enemy in 
disguise, began to quarrel with the soldiers, and 
was slain in the dispute. When the Dorians 
discovered the death of the Attic king, they 
returned home. Tradition adds, that as no one 
was thought worthy to succeed such a patriotic 
king, the kingly dignity was abolished, and Me- 
don, son of Codrus, was appointed archon for 
life instead. Pausamas (i. 19, (!) speaks of a 
spot cn the banks of the Ilixsus where Codrus 
was slain. An inscription has been found about 



COLIA: 



243 



the temenos of Codrus. showing that it was 
between the Dionysion and the city gate, SE. of 
the Acropolis : it was also the temenos of Xeleus 
(American Jour n. Arch. 1887; ef. C.I.A. iii. 
943). — 2. A Roman poet (possibly a pseudonym), 
ridiculed by Virgil (Eel. v. 11, vii. 22) 
Juvenal (i. 1) speaks of a Cordus or Codrus, as 
author of a tiresome ThebaiJ. 

Coela (ti Ko7Ka rrjs Evfioias), 'the Hollows 
of Euboea,' the W. coast of Euboea, between 
the promontories Caphareus and Chersonesus. 
very dangerous to ships: here a part of the 
Persian fleet was wrecked, B.C. 480 (Hdt. viii. 
113 ; Strab. p. 445). 

Coele (Koi'A.77), an Attic demus belonging to 
the tribe Hippothoontis, a little way beyond the 
Melitian gate at Athens : here Cimon and 
Thucydides were buried. 

Coelesyria. [Sybia.] 

Coeletae or Coelaletae, a people of Thrace, 
divided into Majores and Minores, in the 
district Coeletica, between the Hebrus and the 
gulf of Melas. 

Coelius. [Caeltos.] 

Coelus (KoiAis \lfiriv) or Coela (KoiAa), a sea- 
port town in the Thracian Chersonese, near 
Cyxossejia (Plin. v. 50 ; Mela, ii. 2, 7). 

Coenus (Koivos), son-in-law of Pannenion, 
one of the ablest generals of Alexander, died on 
the Hyphasis, B.C. 327 (Arrian, i. 6, iv. 16, v. 16, 
vi. 2). 

Coenyra (Koivvpa : Kinyra)) a town in the 
island of Thasos, opposite Samothrace. 

Coes fKw7js), of Mytilene, dissuaded Darius 
Hystaspis, in his Scythian expedition, from 
breaking up his bridge of boats over the 
Danube. For this good counsel he was 
rewarded by Darius with the tyranny of Myti- 
lene. On the breaking out of the Ionian revolt, 

: B.C. 501, he was stoned to death by the Mytile- 
naeans. (Hdt. iv. 97, v. 11, 37.) 

Colapis (KdAaxf/ in Dio Cass. : Eulpa), a river 

, in Pannonia, flows into the Savus : on it dwelt 

' the Colapiani (Strab. pp. 207, 214). 

Colchis (KoA.x' J : KoAxosi, a country of Asia, 
bounded on the W. by the Euxine, on the N. by 
fcha Caucasus, on the E. by Iberia ; on the S. 
and SW. the boundaries were somewhat indefi- 
nite, and were often considered to extend as far 
as Trapezus (Trebizonch. The land of Colchis 
(or Aea), and its river Phasis are famous in the 
Greek mythology. [Akgonauiae.] The name 
of Colchis is first mentioned by Aeschylus and 
Pindar (Pind. Pyth. iv. .478, Aesch. Pr. 513), but 

i it was probably known to the Greeks at least as 
early as the 7th century B.C. from its commerce 
with the Milesian settlements 011 the Euxine, 
especially in linen. It was a very fertile 
country, and yielded timber, pitch, hemp, flax, 
and wax, as articles of commerce; but it was 
most famous for its manufactures of linen, on 
account of which, and of certain physical 
resemblances, Herodotus supposed the ( 'Si- 
cilians to have been a colony from Egypt 

1 (Hdt. ii. 104 ; Strab. p. 498). The land was 
governed by its native princes, until Mithri- 

| dates Eupator made it subject to the kingdom 
of Pontus. After the Mithridatic war, it was 
overrun by the Romans, but they did not sub- 
due it till the time of Trajan. Under the later 
emperors the country was called Lazica, from 
the name of one of its principal tribes, the Lazi. 

Colias (KuiA/as), a promontory on the W. 
coast of Attica, 20 stadia S. of Phalerum. with a 

' temple of Aphrodite, where some of the Persian 
ships were cast after the battle of Salamis 

1 (Hdt. viii. UCj. 

B 2 



244 



COLLATIA 



COMAMA 



Collatia (Collatinus). 1. (Castellaccio), a 
Sabine town in Latium, near the right bank of 
the Anio, taken by Tarquinius Priscus. — 2. A 
town in Apulia, east of Teanum. 

Collatinus, L. Tarquinius, son of Egerius, 
and nephew of Tarquinius Priscus, derived the 
Surname Collatlnus from the town Collatia, of 
which his father was governor. The outrage 
offered to his wife Lucretia by Sex. Tarquinius 
led to the dethronement of Tarquinius Super- 
bus. Collatinus and L. Junius Brutus were 
the first consuls ; but as the people could not 
endure the rule of any of the hated race of the 
Tarquins, Collatinus resigned his office and 
retired from Rome to Lavinium. (Liv. i. 38, 57, 
ii. 2 ; Dionys. iv. 64.) 

Collina Porta. [Roma.] 

CollytUS {KoWvros, also Ko\vtt6s : Ko\\v- 
t-€us), a demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe 
Aegeis, was within the walls of Athens, and 
formed one of the districts into which the city 
was divided. [Athenae.] It was the demus of 
Plato and the residence of Timon the mis- 
anthrope. 

Colonae (KoAcwai), a small town in the Troad 
(Strab. p. 589 ; Thuc. i. 131 ; Plin. v. 122). 

Colonia Agrippina or Agripplnensis (Co- 
logne on the Rhine), originally the chief town 
of the Ubii, and called Oppidum or Civitas 
TJbiorum, was a place of small importance till 
a.d. 51, when a Roman colony was planted in 
the town by the emperor Claudius, at the in- 
stigation of his wife Agrippina, who was born 
here, and from whom it derived its new name. 
Its inhabitants received the jus Italicum. It 
soon became a large and flourishing city, and 
was the capital of Lower Germany. (Tac. Ann. 
i. 36, xii. 27, Hist. iv. 28 ; Strab. p. 194 ; 
Ammian. xv. 11.) At Cologne there are still 
several Roman remains, an ancient gate, with 
the inscription C. C. A. A., i.e. Colonia Claudia 
Augusta Agrvppinensin, and the foundations 
of the Roman walls. 

Colonia (Kara Hissar), a Byzantine fortress 
town in Pontus, between Cabira and Nicopohs. 

Colonia Equestris. [Noyiodunum.] 

Coldnus (Ko\(dv6s : KoAweeus, -v'lTrjs, -vidrris), 
a demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Aegeis, 
afterwards to the tribe Antiochis, ten stadia (or 
about 1J mile) NNW. from the Dipylon gate of 
Athens, near the Academy, lying on and round 
a hill celebrated for a temple of Poseidon. 
This hill was called Colonus Hippius, as being 
sacred to Poseidon, and to distinguish it from 
the other Colonus Agoraeus in Athens [see 
Athenae]. The ecclesia summoned by Pisander 
met within the enclosure of the temenos of this 
temple on the hill Colonus (Thuc. viii. 67). 
There were at Colonus altars both of Poseidon 
Hippius and Athene Hippia, and shrines (ripqia) 
of Oedipus, Adrastus, Theseus, and Pirithous ; 
and also a grove of the Eumenides, probably 
on the NE. side of the hill. About £ of a mile 
NNE. of the hill there is another hillock, which 
was the hill of Demeter Euchloiis (Soph. O. C. 
1600) ; traces of old buildings are found there. 
It is conjectured that the ripwa above mentioned 
and the grave of Oedipus lay between these 
mounds. The chasm, however, of the Karap- 
poacrris 6Sbs no longer exists. Sophocles, who 
describes the scenery, was a native of the 
demus (cf. Paus. i. 39, 4). 

Colophon (Ko\o(puv: Ru..near Deirmendere), 
one of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia Minor, 
was said to have been founded by Mopsus, a 
grandson of Tiresias. It stood about 10 miles 
from the coast, near the river Halesus, which 



was famous for the coldness of its water, between 
Lebedus and Ephesus, 120 stadia (12 geog. 
miles) from the former and 70 stadia (7 g. m.) 
from the latter : its harbour was called Notium. 
It was one of the most powerful members of 
the Ionian confederacy, possessing a consider- 
able fleet and excellent cavalry ; but it suffered 
greatly in war, being taken at different times 
by the Lydians, the Persians,. Lysimaehus, and 
the Cilician pirates. The old Colophon was 
desolated by Lysimaehus, B.C. 302 (Paris. vii. 3, 
4). Thus in Roman times the real Colophon 
had lost its importance, and the name was 
transferred to Notium : hence Pliny (v. 116) 
speaks of Notium as having disappeared, because 
its name had passed out of use : hence also 
Mela (i. 17) mentions Colophon, and not Notium : 
the town which they knew as Colophon was 
really the old Notium. It was made a free city 
by the Romans after their war with Antiochus 
the Great. Besides claiming to be the birth- 
place of Homer, Colophon was the native city 
of Mimnermus, Hermesianax, and Nicander 
(Paus. vii. 3, viii. 28 ; Hdt. i. 14 ; Liv. xxxviii. 
39 ; Xen. Hell. i. 1, 4). It was also celebrated 
for the oracle of Apollo Clarius in its neigh- 
bourhood. [Claeus.] 

Colossae (Kokoirffat, aft. KoXaara-ai: KoAotr- 
ffr)v6s, Strab., KoXoaaatvs, N. T. ; Khonas, Ru.), 
a city of Great Phrygia in the plain on the 
river Lycus, once of great importance (Strab. 
p. 576 ; Hdt. vii. 30 ; Xen. Anab. i. 2, 6), but so 
reduced by the rise of the neighbouring cities 
of Laodicea and Hierapolis, that the later geo- 
graphers do not even mention it, and it might 
have been forgotten but for its place in the 
early history of the Christian Church. A for- 
tress called Chonae (X&vai) was formed (prob- 
ably by Justinian) on a precipitous hill 3 miles 
S. of Colossae, the position of which was not 
defensible ; and in the course of the 8th cent. 
B.C. altogether absorbed its population, so that 
its name passed away, and the village near its 
site bears the name Khonas. 

Colotes (KoA&ittjs). 1. Of Lampsacus, a 
hearer of Epicurus, against whom Plutarch 
wrote two of his works. — 2. A sculptor of Paros, 
flourished B.C. 444, and assisted Phidias in 
executing the colossus of Zeus at Olympia. 

Columella, L. Junius Moderatus, a native of 
Gades in Spain, and a contemporary of Seneca. 
We have no particulars of his life ; it appears, 
from his own account, that at some period of 
his life he visited Syria and Cilicia ; but Rome 
appears to have been his ordinary residence. 
He wrote a work upon agriculture (De Be 
Bustica), in twelve books, which is still extant. 
It treats not only of agriculture proper, but of 
the cultivation of the vine and the olive, of 
gardening, of rearing cattle, of bees, &c. The 
tenth book, which treats of gardening, is com- 
posed in dactylic hexameters of no poetical 
merit, and forms a sort of supplement to the 
Georgics. There is also extant a work De Ar- 
boribus, in one book. The style of Columella 
is easy and clear, but ornate. Edition by Schnei- 
der, in Scriptores Bei Busticae. 

Columnae Herculis. [Abyla; Calpe.] 

Coluthus (K6Aov8os), a Greek epic poet of 
Lycopolis in Egypt, lived at the beginning of 
the 6th century of our era, the author of a 
poem on ' The Rape of Helen ' {'E\4viqs apirayii), 
of 392 hexameter lines. Edited by Bekker, 
Berl. 1816, and Schaefer, Lips. 1825. 

Colyttus. [Collytus.] 

Comama, a town of Pisidia, NW. of Ter- 
messus. 



COMANA 

Comana (Kofuwa). 1. C. Poutica i Gumuak. 
7 miles NE. of Tokat, Eu.j, a flourishing city 
of Pontus, upon the river Iris. Its commercial 
importance arose from the fact that it lay upon 
the trade route from Armenia and Pontus to 
the port of Amisus : its religious importance 
arose from its temple of Artemis Taurica, 
the foundation of which tradition ascribed to 
Orestes. The high priests of this temple took ] 
rank next after the king, and their domain was j 
increased by Pompey alter the Mithridatic war, 
when he gave the high-priesthood to Archelaus 
and the district within a radius of 8 miles. At- 
tached to the temple were numerous slaves 
(Up65ov\oi), a mark of the Asiatic character of 
this Artemis. No pig was allowed to come near 
the temple or even into the city (Strab. pp. 547, 
557-560, 796; Artemis). — 2. Cappadociae, or 
C. Chryse (JBostan), in Cataonia, was also 
celebrated for a temple of Artemis Taurica, the 
foundation of which was likewise ascribed by 
tradition to Orestes. Strabo, who had himself 
visited the place, describes the wonderful gorge j 
at this point where the Pyramus breaks through 
the Taurus range. Comana lay in a glen a ; 
little off the main Roman road from Cocussus I 
to Sebasteia. In the temple were 6,000 slaves, i 
male and female, subject to the priest, who | 
ranked next to the king of C'appadocia (Strab. 
pp. 535, 536; Bell. Alex. 66). [For the local 
goddess Ma, identified with Artemis, see 
Artemis.] 

Combrea (KwuBpeLa), a town in the Macedo- 
nian district of Crossaea. 

Cominium, a town in Samnium, destroyed 
by the Romans in the Samnite wars ^Liv. x. 
44). 

Commagene {Ko/inayovr, I, the NE.-most dis- 
trict of Syria, was bounded on the E. and SE. 
by the Euphrates, on the X. and X\V. by the 
Taurus, and on the S. by Cyrrhestice. It 
formed a part of the Greek kingdom of Syria, 
after the fall of which it maintained its inde- 
pendence under a race of kings of the family 
of the Seleucidae, whos» names were Mithri- 
dates I. Callinicus (stepson of Antiochus VIII. 
Epiphanesof Syria), Antiochus, Mithridatcs II., 
who sided with Antony at Actium (Plut. Ant. 
61), Mithridates III., Antiochus III., who 
reigned till a.d. 17, when Tiberius gave over 
Commagene to the province of Syria (Tac. Ann. 
ii. 42) : it was restored in 38 to Antiochus IV., 
called Epiphanes Magnus, who reigned till ^ D. 
72, when Commagene, with Samosata ( = Flavia) 
as its chief town, became part of the province 
governed by the legatus of Syria (Suet. Vesp. 8). 

Commlus, king of the Atrebates, was ad- 
vanced to that dignity by Caesar, who had gTeat 
confidence in him. He was sent by Caesar to 
Britain to accompany the ambassadors of (he 
British states on their return to their native 
country, but he was cast into chains by the 
Britons, and was not released till the Britons 
had been defeated by Caesar, and found it ex- 
pedient to sue for peace. In B.C. 52 he joined 
the other Gauls in their great revolt against the 
Romans, and continued in arms even after the 
capture of Alesia. (Cues. B. G. iv. 21, vii. 76.) 

Commodus, L. Ceionius, was adopted by 
Hadrian, a.d. 186, when he took the name of L. 
Aelii's Verus Caesar. His health was weak ; 
he died on the 1st of January, 188, and was 
interred in the mausoleum of Hadrian. His 
son L. Aurelius Verus was the colleague of 
Antoninus Pius in the empire. [Verus.J 

Commodus, L. Aurelius, Roman emperor, 

A.D. 180-102, son of M. Aurelius and the younger 



CONCORDIA 045 

Faustina, was born at Lanuvium, 161. and was 
thus scarcely twentv *»uen he succeeded to the 
empire. He was an unworthy son of a noble 
father. Notwithstanding the great care which 
his father had bestowed upon his education, 
he turned out one of the most sanguinary and 
licentious tyrants that ever disgraced a throne. 
It was after the suppression of the plot against 
his life, which had been organised by his sister 
Lucilla, 183, that he first gave uncontrolled 
sway to his ferocious temper. He resigned the 
government to various favourites who followed 
each other in rapid succession iPerennis, Ole- 
ander, Laetus, and Eclectusi, and abandoned 
himself without interruption to the most shame- 
less debauchery. But he was at the same time 
the slave of the most childish vanity, and 
sought to gain popular applause by fighting as 
a gladiator, and slew many thousands of wild 
beasts in the amphitheatre with bow and spear. 
In consequence of these exploits he assumed 
the name of Hercules, and demanded that he 
should be worshipped as that god, 191. In the 
following year his concubine Marcia found on 
his tablets, while he was asleep, that she was 
doomed to perish along with Laetus and Eclec- 
tus and other leading men in the state. She 
forthwith administered poison to him, but as 
its operation was slow, she caused him to be 
strangled by Narcissus, a celebrated athlete, 
Dec. 31, 192. (Script. Hist. Aug.) 
Comnena. [Anna Comnena.] 
Complutum, a town of the Carpetani in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, between Segovia and 
Bilbilis. 

Compsa (Compsiinus : Coma), a town of the 
Hirpini in Samnium, near the sources of the 
Aufidus. 

Compulteria iSta Maria di Cuvultere), a 
town of Samnium on tiie Vultumus, between 
Calatia and Allitae (Liv. xxiii. 39). 

Comum (Comensis: Como), a town in Gallia 
Cisalpina, at the S. extremity of the W. branch 
of the Lacus Larius (L. di Como). It was 
originally a town of the Insubrian Gauls, and 
was colonised by Poinpeius Strabo, by Cor- 
nelius Scipio, and by Julius Caesar. Caesar 
settled there 6000 colonists, among whom were 
500 distinguished Greek families; and this new 
population so greatly exceeded the number of 
the old inhabitants, that the town was called 
Novum Comum, a name, however, which it did 
not retain. Comum was celebrated for its iron 
manufactories : it was the birthplace of the 
younger Pliny. I Strab. p. 218; Plin. Ep. i. 3, 
iii. 6, iv. 18.) 

Conana (Kcirai'a: Gtjnen), a town of Pisidia, 
on the N. frontier. 

Concordia, a Roman goddess (= the Greek 
'Ofi6voia), the personification of concord, had 
several temples at Rome. In the earliest times 
her functions and attributes belonged to Venus 
Cloacina, to whom a temple in the Comitium is 
said to have been built to sanctify the union 
between Romans and Sabines (Plin. xv. 119). 
But the worship, botfa public and private, of 
Concordia herself seems to reach back into 
legendary times. Temples were dedicated to 
her by Camillus, B.C. 867, on the reconciliation 
of plebeians and patricians (I'lut. Cam. 42; 
Ov. Fast. i. 689) ; by On. Flavins near the 
Area Vuleani in 804, at the end of the second 
Samnite war (Liv. ix. Hi); in 217, to fulfil a 
vow of Manlins for the cessation of a mutiny 
in his army (Liv. xxii. 33) ; by Opimius in LSI, 
after the overthrow of C. (iracchus (Appi.ni, 
i B. C. i. 26). Under the empire the religion was 



246 



CONDATE 



CONSTANTLY 



even more marked, probably from a desire to I 
popularise the idea of an acceptable rule I 
established without violent revolution. Livia 
began a temple to Concord for which a festival 
was kept on June 11; this temple was conse- 
crated to Concordia Augusta by Tiberius on 
Jan. 16, a.d. 10 (Suet. Tib. 20 ; C. I. L. i. 312 ; 
cf. Ov. Fast. i. 645). Offerings were frequently 
made to the goddess on birthdays of emperors 
or after dangers averted, such as the discovery 
of a conspiracy (cf . Tac. Ann. ii. 32 ; C. I. L. 

vi. 91). Medals were often struck to symbolise 
union, sometimes as unreal as that of Geta and 
Caracalla. Concordia is generally represented 
as a veiled matron, sometimes with a diadem, 
sometimes a laurel wreath, bearing a cornucopia, 
an olive branch, or a patera. 

Condate, the name of many Celtic towns, 
said to be equivalent in meaning to Confluentes, 
i.e. the union of two rivers : 1. Cosne on the 
Loire ; 2. Conde on the Iton ; 3. Bennes in 
the territory of the Eedones; 4. Cognac on 
the Charente, in Aquitania ; 5. Montereau on 
the Seine; 6. Seyssel on the Ehone, below 
Bellegarde ; 7. in Britain, Kinderton, between 
Chester and Manchester. Condatus Pagus 
was the old name of Lugdunum (Lyons). 

Condrusi, a German people in Gallia Belgica, 
the dependents of the Treviri, dwelt between 
the Eburones and the Treviri in the district of 
Condros on the Maas and Ourthe. 

Confluentes (Cohlenz), a town in Germany at 
the confluence of the Moselle and the Bhine. 

Conisalus (Kov'iaaXos), a deity akin to Pria- 
fcs, worshipped at Athens (Strab. p. 588 ; Ari- 
stoph. Lys. 983 ; Athen. p. 441). 

Conon (K6vo>v). 1. A distinguished Athenian 
general, held several important commands in 
the latter part of the Peloponnesian war. After 
the defeat of the Athenians by Lysander at 
Aegos Potami (b.c. 405), Conon, who was one 
of the generals, escaped with eight ships, and 
took refuge with Evagoras in Cyprus, where he 
remained for some years. He was subsequently 
appointed to the command of the Persian fleet 
along with Pharnabazus, and in this capacity 
was able to render the most effectual service to 
his native country. In 394 he gained a decisive 
victory over Pisander, the Spartan admiral, off 
Cnidus (Xen. Hell. iv. 3). After clearing the 
Aegaean of the Spartans, he returned to Athens 
in 393, and commenced restoring the long walls 
and the fortifications of Piraeus. When the 
Spartans opened their negotiations with 
Tiribazus, the Persian satrap, Conon was sent 
by the Athenians to counteract the intrigues of 
Antalcidas, but was thrown into prison by 
Tiribazus (Xen. Hell. iv. &). According to 
some accounts, he was sent into the interior of 
Asia, and there put to death. But according to 
the most probable account, he escaped to 
Cyprus, where he died (Lys. de Bon. Arist. 
41-44; Nep. Con. 5; Isocr. Paneg. 41). — 2. 
Son of Timotheus, grandson of the preceding, 
lived about 318. — 3. Of Samos, a distinguished 
mathematician and astronomer, lived in the 
time of the Ptolemies Philadelphus and 
Euergetes (b.c. 283—222), and was the friend of 
Archimedes, who praises him in the highest 
terms. None of his works are preserved. 
(Catull. 66, 7; Verg. Eel. iii. 40; Sen. Q. N. 

vii. 3.) — 4. A grammarian of the age of Augus- 
tus, author of a work entitled Ain]yfi<reis, a 
collection of fifty narratives relating to the 
mythical and heroic period. An epitome of the 
work is preserved by Photius. 

Conopa (Kavwira: Kwvanrevs, -Tr'irrjs, -iraios: 



i Angelokastron), a village in Aetolia on the 
I Achelous, enlarged by Arsinoe, wife of Ptolemy 
! II., and called after her name. 

Consentes Dii. A hierarchy of twelve gods 
is found among various nations of Italy. 
Those of the Sabines were named Volcanus, 
Volturnus, Palatua, Furrina, Flora, Falacer, 
Pomona, Carmentis, Portunus", and it is said 
that Tatius raised altars to them (Serv. ad 
Georg. i. 21) : Festus (p. 158) mentions twelve 
gods of the Samnites : the twelve gods of the 
Etruscans, whose names were concealed from 
man, six male and six female, formed the 
council of the supreme Jupiter and were called 
Di Consentes or Complices (Arnob. iii. 40; 
Sen. Q. N. ii. 41). At Borne there were also 
twelve Di Consentes, whose statues were placed 
in the forum, but they differed from the Etrus- 
can in being spoken of by name and including 
the supreme deities in their number. They 
were Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, Minerva, Mars, 
Venus, Apollo, Diana, Vulcanus, Vesta, Mer- 
curius, Ceres. (Erin. ap. Apul. de Deo Socrat. 
ii. 6 ; Varr. B. B. i. 1, 4 ; C. I. L. vi. 102 ; cf. 
Liv. xxii. 10.) The name Consentes (cum — 
esse; cf. praesens) signified 'colleagues,' and 
the title was at a later time given to Mithras as 
being received into the circle of Boman deities 
(C. I. L. vi. 736). 

Consentla (Consentlnus : Cosenza), chief 
town of the Bruttii on the river Crathis : here 
Alaric died. 

P. Consentius, a Boman grammarian, flour- 
ished in the 5th century a.d. and is the author 
of two extant grammatical works, one published 
in the collection of grammarians by Putschius, 
Hanov. 1605 (De Duabus Partibus Orationis, 
Nomine et Verbo), and the other by Buttmann, 
Berol. 1817. 

C. Considius Longus, propraetor in Africa, 
left his province shortly before the breaking 
out of the civil war b.c. 49, entrusting the 
government to Q. Ligarius (Cic. pro Lig. 1). 
He returned to Africa soon afterwards, and 
held Adrumetum for the Pompeian party. 
After the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus, 
he attempted to fly into Mauretania, but was 
murdered by the Gaetulians (Bell. Afr. 93). 

Constans, youngest of the three sons of 
Constantine the Great and Fausta, received 
after his father's death (a.d. 337) Illyricum, 
Italy, and Africa as his share of the empire. 
After successfully resisting his brother Con- 
stantine, who was slain in invading his territory 
(340), Constans became master of the whole 
West. His weak and profligate character 
rendered him an object of contempt, and he was 
slain in 350 by the soldiers of the usurper Mag- 
nentius. (Aurel. Vict. Caes. 41 ; Zonar. xiii. 6.) 

Constantia. 1. Daughter of Constantius 
Chlorus and half-sister of Constantine the 
Great, married to Licinius, the colleague of 
Constantine in the empire. — 2. Daughter of 
Constantine II. and grand-daughter of Con- 
stantine the Great, married the emperor 
Gratian. 

Constantia, the name of several cities, all 
of which are either of little consequence, or 
better known by other names. 1. In Cyprus, 
named after Constantius [Salamis]. 2. In 
Phoenicia, after the same [Antaradus]. 3. In 
Palestine, the port of Gaza, named after the 
sister of Constantine the Great, and also called 
Magiuna. 4. In Blesopotamia. [Antonino- 
polis.] 5. It was also the name of a town in 
Bhaetia, the modern Constanz on the lake of 
the same name.) 



CONSTANTINA 



CONSTANTINUS 247 



Constantilfa, daughter of Constantine the 
Great and Fausta, married to Hanniballianus. 
and after his death to Gallus Caesar. 

Constantlna, the city. [Cirta.] 

Constantindpolis. [Byzantium.] 

Constantinus. 1. I., Surnamed 'the Great,' 
Roman emperor, a.d. 300-337, eldest son of 
the emperor Constantius Chlorus and Helena, 
was born a.d. 272, at Naissus (Xissa), a town 
in upper Moesia. He was early trained to 
arms, and served with great distinction under 
Galerius in the Persian war. Galerius became 
jealous of him and detained him for some time 
in the E. ; but Constantine at last contrived to 
join his father in Gaul just in time to accom- 
pany him to Britain on his expedition against 
the Picts, 306. His father died at York in the 
same year, and Constantine laid claim to a 
share of the empire. Galerius, who dreaded a 
struggle with the brave legions of the West, 
acknowledged Constantine as master of the 
countries beyond the Alps, but with the title of 
Caesar only. The commencement of Constan- 
tine's reign, however, is placed in this year, 
though he did not receive the title of Augustus 
till 308. Constantine took up his residence at 
Treviri (Treves), where the remains of his 
palace are still extant. He governed with 
justice and firmness, beloved by his subjects, ' 
and feared by the neighbouring barbarians. It 
was not long, however, before he became in- 
volved in war with his rivals in the empire. In 
the same year that he had been acknowledged 
Caesar (806), Maxentius, the son of Maximian, 
had seized the imperial power at Rome. Con- 
stantine entered into a close alliance with 
Maxentius by marrying his sister Fausta. 
But in 310 Maximian formed a plot against 
Constantine, and was put to death by his son- 
in-law at Massilia. Maxentius resented the 
death of his father, and began to make prepa- 
rations to attack Constantine in Gaul. Con- 
stantine anticipated his movements, and in- 
vaded Italy at the head of a large army. The 
struggle was brought to a close by the defeat of 1 
Maxentius at the village of Saxa Rubra near 
Rome, October 27th, 312. Maxentius tried to 
escape over the Milvian bridge into Rome, but 
perished in the river. It was in this campaign 
that Constantine is said to have been converted 
to Christianity. On his marcli from the North to 
Rome, either at Autun in Gaul, or near Ander- 
nach on the Rhine, or at Verona, he is said to 
have seen in the sky a luminous cross with the 
inscription iv rovr<fi cuca, By this Conquer ; 
and on the night before the last and decisive 
battle with Maxentius, a vision is said to have 
appeared to Constantine in his sleep, bidding 
him inscribe the shields of his soldiers with the 
sacred monogram of the name of Christ. The 
tale of the cross seems to have grown out of 
that of the vision, and even the latter is not 
entitled to credit. The story rests on the 
authority of Eusebius ( Vit. Const, i. 38-80), 
who does not repeat it in his Hi-it. Eccles. It 
was Constantine's interest to gain the affec- 
tions of his numerous Christian subjects in his 
struggle with his rivals ; and it was probably 
only self-interest which led him at first to 
adopt Christianity. But whether sincere or 
not in his conversion, his conduct did little 
credit to the religion which he professed. 
His conversion was commemorated by the im- 
perial standard of the Labarum, at the sum- 
mit of which was the monogram of the name 
of Christ. Constantine, by his victory over 
Maxentius, became a >le master of the West. 



Meantime important events took place in 
the East. On the death of Galerius in 311, 
Licinius and Maximinus had divided the East 
between them ; but in 313 a war broke out 
between them, Maximin was defeated, and died 
at Tarsus. Thus there were only two emperors 
left, Licinius in the East and Constantine in 
the West ; and between them war broke out in 
314, although Licinius had married in the 
preceding year Constantia, the sister of Con- 
stantine. Licinius was defeated at Cibalis in 
Pannonia and afterwards at Adrianople. Peace 
was then concluded on condition that Licinius 
should resign to Constantine Hlyricum, Mace- 
donia, and Achaia, 314. This peace continued 
undisturbed for nine years, during which time 
Constantine was frequently engaged in war 
with the barbarians on the Danube and the 
Rhine. In these wars his son Crispus greatly 
distinguished himself. In 323 the war between 
Constantine and Licinius was renewed. Lici- 
nius was again defeated in two great battles, 
first near Adrianople, and again at Chalcedon. 
He surrendered himself to Constantine on 
condition of having his life spared, but he was 
shortly afterwards put to death at Thessalo- 
nica by order of Constantine. Constantine 
was now sole master of the empire. He 
resolved to remove the seat of empire to 
Byzantium, whichhe called after his own name 
Constantinople, or the City of Constantine. 
Among the evidences of his wisdom and 
capacity the choice of this site for his capital is 




Constantinus I. the Great. Roman Emperor A.D. 300-887. 
On the reverse. Victory crowning him. 

not the least remarkable. The new city was 
solemnly dedicated in 330. Constantine 
reigned in peace for the remainder of his life. 
In 325 he supported the orthodox bishops at the 
great Christian council of Nicaea (Nice), 
which condemned the Arian doctrine by adopt- 
ing the word d/jLoovaiov. In 324 he put to 
death his eldest son, Crispus, on a charge of 
treason, the truth of which, however, seems very 
doubtful. He died in May, 337, having been 
baptised shortly before his deatli by Eusebius. 
His three sons Constantine, Constantius and 
Constans succeeded him in the empire. (Aurel. 
Vict. Caes. 40 ; Zos. ii. ; Zonar. xiii. ; Oros. vii. ; 
Amm. Marc. xiv. ; Euseb. Vita Constantini.) 
— 2. II., Roman emperor, 337-340, eldest of the 
three sons of Constantine the Great, by Fausta. 
received Gaul, Britain, Spain, and part of 
Africa at his father's death. Dissatisfied witli 
his share of the empire, he made war upon his 
younger brother Constans, who governed Italy, 
but was defeated and slain near Aquileia. 
(Zosim. vi. ; Zonar.) — 3. A usurper, who as- 
sumed the purple in Britain in the reign of 
Arcadius and Honorius, 407. He also obtained 
possession of Gaul and Spain, and took up his 
residence in the former country. He reigned 
four years, but was defeated in 111, by Con- 
stantius, the general of Honorius, was taken 
prisoner and carried to Ravenna, where he wa» 
put to death. (Zosim. vi. ; Oros. vii. 40.) — 4. 
Constantine is likewise the name of many of 
the later emperors of Constantinople. Of these 



248 



CONSTANTIUS 



CORA 



Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus, who reigned 
911-959, was celebrated for his literary works, 
many of which have come down to us. 

Constantius. 1. I., Sumamed Chlorus, 'the 
pale,' Roman emperor, a.d. 305-306, was the 
son of Eutropius, a noble Dardanian, and of 
Claudia, daughter of Crispus, brother of Clau- 
dius II. He was one of the two Caesars 
appointed by Maximian and Diocletian in 292, 
and received the government of Britain, Gaul, 
and Spain, with Treviri (Treves) as his resi- 
dence. At the same time he married Theodora, 
the daughter of the wife of Maximian, divorcing 
for that purpose his wife Helena. As Caesar 
he rendered the empire important services. 
His first effort was to reunite Britain to the 
empire, which after the murder of Carausius 
was governed by Allectus. After a struggle of 
three years (293-296) with Allectus, Constan- 
tius, established his authority in Britain. He 
was equally successful against the Alemanni, 
whom he defeated with great loss. Upon the 
abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, in 305, 
Constantius and Galerius became the Augusti. 
Constantius died 15 months afterwards (July, 
306) at Eboracum (York) in Britain on an 
expedition against the Picts, in which he was 
accompanied by his son Constantine, afterwards 
the Great, who succeeded him in his share of 
the government. (Aurel. Vict. Caes. 39 ; Eutrop. 
ix. 14-23; Zosim. ii. 7.) — 2. II., Roman em- 
peror 337-361, third son of Constantine the 
Great by his second wife, Fausta. On the 
death of his father in 337, he received the East 
as his share of the empire, and became in- 
volved in war with the Persians, which was 
carried on during the greater part of his 
reign. This war prevented him from taking 
any part in the struggle between his brothers 
Constantine and Constans, which ended in the 
defeat and death of the former, and the acces- 
sion of the latter to the sole empire of the 
West, 340. After the death of Constans ir> 350, 
Constantius marched into the West in order to 
oppose Magnentius and Vetranio, both of whom 
had assumed the purple. Vetranio submitted 
to Constantius, and Magnentius was finally 
crushed in 353. Thus the whole empire again 
became subject to one ruler. In 354 Constan- 
tius put to death his cousin Gallus, whom he 
had left in command of the East, while he 
marched against the usurpers in the West. In 
355 Constantius made Julian, the brother of 
Gallus, Caesar, and sent him into Gaul to 
oppose the barbarians. In 360 Julian was pro- 
claimed Augustus by the soldiers at Paris. 
Constantinus prepared for war and set out for 
Europe, but died on his march in Cilicia, 361. 
He was succeeded by Julian. (Amm. Marc, xiv- 
xxi. ; Zosim. ii., hi. ; Agath. iv.) — 3. III., Em- 
peror of the West (a.d. 421), a distinguished 
general of Honorius. He defeated the usurper 
Constantine in 411, and also fought successfully 
against the barbarians. He was rewarded for 
these services with the hand of Placidia, the 
sister of Honorius. In 421 he was declared 
Augustus by Honorius, but died in the 7th 
month of his reign. (Zosim. vi. ; Oros. vii. 42.) 

Consus, an ancient Italian divinity, who was 
wrongly identified with Neptunus Equester 
= TlocrelSwv "l7T7rios (Liv. i. 9 ; Dionys. ii. 31 ; 
Plut. Q. B. 45 ; Strab. p. 230 ; cf. Auson. Ep. 69, 
9). There can be little doubt that this idea 
came from the use of horses in his festival 
and that Consus was a primitive Italian deity 
connected with the earth and agriculture. He 
belonged to the circle of ancient deities, Sa- 



turn, Janus and Terminus, his festival was at 
the harvest season, and the practice of keep- 
ing his altar at the end of the Circus Maxi- 
mus (Varr. L. L. vi. 20; Tac. Ann. xii. 24), 
always covered with earth except during the 
days of his festival indicated the god of the 
Earth (Plut. Bo?n. 14; Tertull. cle Sped. 5; 
Diet. Ant. s.v. Consualia). The Latin writers 
explained his name by regarding him as the 
god of good counsel, and said that he advised 
the rape of the Sabines (Ov. Fast. iii. 199 ; Serv. 
ad Aen. viii. 636). This shows the antiquity of 
the worship : as to the name, it is perhaps con- 
nected with consero, consivia, Consus being the 
god of seed-time and harvest. 

Contrebia, one of the chief towns of the 
Celtiberi in Hispania Tarraeonensis, SE. of 
Saragossa. 

Convenae, a people in Aquitania near the 
Pyrenees and on both sides of the Garumna, a 
mixed race which had served under Sertorius. 
and were settled in Aquitania by Pompey. 
They possessed the Jus Latii. Their chief town 
was Lugdunum (St. Bertrand de Comminges), 
situated on a solitary rock : in its neighbour- 
hood were celebrated warm baths, Aquae 
Convenarum (Bagneres). (Strab. p. 190.) 

Copae (Kwirai: Kanraieus : nr. Topoglia), an 
ancient town in Boeotia on the N. side of the 
lake Copais, which derived its name from this 
place. It was originally situated on an island 
in the lake, subsequently connected with the 
mainland by a mole. (Thuc. iv. 93 ; Paus. ix. 24.) 

Copais (Kwnats \ifivrj), a lake in Boeotia, 
and the largest lake in Greece, formed chiefly 
by the river Cephisus, the waters of which are 
emptied into the Euboean sea by several sub- 
terraneous canals, called Katavothra by the 
modern Greeks. The lake was originally called 
Cephisis, under which name it occurs in Ho- 
mer (II. v. 709), and subsequently different 
parts of it were called after the towns situ- 
ated on it, Haliartus, Orchomenus, Onchestus, 
Copae, &c. ; but the name Copais became the 
most common, because near Copae the waters 
of the lake are the deepest and are never dried 
up. In the summer the greater part of the 
lake is dry, and becomes a green meadow, in 
which cattle are pastured. The eels of this 
lake were much prized in antiquity, and they 
retain their celebrity in modern times. 

Cophen or Cophes [Ka(py)v Arrian, Kdtpris 
Strab. : Cabul). the only large tributary river 
which flows into the Indus from the W. It 
was the boundary between India and Ariana. 

C. Coponlus, praetor b.c. 49, fought -on the 
side of Pompey ; he was proscribed by the 
triumvirs in 43, but his wife obtained his 
pardon from Antony by the sacrifice of her 
honour (Appian, B. C. iii. 40). 

Coprates (KoirpdrTis : Abzal), a river of Su- 
siana, flowing from the N. into the Pasitigris 
on itsW. side (Strab. p. 729). 

Copreus (Koirpevs), son of Pelops, who after 
murdering Iphitus, fled to Mycenae, where he 
was purified by Eurystheus (II. xv. 639). 

Coptos (Kowros : Koft, Ru.), a city of the 
Thebai's or Upper Egypt, lay a little to the E. 
of the Nile, some distance below Thebes. 
Under the Ptolemies, it was the central point of 
the commerce with Arabia and India, by way 
of Berenice and Myos-Hormos. It was de- 
stroyed by Diocletian, but again became a 
considerable place. The neighbourhood was 
celebrated for its emeralds and other precious 
stones, and produced also a light wine. 

Cora (Coranus : Cori), an ancient town in 



CORACESIUM 

Latium in the Volscian mountains, SE. of 
Velitrae, said to have been founded by the 
Argive Ccrax. At Cori are remains of Cyclo- 
pian walls and of a temple. ( Verg. Aen. vi. 766 ; 
Liv.ii 16; Dionys. v. 61 ; Propert. iv. 10, 26.) 

Coracesium ( Kopwc-haiov : Alaya), a very 
strong city of Cilicia Aspera, on the borders of 
Pamphylia, standing upon a steep rock, and 
possessing a good harbour. It was the only 
place in Cilicia which opposed a successful resis- 
tance to Alexander : it became at last the head- 
quarters of the Cilician pirates, and was taken 
by Pompey. (Strab. p. 668 ; Plut. Pomp. 28.) 

Corassiae (Kopaao-'iai), a group of small 
islands in the Icarian sea, SW. of Icaria. They 
must not be confounded, as they often are, with 
Corseae or Corsiae (Kopaeai or KoptTtcu), off the 
Ionian coast and opposite the promontory Am . 
pelos in Samos. (Strab. pp. 448, 636. ) 

Corax (Kopa£), a Sicilian rhetorician, who 
by his oratorical powers became the leading 
man in Syracuse, after the expulsion of Thrasy- 
bulus, B.C. 467. He wrote the earliest work on 
the art of rhetoric, and his treatise (entitled 
T4x y v) was celebrated in antiquity. (Aristot. 
Rhet. ii. 24 ; Cic. de Or. i. 20, 91, iii. 21, 81, 
Brut. 12, 45 ; Quintil. iii. 1.) 

Corbio (Rocca Priore), an ancient city of 
Latium on the NE. side of the Alban hills, 
about 3 miles from Tusculum. It was first a 
Latin, then an Aequian city, and is said to have 
been destroyed by the Romans B.C. 457. 
(Dionys. v. 61, x. 24 ; Liv. ii. 39, iii. 28.) 

Corbulo, Cn. Dornltius, a distinguished 
general under Claudius and Nero. His sister 
Caesonia was married to the Emperor Caligula. 
In a.d. 47 he carried on war in Germany with 
success, but his fame rests chiefly upon his | 
glorious campaigns against the Parthians in . 
the reign of Nero, against Vologaese3 and Tiri- 
dates. Though beloved by the army, he con- 
tinued faithful to Nero, but his only reward 
was death. Nero, who had become jealous of 
his fame and influence, invited him to Corinth. 
As soon as he landed at Cenchreae, he was in- j 
formed that orders had been issued for his | 
death, whereupon he plunged his sword into his 
breast exclaiming, 'Well deserved ! ' It is pro- 
bable that it is the same Domitius Corbulo 
of whom Tacitus speaks as praetor in a.d. 21 
(cf. Dio Cass. lix. 15). (Tac. Ann. iii. 31, ix. 18, ' 
xiii. 6, 34, xiv. 22, xv. 1, 26 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 19, 
lxiii. 17.) Juvenal speaks of his great bodily 
size (iii. 251). 

Corcyra (KtpKvpa, later KupKvpa : KepKvpaios : 
Corfu, from the Byzantine Kopu<pw), an island 
in the Ionian sea, off the coast of Epirus, about 
38 miles in length, but of very unequal breadth. 
It is generally mountainous, but possesses many 
fertile valleys. Its two chief towns were Cor- 
cyra, the modern town of Corfu, in the middle 
of the E. coast, and Cassiope, N. of the former. 
The ancients universally regarded this island 
as the Homeric Scheria i, . .-q>, where the 
enterprising and sea-loving Phaeacians dwelt, 
governed by their king Alcinous tOd. v. 34 ; 
Thuc. i. 25). The island is said to have also 
borne the name of Drepane tAptircLvri) or the 
' Sickle ' in ancient times. About B.C. 700 it 
was colonised by the Corinthians under Chersi- 
crates, one of the Bacchiadae, who drove out 
the Libumians, who were then inhabiting the 
island. It soon became rich and powerful by 
its extensive commerce ; it founded many 
colonies on the opposite coast, Epidamnus, j 
Apollonia, Leucas, Anactoriuni ; und it exer- 
cised such influence in the Ionian und Adriatic 



CORFINIUM 



249 



seas as to become a formidable rival to Corinth. 
Thus the two states early became involved in 
war, and about B.C. 664 a battle was fought 
between them, memorable as the most ancient 
sea-fight noticed by Greek historians. At a later 
period Corcyra by invoking the aid of Athens 
against the Corinthians became one of the 
proximate causes of the Peloponnesian war, 
431. Shortly afterwards her power declined 
in consequence of civil dissensions, in which 
both the aristocratical and popular parties were 
guilty of the most horrible atrocities against 
each other iThuc. iv. 46). It is mentioned 
as under the sway of Athens in 375 B.C. iXen. 
Hell. v. 4, 64, vi. 2, 3 1. It fell later successively 




Coin of Corcyra. of 4th cent. B.C. 
Obv., con gnckling calf : r t -r.. ' Gardens of Alcinous.' and 
legend Kop. 

under the power of Agathocles, Pyrrhus, and 
the Ulyrian Greek Teuta, from whose general 
Demetrius the Romans took it B.C. 229 (Pol. ii. 
9, Appian, HI. 8). It seems to have been ad- 
ministered by a non-senatorial jyraefectus, sub- 
ject to the proconsul of Gallia Cisalpina at one 
time and of Macedonia at another (Pol. xxii. 
15) : in the time of Caesar to the former. Under 
the empire it was attached to the province called 
variously Elvricum and Dalniatia. 

Corcyra Nigra (Curzola, in Slavonic Kar- 
kar) an island off the coast of Illyricum, sur- 
named the ! Black,' on account of its numerous 
forests, to distinguish it from the more cele- 
brated Corcyra. It contained a Greek town 
of the same name founded by Cnidos. (Strab. 
pp. 124, 315.) 

Corduba \ Cordovai. one of the largest cities 
in Spain, and the capital of Bat tica, on the right 
bank of the Baetis ; made a Roman colony B.C. 
152, and received the surname Patricia, because 
some Roman patricians settled there; taken by 
Caesar in 45 because it sided with the Pom- 
peians; birthplace of the two Senecas and of 
Lucan. It was the residence of the proconsul 
of Baetica or Hisp. Ulterior tC. I. L. ii. p. 306 ; 
Plin. iii. 10; Strab. p. 141). 

Corduene. [Gordyene.] 

Cordus, Crerhutlus, a Roman historian under 
Augustus and Tiberius, was accused in a.d. 25 
of having praised Brutus and denominated 
Cassius ' the last of the Romans.' As the em- 
peror had determined upon his death, he put 
an end to his own life by starvation. His works 
were condemned to be burnt, but some copies 
were preserved by his daughter Mareia and by 
his friends. (Tac. Ann. iv. 34; Suet. Tib. 61, 
Cal. 1G ; Sen. Suas. 7.) 

Core (K6pn), the Maiden, a name by which 
Persephone is often called. [Persephone.] 

Coressus i KopfiTffosl. 1. A lofty mountain in 
Ionia, 40 stadia from Ephesus, with a place of 
the same name at its foot. — 2. A town of Ceos. 

CorflnTuTn (Corfiuiensis), chief town of the 
Peligni in Somnium, not far from the Aterous, 
strongly fortified, and memoruble as the place 
which the Italians in the Social War destined 
to be the new cupitul of Italy in place of Rome, 
on which account it was called Italica (Strab. 
p. 211 ; Veil. Pat. ii. Id). It wus a strong for- 



250 



COEINNA 



CORINTHUS 



tress in B.C. 49, surrendered after a week's siege 
to Caesar by Domitius (Caes. B. C. i. 15-28). 
Its site is occupied by the modern Pentima. 

Corinna (Kupivva), a Greek poetess, of Tana- 
gra in Boeotia, sometimes called the Theban on 
account of her long residence in Thebes. She 
flourished about B.C. 490, and was a contempo- 
rary of Pindar, whom she is said to have in- 
structed, and over whom she gained a victory 
at the public games at Thebes. Her poems 
were written in the Aeolic dialect. They were 
collected in five books, and were chiefly lyrical. 
Fragments in Bergk, Poet. Lyric. 

Corinthiacus Isthmus {'io-6/j.bs KoplvBov), 
often called simply the Isthmus, lay between 
the Corinthian and Saronic gulfs, and connected 
the Peloponnesus with the mainland or Hellas 
proper. In its narrowest part it was 40 stadia 
or 5 Roman miles across : here was the temple 
of Poseidon ; here the Isthrnian games were cele- 
brated ; and here also was the Diolcos (AtoAicos), 
or roads by which ships were dragged across 
from the bay of Schoenus to the harbour of 
Lechaeum. Pour unsuccessful attempts were 
made to dig a canal across the Isthmus — namely, 
by Demetrius Poliorcetes, Julius Caesar, Cali- 
gula, and Nero. 

Corinthiacus Sinus (KopivBiaicbs or Koplvdtos 
k6\ttos : G. of Lepanto), the gulf between the 
N. of Greece and Peloponnesus, begins, accord- 
ing to some, at the mouth of the Achelous in 
Aetolia and the promontory Araxus in Achaia, 
according to others, at the straits between 
Rhium and Antirrhium. In early times it was 
called the Crissaean Gulf (Kpiaactios k6\ttos), 
and its eastern part the Alcyonian Sea (fj 
'A\kvovis 6d\a(T<ra). 

Corinthus (Kopwdos : KopivBios), called in 
Homer Ephyra {"Ecpvpt), 11. vi. 152, 210), a city 
on the above-mentioned Isthmus. Its terri- 
tory, called Corinthia (KopivBla), embraced the 



of this mountain ; and the walls, which in- 
cluded the Acrocorinthus, were 86 stadia in 
circumference. It had two harbours, Cenchbeae 
on the E. or Saronic gulf, and Lechaeum on 
the ~VV. or Crissaean gulf. Its favourable posi- 
tion between two seas, the difficulty of carrying 
goods round Peloponnesus, and the facility 
with which they could be transported across 
the Isthmus, raised Corinth in very early times 
to great commercial prosperity, and made it the 
emporium of the trade between Europe and 
Asia. Its navy was numerous and powerful. 
At Corinth the first triremes were built, and the 
first sea-fight mentioned by Greek writers was 
between the Corinthians and the Corcyraeans. 
Its greatness at an early period is attested by 
numerous colonies, such as Ambracia .Corcyra, 
Apollonia, and Potidaea. It was adorned with 
magnificent buildings, and in no other city of 
Greece, except Athens, were the fine arts 
prosecuted with so much vigour and success. 
Its commerce brought great wealth to its in 
habitants ; but with their wealth, they became 
luxurious and licentious. Thus the worship 
of Aphrodite prevailed in this city, and in 
her temples a vast number of courtesans 
was maintained. — Corinth was originally in- 
1 habited by the Aeolic race. Here ruled the 
Aeolic Sisyphus and his descendants (Paus. ii. 
3, 10). The legend that Medea ruled here be- 
fore Sisyphus may, as some think, imply the 
worship of the Phoenician sun-god Moloch in 
this place. On the conquest of Peloponnesus by 
the Dorians, the royal power passed into the 
hands of the Heraclid Aletes. The conquering 
Dorians became the ruling class, and the 
Aeolian inhabitants, forming five out of the 
eight tribes at Corinth, were subject to them. 
After Aletes and his descendants had reigned 
for five generations, royalty was abolished ; and 
in its stead was established an oligarchical 




View of Corinth and the Acrocorinthus. 



greater part of the Isthmus with the adjacent 
part of the Peloponnesus : it was bounded N. 
by Megaris and the Corinthian gulf, S. by 
Argolis, W. by Sicyonia and Phliasia, and E. by 
the Saronic gulf. In the N. and S. the country 
is mountainous, but in the centre it is a plain 
with a solitary and steep mountain rising from 
it, the Acrocorinthus ChxpoKopivBos), 1,900 feet 
in height, which served as the citadel of Co- 
rinth. The city itself was built on the N. side 



form of government, confined to the powerful 
family of the Bacchiadae. This family was ex- 
pelled B.C. 655 by Cypselus, who became tyrant 
and reigned thirty years. He was succeeded, 
625, by his son, Periandek, who reigned forty 
years. On the death of the latter, 585, his 
nephew Psammetichus reigned for three years, 
and on his fall in 581, the government again 
became oligarchic, with a supreme council of 
eighty, of whom eight were prytanes. In the 



CORIOLANUS 



CORNIFICIUS 



251 



Peloponnesian war Corinth was one of the 
bitterest enemies of Athens. In 346 Timophanes 
attempted to make himself master of the city, 
but he was slain by his brother Timoleon. It 
maintained its independence till the time of the 
Macedonian supremacy, when its citadel was 
garrisoned by Macedonian troops. This garri- 
son was expelled by Aratus in 243, whereupon 
Corinth joined the Achaean League, to which it 




Coin of Corinth, of 4th cent. B.C. 
Obv., Pegasus, under -which Koppa. the initial of the city's 
name in early times, and retained on its coinage ; rev., 
head of Pallas. 

continued to belong, till it was taken and de- 
stroyed in 146 by L. Mummius, the Roman con- 
sul, who treated it in the most barbarous 
manner. Its inhabitants were sold as slaves ; 
its works of art which were not destroyed by 
the Roman soldiery were conveyed to Rome ; 
its buildings were razed to the ground ; and 
thus was destroyed the lumen totiua Graeciae, 
as Cicero calls the city. For a century it lay in 
ruins ; only the buildings on the Acropolis and 
a few temples remained standing. In 46 it was 
rebuilt by Caesar, who peopled it with a colony 
of veterans and descendants of freedmen. It 
was now called Colonia Julia Corinthus and 
became the capital of the Roman province of 
Ach.ua. 

Coriolanus, the hero of one of the most beau- 
tiful of the early Roman legends. His original 
name was C. or C'n. ilurcius, and he received 
the surname Coriolanus from the heroism he 
displayed at the capture of Corioli. [Scipio 
was apparently the first historical person who 
received a surname for a conquest.] His 
haughty bearing towards the commons excited 
their fear and dislike, and when he was a candi- 
date for the consulship, they refused to elect 
him. After this, when there was a famine in the 
city, and a Greek prince sent corn from Sicily, 
Coriolanus advised that it should not be dis- 
tributed to the commons, unless they gave up 
their tribunes. For this he was impeached and 
condemned to exile, B.C. 491. He now took 
refuge among the Volscians, and promised 
to assist them in war against the Romans. 
Attius Tullius, the king of the Volscians, appoin- 
ted Coriolanus general of the Volscian army. 
Coriolanus took many towns, and advanced 
unresisted till he came to the foaau Cluiliu, or 
Cluilian dyke, close to Rome, 439. Here he en- 
camped, and the Romans in alarm sent to him 
embassy after embassy, consisting of the most 
distinguished men of the state. But he would 
listen to none of them. At length the noblest 
matrons of Rome, headed by Veturia, the mother 
of Coriolanus, and Volumnia his wife, with liis 
two little children, came to his tent. His 
mother's reproaches, and the tears of his wife 
and the other matrons, bent his purpose. He 
led back his army, and lived in exile among the I 
Volscians till his death ; though other tradi- } 
twin - relate that he was killed by the Volscians j 
on his return to their country. (Plut. Curio- \ 
lanus ; Liv. ii. 34-40 ; Dionys. vii. 20.) 

Corioli iCoriolanusi, a town in Latium, of 
which, according to the legend, the Volsci had : 



gained possession. From its capture in B.C. 
492, C. Marcius is said to have obtained the 
surname of Coriolanus. It was certainly a 
Latin town in 493. Before 443 it had been 
1 destroyed (Liv. iii. 71). 

Cormasa {Kopfiao-ai, an inland town of Pam- 
phylia, or Pisidia. taken by the consul Manlius. 

Cornelia. 1. One of the noble women at 
Rome guilty of poisoning the leading men of 
: the state, B.C. 331 (Liv. viii. IS). — 2. Elder 
daughter of P. Scipio Africanus the elder, 
married to P. Scipio Xasica. — 3. Younger sister 
| of No. 2, married to Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, 
censor 169. was by him the mother of the two 
tribunes Tiberius and Caius. She was virtuous 
and accomplished, and united in her person the 
severe virtues of the old Roman matron, with 
the superior knowledge and refinement which 
then began to prevail in the higher classes at 
Rome. She superintended with the greatest 
care the education of her sons, whom she sur- 
vived. She was almost idolised by the people, 
who erected a statue to her, with the inscription 
Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi. (Plut. Ti. 
Gracch. 1, 8, C. Gmcch. 4, 19 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 7.) 
— 4. Daughter of L. Cinna, married to C. 
Caesar, afterwards dictator. She bore him his 
daughter Julia, and died in his quaestorship, 68. 
— 5. Daughter of Metellus Scipio, married first 
to P. Crassus, the son of the triumvir, who 
perished in the expedition against the Par- 
thians, 53. Next year she married Pompey the 
Great, by whom she was tenderly loved. She 
accompanied Pompey to Egypt after the battle 
of Pharsalia, and saw him murdered. (Plut. 
Pomp. 55, 78 ; Appian, B. C. ii. 83 ; Lucan, iii. 
23, viii. 40.) She afterwards returned to Borne, 
and received from Caesar the ashes of her hus- 
band, which she preserved on his Alban estate. 
Cornelia Orestilla, [Orestilla.] 
Cornelia Gens, the most distinguished of all 
the Roman gentes. All its great families be- 
longed to the patrician order. The names of 
the patrician families are : — Arvina, Cethegus, 
Cinna, Cossus, Dolabella, Lentulus, Malu- 
uinensis, Mammila, Merula, Rufinus, Scipio, 
SisKNNA, and Sulla. The names of the ple- 
beian families are Balbus and Galltjs, and we 
also find various cognomens, as Chrysogonus, 
i!l'c. given to freedmen of this gens. 
Cornelius Nepos. [Nepos.J 
Corniculum iCnniioulanus), a town in Latium. 
taken and destroyed by Tarquinius Priscus. 
and celebrated as the residence of the parents 
of Servius Tullius (Liv. i. 38). 

Cornificius. 1. Q., a friend of Cicero, was 
tribune of the plebs, B.C. 69, and one of Cicero's 
competitors for the consulship in 64. When the 
Catilinarian conspirators were arrested, Cethe- 
gus was committed to his care. (Sail. Cat. 47; 
Cic. Att. i. 1.1—2. Q., son of No. 1. In the 
civil war (48) he was quaestor of Caesar, who 
sent him into Illyricum with the title of pro- 
praetor : he reduced this province to obedience. 
In 45 he was appointed by Caesar governor of 
Syria, and in 44 governor of the province of Old 
Africa, where he was at the time of Caesar's 
death. He maintained this province for the 
senate, but on the establishment of the trium 
virate was defeated and slain in battle by T. 
Sextius (Bell. Alex. 42 ; Appian, B. C. iii. 85, 
nr. 53). Cornificius was well versed in litera- 
ture. The authorship of the ' Rhetorica ad 
Herennium ' (usually printed with Cicero's 
worksl has been with some probability attribu- 
ted to him (of. Quintil. iii. 1, 21, v. 10, 2, ix. 2, 
27, and ad Hi renn. iv.25, 48), but this is only a 



252 



CORNUS 



CORYBANTES 



conjecture. — 3. L., one of the generals of Oc- 
tavianus in tlie war against Sex. Pompey, and 
consul 35. 

Cornus, a town on the W. of Sardinia. 

Cornutus, L. Annaeus, a distinguished Stoic 
philosopher, was born at Leptis in Libya. He 
came to Rome, probably as a slave, and was 
emancipated by the Annaei. He was the teacher 
and friend of the poet Persius, who has dedi- 
cated his fifth satire to him, and who left him 
his library and money. He was banished by 
Nero, a.d. 68, for having too freely criticised 
the literary attempts of the emperor. He wrote 
a large number of works, of which the most im- 
portant was on Aristotle's Categories. His 
only remaining work is a treatise on the Nature 
of the Gods (Osannus, Gotting. 1844). 

Coroebus (K.6poi$os). 1. A Phrygian, son of 
Mygdon, loved Cassandra, and for that reason 
fought on the side of the Trojans : he was slain 
by Neoptolemus or Diomedes (Verg. Aen. ii. 
341 ; Paus. ix. 27). — 2. An Elean, who gained 
the victory in the stadium at the Olympic 
games, B.C. 776 : from this time the Olympiads 
begin to be reckoned (Strab. p. 355 ; Paus. i. 
43). 

Corone (Kopwvri : Kopcovevs, -vaievs), a town in 
Messenia on the W. side of the Messenian gulf, 
founded B.C. 371 by the Messenians after their 
return to their native country, with the assis- 
tance of the Thebans : it possessed several 
public buildings, and in its neighbourhood was 
a celebrated temple of Apollo (Strab. p. 360 ; 
Paus. iv. 34). 

Coronea (Kopwyeist : Kopoivouos, Kopcoveios, 
-vios), 1. A town in Boeotia, SW. of the lake 
Copais, situate on a height between the rivers 
Phalarus and Curalius; a member of the 
Boeotian League ; in its neighbourhood was the 
temple of Athene Itonica, where the festival of 
the Pamboeotia was celebrated. Near Coronea 
the Boeotians gained a memorable victory over 
the Athenians under Tolmides, B.C. 447 ; and 
here Agesilaus defeated the allied Greeks, 394. 
(II. ii. 503; Thuc. i. 113; Xen. Hell. iv. 3; 
Strab. p. 411.) — 2. A town in Phthiotis in 
Thessaly_ (Strab. p. 434). 

Coronis (Kopwvis). 1. The mother of Ascle- 
Pius. — 2. Daughter of Phoroneus, king of Pho- 
cis, metamorphosed by Athene into a crow, 
when pursued by Poseidon. 

Corseae. [Cokassiae.] 

Corsia (Kopada, also Koputai), a town in 
Boeotia on the borders of Phocis. 

Corsica, called Cyrnus by the Greeks (Kvpvos, 
Kvpvios, Kvpvaios, Corsus : Corsica), an island 
N. of Sardinia, spoken of by the ancients as one 
of the seven large islands in the Mediterranean. 
The ancients, however, exaggerate for the most 
part the size of the island ; its greatest length 
is 116 miles, and its greatest breadth about 51. 
It is mountainous and was not much cultivated 
in antiquity. A range of mountains running 
from S. to N. separates it into two parts, of 
which the E. half was more cultivated, while the 
W. half was covered almost entirely with wood. 
Honey and wax were the principal productions 
of the island ; but the honey had a bitter taste 
from the yew-trees with which the island aboun- 
ded (Cyrneas taxos, Verg. Eel. ix. 30). The 
inhabitants were a rude mountain race, addic- 
ted to robbery, and paying little attention to 
agriculture. Even in the time of the Roman 
empire their character had not much improved, 
as we see from the description of Seneca, who 
was banished to this island. The most ancient 
inhabitants appear to have been Iberians ; but 



in early times Ligurians, Tyrrhenians, Car- 
thaginians, and even Greeks [Alekia], settled 
in the island. It was subject to the Cartha- 
ginians at the commencement of the first Punic 
war, but in B.C. 238 passed into the hands of the 
Romans, and subsequently formed a part of the 
Roman province of Sardinia. The Romans 
founded several colonies in the island, of which 
the most important were Mariana and Alebia 
(Plin. ni. 80). 

Corsote {Kopaurri : Ersey, Ru.), a city of 
Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, near the 
mouth of the Mascas or Saocoras (Wady-el- 
Seba), which Xenophon found already deserted 
(Anab. i. 5, 4). 

Cortona (Cortonensis : Cortona), one of the 
twelve cities of Etruria, lay NW. of the Trasi- 
mene lake, and was one of the most ancient 
cities in Italy. It is said to have been originally 
called Corythus from its reputed founder Cory- 
thus, who is represented as the father of Dar- 
danus (Verg. Aen. iii. 167, vii. 206 ; Sil. Ital. iv. 
721). It is also called Croton. Cothomia, 
Cyrtonium. &c. (Dionys. i. 26). The Creston 
mentioned by Herodotus (i. 57) was probably 
Creston in Thrace and not Cortona, as many 
modern writers have supposed. Crotona is 
said to have been originally founded by the Um- 
brians, then to have been conquered by the 
Pelasgians, and subsequently to have passed 
into the hands of the Etruscans, and was one of 
their twelve cities (Liv. ix. 37). It was after- 
wards colonised by the Romans, but under their 
dominion sank into insignificance. The remains 
of the Pelasgic walls of this city are some of 
the most remarkable in all Italy : there is one 
fragment 120 feet in length, composed of blocks 
of enormous magnitude. 

Coruncanius, Ti., consul b.c 280, with P. 
Valerius Laevinus, fought with success against 
the Etruscans and Pyrrhus. He was the first 
plebeian who was created pontifex maximus 
(Appian, Samn. 10, 3 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 128 ; Liv. 
Ep. 18). He was one of the most remarkable 
men of his age, possessed a profound knowledge 
of pontifical and civil law, and was the first 
person at Rome who gave regular instruction in 
law (Cic. N. D. ii. 66, 165, Brut. 14, 55). 

Corvinus Messala. [Messala.] 

Corvus, M. Valerius, one of the most illus- 
trious men in the early history of Rome. He 
obtained the surname of Corvus, or 'Raven,' 
because, when serving as a military tribune 
under Camillus, B.C. 349, he accepted the 
challenge of a gigantic Gaul to single combat, 
and was assisted in the conflict by a raven 
which settled upon his helmet, and flew in the 
face of the barbarian. He was six times consul, 
B.C. 348, 346, 343, 335, 300, 299, and twice dic- 
tator, 342, 301, and by his military abilities 
rendered the most memorable services to his 
country. His most brilliant victories were 
gained in his third consulship, 343, when he 
defeated the Samnites at Mt. Gaurus and at 
Suessula; and in his other consulships he 
repeatedly defeated the Etruscans and other 
enemies of Rome. He reached the age of 100 
years, and is frequently referred to as a me- 
morable example of the favours of fortune. 
(Liv. vii. 26-42, x. 2-11; Appian, Samn. 1-; 
Gell. ix. 11 ; Val. Max. viii. 15.) 

Corybantes, priests of Cybele or Rhea in 
Phrygia, who celebrated her worship with 
enthusiastic dances, to the sound of the drum 
and the cymbal. They are often confounded 
with the Curetes and the Idaean Dactyli, the 
attendants of Zeus in Crete. [Curetes.] In 



CORYCIA 

origin they were said to hare been deities or 
demigods ; and according to some were chil- 
dren of Apollo (Strab. p. 466; Plut. tie Fac. 
Lun. 30). 

Corycla (KapvKia or Kwpvxis), a nymph, who 
became by Apollo the mother of Lycorus or 
Lycoreus, and from whom the Corycian Cave 
in Mount Parnassus derived its name The 
Muses are sometimes called by the poets Cory- 
cides Nymphae. 

Corycus fKupvKos: KuspvKios, Corycius). 1. 
(Koraka), a high rocky hill on the coast of 
Ionia, forming the SW. promontory of the Ery- 
thraean peninsula (Thue. viii. 14 ; Strab. p. 644). 
— 2. A city of Pamphylia, near Phaselis and 
Mt. Olympus ; colonised afresh by Attalus EL 
Philadelphus ; taken, and probably destroyed, 
by P. Servilius Isauricus. — 3. (En. opp. the 
island of Khorgos),& city in Cilicia Aspera. with 
a good harbour, between the mouths of the 
Lamus and the Calycadnus. Twenty stadia 
(2 geog. miles) from the city, was a grotto or 
glen in the mountains, called the Corycian Cave 
(KcvpvKiov avrpov) celebrated by the poets, and 
also famous for its saffron. At the distance of 
100 stadia (10 geog. miles i from Corycus, was a 
promontory of the same name (Strab. p. 670 ; 
cf. Pind. Pyth. i. 31; Aesch. Pr. 350; Verg. 
Georg. iv. 127). 

Corydallus (KopvSaWos : KopvSaWevs), a de- 
mus in Attica belonging to the tribe Hippo- 
thoontis, situate on the mountain of the same 
name, which divides the plain of Athens from 
that of Eleusis. 

Coryphaslum (Kopv<pi<rioi/) a promontory in 
Messenia, enclosing the harbour of Pylos on the 
N., with a town of the same name upon it. 

Corythus iKopuflosi, an Italian hero, son of 
Jupiter, husband of Electra, and father of 
Iasius and Dardanus. is said to have founded 
Corythus (Cortona) (Serv. ad Aen. iii. 167). 

Cos, Coos, C6u8 (Kdis, Kous: Kwor, Coiis: 
Kos, Stanco), one of the islands called Sporades, 
lay off the coast of Caria. at the mouth of the 
Ceramic Gulf, opposite to Halicarnassus. In 
-early times it was called Menipis and Nyraphaea. 
It was colonised by Aeolians. but became a 
member of the Dorian confederacy. Its chief 
city, Cos, stood on the NE. side of the island, in 
a beautiful situation, and had a good harbour. 
Near it stood the AsclepiPum, or temple of 
Asclepius, to whom the island was sacred, and 
from whom its chief family, the Asclepiadae, 
claimed their descent. The island was very 
fertile; its chief productions were wine, oint- 
ments, and the light transparent dresses called 
1 Coae vestes.' It was the birthplace of the 
physician Hippocrates, who was an Asclepiad, 
of the poet Philetas. and of the painter Apelles, 
whose pictures of Antigonus and of Venus 
Anadyomene adorned the Aselepieum. Theo- 
critus and Herodas were both either born there 
or at any rate belonged to the school of poets 
connected with the island. Under the Eomans, 
Cos was favoured by Claudius, who made it a 
free state, and by Antoninus Pius, who rebuilt 
the city of Cos after its destruction by an earth- 
quake. (Tac. Ann. xii. 61 ; Paus. viii. 48.) 

Cosa or Cossa (Cossanua 1. (Ansedonia, 
about five miles SE. of Orbetello), a city of 
Etruria near the sea, with a good harbour, 
called Herculis Partus, was a very ancient 
place ; and after the fall of Falerii, one of the 
twelve Etruscan cities. It was colonised by 
the Romans B.C. 273. and received in 197 an 
addition of 1000 colonists. There are still 
extensive ruins of its walls and towers, built of 



COTTA 



253 



polygonal masonry. (Verg. Aen. x. 167 ; lav. Ep. 
14, xxvii. 10.) — 2. A town in Lueania near 
Thurii (Caes. B. C. iii. 22). 

Cosconlus. 1. C, praetor in the Social war, 
B.C. 89, defeated the Samnites. — 2. C, praetor 
in the consulship of Cicero, 63 ; governed in 
the following year the province of Further 
Spain ; was one of the twenty commissioners, 
in 59, to carry into execution the agrarian law 
of Julius Caesar, but died in this vear I Cic. pro 
Sull. 14; Val. Max. viii. 1).— 3, C., tribune of 
the plebs 59. aedile 57, and one of the judices 
at the trial of P. Sextius, 56. 

Cosmas {Ko<r/j.as}, commonly called Indico- 
pleustes I Indian navigator I, an Egyptian 
monk, nourished in the reign of Justinian, 
about a.d. 535. In early life he followed the 
employment of a merchant, and visited many 
foreign countries, of which he gave an account 
in his To-no-ypatpia XpiffTiavucr,, Topographia 
Christicma, in twelve books, of which the 
greater part is extant : it has value for its topo- 
graphy, and its notices of history and manners. 

Cosroes. 1. King of Partiiia. [Absaces 
XXV/ — 2. King of Persia. [Sassaxidae.] 

Cossaea (Ko<r<rai'ai, a district in and about 
M. Zagros. on the NE. side of Susiana, and on 
the confines of Media and Persia, inhabited by 
a rude, warlike, predatory people, the Cossaei 
(Korrtra'toi), whom the Persian kings never sub- 
dued, but on the contrary, purchased their 
quiet by paying them tribute. Alexander con- 
quered them (B.C. 325-24), and with difficulty 
kept them in subjection : after his death they 
soon regained their independence (Strab. p. 
744 ; Diod. xvii. Ill), 

Cossus. Cornelius, the name of several illus- 
trious Romans in the early history of the 
republic. Of these the most celebrated was 
Ser. Cornelius Cossus, consul B.C. 428, who 
killed Lar Tolumnius, the king of the Veii, in 
single combat, and dedicated his spoils in the 
temple of Jupiter Feretrius — the second of the 
three instances in which the spolia opima were 
won (Liv. iv. 19, 30; Plut. Rom. 16, Marcell. 
8 ; Propert. v. 10, 23). 

Cossutius, a Roman architect, who rebuilt at 
the expense of AntiochusEpiphanes the temple 
of the Olympian Zeus at Athens, about B.C. 
168 (Liv. xli. 20; Vitruv. Praef. vii.). 

Cosyra (Pante!aria), also written Cossyra, 
Cosyrus, Cosura, Cossura, a small island in the 
Mediterranean near Malta (Strab. p. 123 ; Ov. 
Fast. iii. 567; Sil. Ital. xiv. 272). 

Cothon. [Carthago.] 

CotlSO, a king of the Dacians. conquered in 
the reign of Augustus by Lentulus iFlor. iv. 
12; Hot. Od. iii. 8, 18 ; Suet. Aug. 68). 

Cotta. Aurelius. 1. C, consul b.c. 252 and 
248, in both of which years he fought in Sicily 

l against the Carthaginians with success (Val. 
Max. ii. 7, 4).— 2. C, consul 200, fought against 
the Boii and the other (ranis in the N. of Italy. 
— 3 L., tribune of the plebs 154, and consul 
in. — 4. L.. consul 119,opposedC. Marius. who 

! was then tribune of the plebs. — 5, C, was 
accused under the Lex Varia, 91, of supporting 
the claims of the Italian allies, and went into 
voluntary exile. He returned to Rome while 
Sulla was dictator, 82 ; and in 75 he was consul 
with L. Octavius. He obtained the government 
of Gaul, and died immediately after his return 
to Rome. He was one of the most distinguished 
orators of his time, and is introduced by Cicero 
as one of the speakers in the De Orator? and 
the Dc y at ura Deorum, in the latter of which 
works he maintains the cause of the Academics. 



254 



COTTA 



CEASSUS 



— 6. M., brother of No. 5, consul 74, with L. 
Licinius Lucullus, obtained Bithynia for his 
province, and was defeated by Mithridates near 
Chalcedon. — 7. L., brother of Nos. 5 and 6, 
praetor 70, when he carried the celebrated law 
(Lex Aurelia judiciaria) which entrusted the 
judicia to the senators, equites, and tribuni 
aerarii. He was consul 65 with L. Manlius 
Torquatus, after the consuls elect, P. Sulla and 
P. Autronius Paetus, had been condemned of 
ambitus. He supported Cicero during his con- 
sulship, and proposed his recall from exile. In 
the civil war he joined Caesar, whom he sur- 
vived. (Suet. Jul. 79 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 32.) 

Cotta, L. Auruneuleius, one of Caesar's 
legates in Gaul, perished along with Sabinus in 
the attack made upon them by Ambiorix, B.C. 
54. [Ambiobix.] 

Cottlus, son of Donnus, king of several Li- 
gurian tribes in the Cottian Alps, which derived 
their name from him. [Alpes.] He submitted 
to Augustus, who granted him the sovereignty 
over twelve of these tribes, with the title of 
Praefectus. Cottius thereupon made roads 
over the Alps, and erected (b.c. 8) at Segusio 
(Susa), a triumphal arch in honour of Augustus, 
extant at the present day. His authority was 
transmitted to his son, upon whom Claudius 
conferred the title of king. On his death, his 
kingdom was made a Roman province by Nero. 
(Amm. Marc. xv. 10 ; Suet. Ner. 18.) 

CottUS, a giant with 100 hands, son of Uranus 
and Gaea. 

Cotyla, L. VariUS, one of Antony's most in- 
timate friends, fought on his side at Mutina, 
B.C. 43(Plut. Ant. 18). 

Cotylus (Ko'tuAos), the highest peak of M. Ida 
in the Troad, containing the sources of the 
rivers Scamander, Granicus, and Aesepus. 

Cotyora (Korvcapa), a colony of Sinope, in the 
territory of the Tibareni, on the coast of Pontus 
Polemoniacus, at the W. end of a bay of the 
same name, celebrated as the place where the 
10,000 Greeks embarked for Sinope. The foun- 
dation of Pharnacia reduced it to insignificance 
(Xen. Anab. v. 5, 4 ; Strab. p. 548). 

Cotys or CotyttO (Kotvs or Kotvttco), a 
Thracian divinity whose festival, the Cotyttia 
(Diet, of Ant. s. v.), resembled that of the 
Phrygian Cybele, and was celebrated with 
licentious revelry. In later times her worship 
was introduced at Athens and Corinth. Those 
who celebrated her festival were called Baptae, 
from the purifications connected with the so- 
lemnity. Eupolis wrote a play of this name. 
(Strab. p. 470 ; Hor. Ep. xvii. 56 ; Juv. ii. 90.) 

Cotys (K.6tvs). 1. King of Thrace, B.C. 
382-358, was for a short time a friend of the 
Athenians, but carried on war with them to- 
wards the close of his reign. He was cruel and 
sanguinary, and was much addicted to gross 
luxury and drunkenness. He was murdered 
by two brothers whose father he had injured. — 
2. King of the Odrysae in Thrace, assisted 
Perseus against Rome, b.c. 168. His son was 
taken prisoner and carried to Rome, whereupon 
he sued for peace and was pardoned by the 
Romans. — 3. A king of Thrace, who took part 
against Caesar with Pompey, 48. — 4. King of 
Thrace, son of Rhoemetalces, in the reigns of 
Augustus and Tiberius. He carried on war 
with his uncle Rhescuporis, by whom he was 
murdered, a.d. 19. Ovid, in his exile at Tomi, 
addressed an epistle to him (Ex Pont. ii. 9). 

CragUS (Kpayos), a mountain consisting of 
eight summits, being a continuation of Taurus 
to the W., and forming, at its extremity, the 



SW. promontory of Lycia (Yedy-Booroon, i.e. 
Seven Capes). Some of its summits show 
traces of volcanic action, and the ancients had 
a tradition to the same effect. At its foot was 
a town of the same name, on the sea-shore, 
between Pydna and Patara. Parallel to it, N. 
of the river Glaucus, was the chain of Anticra- 
gus. The greatest height of Cragus exceeds 
3000 feet. (Strab. p. 665 ; Hor. Od. i. 21.) 

Cranae (Kpavdr;), the island to which Paris 
first carried Helen from Peloponnesus (II. 
iii. 445), is said by some to be an island off 
Gythium in Laconia, by others to be the island 
Helena oS Attica, and by others again to be 
Cythera (Paus.iii. 22). 

Cranaus (Kpavaos), king of Attica, the son-in- 
law and successor of Cecrops. He was de- 
prived of his kingdom by his son-in-law 
Amphictyon. 

Cranii, -ium (Kpdvioi, Kpdviov : Kpduios : Kra- 
nia, nv.Argostoli), a town of Cephallenia on the 

5. coast (Thuc. ii. 30; Strab. p. 455). 
Cranon or Crannon (Kpaiw, Kpavvwv : Kpav- 

uaiuios), in ancient times Ephyra, a town in 
Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, not far from Larissa. 

Crantor (Kpavrup), of Soli in Cilicia, an 
Academic philosopher, studied at Athens under 
Xenocrates and Polemo, and flourished B.C. 
300. He was the author of several works, all 
of which are lost, and was the first who wrote 
commentaries on Plato's works. Most of his 
writings related to moral subjects (Hor. Ep. i. 
2. 4). One of his most celebrated works was On 
Grief, of which Cicero made great use in the 
third book of his Tusculan Disputations, and in 
tke Consolatio which he composed on the 
death of his daughter, Tullia. 

Crasslpes, Furius, Cicero's son-in-law, the 
second husband of Tullia, whom he married 
B.C. 56, but from whom he was shortly after- 
wards divorced. 

Crassus, Licinius. 1. P., praetor B.C. 176, and 
consul 171, when he carried on the war against 
Perseus. — 2. C, brother of No. 1, praetor 172, 
and consul 163. — 3. C, probably son of No. 2, 
tribune of the plebs 145, was distinguished as a 
popular leader. — 4. P., surnamed Dives or 
Mich, elected pontifex maximus 212, curule 
aedile 211, praetor 208, and consul 205 with 
Scipio Africanus, when he carried on war 
against Hannibal in the S. of Italy. He died 
183. (Liv. xxix. 10, xxxix. 46.) — 5. P., surnamed 
Dives Mucianus, son of P. Mucius Scaevola, 
was adopted by the son of No. 4. In 131 he 
was consul and pontifex maximus, and was the 
first priest of that rank who went beyond 
Italy. He carried on war against Aristonicus 
in Asia, but was defeated and slain. He was a 
good orator and jurist. — 6. M., surnamed 
Agelastus, because he is said never to have 
laughed, was grandfather of Crassus the 
triumvir. — 7. P., surnamed Dives, son of No. 

6, and father of the triumvir. He was the 
proposer of the Lex Licinia, to prevent excessive 
expense in banquets, but in what year is un- 
certain. He was consul 97, and carried on war 
in Spain for some years. He was censor 89 
with L. Julius Caesar. In the Civil war he 
took part with Sulla, and put an end to his own 
life when Marius and Cinna returned to Rome 
at the end of 87. — 8. M., surnamed Dives, the 
triumvir, younger son of No. 7. His life was 
spared by Cinna, after the death of his father ; 
but, fearing Cinna, he afterwards escaped to 
Spain, where he concealed himself for eight 
months. On the death of Cinna in 84, he 
collected some forces and crossed over into 



CRASSUS 



CRATEN'US 



255 



Africa, whence he passed into Italy in 83 and 
joined Sulla, on whose side he fought against 
the Marian party. On the defeat of the latter, 
he was rewarded by donations of confiscated 
property, and thns greatly increased his patri- 
mony. His ruling passion was money, and he 
devoted all his energies to its accumulation. 
He was a keen and sagacious speculator. He 
bought multitudes of slaves, and, in order to 
increase their value, had them instructed in 
lucrative arts. He worked silver mines, culti- 
vated farms, and built houses, which he let at 
high rents. In 71 he was appointed praetor in 
order to carry on the war against Spartacus 
and the gladiators ; he defeated Spartacus, who 
was slain in the battle, and he was honoured 
with an ovation. In 70 Crassus was consul 
with Pompey ; he entertained the populace at 
a banquet of 10,000 tables, and distributed corn 
enough to supply the family of every citizen for 
three months. He did not, however, co-operate 
cordially with Pompey, of whose superior in- 
fluence he was jealous. He was afterwards 
reconciled to Pompey by Caesar's mediation, 
and thus was formed between them, in 60, the 
so-called triumvirate. In 55 Crassus was again 
consul with Pompey, and received the province 
of Syria, where he hoped both to increase his 
wealth and to acquire military glory by attack- 
ing the Parthians. He set out for his province 
before the expiration of his consulship, and 
continued his march notwithstanding the un- 
favourable omens which occurred to him at 
almost every step. After crossing the Eu- 
phrates in 54 , he did not follow up the attack upon 
Parthia, but returned to Syria, where he passed 
the winter. In 53 he again crossed the Eu- 
phrates; he was misled by a crafty Arabian chief- 
tain to march into the plains of Mesopotamia, 
where he was attacked by Surenas, the general 
of the Parthian king, Orodes. In the battle 
which followed, Crassus was defeated with 
immense slaughter, and retreated with the 
remainder of his troops to Carrhae (the Haran 
of Scripture). The mutinous threats of his 
troops compelled him to accept a perfidious 
invitation from Surenas, who offered a pacific 
interview, at which he was slain. His head 
was cut off and sent to Orodes. who caused 
melted gold to be poured into the mouth of 
his fallen enemy, saying, ' Sate thyself now 
with that metal of which in life thou wert so 
greedy.' (Dio Cass. xl. 27.1 — 9. M., surnamed 
Dives, son of No. 8, served under Caesar in 
Gaul, and at the breaking out of the Civil war 
in 49 was praefect in Cisalpine Gaul. — 10. P., 
younger son of Xo. 8, was Caesar's legate in 
Gaul from 58 to 55. In 54 he followed his 
father to Syria, and fell in the battle against 
the Parthians. — 11. L., the celebrated orator. 
At the age of 21 Ie.c. 119.1, he attracted great 
notice by his prosecution of C. Carbo. He was 
consul in 95 with Q. Scaevola, when he proposed 
a law to compel all who were not citizens to 
depart from Rome : the rigour of this law 
was one of the causes of the Social war. He 
was afterwards proconsul of Gaul. In 92 he 
was censor, when he caused the schools of the 
Latin rhetoricians to be closed. He died in 91, 
a few days after opposing in the senate with 
great eloquence the consul L. Philippus, an 
enemy of the aristocracy iCic. de Or. iii. 1, 4). 
His house upon the Palatium was one of the 
most beautiful at Rome, and was adorned with 
costly works of art. As an orator he surpassed 
all his contemporaries (Veil. Pat. ii. 9). In the 
treatise De Oratore Cicero introduces him as 



one of the speakers, and he is understood to 
express Cicero's own sentiments. 

Crastinus. one of Caesar's veterans, com- 
menced the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48, and 
died fighting bravelv in the foremost line iCaes. 

; B. C. iii. 911. 

Craterns (Kparepos). 1. A distinguished 
general of Alexander the Great, on whose death 
(B.C. 323) he received in common with Anti- 
pater the government of Macedonia and 
Greece. He arrived in Greece in time to render 
effectual assistance to Antipater in the Lamian 

; war. At the close of this war he married 
Phila, the daughter of Antipater. Soon after 
he accompanied Antipater in the war against 
the Aetolians. and in that against Perdiccas in 
Asia. He fell in a battle against Eumenes, in 
321. (Diod. xviii. 16. six. 59 ; Pint. Alex. 47 ; 
Nep. Eum. 4.i — 2. Brother of Antigonus 
Gonatas, wrote on the history of Attica.— 3. A 
Greek physician, who attended the family of 
Atticus, mentioned also bv Horace (Sat. ii. 3, 
161: Cic. Att. xii. 13. 14). ' 

Crates iKparTjn 1. An Athenian poet of the 
Old Comedy, began to flourish B.C. 449, and was 

I one of the most celebrated of the comic poets. 
He excelled in mirth and fun (Aristoph. Eq. 
536 ; Athen. p. 429; ; and is considered by Ari- 

, stotle to be the first poet who wrote comedies 
with true dramatic action (Poet. 5). — 2. Of 
Tralles, an orator or rhetorician of the school 
of Isocrates. — 3. Of Thebes, a pupil of the Cynic 
Diogenes, and one of the most distinguished 
of the Cynic philosophers, flourished about 320. 
Though heir to a large fortune, he renounced it 
all, and lived and died as a true Cynic, restrict- 
ing himself to the most absolute necessaries. 
He received the surname of the ' Door-opener,' 
because it was his practice to visit every house 
at Athens, and rebuke its inmates. He married 
Hipparchia, the daughter of a family of dis- 
tinction, who shared his life of privation and 
mendicancy. He wrote several works, which 
are lost, for the epistles extant under his name 
are not genuine.— 4. Of Athens, the pupil and 
friend of Polemo, and his successor in the 
chair of the Academy, about 270. He was the 
teacher of Arcesilaus. Theodoras, and Bion 
Borysthenites. — 5. Of Mallus in Cilicia, a cele- 
brated grammarian. He wat brought up at 
Tarsus, whence he removed to Pergamos, where 
he founded the Pergamene school of grammar, 
in opposition to the Alexandrian. He wrote a 
commentary on the Homeric poems, in opposi- 
tion to Aristarchus, and supported the system, 
of anomaly (avtDfiaXta) against that of analogy 
iavaXoyia). He also wrote commentaries on 
the other Greek poets, and works on other 
subjects, of which only fragments have come 
down to us. In 157 he was sent by Attains as 
an ambassador to Rome, where he introduced 
for the first time the study of grammar. 

Crathis (KpaBu). 1. (Crata), a river in 
A t- 1 i.i i.i . rises in a mountain of the same name in 
Arcadia, receives the Styx flowing down from 
Nonacris. and falls into the sea near Aegat. — 
2. (Crati), a river in lower Italy, forming th<; 
boundary on the E. between Lucania and 
Bruttii, and falling into the sea near Syburis. 
At its mouth was a celebrated temple of Min- 
erva : its waters were fabled to dye the hair 
blond. (Eur. Troad. 228; Strab. p. 263 ; Ov. 
M't. xv. 315.) 

Cratinus <K.parlvos). 1. One of the most cele- 
brated of the Athenian poets of the Old Comedy, 
was born B.C. 519, but did not begin to exhibit 
till 454, when he was 65 years of age. He ex- 



256 



CRATIPPUS 



CEETA 



hibited twenty-one plays and gained nine vic- 
tories. He was the poet of the Old Comedy. 
He gave it its peculiar character, and lie did 
not, like Aristophanes, live to see its decline. 
Before his time the comic poets had aimed at 
little beyond exciting the laughter of their 
audience : he was the first who made comedy a 
terrible weapon of personal attack (on Pericles 
among others), and the comic poet a severe 
censor of public and private vice. He is fre- 
quently attacked by Aristophanes, who charges 
him with habitual intemperance, an accusation 
which was admitted by Cratinus himself, who 
treated the subject in a very amusing way in 
his IluTiVr). This play was acted in 423, when 
the poet was 96 years of age ; it gained the prize 
over the Connus of Amipsias and the Clouds of 
Aristophanes. It was a practical reply to the 
passage in the Knights which speaks of Crat- 
inus as worn out by age (Arist. Eq. 531). 
Cratinus died in the following year, at the age 
of 97. — 2. The younger, an Athenian poet of the 
Middle Comedy, a contemporary of Plato the 
philosopher, flourished as late as 324. 

Cratippus (Kpariirms). 1. A Greek historian 
and contemporary of Thucydides,' whose work he 
completed (Dionys. Jucl. de Thuc. 16). — 2. A 
philosopher of Mytilene, a contemporary of Pom- 
pey and Cicero, the latter of whom praises him 
highly. In philosophy he transferred himself 
from the school of the Sceptic Antiochus to the 
Peripatetics. He accompanied Pompey in his 
flight after the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48. He 
afterwards settled at Athens, where young M. 
Cicero was his pupil in 44. Through the in- 
fluence of Cicero, Cratippus obtained from 
Caesar the Roman citizenship. 

CratOS (Kparos), the personification of 
strength, a son of Uranus and Ge. 

Cratylus (KpdrvKos), a Greek philosopher, a 
pupil of Heraclitus, and one of Plato's teachers. 
Plato introduces him as one of the speakers in 
the dialogue which bears his name. Both Plato 
and Aristotle speak of Cratylus and the later 
Heracliteans as extravagant in their theories 
and of little authority. 

Cremera, a river in Etruria, falling into the 
Tiber a little above Rome : memorable for the 
death of the 300 Fabii (Liv. ii. 49 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 
193). 

Cremna (Kpriixva : Gherme, Ru.), a fortified 
city of Pisidia, on a precipitous rock of M. Tau- 
rus, noted for repeated obstinate defences : a 
colony under Augustus (Strab. p. 569). 

Cremni {Kpnp.voi). an emporium of the free 
Scythians on the Palus Maeotis (Hdt. iv. 20, 
110). 

Cremona (Cremonensis : Cremona), a Roman 
colony in the N. of Italy, N. of the Po, and at 
no great distance from the confluence of the 
Addua and the Po, was founded together with 
Placentia B.C. 219 as a protection against 
the Gauls and Hannibal's invading army. It 
soon became a place of great importance and 
one of the most flourishing cities in the N. of 
Italy. Under the Lex Julia of b.c. 90 it received 
the civitas and was changed into a municipium. 
During the Civil war it espoused the side of 
Brutus, and Octavian comfiscated much of its 
territory and assigned it to his veterans : Man- 
tua suffered in the same way (Verg. Eel. ix. 28). 
Later still, having espoused the cause of Vi- 
tellius, it was totally destroyed by the troops 
of Vespasian, a.d. 61 (Tac. Hist. iii. 24). It was 
rebuilt by Vespasian. 

Cremonis Jugum. [Alpes.] 

Cremutius Cordus. [Cobdus.] 



Creon (KpeW). 1. King of Corinth, son of 
Lycaethus, whose daughter, Glauce or Creusa, 
married Jason. Medea, thus forsaken, sent 
Glauce a garment which burnt her to death 
when she put it on ; the palace took fire, and 
Creon perished in the flames. [Medea.] — 2. Son 
of Menoecus, and brother of Jocaste, the wife 
of Laius. After the death of Laius, Creon 
governed Thebes for a short time, and then 
surrendered the kingdom to Oedipus, who had 
delivered the country from the Sphinx. [Oedi- 
pus.] When Eteocles and Polynlces, the sons 
of Oedipus, fell in battle by each other's hands, 
Creon became king of Thebes. His cruelty in 
forbidding burial to the corpse of Polynlces, 
and his sentencing Antigone to death for dis- 
obeying his orders, occasioned the death of his 
own son Haemon. For details see Antigone. 

Creophylus {KpewipvAos), of Chios, one of the 
earliest epic poets, said to have been the friend 
or son-in-law of Homer. The epic poem Olxa\ia 
orOi'xaA.i'as akaims, ascribed to him, related the 
contest which Heracles, for the sake of Iole, 
undertook with Eurytus, and the capture of 
Oechalia. 

Cresphontes (YLpT}<r<p6vTT)s), a Heraclid, son 
of Aristomachus, and one of the conquerors of 
Peloponnesus, obtained Messenia for his share. 
During an insurrection of the Messenians, he 
and two of his sons were slain. A third son, 
Aepytus, avenged his death. [Aepytds.] 

Crestonia (Kpriarwvia : t) Kpr/tTTtovi/c^), a dis- 
trict in Macedonia between the Axius and Stry- 
mon, near Mt. Cercine, inhabited by the Cres- 
tonaei (Kp^aTuvdioi), a Thracian people : their 
chief town was Creston or Crestone (Kp^crrcoi', 
Kp-qa-TwvTi), founded by the Pelasgians (Hdt. 
i. 57, vii. 127 ; Thuc. ii. 99, iv. 109). This town 
is erroneously supposed by some writers to be 
the same as Coktona in Italy. 

Creta (Kp^)T7) : Kpr]raios : Candia), one of 
the largest islands in the Mediterranean sea, 
nearly equidistant from Europe, Asia, and 
Africa, but always reckoned as part of Europe. 
Its length from E. to W. is about 160 miles: 
its breadth is very unequal, being in the widest 
part about 35 miles, and. in the narrowest only 
6. A range of mountains runs through the 
whole length of the island from E. to W., send- 
ing forth spurs N. and S. : in the centre of the 
island rises Mt. Ida far above all the others. 
[Ida.] The rivers of Crete are numerous, but 
are little more than mountain-torrents, and are 
for the most part dry in summer. The country 
was celebrated in antiquity for its fertility and 
salubrity. — Crete was inhabited at an early 
period by a numerous and civilised population. 
Homer speaks of its hundred cities (KpTirrj 
iKar6fiiroKis, II. ii. 649) ; and before the Trojan 
war mythology told of a king Minos, who resided 
at Cnossus, and ruled over the greater part 
of the island. The inhabitants were probably 
a Carian people with Phoenician colonies plan- 
ted among them. The description of the in- 
habitants in Od. xix. 175 (after the Dorian 
conquest) gives us Achaeans, 'EreSKp-qres, 
KvSvues, Dorians and Pelasgians. It is prob- 
able that the Eteocretes were the Carian race, 
and the Cydones were Phoenician. Blinos is said 
to have given laws to Crete, and to have been 
the first prince who had a navy, with which he 
suppressed piracy in the Aegaean. After his 
descendants had governed the island for some 
generations, royalty was abolished, and the 
cities became independent republics, of which 
Cnossus and Gortyna were the most important, 
and exercised a kind of supremacy over the rest. 



CRETEUS 

The ruling class were the Dorians, who settled 
in Crete about sixty years after the Dorian 
conquest of Peloponnesus, and reduced the for- 
mer inhabitants to subjection. The social and 
political institutions of the island thus became 
Dorian, and many of the ancients supposed that 
the Spartan constitution was borrowed from 
Crete. The chief magistrates in the cities were 
the Cosmi, ten in number, chosen from cer- 
tain families: there was also a Gerusia, or 
senate ; and an Ecclesia or popular assembly, 
which, however, had very little power. (For 
details, see Diet, of Ant. art. Cosmi.) The 
Cretan system of the training of youths, and 
the common meals of citizens, resembled the 
Spartan (see Diet, of Ant. art. Syssitia). At a 
later time the power of the aristocracy was 
overthrown and a democratical form of govern- 
ment established. The ancient Dorian customs 
likewise disappeared, and the people became 
degenerate in their morals and character. The 
historian Polybius accuses them of numerous 
vices, and the Cretan poet Epimenides (who is 
quoted by St. Paul) wrote of ; KpTjTes etel iJ<euffTai, 
(couco 07jp/a, yaartpts apyai.' — The Cretans were 
celebrated as archers, and frequently served as 
mercenaries in the armies of other nations. 
The island was conquered by Q. Metellus, who 
received in consequence the surname Creticus 
(B.C. 68-66), and it became a Roman province. 
Crete and Cyrenaica subsequently formed ons 
province. [Cyrenaica.] 

Creteus or Catreus iKpTjTeus), son of Minos 
by Pasiphae' or Crete, and father of Althe- 
menes. 

Cretheus (Kpijflcus), son of Aeolus and En- 
arete, wife of Tyro, and father of Aeson, Pheres, 
Amythaon, and Hippolyte : lie was the founder 
of Iolcus. 

Cretopolis (KprirowoKts), a town in the dis- 
trict of Milyas.in Pisidia (Polyb. v. 72). 

Creusa (Kpeovffa). 1. A Naiad, daughter of 
Oceanus, became by Peneus the mother of Hyp- 
seus and Stilbe. — 2. Daughter of Erechtheus 
and Praxithea, wife of Xuthus, and mother of 
Achaeus and Ion. She is said to have been be- 
loved by Apollo, whence Ion is sometimes 
called her son by this god. [Ion.] — 3. Daughter 
of Priam and Hecuba, wife of Aeneas, and 
mother of Ascanius. She perished on the night 
of the capture of Troy, having been separated 
from her husband in the confusion. [Aeneas.] 
— 4. Daughter of Creon, who fell a victim to the 
vengeance of Medea. [Creon, No. 1.] 

Creusis or Creusa iKpfCcris, Kptovaa : Kpev- 
<ricvs), a town on the E. coast of Boeotia, the 
harbour of Thespioe (Strab. p. 405 ; Liv. xxvi. 
21). 

Crimlsa or Crimissa iKpip.i<ra, Kpi/i«r<ra: C. 
dell' Alice), a promontory on the E. coast of 
Bruttium, with a town of the same name upon 
it, said to have been founded by Philoctetes, a 
little S. of the river Crimisus (Strab. p. 254). 

Crimisus or Crimissus (Kpijurrfcs, Kptfuaa-ds), 
a river in the W. of Sicily, falls into the Hypsa : 
on its banks Timoleon defeated the Cartha- 
ginians, B.C. 339. 

Crinagoras (Kptvay6pas), of Mytilene, the 
author of fifty epigrams in the Greek Anthology, 
lived in the reign of Augustus. 

Crispinus, a person ridiculed by Horace (Sat. 
i. 1. 120, i. 8, 129, ii. 7, 45), is said by the 
Scholiasts on those passages to have written 
bad verses on the Stoic philosophy, and to have 
been surnamed Aretalogus. 

Crispus, Flavius Julius, eldest son of Con- 
stantino the Great, was appointed Caesar a.d. 



CRITON 



257 



317, and gained great distinction in a campaign 
against the Franks and in the war with Licinius. 
But having excited the jealousy of his step- 
i mother Fausta, he was put to death by his 
j father, 326 (Sozom. H. E. i. 5). 

Crispus Passienus, husband of Agrippina, 
and stepfather of the Emperor Nero, was dis- 
tinguished as an orator (Quintil. x. 1, 24). 

Crispus, Vibius, of Vercelli. a contemporary 
of Quintilian, and a distinguished orator (Tac. 
Hist. ii. 10 ; Quintil. x. 1, 119). 

Crissa or Crisa IKpiWa, Kplaa: Kpicraaios), 
and Cirrha (Ki'ppo: Kippoios), towns in Phocis, 
i regarded by some ancient as well as by some 
modern writers as the same ; but there can be 
: no doubt that Crissa was a town inland SW. of 
Delphi and that Cirrha was its port in the Cris- 
saean gulf (Strab. p. 418; cf. II. ii. 520; Hdt. 
viii. 32 ; Pind. Isthm. ii. 26). The in- 
habitants of these towns levied contributions 
upon the pilgrims frequenting the Delphic 
oracle, in consequence of which the Amphic- 
tyons declared war against them, B.C. 595, and 
eventually destroyed them. Their territory, the 
rich Crissaean plain, was declared sacred to the 
Delphic god, and was forbidden to be cul- 
tivated. The cultivation of this plain by the 
inhabitants of Amphissa led to the Sacred War, 
in which Philip was chosen general of the Am- 
phictyons, 338. Crissa remained in ruins, but 
Cirrha was afterwards rebuilt, and became the 
harbour of Delphi (Polyb. v. 27). 

Critias (KpiTtay). 1. Son of Dropides, a con- 
temporary and relation of Solon's. — 2. Son of 
Callaeschrus, and grandson of the above, was 
one of the pupils of Socrates, by whose instruc- 
tions he profited but little in a moral point of 
I view. He was banished from Athens, and on 
' his return became leader of the oligarchical 
party. He was one of the 30 tyrants established 
by the Spartans B.C. 404, and was conspicuous 
above all his colleagues for rapacity and cruelty. 
He was slain at the battle of Munychia in the 
same year, fighting against Thrasybulus and the 
exiles. He was a distinguished orator, and 
some of his speeches were extant in the time of 
j Cicero (Cic. de Or. ii. 22, 93). He also wrote 
poems, dramas, and other works. Some frag- 
ments of his elegies are still extant, edited by 
Bach, Leips. 1827. 

Critius (KpiVios), a sculptor of the archaic 
school at Athens in the early part of the 5th 
century B.C. He seems to have been slightly 
later than Antenor, and possfbly was his pupil. 
His great work was the group of Harmodius and 
I Aristogiton which he executed in conjunction 
j with Nesiotes to replace the group by Antenor 
which had been carried off to Persia (Paus. i. 8, 
I 5). It is probable that the famous marble 
statues at Naples are copies of this work. 
i'H.uimodius.] Critius founded a school of 
sculpture at Athens which lasted four genera- 
tions (Paus. vii. 3, 2). 

Critolaus (Kptr6\aos). 1. Of Phaselis in 
Lycia, studied philosophy at Athens under 
Ariston of Ceos, whom he succeeded as the head 
of the Peripatetic school. In B.C. 155 he was 
sent by the Athenians as ambassador to Rome 
with Carneades and Diogenes. [Carneades.] 
He lived upwards of 82 years. (Cic. de Or. i. 
11, 45.) — 2. General of the Achaean League 
147, distinguished by his bitter enmity to tin- 
Romans. He was defeated by MetelliiH, ami 
was never heard of after the battle. (Polyb. 
xxxviii. 2, xl. 1 ; Liv. Bp, 52.) 

Criton (Katrmi). 1. Of Athens, a friend and 
disciple of Socrates, whom hu supported with 

S 



258 



CRIU-METOPON 



his fortune. He had made every arrangement 
for the escape of Socrates from prison, and tried, 
in vain, to persuade him to fly, as we see from 
Plato's dialogue named after him. Criton wrote 
seventeen dialogues on philosophical subjects, 
which are lost. — 2. A physician at Rome in the 
1st or 2nd century after Christ, perhaps the 
person mentioned by Martial (Epigr. xi. 60, 6). 

Criu-metopon (KpioO fxirum-ov), i.e. ' Ram's j 
Front.' 1. A promontory at the S. of the 
Tauric Chersonesus. — 2. A promontory at the 
SW. of Crete. 

Crlus (KoTos), one of the Titans, son of 
Uranus and' Ge (Hes. Th. 375). 

Crocodllopolis (KpoKoSe'iAwv iroAis). 1. (Em- 
beshunda ?), a city of Upper Egypt, in the 
Nomos Aphroditopolites. — 2. [Aesinoe, No. 7.] 

Crocus, the beloved friend of Smilax, was 
changed by the gods into a saffron plant (Ov. 
Met. iv. 283 ; Serv. ad Georg. iv. 182). 

Crocylea (ra KpoKv\eta), by Homer (II. ii. 
633) spoken of as a place belonging to Ithaca, 
but by Strabo (pp. 376, 452) assigned to Leucas. 
It may be the small island now called Arkudhi, 
which lies between Leucas and Ithaca. 

Croesus (KpoTo'or), last king of Lydia, son of 
Alyattes, reigned B.C. 560-546, but was prob- 
ably associated in the kingdom during his 
father's life. The early part of his reign was 
most glorious. He subdued all the nations be- 
tween the Aegaean and the river Halys, and 
made the Greeks in Asia Minor tributary to 
him. When he had taken Ephesus, he aided 
the old temple of Artemis, then in course of 
building, by gifts of columns. One of these 
archaic columns, with part of the original in- 
scription still legible, Ba[<r<Aevs] Kp[o<<ror] avt- 
\jji)Kev\, is now in the British Museum. The 
fame of his power and wealth drew to his 
court at Sardis all the wise men of Greece, and 
among them Solon, whose interview with the 
king was celebrated in antiquity. In reply to 
the question who was the happiest man he had 
ever seen, the sage taught the king that no man 
should be deemed happy till he had finished his 
life in a happy way. Alarmed at the growing 
power of the Persians, Croesus sent to consult 
the oracle of Apollo at Delphi whether he 
should march against the Persians. Upon the 
reply of the oracle that, if he marched against 
the Persians, he would overthrow a great em- 
pire, he collected a vast army and marched 
against Cyrus. Near Sinope an indecisive 
battle was fought between the two armies ; 
whereupon he returned to Sardis, and dis- 
banded his forces, commanding them to re- 
assemble in the following spring. But Cyrus 
appeared unexpectedly before Sardis ; Croesus 
led out the forces still remaining with him, but 
was defeated, and the city was taken after a 
siege of fourteen days. Croesus, who was taken 
alive, was condemned to be burnt to death. As 
he stood before the pyre, the warning of Solon 
came to his mind, and he thrice uttered the 
name of Solon. Cyrus inquired who it was that 
he called on ; and, upon hearing the story, re- 
pented of his purpose, and not only spared the 
life of Croesus, but made him his friend. 
Croesus survived Cyrus, and accompanied 
Cambyses in his expedition against Egypt. 
(Hdt. i. 26-94, 130, 155, 207, iii. 34, v. 36, vi. 37, 
125, viii. 35 ; cf. Xen. Cyrop.) 

Crommyon or Cromyon (Kpo/x/xvciv, Kpo- 
fivdv), a town in Megaris on the Saronie gulf, 
afterwards belonged to Corinth ; celebrated on 
account of its wild sow, slain by Theseus (Strab. 
p. 380 ; Paus. ii. 1, 3 ; Thuc. iv. 45). 



CROTON 

Cronlus Mons (KpoVioe lipos), a mountain in 
Elis near Olympia, with a temple of Cronus. 

Cronus (KpoVos), the youngest of the Titans, 
son of Uranus and Ge, father by Rhea of 
Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and 
Zeus (Hes. Th. 137, 452; Apollod. i. 1, 3). 
At the instigation of his mother, Cronus un- 
manned his father for having thrown the Cy- 
clopes, who were likewise his children by Ge, 
into Tartarus. 
[Uranus.] Out 
of the blood thus 
shed sprang up 
the Erinnyes. 
When the Cy- 
clopes were de- 
livered from 
Tartarus, the 
government of 
the world was 
taken from Ura- 
nus and given 
to Cronus, who 
in his turn lost 
it through Zeus, 
as was predicted 
to him by Ge 
and Uranus. 
[Zeus.] The Ro- 
mans identified 
their Saturnus 
with Cronus. 
[Satubnus.] It 
is likely that 
Cronus was 
strictly (in one 
at least of his 
aspects) a har- 
vest god, and 
therefore repre- 
sented with a 
sickle. Some explain his being exiled by his 
children as the mythical representation of suc- 
cessive seasons of the year, and the swallowing 
of his children as Time swallowing days or 
months : others take this to be rather the sun 
swallowing the stars, which disappear at his 
rising : others think that it is a cannibal idea 
of Moloch borrowed from Phoenicia. 

Cropia (Kpunreia), an Attic demus belonging to 
the tribe Leontis. 

CrotonorCrotona (Updraiv: KpoTwianjs, Cro- 
toniensis, Crotonensis, Crotoniata : Crotona), 
a Greek city on the E. coast of Bruttium, 
on the river Aesarus, and in a very healthy 
locality, was founded by the Achaeans under 
Myscellus of Aegae, assisted by the Spartans, 
B.C. 710 (Strab. p. 262 ; Dionys. ii. 59 ; Ov. 
Met. xv. 9). Its extensive commerce, the 
virtue of its inhabitants, and the excellence of 
its institutions, made it the most powerful and 
flourishing town in the S. of Italy. It owed 
much of its greatness to Pythagoras, who esta- 
blished his school here. Gymnastics were cul- 
tivated here in greater perfection than in any 
other Greek city; and one of its citizens, Blilo, 
was the most celebrated athlete in Greece. It 
attained its greatest power by the destruction of 
Sybaris in 510; but it sustained a severe defeat 
from the Locrians on the river Sagras. [It is 
uncertain whether this defeat was before or after 
the destruction of Sybaris. Justin (xx. 2) places 
it before the arrival of Pythagoras, and there- 
fore about 560 b.c. : Strabo speaks of it as 
marking the decline of the power of Croton, and 
therefore after b.c. 510.] It suffered greatly in 
the wars with Dionysius, Agathocles, and 




Cronus (Saturnus). (From a painting 
at Pompeii.) 



CEUSTUMEEIA 



CTJMAE 



259 



Pyrrhus ; and in the second Punic war a con- 
siderable part of it had ceased to be inhabited. 




Coins of Croton. (1) An early coin of Gth or 7th cent. B.C., 
having a tripod with the first three letters of the name 
,'Koppa for K) on each side, that on the reverse being 
t/iciu'-' or concave. (9) Of 4th cent. B.C. Obv., head of 
Hera ; nw., Heracles seated. 



It received a colony from the Romans in 195 
(Liv. xxxiv. 45). 

Crustumeria, -rium, also Crustumium 
(Crustamlnus), a town of the Sabines, situated 
in the mountains near the sources of the Allia, 
was conquered both by Romulus and Tarquinius 
Priscus (Liv. i. 9, 38, ii. G4, iii. 42). 

Crustumius (Conca), a river of Umbria flow- 
ing into the Adriatic between Ariminum and 
Pisaurum (Lucan, ii. 40G). 

Cteatus. [Moliokes.] 

Ctesias (Krrj(Tias\, of Cnidus in Caria, a con- 
temporary of Xenophon, was private physician 
of Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he accompanied 
in his war against his brother Cyrus, B. c. 401. 
He lived seventeen years at the Persian court, 
and wrote in the Ionic dialect a great work on 
the history of Persia (XlepoiKa.), in 23 books. The 
first six contained the history of the Assyrian 
monarchy down to the foundation of the king- 
dom of Persia. The next seven contained the 
history of Persia down to the end of the reign of 
Xerxes, and the remaining ten carried the his- 
tory down to the time when Ctesias left Persia, 
i.e. to the year 398. All that is now extant is a 
meagre abridgment in Photius and a number 
of fragments preserved in Diodorus and other 
•writers. The work of Ctesias was compiled from 
Oriental sources, and its statements are fre- 
quently at variance with those of Herodotus ; 
but though ancient writers have therefore 
doubted his statements, it must be remarked 
that in following Persian authorities he may be 
giving the truer account. Ctesias also wrote a 
work on India CIvSiko.) in one book, of which we 
possess an abridgment in Photius. This work 
contains numerous fables, but it probably gives 
a faithful picture of India as it was conceived by 
the Persians. The abridgment which Photius 
made of the Persica and Indica oi Ctesias has 
been printed separately by Lion, Gbttingen, 
1823, and by B.ilir, Frankfort, 1824. 

Cteslblus !KT7;(ri#ios), celebrated for his me- 
chanicul inventions, lived at Alexandria in the 
reigns of Ptolemy Philadelphia and Euergetes, 
about B.C. 250. His father was a barber, but 
his own taste led him to devote himself to me- 
chanics. He is said to have invented a cleps- 
ydra or water-clock, a hydraulic engine, and 
Other machines, and to have been the first to 



discover the elastic force of air and apply it as a 
moving power. He was the teacher, and has 
been supposed to have been the father, of Hero 

I Alexandrimis (cf. Diet, of Ant. art. Ctesibica 

' Machina). 

Ctesiphon (Kt7)cti<|>coi'), son of Leosthenes of 
Anaphlystus, was accused by Aeschines for 
having proposed the decree that Demosthenes 
should be honoured with the crown. [Aes- 
chines. ] 

Ctesiphon {KT-qcncpwv '. KrricrHpcivTios) : Talcti 
Kesra, Eu.), a city of Assyria, on the E. bank 
of the Tigris, three Eoman miles from Seleucia 
on the W. bank, first became an important 
place under the Parthians, whose kings used it 
for some time as a winter residence, and after- 
wards enlarged and fortified it, and made it the 
capital of their empire. It must have contained 
a large population, if Severus. as is said, carried 
off 100,000 prisoners. In the wars of the 
Eomans with the Parthians and Persians, it 
was taken, first by Trajan (a.d. 115), and by 
several of the later emperors, but Julian did not 
venture to attack it, even after his victory over 
the Persians before the city. (Polyb. v. 45 ; 
Aram. Marc, xxiii. 6 ; Herodian. iii. 30 ; Dio Cass, 
lxxv. 9.) Its site is marked by the ruins at 
Tdkt i Kesra, i.e. the arch of Chosroes. 

Ctesippus (KT7j<r!7nror). 1. Two sons of Her- 
acles, one by Deianira, and the other by Asty- 
damia. — 2. Son of Polytherses of Same, one of 
the suitors of Penelope, killed by Philoetius. 

Cucusus or Cocussus [Crokstm), a town of 
Cappadocia, at a junction of roads leading re- 
spectively from Comana to Commagene, and 
from Melitene to Tarsus. It was the place of 
banishment for Chrysostom a.d. 404. 

Cularo, aft-rwards called Gratianop61is((7re- 
noble), in honour of the emperor Gratian, a town 
in Gallia Xarbonensison the Isara [Isire) (Cic. 
ad Fam. x. 23). It stood on the direct road 
from the pass of Mt. Genivrc to Yienne. 

Culleooi- Culeo, Q. Terentius. 1. Asenatoi 
of distinction, was taken prisoner in the second 
Punic war, and obtained his liberty at the con- 
clusion of the war, B.C. 201. To show his grati- 
tude to P. Scipio, he followed his triumphal 
car, wearing the pilleus or cap of liberty, like an 
emancipated slave. In 187 he was praetor pere- 
grinus, and in this year condemned L. Scipio 
Asiaticus, on the charge of having misappropri- 
ated the money gained in the war with Anti- 
ochus (Liv. xxx. 43, xxxviii. 42, *xlii. 85; Val. 
Max. v. 2, 5).— 2. Tribune of the plebs, 58, 
exerted himself to obtain Cicero's recall from 
banishment. In t'..e war which followed the 
death of Caesar (48), Culleo was one of the 
legates of Lepidus (Appian, B. C. iii. 88). 

Ciimae iKuu7): Kvuaios, Onmanus), a town 
in Campania, und the most ancient of the 
Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily, was founded 
by Cvnii- in Aeolis, in conjunction with Clialcis 
and Eretria in Euboea (Strab. p. 218 ; Liv. viii. 
22 ; Yerg. Aen. vi. 2 ; Veil. Pat. i. 4). Its 
foundation is placed in B.C. 1050, but the date 
must be regarded as uncertain, except so far 
that it was considerably older than any other 
Greek town in Italy. It was situated on u 
steep hill of Mt. Gaums, a little N. of the pro- 
montory Misenum. It became in early times a 
great and flourishing city ; its commerce was 
extensive; its territory included a great part of 
the rich Campanian plain ; its population was 
at least 00,000 ; and its power is attested by its 
colonies in Italy and Sicily — I'uteoli, 1'iilneo- 
polis. afterwards Xeapolis, /ancle, afterwards 
Mor-suiia. But it had powerful enemies to 

8 2 



260 



CUNAXA 



CURSOR 



encounter in the Etruscans and the Italian 
nations. It was also weakened by internal dis- 
sensions, and one of its citizens, Aristodemus, 
made himself tyrant of the place. Its power 
became so much reduced that it was only saved 
from the attacks of the Etruscans by the assist- 
ance of Hiero, who annihilated the Etruscan 
fleet, 474. It maintained its independence till 
417, when it was taken by the Campanians and 
most of its inhabitants sold as slaves (Liv. iv. 
44; Diod. xii. 76). From this time Capua 
became the chief city of Campania ; and 
although Cumae was subsequently a Roman 
municipium and a colony, it continued to 
decline in importance. At last the Acropolis 
was the only part of the town that remained, 
and this was eventually destroyed by Narses in 
his wars with the Goths. — Cumae was cele- 
brated as the residence of the earliest Sibyl, 
and as the place where Tarquinius Superbus 
died. — Its ruins are still to be seen between the 
Lago di Patria and Fusa.ro. 

Cuaaxa (KoiW£a), a small town in Babylonia, 
on the Euphrates, famous for the battle fought 
here between the younger Cyrus and his 
brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, in which the 
former was killed, B.C. 401 (Xen. Anab. i. 8). 
Its position is uncertain. Plutarch (Artax. 8) 
places it 500 stadia (50 geog. miles) above 
Babylon ; Xenophon, who does not mention it 
by name, makes the battle-field 360 stadia (36 
geog. miles) from Babylon. 

Cupido. [Ebos.] 

Cupra (Cuprensis). 1. Maritima (Marano 
at the mouth of the Monecchia), a town in 
Picenum, with an ancient temple of Juno, 
founded by the Pelasgians and restored by 
Hadrian (Strab. p. 241 ; Plin. iii. 111.)— 2. Mon- 
tana, a town near No. 1, in the mountains. 

Cures (Gen. Curium), an ancient town of the 
Sabines, celebrated as the birthplace of T. 
Tatius and Numa Pompilius (Liv. i. 13 ; Dionys. 
ii. 36, 48; Verg. Aen. vi. 812; Ov. Fast. ii. 
477). Its position is marked by ruins at the 
village of Arci, near the stream Gorrese. 

Curetes (Koup?jTes),a mythical people, said to 
be the most ancient inhabitants of Acarnania 




Curetes and the infant Zeus : the seated figure is either Adras- 
teia or Rhea-Cybele. (From a relief in the Capitoline Museum.) 

and Aetolia ; the latter country was called 
Curetis from them (II. ix. 549 ; Diod. v. 46 ; 
Strab. p. 463). Ovid speaks of a story that 



they were the children of the rain (Met. 
iv. 282). They occur in Crete as the priests of 
Zeus, and are spoken of in connexion with the 
Corybantes and Idaean Dactyli. The infant 
Zeus was entrusted to their care by Bhea ; and 
by clashing their weapons in a warlike dance, 
they drowned the cries of the child, and pre- 
vented his father Cronus from ascertaining the 
place where he was concealed. The occurrence 
of their name in several places is perhaps due 
to the fact that the custom of scaring away 
evil powers by the clashing of arms occurred in 
religious rites of several different tribes. The 
same superstition appears also in the Salii at 
Rome, and in the Theophania at Delphi. 
Curias. [Curium.] 
Curiatli, a celebrated Alban family. Three 
brothers of this family fought with three 
Roman brothers, the Horatii, and were con- 
quered by them. Hence Alba became subject 
to Rome. (Liv. i. 24 ; Dionys. iii. 11.) 
Curiatius Maternus. [Maternus.] 
Curio, C. Scribonius. 1. Praetor b.c. 121, 
was one of the most distinguished orators of 
his time. — 2. Son of No. 1, tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 90 ; afterwards served under Sulla in 
Greece ; was praetor 82 ; consul 76 ; and after 
his consulship obtained the province of Mace- 
donia, where he carried on war against the 
barbarians as far N. as the Danube. He was a 
personal enemy of Caesar, and supported P. 
Clodius when the latter was accused of viola- 
ting the sacra of the Bona Dea. In 57 he was 
appointed pontifex maximus, and died 53. He 
had some reputation as an orator, and was a. 
friend of Cicero. — 3. Son of No. 2, also a 
friend of Cicero, was a most profligate 
character. He was married to Fulvia, after- 
wards the wife of Antony. He at first belonged 
to the Pompeian party, by whose influence he 
was made tribune of the plebs, 50 ; but he was 
bought over by Caesar, and employed his 
power as tribune against his former friends. 
On the breaking out of the Civil war (49), he 
was sent by Caesar to Sicily with the title of 
propraetor. He succeeded in driving Cato out 
of the island, and then crossed over to Africa, 
where he was defeated and slain by Juba 
and P. Attius Varus. (See index to Cicero.) 

Curiosolitae, a Gallic people on the 
Ocean in Armorica near the Veneti, in Cor- 
seult, near St. Malo (Caes. .B. G. ii. 34, iii. 7.) 

Curium (Kovpiov : Kovpievs : nr. Piscopia, 
Ru.), a town on the S. coast of Cyprus, near 
the promontory Curias, W. of the mouth 
of the Lycus (Hdt. v. 113 ; Strab. p. 683). 
Curius Dentatus. [Dentatus.'J 
Curius, M'. an intimate friend of Cicero ■ 
and Atticus, lived for several years as a ne- 
gotiator at Patrae in Peloponnesus. In his 
will ne left his property to Attieus and 
Cicero. (Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 17, xvi. 4, 5, 6, 
9, ad Att. vii. 2.) — 2. Quaestor urbanus in 
B.C. 61, also a friend of Cicero, who had 
been quaestor to the father of this Curius 
(Cic. Pos< Med. in Sen. 8, 21, ad Fam. xiii. 
49, ad Q. Fr. i. 4). 

Cursor, L. Papirius. 1. A distinguished 
Roman general in the second Samnite war, 
was five times consul (b.c. 333, 320, 319, 
315, 313), and twice dictator (325, 309.) He 
frequently defeated the Samnites, but his 
greatest victory over them was gained in 
his second dictatorship. Although a great 
general, he was not popular with the soldiers, 
on account of his severity. (Liv. viii. and ix. ; 
Aurel. Vict, de Vir. III. 31.)— 2. Son of No. 1, 



CURTIUS 



CYCLOPES 



261 



was, like his father, a distinguished general. 
In both his consulships (293, 272) he gained 
great victories over the Samnites, and in the 
second he brought the third Samnite war to a 
close (Liv. x. 31-47). 

Curtius, Mettus or Mettlus, a distinguished 
Sabine, fought with the rest of his nation 
against Romulus. According to one tradition, 
the Lacus Curtius, which was part of the 
Roman forum, was called after him, because in 
the battle with the Romans he escaped with 
difficulty from a swamp, into which his horse 
had plunged. But the more usual tradition 
respecting the name of the Lacus Curtius 
related that in B.C. 362 the earth in the forum 
gave way, and a great chasm appeared, which 
the soothsayers declared could only be filled up 
by throwing into it Rome's greatest treasure ; 
that thereupon M. Curtius, a noble youth, 
mounted his steed in full armour ; and declar- 
ing that Rome possessed no greater treasure 
than a brave and gallant citizen, leaped into 
the abyss, upon which the earth closed over 
him. The spot was supposed to be marked by 
a circular pavment in the Roman Forum. 
Varro gives a rationalistic explanation, that the 
spot was struck by lightning in B.C. 445, and 
was enclosed by Curtius, one of the consuls for 
that year. (Liv. i. 12, vii. 6 ; Dionys. ii. 42 ; 
Vara. L. L. v. 148.) 

Curtius Montanus. [Montantjs.] 

Curtius Rufus, Q., the Roman historian of 
Alexander the Great, belonging to the first 
century of our era. Respecting his life nothing 
is known with certainty ; but it is most probable 
that he wrote in the reign of Claudius, though 
some have given him an earlier date, and 
others a later. The work itself, entitled De 
Rebus Gestis Alexandri Magni, consisted of 
ten books, but the first two are lost, and the 
remaining eight are not without considerable 
gaps. It is written in a pleasing though some- 
what declamatory style, apparently modelled 
on Livy. His principal source was Cleitarchus, 
whom he followed uncritically, and he fre- 
quently shows his ignorance of geography, 
chronology, and tactics. Editions by Vogel, 
Leips. 1885; Heitland, Camb. 1879. 

CutUIae Aquae. [Aquae, No. 8.] 

Cyane (KuaeT)), a Sicilian nymph and play- 
mate of Proserpine, changed into a fountain 
through grief at the loss of the goddess (Diod. 
v. 4 ; Ov. Met. v. 412). The stream from this 
fountain flows into the Anapus. The fountain 
itself is remarkable for its clear blue waters, 
whence, no doubt, its name. It is at the foot 
of the limestone hills, two miles W. of Syracuse. 

Cyaneae Insulae (Kvaviai vrjaoi or irtTpai, 
Urek-Jaki), two small rocky islands at the 
entrance of the Thracian Bosporus into the 
Euxine, the Planctae (nAo7«Toi) and Sym- 
plegades (2vfi-irKriydS(S! of mythology, so 
called because they are said to have been once 
moveable and to have rushed .together, and 
thus destroyed every ship that attempted to 
pass through them. After the ship Argo had 
passed through them in safety, they became 
stationary. [Arqonautae.] 

Cyaxares (Kuafapijs), king of Media B.C. 
684-594, son of Phraortcs, and grandson of 
Deioces. He was the most warlike of the 
Median kings, and introduced great military 
reforms. He defeated the Assyrians, who had 
slain his father in battle, and he laid siege to 
Ninus (Nineveh). But while he was before the 
city, he was defeated by the Scythians, who 
held the dominion of Upper Asia for twenty- 



eight years (634-607), but were at length driven 
out of Asia by Cyaxares. After the expulsion 
of the Scythians, Cyaxares again turned his 
arms against Assyria, and with the aid of the 
king of Babylon (probably the father of 
Nebuchadnezzar), he took and destroyed Ninus, 
in 606. He subsequently carried on war for 
five years against Alyattes, king of Lydia. 
[Altattes.] Cyaxares died in 594, and was 
succeeded by his son Astyages. (Hdt. i. 73, 
103-106, iv. ll.i — Xenophon speaks of a 
Cyaxares H., king of Media, son of Astyages, 
respecting whom see Cyrus. 
Cyhele. [Rhea.] 

Cybistra (to KvQitTTpa), an ancient city of 
Asia Minor, several times mentioned bv Cicero 
(ad Fam. xv. 2, 4, ad Att. v. 18, 20), who 
describes it as lying at the foot of Mt. Taurus, 
in the part of Cappadoeia bordering on Cilicia. 
Strabo (p. 539), places it 300 stadia from Tyana. 
It is on the road from Tyana to Laranda. The 
site is marked by the modem Eregli, Cybistra 
being in Byzantine times distinguished as ra 
'HpaK\(ovs or Cybistra-Heraclea, Heraclea 
being the fortress adjoining the ancient town. 

Cyclades (Ku/cAaSesl. a group of islands in 
the Aegaean sea, so called because they lay in a 
circle (iv kvkK<?) around Delos, the most im- 
portant of them. According to Strabo (p. 485), 
they were twelve in number; but their number 
is increased by other writers. The most import- 
ant of them were Delos, Ceos, Cythnos, 
Seriphos, Rhenia, Siphnos, Cimolos, Naxos, 
Paros, Syros, Mvconos, Tenos, Andros. 

Cyclopes (Kt/(cA&)7rej) — that is, creatures with 
round or circular eyes — are described differ- 
ently by different writers. Homer speaks of 
them as a gigantic and lawless race of shep- 
herds in Sicily, who devoured human beings 
and cared nought for Zeus, but were skilled 
herdsmen (Od. i. 69, ix. 106). Thucydides so 
far adopts this as to make the Cyclopes and 
Laestrygones the oldest inhabitants of Sicily 
(Thuc. vi. 21). Each of them had only one eye, in 
the centre of his forehead : the chief among 
them was Polyphemus. Hesiod has a different 
tradition (Tli. 624; of. Apollod. i. 4; Ap. Rh. i. 
510) : the Cyclopes were Titans, sons of Uranus 
and Ge, were three in number, Arges, Steropes, 
and Brontes, and each of them had only one 
eye, on his forehead. They were thrown into 
Tartarus by Cronus, but were released by 
Zeus, whom they provided with thunderbolts 
and lightning,Plutowith a helmet, and Poseidon 
with a trident. They were afterwards killed 
by Apollo for having furnished Zeus with the 
thunderbolts to kill Asclepius. A later tradi- 
tion regarded the Cyclopes as the assistants 
of Hephaestus. Volcanoes were the workshops 
of that god, and Mt. Aetna in Sicily and the 
neighbouring isles were considered as their 
abodes. As the assistants of Hephaestus they 
make the metal armour and ornaments for gods 
and heroes. Their number is no longer con- 
fined to three; and besides the names mentioned 
by Hesiod, we also find those of Pyracmon 
and Acamas. (Strab.p. 275; C.illim. Dian. 47; 
Ap. Rh. iv. 7C1; Verg. Aen. viii. 116.) The 
nume of Cyclopian walls was given to the walls 
built of great masses of unhewn atone, of which 
specimens are still to be seen at'Mycenae and 
other parts of Greece, nnd also in Italy. They 
were probably constructed by the prehistoric 
races who are included in the name ' Pelasgi ' ; 
and later generations, being struck by their 
grandeur, ascribed their building to a fabulous 
race of beings, who represented stories of 



262 



CYCNUS 



CYNOSARGES 



primitive building and metallurgy. Some 
writers have derived their name from the 
KvkAos of fortifications. 

Cycnus (Kvkvos). 1. Son of Apollo by Hyrie, 
lived in the district between Pleuron and 
Calydon, and was beloved by Phyllius ; but as 
Phyllius refused him a bull, Cycnus leaped 
into a lake and was metamorphosed into a 
swan (Ov. Met. vii. 371 ; Ant. Lib. 12).— 2. Son 
of Poseidon, was king of Colonae in Troas, and 
father of Tenes and Hemithea. His second 
wife Philonome fell in love with Tenes, her 
stepson, and as he refused her offers, she 
accused him to his father, who threw Tenes 
with Hemithea in a chest into the sea. Tenes 
escaped and became king of Tenedos. [Tenes.] 
In the Trojan war both Cycnus and Tenes 
assisted the Trojans, but both were slain by 
Achilles. As Cycnus could not be wounded by 
iron, Achilles strangled him with the thong of 
his helmet, or killed him with a stone. When 
Achilles was going to strip Cycnus of his 
armour, the body disappeared, and was changed 
into a swan. (Paus. x. 14 ; Strab. p. 604; Verg. 
Aen. ii. 21; Ov. Met. xii. 144; Diet. Cret. ii. 
13.) — 3. Son of Ares and Pelopia, slain by 
Heracles at Itone. — 4. Son of Ares and Pyrene, 
likewise killed by Heracles. — 5. Son of Sthene- 
lus, king of the Ligurians, and a friend and 
relation of Phaethon. While he was lamenting 
the fate of Phaethon, he was metamorphosed by 
Apollo into a swan, and placed among the stars. 
(Ov. Met. ii. 366 ; Paus. i. 30, 3). 

Cydias, a celebrated painter from the island 
Cythnus, B.C. 364, whose picture of the Argo- 
nauts was exhibited in a porticus by Agrippa 
at Rome (Dio Cass. liii. 27 ; Plin. xxxv. 130). 

Cydippe. [Acontius.] 

Cydnus (KuS^os : Tersoos-Chai), a river of 
Cilicia Campestris, rising in the Taurus, and 
flowing through the midst of the city of Tarsus. 
It was celebrated for the clearness and coldness 
of its water, which was esteemed useful in gout 
and nervous diseases, but by bathing in which 
Alexander nearly lost his life. At its mouth 
the river spread into a lagune, which formed 
the harbour of Tarsus, but which is now choked 
with sand. In the middle ages the river was 
called Hierax. (Strab. p. 672.) 

Cydonia, more rarely Cydonis (KvSuv'ia, 
KvSwvis: KuSou/iaTTjs : Khania), one of the chief 
cities of Crete, the rival and opponent of 
Cnossus and Gobtyna, was situated on the 
NW. coast, and derived its name from the 
Cydones (KvSwves), a Cretan race (probably of 
Phoenician origin, as the name of their river 
Iardanus may imply), placed by Homer in the 
W. part of the island (Od. iii. 292, xix. 176). 
At a later time a colony of Zacynthians settled 
in Cydonia ; they were driven out by the Sa- 
mians about B.C. 524 ; and the Samians were in 
their turn expelled by the Aeginetans (Strab. 
p. 476 ; Diod. v. 78 ; Thuc. ii. 35 ; Liv. xxxvii. 
40). Cydonia was the place from which quinces 
(Cydonia mala) were first brought to Italy, 
and its inhabitants were some of the best Cretan 
archers (Cydonio arcu, Hor. Od. iv. 19, 17). 

Cyllarus (KuAAapos), a beautiful centaur, 
killed at the wedding feast of Pirithous. (Ov. 
Met. xii. 393.) The horse of Castor was like- 
wise called Cyllarus (Verg. Georg. iii. 90). 

Cyllene (KvAXfy-q). 1. (Zyria), the highest 
mountain in Peloponnesus on the frontiers of 
Arcadia and Achaia, sacred to Hermes (Mer- 
cury), who had a temple on the summit, was 
said to have been born there, and was hence 
called Cyllenius (Hymn, ad Merc. 2; Verg. 



Aen. viii. 138 ; Paus. viii. 17). — 2. A seaport 
town of Elis. 

Cylon (KvKoiv), an Athenian of noble family, 
married the daughter of Theagenes, tyrant of 
I Megara, and gained an Olympic victory B.C. 640. 
Encouraged by the Delphic oracle, he seized the 
Acropolis, intending to make himself tyrant of 
Athens (Hdt. v. 71; Thuc. i. 126; Plut. Sol. 
12 ; Paus. i. 28, 40). From Aristot. 'Ad. ttoA. 1. 
it is clear that the attempt of Cylon was before 
the legislation of Draco, and therefore an earlier 
date than is sometimes given should be as- 
signed — probably before 630. Pressed by famine, 
Cylon and his adherents were driven to take 
refuge at the altar of Athene, whence they were 
induced to withdraw by the archon Megacles, 
the Alcmaeonid, on a promise that their lives 
should be spared. Their enemies put them 
to death as soon as they had them in their 
power. 

Cyme (Kv/j.r) ; Ku/iouos : Sandakli), the largest 
of the Aeolian cities of Asia Minor, stood upon 
, the coast of Aeolis, on a bay named after it, 
Cumaeus (also Elaiticus) Sinus (6 Kvftcuos 
k6\mos: Gulf of Sandakli), and had a good 
\ harbour. It was founded by a colony of Lo- 
j crians from Mt. Phricius, and hence it had the 
epithet QpiKwvh (Strab. p. 621). It was the 
I native place of Ephorus, and Hesiod's father 
! emigrated from it to Boeotia (Hes. Op. 636). 
It was the mother city of Side in Pamphylia- 
and Cumae in Campania. 
Cyna. [Cynane.] 

Cynaeglrus (Kvyaiyeipos), brother of the poet 
Aeschylus, distinguished himself by his valour 
at the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490. According 
to Herodotus, when the Persians were en- 
deavouring to escape by sea, Cynaegirus seized 
one of their ships to keep it back, but fell with 
his right hand cut off. In the later versions of 
J the story Cynaegirus is made to perform still 
more heroic deeds (Hdt. vi. 114 ; Just. ii. 9 ; 
Val. Max. iii. 2, 22). 

Cynaetha (KvvaiQa : KvvaiBevs, -Batevs : Ka- 
lavryta), a town in the N. of Arcadia, whose 
inhabitants, unlike the other Arcadians, had a 
dislike to music, to which circumstance Poly- 
bius attributes their rude character (Strab. p. 
371 ; Paus. vii. 24; Polyb. iv. 18). 

Cynane, Cyna, or Cynna (Kuraoj, K»ra, 
KiWa), half-sister to Alexander the Great, 
daughter of Philip by Audata, an Hlyrian wo- 
man. She was married to her cousin Amyntas ; 
and after the death of Alexander she crossed 
over to Asia, intending to marry her daughter 
Eurydice to Arrhidaeus, who had been chosen 
king. Her project alarmed Perdiccas, by whose 
order she was put to death. (Arr. Anab. i. 5 ; 
Diod. xix. 52.) 

Cynesii or Cynetes (Kwiia-ioi, KvvrjTes), a 
people dwelling in the extreme W., beyond the 
Celts, apparently in Spain (Hdt. iv. 49). 

Cynisca (Kvv'urKa), daughter of Archidamus 
II., king of Sparta, was the first woman who 
kept horses for the games, and who gained an 
Olympic victory (Hdt. vi. 71 ; Paus. iii. 8). 

Cynopolis (Kvvbs ttJAis : Samallout), a city 
of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, on an 
island in the Nile ; the chief seat of the worship 
of Anubis (Strab. p. 812). There was a city of 
the same name in the Delta (Strab. p. 802). 

Cynos (Kvvos : Kwios, Kvvoiios), the chief sea- 
port in the territory of the Locri Opuntii. 

Cynosarges (ri> Kwdcrapyes), a gymnasium, 
sacred to Heracles, outside Athens, E. of the 
city and before the gate Diomea, for the use of 
I those who were not of pure Athenian blood : 



CYNOSCEPHALAE 

Iiere taught Antisthenes, the founder of the 
Cynic school. [Athenae.] 

Cynoscephalae (Kvvbs /ceipaAoQ, ' Dog's 
Heads.' 1. Two hills near Scotussa in Thes- 
saly, where Flaminius gained his celebrated 
victory over Philip of Macedonia, B.C. 197 
(Polyb. xviii. 3 ; Strab. p. 441 ; Liv. xxxiii. 6). — 
2. A hill between Thebes and Thespiae in 
Boeoiia. 

Cynossema (Kvvbs (rrifxa), 'Dog's Tomb,' a 
promontory in the Thracian Chersonesus near 
Madytus, so called because it was supposed to 
be the tomb of Hecuba, previously changed 
into a dog (Thuc. viii. 102 ; Strab. p. 595). 

Cynosiira (Kvv6<rovpa), an Idaean nymph, 
and one of the nurses of Zeus, who placed her 
among the stars. [Akctos.] 

Cynosiira (Kvvoaovpa), -Dog's Tail,' a pro- 
montory in Attica, S. of Marathon. 

Cynthia and Cynthius iKwSia and KvvBios), 
surnames respectively of Artemis and Apollo, 
which they derived from Mt. Cynthus in the 
island of Delos, their birthplace. 

Cynuria (Kwovpia : Kwovptos), a district on 
the frontiers of Argolis and Laconia, for the 
possession of which the Argives and Spartans 
carried on frequent wars, and which the Spar- 
tans at length obtained about B.C. 550. [Akoos.] 
The inhabitants were Ionian B. 

Cyparissia (Kvirapicra-la). 1. A town in Mes- 
senia on the W. coast, S. of the river Cypa- 
rissus, and on a promontory and bay of the same 
name. Homer (II. ii. 593) speaks of a town 
Cyparisseeis (Kvirapt(T(rrieis) subject to Nestor, 
which is probably the same as the preceding, 
though Strabo places it in Triphylia I Strab. p. 
349/. — 2. A town in Laconia on a peninsula 
near the Asopus. 

Cyparissus IKinrapia-rrosri, son of Telephus, 
beloved by Apollo or Silvanus. Having in- 
advertently killed his favourite stag, he was 
seized with immoderate grief, and metamor- 
phosed into a cypress (Ov. Met. x. 120). 

Cyparissus i Ku7ropt<rcrosJ, a small town in 
Phocis on Parnassus near Delphi (II. ii. 519 ; 
Strab. p. 423). 

Cyphanta (to Kv(pavra\, a town on the E. 
coast of Laconia near Brasiae (Paus. iii. 24). 

Cypria, Cypris, surnames of Aphrodite, from 
the island of Cyprus. 

Cyprianus Bishop of Carthage, a.d. 248. 
[Diet, of Christian Biography.] 

Cyprus (Kinrpos : Kinrpios : Cyprus, called by 
the Turks Kebris), a large island in the Medi- 
terranean, S. of Cilieia and W. of Syria. It is 
called by various names in the poets, Cerastia 
or Cerastis, Macaria, Sphecia, Acamantis, 
Amathusia, and also Paphos. To Syrian na- 
tions it was known as Kittim. The island is of 
a triangular form : its length from E. to \V. is 
about 140 miles; its greatest breadth, which is 
in the W. part, is about 50 mili-s from N. to S., 
but it gradually narrows towards the E. A 
range of mountains called Olympus by the 
ancients runs through the whole length of the 
island from E. to W., and rises in one part more 
than 7000 feet in height. The plains are chiefly 
in the S. of the island, and were celebrated in 
ancient as well as in modern times for their 
fertility. The largest plain, called the Sala- 
minian plain, is in the E. part of the island 
near Salamis. The rivers are little more than 
mountain torrents, mostly dry in summer. 
Cyprus was in early times famed for its yield 
of copper, found especially in the mountainous 
country of Tamassus, Amathus, Soli anil Cu- 
rium. In II. xi. 19 we hear of gifts of its 



CYPSELUS 



263 



metals sent by Cinyras to Agamemnon. Cyprus 
was never entirely Greek : it was colonised by 
the Phoenicians at a very early period ; Greek 
colonies were subsequently planted in the island, 
according to Herodotus (vii. 90), by emigrants 
from Athens, Salamis, Arcadia, and Cynthus; 
and accordingly we read of 9 independent Greek 
states, each governed by its own king, Salamis, 
Citium, Amathus, Curium, Paphos, BIakium, 
Soli, Lapethus, Ceryxh ; but the island was, 
with few intervals, under the rule of Egypt, 
Assyria, or Persia. A mention of Cyprus being 
forced to pay tribute is found as early as 
the records of the wars of Tehutimes or 
Thothmes III., whose date was probably about 
1600 B.C. According to Menander, as cited by 
Joseph. Ant. viii. 5, 3, Cyprus was subject to 
the Phoenicians in the time of Solomon (cf. 
Verg. Aen. i. 642), and their dominion left much 
of their religion and ritual in the island. [Aphro- 
dite.] The Greek settlements mentioned above 
probably began after or towards the end of this 
period. The island fell under the Assyrian rule 
in the time of Sargon (708 B.C.) : on the down- 
fall of the Assyrian empire it probably enjoyed 
a period of independence in its various petty 
states, but was subdued by Amasis, king of 
Egypt, about B.C. 540 (Hdt. ii. 182). Upon the 
downfall of the Egyptian monarchy, it became 
subject to the Persians ; during the hegemony 
of Athens (478-449) Cyprus was free from 
Eastern rulers ; but fell afterwards to a great 
extent under a Phoenician adventurer who got 
possession of Salamis and introduced as far as 
possible Phoenician influence (Hdt. iv. 162, v. 
104 ; Isocr. Evag. 22). He was dethroned and 
slain in 411 ; and in the following year Eva- 
goras of Salamis began to unite the whole 
island in one kingdom. He handed down the 
sovereignty to his son Nicocles. It was sub- 
dued by the Persian king Ochus in 346 ; but, 
recovering some independence in the wars of 
Alexander, eventually fell to the share of the 
Ptolemies in Egypt, and was governed by them, 
sometimes united to Egypt, and sometimes by 
separate princes of the royal family. In 58 the 
Romans made Cyprus one of their provinces, 
and sent M. Cato to take possession of it. At 
first it was united to the province of Cilieia 
(Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 48, ad Att. v. 21) ; then 
given by Antonius to Cleopatra (Dio Cass. xlix. 
32 ; Strab. p. 685). After Actium it was first 
an imperial province with Cilieia ; then (B.C. 22) 
separated and given to the senate, governed by 
a propraetor with title of proconsul (Dio Cass, 
liii. 12, liv. 4). Cyprus, since it fell under the 
English protectorate in recent years, has been 
already explored more systematically by com- 
petent antiquarians, whoBe excavations, espe- 
cially at Paphos and Salamis, have thrown 
much light on the history and the art of the 
island. (See Hellenic Journal, vol. ix. sq.) 

Cypsela (to Kw|/€ Ao : KiuJ/eAirar, -\t)v6s). 1. 
A town in Arcadia on the frontiers of Laconia 
(Thuc. v. 38). — 2. A town in Thrace on the 
Hebrus and the Egnutia Via (Strab. p. 322 ; 
Liv. xxxi. 16). 

Cypselus (KityeAos). 1. Father of Merope 
and grandfather of Aepytus. [Aepytus.] — 2. 
Of Corinth, son of Aec'tion. The mother of 
Cypselus belonged to the house of the Bacchi- 
adae — that is, to the Doric nobility of Corinth. 
According to tradition, she married Aeetion, 
because, being ugly, she met with no one among 
the Bacchiadae who would have her us his wife. 
As the oracle of Delphi had declared that her 
son would prove formidable to the ruling party 



264 



CYRAUNIS 



CYEENE 



at Corinth, the Bacchiadae attempted to murder 
the child. But his mother concealed him in a 
chest (KinfeA-n), from which he derived his name, 
Cypselus. When he had grown up to manhood, 
he expelled the Bacchiadae, with the help of 
the people, and then established himself as 
tyrant. He reigned 30 years, B.C. 655-625, and 
was succeeded by his son Periander. The 
celebrated chest of Cypselus, made of cedar 
wood, ivory, and gold, and richly adorned with 
figures in relief, is described at length by Pau- 
sanias (v. 17, &c). 

Cyraunis (Kvpavvis), an island off the N. 
coast of Africa mentioned by Herodotus (iv. 
95) ; probably the same as Cercine. 

Cyrenaica (7; Kvpy]vaia, t] Kvp-qvairi x^PVi 
Herod. : Demar or Jebel-Akhdar, i.e. the Green 
Mountain, the NE. part of Tripoli), a district 
of N. Africa, between Marmarica on the E. and 
the Regio Syrtica on the W., was considered to 
extend in its widest limits from the Philae- 
norum Arae at the bottom of the Great Syrtis 
to the Chersonesus Magna or N. headland of 
the Gulf of Platea ((?. of JBomba), or even to 
the Catabathmus Magnus (Marsa Solium) ; 
but the part actually possessed and cultivated 
by the Greek colonists can only be considered 
as beginning at the N. limit of the sandy shores 
of the Great Syrtis, at Boreum Pr. (Has 
Teyonas, S. of Ben-Ghazi), between which and 
the Chersonesus Magna the country projects 
into the Mediterranean in the form of a seg- 
ment of a circle, whose chord is above 150 miles 
long and its arc above 200. From its position, 
formation, climate, and soil, this region is per- 
haps one of the most delightful on the surface 
of the globe. Its surface is occupied by a mode- 
rately elevated table-land, whose edge runs 
parallel to the coast, to which it sinks down in 
a succession of terraces, clothed with verdure, 
intersected by mountain streams running 
through ravines filled with the richest vegeta- 
tion, exposed to the cool sea-breezes from the 
N., and sheltered by the mass of the mountain 
from the sands and hot winds of the Sahara. 
These slopes produced the choicest fruits, vege- 
tables, and flowers, and some very rare plants — 
above all, the silphium or laserpitiicm, an 
umbelliferous plant not exactly determined by 
modern botanists, which was valuable for its 
fruit, its stalk, its leaf, and its juice, and, as 
furnishing a great part of the wealth of Cyrene, 
is figured on its coins. (Hdt. iv. 190 ; Strab. p. 
837 ; Theophr. H. P. vi. 3.) The various har- 
vests, at the different elevations, lasted for eight 
months of the year. The country was, however, 
exposed to annual ravages by locusts. The belt 
of mountainous land extends inwards from the 
coast about 70 or 80 miles. — -The first occupation 
of this country by the Greeks of which we have 
any clear account, was effected, according to 
Herodotus (iv. 154), by Battus, who led a colony 
from the island of Thera, and first established 
himself on the island of Platea at the E. ex- 
tremity of the district, and afterwards built 
Cybene (b.c. 631), where he founded a dynasty, 
which ruled over the country during eight reigns, 
though with comparatively little power over 
some of the other Greek cities. Battus is, how- 
ever, merely the Libyan title of the kings of 
Cyrene ; the name of the founder seems to have 
been Aristoteles (Schol. ad Pind. Pyth. iv. 10). 
The earliest cities founded were Teuchtra and 
Hesperis, then Barca, a colony from Cyrene; 
and these, with Cyrene itself and its port Apol- 
lonia, formed the original Libyan Pentapolis, 
though this name seems not to have come into 



general use till under the Ptolemies. The com- 
parative independence of Barca, and the tem- 
porary conquest of the country by the Persians 
under Cambyses, diminished the power of the 
later kings of Cyrene, and at last the dynastywas 
overthrown and a republic established in the 
latter part of the 5th century, B.C. When Alex- 
ander invaded Egypt, the Cyrenaeans formed an 
alliance with him ; but their country was made 
subject to Egypt by Ptolemy the son of Lagus. 
It appears to have flourished under the 
Ptolemies, who pursued their usual policy of 
raising new cities at the expense of the ancient 
ones, or restoring the latter under new names. 
Thus Hesperis became Berenice, Teuchira was 
called Arsinoe', Barca was entirely eclipsed by 
its port, which was raised into a city under the 
name of Ptolemai's, and Cyrene suffered from 
the favours bestowed upon its port Apollonia. 
The country was now usually called Pentapolis, 
from the five cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Ptole- 
mai's, Arsinoe, and Berenice. In B.C. 95, the last 
Egyptian governor, Apion, an illegitimate son 
of Ptolemy Physcon, made the country over to 
the Bomans, who at first gave the cities their 
freedom. In B.C. 74 Cyrenaica was formed into 
a province, at first under a quaestor pro prae- 
tore ; we have no evidence of its junction with 
Crete before B.C. 27, when Octavian formed a 
senatorial province under a proconsul : the pro- 
vince was called indifferently Creta or Cyrenaica, 
or both combined. Under Diocletian Cyrenaica 
was separated from Crete, and made a distinct 
province, under the name of Libya Superior. 
As the Roman empire declined, the attacks of 
the native Libyan tribes became more frequent 
and formidable, and the sufferings caused by 
their inroads and by locusts, plague, and earth- 
quakes, are most pathetically described by 
Synesius, bishop of Ptolemai's, in the 5th cen- 
tury. The country was afterwards overrun by 
the Persians, and soon afterwards it fell a final 
prey to the great Arabian invasion. 

Cyrene (Kvprivri), daughter of Hypseus, 
mother of Aristaeus by Apollo, was carried by 
the god from Mt. Pelion to Libya, where the 
city of Cyrene derived its name from her (Pind. 
Pyth. ix. 5 ; Ap. Rh. i. 500 ; Diod. iv. 81). 

Cyrene (Kvp-fivri : Kvpr]vaios : Ghrennah,Hxi.), 
the chief city of Cyrenaica in N. Africa, was 
founded by Battus (b.c. 631) over a fountain 
consecrated to Apollo, and called Cyre (Kvp-q : 
'Att6\Aowos Kp^vr/), which supplied the city 
with water, and then ran down to the sea 
through a beautiful ravine. The city stood 80 
stadia (8 geog. miles) from the coast, on the 
edge of the upper of two terraces of table land, 
at the height of 1800 feet above the sea, in one 
of the finest situations in the world. The road 




Coin of Cyrene. 
Obv., head of Zeus Amnion (whose worship at Cyrene was 
derived from the Libyan oracle of Ammon) ; rev., the 
silphium plant. 



which connected it with its harbour, Apollonia, 
still exists, and the ruins of Cyrene, though 
terribly defaced, are very extensive, comprising 



CYRESCHATA 
streets, aqueducts, temples, theatres, tombs, 
paintings, sculpture, and inscriptions. In the 
face of the terrace on which the city stands is a 
vast subterranean necropolis. For the history 
of the city and surrounding country, see Cyre- 
NAECA. Among its celebrated natives were the 
philosopher Aristippus, the poet Callimachus, 
and the Christian bishop and orator Synesius. 

Cyreschata or Cyropolis I KupeVx<«"a, Kvpa, 
Kvpov iroKis), a city of Sogdiana, on the Jax- 
artes, the furthest of the colonies founded by 
Cyrus, and the extreme city of the Persian 
empire ; destroyed, after many revolts, by Alex- 
ander. Its position is doubtful, but it was pro- 
bably not far from Alexandreschata (Kokand). 
(Strab. p. 517 ; Arr. An. iv. 3.) 

CyTilius (KvpiWos). 1. Bishop of Jerusalem, 
a.d. 351-386.— 2. Bishop of Alexandria, 412-444. 
[Diet, of Christ. Biogr.} 

Cyrrhestice (KvppecrTiK-fi), the name given ! 
under the Seleucidae to a province of Syria, ! 
lying between Commagene on the N. and the 
plain of Antioch on the S.. between Mt. Amanus 
on the W. and the Euphrates on the E. (Strab. 
p. 751). After the time of Constantine, it was 
united with Commagene into one province, 
under the name of Euphratesia. 

Cyrrhus or Cyrus Kvppos, Kvpos: Korus?), 
a city of Syria, founded under the Seleucidae, 
and called after the city of the same name in 
Macedonia ; chiefly remarkable as the residence 
and see of Theodoret. Justinian rebuilt the 
walls, and erected an aqueduct. (Strab. p. 
751 ; Procop. de Aed. ii. 11.) 

CyrrllUS, a town in Macedonia, near Pella 
(Thuc. ii. 100). ' 

Cyrus (Kvpos). 1. The Elder, the founder 
of the Persian empire. The history of his life 
was overlaid in ancient times with fables and 
romances, and is related differently by Hero- 
dotus, Ctesias, and Xenophon. The account 
of Herodotus is as follows : Cyrus was the son 
of Cambyses, a noble Persian, and of Mandane, 
daughter of the Median king Astyages. In con- 
sequence of a dream, which seemed to portend 
that his grandson should be master of Asia, 
Astyages sent for his daughter, when she was 
pregnant : and upon her giving birth to a child, 
he committed it to Harpagus, his confidential 
attendant, with orders to kill it. Harpagus 
gave it to a herdsman of Astyages, who was to 
expose it. But the wife of the herdsman having 
brought forth a still-born child, they substituted 
the latter for the child of Mandane, who was 
reared as the son of the herdsman. When he 
was ten years old, his true parentage was dis- 
covered by the following incident. In the 
sports of his village, the boys chose him for 
their king. One of the boys, the son of a noble 
Median named Artembares, disobeyed his com- 
mands, and Cyrus caused him to be severely 
scourged. Artembares complained to Astyages, 
who sent for Cyrus, in whose person and 
courage he discovered his daughter's son. The 
herdsman and Hiirpagu-;. being summoni (I 
before the king, told him the truth Astyages 
forgave the herdsman, but revenged hiniBelf on 
Harpagus by serving up to him at a banquet 
the flesh of his own son. As to his grandson, 
by the advice of the Magians, who assured him 
that his dreams were fulfilled by the boy's 
having been a king in sport, be sent him back 
to his parents in Persia. When Cyrus grew 
up, ho conspired with Haqiagus to dethrone 
his grandfather He induced the Persians to 
revolt from the Median supremacy, and at their 
head marched against Astyages, whom he de- 



CYRUS 



265 



feated and took prisoner, B.C. 559. The Medes 
accepted Cyrus for their king, and thus the 
supremacy which they had held passed to the 
Persians. It was probably at this time that 
Cyrus received that name, which is a Persian 
word (Kohr), signifying the Sun. — Cyrus now 
proceeded to conquer the other parts of Asia. In 
54G he overthrew the Lydian monarchy, and took 
Croesus prisoner. [Croesus.] The Greek cities 
in Asia Minor were subdued by his general Har- 
pagus. He next turned his arms against the 
Assyrian empire, of which Babylon was then the 
capital. After defeating the Babylonians in 
battle, he laid siege to the city, and after a long 
time he took it by diverting the course of the Eu- 
phrates, which flowed through the midst of it, 
so that his soldiers entered Babylon by the bed 
of the river. This was in 538. Subsequently 
he crossed the Araxes, with the intention of sub- 
duing the Massagetae, a Scythian people, but 
he was defeated and slain in battle. Tomyris, 
the queen of the Massagetae, cut off his head, 
and threw it into a bag filled with human blood, 




Cyrus. (From a relief at Pasartjad 



that he might satiate himself (she said) with 
blood. He was killed in 529. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Cambyses. — Ctesias, who aa 
physician to Artaxerxes Mcmnon must un- 
doubtedly have had access to Persian records, 
contradicts Herodotus on many points, especi- 
ally as regards the early life of Cyrus. He says 
that Astyages was no blood relation to Cyrus, 
who raised troops against him, conquered him 
and drove him from Media, but afterwards 
treated him with honour, and married his 
daughter Amytis. He represents Cyrus as 
dying from a wound received in battle against 
the I)erbice9. Xenophon represents Cyrus as 
brought up at his grandfather's court, as serv- 
ing in the Median army under his uncle 
Cyaxares II., the son and successor of Astyages, 
of whom Herodotus and Ctesias know nothing; 
as making war upon Babylon simply as the 
general of Cyaxares ; as marrying the daughter 
of Cyaxares; and at length dying quietly in his 
bed, after a sage and Socratic discourse to his 



266 



CYRUS 



CYZICUS 



children and friends. Xenophon's account is 
preserved in the Cyropaedia, in which he 
intends to draw a picture of what a wise and 
just prince ought to be. The work is justly 
termed a ' philosophical novel,' and must not be 
regarded as a genuine history. — In the East 
Cyrus was long regarded as the greatest hero of 
antiquity, and hence the fables by which his 
history is obscured. His sepulchre at Pasar- 
gadae was visited by Alexander the Great 
(Arr. An. vi. 29). — 2. The Younger, the second 
of the four sons of Darius Nothus, king of Persia, 
and of Parysatis, was appointed by his father 
commander of the maritime parts of Asia Minor, 
and satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia, 
B.C. 407. He assisted Lysander and the Lace- 
daemonians with large sums of money in their 
war against the Athenians. Cyrus was of a 
daring and ambitious temper. On the death of 
his father and the accession of his elder brother 
Artaxerxes Mnemon, 404, Cyrus formed a plot 
against the life of Artaxerxes. His design was 
betrayed by Tissaphernes to the king, who con- 
demned him to death ; but, on the intercession 
of Parysatis, he spared his life and sent him 
back to his satrapy. Cyrus now gave himself 
up to the design of dethroning his brother. He 
collected a powerful native army, but he placed 
his chief reliance on a force of Greek merce- 
naries. He set out from Sardis in the spring 
of 401, and, having crossed the Euphrates at 
Thapsacus, marched down the river to the plain 
of Cunaxa, 500 stadia from Babylon. Here he 
found Artaxerxes prepared to meet him. Arta- 
xerxes had from 400,000 to a million of men ; 
Cyrus had about 100,000 Asiatics and 13,000 
Greeks. The battle was at first altogether in 
favour of Cyrus. His Greek troops on the right 
routed the Asiatics who were opposed to them ; 
and he himself pressed forward in the centre 
against his brother ; and had even wounded 
him, when he was killed by one of the king's 
body-guard. Artaxerxes caused his head and 
right hand to be struck off, and sought to have 
it believed that Cyrus had fallen by his hand. 
The character of Cyrus is drawn by Xenophon 
in the brightest colours. It is enough to say 
that his ambition was gilded by all those bril- 
liant qualities which win men's hearts. (Xen. 
Hell. i. 4, ii. 1, iii. 1 ; Anab. i. ; Cyrop. viii. 8 ; 
Ctes. Pers. i. 44.) — 3. An architect at Rome, who 
died on the same day as Clodius, 52 (Cic. ad 
Fam. vii. 14). 

Cyrus (Kvpos : Kour), one of the two grea.t 
rivers of Armenia, rises in the Caucasus, flows 
through Iberia, and after forming the boundary 
between Albania and Armenia, unites with 
the Araxes, and falls into the W. side of the 
Caspian (Strab. pp. 491, 500). — There were 
small rivers of the same name in Media and 
Persis. 

Cyta or Cytaea (Kvra, Kv-raia : Xvraios, Kv- 
raievs), a town in Colchis on the river Phasis, 
where Medea was said to have been born. 

Cythera (KvQ-qpa : KvB-foios : Cerigo), a 
mountainous island off the SE. point of Laco- 
nia, with a town of the same name in the inte- 
rior, the harbour of which was called Scandea 
C2,Kav8eia). It was colonised at an early time 
by the Phoenicians, who introduced the worship 
of Aphrodite into the island, for which it was 
celebrated. This goddess was hence called 
Cytheraea, Cythereis ; according to some tra- 
ditions, it was in the neighbourhood of this 
island that she first rose from the foam of the 
sea. [Apheodite.] The Argives subsequently 
took possession of Cythera, but were driven 



out of it by the Lacedaemonians, who added it 
to their dominions. 

Cytheris, a celebrated courtesan, the mistress 
of Antony, and subsequently of the poet Gallus, 
who mentioned her under the name of Lycoris 
(Plut. Ant. 9 ; Cic. ad Att. x. 10, 16). 

Cytherus (Kvdripos: KvQiipios), one of the 
twelve ancient towns of Attica and subsequently 
a demus, belonging to the tribe Pandionis. 

Cythnus (Kvdvos: Kvduios: Thermia), an 
island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades. 
It was colonised by the Dryopes (Hdt. viii. 46 ; 
Strab. p. 485). It had warm springs, whence 
its modern name. 

Cytinium (Kvt'ivlov : KimeiaT7;s), one of the 
four cities in Doris, on Parnassus. It com- 
manded the pass from the valley of Doris to 
the plain of Amphissa (Thuc. iii. 95, 101, 102 ; 
Strab. pp. 427, 475). 

Cytorus or -um (Kvrcopos or -ov\ Kidros), 
a town on the coast of Paphlagonia, between 
Amastris and the promontory Carambis was a 
commercial settlement of the people of Sinope. 
It stood upon or near the mountain of the same 
name, which is mentioned by the Romans as 
abounding in box-trees (II. ii. 853; Strab. p. 
544; Verg. Georg. ii. 437; Catull. 4, 11). 

CyziCUS (KufiKos), son of Aeneus and Aenete, 
the daughter of Eusorus, or son of Eusorus, or 
son of Apollo by Stilbe. King of the Doliones 
at Cyzicus on the Propontis. [Argonautae.] 

Cyzicus (Kv(ikos : Kv(ikhji/6s : Bal Kiz or 
Chizico, Ru.), one of the most ancient and 
powerful of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, 




Coin of Cyzicus. 
Obv., head of Demeter. with legend snTEI PA : rev., lion's 
head and tunny-fish, with legend KYZI. 



stood upon an island of the same name in the 
Propontis (Sea of Marmara). This island, 

: the earlier name of which was Arctonnesus 
("ApKTai/ vricros), lay close to the shore of Mysia, 
to which it was united by two bridges, and 
afterwards (under Alexander the Great) by a 
mole, which has accumulated to a considerable 
isthmus. The city of Cyzicus stood on the S. 
side of the island, at the N. end of the isthmus, 
on each side of which it had a port. Tradition 

J ascribed the foundation of the city to the Do- 
liones, a tribe of prehistoric Thessalians, who had 

j been driven from their homes by the Aeolians. 

■ It was afterwards colonised by the Milesians, 
B.C. 675, as the emporium for their trade with 
the Black Sea (Strab. p. 635). The coinage of 
Cyzicus was famous, since it gained almost a 
monopoly of the coinage of electrum staters 
(permitted by Persian kings to a few cities) 
during the 5th and 4th cent. B.C. (Xen. An. 
vii. 3, 10; Dem. c. Phorm. p. 914, § 23). The 
tunny-fish is the mint mark of the city. 
It took no conspicuous place in history till 
about twenty-two years after the peace of 
Antalcidas, when it made itself independent of 
Persia. It preserved its freedom under Alex- 
ander and his successors, and was in alliance 
with the kings of Pergamus, and afterwards 
with the Romans. Its celebrated resistance 



DAAE 

against Mitkridates, when he besieged it by sea 
and land IB.c. 75), was of great service to the 
Romans, and obtained for it the rank of a 
' libera civitas,' winch it lost in B.C. 20, recovered 
in 15, and again lost under Tiberius (Dio Cass, 
liv. 7, 23, 24; Tac. Ann. iv. 36). Under Con- 
stantine it became the chief city of the new 
province of Hellespontus. It was greatly in- 
jured by an earthquake in a.d. 443, and finally 
ruined by its conquest by the Arabians in 075. 



D. 

Daae. [DahaeT 

Dachinabades ( Aaxiva.0a.bris), a general name 
for the S. part of the Indian peninsula, derived 
from the Sanscrit dakshina, the S. wind, and 
connected with the modern name Deccan 
([Scyl.] Peripl. Ind. p. 29). 

Dacia (Dacusl, as a Roman province, was 
bounded on the S. by the Danube, which sepa- 
rated it from Moesia, on the N. by the Carpa- 
thian mountains, on the W. by the river Tysia 
(Theiss), and on the E. by the river Hierasus 
(Pruth), thus comprehending the modem Tran- 
sylocuiia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and part of 
Hungary. The Daci were of the same race 
and spoke the same language as the Getae. and 
are therefore usually said to be of Thracian 
origin. They were a brave and warlike people. 
In the reign of Augustus they crossed the 
Danube and plundered the allies of Rome, but 
were defeated and driven back into their own 
country by the generals of Augustus. [Cotiso.^ 
In the reign of Domitian they became so for- 
midable under their king Decebalus, that the 
Romans were obliged to purchase a peace of 
them by the payment of tribute. Trajan de- 
livered the empire from this disgrace ; he crossed 
the Danube, and after a war of five years (a.d. 
101-100), conquered the country', made it a 
Roman province, and colonised it with inhabit- 
ants from all parts of the empire (Dio Cass, 
lxviii. 14 ; Aurel. Vict. Caes. 13). At first it 
was held as a single province under the empe- 
ror's legatus : then before the middle of the 
2nd cent. a.d. it was divided into Dacia superior 
and Dacia inferior, each under a legatus. 31. 
Aurelius in 16« made three divisions: Dacia i 
Porolisscmis, with chief town Porolissum, i 
Aj/ulensis, with chief town Apulum, and Mia- I 
luensis, from the colony of that name; but ! 
these three, though each had its own procurator, 
were united under a ' legatus Augusti pr. pr. 
trium Daciarum ' or ' Daciae,' and had a single- 
capital, Sarmizegetusa. At a later period Dacia 
was invaded by the Goths ; and as Aurelian 
considered it more prudent to make the Danube 
the boundary of the empire, he resigned Dacia 
to the barbarians, removed the Roman inhabit- 
ants to Moesia, and gave the name of Dacia 
(Aureliani) to that part of the province along 
the Danube where they were settled. 

Dactyli (Aoiktv\oi), fabulous beings of super- 
human size and strength, to whom the discovery 
of iron, the art of working it by means of fire, 
and also magical powers were ascribed. Their 
name Dactyls — that is, Fingers — is accounted for 
in various ways: by their number being five or 
ten, or by the fact of their serving Rhea just 
as the fingers serve the hand, or by the Italy 
of their having lived at the foot (iv hoxrvhois) 
of Mount Ida. Most authorities describe 
Mount Ida in Phrygia as the original IM( of 
the Dactyls, whence they nre usually called 
Idaean Dactyls. In Phrygia they wero con- 



DAEDALUS 267 

nected with the worship of Rhea. (Strab. p. 
473 ; Diod. xvii. 7 ; Ap. Rh. i. 1128.) They are 
sometimes confounded or identified with the 
Curetes, Corybantes, Cabiri, and Telehines. 
This confusion with the Cabiri also accounts for 
Samothrace being in some accounts described 
as their residence. Here they are said to have 
taught Orpheus ; for music, as well as magical 
incantation, is set down as their invention 
iClem. AL Strom, i. 132). Other accounts 
transfer them to Mount Ida in Crete, of which 
island they are said to have been the original 
inhabitants (Diod. v. 64 ; Plin. vii. 197 ; C. I. G. 
2374). With this tradition, no doubt, is con- 
nected their confusion with the Curetes (Strab. 
p. 466; Paus. v. 7, 6). Their number appears 
to have been originally three : Celmis (the 
smelter), Damnameneus (the hammer), and 
Acmon (the anvil). Their number was after- 
wards increased to five, ten (five male and five 
femalei, fifty- two and 100. 

Dadastana \i) Aabamava: Torbaleh or Kes- 
tabeg ?), a fortress on the borders of Bithynia 
and Galatia, where the emperor Jovian died 
suddenly, a.d. 364 (Amm. Marc. xxv. 10). 

Daedala «ra AaiSaXa), a city in Asia Minor, 
upon the Gulf of Glaucus, on the borders of 
Caria and Lycia. The same name was given 
to a mountain near the town (Strab. p. 664). 

Daedalus (Aai'SaAos). 1. A mythical per- 
sonage, under whose name the Greek writers 




Daedalus and Icarus. (From a relief In the Villa AJbanL) 

personified the earliest development of the arts 
of sculpture and architecture, especially among 
the Athenians and Cretans. Accordingly, some 
traditions represent Daedalus as an Athenian, 
of the royal race of the Ereehtludae (Diod. iv. 
76). Other traditions make him a Cretan ; and 
in accordance with this story Crete is regarded 
as the place where £6ava or daedala were first 
made. He is said to have been the son of 
Metion, the son of Eupalamus, the son of Erech. 
tli. ns. Others miik- him tin- son of Eupalamus, 
or of Palamaon. His mother is called Alcippe, 
or Iphinoe, or Plirasimede. He devoted him- 
seli to sculpture, and made great improvements 
in the art. He instructed his sister's son 
Tw.rs, who soon came to surpass him in skill 
and ingenuity, and Daedalus killed him through 
envy. I5eing <-<uiilt-inii»-<l t.i death by the Areio- 
pagus for this murder, he went to Crete, where 
the fame of his skill obtained for him the 
friendship of Minos. He made the well-known 
wooden cow for Pasiphai- ; and when Pasiphai" 
1 gavebirth to the Minotaur, Daedalus constructed 



268 



DAEMON 



DAMASCIUS 



the labyrinth, at Cnossus, in which the monster 
was kept. For his part in this affair, Daedalus 
was imprisoned by Minos ; but Pasiphae re- 
leased him, and, as Minos had seized all the 
ships on the coast of Crete, Daedalus made 
wings for himself and his son Icarus, and 
fastened them on with wax. Daedalus himself 
flew safe over the Aegaean, but, as Icarus flew 
too near the sun, the wax by which his wings 
were fastened on was melted, and he dropped 
down and was drowned in that part of the 
Aegaean which was called after him the Icarian 
sea (Diod. iv. 77 ; Ov. Met. vhi. 195). Daedalus 
fled to Sicily, where he was protected by 
Cocalus, the king of the Sicani. When Minos 
heard where Daedalus had taken refuge, he 
sailed with a great fleet to Sicily, where he 
was treacherously murdered by Cocalus or his 
daughters (Hyg. Fab. 39-44). According to 
some accounts Daedalus first alighted in his 
flight from Crete at Cumae in Italy, where he 
erected a temple to Apollo, in which he dedi- 
cated the wings with which he had fled from 
Crete (Verg. Aen. vi. 14; Sil. It. xii. 102). 
Several other works of art were attributed to 
Daedalus in Greece, Italy, Libya, the islands 
of the Mediterranean, and in Egypt (Diod. i. 
97; Paus. ix. 40). They belong to the period 
when art began to be developed. The name 
of Daedala was given by the Greeks to the 
ancient wooden statues, ornamented with gild- 
ing and bright colours and real drapery, which 
were the earliest known forms of the images 
of the gods, after the mere blocks of wood or 
stone which were at first used for symbols of 
them. [Diet, of Ant. s. v.] — 2. Of Sicyon, a 
statuary in bronze, son and disciple of Patrocles, 
flourished B.C. 400. 

Daemon (Aaifxuv). In general terms the 
iaijxovss may be described as beings interme- 
diate between gods and men. In Homer the 
word Salfiav seems to express a divine agency 
(II. hi. 420, xi. 192, xv. 418, 467 ; Od. x. 64, xviii. 
146), and it will be observed that it is most 
often a baneful or thwarting influence. Though 
Homer also calls the gods Sai/Aoves (H. i. 222), 
this distinction may be noted, that the word is 
an absolute synonym for 6ebs only when he uses 
the plural, speaking apparently of supernatural 
beings generally, whereas he does not in speak- 
ing of any one of the greater deities in person 
use the term Sai/iow. Hesiod defines more 
clearly: the Salfioves are 30,000 in number, 
and are the spirits of those who lived in the 
Golden Age : they walk abroad on the upper 
earth, shrouded in mist, watching over men, 
preserving justice and bestowing wealth in 
kingly fashion (Hes. Op. 121, 251). From this 
general conception many others branch off. (1) 
The Salfioiv is the supernatural agency which 
regards each human being (an idea partly sha- 
dowed out in Homer), and so is his own fate or 
fortune, good or bad (Aesch. Sept. 812; Soph. 
Aj. 534 ; Eur. Suppl. 592 ; Pind. Pyth. v. 115). 
(2) The idea of individual guardian spirits at- 
tending each human being from his birth to 
his burial [cf. Genius] was a philosophical de- 
velopment from the above (Plat. Phaed. p. 
107 D, Hep. x. p. 617 e) ; and from this again 
came the idea of the good and bad angel, or 
good and evil ' genius ' (Plut. Brut. 36). (3) 
Aoi/iocey -rrp6-Ko\oi were ministers (or, as von 
Sybel calls them, ' subalterns ') of the great 
deities. Such were the Corybantes of Cybele, 
Acratus the Zaifioov of Dionysus (Paus. i. 2, 4), 
Eurynomus in Hades (answering more nearly 
to the modern idea of demon), Themis, Nemesis, 



Muses, Glaucus, &c. With these, as inferior 
deities, ranked the personifications of natural 
processes such as "Tttvos and (davaros. (4) Like 
the dii Manes (and also the Genius), taifxuv 
meant also the spirit of the departed dead, and 
expressed the belief in immortality (Eur. Ale. 
1003). This is frequent in sepulchral inscrip- 
tions. In art, though each particular Sa'ifioov 
has its own attributes, it is a general character- 
istic of Saifioves (as distinguished from 6eoQ, 
that they are represented with wings. 

Dahae (Adai), a great Scythian people, who 
led a nomad life over a great extent of country 
on the E. of the Caspian, in Hyrcania (which 
still bears the name of Daghestan), on the 
banks of the Margus, the Oxus, and even the 
Jaxartes. Some of them served as cavalry and 
mounted archers in the armies of Darius Codo- 
mannus, Alexander and Antiochus, and they 
were also good foot-soldiers. (Strab. p. 511 ; 
Verg. Aen. viii. 728 ; Liv. xxxv. 48, xxxviii. 40.) 

Daimachus (Aalfiaxos), of Plataeae, was sent 
by Seleucus as ambassador to Sandrocottus, 
king of India, about b.c. 312, and wrote a work 
on India, which is lost (Strab. p. 70). 

Dalmatia or Delmatia (Aatyicma: Aa\fj.drris, 
more anciently AaXfiareis, Dalmata), a part of 
the country along the E. coast of the Adriatic 
sea included under the general name of Illyri- 
cum, was separated from Liburnia on the N. 
by the Titius (KerJca), and from Greek Illyria 
on the S. by the Drilon (Drino), and extended 
inland to to the Bebian mountains and the 
Drinus, thus nearly corresponding to the 
modern Dahnatia. The capital was Dalminium 
or Delminium, from which the country derived 
its name. The next most important town was 
Salona, the residence of Diocletian. The Dal- 
matians were a brave and warlike people, and 
gave much trouble to the Eomans. In B.C. 119 
their country was overrun by L. Metellus, who 
assumed in consequence the surname Dalma- 
ticus, but they continued independent of the 
Romans. In 39 they were defeated oy Asinius 
Pollio, of whose Dahnaticus triumphus Horace 
speaks (Od. ii. 1, 16) ; but it was not till the 
year 23 that they were finally subdued, by Sta- 
tilius Taurus. They took part in the great 
Pannonian revolt under their leader Bato, but 
after a three years' war were again reduced to 
subjection by Tiberius, a.d. 9. The province 
originally called Illyricum was after the time of 
Augustus usually known as Dalmatia (Dio 
Cass. xlix. 36 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 5). It comprised 
all the coast west of Macedonia from Lissus, 
and the river Drilon on the south to the river 
Arsia on the north, and was governed by a 
legatus Augusti pro praetor e : after 300 a.d. by 
a praeses. [Illyeicum.] 

Dalmatius. [Delmattus.J 

Dalminium. [Dalmatia.] 

Damagetus (Aa/xdyriros), king of Ialysus in 
Rhodes, married, in obedience to the Delphic 
oracle, the daughter of Aristomenes of Messene, 
and from this marriage sprang the family of the 
Diagoridae, who were celebrated for their vie-" 
tories at Olympia. [Aristomenes.] 

Damalis or Sous (Aa,uaAis, r/ BoCs), a small 
place in Bithynia, on the shore of the Thracian 
Bosporus, N. of Chalcedon ; celebrated by tra- 
dition as the landing-place of Io, the memory of 
whose passage was pi-eserved by a bronze cow 
set up here by the Chalcedonians. 

Damaratus. [Demabatus.] 

Damascius (Aa/idcrKios), the Syrian, of Da- 
mascus, whence he derived his name, the last of 
the renowned teachers of the Neo-Platonic 



DAMASCUS 



DAN ALA 



269 



philosophy at Athens, was bom about a.d. 480. 
He first studied at Alexandria and afterwards 
at Athens, under Marinus and Zenodotus, whom 
he succeeded. When Justinian closed the 
heathen schools of philosophy at Athens in 529, 
Damascius emigrated to King Chosroe's of 
Persia. He afterwards returned to the W., 
since Chosroe's had stipulated in a treaty that 
the heathen adherents of the Platonic philo- 
sophy should be tolerated by the Byzantine 
emperor. The only work of Damascius which 
has been printed is entitled Doubts and 
Solutions of the first Principles, edited by 
Kopp, Francof. 1S28, 8vo. 

Damascus (Acuuktkos), son of Hermes and 
Halimede, who migrated from Arcadia and 
founded the Syrian city which bore his name. 
When Dionysus on his eastern travels came 
there, Damascus opposed the planting of the 
vine, and was flayed alive by the god (Steph. 
Byz. s.v.). The story seems to be partly ety- 
mological, partly a mythical account of resist- 
ance offered to the introduction of the Bacchan- 
alian rites. 

Damascus (i) AaixaffKos : Aa/j.a(TKT)v6s : Da- 
meshk, Damascus, Esh-Sham), one of the most 
ancient cities of the world, mentioned as exist- 
ing in the time of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15), 
stood in the district afterwards called Coele- 
Syria, upon both banks of the river Chrysor- 
rhoas or Bardines (Burada), the waters of which, 
drawn off by canals and aqueducts, fertilised 
the plain around the city. This plain is open 
on the S. and E., and sheltered on the W. and 
N. by an offshoot of the Antilibanus ; its fruits 
were celebrated in ancient, as in modern times; 
and altogether the situation of the city is one of 
the finest on" the globe. For its earlier history 
see Diet, of the Bible. In the first century B.C. 
it was under a dynasty of Xabathaean kings , 
who made Petrae their residence (Jos. Ant. 
xiv. 1, 5). This dynasty lasted from 95 B.C. to 
106 a.d. with various degrees of independence. 
M. Aemilius Scaurus in 62 B.C. had a treaty 
with Aretas I. (Dio Cass, xxxvii. 15) ; but later 
there was more direct interference from the 
Romans (Strab. p 779 ; Jos. Ant. xiv. 11). In 
a.d. 89, Damascus was ruled by an (Bvapxys of 
Aretas II. In 106, when Arabia Petraea became [ 
a Roman province, Damascus was united with 
the province of Syria. It flourished greatly 
under the emperors, and is called by Julian 
(Epist. 24) ' the Eye of all the East.' Diocletian ! 
established in it a great factory for arms; and 
hence the origin of the fame of Damascus blades. 
Its position on one of the high roads from Lower 
to Upper Asia gave it a considerable trade. The 
surrounding district was called Aafj.arrKT)vr). 

Damasippus, L. Junius Brutus. [Biarus 
No. 10.] 

Damasippus, Licmius. 1. A Roman senator, 
fought on the side: of tin; Poiup'-iaiis in Africa, 
and perished B.C. 47 (Caes. B. C. ii. 44). — 2. A 
contemporary of Cicero, who mentions him as a 
lover of statues, and speaks of purchasing a 
garden from Damasippus. He is probably the 
same person as the Damasippus ridiculed by I 
Horace (Sat. ii. 8, 16, 64). It appears from I 
Horace that Damasippus had become bankrupt, 
in consequence of which he intended to put an 
end to himself; but he was prevented by the 
Stoic Stertinius, and then turned Stoic himself, 
or at least affected to be one in outward appear- 
ance. The Damasippus mentioned by Juvenal 
{Sat. viii. 147, 151, 167) is a fictitious name, 
under which the satirist ridiculed some uoble 
lover of horses. 



Damastes (Aafj.a<jrr)s), of Sigeum, a Greek his- 
torian, and a contemporary of Herodotus and 
Hellanlcus of Lesbos ; his works are lost (Strab. 
pp. 47, 583, 684). 

Damia'. [Auxesia.] 

Damnonii. 1. Or Dumnonii or Dunmunii, a 

powerful people in the SW. of Britain, inhabit- 
ing Cornwall, Devonshire, and the W. part of 
Somersetshire, from whom was called the 
promontory Damnonium, also Ocrinum [C. 
Lizard) in Cornwall. — 2. Or Damnii, a people 
m '\ Britain; inhabiting parte of Ferih, irgyn 
Stirling, and Dumbarton-shires. 

Damo ( Acuta 1 , a daughter of Pythagoras and 
Theano, to whom Pythagoras entrusted his 
writings, and forbade her to give them to any- 
one. This command she strictly observed, al- 
though she was in extreme poverty, and was 
often asked to sell them. (Diog. Laert. viii. 42. 1 

Damocles (Acuto/cATjs), a Syracusan, one 
of the companions and flatterers of the elder 
Dionysius. Damocles having extolled the great 
felicity of Dionysius on account of his wealth 
and power, the tyrant invited him to try what 
his happiness really was, and placed him at a 
magnificent banquet, in the midst of which 
Damocles saw a naked sword suspended over 
his head by a single horse-hair — a sight which 
quicklv dispelled all his visions of happiness. 
(Cic. Tusc. v. 21, 61; cf. Hor. Od. iii. 1, 7.) 

Damocritus, strategus of the Aetolians B.C. 

200, opposed the Romans, but was defeated at 
Heracleia near Mt. Oeta by Flamininus in 191. 
He was taken to Rome, to adorn the triumph, 
but escaped from his prison, and being pursued 
killed himself. (Pol. xvii. 10, xxii. 14 ; Liv. 
xxxi. 32, xxxv. 12, xxxvi. 24, xxxvii. 46.) 

Damon (Aa^coc). 1. Of Athens, a celebrated 
musician and sophist. He was a pupil of Lam- 
prus and Agathocles, and the teacher of Peri- 
cles, with whom he lived on the most intimate 
terms. He is also said to have taught Socrates, 
but this statement is more doubtful. In his old 
age be was banished from Athens, probably on 
account of the part he had taken in politics. 
(Diog. Laert. ii. 19.) — 2. A Pythagorean and 
friendof Phintiasiiiot Pythias). When thelatter 
was condemned to die for a plot against Diony- 
sius I. of Syracuse, he asked leave of the tyrant 
to depart for the purpose of arranging his do- 
mestic affairs, promising to find a friend who 
would be pledge for his appearance at the time 
appointed for his punishment. To the surprise 
of Dionysius, Damon unhesitatingly offered him- 
self to be put to death instead of his friend, 
should he fail to return. Phintias arrived just 
in time to redeem Damon, and Dionysius was so 
struck with this instance of firm friendship on 
both sides, that he pardoned the criminal, and 
entreated to be admitted as a third into their 
bond of brotherhood. (Cic. Tusc. v. 22, 68, da 
Of. iii. 10, 45 ; Diod. x. 3; Val. Max. ix. 7.) 

Damoxenus i Acui<jrei/os), an Athenian poet of 
the New Comedy, and partly of the Middle. 

Dana (Aava), in Cuppodocia (Xen. Anab. i. 2, 

201, the same as the later TyaNa. 

Danae lAavdr)), daughter of Acrisius, and 
mother of Perseus. For details, see AoBIBIUB. 
An Italiun legend related that Danae came to 
Italy, built the town of Ardea, and married 
Pilumnus, by whom she became mother of 
Daunus, ancestor of Turnus. (Verg. Aen. viii. 
371 ; Plin. iii. 50.) 

Danai. [Danaus.] 

Danaides fAcu-aiStj), the fifty daughters of 
Danatis. (Danats.) 

Danala (to AavaKa), a city in the territory of 



270 



DANAPRIS 



DAPHNIS 



the Trocini, in the NE. of Galatia, notable in 
the history of the Mithridatic war as the place 
where Lucullus resigned the command to 
Pompey (Plut. Lucull. 36). 

Danapris. [Boeysthenes.] 

Danastris. [Tyeas.] 

Danaus (&ava6s), son of Belus and twin- 
brother of Aegyptus. Belus had assigned Libya 
to Danaus, but the latter, fearing his brother 
and his brother's sons, fled with his fifty 
daughters to Argos. Here he was elected king 
by the Argives in place of Gelanor, the reign- 
ing monarch. The story of the murder of the 
fifty sons of Aegyptus by the fifty daughters of 




Daiiaids. (From a relief in the Vatican.) 



Danaiis (the Danaides) is given under Aegyp- 
tus. There was one exception to the mur- 
derous deed. The life of Lynceus was spared 
by his wife Hypermnestra ; and according to 
the common tradition he afterwards avenged 
the death of his brothers by killing his father- 
in-law, Danaus. According to the poets the 
Danaides were punished in Hades by being 
compelled everlastingly to pour water into a 
sieve or a jar with a hole in it (inane lymphae 
dolium /undo pereuntis imo, Hor. Ocl. iii. 11, 
26). — From Danaus the Argives were called 
Danai, which name, like that of the Argives, 
was often applied by the poets to the collective 
Greeks. 

Danubius (Danube, in Germ. Donau), also 
Danuvius on coins and inscriptions, called 
Ister ("larpos) by the Greeks, one of the chief 
rivers of Europe, rises in the Black Forest, and 
after flowing 1770 miles falls into the Black Sea. 
It is mentioned by Hesiod, but the Greeks 
knew very little about it. (Hes. Th. 338 ; Pind. 
01. iii. 25 ; Hdt. ii. 33.) According to Herodo- 
tus it rises at the city Pyrene among the Celts 
and flows through the whole of Europe. The 
Romans first obtained some accurate informa- 
tion concerning the river at the commencement 
of the empire. Tiberius in his campaign 
against the Vindelicians, visited the sources of 
the Danube, which, according to Tacitus, are 
in M. Abnoba. The Danube formed the N. 
boundary of the empire with the exception of 
the time that Dacia was a Roman province. 
In the Roman period the upper part of the 
river from its source as far as Vienna was 
called Danubius, while the lower part to its 
entrance in the Black Sea was named Ister. 

Daorsi or Daorizi, a tribe in Dalmatia. 

Daphnae Peluslae (Adipvai at YleAovo-iai : 
Safnas), a border fortress of Lower Egypt 
against Arabia and Syria, stood on the right 
hand of the Nile, 16 Roman miles SW. of 
Pelusium. Many Jews settled here after the 
destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. 

Daphne (Adrpv-ri). 1. Daughter of the river- 



god Ladon in Arcadia, by Ge (the earth) 
(Paus. viii. 20, x. 7, 8), or of the river-god 
Peneus in Thessaly (Ov. Met. i. 452; Hyg. 
Fab. 203) ; a third account makes her the 
daughter of the Laconian Amyclas, which 
explains the allusion in Verg. Eel. vi. 83 
(Parthen. Eroi. 15). She was extremely beauti- 
ful, and was loved by Apollo, who pursued her, 
and as she was on the point of being overtaken 
by him, she prayed for aid, and was metamor- 
phosed into a laurel- tree (Sdipvq), which 
became in consequence the favourite tree of 
Apollo : other stories make the Earth take her 
into her bosom, and send up a laurel in her 
stead (Tzetz. Lye. 6). In the Peloponnesian 
legends she had been beloved also by Leucip- 
pus, son of Oenomaus, who in order to win her 
disguised himself as a maiden ; but Apollo's 
jealousy caused his discovery and he was killed 
by the companions of Daphne (Paus. viii. 20 ; 
i Parthen. /. c). In these stories of Daphne 
j probably the older religion is preserved which 
worshipped the laurel tree itself. When this 
became part of Apollo's worship and the laurel 
j was regarded as sacred to him, the story of his 
love for Daphne and her transformation grew 
up. — 2. Daughter of Tiresias, better known 
under the name of Manto. 

Daphne (&d<pvri). 1. Beit-el-Moie, or Baby- 
, la (?), a beautiful spot, five miles S. of Antioch 
j in Syria, to which it formed a sort of park or 
pleasure garden. Here was a grove of laurels 
and cypresses, 80 stadia in circuit, watered by 
fresh springs and consecrated by Seleucus 
Nicator to Apollo, to whom also a magnificent 
' temple was built by Antiochus Epiphanes, and 
adorned with a splendid statue of the god by 
Bryaxis. (Hence the legend of •Daphne was 
transferred also to this spot : Auson. Clar. 
TJrb. 2.) To this temple were attached periodi- 
cal games and the privilege of asylum. Daphne 
was a royal residence of the Seleucidae and of 
the later Roman emperors, and a favourite 
resort of the people of Antioch, who, however, 
carried the pleasures they enjoyed here so far 
beyond the bounds of moderation, that the 
phrase Daphnici mores passed into a proverb. 
It was from this place that Antioch received its 
distinguishing name, 'A. eirl Ad<pvris (Strab. p. 
750 ; Amm. Marc. xix. 12 ; Polyaen. viii. 50). — 2. 
A place in Upper Galilee on the lake Seme- 
chonitis. 

Daphnis (Aatpvis), a Sicilian hero, to whom 
the invention of bucolic poetry is ascribed. 
He was the son of Hermes by a nymph (Aelian, 
V. S. x. 18). His mother placed him when an 
infant in a charming valley in a laurel grove, 
from which he received his name of Daphnis. 
He was brought up by nymphs ; was taught by 
Pan to play on the flute ; he became a shep- 
herd, and tended his flocks on Mt. Aetna 
winter and summer (Theocr. i. 67, vii. 74, viii. 
92 ; Parthen. Erot. 29). A Naiad fell in love 
with him, and made him swear that he would 
never love any other maiden, threatening him 
with blindness if he broke his oath. For a time 
the handsome shepherd resisted the numerous 
temptations to which he was exposed, but at last 
he forgot himself, having been made intoxicated 
by a princess. The Naiad accordingly punished 
him with blindness, or, as others relate, changed 
him into a stone. Previous to this time he had 
composed bucolic poetry, and with it delighted 
Artemis during the chase. After having 
become blind, he invoked his father to help him. 
The god accordingly raised him up to heaven, 
and caused a well to gush forth on the spot 



DAPHNUS 



DARIUS 



271 



where this happened. The well bore the name | 
of Daphnis, and at it the Sicilians offered an 
annual sacrifice. This account Aelian seems to 
Y.-.ive derived from Stesichorus, and some have 
conjectured that Stesichorus introduced the \ 
story in reference to his own blindness. In 
Theocritus there is a different story, with no 
allusion to blindness and another ending to his 
life. Daphnis in despair at unrequited love for 
Xenia drowns himself and is mourned by all 
nature. This unrequited love is explained as 
being the punishment sent by Aphrodite, either 
because Daphnis preferred music to love, or 
according to the other legend, because he had 
been faithless. From Athen. p. 415 comes 
another story, related in a Satyric drama of 
Sositheus, which represents Daphnis as seeking 
his love, named Piplea, and coming to Lityerses 
in Phrygia, who made all strangers vie with 
him in reaping his corn and then killed them 
when they were defeated. Heracles helps 
Daphnis, and Lityerses is killed. In this story 
Daphnis instead of being the deity or hero of 
herdsmen, is adopted into the myths of the 
corn-spirit and the harvest sacrifices. 

Daphnus (Aafpvovs, -ovvtos : Aa<pvov<rios), a 
town of the Locri Opuntii, in earlier times be- 
longing to Phocis (Strab. p. 416). 

Daradax (AopaSaf : Abu-Ghah/al?), a river 
of Upper Syria, flowing into the Euphrates, 30 
parasangs from the R, Chalos, and 15 from 
Thapsacus. 

Daras, a town of Mesopotamia, about 12 
miles from Nisibis : it was strongly fortified by 
the Greek emperors as a barrier against the 
Persians (Procop. Bell. Pers. ii. 13). 

Dardani lAdpoavot). 1. [Dakdania.] — 2. A 
people in Upper Moesia, who also occupied 
part of Ulyricum, and extended as far as the 
frontiers of Macedonia (Strab. p. 316). 

Dardania (AapZavla), a district of the Troad, 
lying along the Hellespont, SW. of Abydos, 
and adjacent on the land side to the territories 
of Ilium and Scepsis (Strab. pp. 502, 006). Its 
people, the Dardani I AipSavoi), were apparently 
akin to the Trojans, both having descended 
from the highlands of Asia Minor towards the 
coast. Probably the name Dardani originally 
included the Trojan branch as well, and had 
also been carried in a more distant migration of 
the same people in ' Pelasgic ' wanderings to 
Ulyricum. Their name seems to be rightly 
traced on Egyptian records of about 1300 as 
allies of the Hittites who were defeated by 
Ramses II. In the Iliad they appear as fight- 
ing under command of Aeneas in defence of 
Troy (ii- 819, xv. 425) ; and their name in Latin 
poets is often interchanged with that of the 
Trojans. — 2. The name Dardania belonged 
under the empire to southern Dacia, whose 
chief town was Serdica (Sophia). 

Dardanus (AapSavos), son of Zeus and 
Electra. His native place in the various 
traditions is Samothrace, Crete, Troas, or Italy. 
Dardanus is the mythical ancestor of the 
Trojans, and through them of the Romans. 
From Samothrace he passed over to Asia, 
where he received a tract of land from king 
Teucer, on which he built the town of Dardania. 
He married Batea, daughter of Teucor, or 
Arisbe of Crete, by whom he became the father 
of Erichthonius. [Another tradition makes 
him marry Chryse, daughter of the Arcadian 
Pallas: see Deimas.] His grandson was Tros, 
who removed to Troy the Palladium, which had 
belonged to his grandfather {II. xx. 215; 
Strab. pp. 331, 50; Apollod. iii. 12; Diod. iv. 



75, v. 48 ; Paus. vii. 19). According to the 
Italian traditions, Dardanus was the son of 
Corythus, an Etruscan prince of Corythus 
(Cortona), or of Zeus by the wife of Corythus ; 
and, as in the Greek tradition, he afterwards 
emigrated to Phrygia (Verg. Aen. iii. 167, vii. 
210 ; Serv. ad loc). 

Dardanus (r/ AxpSavos : AapSavtvs), also, 
-um and -ium, a Greek city in the Troad on 
the Hellespont, near the Prom. Dardanis or 
Dardanium and the mouth of the river Rhodius, 
12 Roman miles from Ilium, and 9 (or 70 
stadia) from Abydus. It was built by Aeolian 
colonists, at some distance from the site of the 
ancient city Dardania (AapSav'irj), which is 
mentioned by Homer (II. ii. 216) as founded by 
Dardanus before the building of Ilium (of. 
Strab. p. 592). The Romans, after the war with 
Antiochus the Great, made Dardanus and 
Ilium free cities, as an act of filial piety. The 
peace between Sulla and Mithridates was 
made here, B.C. 84 (Strab. p. 595; Plut. Sull. 
24). From Dardanus arose the name of the 
Castles of the Dardanelles, after which the 
Hellespont is now called. 

Dares (Aaprjs), a priest of Hephaestus at 
Troy, mentioned in the Iliad (v. 9), to whom 
was ascribed in antiquity an Iliad, which was 
believed to be more ancient than the Homeric 
poems (Ael. V. H. xi. 2; Isid. i. 41). There is 
extant a Latin work in prose in 44 chapters, 
on the destruction of Troy, bearing the title 
Daretis Phrygii de Excidio Trojae Historia, 
and purporting to be a translation of the work 
of Dares by Cornelius Nepos. But the Latin 
work is evidently of much later origin : possibly 
of the fifth century a.d. (It must be earlier 
than the seventh century, since Isidore is 
acquainted with it.) It has little merit, but is 
important, because it was accepted as the 
1 translation from the writings of an eye-witness 
of the Trojan war fas it claimed to be), and 
became the chief source of Trojan romances in 
the Middle Ages. It is usually printed with 
Dictys Cretensis : the best edition is by 
Meister, Lips. 1873. 

Darius (Aapuos). I., King of Persia, B.C. 
521-485, was the son of Hystaspes, satrap of 
the province of Persis, and of the royal family 
of the Achaemenidae. He had served under 
Cambyses in Egypt, and with six other Persian 
chiefs slew the usurper Gomatas [Smeudis], and 
possessed himself of the Persian throne. 
According to Herodotus (iii. 85), the seven 
chiefs agreed that the one of them whose horse 
neighed first at an appointed time and place, 
should become king; and as the horse of Darius 
neighed first, he was declared king. He 
married Atossa and Artystone, the two daugh- 
ters of Cyrus, and Parmys, the daughter of 
Cyrus's son Smerdis, and Phaedime, the 
daughter of Otanes, one of the seven chiefs. 
He then began to set in order the affairs of his 
vast empire, which he divided into twenty 
sn tr.i] lies, assigning to ea-h its amount of tribute. 
Persis proper wasexempted from all taxes, except 
those which it had formerly been used to pay. 
It was in the reign of Darius that the consoli. 
dation of the empire was effected, for Cyrus 
and Cambyses had been engaged in continual 
wars. — A few years after his accession the 
Babylonians revolted, but aftera siege of twenty 
months, Babylon was taken (as Herodotus 
I relates, iii. ]H3) by a stratagem of ZOPYBTJH in 
j 51(1. The reduction of Babylon was followed 
by the invasion of Scythia (about 503). Darius 
I crossed the Danube, and marched far into tlui 



272 



DASCON 



DECIUS 



interior of modern Russia ; but after losing a 
large number of men by famine, and being 
unable to meet with the enemy, he was obliged 
to retreat (Hdt. iv. 1). On his return to Asia, 
he sent part of his forces, under Megabazus, to 
subdue Thrace and Macedonia, which thus be- 
came subject to the Persian empire. In the reign 
of Darius began the great war between the Per- 
sians and the Greeks. The details of this war 
belong to the biographies of other men. In 501 
the Ionian Greeks revolted ; they were assisted 
by the Athenians, who burnt Sardis, and thus 
provoked the hostility of Darius. [Aeistagoras ; 
Histiaeus.] In 492 Mardonius was sent with 
a large army to invade Greece, but he lost a 
great part of his fleet off Mt. Athos, and the 
Thracians destroyed a vast number of his land 
forces. [Mabdonius.] He was, in consequence, 
recalled, and Datis and Artaphernes appointed 
to the command of the invading army. They 
took Eretria in Euboea, and landed in Attica, 
but were defeated at Marathon by the Athe- 
nians under the command of Miltiades. [Mil- 
tiades.] Darius now resolved to call out the 
whole force of his empire for the purpose of 
subduing Greece : but, after three years of pre- 
paration, his attention was called off by the 
rebellion of Egypt. He died in 485, leaving 
the execution of his plans to his son Xerxes. 
Darius was great both as a conqueror and as 
an organiser. To him especially is due the 
centralisation of the Persian government 
at Susa with which the twenty satrapies were 
connected by roads and posts. — II., King, 
of Persia, 424-405, named Ochus (TQxo's) 
before his accession, and then surnamed 
Nothus (N68os), or the Bastard, from his 
being one of the bastard sons or Artaxerxes I. 
Darius obtained the crown by putting to death 
his brother Sogdianus, who had murdered 
Xerxes II. He married Parysatis, daughter 
of Xerxes I., by whom he had two sons, 
Artaxerxes II., who succeeded him, and Cyrus 
the younger. Darius was governed by eunuchs, 
and the weakness of his government was shown 
by repeated insurrections of his satraps. In 414 
the Persians were expelled from Egypt by 
Amyrtasus, who reigned there six years, and at 
whose death (408) Darius was obliged to recog- 
nise his son Pausiris as his successor. (Ctes. 
Pers. 44-56; Diod. xii. 71, xiii. 36, 76. 108; 
Xen. Hell, i.2, ii. 1.)— III., Last king of Persia, 
336-331, named Codomannus before his acces- 
sion, was the son of Arsames and Sisygambis, 
and a descendant of Darius II. He was raised 
to the throne by Bagoas, after the murder of 
Arses. The history of his overthrow by Alex- 
ander the Great, and of his death, is given in 
the life of Alexander. 

Dascon (AdcrKwv: AaiTKwvios), a fortress near 
Syracuse, situated on a bay of the same name. 

Dascylium (Aa<TKv\iov or -eiov : Aaovci/AiTrjs : 
Diaskili), a town of western Bithynia, on the 
Propontis, upon a small lake Dascylitis, be- 
tween the sea and two larger lakes, Apolloniatis 
and Miletopolitis (Strab. p. 575 ; Hdt. iii. 120). 

Dasea (Aaaia, also Aacreai : Aatrtdrris), a 
town in Arcadia near Megalopolis (Paus. viii. 3). 

Dassaretii or Dassaritae, Dassaretae (Aa<r- 
<ra(n\rioi, AaacrapiTcu), a people in Greek Illyria 
on the borders of Macedonia : their chief town 
was Lychnidus (Avxvihos), on a hill, on the N. 
side of the lake Lychnitis, which was so called 
after the town (Strab. p. 318). 

Datames (Aa-ra^s), a distinguished Persian 
general, a Carian by birth, son of Camissares 
by a Scythian mother. He succeeded his 



father as satrap of Cilicia, under Artaxerxes II. 
(Mnemon), but, in consequence of the machina- 
tions of his enemies at the Persian court, he 
threw off his allegiance to the king, and joined 
the other satraps who had revolted from Persia. 
He defeated the generals who were sent against 
him, but was assassinated by Mithridates, son of 
Ariobarzanes, about B.C. 362. Cornelius Nepos, 
who has written his life, calls him the bravest 
and most able of all barbarian generals, except 
Hamilcar and Hannibal. (Nep. Datames ; Diod. 
xv. 91 ; Polyaen. vii. 21, 29.) 

Datis (Aaris), a Mede, commanded, along 
with Artaphernes, the Persian army of Darius 
which was defeated at Marathon, B.C. 490. 

Datum or Datus (Aarov, Adros: AaT7)cos),a 
Thracian town on the Strymonic gulf, subject 
to Macedonia, with gold mines in Mt. Pangaeus 
in the neighbourhood, whence came the proverb 
a ' Datum of good things ' (Strab. pp. 331, _36).- 

Daulis or Daulia (Aav\'is, -i'5os, Aav\la: Aav- 
\ievs, Aavkws), an ancient town in Phocis on 
the road from Chaeronea and Orchomenus to 
Delphi, situated on a lofty hill (Strab. p. 423 ; 
Paus. x. 4, 7) ; celebrated in mythology as the 
residence of the Thracian king Tereus, and as 
the scene of the tragic story of Philomela and 
Procne. Hence Daulias (AavMos) is the sur- 
name both of Procne and Philomela. 

Daunia. [Apulia.] 

Daunus (Aawos). 1. Son of Lycaon, and 
brother of Iapyx and Peucetius. The three 
brothers crossed over from Illyria, and settled in 
Apulia, which was divided into three parts, and 
named after them. The poets sometimes gave 
the name of Daunia to the whole of Apulia : 
Horace (Od.i. 22, 14) uses the adjective Daunias 
(sc. terra). [Apulia.] — 2. Son of Pilumnus and 
Danae, wife of Venilia, and ancestor of Turnus. 

Decebalus (AtKefiaKos), a celebrated king of 
the Dacians during the reigns of Domitian and 
Trajan. For 4 years (a.d. 86-90) he carried on 
war against the Eomans with such success, that 
Domitian was at length glad to conclude peace 
with him by the payment of an annual tribute. 
Trajan refused to continue this disgraceful pay- 
ment, and renewed the war. He defeated the 
Dacians, and compelled Decebalus to sue for 
peace (101-103). But in 104 the war broke out 
again ; Decebalus was again defeated, and put 
an end to his own life ; and Dacia became a 
Roman province, 106. (Dio Cass, lxvii. 6, lxviii. 
6 ; Eutrop. vii. 15 ; Oros. vii. 10.) 

Decelea or -ia (Ae/c6A.<=toi : Ae/ceAeiis : Tatoi), 
a demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Hip- 
pothoontis, lay NW. of Athens, on the borders 
of Boeotia, near the sources of the Cephissus. 
In the nineteenth year of the Peloponnesian 
war (B.C. 413), the Peloponnesians under Agis 
seized and fortified Decelea, and thereby annoyed 
the Athenians during the remainder of the war. 

Decentlus Magnus, brother or cousin of Mag- 
nentius, by whom he was created Caesar, a.d. 
351. After the death of Magnentius, he put 
an end to his own life, 353. 

Decetia (Desize), a city of the Aedui, in Gallia. 
Lugdunensis, on an island in the Liger (Loire). 

Deciates, a Ligurian people on the coast and 
about the sources of the Druentia (Durance). 
Their chief city, Deciatum (AeKirirov), lay be- 
tween Nicaea and Antipolis. (Pol. xxxiii. 7; 
Strab. p. 202.) 

Decidius Saxa. [Saxa.] 

P. Decius Mils (of a plebeian gens). 1. 
Consul B.C. 340 with T. Manlius Torquatus in 
the great Latin war. Each of the consuls had 
a vision in the night, announcing that the 



DECIUS 



DEIPHOBUS 



273 



general of one 9ide and the army of the other 
were devoted to death. The consuls there- 
upon agreed that the one whose wing first 
began to waver should devote himself and the 
army of the enemy to destruction. Decius 
commanded the left wing, which began to give 
way, whereupon he devoted himself and the 
army of the enemy to destruction, according to 
the formula prescribed by the pontifex maxi- 
mus, then rushed into the thickest of the enemy, 
and was slain, leaving the victory to the Ro- 
mans. (Liv. vii. 34, viii. 6 ; Cic. Div. i. 24, 51, 
Tusc. i. 37, 89.) — 2. Son of the preceding, four 
times consul, 312, 308, 297 and 295. In his 
fourth consulship he commanded the left wing 
at the battle of Sentinum, where he was op- 
posed to the Gauls, and when his troops began 
to give way, he imitated the example of his 
father, devoted himself and the enemy to de- 
struction, and fell as a sacrifice for his nation. 
(Liv. x. 7, 27.) — 3. Son of No. 2, consul 279, in 
the war against Pyrrhus. According to some 
he sacrificed himself in battle like his father 
and grandfather, but this is not true, for he 
survived the war with Pyrrhus. (Flor. i. 18, 21 ; 
Oros. iv. 5 ; Val. Max. ix. 1.) 

Seems, Roman emperor, a.d. 249-251, whose 
full name was C. Messius Quistus Trajanus 
Decius, was born at Bubalia in Pannonia. He 
was sent by the emperor Philippus in 249 to re- 
store subordination in the army of Moesia, but 
the troops compelled him to accept the purple 




Decius, Roman Emperor A.D. 241-251. 
Obv.. IMP. C. K. Q TRAIANVS DECICS AVG. ; bust of 
Decias. radiate: rfr.. PANNONIA : figures of Upper and 
Lower Pannonia. holdLng standard and cornucopia. 

under threats of death. Decius still assured 
Philippus of his fidelity ; but the latter, not 
trusting these professions, hastened to meet his 
rival in the field, was defeated near Verona, and 
slain. The short reign of Decius was chiefly 
occupied in warring against the Goths. He fell 
in battle against them, in the marshes near 
Forum Trebonii in Moesia, together with his 
son, in 251. In his reign the Christians were 
persecuted with great severity ; but he was in 
the rest of his administration, and wholly in 
his military activity, deserving of admiration. 
(Aurel. Vict. Cae.8. 28 ; Zos. i. 21.) 
Decimates Agri. [Aori Decumates.] 
Deianira iArt'idv(tpa), daughter of Althaea by 
either Oeneus, or Dionysus, or Dexamenus, and 
sister of Meleager. Achelous and Heracles both 
loved Deianira, and fought for the possession 
of her. Heracles was victorious, and she be- 
came his wife. She was the unwilling cause of 
her husband's death by presenting him with the 
poisoned robe which the centaur Nessus gave 
her. In despair she put an end to her own life. 
For details see Heracles. 

DeIdamia(A7)i8dViat. 1- Daughter of Lyco- 
modes in the island of Scyrus. When Achilles 
was concealed there in maiden's attire, she be- 
came by him the mother of Pyrrhus or Neopto- 
lemus. [Achilles. 1 — 2. Wife of Pirithous, 
commonly called Hippod amia. — 3. Sister of 
Pyrrhu3, married Demetrius Poliorcetes. 



Deimas (Adfias), son of Dardanus and 
Chryse, who settled in Arcadia (Dionys. i. 61). 

Deioces (A7jio«:7js), first king of Media, after 
the Medes had thrown off the supremacy of the 
Assyrians, was the son of Phraortes, and reigned 
B.C. 709-656. He built the city of Ecbatana, 
which he made the royal residence. His ad- 
ministration of justice was severe, and he kept 
a body of spies and informers throughout the 
whole country. He was succeeded by his son, 
Phraortes. (Hdt. i. 95-102.) 

Deion (Arjiuiv), son of Aeolus and Enarete, 
king in Phocis, husband of Diomede, and father 
of Asteropia, Aenetus, Actor, Phylacus, and 
Cephalus. 

Deione (A7ji'c£j/r;), mother of Miletus, who is 
hence called Deionides (Ov. Met. ix. 442). 

Deiotarus (ArfioTapos). 1. Tetrarch of Ga- 
latia, adhered firmly to the Eomans in their 
wars in Asia against Mithridates, and was re- 
warded by the senate with the title of king, and 
the addition of Armenia Minor to his dominions 
(Cic. Deiot. v. 12 ; Bell. Alex. 68). In the Civil 
war he sided with Pompey, and was present at 
the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48 (Cic. Deiot. v. 
13: Caes. B. C. hi. 4). In 47 he applied to 
Domitius Calvinus, Caesar's legate in Asia, for 
aid against Pharnaces, who had taken posses- 
sion of Armenia Minor. When Caesar, in the 
same year, came into Asia from Egypt, Deio- 
tarus received him with submission, and en- 
deavoured to excuse the aid he had given t< 
Pompey. Caesar deprived him of part of his 




Deiotarus. Tetrarch of Galatia. 
Obv.. bust of Nike: rev., ahiotapoy; eagle on sword in 
sheath ; on right, pileus of Dioscuri. 

dominions, but allowed him to retain his regal 
title. Two years afterwards (45) his grandson 
Castor accused him of having formed a design 
against Caesar's life, when he received Caesar 
in Galatia. He was defended by Cicero before 
Caesar, in the house of the latter at Rome, in 
the speech (pro Bege Deiotaro) still extant 
(cf. Cic. ad Att. v. 17). The result of the trial 
is not known ; but it seems likely that Cicero's 
advocacy so far prevailed on Caesar that the 
prosecution was dropped. After Caesar's death 
he obtained from Antony the restitution of his 
dominions by paying Fulvia a large sum oi" 
money. In 42, he joined the party of Brutus 
and Cassius, and died shortly afterwards at a 
great age. (Cic. Phil. ii. 87 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 
83.) — 2. Son and successor of the above. In 
the war between Antony and Octavian he took 
part with the former, but went over from him 
to the enemy in the battle of Actium, 81. 

Delphobe (Ari'i<p6Bv)< ' ne Sibyl at Cumae, 
daughter of Glaucus. [Sibylla.] 

Deiphobus (A7)i<f>of3os), a son of Priam and 
Hecuba, and next to Hector the bravest among 
the Trojans (II. xii. 94, xiii. 410; Od. iv. 27«). 
He always supported Paris in his refusal to 

j deliver up Helen to the Trojans ; and he married 
her after the death of Paris. Accordingly, on 
the fall of Troy, the vengeance of the Greek* 
was chiefly directed against him. His house 

I was one of the first committed to the flames, 

T 



274 



DEIPHONTBS 



DELPHI 



and he was slain and fearfully mangled by 
Menelaus. In this dreadful condition he was 
found in the lower world by Aeneas, who erected 
a monument to him on Cape Rhoeteum. (Verg. 
Aen. vi. 493 ; cf . Od. viii. 417 ; Hyg. Fab. 110 ; 
Diet. Cret. i. 10 ; Eur. Troad. 960.) 

Deiphontes (A-r\icp6vT7)s), son of Antimachus, 
and husband of Hyrnetho, the daughter of 
Temenus the Heraclid, became king of Argos, 
after Temenus had been murdered by his own 
sons (Apollod. ii. 8). Pausanias (ii. 19) gives a 
different account. 

Belrum (A-t)\wv : Dhilessi), a town on the 
coast of Boeotia, in the territory of Tanagra, 
near the Attic frontier, named after a temple 
of Apollo similar to that at Delos. The Athe- 
nians used it as a fortress in the early part of 
the Peloponnesian war, and in B.C. 424 they 
were defeated here by the Boeotians. (Thuc. iv. 
90 ; Strab. p. 403.) 

DellUS and Delia (AvjAios, A-q\'id), surnames 
of Apollo and Artemis respectively, from the 
island of Delos. 

5 slims, Q., a Roman eques, who frequently 
changed sides in the civil wars. In B.C. 44 he 
joined Dolabella in Asia, afterwards went over 
to Cassius, and then united himself to M. An- 
tony. He deserted to Oetavian shortly before 
the battle of Actium, 31. He appears to have 
become a personal friend of Oetavian and Mae- 
cenas, and is therefore addressed by Horace in 
one of his Odes (ii. 3). He wrote a history of 
Antony's war against the Parthians, in which 
he had himself fought. (Plut. Ant. 25 ; Dio Cass, 
xlix. 39, 1. 13, 23 ; Strab. p. 523.) 

Delmatius or Dalmatius. 1. Son of Con- 
stantius Chlorus and his second wife, Theodora. 
From his half-brother, Constantine the Great, 
he received the title of censor ; he died before 
a.d. 335. — 2. Son of the preceding, was created 
Caesar by Constantine the Great, 335; and, 
upon the division of the empire, received Thrace, 
Macedonia, and Achaia, as his portion. He 
was put to death in 337 on the death of Con- 
stantine. (Aurel. Vict. Caes. 41.) 

Delos or Delus (fi Atjaos: ArjAios: Delo,Deli, 
Dili, Sdilli, Bu.), the smallest of the islands 
called Cyclades, in the Aegaean Sea, lay in the 
strait between Rhenea and Myconus. It was 
also called in earlier times, Asteria, Ortygia, and 
Chlamydia. According to a legend, founded 
perhaps on some tradition of its late volcanic 
origin, it was called out of the deep by the tri- 
dent of Poseidon, but was a floating island until 
Zeus fastened it by adamantine chains to the 
bottom of the sea, that it might be a secure 
resting-place to Leto, for the birth of Apollo 
and Artemis. Apollo afterwards obtained pos- 
session of Delos, by giving Calauria to Poseidon 
in exchange for it ; and it became the most holy 
seat of the worship of Apollo (Hymn, ad Del. 
49 ; Callim. Del. 35 ; Pind. Fr. 64 ; Verg. Aen. 
iii. 75 ; Plin. iv. 66). Such is the mythical 
story : we learn from history that Delos was 
peopled by the Ionians, for whom it was the 
chief centre of political and religious union in 
the time of Homer : it was also the seat of an 
Amphictyony, comprising the surrounding is- 
lands. In the time of Pisistratus, Delos became 
subject to the Athenians ; it was made the 
common treasury of the Greek confederacy for 
carrying on the war with Persia ; but the trans- 
ference of the treasury to Athens, and the 
altered character of the league, reduced the 
island to a condition of absolute political 
dependence upon Athens. It still possessed, 
however, a very extensive commerce, which 



was increased by "the downfall of Corinth, when 
Delos became the chief emporium for the trade 
in slaves ; and it was one of the principal seats 
of art in Greece, especially for works in bronze, 
of which metal one of the most esteemed 
mixtures was called the Delian. An especial 
sanctity was attached to Delos from its con- 
nexion with the worship of Apollo ; and the 
peculiar character assigned to the island by 
the traditions of its origin was confirmed by 
the remarkable fact that, though of volcanic 
origin, and in the midst of islands very subject 
to earthquakes, Delos enjoyed an almost entire 
exemption from such visitations, so that its 
being shaken by an earthquake was esteemed 
a marked prodigy (Hdt. vi. 98; Thuc. ii. 8; 
Plin. I. c). The city of Delos stood on the W. 
side of the island at the foot of Mt. Cynthus 
(whence the god's surname of Cynthius), near 
a little river called Inopus. It contained a 
temple of Leto, and the great temple of Apollo. 
The latter was built near the harbour, and 
possessed an oracle. Though enriched with 
offerings from all Greece, and defended by no 
fortifications, it was so protected from plunder 
by the sanctity of the place, that even the 
Persians, when sailing against Greece, not only 
passed it by uninjured, but sent rich presents 
to the god. "With this temple were connected 
games, called Delia, which were celebrated 
every four years, and were said to have been 
founded by Theseus. A like origin is ascribed 
to the sacred embassy (dewpia) which the Athen- 
ians sent to Delos every year. (Diet, of Ant. art. 
Delia ; Theoris. ) The temple and oracle were 




Coin of Delos. 



Obv., head of Apollo ; rev., lyre of Apollo and legend ah. 

visited by pilgrims from every quarter, even 
from the regions of Scythia. The greatest im- 
portance was attached to the preservation of 
the sanctity of the island. It was twice purified 
by the Athenians : once under Pisistratus, when 
all tombs within sight of the temple were taken 
away ; and again in B.C. 422, when all human 
and animal remains were removed entirely from 
the island, which was henceforth forbidden to 
be polluted by births or deaths, or by the pre- 
sence of dogs : all persons about to die or to bring 
forth children were to be removed to the adja- 
cent island of Rhenea. Delos continued in a 
flourishing condition, and under the rule of the 
Athenians, who were confirmed in the possession 
of it by the Romans, until the Mithridatic war, 
when Menophanes, one of the generals of 
Mithridates, inflicted upon it a devastation, 
from which it never again recovered. — In recent 
years (since 1873) important researches have 
been made in Delos by the French Archaeological 
School. The buildings on Mt. Cynthus, the 
theatre, the temple of Apollo, part of the Agora, 
and other buildings, have been excavated. 

Delphi (of AeAcpoi : Ae\<p6s : Kastri), a small 
town in Phocis, but one of the most celebrated 
in Greece, on account of its oracle of Apollo. 
It was 16 stadia in circumference, was situated 
on a steep declivity on the S. slope of Mt. Pab- 
nassus, and its site resembled the cavea of a 
great theatre. It was shut in on the N. by a 
barrier of rocky mountains, which were cleft in. 



DELPHI 275 

the centre into two great cliffs with peaked generally given, from 8e\<j>6s, womb, is right, 

summits, between which, from the rocks called and that it was called Delphi because it stood 

Phaedriadae, issued the waters of the Castalian in a deep ravine. Delphi was colonised at an 

spring. The rocks from which the spring early period by Doric settlers from the neigh- 




View of Delphi and Mount Parnassus. 



issues were called Hyampeia (now Flembuko), bouring town of Lycorea, on the heights of 

and from them, or from the neighbouring rock Parnassus. The government was an oligarchy, 

Nauplia, were hurled criminals (Hdt. viii. 39 ; and was in the hands of a few distinguished 

Eur. Ion, 1266 ; Plut. de Her. Num. Vind. 12). families of Doric origin. From thein were 

It was originally called Pytho iriu0uj),by which taken the chief magistrates, the priests, and a 




Map of I'plphl. 

A A, wallH of PhilomcluB ; IJIi. tho phaedrlndao ; C. sepulchres ; I». throe temploH; E. Temple of Athene Pronoln ; 

F. Sanctuary of Phylacus ; G. (tymniLHluin ; H. Sanctuary of Autonous ; I, Naupllu? (ItoUhinit ; K. Hyampeia M-'lrm- 

Hto); L, Fountain of Costalla : M, Fountain of I'clphusa (AYrmi> : N.Synedrlon. 
The Sacred Knelosuro — 1. the Temple ; the (Sreat Altar ; :i. Thesauri ! i. Boulcutcrion ; C, Btoa of the Athenians ; 

6. Oravo of Nooptolcmus J 7. Fountain of Cassulls ; H. Losche ; », Theatre. 

name alone it is mentioned in Homer. The senate consisting of a very few members. Delphi 
ancients derived the name of Delphi from an ! was regarded as the central point of the whole 
eponymous* hero, Dclphus, a descendant of Deu- earth, and was hence called the 'navel of tho 
calion ; it is probable that the derivation now I earth.' It wus suid thut two eagles sent forth 

T 2 



270 



DELPHI 



DEMETAE 



by Jupiter, one from the E. and one from the 
W., met at Delphi. — Delphi was the principal 
seat of the worship of Apollo, whose name is 
most intimately associated with it; but Dio- 
nysus, too, was especially worshipped here, and 
many of the Delphic festivals were in his 
honour. [See Apollo ; Dionysus ; Pabnassds.] 
Besides the great temple of Apollo, it contained 
numerous sanctuaries, statues, and other works 
of art. The Pythian games were also celebrated 
here, and it was one of the two places of meet- 
ing of the Amphictyonic council. Pausanias, 
approaching by the road Schiste, passed four 
temples, of which the fourth was that of 
Athene Pronoia (cf. Dem. c. Aristog. i. p. 780, 
§ 34), where sacrifices were offered before con- 
sulting the oracle ; beyond this the sanctuary 
of Phylacus, a hero who had given supernatural 
aid against both Persians and Greeks ; beyond 
this the Gymnasium, where now stands the 
monastery of Pcmaghia ; thence to the temple 
of Apollo, on the way to which were passed the 
Stoa of the Athenians, and several treasuries, 
small buildings partly above and partly below 
the earth ; to the right (North) of these was the 
senate-house. The temple of Apollo was situ- 
ated at the NW. extremity of the town. The 
first stone temple was built by Trophonius and 
Agamedes ; and when this was burnt down, B.C. 
548, it was rebuilt by the Amphictyons with 
still greater splendour. The expense was de- 
frayed by voluntary subscriptions, to which 
even Amasis, king of Egypt, contributed. The 
architect was Spintharus of Corinth ; the Alc- 
maeonidae contracted to build it, and liberally 
substituted Parian marble for the front of the 
building, instead of the common stone which 
they had agreed to employ. The temple con- 
tained immense treasures ; for not only were 
rich offerings presented to it by kings and 
private persons who had received favourable 
replies from the oracle, but many of the Greek 
states had in the temple separate thesauri, in 
which they deposited, for the sake of security, 
many of their valuable treasures. The wealth 
of the temple attracted Xerxes, who sent part 
of his army into Phocis to obtain possession of 
its treasures, but the Persians were driven back 
by the god himself, according to the account of 
the Delphians. The Phocians plundered the 
temple to support them in the war against 
Thebes and the other Greek states (357-346) ; 
and it was robbed at a later time by Beennus 
and by Sulla. — In the centre of the temple 
there was a small opening (xaafxa) in the ground, 
from which, from time to time, an intoxicating 
vapour arose, which was believed to come from 
the well of Cassotis. No traces of this chasm 
or of the mephitic exhalations are now any- 
where observable. Over this chasm there stood 
a tripod, on which the priestess, called Pythia, 
took her seat whenever the oracle was to be 
consulted. The words which she uttered after 
exhaling the vapour were believed to contain 
the revelations of Apollo. They were carefully 
written down by the priests, and afterwards 
communicated in hexameter verse to the per- 
sons who had come to consult the oracle. Be- 
yond the temple was the Lesche of the Cni- 
dians, adorned with paintings by Polygnotus, 
between.which and the temple was the fountain 
of Cassotis (cf. Eur. Ion, 112), and west of this 
the Theatre ; outside the sacred peribolus of 
walls came the Stadium, and near it the foun- 
tain Delphusa, which chiefly supplied the town ; 
below this, on the road to Crissa, was the sub- 
urb called Pylaea, where was the Synedrion 



for Amphictyonic meetings. (Pans. x. 8-30.) — 
For details respecting the oracle and its influ- 
ence in Greece, see Diet . of Ant. art. Oraeulum. 
The recent excavations of the French Archaeo- 
logical School, besides providing a store of 
inscriptions of great historical value, have done 
much to ascertain the precise limits of the 
ancient city and its sanctuaries. 

Delphinium (Az\<piviov). 1. A temple of 
Apollo Delphinius at Athens, said to have been 
built by Aegeus, in which the Ephetae sat for 
trying cases of intentional but justifiable homi- 
cide. [Diet, of Ant. art. Phonos.] — 2. .The 
harbour of Oropus in Attica, on the borders of 
Boeotia, called 6 Upbs Klfx-qv. — 3. A town on 
the E. coast of the island Chios. 

Delphinius. [Apollo.] 

Delphus (Ae\(p6s). 1, Son of Poseidon and 
Melantho, to whom the foundation of Delphi 
was ascribed (Aesch. Eum. 16 ; Paus. x. 32). — 
2. Son of Apollo and Celaeno, who is also said 
to have founded Delphi (Paus. x. 6). 

Delta. [Abgyptus.] 

Demades (ArmdSris, a contraction of Ar)/.^d- 
Srjs), an Athenian orator, was of very low origin, 
but rose by his talents to a prominent position 
at Athens. He belonged to the Macedonian 
party, and was a bitter enemy of Demosthenes. 
He was taken prisoner at the battle of Chae- 
ronea, B.C. 338, but was dismissed by Philip 
with distinguished marks of honour. After 
Philip's death he was the subservient supporter 
of Alexander, but notwithstanding frequently 
received bribes from the opposite party. He 
was put to death by Antipater in 318, because 
the latter had discovered a letter of Demades, 
urging the enemies of Antipater to attack him. 
Demades was a man without principle, and 
lived in a most profligate and dissolute manner. 
But he was a brilliant orator. He always spoke 
extempore, and with such irresistible force that 
he was a perfect match for Demosthenes him- 
self. There is extant a large fragment of an 
oration bearing the name of Demades (irepl 
SaiSeKaerms), in which he defends his conduct 
during the period of Alexander's reign. It is 
printed in the collections of the Attic orators, 
but its genuineness is doubtful. Cicero and 
Quintilian both state that Demades left no 
orations behind him. (Plut. Dem. 8, 10, 11, 23, 
28 ; Diod. xvi. 87 ; Cic. Brut. 9, 36, Or. 26, 90 ; 
Quint, ii. 17.)- 

Demaratus (AyfidpaTos, Dor. Aa/Mparos). 1. 
King of Sparta, reigned from about B.C. 510 to 
491. He was at variance with his unscrupulous 
colleague Cleomenes, who at length accused 
him before the Ephors of being an illegitimate 
son of Ariston, and obtained his deposition by 
bribing the Delphic oracle, B.C. 491. Demaratus 
thereupon repaired to the Persian court, where 
he was kindly received by Darius. He accom- 
panied Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, and 
recommended the king not to rely too confi- 
dently upon his countless hosts. His family 
continued long in Asia. (Hdt. v. 75, vi. 61-70, 
vii. 101, 234, viii 65.) — 2. A merchant-noble of 
Corinth, and one of the Bacchiadae. When 
the power of his clan had been overthrown by 
Cypselus, about b.c. 657, he fled from Corinth, 
and settled at Tarquinii in Etruria, where he 
married an Etruscan wife, by whom he had 
two sons, Arums and Lucumo, afterwards L. 
Tarquinius Priscus. (Liv. i. 34 ; Dionys. iii. 46 ; 
Strab. p. 219.) 

Demetae, a people of Britain, in the SW. of 
"Wales: their chief towns were Maridunum 
(Carmarthen) and Luentinum. 



DELETER 



277 



Demeter (Arjurirrip), one of the great divinities 
of the Greeks, was the goddess of the corn- 
bearing earth and of agriculture, and of settled 
family life. Formerly it was generally sup- 
posed that her name signified Mother-Earth 
(on the theory that 5rj or 5a = yij) : but it is 
probably truer to connect the word with Sriai, 
the Cretan form of fatal, barley, so that her 
name is really " Corn-Mother." She was the 
deity of agricultural people, and therefore not 
one of the Olympian deities of Homer, where 
we hear very little of her, save that she is 
present among winnowers, beloved by Zeus, 
who slays in jealousy her mortal lover Iasion 
(II. v. 500, xiv. 326 ; Od. v. 125). This is not 
because her worship in Greece was more recent 
than Homer — on the contrary, she was, as will 
be seen, a Pelasgian deity — but because the 
Homeric Achaeans were sea-men and warriors, 
not agriculturists, nor was Ithaca a corn-land. 
As might be expected, we find her fully recog- 
nised in Hesiod ^Oji. p. 16o). Her myth is more 




IOmeter ol Cnidua. (From a statue in the British 
Museum.) 



completely developed in the beautiful Homeric 
Hymn to Demeter. She was the daughter of Cro- 
nus and Rhea, and sister of Zeus, by whom she 
became the mother of Persephone (Proserpina) 
or Cora: of this relationship Homer knows 
nothing. Zeus, without the knowledge of 
Demeter, had promised Persephone to Aidoneus 
(Pluto); and while the unsuspecting maiden 
was gathering flowers, the earth suddenly 
opened and she was carried off by Aidoneus. 
Her mother, who heard only the echo of her 
voice, immediately set out in search of her 
daughter. For nine days she wandered about 
without obtaining any tidings of her, but on 
the tenth she met Hecate, and from her— or, in 
another form of the story, from the all-seeing 
sun — she learnt the truth. Failing to obtain 
a id from Zeus, Demeter in her anger avoided 
Olympus, and dwelt upon earth at Eleosis. As 
the goddess still continued angry, and did not 
allow the earth to produce any fruits, Zeus 
first sent Iris and then all the gods to persuade 



I Demeter to return to Olympus. But she was 
j deaf to all their entreaties, and refused to 
: return to Olympus, and to restore fertility to 
t the earth, till she had seen her daughter again. 
' Zeus accordingly sent Hermes into Erebus to 
fetch back Persephone. Aidoneus consented, 
j but gave Persephone the seed of a pomegranate 
l to eat. [Ascalaphus.] Hermes then took her 
to Eleusis to her mother, who received her with 
unbounded joy. Demeter now returned to 
Olympus with her daughter, but as the latter 
had eaten in the lower world, she was obliged 
| to spend one third of the year with Aidoneus, 
but was allowed to continue with her mother 
l the remainder of the year. The earth now- 
brought forth fruit again. — In the localities of 
1 the myth there are doubtless combined the 
versions current in many different lands. Some 
accounts represent as the scene of the rape of 
Persephone the plain of Nysa in Asia, others 
Colonus, or the Peloponnesian Hermione (Strab. 
p. 373) or Crete ; the Latin poets generally 
Sicily, but Propertius speaks of Cyzicus (iii. 21). 
The Attic story which is adopted in the Homeric 
Hymn makes Demeter in her wanderings come 
to the Eleusinian well and sit wearied on the 
' sorrowful stone ' (ayiXaaros werpa). Here she 
is found by the daughters of Celeus, who bring 
her to their mother Metaneira. By her she is 
installed as nurse of the child Demophobn, 
whom she would fain have made immortal by 
a baptism of fire [see Celeus]. But in the 
versions of her story which have the greatest 
importance the favoured son of Celeus (or 
Eleusis) is Triptolemtjs, whom Demeter make6 
the teacher of agriculture to mankind, and who 
is associated with her in her mysteries as the 
deity or hero of Eleusis. In this myth, as 
preserved especially in the great festivals of 
the Eleusinia and the Thesmophoria, first the 
growth of the corn is shown. Persephone, who 
is carried off to the lower world, is the seed- 
corn, which remains concealed in the ground 
part of the year; Persephone, who returns to 
her mother, is the corn which rises from the 
ground and nourishes men and animals. Thus 
also in the Cretan myth Plutus (wealth) is the 
offspring of her union with Iasion : but there 
is probably the higher mystery, symbolised by 
the seed, of the burial of the body and its 
future life. How far this was so, as the 
mysteries were never divulged by any ancient 
writer, we must always lack full knowledge. 
But the cult of Demeter, however much deve- 
loped by additions from Egyptian and from 
Orphic religions, was probably in its first origin 
I merely such a worship of the Corn-mother or 
Corn-spirit as is found in the folk-lore of many, 
perhaps of most, countries. For the Greeks 
j she was originally a Pelasgian deity, named 
! Pelasgis, and foreign to the Dorian people 
(Hdt. ii. 171; Paus. ii. 22). In this earlier 
period she is connected with Poseidon rather 
than with Zeus : in the myth of the horse Arion 
born from Demeter and Poseidon, and still 
more clearly in the primitive worship of the 
'Black Demeter' at Phigalia under the form 
of a goddess with a horse's head (Paus. viii. 42, 
1), the ancient notion, not uncommon in folk- 
lore, of the Corn-spirit having the form of Home 
animal is preserved. Among the most ancient 
seats of her worship in Greece may have been 
Thessaly, in the neighbourhood of Pherae, not 
far from which was PyraBus, the land of corn, 
and Antron and Anthelu, sarrr-d to her (//. ii. 
f!i)6; Strab. pp. 170, 420, 421), 485). Hence her 
rites came to Thebes, and there Dionysus 



278 



DEMETER 



DEMETRIUS 



became associated with her, as in the mysteries 
at Eleusis : from northern Greece they are said 
to have been brought to Attica by the Gephy- 
raeans, which will account for her connexion 
with the Cabiri and with Cadmus. In the Pe- 
loponnesus her worship belongs least to the 
most Dorian state, Sparta, and chiefly to the 
most Pelasgic state, Arcadia, where her daughter 
is called Despoina, and Poseidon is the father 
(Paus. viii. 36, 37) : it is particularly noted also 
at Andania. In the islands it is probably a 
Pelasgian relic, particularly in Crete, whence 
the Hymn makes her come to Attica. Her 
celebrated worship in Sicily is said to have 
been introduced by the colonists from Megara 
and from Corinth (Paus. i. 44 ; Plut. Timol. 8) : 
but it is not unlikely that it was in some part 
much older ; the primitive worship appears in 
the name Sito, under which she was sometimes 
known at Syracuse (Athen. pp. 109, 416). 
Among her most significant epithets should be 
noticed x^ 0VLa > because she was one of the old 
deities of the underworld, and because the seed 
came thence ; Anesidora, because she ' sends up 




Demeter. (Mus. Bur. vol. ix. tav. 35.) 



gifts from below,' and Thesmophoros, because 
she established civilisation and laws and settled 
family life. Eor her festivals see Diet, of Ant. 
arts. Eleusinia, Thesmophoria, Proerosia. — 
In works of art Demeter was represented some- 
times in a sitting attitude, sometimes walking, 
and sometimes in a chariot drawn by horses 
or dragons, but always in full attire. She 
is most frequently grouped with Persephone 
(Cora), for the two are inseparably connected in 
Greek religion as tco dew, and with the youthful 
Iacchus or with Triptolemus. A noble repre- 
sentation of her is the Cnidian Demeter (p. 277), 
now in the British Museum, a seated figure of 
the school of Praxiteles, which in its expression 
of dignified and resigned sorrow seems to show 
the goddess grieving for the loss of her daughter 
during the dead winter time. Around her head 
she wore a garland of corn-ears, or a simple 
riband, or sometimes the calathus, and in her 
hand she held a sceptre, corn-ears, or a poppy, 
or a torch and the mystic basket (cf. the de- 
scription of the Thalysia at Cos in Theocr. vii. 
156), both of which belong to the Eleusinian 



rites of initiation. The Romans worshipped 
Demeter under the name of Ceres, This wor- 
ship, essentially Greek in character and tradi- 
tion, came to them from the Greek cities of 
Campania. The first temple of Ceres at Rome 
was vowed by the dictator A. Postumius Albi- 
nus, in B.C. 496, for the purpose of averting a 
famine with which Rome was threatened during 
a war with the Latins, The Romans instituted 
a festival with games in honour of her (Diet, 
of Ant. s.v. Cerealia). But the Greek goddess, 
thus introduced, probably took the place and 
name of an old Italian deity Ceres, a goddess 
of the earth and its fruits, ' a creando dicta.' 

Demetrias (Aijjutjtpios : Arj/i7jrpi€i5s). 1. A 
town in Magnesia in Thessaly, on the innermost 
recess of the Pagasaean bay, founded by Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes, and peopled by the inhabitants 
of Iolcus and the surrounding towns: it soon 
became one of the most important towns in the 
N. of Greece, and is frequently mentioned in 
the wars between the Macedonians and Romans. 
— 2, A town in Assyria, not far from Arbela. — 
3. An Athenian tribe, added to the ten old 
tribes, B.C. 307, and named in honour of 
Demetrius Poliorcetes. 

Demetrius (Arnx-i)rpios). 1. A Greek of the 
island of Pharos in the Adriatic. He was a ge- 
neral of Teuta, the Illyrian queen, and treacher- 
ously surrendered Corcyra to the Romans, vvho 
rewarded him with a great part of the domi- 
nions of Teuta, 228 (Pol. ii. 11 ; Appian, Illyr., 
8). Subsequently he ventured on many acts of 
piratical hostility against the Romans, think- 
ing that they were too much occupied with 
the Gallic war and the impending danger of 
Hannibal's invasion to take notice of him. The 
Romans, however, immediately sent the consul 
L. Aemilius.Paulus over to Illyria (219), who 
took Pharos itself, and obliged Demetrius to 
fly for refuge to Philip, king of Macedonia. He 
died in an attack on Ithome. (Pol. iii. 16-19.) — 
3. Younger son of Philip V., king of Macedonia, 
was sent as a hostage to Rome after the battle 
of Cynoscephalae (198). Five years afterwards 
he was restored to his father, who subsequently 
sent him as his ambassador to Rome. But 
having incurred the jealousy of his father and 
his brother, Perseus, by the favourable recep- 
tion he had met with from the Romans, he 
was secretly put to death by his father's order. 
(Liv. xL 20 ; Pol. xxiv. 7.) 

I. Kings of Macedonia. 1. Surnamed Polior- 
cetes (noAiopKrjTTjs), or the Besieger, son of 
Antigonus, king of Asia, and Stratonice. At an 
early age he gave proofs of distinguished 
bravery. He accompanied his father in his 
campaigns against Eumenes (b.c. 317, 316), and 
a few years afterwards was left by his father in 
the command of Syria, which he had to defend 
against Ptolemy. In 312 he was defeated by 
Ptolemy near Gaza, but soon after retrieved his 
disaster in part by defeating one of the generals 
of Ptolemy. In 311 a general peace was con- 
cluded among the successors of Alexander, but 
it was only of short duration. In 307 Deme- 
trius was despatched by his father with a 
powerful fleet and army to wrest Greece from 
Cassander and Ptolemy. He met with great 
success. At Athens he was received with en- 
thusiasm by the people as their liberator. De- 
metrius the Phalerean, who had governed the 
city for Cassander, was expelled, and the fort 
at Munychia taken. Demetrius took up his 
abode for the winter at Athens, where divine 
honours were paid him under the title of ' the 
Preserver ' (6 Swttjp). He was recalled from. 



DEMETRIUS 



279 



Athens by his father to take the command of 
the war in Cyprus against Ptolemy. Here also 
he was successful, and in a great naval battle 
he annihilated the fleet of Ptolemy (306). 
Next year (305) he laid siege to Rhodes, 
because the Rhodians had refused to sup- 
port him against Ptolemy. It was in conse- 
quence of the gigantic machines which Deme- 
trius constructed to assail the walls of Rhodes, 
that he received the surname of Poliorcetes. 
But all his exertions were unavailing, and 
after the siege had lasted above a year, he 
at length concluded a treaty with the Rhodians 
(304). — Demetrius then crossed over to Greece, 
which had meanwhile been almost conquered 
by Cassander. He soon compelled Cassander 
to evacuate all Greece S. of Thermopylae, and 
for the next two years continued to prosecute the 
war with success. But in 302 he was obliged 
to return to Asia in order to support his father 
Antigonus. In 301 their combined forces were 
totally defeated by those of Lysimachus and 
Seleucus in the battle of Ipsus, and Antigonus 
himself slain. Demetrius, to whose impetuosity 
the loss of the battle would seem to be in great 
measure owing, fled to Ephesus, and from 
thence set sail for Athens ; but the Athenians 
declined to receive him into their city. The 
jealousies of his enemies soon changed the face 
of his affairs ; and Ptolemy having entered into 
a closer union with Lysimachus, Seleucus mar- 
ried Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius. By 
this alliance Demetrius obtained possession of 
Cilicia, and he had never lost Cyprus, Tyre, 
and Sidon. In 297 he determined to make an 
effort to recover his dominions in Greece. He 
appeared with a fleet on the coast of Attica, but 
was at first unsuccessful. The death of Cas- 
sander, however, in the course of the same year 
gave a new turn to affairs. Demetrius made 
himself master of Aegina, Salamis, and finally 
of Athens, after a long blockade (295). In 294 
he marched into Peloponnesus against the 
Spartans, and was on the point of taking their 
city when he was suddenly called away by the 
state of affairs in Macedonia. Here the dissen- 
sions between Antipater and Alexander, the two 
sons of Cassander, had led Alexander to call in 
foreign aid to his support ; and he sent em- 
bassies at once to Demetrius and to Pyrrhus. 
Pyrrhus was the nearest at hand, and had 
already defeated Antipater and established 
Alexander on the throne, when Demetrius ar- 
rived with his army. He was received with 
apparent friendliness, but mutual jealousies 
quickly arose. Demetrius caused the young king 
to be assassinated at a banquet, and was there- 
upon acknowledged as king by the Macedonian 
army. Demetrius kept possession of Macedonia 
for seven years (294-287). His reign was a series 
of wars. In 292 he marched against the Tlie- 
bans, who had risen against him, and took their 
city. In 291 he took advantage of the captivity 
of Lysimachus among the Getae to invade 
Thrace ; but he was recalled by the news of a 
fresh insurrection in Boeotia. He repulsed 
Pyrrhus, who had attempted by invading Thes- 
saly to effect a diversion in favour of the 
Boeotians, and again took Thebes after a long 
siege (290). In 289 he carried on war against 
Pyrrhus and the Aetolians, but he concluded 
peace with Pyrrhus that he might march into 
Asia with the view of recovering his father's 
dominions. His adversaries forestalled him. 
In 287 Ptolemy sent a powerful fleet against 
Greece, while Pyrrhus (notwithstanding his 
recent treaty) on the one side and Lysimachus 



on the other simultaneously invaded Macedonia. 
Demetrius was deserted by his own troops, who 
proclaimed Pyrrhus king of Macedonia. He 
then crossed over to Asia, and after meeting 
with alternate success and misfortune, was at 




Demetrius Poliorcetes. King of Macedonia, ob. B.C. 283. 
Obr., head of Demetrius, with horns to imitate Dionysus : 
rev., baziaeqz <iHMHTPIOY; Poseidon, to commemorate 
naval victory (B.C. 306). 

length obliged to surrender himself prisoner to 
Seleucus (286). That king kept him in confine- 
ment, but did not treat him with harslmess. 
Demetrius died in the third year of his im- 
prisonment and the fifty-sixth of his age (283). 
He was one of the most remarkable characters 
of his age : in restless activity of mind, fertility 
of resource, and daring promptitude in the exe- 
cution of his schemes, he has perhaps never 
been surpassed. His besetting sin was his un- 
bounded licentiousness. Besides Lamia and 
his other mistresses, he was regularly married 
to four wives, Phila, Eurydice, Deidamia, and 
Ptolemai's, by whom he left four sons. The 
eldest of these, Antigonus Gonatas, eventually 
succeeded him on the throne of Macedonia. 
(Plut. Demetrius ; Diod. xix., xx.) — 2. Son of 
Antigonus Gonatas, succeeded his father, and 
reigned B.C. 239-229. He carried on war against 
the Aetolians, and was opposed to the Achaean 
League. He was succeeded by Antigonus 
Doson. (Pol. ii. 44.) 

II. Kings of Syria. 1. Soter (reigned b.c. 
162-150), was the son of Seleucus IV. Philo- 
pator and grandson of Antiochus the Great. 
While yet a child, he had been sent to Rome 
by his father as a hostage, and remained there 
during the whole of the reign of Antiochus IV. 
Epiphanes. After the death of Antiochus, 
being now twenty-three years old, he demanded 
of the senate to be set at liberty ; but as his 
request was refused by the senate, he fled 
secretly from Rome, by the advice of the his- 
torian Polybius, and went to Syria. The Syrians 
declared in his favour ; and the young kint; 
Antiochus V. Eupator, with his tutor Lysias, 
was seized by his own guards and put to death. 




Demetrius L Sotcr. King of Syria, ob. Il.c. 150. 
Obr.. head of Demetrius diademed: rrr.. raxiaEOZ all- 

MMTPloY In field monogram and Ml; in ox 

crguo asp (161 of Era Scleuc.) : soatcd femalo figure. 
Tyche, to the left, with scoptro and cornucopia. 

By valuable presents Demetrius obtained from 
the Romans his recognition as king (Pol. 
xxxi. 23, xxxii. 4). He expelled tho oppressive 
satrap Heracleides from Babylon; and thus 
gained the surname SAer from the Babylonians; 



280 



DEMETRIUS 



DEMOCEDES 



but he was not successful in his attempts against 
the Jews (Jos. Ant. xiii. 4). But having alien- 
ated his own subjects by his luxury and intem- 
perance, they sided with an impostor of the 
name of Balas, who took the title of Alexander. 
By him Demetrius was defeated in battle and 
slain (Pol. xxxiii. 14). He left two sons, Deme- 
trius Nicator and Antiochus Sidetes, both of 
whom subsequently ascended the throne. — 2. 
Nicator (b.c. 146-142, and again 128-125), son 
of Demetrius Soter. He had been sent by his 
father for safety to Cnidus, when Alexander 
Balas invaded Syria ; and after the death of his 
father he continued in exile for some years. 
With the assistance of Ptolemy Philometor he 
defeated Balas, and recovered his kingdom 
(whence came his surname) ; but, having like his 
father rendered himself odious to his subjects 
by his vices and cruelties, he was driven out of 
Syria by Tryphon, who set up Antiochus, the 
infant son of Alexander Balas, as a pretender 
against him. Demetrius retired to Babylon, 
and from thence marched against the Parthians, 
by whom he was defeated and taken prisoner, 
138. He remained as a captive in Parthia ten 
years, but was kindly treated by the Parthian 
king Mithridates (Arsaces VI.), who gave him 
his daughter Bhodogune in marriage. Mean- 
while, his brother, Antiochus VII. Sidetes, 
having overthrown the usurper Tryphon, en- 
gaged in war with Parthia, in consequence of 




Demetrius II. Nicator. King of Syria, ob. B.C. 125. 
Obv., head of Demetrius diademed; rev., BA2IAE0.2 4H- 
mhtpioy 6E0Y *iaaaea*oy NIKAT0P02 ; in exergue EPe 
(169? of EraSeleuc); Apollo to the left, seated on Cor- 
tina, with arrow and bow. 



which Phraates, the successor of Mithridates, 
brought forward Demetrius, and sent him into 
Syria to operate a diversion against his brother. 
In the same year Antiochus fell in battle, and 
Demetrius again obtained possession of the 
Syrian throne, 128. Having engaged in an ex- 
pedition against Egypt, Ptolemy Physcon set up 
against him the pretender Alexander Zebina, 
by whom he was defeated and compelled to fly. 
His wife Cleopatra, who could not forgive him 
his marriage with Rhodogune in Parthia, refused 
to afford him refuge at Ptolemais, and he fled to 
Tyre, where he was assassinated, 125. (Justin, 
xxxvi. 1, xxxviii. 9, xxxix. 1 ; Liv. Mp. 60.) — 3. 
Eucaerus, son of Antiochus VIII. Grypus, and 
grandson of Demetrius II. During the civil 
wars that followed the death of Antiochus Gry- 
pus (96), Demetrius and his brother Philip for a 
time held the whole of Syria. But war broke 
out between them ; Demetrius was taken pri- 
soner and sent to Parthia, where he remained 
in captivity till his death (Jos. Ant. xiii. 14). 

III. Literary. 1. Of Adramyttium, sur- 
named Ixion, a Greek grammarian of the time 
of Augustus, lived partly at Pergamus and 
partly at Alexandria, and wrote commentaries 
on Homer and Hesiod and other works. — 2. 
Magnes (that is, of Magnesia), a Greek gram- 
marian, and a contemporary of Cicero and 
Atticus. He wrote a book on concord (irepi 



dfiovoias), and another on poets and other 
authors who bore the same name (Ylzpt ofiiavvfxuiv 
Tsoir\T(jiv kol <rvyypa(pewv. — 3. Phalereus, so 
called from his birthplace, the Attic demos of 
Phalerus, where he was born about B.C. 345. 
His parents were poor, but by his talents and 
perseverance he rose to the highest honours 
at Athens, and became distinguished as an 
orator, a statesman, a philosopher, and a poet. 
He was educated, together with the poet 
Menander, in the school of Theophrastus. He 
began his public career about 325, and acquired 
great reputatio . by his eloquence. In 317 the 
government of Athens was entrusted to him by 
Cassander, and he discharged the duties of his 
office for ten years with such general satisfac- 
tion, that the Athenians conferred upon him 
the most extraordinary distinctions, and erected 
no less than 360 statues to his honour (Cic. 
Sep. ii. 1 ; Nep. Milt. 6). But during the latter 
period of his administration he seems to have 
become intoxicated with his good fortune, and 
he abandoned himself to dissipation. When 
Demetrius Poliorcetes approached Athens, in 
307, Demetrius Phalereus was obliged to take 
to flight, and his enemies induced the Athenians 
to pass sentence of death upon him (Plut. 
Demetr. 8). He went to Ptolemy Lagi at 
Alexandria, with whom he lived for many years 
on the best terms ; and it was probably owing 
to the influence of Demetrius that the great 
Alexandrine library was formed. His successor, 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, was hostile towards 
Demetrius, because be had advised his father 
to appoint another of his sons as his successor. 
He banished Demetrius to Upper Egypt, where 
he is said to have died from the bite of a snake 
(Diog. Lae'rt. v. 78). — Demetrius Phalereus was 
the last among the Attic orators worthy of the 
name ; but even his orations bore evident 
marks of the decline of oratory, and were 
characterised rather by elegance than by force 
(Cic. Brut. 9, 38, Or. 27, 92 ; Quintil. x. 1, 80). 
His numerous writings, the greater part of 
which were probably composed in Egypt, em- 
braced subjects of the most varied kinds ; but 
none of them has come down to us, for the 
work on elocution (-rrtpl ep^rivelas), extant under 
his name, is probably the work of an Alexan- 
drine sophist of the name of Demetrius. — 4. 
Of Scepsis, a Greek grammarian of the time of 
Aristarchus, wrote a learned commentary on 
the Catalogue in the second book of the Iliad. 
— 5. Of Sunium, a Cynic philosopher, lived from 
the reign of Caligula to that of Domitian, and 
was banished from Rome in consequence of the 
freedom with which he rebuked the powerful 
(Tac. Ann. xvi. 34, Hist. iv. 40 ; Dio Cass, 
lxvi. 13). He is praised by Seneca, and it seems 
likely that, while he inculcated the moral prin- 
ciples of the Stoics, he sought (as did many of 
the later philosophers of this school) to impress 
them on the attention of a corrupt age by Cynic 
eccentricities. 

Democedes (Ai7,uo7C7)87)s), a celebrated phy- 
sician of Crotona. He practised medicine suc- 
cessively at Aegina, Athens, and Samos. He 
was taken prisoner along with Polycrates, in 
B.C. 522, and was sent to Susa to the court of 
Darius. Here he acquired great reputation by 
curing the king's foot, and the breast of the 
queen, Atossa. Notwithstanding his honours at 
the Persian court, he was always desirous of 
returning to his native country. In order to 
effect this, he pretended to enter into the views 
and interests of the Persians, and procured by 
means of Atossa that he should be sent with 



DEMOCHARES 
some nobles to explore the coast of Greece, and 
ascertain in what parts it might be most suc- 
cessfully attacked. When they arrived at 
Tarentum, the king, Aristophilides, out of kind- 
ness to Democedes, seized the Persians as 
spies, which afforded the physician an oppor- 
tunity of escaping to Crotona. Here he settled, 
and married the daughter of the famous wrest- 
ler, llilo, the Persians having followed him to 
Crotona, and in vain demanded that he should 
be restored (Hdt, iii. 131-137). 

Demochares (Anuox<tpVs)> an Athenian, son 
of the sister of Demosthenes. He was probably 
trained by his uncle in oratory, and inherited 
his patriotic sentiments. After the restoration 
of the Athenian democracy in b.c. 307 by De- 
metrius Poliorcetes, Demochares was at the 
head of the patriotic party and took an active 
part in public affairs for the next twenty or 
thirty years (Plut. Bern. 30). He left behind 
him several orations, and an extensive history 
of his own times. Fragments are preserved in 
Orat. Attici, and in Muller's Fr. Hist. Graec. 

Democrates (ArifioKparris), a Pythagorean 
philosopher, of whose life nothing is known, the 
author of an extant collection of moral maxims, 
(•ailed the Golden Sentences (yv&ficu xP v<Ta ~')- 
They are printed with Demopkelus. 

Democritus (A-q/j.6Kpnos), a celebrated Greek 
philosopher, was born at Abdera in Thrace, 
about B.C. 460. (The date can only be inferred 
by the statement in Diog. Laert. ix. 41, that he 
was still young when Anaxagoras was already 
old.) His father, Hegesistratus — or, as others 
called him, Damasippus or Athenocritus — was 
possessed of so large a property, that he was 
able to entertain Xerxes on his march through 
Abdera. Democritus spent the inheritance, 
which his father left him, on travels into distant 
countries, which he undertook to satisfy his 
extraordinary thirst for knowledge. He travelled 
over a great part of Asia, and spent some time 
in Egypt. The many anecdotes preserved about 
Democritus show that he was a man of a most 
sterling and honourable character. His dili- 
gence was incredible : he lived exclusively for 
his studies, and his disinterestedness, modesty, 
and simplicity, are attested by many facts 
which are related of him. Notwithstanding the 
great property he had inherited from his father, 
he died in poverty, but highly esteemed by his 
fellow-citizens. He died in 361 at a very ad- 
vanced age. There is a tradition that he de- 
prived himself of his sight, that he might be 
less disturbed in his pursuits ; but this tradition 
is one of the inventions of a later age, which was 
fond of piquant anecdotes. It is more probable 
that he may have lost his sight by too severe 
application to study. This loss, however, did 
not disturb the cheerful disposition of his mind, 
which prompted him to look, in all circum- 
stances, at the cheerful side of things, which 
later writers took to mean that he only laughed 
at the follies of men (Juv. x. 28). His know- 
ledge was extensive. It embraced not only the 
natural sciences, mathematics, mechanics, gram- 
mar, music, and philosophy, but various other 
useful arts. His works were composed in the 
Ionic dialect, though not without some admix- 
ture of the local peculiarities of Abdera. They 
are nevertheless much praised by Cicero on 
account of the liveliness of their style, and are in 
this respect compared even with the works of 
Plato. The fragments of them are collected by 
Mullach, Dcinocriii Abderitac Opcrum Frag- 
menta, Berlin, 1843. Leucippus appears to 
have bad most influence upon the philosophical 



DE3IOPHON 



281 



opinions of Democritus, and these two philoso- 
phers were the founders of the theory of atoms. 
In order to explain the creation of all existing 
things, Democritus maintained that there were 
in infinite space an infinite number of atoms or 
elementary particles, homogeneous in quality, 
but different in form, capable of no change, 
except of place. The difference of weight in two 
bodies of the same size is caused by there being 
more empty spaces in one than in the other. 
All creation or genesis results from the coming 
together or ' concourse ' of atoms ; all decay from 
the separation or resolution of atoms which had 
combined to form any body. Bodies act on each 
other by pressure and impact, or from a distance 
(as the magnet on iron or light upon the eye) 
by effluences. The properties of all things de- 
pend on the arrangement of atoms affecting 
form and size ; the qualities which we ascribe 
to them only express the way in which they 
affect our senses. Atoms move downwards in 
space by their own gravity ; but the larger and 
heavier fall more quickly (as he supposed), and 
strike against the lighter : hence there is a re- 
bound and a whirling motion, from which result 
combinations of atoms so as to form innumer- 
able worlds, of which this is one. He speaks of 
this as caused by rvxv in opposition to the vovs 
of Anaxagoras ; but he does not mean that the 
result is a chance : on the contrary he regards 
all that is created as the necessary succession of 
cause and effect. 

Demodocus (Atj/uoSokos), the celebrated bard 
at the court of Alcinoiis who sang of the loves 
of Ares and Aphrodite, while Ulysses sat at the 
banquet of Alcinoiis (Od. viii. 62, xiii. 27). 
He was represented on the throne of Apollo at 
Amyclae as playing for the dancers (Paus. iii. 
18, 7). _ 

Demonax (A7j/iajca£), of Cyprus, a Cynic phi- 
losopher in the time of Hadrian. We owe our 
knowledge of his character to Lucian, who has 
painted it in the most glowing colours, repre- 
senting him as almost perfectly wise and good. 
He was nearly 100 years old at the time of his 
death. I Lucian, Demonax.) 

Demonesi Insiilae i Arifiovnaoi : Prinkipo or 
Princes' Islands), a group of islands in the Pro- 
pontis (Sea of Marmara), belonging to Bithy- 
nia : of these the most important were Pityodes 
' and Chalcitis, also called Demonesus. 

Demophllus (A77/iO<f)iAosj. 1. Son of Ephorus, 
continued his father's history by adding to it the 
history of the Sacred War (Diod. xvi. 14). — . 
2. An Athenian comic poet of the New Comedy, 
from whose 'Ovayds Plautus took his Asinaria. 
— 3. A Pythagorean philosopher, of whose life 
nothing is known, wrote a work entitled 0iou 
Bepdiraa, part of which is extant, in the form of 
a selection, entitled yvupitKa ■'. .miuon Best 
edition by Orelli, in his Ojiusc. Graec. Vet. 
Sentent. Lips. 1810. 

Demophon or Demophoon lArinotpuv or A17- 
/jjxpduv). 1. Son of Celeus andMetanlra, whom 
Demeter wished to make immortal. For details 
see Celeus. — 2. Son of Theseus and Phaedra, 
accompanied the Greeks against Troy, and there 
procured the liberation of his grandmother 
Aethra, who lived with Helen as a slave. On 
his return from Troy, he gained the love of 
Phyllis, daughter of the Thracian king Sithon, 
and promised to marrv her (Hyg. Fab. 59, 
248; Ov. Her. 2, A. A. iii. 88; Plin. xvi. 108). 
Before the nuptials were celebrated, he went to 
Atticu to settle his affuirs, and as he tarried 
longer than Phyllis had expected, she thought 
that she was forgotten, und put an end to her 



282 



DEMOSTHENES 



life ; but she was metamorphosed into a tree. 
Demophon became king of Athens. He marched 
out against Diomedes, who on his return from 
Troy had landed on the coast of Attica, and was 
ravaging it. He took the Palladium from 
Diomedes, but had the misfortune to kill an 
Athenian in the struggle (Paus. i. 28; Ant. 
Lib. 33). For this murder he was summoned 
before the court iwl TJahkaSloi — the first time 
that a man was tried by that court. The legend 
of the capture of the Palladium by Demophon 
seems to be an attempt to explain the name of 
the judicial court. 

Demosthenes (Arjjxoa6ivris). 1. Son of Alci- 
sthenes, a celebrated Athenian general in the 
Peloponnesian war. In B.C. 426 he was sent 
with a fleet to ravage the coast of Peloponnesus ; 
he afterwards landed at Naupactus, and made a 
descent into Aetolia ; he was at first unsuccess- 
ful, and was obliged to retreat ; but he sub- 
sequently gained a brilliant victory over the 
Ambraciots (Thue. iii. 91 ; Diod. xii. 60). In 425, 
though not in office, he sailed with the Athenian 
fleet, and was allowed by the Athenian com- 
manders to remain with five ships at Pylos, which 
he fortified in order to assail the Lacedaemonians 
in their own territories. He defended Pylos 
against all the attempts of the Lacedaemoni- 
ans, till he was relieved by an Athenian fleet 
of forty ships. The Spartans, who in their siege 
of the place had occupied the neighbouring 
island of Sphacteria, were now cut off and 
blockaded. Later in the same year he ren- 
dered important assistance to Cleon, in making 
prisoners of the Spartans in the island of 
Sphacteria, though the whole glory of the suc- 
cess was given to Cleon (Thuc. iv. 2-40 ; Diod. 
xii. 61). In 413 he was sent with a large fleet 
to Sicily, to assist Nicias. Fortune was un- 
favourable to the Athenians. Demosthenes now 
counselled an immediate departure, but Nicias 
delayed returning till it was too late. The 
Athenian fleet was destroyed, and when Demo- 
sthenes and Nicias attempted to retreat by land, 
they were obliged to surrender to the enemy 
with all their forces. Both commanders were 
put to death by the Syracusans (Thuc. vii; 
Diod. xiii.). — 2. The greatest of Athenian ora- 
tors, was the son of Demosthenes, and was 
bora in the Attic demos of Paeania, about B. c. 
385. At seven years of age he lost his father, 
who left him and his younger sister to the care 
of three guardians, Aphobus and Demophon, 
two relations, and Therippides, an old friend. 
These guardians squandered the greater part of 
the property of Demosthenes, and neglected his 
education to a great extent. He nevertheless 
received instruction from the orator Isaeus ; 
but it is exceedingly doubtful whether he was 
taught by Plato and Isocrates, as some of the 
ancients stated. At the age of eighteen Demo- 
sthenes called upon his guardians to render him 
an account of their administration of his pro- 
perty ; but by intrigues they contrived to 
defer the business for two years. At length, in 
361, Demosthenes accused Aphobus before the 
arohon, and obtained a verdict in his favour. 
Aphobus was condemned to pay a fine of ten 
talents (Dem. c. Aphdb. i. ii., c. Onet. ; Plut. 
T)em. 4). Emboldened by this success, Demo- 
sthenes ventured to come forward as a speaker 
in the public assembly. His first effort was 
unsuccessful, and he is said to have been re- 
ceived with ridicule ; but he was encouraged 
to persevere by the actor Satyrus, who gave him 
instruction in action and declamation. In be- 
coming an orator, Demosthenes had to struggle 



against the greatest physical disadvantages. 
His voice was weak and his utterance defective ; 
he could not pronounce the p, and constantly 
stammered, whence he derived the name of 
fi6.Ta.hos. It was only owing to the most un- 
wearied exertions that he succeeded in over- 
coming the obstacles which nature had placed 
in his way. Thus it is said that he spoke with 
pebbles in his mouth, to cure himself of stam- 
mering ; that he repeated verses of the poets 
as he ran up hill, to strengthen his voice ; 
that he declaimed on the sea-shore to accustom 
himself to the noise and confusion of the popu- 
lar assembly; that he lived for months in a 
cave under ground, engaged in constantly 
writing out the history of Thucydides, to form 
a standard for his own style. These tales are 
not worthy of much credit ; but they neverthe- 
less attest the common tradition of antiquity 
respecting the great efforts made by Demo- 
sthenes to attain to excellence as an orator. — 
It was about 355 that Demosthenes began to 
obtain reputation as a speaker in the public 
assembly. It was in this year that he delivered 
the oration against Leptines, and from this 
time we have a series of his speeches on public 
affairs. His eloquence soon gained him the 
favour of the people. The influence which he ac- 
quired he employed for the good of his country, 
and not for his own aggrandisement. He clearly 
saw that Philip had resolved to subjugate 
Greece, and he therefore devoted all his powers 
to resist the aggressions of the Macedonian 
monarch. For fourteen years he continued the 
struggle against Philip, and neither threats nor 
bribes could turn him from his purpose. It is 
true he failed ; but the failure must not be con- 
sidered his fault. The history of his struggle is 
best given in the life of Philip. [Philippus.] 
It is sufficient to relate here that it was brought 
to a close by the battle of Chaeronea (338), by 
which the independence of Greece was crushed. 
Demosthenes was present at the battle, and fled 
like thousands of others. His enemies re- 
proached him with his flight, and upbraided 
him as the cause of the misfortunes of his 
country ; but the Athenians judged better of 
his conduct, requested him to deliver the fune- 
ral oration upon those who had fallen at Chae- 
ronea, and celebrated the funeral feast in his 
house. At this time many accusations were 
brought against him. Of these one of the 
most formidable was the accusation of Ctesi- 
phon by Aeschines, which was in reality direc- 
ted against Demosthenes himself. Aeschines 
accused Ctesiphon for proposing that Demo- 
sthenes should be rewarded for his services 
with a golden crown in the theatre. Aeschines 
maintained that the proposal was not only 
made in an illegal form, but that the conduct 
of Demosthenes did not give him any claim to 
such a distinction. The trial was delayed for 
reasons unknown to us till 330, when Demo- 
sthenes delivered his oration on the crown 
(■n-ep! ffTe<pavov). Aeschines was defeated and 
withdrew from Athens. [Aeschines.] — Mean- 
time important events had taken place in Greece. 
The death of Philip in 336 roused the hopes of 
the patriots, and Demosthenes, althoughhehad 
lost his daughter only seven days before, was 
the first to proclaim the joyful tidings of the 
king's death, and to call upon the Greeks to 
unite their strength against Macedonia. But 
Alexander's energy, and the frightful ven- 
geance which he took upon Thebes, compelled 
Athens to submit and sue for peace. Alexander 
demanded the surrender of Demosthenes and 




Bust of Deraosthcno3. 



DEMOSTHENES 

the other leaders of the popular party, and with 
difficulty allowed them to remain at Athens. 
During the life of Alexander, Athens made no 
open attempt to throw off the Macedonian 
supremacy. In 325 Harpalus fled from Babylon 
with the treasure entrusted to his care by Alex- 
ander, and came to Athens, the protection of 
which he purchased by distributing his gold 
among the most influential demagogues. The 
reception of such an open rebel was viewed 
as an act of hostility towards Macedonia itself ; 
and accordingly Antipater called upon the 
Athenians to deliver up the 
rebel and to try those who 
had accepted his bribes. 
Demosthenes was one of 
those who were suspected 
of having received money 
from Harpalus. His guilt 
is doubtful ; but he was 
condemned and thrown 
into prison, from which, 
however, he escaped, ap- 

L\ r |\ parently with the conniv- 
\ \ ■ i ance of the Athenian ma- 
Ai ! * gistrates. He now resided 

partly at Troezene and 
partly in Aegina, looking 
daily across the sea towards his beloved native 
land. But his exile did not last long. On the 
death of Alexander (323) the Greek states rose 
in arms against Macedonia. Demosthenes was 
recalled from exile ; a trireme was sent to 
Aegina to fetch him, and his progress to the 
city was a glorious triumph. But in the follow- 
ing year (322) the confederate Greeks were de- 
feated by Antipater at the battle of Crannon, 
and were obliged to sue for peace. Antipater 
demanded the surrender of Demosthenes, who 
thereupon fled to the island of Calauria, and 
took refuge in the temple of Poseidon. Here 
he was pursued by the emissaries of Antipater ; 
he thereupon took poison, which he had for 
some time carried about his person, and died 
in the temple, 822. (Plut. Demosthenes and 
Phocion, Vit. X. Orat. ; Liban. Vit. Demosth. ; 
Lucian, Encom. Demosth.) — There existed 
sixty-five orations of Demosthenes in antiquity ; 
but of these only sixty-one have come down 
to us, including the letter of Philip, which is 
strangely enough counted as an oration. 
Several of the orations, however, are spurious, 
or at least of very doubtful authenticity. Be- 
sides these orations, there are fifty-six Exordia 
to public orations, and six letters which bear 
the name of Demosthenes, but are probably 
spurious. — The orations may be divided into 
the following classes : 

I. Political Speeches. These consist of eight 
speeches against Philip, and three others. 1. 
The First Philippic (351 B.C.): that troops should 
be sent to Thrace. 2-4. The three Olynthiac 
orations (849-8) : that Olynthus should be aided 
and saved from destruction. These were before 
Philip got a footing in Greece itself by his ad- 
mission to the Amphictyonic Council. 5. On 
the Peace (346) : deprecating war with Philip 
till they could detach other Greek states from 
his interests. 0. The Second Philippic (344) : 
against Philip's party. 7. On the Chersonese, 
which was menaced by Philip. 8. The Third 
Philippic : for energetic action in the Hellespont. 
Editions of Philippics and Olyntliiacs by Hes- 
lop, 1871. [The oration on Hulonncsiis and the 
Fourth Philippic, and on the letter of Philip, 
are spurious.] 9. On the Navy boards (nvpl 
iv/t/iopiwy), delivered in 854 b. c. 10. For 



DERBE 



283 



Megalopolis, 332. 11. For the Rhodians, 351. 
The orations irepi <rwra£ea>s and irepi tuv irpbs 
'AX^avSpov (TvvdTjKuv are spurious. 

II. Speeches in public prosecutions. 1. 
against Androtion (355). 2. Against Leptines 
(354) ; ed. Beatson. 4, 5, Timocrates and 
Aristocrates (352); 6. Meidias (349), which was 
never spoken; ed. Holmes. 7. On the Embassy, 
irepl T7)s Ylapairpe/rfieias, de Falsa Legatione, 
on the dishonest conduct of Aeschines during 
his embassy to Philip) : this is practically one 
of his speeches against Philip (343) ; ed. Shilleto. 
8. On the Crown (330). This, the finest of all 
his speeches, is really the defence of all his 
political action against Philip ; ed. Holmes. 

III. Speeches in private law-suits. Of the 
thirty-two ascribed to him, only eleven are 
certainly genuine : viz. four against Aphobus 
and Onetor (ed. Penrose) ; those against Spu- 
dias, Collides, Pantaenetus, Nausimachus, 
Boeotus (irepi' dv6fia.Tos) and Conon, and that 
For Phormio (ed. Sandys and Paley). Many 
authors, however, accept as genuine the 
Lacritus, Apaturius, Macartatus, Leochares, 
Stephanus I., Olympiodorus, Polycles, Cal- 
lippus, Nicostratus, Dionysidorus, Eubulides. 
Editions of the complete orations by Dindorf, 
1886 ; in Oratores Attici, by Bekker, 1828 ; 
Dobson, 1828 ; Baiter, 1850 ; C. Miiller, 1868. 

Densel§tae or Dentheletae, a Thracian 
people on the Haemus, between the Strymon 
and Nessus. 

Dentatus, M\ Curius, a favourite hero of the 
Roman republic, was celebrated in later times 
as a noble specimen of old Roman frugality 
and virtue. He was of Sabine origin, and the 
first of his family who held any of the high 
offices of state (consequently a homo novus). 
He was consul B. c. 290 with P. Cornelius 
Rufinus. The two consuls defeated the Sam- 
nites, and brought the Sanmite wars to a close. 
In the same year Dentatus also defeated the 
Sabines, who appear to have supported the 
Samnites. In 283 he fought as praetor 
against the Senones. In 275 he was consul 
a second time, and defeated Pyrrhus near 
Beneventum and in the Arusinian plain so 
completely that the king was obliged to 
quit Italy. The booty which he gained was 
immense, but he would keep nothing for him- 
self. In 274 he was consul a third time, and 
conquered the Lucanians, Samnites, and Brut- 
tians, who still continued in arms after the de- 
feat of Pyrrhus. Dentatus now retired to his 
small farm in the country of the Sabines, and 
cultivated the land with his own hands. Once 
the Samnites sent an embassy to him with 
costly presents ; they found him sitting at the 
hearth and roasting turnips. He rejected their 
presents, telling them that he preferred ruling 
over those who possessed gold, to possessing it 
himself. He was censor in 272, and in that year 
executed public works of great importance. 
He commenced the aqueduct which carried 
the water from the river Anio into the city 
(Aniensis Vetus) : and by a canal he carried 
off the water of the lake Velinus into the river 
Nar, in consequence of which the inhabitants 
of Ro&te gained a large quantity of excellent 
hind. (Liv. Ep. 11-14 ; Pol. ii. 19; Vol. Max. 
iv. 3, vi. 8 ; Cic. de Sen. 18, 16 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 20.) 

D§6 (A7)<£), another name for Demeter: 
hence her daughter Persenhone is called by the 
patronymic Deois and Deoine. 

Derbe (Aep/37j: Afpf^TTjs, Aepfialuv : Zotta), 
a town in Lycuonia, on the frontiers of 1-muriu, 
It is first mentioned us the residence of the 



284 



DERBICCAE 



DIAGORAS 



tyrant Antipater of Derbe, a friend of Cicero, 
whom Amyntas put to death. The district 
about Cybistra and Derbe belonged to the 
province of Cappadocia, as constituted by 
Tiberius a.d. 17, was transferred to Lyeaonia, 
probably by Claudius a.d. 41, and formed part 
of the united province of Cappadocia and 
Galatia under Vespasian. (Strab. p. 534 ; 
Ptol. v. 6.) 

Derbiccae or Derbices, a Scythian people in 
Margiana, dwelling on the Oxus, near its 
entrance into the Caspian Sea. They wor- 
shipped the earth as a goddess, neither sacri- 
ficed nor ate any female animals, and killed 
and ate all their old men above 70 years of age. 
(Strab. j). 520; Ael. V. H. iv. 1.) 

Derceto. [Apheodite, p. 85 ; Semibamis.] 

Dercyllldas (Aep/cuAAi'Sas), a Spartan, suc- 
ceeded Thimbron, B.C. 399, in the command of 
the army which was employed in the protection 
of the Asiatic Greeks against Persia. He 
carried on the war with success. Tissaphernes 
and Pharnabazus were at length glad to sue for 
peace. In 396 he was superseded by Agesi- 
laus. (Xen. Hell. iii. 1, 2, iv. 8.) 

Dertona (Tortona), an important town in Li- 
guria, and a Roman colony, formed by Augus- 
tus or recolonised by him, with the surname 
Julia, on the road from Genua to Placentia 
(Strab. p. 217; Plin. iii. 49 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15). 

Dertosa (Tortosa), a town of the Ilercavones 
on the Iberus in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a 
Roman colony (Plin. iii. 23 ; Strab. p. 159). 

Despoena (Aeoiroiva), the mistress, a sur- 
name of Heveral divinities, as Aphrodite, 
Demeter, and more especially Persephone, who 
was worshipped under this name in Arcadia. 

Deucalion (AeuftrctAW). 1. Son of Prome- 
theus and Clymene, king of Phthia, in Thessaly, 
the mythical progenitor of the Hellenic race, 
with whose name were associated the traditions 
of a great flood. When Zeus, after the treat- 
ment he had received from Lycaon, had resolved 
to destroy the degenerate race of men, Deuca- 
lion and bis wife Pyrrha were, on account of 
their piety, the only mortals saved. On the 
advice of his father, Deucalion built a ship, in 
which he and his wife floated in safety during 
the nine days' flood, which destroyed all the 
other inhabitants of Hellas. At last the ship 
rested on Mount Parnassus in Phocis, or, 
according to other traditions, on Mount Othrys 
in Thessaly, on Mount Athos, or even on Aetna 
in Sicily. When the waters had subsided, 
Deucalion offered up a sacrifice to Zeus the god 
of escape (4>u|ios), and he and his wife then 
consulted the sanctuary of Themis as to how the 
race of man might be restored. The goddess 
bade them cover their heads and throw the 
bones of their mother behind them. After 
some doubts and scruples respecting the mean- 
ing of this command, they agreed in interpret- 
ing the bones of their mother to mean the 
stones of the earth. They accordingly threw 
stones behind them, and from those thrown by 
Deucalion there sprang up men, from those 
thrown by Pyrrha women. Deucalion then 
descended from Parnassus, and built his 
first abode, at Opus or at Cynus. Deucalion 
became by Pyrrha the father of Hellen, Am- 
phictyon, Protogenia, and others. (Hes. Fragm. 
135; Pind. 01. ix. 64 ; Apollod. i. 7, 2, iii. 8, 2 ; 
Ov. Met. i. 260 ; Strab. p. 425.) A tradition of 
a great flood belongs to the folk-lore of most 
nations of the world ; and this story is only one 
among many forms of it, which must have been 
brought by different tribes of the Hellenic 



stock to different countries. The oldest site of 
the Greek myth was perhaps Dodona (Aristot. 
Meteor, i. 14), whence it was generally trans- 
ferred to Thessaly : but the name of the moun- 
tain on which the vessel of Deucalion first 
rested is variously given as Parnassus, Othrys, 
Athos and Aetna (Serv. ad Eel. vi. 41 ; Hyg. 
Fab. 153). — 2. Son of Minos and Pasiphae, and 
father of Idomeneus was an Argonaut and one 
of the Calydonian hunters. 

Deva. 1. (Chester), the principal town of 
the Cornavii in Britain, on the Seteia (Dee), 
and the head-quarters of the Legio XX. Victrix. 
— 2. (Dee), an estuary in Scotland, on which 
stood the town Devana, near Aberdeen. 

Bexamenus (Ae^dnevos), a Centaur who lived 
in Bura in Achaia. According to some, he 
was king of Olenus, and father of De'ianira, who 
is usually represented as daughter of Oeneus. 

Dexippus (Ae'£i7r7ros). 1. Called also Dioxip- 
pus, a physician of Cos, one of the pupils of 
Hippocrates, lived about B.C. 320, and attended 
the children of Hecatomnus, prince of Caria. — 
2. P. Herennius, a Greek rhetorician and 
historian, was a native of Attica, and held the 
highest offices at Athens. He distinguished 
himself in fighting against the Goths, when they 
invaded Greece in a.d. 262 (Trebell. Poll. 
Gallien. 13.) He was the author of three 
historical works : — 1. A history of Macedonia 
from the time of Alexander. 2. A chronological 
history from the mythical ages down to the 
accession of Claudius Gothicus, a.d. 268. 3. 
An account of the war of the Goths or 
Scythians, in which Dexippus himself had 
fought. The fragments of Dexippus, which 
are considerable, are published by Bekker and 
Niebuhr in the first volume of the Scriptores 
Historiae Byzantinae, Bonn, 1829, 8vo. — 3. A 
disciple of the philosopher Iamblichus, lived 
about a.d. 350, and wrote a commentary on the 
Categories of Aristotle. Ed. by Spengel, Munich 
1859. 

Dia (Ala), daughter of Deioneus and wife of 
Ixion. By Ixion, or, according to some, by 
Zeus, she became the mother of Pirithous. 

Dia (Ala). 1. The ancient name of Naxos. 
— 2. An island near Amorgos. — 3. A small 
island off Crete, opposite the harbour of 
Cnossus. — 4. An island in the Arabian gulf, on 
the W. coast of Arabia. 

Diablintes. [Aulebci.] 

Diacrla (r) Aiaxpla), a mountainous district 
in the NE. of Attica, including the plain of 
Marathon. [Attica.J The inhabitants of this 
district (Aict/cpieis, Aia/cpioi), formed one of the 
three parties into which the inhabitants of 
Attica were divided in the time of Solon : they 
were the most democratical of the three parties. 

Diadumenianus or Diadumenus, son of the 
emperor Macrinus, received the title of Caesar, 
when his father was elevated to the purple, a.d. 
217, and was put to death in the following year 
about the same time with Macrinus (Dio 
Cass, lxxviii. 4-40; Lamprid. Diadum). 

Diaeus (Alaios), of Megalopolis, general of 
the Achaean League B.C. 149 and 147, took an 
active part in the war against the Romans. On 
the death of Critolaiis in 146, he succeeded to 
the command of the Achaeans, but was defeated 
by Mummius near Corinth, whereupon he put 
an end to his own life, after slaying his wife to 
P'-event her falling into the enemy's power. 
(Polyb. xl. 2-9 ; Paus. vii. 12.) 

Diagoras (Aiay6pas). 1. Son of Damagetus, 
of Ialysus in Rhodes, was very celebrated for 
his own victories and those of his sons and 



DIANA 



DICTYS 



235 



grandsons, in the Grecian games. His fani: 
was celebrated by Pindar in the 7th Olympic 
ode. He was victor in boxing twice in the 
Olympian games, four times in the Isthmian, 
twice in the Neniean, and once at least in the 
Pythian. He had therefore the high honour of 
being a ireptoSov'iKris — that is, one who had 
gained crowns at all the four great festivals. 
When an old man, he accompanied his sons, 
Acusilaiis and Damagetus, to Olympia. The 
young men, having both been victorious, carried 
their father through the assembly, while the 
spectators showered garlands upon him, and 
congratulated him as having reached the 
summit of human happiness. He gained his 
Olympic victory B.C. 464. iPaus. vi. 7.) — 2. 
Surnamed the Atheist t'Adeos), a Greek philo- 
sopher and poet, was the son of Teleclides, and 
was born in the island of Melos, one of the 
Cyclades. He was a disciple of Democritus of 
Abdera, and in his youth he acquired consider- 
able reputation as a lyric poet. He was at 
Athens as early as B.C. 424, for Aristophanes in 
the Clouds (830), which was performed in that 
year, alludes to him as a well-known character. 
In consequence of his attacks upon the popular 
religion, and especially upon the Eleusinian 
mysteries, he was formally accused of impiety 
B.C. 411, and fearing the result of a trial, fled 
from Athens. He was condemned to death in 
his absence, and a reward set upon his head. 
He first went to Pallene, and afterwards to 
Corinth, where he died. One of the works of 
Diagoras was entitled Qpv-yioi \6yoi, in which 
he probably attacked the Plirvgian divinities. 
<Diog. Laert. vi. 59 ; Cic. Tuac. i. 46, 111.) 

Diana (the quantity of the first syllable is 
common, and no arguments of etymology can 
safely be based on it), an ancient Italian 
divinity, whom the Romans identified with the 
Greek Artemis. Her worship is said to have 
been introduced at Rome by Servius Tullius, 
who dedicated a temple to her on the Aventine ; 
and she appears to have been originally wor- 
shipped only by the plebeians. At Rome Diana 
was the goddess of light and of the moon (for 
no valid objection has been made against her 
being the moon-goddess also), and her name 
■contains the same root as the word dies, sub dio 
(cf. Janus). The attributes of the Greek 
Artemis were afterwards ascribed to the Roman 
Diana. [See Artemis.] Among the most notice- 
able sites of her worship as a genuine Italian 
deity were Mount Tifata, near Capena (Plut. 
Sull. 6; C.I.L, i. 509), and Aricia, where she 
was worshipped with harvest festivals as the 
■deity who gave fruitfulness both in the vege- 
table world, and also apparently in the birth of 
children (Ov. Fast. iii. 266), and with a torch- 
light procession as being the goddess of light. 
It is not unlikely that the peculiar law by 
which the priest of her erove must have slain 
his predecessor was a relic of human sacrifice 
offered to her (see Diet, of Antiq. art. Hex 
Ncmorensis). In tradition Diana Aricina is 
connected with Virbius in a manner which : 
some writers compare with the conjunction of j 
Iain and Osiris. [See Virbius.] 

Dianium. 1. (Gianuti),a small island in the 
Tyrrhenian sea, opposite the gulf of Cosa. — 2. 
■(Dmiia), called Hemeroscopion IIUfupoaKO- 
irtiov) by Strabo,atown in HispaniaTarraconen- 
sis on a promontory of the same name (C. 
Martin) founded by the Massilians. Here stood 
a celebrated temple of Diana, from which the 
town derived its name ; and here Sortorius k<-|«t 
most of his military stores. 



Dicaea (Ai'/caia), a town in Thrace, on the 
lake Bistonis (Hdt. vii. 109 ; Strab. p. 331). 

DicaearcMa. [Puteoia] 

Dicaearchus (AtKaiapxos), a celebrated Peri- 
patetic philosopher, geographer, and historian, 
was born at Messana in Sicily, but passed the 
greater part of his life in Greece Proper, and 
especially in Peloponnesus. He was a disciple 
of Aristotle and a friend of Theophrastus. He 
wrote a vast number of works, of which only 
fragments are extant. His most important 
work was entitled Bios rijs 'EAAoSos : it con- 
tained an account of the geography, history, 
and moral and religious condition of Greece. 
Dicaearchus was in part the source of Cicero's 
De Hepublica. See Fuhr, Dicaearchi Messenii 
quae supersunt composita et illustrata, Da.vm- 
stadt, 1841. 

Dice (Ai'kt;), the personification of justice, a 
daughter of Zeus and Themis, and the sister of 
Eunomia and Eirene (Hes. Th. 901 ; Pind. VI. 
xiii. 6). She was considered as one of the 
Horae, and is frequently called the attendant 
or councillor {irapeZpos or £vve8pos) of Zeus 
(Soph. O. C. 1381). In the tragedians she ap- 
pears as a divinity who severely punishes all 
wrong, watches over the maintenance of justice, 
and pierces the hearts of the unjust with the 
sword lAesch. Cho. 639). In this capacity she 
is closely connected with the Erinnyes, though 
her business is not only to punish injustice, 
but also to reward virtue (Aesch. Atj. 1432, 
Eum. 510; Soph. Aj. 1390; Eur. Med. 1389). 

Dictaeus. [Dicte.] 

Dictamnum l AiKTa/jLvov), a town on the N. 
coast of Crete with a sanctuary of Dictynna, 
whose name the town bore (Ptol. iii. 17, 8). 

Dicte (A('kt7)), a mountain in the E. of Crete, 
where Zeus is said to have been brought up. 
Hence he bore the surname Dictaeus. The 
Roman poets employ the adjective Dictaeus as 
synonymous with Cretan (Strab. p. 578). 

Dictynna. [Britomartis.] 

Dictys Cretensis, the reputed author of an 
extant work in Latin on the Trojan war, divided 
into six books, and entitled Ephemcris Belli 
Trojani, professing to be a journal of the lead- 
ing events of the war. In the preface to the 
work we are told that it was composed by Dictys 
of Cnossus, who accompanied Idomeneus to 
the Trojan war, and was inscribed in Phoenician 
characters on tablets of lime-wood or paper 
made from the bark. The work was buried in 
the same grave with the author, and remained 
undisturbed till the sepulchre was burst open 
by an earthquake in the reign of Nero, and 
the work was discovered in a tin case. It was 
carried to Rome by Eupraxis, whose slaves had 
discovered it, and it was translated into Greek 
by order of Nero. It is from this Greek version 
that the extant Latin work professes to have 
been translated by a Q. Septimius Romauus, 
apparently of the 4th century, since he addresses 
Aradius Rufinus, who was praefectus urbi A.n. 
812. Although its alleged origin and discovery 
are quite unworthy of credit, it appears never- 
theless to b.j a translation from a Greek work 
quoted by the Byzantine writers, especially by 
Malulas : it seems improbable that Malalas 
should have recourse to a Latin original ; and 
the sources from which the work itself is drawn 
are Greek writers such as Apollodorus and 
Lycophron, whereas if tho original author had 
been a Latin writer, he would havo drawn from 
some at least of the Latin authorities. On tin- 
other hand, those who deny that a Greek ori- 
ginal ever existed huvo in their favour the fact 



286 



DIDIUS 



DINDYMUS 



that in style it is not like a translation from 
Greek, and seems to be an imitation of Sallust. 
The work contains a history of the Trojan war, 
from the birth of Paris down to the death of 
Ulysses. The compiler not unfrequently differs 
widely from Homer, adding many particulars, 
and recording many events of which we find 
no trace elsewhere. All miraculous events and 
supernatural agency are entirely excluded. 
The compilations ascribed to Dictys and Dares 
[Dabes], are of considerable importance in the 
history of modern literature, since they are 
the chief fountains from which the legends of 
Greece first flowed into the romances of the 
middle ages, and then mingled with the popular 
tales and ballads of England, France, and 
Germany. — Editions by Dederich, Bonn, 1835, 
and by F. Meister, Lips. 1872. 

Didius. 1. T., praetor in Macedonia, B.C. 100, 
where he defeated the Scordiscans (Cic. in Pis. 
25, 61), consul 98, and subsequently proconsul 
in Spain, where he defeated the Celtiberians. 
He fell in the Marsic war, 89 (Appian, B. C. i. 
40). — 2. C, a legate of Caesar, fell in battle in 
Spain fighting against the sons of Pompey, 46. 
— 3. M. Didius Salvius Julianus, bought the 
Roman empire of the praetorian guards, when 
they put up the empire for sale after the death 
of Pertinax, a.d. 193. Flavius Sulpicianus, 
praefect of the city, and Didius bid against 
each other, but it was knocked down to Didius, 
upon his promising a donative to each soldier 
of 25,000 sesterces. Didius, however, held the 
empire for only two months, from March 28th 
to June 1st, and was murdered by the soldiers 
when Severus was marching against the city. 
(Dio Cass, lxxiii. 11 ; Spartian. Did. Jul.) 

Dido (AiScu), also called Elissa, the reputed 
founder of Carthage. The name Dido was that 



of a Phoenician deity equivalent to Astarte, 
originally worshipped by the Tyrian colonists 
of Carthage, and then identified in legend with 
Elissa. She was thus represented as the 
daughter of the Tyrian king Mutto ( = Belus or 
Agenor), and sister of Pygmalion, who succeeded 
to the crown after the death of his father. She 
was married to her uncle, Acerbas or Sichaeus, 
a priest of Hercules, and a man of immense 
wealth. He was murdered by Pygmalion, who 
coveted his treasures ; but Dido secretly sailed 
from Tyre with the treasures, accompanied by 
some noble Tynans, who were dissatisfied with 
Pygmalion's rule. She first went to Cyprus 
where she carried off eighty maidens to provide 
the emigrants with wives, and then crossed 
over to Africa. Here she purchased as much 
land as might be covered with the hide of a 
bull; but she ordered the hide to be cut up 



into the thinnest possible strips, and with them 
she surrounded a spot, on which she built a. 
citadel called Byrsa (from fivpaa, i.e. the hide 
of a bull). Around this fort the city of Carthage 
arose, and soon became a powerful and flourish- 
ing place. The neighbouring king Iarbas, 
jealous of the prosperity of the new city, de- 
manded the hand of Dido in marriage, threaten- 
ing Carthage with war in case of refusal. Dido 
had vowed eternal fidelity to her late husband ; 
but seeing that the Carthaginians expected her 
to comply with the demands of Iarbas, she 
pretended to yield to their wishes, and under 
pretence of soothing the manes of Acerbas by 
expiatory sacrifices, she erected a funeral pile, 
on which she stabbed herself in presence of her 
people. After her death she was worshipped 
by the Carthaginians as a divinity. — Virgil has 
inserted in his Aeneid the legend of Dido with 
various modifications. According to the common 
chronology, there was an interval of more than 
300 years between the capture of Troy (B.C. 
1184) and the foundation of Carthage (B.C. 853) ; 
but Virgil nevertheless makes' Dido a contem- 
porary of Aeneas, with whom she falls in love 
on his arrival in Africa. When Aeneas hastened 
to seek the new home which the gods had 
promised him, Dido in despair destroyed herself 
on a funeral pile. The oldest authority for the 
legends of Dido seems to be Timaeus (Fragm. 
23), who is followed by Naevius and Virgil. 
[See Aeneas.] 

Didyma, [Bbanchidae.] 

Didyme. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 

Didymus (AiSv/xos), a celebrated Alexandrine 
grammarian, a contemporary of Julius Caesar 
and Augustus, was a follower of the school of 
Aristarchus, and received the surname xa^Kev- 
repos, on account of his indefatigable and 
unwearied application to study. He is said to 
have written 4000 works, the most important of 
which were commentaries on Homer, including 
a revision of Aristarchus. He wrote commen- 
taries also on Pindar, Sophocles, Aristophanes, 
and the Attic orators, and is a source of much 
of the information contained in later scholia and 
lexicons. Fragments edited by Schmidt, 1854. 

Diespiter. [Jupiteb.] 

Dlgentia (Licenza), &smaM stream in Latium, 
beautifully cool and clear, which rises in Lu- 
cretilis, and flows into the Anio near Vicovaro. 
It flowed through the Sabine farm of Horace 
(Hor. Ep. i. 16, 12, i. 18, 104). [For discussion 
of the site of the villa, see Horatius.] 

Dimallum, a town in Greek Illyria. 

Dinarchus (Aeluapxos), the last and least 
important of the ten Attic orators, was born at 
Corinth about B.C. 361. He was brought up at 
Athens, and studied under Theophrastus. As 
he was a foreigner, he could not come forward 
himself as an orator, and was therefore obliged 
to content himself with writing orations for 
others. He imitated Demosthenes and Lysias, 
but in neither case successfully. He belonged 
to the friends of Phocion and the Macedonian 
party. When Demetrius Poliorcetes advanced 
against Athens in 307, Dinarchus fled to Chalcis 
in Euboea, and was not allowed till 292 to re- 
turn to Athens, where he died at an advanced 
age. Only three of his speeches (against Demo- 
sthenes, Aristogeiton, and Philocles) have come 
down to us : they all refer to the question about 
Harpalus. They are printed in the collections 
of the Attic orators. (Dionys. Dinarch. ; Plut. 
Vit. X. Orat.) 

Dindymene. [Dindymus.] 

Dindymus, or Dindyma, -or urn (AiVSuyUos s 




DINOCRATES 



DIOCLES 



287 



rek AiV5u/xo). 1. {Gunusu Dagh), a mountain 
in Phrygia on the frontiers of Galatia, near the 
town Pessinus, sacred to Cybele, the mother 
of the gods, who is hence called Dindymene 
(Strab. p. 567). — 2. (Murad Dagh), a mountain 
in Phrygia, near the frontiers of Mysia, the 
source of the river Hermus, also sacred to 
Cybele (Hdt. i. 80; Strab. p. 626).— 3. (Eapu 
Dagh), a mountain near Cyzicus. [Rhea.] 

Dinocrates (Aeivo/cpaTTjsi. 1. A distinguished 
Macedonian architect in the time of Alexander 
the Great. He was the architect of the new 
temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which was built 
after the destruction of the former temple by 
Herostratus. He was employed by Alexander, 
whom he accompanied into Egypt, in the build- 
ing of Alexandria. He formed a design for 
cutting Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander ; 
but the king forbad the execution of the pro- 
ject (Vitruv. i. 1, 4 ; Strab. p. 640). The right 
hand of the figure was to have held a city, and 
in the left there would have been a basin, in 
which the water of all the mountain streams 
was to pour, and thence into the sea. There is 
a story of doubtful credit that he began the 
erection of a temple to Arsinoe, the wife of 
Ptolemy II., of which the roof was to be arched 
with loadstones, so that her statue made of iron 
might appear to float in the air, but died before 
completing the work (Plin. xxxiv. 148). — 2. A 
Messenian who opposed the Achaean League, 
and, when Philopoemen was taken prisoner, was 
among those who caused him to be put to 
death. In the next year, when the Achaean 
general Lycostas occupied Messene, Dinocrates 
anticipated his sentence by suicide. (Pol. xxiv. 
5, 12 ; Plut. Philop. 18-21.) 

Dinomachus ( Acivd/iaxos), a philosopher, who 
agreed with Calliphon in considering the chief 
good to consist in the union of virtue with 
bodily pleasure (Cic. Tuac. v. 30). 

Dinomeues {&tivoiuvi)s), a sculptor, whose 
statues of Io and Callisto stood in the Acro- 
polis at Athens in the time of Pausanias : he 
flourished B.C. 400 (Pans. i. 25 ; Plin. xxxiv. 50). 
A base with the name of Dinomenes, found on 
the Acropolis, and assigned to the second cent. 
B.C., may be the work of a later sculptor of the 
same name. 

Dinon (Advwv, AiVaie), father of the historian 
Clitarchus, wrote himself a history of Persia. 

Dio Cassius, the historian, was the 6on of a 
Roman senator, Cassius Apronianus, and was 
born a.d. 155, at Nicaea in Bithynia. He also 
bore the surname Cocceianus, which he derived 
from the orator Dio Chrysostomus Cocceianus, 
his maternal grandfather. He was educated 
with great care ; he accompanied his father to 
Cilicia, of which he had the administration ; 
and after his father's death, he went to Rome, 
about 180. He wus straightway mode a senator, 
and frequently pleaded in the courts of justice. 
He was aedile and quaestor under Commodus, 
and praetor under Septimius Severus, 194. He 
accompanied Caracalla on his journey to the 
East : he was appointed by Macrinus to the 
government of Pergamusand Smyrna, 21H ; was 
consul about 220 ; proconsul of Africa 224, under 
Alexander Severus, by whom he was sent as 
legate to Dalmatia in 226, and to Pannonia in 
227. In the latter province he restored strict 
discipline among the troops; which excited the 
discontent of the praetorians at Rome, who de- 
manded his life of Alexander Severus. But the 
emperor protected him and raised him to his 
second consulship 229. Dio, however, retired 
to Cauipaniu, and shortly afterwards obtained 



permission of the emperor to return to his 
native town Nicaea, where he passed the re- 
mainder of his life. — Dio wrote several his- 
torical works, but the most important was a 
History of Rome ('PcDuaiKr) i<rropta), in eighty 
books, from the landing of Aeneas in Italy to 
a.d. 229, the year in which Dio returned to 
Nicaea. Unfortunately, only a comparatively 
small portion of this has come down to us 
entire. Of the first 34 books we possess only 
fragments ; but since Zonaras in his Annals 

j chiefly followed Dio Cassius, we may regard 

i the Annals of Zonaras as to some extent an 

' epitome of Dio Cassius. Of the 35th book we 
possess a considerable fragment, and from the 
36th book to the 54th the work is extant com- 
plete, and embraces the history from the 
wars of Lucullus and Cn. Pompey against 
Mithridates, down to the death of Agrippa, B.C. 
10. Of the remaining books we have only the 
extracts made by Xiphilinus and others. Dio 

1 Cassius treated the history of the republic witli 
brevity, but gave a more minute account cf 

' those events of which lie had been himself an 
eye-w r itness. He consulted original authorities, 
and displayed great judgment and discrimina- 

] tion in the use of them. He had acquired a 
thorough knowledge of his subject, and his 
notions of the ancient Roman institutions were 

| far more correct than those of some of his pre- 
decessors, such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 

' but he was a strong imperialist, and depreciated 
whatever he thought tended to republicanism. — 
Editions by Reinmrus, Hamb. 1750-52. 2 vols, 
fol. ; Sturz,*Lips. 1824, 9 vols. 8vo, and by Din- 
dorf, Lips. 1885. 

Dio Chrysostomus — that is, the golden- 
mouthed, a surname given to him on account 
of his eloquence. He also bore the surname 
Cocceianus, which he derived from the emperor 
Cocceius Nerva, with whom he was intimate. 
He was born at Prusa in Bithynia. about the 
middle of the first century of our era. He tra- 
velled in different countries, and came to Rome 
in the reign of Vespasian, but having incurred 
the suspicions of Domitian, was obliged to leave 
the city. On the advice of the Delphic oracle, 
he put on a beggar's dress, and visited Thrace, 
Mysia, Scythia, and the country of the Getae. 
After the murder of Domitian, a.d. 96, Dio used 
his influence with the army stationed on the 
frontier in favour of his friend Nerva, and seems 
to have returned to Rome immediately after his 
accession. Trajan also showed marked favour 
to Dio, who died at Rome about a.d. 117. — 
Dio Chrysostom is the most eminent of the 
Greek rhetoricians and sophists in the time 
of the Roman empire. There are extant eighty 
of his orations ; but they are more like essays 
on political, moral, and philosophical subjects 
than real orations, of which they have only the 
form. All these orations are written in pure 
Attic Greek, though overloaded with the rheto- 
rical embellishments of the age. — Editions by 
Reiske, Lips. 1784, 2 vols. ; by Emperius, Bruns. 
1844 ; and by L. Dindorf, Lips. 1857. 

Diocaesarea I &io(ri<aitrdptta : Scfurieh), more 
anciently Sepphoris tHarrpwpis), in Galileo, 
was a small place until Herodes Antipas made 
it the capital of Galilee, under the name of 
Diocaesarea. It was destroyed in the fourth 
century by Gallus, on account of an insurrec- 
tion which had broken out there. (Jos. Ant. xiv. 
5.) 

Diocleft or Doclea iA<;«Afo). a plrnc in Dal- 
matia, near S.ilona, the birthplace of Diocletian. 
Diodes (AiuKAris). 1. A brave Athenian, 



288 



DIOCLETIANOPOLIS 



who lived in exile at Megara. Once in a battle 
he protected with his shield a youth whom he 
loved, but he lost his own life in consequence. 
The Megarians rewarded him with the honours 
of a hero, and instituted the festival of the 
Dioclea, which they celebrated in the spring of 
every year. — 2. A Syracusan, the leader of the 
popular party in opposition to Hermocrates. 
In B.C. 412 he was appointed with several 
others to draw up a new code of laws. This 
code which was almost exclusively the work of 
Diocles, became very celebrated, and was 
adopted by many other Sicilian cities. — 3. 
Of Carystus in Euboea, a celebrated Greek 
physician, lived in the fourth century B.C. He 
wrote several medical works, of which only 
some fragments remain. 

Diocletianopolis. [Celetbum.] 

Biocletlanus, Valerius, Roman emperor, a.d. 
284-305, was born near Salona in Dalmatia, in 
245, of most obscure parentage. From his 
mother, Doclea, or Dioclea, who received her 
name from the village where she dwelt, he in- 
herited the appellation of Docles or Diocles, 
which, after his assumption of the purple, was 
expanded into Diocletianus, and attached as a 
cognomen to the high patrician name of 
Valerius. Having entered the army, he served 
with high reputation under Probus and Aure- 
lian, followed Carus to the Persian war, and, 
after the fate of Numerianus became known at 
Chalcedon, was proclaimed emperor by the 
troops, 284. He slew with his own hands 
Arrius Aper, who was arraigned of the murder 
of Numerianus, in order, according to some 
authorities, that he might fulfil a prophecy 
delivered to him in early youth by a Gaulish 
Druidess, that he should mount a throne as 
soon as he had slain the wild-boar (Aper). 
Next year (285) Diocletian carried on war 
against Carinus, on whose death he became 
undisputed master of the empire. But as the 
attacks of the barbarians became daily more 
formidable, he resolved to associate with himself 
a colleague in the empire, and accordingly 
selected for that purpose Maximianus, who was 
invested with the title of Augustus in 286. 
Maximian had the care of the Western empire, 
and Diocletian that of the Eastern. But as the 
dangers which threatened the Roman dominions 
from the attacks of the Persians in the East, and 
the Germans and other barbarians in the West, 
became still more imminent, Diocletian made a 
still further division of the empire. In 292, 
Constantius Chlorus and Galerius were pro- 
claimed Caesars, and the government of the 
Roman world was divided between the two 
Augusti and the two Caesars. Diocletian had 
the government of the East with Nicomedia as 
his residence ; Constantius, Britain, Gaul, and 
Spain, with Treves as his residence ; Galerius, 
Illyricum, and the whole line of the Danube, 
with Sirmium as his residence. The wars in 
the reign of Diocletian are related in the lives of 
his colleagues, since Diocletian rarely com- 
manded the armies in person. It is sufficient 
to state here that Britain, which had main- 
tained its independence for some years under 
Cabausius and Allectus, was restored to the 
empire (296) ; that the Persians were defeated 
and obliged to sue for peace (298) ; and that the 
Marcomanni and other barbarians in the N. 
were also driven back from the Roman 
dominions. Though in most acts of his life he 
has been praised for clemency and humanity, 
he ordered in 303, chiefly at the instigation of 
Grallienus, a fierce persecution of the Christians. 



DIODORUS 

This was nearly the last act of his rule ; for 
after an anxious reign of twenty-one years Dio- 
cletian longed for repose. Accordingly on the 
first of May, 305, he abdicated at Nicomedia, and 
compelled his reluctant colleague Maximian to 
do the same at Milan. Diocletian retired to his 
native Dalmatia, and passed the remaining 
eight years of his life in philosophic retire-, 
ment near Salona (where he built the magnifi- 
cent villa of which the remains form the town 
of Spalatro), devoted to rural pleasures and the 
cultivation of his garden. He died 313. His 
talents for organisation place him among the 
most remarkable of the emperors. He was not 
only the author of the division of the empire, 
but he entirely remodelled the arrangement of 
provinces, constituting twelve great SioiKiijims, 
each comprising several provinces, with a 
supreme officer called Vicarius to whom the 
praesides of the several provinces in the diocese 
were answerable. He reorganised also the 
administration of justice, and the system of 
taxation throughout the empire. (Aurel. Vict. 
Caes. 39; Eutrop. ix. 13 ft'.; Zonar. xii. 31.) 
The Edict of Diocletian dated 303, fixing the 
price of provisions, &c, has great antiquarian 
value. It was inscribed on a temple at Strato- 
nicea ; portions also have been discovered at 




Diocletianus. Roman Emperor, A.D. 284-305. 
Obi\, DIOCLETIANVS AVG., head of Diocletian, laureate; 
rev., VIRTVS MILITVM C, soldiers sacrificing before 
camp. 

Plataea and at Megalopolis in 1888, 1890 
(C. I. L. hi. p. 801 ; Ephem. Ep. iv. 180). 

Diodorus (AidSaipos). 1. Surnamed Cronus, 
of Iasus in Caria, lived at Alexandria in the 
reign of Ptolemy Soter, who is said to have 
given him the surname of Cronus on account of 
his inability to solve at once some dialectic 
problem proposed by Stilpo, when the two 
philosophers were dining with the king. 
Diodorus is said to have taken that disgrace so 
much to heart that after his return from the 
repast, and writing a treatise on the problem, 
he died in despair. According to another 
account he derived his surname from his 
teacher Apollonius Cronus. He belonged to 
the Megaric school of philosophy, of which he 
was the head. He was celebrated for his great 
dialectic skill, for which he is called 6 SiaAe/cn- 
k6s, or SiaAeKTiK&TaTOs. (Diog. Laert. ii. Ill ; 
Strab. pp. 658, 838.)— 2. Siculus, of Agyrium 
in Sicily, was a contemporary of Julius 
Caesar and Augustus. In order to collect 
materials for his history, he travelled over a 
great part of Europe and Asia, and lived a long 
time at Rome. He spent altogether thirty 
years upon his work. It was entitled Bi/SAio- 
BriK-q tffropuefi, The Historical Library, and 
was a universal history, embracing the period 
from the earliest mythical ages down to the- 
beginning of Caesar's Gallic wars. It was 
divided into three great sections and into forty 
books. The first section, which consisted of the 
first six books, contained the history of the 
mythical times previous to the Trojan war. 
The second section, which consisted of eleven 
books, contained the history from the Trojan war 
down to the death of Alexander the Great, 



DIODOTUS 



DIOGEXES 



289 



The third section, which contained the remain- 
ing twenty-three books, treated of the history 
from the death of Alexander down to the 
beginning of Caesar's Gallic wars. Of this 
work only the following portions are extant 
entire : the first five books, which contain the 
early history of the Eastern nations, the 
Egyptians, Aethiopians, and Greeks ; and from 
book eleven to book twenty, containing the 
history from the second Persian war, B.C. 480, 
down to 302. Of the remaining portion there 
are extant a number of fragments and the 
Excerpta, which are preserved partly in 
Photius and partly in the Eclogae made at 
the command of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. 
The work of Diodorus is constructed upon the 
plan of annals, and the events of each year are 
placed one after the other without any internal 
connexion. In compiling his work Diodorus 
exercised no judgment or criticism. He simply 
collected what he found in his different autho- 
rities, and thus jumbled together history, 
mythus, and fiction : he frequently misunder- 
stood authorities, and not seldom contradicts 
in one passage what he has stated in another. 
But nevertheless the compilation is of great 
importance to us, especially for the history of 
Sicily, on account of the great mass of materials 
which are there collected from a number of 
writers whose works have perished. The best 
editions are by Wesseling, Amsterd. 1746, 2 vols, 
fob, reprinted at Bipont, 1793, <fcc, 11 vols. 8vo. ; 
and by Dindorf, Lips. 18(57, 5 vols. 8vo.— 3. Of 
Sinope, an Athenian comic poet of the Middle 
Comedy, flourished 353. — 4. Of Tyre, a Peripa- 
tetic philosopher, a disciple and follower of 
Critolaiis, whom he succeeded as the head of 
the Peripatetic school at Athens. He flourished 
B.C. 110. 

Didddtus (Aioootos), a Stoic philosopher and 
a teacher of Cicero, in whose house he lived for 
many years at Rome. In his later years, Dio- 
dotus became blind : he died in Cicero's house, 
B.C. 59, and left to his friend a property of about 
100,000 sesterces. (Cic. Tusc. v. 39, 113; ad 
Att. ii. 20.) 

Diogenes (Aioyiv.is). 1. Of Apollonia in 

Crete, an eminent natural philosopher, lived in 
the fifth century B.C., and was a pupil of Anaxi- 
menes. He wrote a work in the Ionic dialect, 
entitled Tltpl <pv<re<as, On Nature, in which he 
treated of physical science. He made air the 
element of all things. (Diog. Lai : rt. ix. 57 ; Cic. 
N. J), i. 12, 29.)— 2. The Babylonian, a Stoic 
philosopher, was a native of Seleucia in Baby- 
lonia, was educated at Athens under Chrysippus, 
and succeeded Zeno of Tarsus as the head of 
the Stoic school at Athens. He was one of the 
three ambassadors sent by the Athenians to 
Rome in B.C. 155. rCAR.Nr.ADKS ; Chitolaus.] 
He died at the nge of 88. — 3. The Cynic philo- 
sopher, was born at Sinope in Pontus, about 
B.C. 412. His father was a banker named 
Icesias or Icetas, who was convicted of some 
swindling transaction, in consequence of which 
Diogenes quitted Sinope and went to Athens 
(Diog. Laert. vi. 2, 20). His youth is said to 
have been spent in dissolute extravagance; but 
at Athens his attention was arrested by the 
character of Antisthenes, who at first drove him 
away. Diogenes, however, could not be preven- 
ted from attending him even by blows, but told 
him that he would find no stick hard enough to 
keep him away. Antisthenes at last relented, 
and his pupil soon plunged into the most frantic 
excesses of austerity and moroseness. In sum- 
mer he used to roll in hot sand, and in winter 



I to embrace statues covered with snow ; he wore 
coarse clothing, lived on the plainest food, slept 
\ in porticoes or in the street, and finally, accord- 
, ing to the common story, took up his residence 
I in a tub (a large earthenware jar) belonging to 
[ the Metroum, or temple of the Mother of the 
| Gods. (Diog. Laert. vi. 23 ; Juv. xiv. 308 ; Sen. 
Ep. 99 ; Lucian, Quom. Conscr. Hist. ii.p. 3G4.) 
The truth of this latter tale has, however, been 
disputed, since it is not mentioned by Plutarch, 
Cicero or Epictetus (ap. Arrian. iii. 24) ; and 
some have attempted to explain the story by 
j imagining a clay-built cottage. But, whatever 
the truth of the story, it is repeated in works of 
art as well as in literature. [See Diet, of Ant. 
art. Dolium.] In spite of his strange eccentri- 
cities, Diogenes appears to have been much 
respected at Athens, and to have been privileged 
to rebuke anything of which he disapproved. 
He seems to have ridiculed and despised all 
intellectual pursuits which did not directly and 
obviously tend to some immediate practical 
good. He abused literary men for reading about 
the evils of Ulysses, and neglecting their own ; 
musicians for stringing the lyre harmoniously 
while they left their minds discordant ; men of 
science for troubling themselves about the moon 




Diogenes in his tab. CFrom fragment of lamp In British 

Museum.) 

and stars, while they neglected what lay im- 
mediately before them ; orators for learning to 
say what was right, but not to practise it. — On 
a voyage to Aegina he was taken prisoner by 
pirates, and carried to Crete to be sold as a 
slave. Here when he was asked what business 
he understood, he answered, ' How to command 
men.' He waspurchased by Xeniades of Corinth, 
over whom he acquired such influence, that 
he soon received from him his freedom, was en- 
trusted with the care of his children, and passed 
his old age in his house. During his residence 
at Corinth his celebrated interview with Alex- 
ander the Great is said to have taken place. 
The conversation between them began by the 
king's saying, ' I am Alexander the Great ; ' to 
which the philosopher replied, ' And I am 
I Diogenes the Cynic' Alexander then asked 
whether lie could oblige him in any way, and 
received no answer except, ' Yes, you can stand 
out of the sunshine.' We are further told that 
Alexander admired Diogenes so much that he 
said, ' If I were not Alexander, I should wish to 
be Diog<-nen' (Pint. Airs. 1 I ; Cic. Tusc. v. :S'2, 
92). Diogenes died at Corinth at the age of 
nearly ninety, B.C. 323. [For the teaching of 
the Cynics, see Antisthenes.] — 4. Laertlus, 
of Laerte in Cilicia, of whose life we have no 



290 



DIOGENIANUS 



DION 



particulars, probably lived in the second cen- 
tury after Christ. He wrote the Lives of the 
Philosophers in ten books : the work is entitled 
irepl (jiuiv, Zoyjxarav, Kal aTrocpdey/xcLTUv tu>v iv 
<ptAoao(pia eiiSoKi/j.-qadi'Taiv. According to some 
allusions which occur in it, he wrote it for a lady 
of rank, who occupied herself with philosophy, 
and who, according to some, was Arria, the 
friend of Galen. In this work Diogenes divides 
the philosophy of the Greeks into the Ionic — ■ 
which commences with Anaximander and ends 
with Clitomachus, Chrysippus, and Theophras- 
tus — and the Italian, which was founded by 
Pythagoras, and ends with Epicurus. He 
reckons the Socratic school, with its various 
ramifications, as a part of the Ionic philosophy, 
of which he treats in the first seven books. 
The Eleatics, Heraclitus and the Sceptics are 
included in the Italian philosophy, which occu- 
pies the eighth and ninth books. Epicurus and 
his philosophy are treated of in the tenth book 
with particular minuteness, which has led some 
writers to the belief that Diogenes himself was 
an Epicurean. The work is of great value to 
us, as Diogenes made use of a great numbei' of 
writers on the history of philosophy, whose 
works are now lost ; but it is put together with- 
out plan, criticism, or connexion, and the 
author had evidently no conception of the real 
value and dignity of philosophy. The best 
editions are by Meibom, Amsterd. 1692, 2 vols. 
4to., and Hiibner, Lips. 2 vols. 8vo. 1828-1831 ; 
Tauchnitz, 1877. — 5. Oenomaus, a tragic poet, 
who began to exhibit at Athens B.C. 404. 

Diogenianus (Aioyeveiav6s), of Heraclea on 
the Pontus, a distinguished grammarian in the 
reign of Hadrian, wrote a Greek Lexicon, from 
which the Lexicon of Hesychius seems to have 
been almost entirely taken. A portion of it is 
still extant, containing a collection of proverbs 
first printed by Schottus, with the proverbs of 
Zenobius and Suidas, Antv. 1612, 4to., and sub- 
sequently in other editions of the Paroemio- 
graphi Graeci. 

Diomea (ra AiS/xeta: Aio/ieievs, Aiopevs), a 
demus in Attica belonging to the tribe Aegeis, 
with a temple of Heracles ; the Diomean gate 
in Athens led to this demus. [Athenae.] 

Diomedeae Insulae, five small islands in the 
Adriatic sea, N. of the promontory Garganum in 
Apulia, named after Diomedes. [Diomedes.] 
The largest of these, called Diomedea Insula or 
Trimerus (Tremiti), was the place where Julia, 
the grand-daughter of Augustus, died. 

Diomides (Aio^Sris). 1. Son of Tydeus and 
Dei'pyle, whence he is constantly called Tydldes 
(TuSei'Srjs), succeeded Adrastus as king of Argos. 
— Homeric Story. Tydeus fell in the expedi- 
tion against Thebes, while his son Diomedes 
was yet a boy ; but Diomedes was afterwards 
one of the Epigoni who took Thebes. He went 
to Troy with eighty ships, and was, next to 
Achilles, the bravest hero in the Greek army. 
He enjoyed the especial protection of Athene ; 
he fought against the most distinguished of the 
Trojans, such as Hector and Aeneas, and even 
against the gods who espoused the cause of the 
Trojans. He thus wounded both Aphrodite and 
Ares (II. v. 335, 440, 837). In Od. iii. 180, we 
are told that he reached Argos on his return 
from Troy in three days. — Later Stories. Dio- 
medes and Ulysses carried off the palladium 
from the city of Troy, since it was believed that 
Troy could not be taken so long as the palla- 
dium was within its walls. Diomedes carried 
the palladium with him to Argos ; but according 
to others it was taken from him by Demophon 



in Attica, where he landed one night on his 
return from Troy, without knowing where he 
was. [Demophon.] Another tradition stated 
that Diomedes restored the palladium to Aeneas. 
On his arrival in Argos Diomedes found his wife 
Aegialea living in adultery with Hippolytus, or, 
according to others, with Cometes or Cyllabarus. 
This misfortune befell him through the anger 
of Aphrodite, whom he had wounded before 
Troy. He therefore quitted Argos, either of 
his own accord, or expelled by the adulterers, 
and went to Aetolia. He subsequently attemp- 
ted to return to Argos, but on his way home a 
storm threw him on the coast of Daunia in 
Italy, where he was kindly received byDaunus, 
the king of the country. Diomedes assisted 
Daunus in his war against the Messapians, 
married Euippe, the daughter of Daunus, and 
settled in Daunia, where he died at an advanced 
age. He was buried in one of the islands off 
cape Garganum, which were called after him 
the Diomedean islands. His companions were 
! inconsolable at his loss, and were metamor- 
phosed into birds (Aves Diomedeae), which, 
mindful of their origin, used to fly joyfully to- 
wards the Greek ships, but to avoid those of the 
Eomans. According to others Diomedes re- 
turned to Argos, or disappeared in one of the 
Diomedean islands, or in the country of the 
Heneti. A number of towns in the E. part of 
Italy, such as Beneventum, Argos Hippion 
(afterwards Argyripa or Arpi), Venusia, Canu- 
sium, Venafrum, Brundusium, &c, were be- 
lieved to have been founded by Diomedes. A 
plain of Apulia, near Salapia and Canusium, 
was called Diomedei Canvpi after him. He 
was worshipped as a divine being, especially 
in Italy, where statues of him existed at Ar- 
gyripa, Metapontum, Thurii, and other places. 
(Verg. Aen. xi. 243; Ov. Met. xiv. 457; Ant. 
Lib. 37 ; Strab. pp. 215, 284.)— 2. Son of Ares 
and Cyrene, king of the Bistones in Thrace, 
who dwelt near Abdera. He was killed by 
Heracles on account of his mares, which he fed 
with human flesh. (Apollod. ii. 5, 8, Hyg. Fab. 
30 ; cf. Eur. Ale. 499, H. F. 380.) Some modern 
writers represent Diomedes as the Storm-king, 
and his horses as the strong winds of the Thra- 
cian coast. 

Diomedes, a Latin grammarian, probably 
lived in the fourth or fifth century after Christ, 
and is the author of an extant work, De Ora- 
tione et Partibus Orationis et Vario Genere 
Metrorum libri III, printed in the Gram- 
maticae Latinae Auctores Antiqui of Put- 
schius, 4to, Hanov. 1605. 

Didmedon (AiO/ieSaiv), an Athenian comman- 
der during the Peloponnesian war. He was 
one of the commanders at the battle of Argi- 
nusae (B.C. 406), and was put to death with five 
of his colleagues on his return to Athens. (Thuc. 
viii. 19-34 ; Xen. Hell. i. 5.) 

Dion (Aiav), a Syracusan, son of Hipparinus, 
and a relation of Dionysius, born about 408 B.C. 
His sister Aristomache was the second wife of 
the elder Dionysius ; and Dion himself was 
married to Arete, the daughter of Dionysius by 
Aristomache. Dion was treated by Dionysius 
with the greatest distinction, and was employed 
by him in many services of trust and confidence. 
Of this close connexion and favour with the 
tyrant he seems to have availed himself to 
amass great wealth. He made no opposition to 
the succession of the younger Dionysiue to his 
father's power, but he became an object of 
suspicion to the youthful tyrant, to whom he 
also made himself personally disagreeable by 



DION 

the austerity of his manners. Dion appears to 
have been naturally a man of a proud and stern 
character ; and having become an ardent disciple 
of Plato when that philosopher visited Syracuse 
in the reign oi the elder Dionysius, he dreamed 
of making Syracuse a free city, of giving liberty 
to the Greek cities in Sicily, and of expelling 
the Carthaginians : he carried to excess the 
austerity of a philosopher, and viewed with un- 
disguised contempt the debaucheries and disso- 
lute pleasures of his nephew. From these he 
endeavoured to withdraw him by persuading 
him to invite Plato a second time to Syracuse ; 
but the philosopher, though received at first 
with the utmost distinction, failed in obtaining 
a permanent hold on the mind of Dionysius ; 
and the intrigues of the opposite party, headed 
by Philistns, were successful in procuring the 
banishment of Dion. Dion retired to Athens, 
where he lived in habitual intercourse with 
Plato and his disciples ; but Plato having 
failed in procuring his recall (for which purpose 
he had a third time visited Syracuse), and 
Dionysius having confiscated his property, and 
compelled his wife to marry another person, he 
determined on attempting the expulsion of the 
tyrant by force. In the year 357 he sailed from 
Zacynthus with only a small force and obtained 
possession of Syracuse, except Ortygia, without 
opposition during the absence of Dionysius in 
Italy. Dionysius returned shortly afterwards, 
and, aided by Philistus attempted to raise the 
blockade of Ortygia : a battle was fought in the 
Great Harbour, in which Philistus was defeated 
and put to death; and Dionysius found himself 
obliged to quit Syracuse and sail away to Italy. 
After his departure the Syracusans deposed 
Dion from his command, an ingratitude which 
embittered his mind, though he was soon after- 
wards recalled, and on the surrender of Ortygia 
found himself master of Syracuse. But he was 
unwilling to give the citizens the liberty which 
they expected, and his despotic conduct soon 
caused great discontent ; the people complained 
with justice that they had only exchanged one 
tyrant for another. He caused his chief 
opponent, Heraclldes, to be put to death, and 
confiscated the property of his adversaries. 
Callipus, an Athenian, who had accompanied 
him from Greece, formed a conspiracy against 
him, and caused him to be assassinated in his 
own house, 858. (Plut. Dion; Diod. xvi. 0-20; J 
Nep. Dion.) 

Dion Cassius ; Chrysostomus. [Dio.] 

Dionaea. ("Dione.1 

Dione (Aia>i>7j), in Homer, is the mother of 
Aphrodite by Zeus (II. v. 812, 830, 370, 422) : in 
Hesiod, she is the daughter of Oceanus (Th. 
353) ; but in later mythologists, of Uranus and 
Ge or Aether and Terra (Apollod. i. 1, 3 ; Hyg. 
Fab. 1). In post-Homeric authors she is some- 
times Aphrodite herself (Theocr. vii. 110 ; Ov. 
Fast. ii. 401, A. A. iii. 8). Euripides (Fr. 177) 
makes her = Semcle, calling Dionysus her son. 
Dione was probably in the earliest Greek 
mythology the feminine of Zeus (whence her 
name), worshipped as a supreme goddeHS in 
conjunction with him at Dodona (Dem. Meid. 
p. 530, § 53) ; but afterwards, when the influ- 
ence of Dodona was less predominant (before 
the Homeric period), she was displaced by Hera 
as the consort of Zeus, and in many of her attri- 
butes by the Cyprian Aphrodite, who thereupon 
becomes her daughter in mythology. 

Dionysius (&iovv<rtos). I. Historical. — 1. The 
Elder, tyrant of Syracuse, son of Hermocrates, 
born B.C. 430. He was born inaprivate but not 



DIONTSrUS 



291 



low station, and began life as a clerk in a public 
office. He was one of the partisans of Hermo- 
crates, the leader of the aristocratical party, and 
was severely wounded in the attempt which 
Hemiocrates made to effect by force his restora- 
tion from exile. He subsequently served in the 
great war against the Carthaginians, who had 
invaded Sicily under Hannibal, the son of Gisco, 
and successively reduced and destroyed Selinus, 
Himera, and Agrigentum. These disasters, and 
especially the failure of the Syracusan general, 
Daphnaeus, to relieve Agrigentum, had created 
a general spirit of discontent and alarm, of 
which Dionysius skilfully availed himself. He 
succeeded in procuring a decree for deposing 
the existing generals, and appointing others in 
their stead, among whom was Dionysius him- 
self, B.C. 400. His efforts were from this time 
directed towards supplanting his new colleagues 
and obtaining the sole direction of affairs. 
These efforts were crowned with success. In the 
following year (405), the other generals were de- 
posed, and Dionysius, though only twenty-five 
years of age, was appointed sole general, with 
full powers. From this period we may date the 
commencement of his reign, or tyranny, which 
continued without interruption for thirty-eight 
years. His first step was to procure the appoint- 
ment of a body-guard, which he speedily in- 
creased to the number of 1000 men : at the 
same time he induced the Syracusans to double 
the pay of all the troops, and took every means 
to ingratiate himself with the mercenaries. By 
his marriage with the daughter of Hermocrates 
; he secured to himself the support of all the 
remaining partisans of that leader. He con- 
verted the island of Ortygia into a strong for- 
tress, in which he took up his own residence. 
| After concluding a peace with Carthage, and 
putting down a formidable insurrection in 
Syracuse, he began to direct his arms against 
the other cities of Sicily. Naxos, Catana, and 
Leontini, successively fell into his power, either 
by force or treachery. For several years after 
this he made preparations for renewing the war 
with Carthage. In 397 he declared war against 
Carthage. At first he met with great success, 
but in 395 his fleet was totally defeated, and 
he was obliged to shut himself up within the 
; walls of Syracuse, where he was besieged by 
the Carthaginians both by sea and land. A 
pestilence shortly after broke out in the Car- 
thaginian camp, and greatly reduced the enemy ; 
whereupon Dionysius suddenly attacked the 
enemy both by sea and land, defeated the army, 
and burnt great part of their fleet. The Car- 
thaginians were now obliged to withdraw. In 
893 they renewed the war with no better suc- 
| cess, and in 392 they concluded a peace with 
! Dionysius. This treaty left Dionysius at 
leisure to continue the ambitious projects in 
which he had previously engaged against the 
Greek cities in Italy. He formed an alliance 
with the Lucanians, and crossed over into 
Italy. He subdued Caulonia, Hipponium, and 
Rhegium, 3H7. He wus in close alliance with 
the Lot-nans ; and his powerful fleets gave him 
the command both of the Tyrrhenian and 
Adriatic seas. He was now at the summit of 
his greatness, and during the twenty years that 
elapsed from this period to his death, lie pos- 
| sessed an amount of power und influence 
far exceeding those enjoyed by any other 
Greek before the time of Alexander. During 
this time lie was twice engaged again in war 
with Carthage — namely, in 3H3, when a treaty 
was concluded, by which the river Halycus was 

U 2 



292 



DIONYSIUS 



fixed as the boundary of the two powers ; and 
again in 368, in the middle of which war 
Dionysius died at Syracuse, 367. His last 
illness is said to have been brought on by ex- 
cessive feasting ; but, according to some ac- 
counts, his death was hastened by his medical 
attendants, in order to secure the succession for 
his son. After the death of his first wife, 
Dionysius had married almost exactly at the 
same time — some said, even on the same day — 
Doris, a Locrian of distinguished birth, and 
Aristomache, a Syracusan, the daughter of his 
supporter Hipparinus, and the sister of Dion. 
By Doris he had three children, of whom the 
eldest was his successor, Dionysius. The cha- 
racter of Dionysius has been drawn in the 
blackest colours by many ancient writers ; he 
appears indeed to have been taken as the type of 
a tyrant, in the worst sense. In his latter years 
he became extremely suspicious, and apprehen- 
sive of treachery even from his nearest friends, 
and is said to have adopted the most excessive 
precautions to guard against it. Many of these 
stories have, however, an air of great exaggera- 
tion. (Cic. Tusc. v. 20.) Dionysius was fond 
of literature and the arts. He adorned Syracuse 
with splendid temples and other public edifices, 
so as to render it unquestionably the greatest 
of all Greek cities. He was himself a poet, and 
repeatedly contended for the prize of tragedy 
at Athens. Here he several times obtained the 
second and third prizes, and just before his 
death, bore away the first prize at the Lenaea, 
with a play called ' The Eansom of Hector.' 
He sought the society of men distinguished 
in literature and philosophy, entertaining the 
poet Philoxenus at his table, and inviting Plato 
to Syracuse, whom, however, he afterwards 
dismissed. [Plato.] (Diod. xiii. xiv. xv.) 
— 2. The Younger, son of the preceding, suc- 
ceeded his father as tyrant of Syracuse, B.C. 
367. He was at this time under thirty years 
of age : he had been brought up at his father's 
court in idleness and luxury, and studiously 
precluded from taking any part in public 
affairs. The ascendency which Dion, and 
through his means Plato, obtained for a time 
over his mind was undermined by flatterers and 
the companions of his pleasures. Yet his court 
was at this time a great place of resort for 
■philosophers and men of letters : besides Plato, 
whom he induced by the most urgent entreaties 
to pay him a second visit, Aristippus of Cyrene, 
Budoxus of Cnidus, Speusippus, and others, are 
stated to have spent some time with him at 
Syracuse ; and he cultivated a friendly inter- 
course with Archytas and the Pythagoreans of 
Magna Graecia. Dion, who had been banished 
by DionysiuSj returned to Sicily in 357, at the 
head of a small force, with the avowed, object 
of dethroning Dionysius. The latter was absent 
from Syracuse at the time that Dion landed in 
Sicily ; but he instantly returned to Syracuse, 
where the citadel still held out for him. [Dion.] 
But finding it impossible to retain his power, 
he sailed away to Italy with his most valuable 
property, and thus lost the sovereignty after a 
reign of twelve years, 356. He now repaired to 
Locri, the native city of his mother, Doris, 
where he was received in the most friendly 
manner ; but he made himself tyrant of the 
city, and is said to have treated the inhabitants 
with the utmost cruelty. After remaining at 
Locri ten years, he availed himself of the 
internal dissensions at Syracuse to recover pos- 
session of his power in that city, 346. The 
Locrians took advantage of his absence to revolt 



against him, and wreaked their vengeance in the 
most cruel manner on his wife and daughters. 
He continued to reign in Syracuse for the next 
three years, till Timoleon came to Sicily, to 
deliver the Greek cities of the island from the 
tyrants. As he was unable to resist Timoleon 
he surrendered the citadel into the hands of the 
latter, on condition of being allowed to depart 
in safety to Corinth, 343. Here he spent the 
remainder of his life in a private condition. 
According to some writers, he was reduced to^ 
support himself by keeping a school ; others 
say, that he became one of the attendants on 
the rites of Cybele, a set of mendicant priests 
of the lowest class. (Diod. xvi. ; Plut. Timol. 
14 ; Athen. p. 541 ; Aelian, V. H. vi. 12 ; Cic. 
Tusc. iii. 12.) — 3. Tyrant of Heraclea on the 
Euxine, son of Clearchus, succeeded his brother 
Timotheus in the tyranny about B.C. 338. He 
was said to have been the mildest and justest of 
all the tyrants that had ever lived. He married 
Amastris, niece of Darius. In 306 he assumed 
the title of king, and died shortly afterwards at 
the age of fifty-five. (Diod. xvi. 88, xx. 70.) 

II. Literary. 1. Of Halicarnassus, a cele- 
brated rhetorician, came to Borne about B.C. 29, 
for the purpose of making himself acquainted 
with the Latin language and literature. He 
lived at Borne on terms of friendship with many 
distinguished men, such as Q. Aelius Tubero, 
and the rhetorician Caecilius ; and he remained 
in the city for twenty-two years, till his death, 
B.C. 7. His principal work, which he composed 
at Borne in the later period of his life, was a 
history of Rome in twenty- two books, entitled 
'Pu/xaiK-ri ' Apxaio\oyia. It contained the his- 
tory of Borne from the mythical times down to 
B.C. 264, in which year the history of Polybius 
begins with the Punic wars. The first nine 
books alone are complete ; of the tenth and 
eleventh we have the greater part ; and of the 
remaining nine we possess nothing but frag- 
ments and extracts. Dionysius treated the 
early history of Borne with great minuteness. 
The eleven books extant do not carry the his- 
tory beyond B.C. 441, so that the eleventh book 
breaks off very soon after the decemviral legis- 
lation. This peculiar minuteness in the early 
history, however, was in a great measure the 
consequence of the object he had proposed to 
himself, which, as he himself states, was to 
impress upon the Greeks a just appreciation of 
Home's greatness. Dionysius had no clear no- 
tions about the early constitution of Borne, and 
was led astray by the nature of the institutions, 
which he saw in his own day ; and thus makes 
innumerable mistakes in treating of the history 
of the constitution. Nevertheless, he has pre- 
served to us from ancient authorities much 
that is of the greatest value to the historian 
when other light fails altogether ; and for the 
student of mythology his work is a storehouse 
of ancient traditions. — Dionysius also wrote 
various rhetorical and critical works, which 
abound with excellent remarks and criticisms 
on the works of the classical writers of Greece. 
They show that he was a greater critic than 
historian. The following are the extant works 
of this class : 1. Te'xvr; prjTopi/cr), addressed to 
one Echecrates, part of which is certainly 
spurious. 2. Tie pi (TvvBeffews bvoftiruiv, treats 
of oratorical power, and on the combination of 
words according to the different styles of ora- 
tory. 3. TCiv apxai<i>v Kpiais, contains cha- 
racteristics of poets, from Homer down to 
Euripides ; of some historians, such as Hero- 
dotus, Thucydides, Philistus, Xenophon, and 



DIONYSIUS 



DIONYSUS 



293 



Theopompus ; and, lastly, of some philosophers 
and orators. 4. Ilep! rav apxaiuv faropwv 
vTronvTiftaTKr/jLol, contains criticisms on the most 
eminent Greek orators, of which we now possess 
only the first three sections, on Lycias, Iso- 
crates, and Isaeus. The other three sections 
treated of Demosthenes, Hyperides, and Ae- 
schines ; but they are lost, with the exception of 
the first part of the fourth section, which treated 
of the oratorical power of Demosthenes. 5. 
'Eiri<rTo\7i irpbs 'A^p.aiov, a letter to his friend 
Ammaeus, in which he shows that most of the 
orations of Demosthenes" had been delivered 
before Aristotle wrote his Rhetoric, and conse- 
quently that Demosthenes had derived no in- 
struction from Aristotle. 6. 'E7ricrToA7) irpbs 
Tvauov Tlofiirri'iov, was written by Dionysius with 
a view of justifying the unfavourable opinion 
which he had expressed upon Plato, and which 
Pompey had censured. 7. Tlepl tov QoukvS'iSov 
\apoKTT]pos koli twv XoiiTOjv tov avyypa<pews 
ISita/xdrwi', was written by Dionysius at the re- 
quest of his friend Tubero, for the purpose of 
explaining more minutely what he had written 
on Thucydides. As Dionysius in this work 
looks at the great historian from his rhetorical 
point of view, his judgment is often unjust and 
incorrect. 8. ITepl twv tov QovkvS'iSov ibico- 
fULTwv, addressed to Ammaeus. 9. Aeivapxos, 
a. very valuable treatise on the life and orations 
of Dinarchus. The best editions of the com- 
plete works of Dionysius are by Sylburg, Frankf. 
1586, two vols, fob, reprinted at Leipzig, 1691 ; 
by Reiske, Lips. 1774. The History is edited 
separately by Kiessling, Lips. 1870. — 2. Sur- 
named Chalcus. because he advised the Athe- 
nians to coin brass money (Athen.p. 669) ; wrote 
rhetorical orations, which have perished, and 
elegies, which are quoted by Plut. Nic. 5 ; Arist. 
lihet. iii. 2 ; Athen. pp. 668, 702.— 3. Of Hera 
clea, son of Theophaiitus, was a pupil of Zeno, 
and adopted the tenets of the Stoics. But in 
consequence of a most painful complaint, he 
abandoned the Stoic philosophy and joined the 
Eleaties, whose doctrine, that rfioirt) and the 
absence of pain was the highest good, had 
more charms for him than the austere ethics of 
the Stoa. This renunciation of his former creed 
drew upon him the nickname of nfraBtfievos, 
i.e. the renegade. He died in his eightieth year, 
of voluntary starvation. He wrote several 
works, all of which are lost. Cicero censures 
him for having mixed up verses with his prose, 
und for his want of elegance and refinement. — 
4. Of Magnesia, a distinguished rhetorician, 
taught in Asia between B.C. 79 and 77, when 
Cicero visited the East. — 5. Of Miletus, one of 
the earliest Greek historians, or loyograplti, and 
a contemporary of Hecataeus, wrote a history of 
Persia (fragments by C. Miiller, 1848).— 6." Of 
Mytilene, surnamed Scytobrachion, taught at 
Alexandria in the first century B.C. He wrote 
a prose work on the Argonauts, which was 
consulted by Diodorus Siculus. — 7. Sumamed 
Periegetes, from his being the author of a 
irfpffiyTiais T7js 7775, which is still extant ; pro- 
bably lived about a.d. 800. The work contains 
a description of the whole earth, derived in 
great measure from Eratosthenes, in hexameter 
verse, and is written in a terse and elegant 
style. It enjoyed great popularity in ancient 
times. Two translations or paraphrases of it 
were made by Romans, one by Knfus Festus 
Avienus [AviknusI, and the other by the gram- 
marian Priscian [Prisci.\ni:s . The best edi- 
tion of the original is by Bernhsxdy, Lips. 
1828. — 8. Of Sinope, on Athenian comic poet 



of the Middle Comedy (fragments in Meineke). — 
9. Surnamed Thrax, from his father being a 
Thracian, was himself a native either of Alex- 
andria or Byzantium. He is also called a Rho- 
dian, because at one time Ik- resided at Rhodes, 
and gave instructions there. He also taught 
at Rome, about B.C. 80. He was a very cele- 
brated grammarian ; but only one of his works 
has come down to us : a small treatise, en- 
titled Tex v V ypa/xfj-ariKTi, which became the 
' basis of all subsequent grammars, and was a 
standard book in grammar schools for many 
centuries. (Ed. Bekker, in Anecdota Gr. 1816.) 
III. Artists. — 1. Of Argos, a statuary, flou- 
j rished B.C. 476. — 2. Of Colophon, a painter, 
: contemporary with Polygnotus of Thasos, whose 
works he imitated in every respect except 
j in grandeur. Aristotle {Port. 2) says that 
Polygnotus painted the likenesses of men better 
than the originals, Pauson made them worse, 
1 and Dionysius just like them (6/iotous). It 
seems from this that the pictures of Dionysius 
were deficient in the ideal. (Cf. Aelian, V. H. 
iv. 3 ; Plut. Timol. 36.) 

Dionysopolis (Aiovvaov tt6\is), a town in 
I Phrygia, belonging to the conventus juridicus 
1 of Apamea, founded by Attains and Eumenes. 
Dionysus (Aiovvcos : Kjiic Aicvvaos), the 
god of wine (originally a nature-god of all trees 
and of fruitfuluess in general). He is also 
called both by the Greeks, and Romans Bacchus 
(Ba^xos), that is, the god who is worshipped with 
loud cries, which was originally a mere epithet 
or surname of Dionysus, and does not occur 
till after the time of Herodotus. His names 
Evius and Sabazius are derived from the 
cry euoi aa$o7 uttered by his worshippers (Dem. 
de Cor. rt. 313, § 260) ; Bassareus from the long 
dress, called bussara, worn by his Bacchanals, 
and he is called Bromius as the god of revelry. 
Dionysus is a deity of whom small account is 
made in Homeric story. It does not appear 
that he was known to Homer as the wine-god : 
he is never so spoken of ; and Maron who givps 
the wine in Orl. ix. 193 is priest of Apollo. He 
is named also in Od. xxiv. 74, in xi. 328 (in con- 
nexion with Naxos), and in II. xiv. 325 as born 
of Semele ; but the only precise account of him 
is in vi. 133, where the ' raving ' Dionysus is 
represented as flying in terror from Lycurgus. 
The earliest mention of him as the giver of wine 
is in Hesiod (Op. 615). The history of Dion] >us 
as generally represented in post-Homeric lite 
rature and art, but made up of various legends 
of different origins and dates [see below], is as 
follows. Dionysus was the son of Zeus and 
Semele the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes. It 
was generally believed that when Semele was 
pregnant, she was persuaded by Hera, who ap- 
peared to her in disguise, to request the father 
I of the gods to appear to her in the same glory 
j and majesty in which he was accustomed to 
j approach his own wife Hera. Zeus unwillingly 
complied, and appeared to her in thunder and 
lightning. Seinele was terrified and over- 
powered by the sight, and being seized by the 
flames, she gave premature birth t" a child. 
Zeus saved the child from the flames, sewed 
him Dp in his thigh, and thus preserved him till 
, he came to maturity. (Others say that Hermes 
1 saved him.) Various epithets which are given 
' to the god refer to that occurrence, such as 
Trupiytvi)s, nTipoppa<p~fis, /iTjpoTpcupris, and igni- 
r/rna for the probable origin of the myth see 
below . After the birth of Dionysus, Zens 
entrusted him to Hermes, or, at cording to 
others, to Persephone or Rhea, who took tho 



294 



DIONYSUS 



child to Ino and Atliamas at Orchomenos, and 
persuaded them to bring him up as a girl. 
Hera was now urged on by her jealousy to 
throw Ino and Athamas into a state of madness. 
Zeus, in order to save his child, changed him 
into a ram, and carried him (or Hermes carried 
him) to the nymphs of Mt. Nysa, who brought 
him up in a cave, and were afterwards rewarded 
by Zeus, by being placed as Hyades among the 
stars. Mt. Nysa, from which the god was 
believed to have derived his name, was in 
Thrace ; but mountains of the same name are 
found in different parts of the ancient world 
where he was worshipped, and where he was 
believed to ha,ve introduced the cultivation of 
the vine. When he had grown up, Hera drove 
him mad, in which state he wandered about 
through various parts of the earth. In especial 
he made a victorious progress in the East, teach- 
ing the inhabitants of the different countries of 
Asia the cultivation of the vine, and introdu- 
cing among them the elements of civilisation. 
In Euripides (Bacch. 15) his progress East- 
wards does not extend further than Bactria; 
but, after the conquests of Alexander, legends 
made Bacchus also reach and subjugate India. 
(Diod. ii. 38 ; Strab. p. 505 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 
805.) Hence he is frequently represented in 
works of art as drawn by tigers in triumph. 



tion here given follows the lines of the Hymn. 
The god is alone in the ship and the sailors are 
already dolphins below it. On the monument 
of Lysicrates there is another version. Satyrs 
have come to aid the god (who sits in the centre 





Dionysus drawn by tigers. (.Museum Capitolinum, vol. iv. tav. 63.) 



The various stories of his inflicting punishment 
on those who rejected him denote no doubt the 
resistance which the spread of his worship en- 
countered in various countries. [See Damascus ; 
Lycubgus ; Pentheus.] A legend (which may 
have grown out of a custom among sailors of 
wreathing their masts at certain times with 
vine-leaves and ivy and clusters of grapes in 
honour of vintage festivals) has been a favourite 
subject with poets and artists in illustration of 
the divine power of Dionysus. He hired a ship 
which belonged to Tyrrhenian pirates to take 
him from Icaria to Naxos ; but the men, instead 
of landing at Naxos, steered towards Asia to 
sell him there as a slave. Thereupon the god 
changed the mast and oars into serpents, and 
himself into a lion ; ivy grew around the vessel, 
and the sound of flutes was heard on every side ; 
the sailors were seized with madness, leaped 
into the sea, and were metamorphosed into 
dolphins. (Horn. Hijmn. vii ; Ov. Met. iii. 582 ; 
Apollod. iii. 5 ; Hyg. Fab, 134.) The illustra- 



Dionysus in vessel. (Gerhard, Auserl. Vascub.) 

with a lion beside him) ; and they are binding 
and slaying the pirates, and driving others into 
the sea as dolphins. After he had thus through 
vicissitudes of suffering and 
insult established his di- 
vine nature throughout the 
world, he took his mother 
out of Hades, called her 
Thyone, and rose with her 
into Olympus. (Pind. 01. 

ii. 25; Pijth. iii. 98; Diod. 

iii. 62, iv. 25.) This myth 
of his descent to the under- 
world and his return with 
his mother was much re- 
garded in the highest and 
purest form of the religion 
of Dionysus, as symbolising" 
future life and a triumph 
over death. The story was 
localised especially at Ar- 
gos, where there was an old 
tradition that Dionj'sus had 
descended to Hades by the 
unfathomable lake Alcyo- 
nia, at Lerna (according to 
some accounts, having been 
slain by Perseus), and re- 
gained the upper world with 

his mother at the same spot. Hence mystic- 
rites were celebrated annually to recall him 
from the grave. In a beautiful Etruscan mirror 
the youthful Dionysus is shown rejoining his 
mother in the underworld, Apollo standing by. 

Origin of the Worship of Dionysus. — Hero- 
dotus (ii. 52) speaks of Dionysus as a very late 
addition to the Hellenic gods, and such doubtless 
he was under the guise familiar in Greek lite- 
rature ; but among the deities who had been 
identified with him and absorbed into his 
worship, were old gods of the country whose 
local rites gave rise to many of the legends 
about Dionysus himself. He represents among 
other attributes a nature-god of fruitfulness 
and reproduction of all trees and vegetation, 
and this from a period before the vine, after- 
wards his chief gift, had been introduced into 
Greece. The deity was a tree spirit, or a spirit 
of any other vegetable product of the earth, 
and either the tree itself or some animal re- 
garded in any locality as the incarnation of the 



DIONYSUS 



295 



vegetation, became sacred and received sacri- 
fices — in earlier times, even human sacrifices. 
It is thus not easy to say when the more savage 
part of the ritual of Dionysus was a remnant 
of primitive Greek worship, and when it was 
Thracian or Oriental. Of this early Greek deity 




Phupheus 'llaccliusi finding Semla iSemelc) In the under- 
world. See p. b. (From a mirror found at Vulci.) 

of trees and vegetation incorporated into the 
worship of Dionysus, we have the survival in 
Ai6vv<ros S(v5pirr)i, or ZvSevSpos (Pint. Sijmp. 
v. 1), A. <tvk'iti)s (Athen. p. 78), A. ivSiqs (Paus. 
i. 81, 2) ; and in archaic art the god is repre- 
sented as a rude image, half tree and half hu- 
man. The new religion of Dionysus, which 
absorbed these old beliefs and rites, and took 
their place alike in the higher mysteries and 
in peasant festivals, was derived in the first 
instance from the Thracians. Herodotus speaks 
of the three chief divinities of Thrace as 
Dionysus, Ares, and Artemis (= Bendis). The 
Thracians were notable for their strong belief 
in a future life and immortality. Herodotus 
(iv. 94) describes the fashion among the Getae 
of sending messages to their god by tossing one 
of their tribesmen upon spears, that so he 
might journey to the other world. This god, 
named Zalmaxis, seems to be the same as 
Sabazius ( = Dionysus), who was worshipped 
both in Thrace and in Phrygia with orgiastic 
rites, partly Phrygian and influenced by the 
ritual of Cybele, and partly Thracian, since 
the two races were of the same origin and 
there was a near connexion in their sacred 
rites. In Thrace, as in Phrygia, was an early 
home of DionysuH; and it is probable that the 
orgiastic dances, with cymbals and drums, of 
Bacehuntic women, variously called Moenades, 
Thyiades, or Clodones, was originally an in- 
cantation to wake and recall the sleeping god 
of vegetation in the spring time, a custom trace- 
able in many other nations. From Thrace the 
worship of Dionysus — perhaps simultaneously 
with the introduction of the vine, which seems 
to have come from Asia Minor through Thrace 



into Greece— spread through Thessal y to Delphi. 
At Delphi the worship of Dionysus and his 
oracle there were older than that of Apollo. 
As deity of the vegetation of the earth, of its 
death and reproduction, Dionysus was one of 
the x®6vioi 8eo\, and possessed the oracular 
powers which were attributed from primitive 




Dionysus and Ainpelus (the personified vine). ir'roin a 
marble group in the liritlsh Museum.) 

times to earth-spirits. There is a conflict of 
tradition as to the claims of Poseidon, Dionysus, 
and Ge-Themis, to be the predecessors of Apollo 
in this oracle ; but there is in truth no reason 
why all three should not have been in their 
various periods so regarded. The position 
occupied by Dionysus after the worship of 
Apollo gained the supremacy rather seems to 
imply that he was the immediate predecessor, 
and that he retained much of his old power 
there by a sort of compromise fas indeed may 
be indicated by the account of the battle of 
Apollo with the Python and its results) ; for, 
though Apollo became the great Delphic god, 
sole possessor of the oracle, and reigning at 
Delphi for nine out of the twelve months, yet 
Dionysus held a place only second to him. 
It is probable that the orgiastic worship of 
Dionysus, with its midnight torch-revels on the 
mountains of Thrace, of Parnassus and of 
Cithaeron, was in Boeotia, as at Delphi, handed 
on from Thrace, though it is possible that it 
may have reached Thebes from tho islands. 
By whichever route it arrived, it found at 
Thebes tho local story of the birth of the earth- 
deity, who became thereafter identified witli 
Dionysus. That it was not established without 
a struggle and a victory over an older cult is 
shown in the story of Pentheus. Tho theory 
of Buchofen is probably right as to tho origin 
of the strange legend regarding the birth of 
Dionysus from the thigh of Zeus: that it is an 
expression in myth for the convade among 
primitive tribes ; i.e. the custom of asserting 
the paternity of the father by pretending that 
the birth-pangs affected him chiefly; so that in 
this Greek myth the struggle between the two 



296 



DIONYSUS 




Dionysus. 
(From a coin of Naxos h 
Sicily : 5th cent. B.C.) 



systems of kindred and descent, the maternal 
and the paternal, may be traced. (Cf. Aesch. 
Sum. 183, 253 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Matrimo- 
nium.) More important still from its effect on 
literature as well as on religion is the intro- 
duction of this worship into Attica. The men- 
tion in legend of the northern demes Eleutherae 
and Icaria as the first seats of the cultivation 
of the vine and the worship of its god indicate 
that the introduction was from Boeotia. The 
myth (which is related under Icaeius) seems 
to have arisen in explanation of the rituals of 
the ascoliasmus, or peasant dance on the wine- 
skins, and the swinging images by which the 
god of trees was propitiated [cf. Diet, of Ant. 
art. Oscilla]. Dionysus so worshipped was 
especially the peasant god, and the simpler 
rites were preserved in the wine-feasts of the 
rural Dionysia. [Diet, of Ant. s.v.] The really 
important result was that from the custom of 
representing in sacred choruses the history of 
the god, as a benefactor of mankind who through 
insults and sufferings gained his victory over 
all Greek lands, the Attic 
Tragedy was developed 
as a national act of wor- 
ship to the god [Diet, 
of Ant. art. Tragoedia]. 
The mysteries in the wor- 
ship of Dionysus were 
partly due to the Orphic 
rites from Thracian and 
Phrygian cult, but were 
probably more directly 
derived from the Cretan 
worship of Dionysus-Za- 
greus. The mythical story 
tells that this deity was 
born from Zeus (in the form of a snake) and 
Persephone ; that from the jealousy of Hera he 
was torn in pieces by the Titans, after he had in 
vain assumed many shapes, and lastly that of 
a bull, to escape them. His mangled body was 
buried at Delphi, but Athene gave the heart to 
Zeus, who swallowed it and brought forth the 
new Dionysus, named Iacchus, who was nursed 
by nymphs and satyrs, and swung in the 
winnowing basket as a cradle, the ' mystica 
vannus ' of Iacchus. The story (nearly akin to 
the Egyptian myth of Osieis, whom the Greeks 
identified with Dionysus) is a myth in the first 
place of the death in winter and renewal in 
spring of the vegetation ; and the swinging of 
the basket was the ritual by which in early 
times it was sought to rouse the plant-life from 
its sleep ; and in the second place it expressed 
the belief in a death and a resurrection: for 
both these reasons Iacchus (or Dionysus) was 
associated with Demeter and Core (or Perse- 
phone) in the mysteries. The notoriety of the 
evils resulting from the worst festivals of 
Dionysus, and the evil repute of the Baccha- 
nalia, have tended to obscure the purer and 
more elevating part of the religion, but it is 
important not to forget it. The rending of 
Dionysus-Zagreus cannot be dismissed as merely 
the crushing of the grape, like the John Barley- 
corn of English ballad : it is rather the tearing 
of the victims in savage sacrifices, possibly in 
totem sacrifices ; and in such sacrifices the deity, 
or the sacred animal (at one time a human 
sacrifice), was often slain, and the eating of the 
slaughtered victim was supposed to give to the 
worshippers some of the strength and power of 
the deity. Out of some such ritual the story 
of the death of Zagreus probably arose. The 
rites spread westwards from Crete through the 



islands, and so reached Athens (Diod. v. 74). 
Hence perhaps the savage worship of Dionysus 
ufMriffriis (eater of raw flesh) at Lesbos, Chios, 
and Tenedos, betokening human sacrifice to 
the god of vines in early times, though it may 
as probably have been derived from Thrace or 
Phrygia : for the frantic worship of the Thracian 
or the Boeotian thiasus had the same cha- 
racteristics. At Naxos his rites were less 
barbarous, and that island, which claimed also 
to be the birthplace of the god, seems to have 
passed on some of the ritual, including the 
marriage of Dionysus, to Athens. [See Ariadne.] 
Dionysus, or Bacchus, was introduced into the 
Roman worship through Magna Graecia and 
Etruria, and with all the worst features of the 
rites [Diet, of Ant. art. Bacchanalia], and the 




Dionysus. (From a painting at Pompeii.) 

name and story of Bacchus took the place of 
the native Italian deity of the vintage. [See 
under Libeb.] The animals specially sacred to 
Dionysus and sacrificed to him were the bull 
and the goat. The bull held this place as 
signifying might and strength in generation 
(possibly also, as some think, a relic of totemism), 
and in some way identified with him, so that 
Dionysus is called ySou/ceptus, or, ' aureo cornu 
decorus,' and appears on coins in the shape of 
a bull. The ram or the goat was sacrificed to 
him for the same reason, as signifying to the 
herdsmen fertility, though poets gave as a cause 
the story that the goat had eaten the vine. 
(Anth. Pal. ix. 75 ; Ov. Fast. i. 357 ; Verg. 
Oeorg. ii. 380.) The serpent was sacred to him 
as being one of the x^" vl0L " 60 '> or S°^ s °f * ne 
earth and of the underworld. In primitive . art 
Dionysus was worshipped under the rude 
emblem of the phallus, or as a figure partly 
tree partly man. In more advanced art he was 
represented as a bearded man, often of dignified 
appearance, fully clothed in the long tunic, and 
crowned with ivy or vine, often with the thyrsus 
in his hand; and this type reappears in late 
Hellenic and in Roman art. But the type 
which predominated from Praxiteles onwards, 
was that of a youth, or young man, a soft and 
almost feminine shape, with a languid expres- 
sion, naked, or clad only with a fawn-skin, and 
crowned with ivy or vine leaves : common, too 
is the representation of the infant Bacchus 



DIOPHANES 



DIOSCURI 



297 



[See cut under Praxiteles.] In many reliefs quence of which he was permitted to retain his 
and pictures he has his attendant troops of command. (Dem. de Cliers.) 
satyrs and nymphs, and is sometimes drawn by Dioscoridis Insula (AioanoplSov vqaos : Soco- 
tigers or panthers in allusion to his Indian tra), an island off the S. coast of Arabia, 
conquests. In the scene engraved below, re- The island itself was unproductive, but it was a 
.presenting Dionysus as the guest of a mortal commercial emporium ; and the N. part of the 

„ _ ^. island was inhabited 

b y Arabian, Egyp- 
tian and Greek mer- 
chants (Ptol. viii. 22, 
17). 

Dioscorldes (A«><r- 
Kop'iSrjs). 1. A dis- 
ciple of Isocrates ; 
and a Greek gram- 
marian, wrote upon 
Homer. — 2. The 
author of thirty-nine 
epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology, 
Ecems to have lived 
Y in Egypt about the 



time of Ptolemy 
Euergetes. — 3. Pe- 
dacius or Pedanius, 

of Anazarba in Cili- 
cia, a Greek physi- 
cian, probably lived 
in the second century 
of the Christian era. 

[Diet, of Ant. art. Theoxexia] — according to He has left behind him a treatise on Materia 
some of Icarius ; according to others, of a sue- Medica (riepi "T\t;s 'larptKrisj, in five books, a 
cessful poet —the god is attended by Silenus and work of great labour and research, which for 




Dionysus received as a guest. (From the Combe Marbles, British Museum.) 



youthful satyrs. 

Diophanes (Aiotpdv-qs). 1. Of Mytilene, a 
distinguished Greek rhetorician, came to Rome, 
where he instructed Tib. Gracchus and became 
his intimate friend. After the murder of Grac- 
chus, Diophanes was also put to death. (Cic. 
Brut. 27,104; Plut. Tib. Gracch. 8, 20.1—2. 
Of Nicaea, in Bithynia, in the first century B.C., 
abridged the agricultural work of Cassius 
Dionysius for king Deiotarus (Varr. It. It. i. 1, 
10). 

Diophantus f Ato<pavTos). 1. An Attic ora- 
tor and contemporary of Demosthenes, witli 
whom he opposed the Macedonian partv (Dem. 
F. L. p. 430, § 297). 2.— Of Alexandria, a 
Greek writer on Algebra. His period is un- 
known : but he probably ought not to be 
placed before the end of the fifth century of 
our era. He wrote Arillimetica, in thirteen 
books, of which only six are extant, and one 
book, De Multanyulis Numeris, on polygonal 
numbers. These books contain a system of 
reasoning on numbers by the aid of general 
symbols, and with some use of symbols of ope- 
raton ; it treats of the solution of algebraic 
-equations, determinate and indeterminate, 
simple, quadratic or cubic, with one unknown 
[see Diet, of Ant. art. Arithmetical. Edition 
by Bachet, 1621 ; in German by Schulz, 1821. 

Diopitb.es (Awirddris). 1. A half-fanatic, 
half-impostor, who made at Athens an appa- 
rently thriving trade of oracles : he was nun-h 
satirised by the comic poets (Aristoph. Eg. 
1081, Vesp. 880, A v. 988).— 2. An Athenian 



many ages was received as a standard produc- 
tion. It consists of a description of all the articles 
then used in medicine, with an account of their 
supposed virtues. The other works under the 
name of Dioscorides are probably spurious. Best 
edition by Sprengel (Lips. 1829, 1830). 

Dioscuri (At6<jKopoi : later AidaKovpoi) — that 
is, sons of Zeus — the well-known heroes, Castor 
(Kd<rT(op) and Pollux or Polydeuces (IloAu- 
Sei/KTjs). The two brothers were sometimes called 
Castores by the Romans. — According to Homer, 
they were the sons of Leda and Tyndareus, 
king of Lacedaemon, and consequently brothers 
of Helen (II. hi. 230; Od. xi. 2981. Hence 
they are often called by the patronymic Tijn- 
diiridae. But in later tradition they are sons 
of Zeus (Hes. ap. Schol. ad Pind. Kent. x. 150 ; 
Horn. Hymn. 16 ; Pind. Pyth. xi. 94; Eur. Or. 
1089 ; Theocr. xxii. 1) : in Homer, too, Helen is 
the daughter of Zeus (//. iii. 42(>). It is only 
in late tradition that they, like Helen, are born 
from an egg. Castor was famous for his skill 
in taming and managing horses, and Pollux for 
his skill in boxing. Both had disappeared from 
the earth before the Greeks went against Troy. 
Although they were buried, says Homer, yet 
they came to life every other day, and they 
enjoyed honours like those of the gods. — Ac- 
cording to another story again, Pollux and 
Helen only were children of Zeus, and Castor 
was the son of Tyndareus. Hence Pollux was 
immortal, while Castor was subject to old age 
and deatli like every other mortal. (Apollod. 
iii. 10 ; Hyg. Fab. 77 ; cf. Pind. Nan. x. 80 ; 



general, father of the poet Menander, was sent Theocr. xxiv. 139.) They were bom, according 

out to the Thracian Chersonesus about B. C. 844, to different traditions, at different places, such as 

at the head of a body of Athenian settlers or Ainyclae, Mount Taygetus, or in a small island 

K\T)po\>xoi. In the Chersonese he became in- neurPephnos(Paus. iii. 20, 2). — The fabulous life 

volved in disputes with the Cardians, who were of the Dioscuri is marked by three great events, 

supported by Philip. The latter sent a letter 1. Their ex/icdition ayainst Athen-x. These US 

of remonstrance to Athens and Diopithes was had carried oil their BUtox Helen from Sparta, 

arraigned by the Macedonian party, but was and kept her in confinement at Aphidmte. under 

■defended by Demosthenes in the oration, still the superintendence of his mother Aethra. 

^extant, on the Chersonese, b. C 841, in conse- While Theseus was absent from Attica, tho 



298 



DIOSCURI 



Dioscuri marched into Attica, and ravaged the 
country round the city. Academus revealed to 
them that Helen was kept at Aphidnae : the 
Dioscuri took the place by assault, carried away 
their sister Helen, and made Aethra their 
prisoner. (Plut. Thes. 41 ; Apollod. 1. c. ; Paus. 
i. 41, 4 ; Hdt. ix. 73.) 2. Their part in the 
expedition of the Argonauts, as they had 
before taken part in the Calydonian hunt. 
During the voyage of the Argonauts, it once 
happened that when the heroes were de- 
tained by a vehement storm, and Orpheus 
prayed to the Samothracian gods, the storm 
suddenly subsided, and stars appeared on the 
heads of the Dioscuri. On their arrival in 
the country of the Bebryces, Pollux fought 
against Amycus, the gigantic son of Poseidon, 
and conquered him. During the Argonautic 
expedition they founded the town of Dioscurias. 
This myth indicates the connexion of the Dios- 
curi with Orphic tradition, and with the Cabiri, 
whose name is joined with theirs in some in- 
scriptions, and who are similarly saviours from 
shipwreck. [Cabiri ; Diet, of Ant. art. Cabiri.] 
3. Their battle with the sons of Aphareus. 
Once the Dioscuri, in conjunction with Idas and 
Lynceus, the sons of Aphareus, had carried 
away a herd of oxen from Arcadia. Idas ap- 
propriated the herd to himself, and drove it to 
his home in Messene. The Dioscuri then in- 
vaded Messene, drove away the cattle of which 
they had been deprived, and much more in ad- 
dition. Hence arose a war between the Dios- 
curi and the sons of Aphareus, which was carried 
on in Messene or Laconia. Castor, the mortal, 
fell by the hands of Idas, but Pollux slew 
Lynceus, and Zeus killed Idas by a flash of 
lightning. Pollux then returned to his brother, 
whom he found breathing his last, and he 
prayed to Zeus to be permitted to die with 
him. Zeus gave him the option, either to live 
as his immortal son in Olympus, or to share his 
brother's fate and to live alternately one 
day under the earth, and the other in the 
heavenly abodes of the gods. (Pind. Nem. 
x. 60 ; Apollod. iii. 11 ; Tsetz. ad Lyc.) A 
variation of the story makes the quarrel arise 
about the daughters of Lycippus, Phoebe and 
Hilaira, whom the brothers had earned off. 
They were therefore attacked by Idas and 
Lynceus, to whom the maidens were betrothed. 
(Theocr. xxii. 137 ; Ov. Fast. v. 699.) Accord- 
ing to yet another form of the story, Zeus re- 
warded the attachment of the two brothers by 
placing them among the stars as Gemini 
(Hyg. Poet. Astr. ii. 22). These heroic youths 
received divine honours. Laconia was ap- 
parently the earliest home of their worship : at 
Sparta, Amyclae, and Therapne they were 
specially honoured, with war-dances and games 
(Paus. iii. 13, 14, 19, iv. 27) : but the Messenians 
also claimed them as gods of their country 
(Paus. iii. 26). From the Peloponnese their 
worship naturally spread to the Greek colonies 
in Sicily and Magna Graecia. Their principal 
characteristic was that of deol awrripes — that is, 
mighty helpers of man — whence they were some- 
times called avaKts or avaKres : and under this 
name especially (which belonged to the Cabiri) 
they were worshipped at Athens, where they 
had a temple called avaKeiov, on the northern 
slope of the Acropolis (Paus. i. 18 ; Dem. c. 
Steph. I. p. 1125, § 81). They were worshipped 
more especially as the protectors of travellers by 
sea, and their stars appeared above the ship as 
a sure sign of help (Callim. Lav. Pall. 24; 
Hor. Od. i. 3, 2 ; i. 12, 27) : a myth which is with 



much probability derived from the phenomenon 
' St. Elmo's Fire.' Twin deities and twin heroes 
are common in all mythology : it is possibly 
right to find, as some writers do, an origin for 
the Dioscuri in Indian religion. However that 
may be, they seem to have been twin gods of 
light, and therefore on white horses (Pind. 
Pytli. i. 126) ; but they were gods of the under- 
world as well as of the heaven, and presided 
over changes from darkness to light, and from 
death to life. Hence, perhaps, their general 
character of saviours invoked in battle and in 
shipwreck. They were also the deities especi- 
ally invited as guests at the Theoxenia [Diet. 




Dioscuri on Pulvinar at the Theoxenia. (From a Greek 
vase of Camirus.) 



of Ant. s.v.]. On a vase from Camirus now in 
the British Museum, they are represented as 
coming to such a feast ; and stories are told of 
punishments inflicted upon the inhospitable, 
and rewards for kindly reception (Hdt. vi. 127 ; 
Paus. iii. 16). The archaic symbols of the twin 
gods were two beams (SSicava, Plut. de Am. 
Fr. i. p. 36), two amphorae, often entwined 
with snakes, or two stars ; and on coins the 
stars often appear above the two horsemen. 
Their distinctive dress was the chlamys and the 
conical cap (tt1\os) which, however, does not 
seem to have belonged to them earlier than the 
third century B. c, when it begins to appear on 
coins. On earlier representations they are bare- 
headed, or wear the petasus. This conical cap 
was Spartan (Thuc. iv. 3), but it does not appear 
why the Dioscuri received it so late, unless it be 
that it was transferred to them from the Cabiri. 
The explanation attempted was that it repre- 
sented half an egg (Lucian, Dial. Deor. 26). 
Respecting their festivals, see Diet, of Ant., arts. 
Anaceia, Dioscuria. Their usual representation 




The Dioscuri. (From a coin of .Bruttium, of 8rd cent. B.C.) 

in works of art is that of two youthf ul horsemen 
with the egg-shaped helmets or caps, crowned 
with stars, and with spears in their hands. — 
At Rome the worship of the Dioscuri was intro- 
duced at an early time. It had passed no doubt 
from Tarentum to other parts of Italy, notably; 



DIOSCURIAS 

to Etruria, wliere the Dioscuri are represented 
with, the Cabiri on mirrors. Tusculum had be- 
come a special site of their worship : hence in 
the battle of Regillus the dictator, A. Postu- 
mius, following the custom of invoking the ene- 
mies' gods, during the battle vowed a temple to 
them. It was erected in the Forum, on the 
spot where they had been seen after the battle, 
opposite the temple of Vesta. It was conse- 
crated on the 15th of July, the anniversary of 
the battle of Regillus. Similar aid had been 
given to the Locrians, at the battle of Sagra, 



DIVITIACUS 



299 




a play of Diphilus, but the title of the Greek 
play is not known. (Bleineke, Fragm. Com. Gr.) 
Dipoenus and Scyllis (Anroiros Kal 2kv\- 

A, is), very ancient Greek sculptors, who are 
always mentioned together, nourished about 

B. C. 560. They were natives of Crete, whence 
they went to Sicyon, which was for a long time 
the chief seat of Grecian art. Their disciples 
were Tectaeus and Angelion, Learchus of Rhe- 
gium, Doryclidas and his brother Medon, Don- 
tas, and Theories, who were all four Lacedae- 
monians. Dipoenus and Scyllis are sometimes 
called sons of Daedalus, by which we are only 
to understand that they belonged to the archaic 
' Daedalian ' style of art. [Daedalus.] (Paus. 
ii. 32, iii. 17, v. 17, vi. 19.) 

Dirae, a name of the Furiae. [Eumenides.] 
Dirce (Aipwr;), daughter of Helios and wife of 
Lycus. Her story is related under Amphion. 
Her punislunent is the subject of the sculpture 
at Naples by Apollonius and Taukiscus, called 



The Dioscuri. (MilLin, Cat. Myth., pi. 108.) 

and was afterwards given at the battle of 
Pydna, and again against the Cimbri (Cic. 
N. D. ii. 2, f>, iii. 5, 11 ; Plut. Mar. 20). The 
equites regarded the Dioscuri as their pa- 
trons. From the year B. c. 305, the equites 
went every year, on the loth of July, at the 
transvectio equittim, in a magnificent proces- 
sion on horseback, from the temple of Mars 
through the main streets of the city, across the 
Forum, and by the temple of Castor and 
Pollux. [Diet, of Ant. art. Equites.] 

Dioscurias (AiorTKovptds: AtocrKovpieiis : Iskti- 
ria), an important town in Colchis on the river 
Anthemus, NW. of the Phasis, founded by the 
Milesians, was a great emporium for all the 
surrounding people : under the Romans called 
Sebastopolis (Strab. p. 497 ; Procop. B. G. iv. 4). 

Dios-Hieron iAi'os 'Upbv : Aioo-iepn-Tjr), a 
small town on the Cayster N. of Ephesus (Time, 
viii. 29). Its medieval name was Pyrgi. 

Diospolis (Aujairohts : Aio<nro\'iTr)s). 1. D. 
Magna, the later name of Thebes in Egypt. 
[Thebab.] — 2. D. Parva, called by Pliny Jovis 
Oppidum, the capital of the Nomos Diospolites 
in Upper Egypt. — 3. A town in Lower Egypt 
in the Delta near Mendes, in the midst of 
marshes. — 4. (Liidd, Ltjdcl), the name given by 
the Greek and Roman writers to the Lydda of 
the Scriptures. — 5. A town in Pontus, originally 
called Cabuia. 

Diovis. [Jupitek.] 

Diphilus ( Ai'<piAoi), one of the principal Athe- 
nian comic poets of the New Comedy and a con- 
temporary of Menander and Philemon, was a 
native of Sinope. He is said to have exhibited 
100 plays. Though, in point of time, Diphilus 
belonged to the New Comedy, his poetry seems 
to have had more of the character of the Middle. 
This is shown, among other indications, by the 
frequency with which he chose mythological 1 
subjects for his plays, and by his bringing 
on the stage the poets Archilochus, Hipponax, 
and Sappho. The Roman comic poets bor- ! 
rowed largely from Diphilus. The Cusina of , 
Plautus is a translation of his K\r)povu( vol. 
His 2vvairo0vii<TKovT(S was translated by Plau- 
tus in the lost play of the Commorient™, and 
was partly followed by Terence in his Adflpln. 
The lindens of Plautus is also a translation of 




Dirco. by Apollonius and Tauriscus 



' The Famese Bull,' which shows Zethus and 
Amphion binding Dirce to the horns of the 
bull. Antiope appears in the background, and 
on the base are the hound of Zethus, the lyre 
of Amphion, and a figure representing Mount 
Cithaeron. 

Dirphys (Aipipvs : Delphi), a mountain in 
Euboea. 

Dis. [Pluto.] 

DIum (a'iov : Aitvs, Aiixitttjs : Malalhria). 1. 
An important town in Macedonia on the 
Therraaic gulf, so called after a temple of Zeus. 
Here were placed the equestrian statues by 
Lysippus of the Macedonians who had fallen at 
the battle of the Gramcus. (Strab. p. :!!i0 : 
Thuc.iv. 7H; Arrian, An. i. 10; Liv. xliv. 7.)— 2. 
A town in Chalcidice in Macedonia, on the 
Bteymonio gulf. — 3. A town in Euboea, not far 
from the promontory Cenaeum. 

Divlco, the leader of the Helvetians in the 
war against L. Cassius in B.C. 107, was at the 
head of the embassy sent to Julius Caesar, 
nearly fifty years later, B.C. 68, when he was 
about to attack the Helvetians (Caes. B.G. i. 18). 

DivitiaCUS, an Aeduan noble and brother of 
Dumnorix, was a warm adherent of the Romans 
and of Caesar, who, in consideration of his en- 
treaties, pardoned the treason of Dumnorix in 
B.C. 6H. In the same year he took the most 
prominent part among the Gallic chiefs in re- 
questing Caesar's aid against Ariovistus j he had 



300 



DIVODUEUM 



some time before gone even to Rome to ask the 
senate to interfere, but without success. During 
this visit he was the guest of Cicero. (Caes. 
B. G. i. 16, ii. 4, vi. 12 ; Cic. Div. i. 41, 90.) 

Divodurum (Metz), subsequently Medio- 
matrici, and still later Metis or Mettis, the 
capital of the Mediomatrici in Gallia Belgica 
(Caes. B. G. iv. 10 ; Ptol. ii. 9, 12) 

Divona. [Cadubci.] 

Diyllus (AivWos), an Athenian, who wrote a 
history of Greece and Sicily in twenty-six or 
twenty-seven books, from the seizure of the 
Delphic temple by Philomelus. The exact 
period at which he flourished cannot be ascer- 
tained, but he belongs to the age of the 
Ptolemies (Diod. xvi. 14, 78 ; Athen. pp. 155, 593). 

Doberus (A6f3r)pos), a town inPaeoniain Mace- 
donia, E. of the river Echedorus (Thuc. ii. 98, 100). 

Docnnla or Docimium (AoKifiia, AoKtfxaiov : 
AoKifievs, AoKijj.t)v6s : Kara Hissar), a town in 
Phrygia, thirty-two miles from Synnada : in its 
neighbourhood were celebrated marble quarries 
(Strab. p. 437, where the true reading is Aokl- 
fxaiov ; p. 577). 

Dodona (Auhtivri), the most ancient oracle in 
-Greece, was situated in Epirus, in the valley of 
the Tcharacovitza about eleven miles SW. of 
the town and lake of Janina (the ancient L. 
Pambotis). This site was established in 1876 by 
M. Carapanos, who excavated the foundations 
of the temple and its enclosure, and found 
numerous inscribed votive tablets. The place 
agrees with Hesiod's description of it as a land 
of cornfields and pastures (Hes. ap. Schol. ad 
Soph. Track. 1167). The oracle was founded 
by the Pelasgians, and was dedicated to Zeus. 
The responses of the oracle were given from 
lofty oaks or beech trees, probably from a grove 
consisting of these trees. The will of the god 
was declared by the wind rustling through the 
trees ; and in order to render the sounds more 
distinct, brazen vessels were suspended on the 
branches of the trees, which being set in 
motion by the wind came in contact with one 
another. These sounds were in early times 
interpreted by men, but afterwards, when the 
worship of Dione became connected with that 
•of Zeus, by two or three aged women, who were 
called ireAeiaSes or ireXeiai, because pigeons were 
said to have brought the command to found the 
oracle. There were, however, also priests, called 
Selli or Helli, who had the management of the 
temple. (II. xvi. 233; Od. xiv. 327, xix. 296; 
Hdt. ii. 52 ; Dem. Meid. p. 531, § 53, F. L. p. 
437, § 299; Strab. pp. 329, 402; Paus. x. 12, 5; 
Plat. Phaedr. p. 244 B.) The oracle of Dodona 
had less influence in historical times than in the 
heroic age. It was chiefly consulted by the 
neighbouring tribes, the Aetolians, Aearna- 
nians, and Epirots, and by those who would not 
go to Delphi on account of its partiality for the 
Dorians. In B.C. 219, the temple was destroyed 
by the Aetolians, and the sacred oaks cut down. 
But the town continued to exist, and we hear 
of a bishop of Dodona in the council of 
Ephesus. [Bid. of Ant. art. Oraculum.'] In 
II. ii. 750 a Thessalian Dodona is mentioned. 

Dolabella, Cornelius. 1. P., consul b.c. 283, 
conquered the Senones (Eutrop. ii. 6; Appian, 
Gall. 11). — 2. Cn., curule aedile 165, in which 
year he and his colleague, Sex. Julius Caesar, 
had the Hecyra of Terence performed at the 
festival of the Megalesia. In 159 he was consul 
(Liv. xl. 42, xli. 5). — 3. Cn., a partisan of Sulla, 
by whom he was made consul, 81. He after- 
wards received Macedonia for his province. In 
77 he was accused by the young Julius Caesar 



DOLOPES 

of having been guilty of extortion in his pro- 
vince, but he was acquitted. (Plut. Suit. 28 ; 
Appian, B. C. i. 100 ; Suet. Jul. 49, 55.) — 4. Cn., 
praetor urbanus 81, when the cause of P. 
Quintius was tried ; Cicero charges him with 
having acted on that occasion unjustly. The 
year after he had Cilicia for his province ; C. 
Malleolus was his quaestor, and the notorious 
Verres his legate. Dolabella not only tolerated 
the extortions and robberies committed by them, 
but shared in their booty. On his return to 
Rome, Dolabella was accused by M. Aemilius 
Scaurus of extortion in his province, and on that 
occasion Verres deserted his accomplice and 
furnished the accuser with all the necessary 
information. Dolabella was condemned, and 
went into exile. (Cic. pro Quint. 2, 8 ; in Verr. 
i. 4, 15, 17, 29.)— 5. P., the son-in-law of Cicero, 
whose daughter, Tullia, he married after di- 
vorcing his wife, Fabia, 51. He was one of the 
most profligate men of his age, and his conduct 
caused Cicero great uneasiness. On the break- 
ing out of the Civil war he joined Caesar and 
fought on his side at the battle of Pharsalia 
(48), in Africa (46), and in Spain (45). Caesar 
raised him to the consulship in 44, notwith- 
standing the opposition of Antony. After the 
murder of Caesar, he forthwith joined the 
assassins of his benefactor; but when Antony 
j gave him the province of Syria, with the com- 
j mand against the Parthians, all his republican 
j enthusiasm disappeared at once. On his way 
to his province he plundered the cities of Greece 
and Asia Minor, and at Smyrna he murdered 
Trebonius, who had been appointed by the 
senate proconsul of Asia. When his proceed- 
ings became known at Eome, he was declared a 
public enemy ; and Cassius, who had received 
Syria from the senate, marched against him. 
Dolabella threw himself into Laodicea, which 
was besieged by Cassius, who at length suc- 
ceeded in taking it. Dolabella, in order not 
to fall into the hands of his enemies, ordered 
one of his soldiers to kill him, 43. (Index to 
Cicero ; Dio Cass. xli. 40, xlii. 29, xliii. 51, xliv. 
22, xlvii. 29 ; Appian, B. C. iii. 3, 7-26.) 

Doliche (Ao\ixv)- 1- The ancient name of 
the island Icabus. — 2. A town in Thessaly on 
the W. slope of Olympus (Pol. xxviii. 11 ; Liv. 
xlii. 53). — 3. A town in Commagene, between 
Zeugma and Germanicia, also called Dolichene, 
celebrated for the worship of Jupiter Do- 
lichenus, which seems to have been brought to 
Eome by Syrian artisans in the second century 
A.D. (C.I.L. in. 1201, ix. 948).— 4. Or Dulichium. 

[ECHINADES.] 

Dolichiste (AoXix'i-VTn '■ Kahava), an island 
off the coast of Lycia, opposite the promontory 
Chimaera (Ptol. v. 3). 

Doliones (AoAioees), aPelasgic people in My- 
sia, who dwelt between the rivers Aesepus and 
Ehyndacus, near Cyzicus, which was called 
after them Dolionis (Strab. p. 575). 

Doldn (A6\<vv), a Trojan, sent by night to spy 
the Grecian camp, was taken prisoner by 
Odysseus and Diomedes, compelled to give intel- 
ligence respecting the Trojans, and then slain 
by Diomedes. The tenth book of the Iliad was 
therefore called AoKoiveia or AoXuvcxpovia. 

Bolonci (AikoyKoi), a Thracian people in the 
Thracian Chersonesus. 

Dolopes (AoAoires), a powerful people in 
Thessaly, dwelt on the Enipeus, and fought be- 
fore Troy (Horn. II. ix. 484). At a later time 
they dwelt at the foot of Mt. Pindus ; and their 
country, called Dolopia (AoXoma), was reckoned 
part of Epirus. [Thbssalia.] 



DOMITIA 

Domltla. 1. Sister of Cn. Domitius Aheno- 
barbus [Ahexobabbus, No. 10], and conse- 
quently an aunt of the emperor Nero. She was 
the wife of Crispus Passienus, and was mur- 
dered in her old age by Nero, who wished to get 
possession of her property. — 2. Lepida. sister of 
the preceding, wife of M. Valerius Messala 
Barbatus, and mother of Messalina, was put to 
death by Claudius at the instigation of Agrip- 
pina. — 3. Longina, daughter of Domitius Cor- 
bulo was first married to L. Lamia Aemilianus, 
and afterwards to the emperor Domitian. In 
consequence of her adulterous intercourse with 
Paris, an actor, Domitian repudiated her, but 
was afterwards reconciled to her. She was 
priv}' to Domitian's murder. 

Domitia Gens, plebeian, was divided into the 
two illustrious families of Ahexobarbus and 
Calvinus. 

Domitianus, or with his full name, T. Flavius 
Domitianus Augustus, Roman emperor a.d. 
81-9G, was the younger son of Vespasian and was 
born at Rome, a.d. 51. When Vespasian was 
proclaimed emperor by the legions in the E. 
(69), Domitian, who was then at Rome, narrowly 
escaped being murdered by Vitellius, and con- 
cealed himself until the victory of his father's 
party was decided. After the fall of Vitellius, 
Domitian was proclaimed Caesar, and obtained 
the government of the city till the return of his 
father. In this short time he gave full proofs of 
his sanguinary and licentious temper. Vespa- 
sian entrusted Domitian with no public affairs, 
and during the ten years of his reign (09-70), 
he lived as a private person on an estate near 
the Alban Mount, surrounded by a number 
of courtesans, and devoting a great part of his 
time to the composition of poetry and the reci- 
tation of his productions. During the reign of 
his brother Titus (79-81), he was also not 
allowed to take any part in public affairs. On 
the death of Titus (81), which was in all pro- 
bability the work of Domitian, he was pro- 
claimed emperor by the soldiers. During the 
first few years of his reign he kept a strict 
superintendence over the governors of pro- 
vinces, enacted several useful laws, endeavoured 
to correct the licentious conduct of the higher 
classes ; and thougli he indulged his own pas- 
sions, his government was much better than 
had been expected. But his conduct was soon 
changed for the worse. His wars were mostly 
unfortunate; and his want of success both 
wounded his vanity and excited his fears, and 
thus led him to delight in the misfortunes 
and sufferings of others. In 83 he undertook 
an expedition against the Chatti, which was 
attended with no result, though on his return to 
Rome in the following year, he celebrated a 
triumph, and assumed the name of (lermanicus. 
In 85 Agricola, whose success and merits ex- 
cited his jealousy, was recalled to Rome. 
[Agricola.] From 86 to 90 he had to carry on 
war with Decebalus and the Dacians, who de- 
feated the Roman armies, and at length com- 
pelled Domitian to purchase peace on very 
humiliating terms. fDr.i ki;ai.i s.J It was after 
the Dacian war especially that he gave full sway 
to his cruelty and tyranny. No man of distinc- 
tion was safe unless he would degrade himself 
to flatter the tyrant. The silent fear which 
prevailed in Rome and Italy during the latter 
years of Domitian's reign are briefly but 
forcibly described by Tacitus in the introduc- 
tion to his Life of Agricola, and his vices and 
tyranny are exposed in the strongest colours by 
the withering satire of Juvenal. All the philo- 



DONATUS 30T 

| sophers who lived at Rome were expelled. 
Christian writers attribute to him a persecution 
of the Christians likewise, but there is some 
doubt upon the matter ; and the belief seems to 
. have arisen from the strictness with which he 
| exacted the tribute from the Jews, and which may 
have caused much suff eringto the Christians also. 
Many conspiracies had been formed against his 
life, and at length three officers of his court 
assisted by Domitia, the emperor's wife, had him 




Domitian. Roman Emperor, a.d. 81-9G. 
Obr., head of Domitian. IMP. CAES. DO.MIT. AVG. - 
GERM. P. M. T. POTEST. XIII. : rrr.. figure of lfi- 
| nerva. with legend IMP. XXII. COS. XVII. CENS. PPP. 
(i.e. Perpetuus). 

murdered by Stephanus, a freedman, on the 18th 
of September, 96. (Tac. Hist, iii., iv., Agric. 
39-45 ; Suet. Dom. ; Dio Cass, lvi., lvii. ; 
Juvenal.) 

Domitilla, Flavia. 1. The first wife of Ves- 
pasian, and mother of Titus, Domitian, and 
Domitilla. — 2. Daughter of Vespasian, married 
to her cousin Flavius Clemens, and condemned 
with him on a charge of ' atheism' and ' Juda 
ising ' — that is, Christianity (Suet. Dom. 18; 
Dio Cass, lxvii. 14). Her tomb exists in the 
catacombs at Rome — ' Coemiterium Domitillae.' 
[See Diet, of Christ. Biogr. art Domitilla.~\ 
Domitius Afer. [Afer.] 
Domitius Corbulo. [Corbulo.] 
Domitius Marsus. [Marsus.] 
Domitius TJlpianus. [Ulpiaxus.] 
Domna, Julia, of Emesa, was born of humble 
parents, and married the emperor Septimius 
Severas, when he was in a private station. She 
was beautiful and profligate, but at the same 
time gifted with strong powers of mind, and 
fond of literature and of the society of literary 
men. She had great influence over her hus- 
band, and after his death was entrusted by her 
son Caracalla with the administration of the 
most important affairs of state. After the 
murder of Caracalla, she was at first kindly 
I treated by Macrinus ; but having incurred the 
' suspicions of Macrinus, and being commanded 
to quit Antioch, she put an end to her own life 
by voluntary starvation, a.d. 217. (Vit. Sept. 
Sever., CuracaJl., and Macrin. ; Dio Cass, 
lxxiv. 3, lxxv. 15, lxxvii. 2-1H, lxxviii. 23.) 

Donatus, Aelius. 1. A celebrated gram- 
marian, who taught at Rome in the middle of 
the fourth century, and was the preceptor of 
Saint Jerome. His most famous work is a 
system of Latin Grammar, which has formed 
■ the groundwork of most elementary treatises 
upon the same subject, from his own time to 
the present day. It has been usually published 
in the form of two separate tracts : 1. Ars s. 
Kditio Prima, de Uteris, sgUabis, pedibus, et 
' tonis; 2. Kditio Secmida, de octo partibus 
\orationin; to which are commonly annexed 
1 De barbarisnio, De aoloecismo, De ceteris 
vitUtJ De vietaplasmo ; De schrmalibus ; 
De tropin; but in the edition of Lindemann 
(in Corpus Gramm. Latin. Lips. 1831) these 
are all combined under one general title, Donaii 
Ars (Irrimniatica tribus lilrris comprchensa. 
I We also possess introductions (rnarrationcs) 
| and scholia, by Donatus, to five out of the six 



302 



DONUSA 



DORSO 



plays of Terence, those to the Heautontimoru- j 
menos having been lost. Ed. by Reifferscheid, 
1860. Donatus was also the author of a com- 
mentary on the Georgics and Aeneid, often 
cjuoted by Servius, but with no approbation. 
' The preface and introduction are extant (ed. E. 
Wolfflin). [The Life of Virgil prefixed to the 
commentary of Donatus was chiefly derived 
from Suetonius, De Vir. illmtr., whose materials 
were furnished by Asconius, L. Varius, and i 
Melissus. It is of great value, though it has 
many mediaeval interpolations.] — 2. Tiberius 
Claudius Donatus, towards the end of the 
fourth century was the author of a commentary 
on the Aeneid which survives, but is of small 
value. Ed. by Reifferscheid, 1860. 

Donusa or Donusia (Aovovuia : Aovovaios : 
Stenosa), one of the smaller Sporades in the 
Aegaean sea, S. of Naxos, subject to the 
Rhodians in early times. It produced green 
marble, whence Virgil (Aen. iii. 125) calls the 
island viridis. Under the emperors it was used 
as a place of banishment (Tac. Ann. iv. 30). 

Dora, Dorus, Dorum (to AS>pa, Aapos : Aa- 
plrris), called Don in the O. T., the most 
southerly town of Phoenicia on the coast, on a 
kind of peninsula at the foot of Mt. Carmel. 
Under the Seleucidae it was a strong fortress, 
and was included in Coele-Syria. It subse- 
quently fell into decay, but was restored and 
again made a fortified place by the Roman 
general Gabinius. (Jos. Ant. xiv. 4, 4.) 

Dorieus (Awpievs). 1. Eldest son of Anaxan- 
drides, king of Sparta, by his first wife, was, 
however, born after the son of the second mar- 
riage, Cleomenes, and therefore excluded from 
the immediate succession. [Anaxandbides.] 
On the accession of Cleomenes to the throne, 
Dorieus left Sparta to establish for himself a 
kingdom elsewhere. He led his colony first to 
Libya ; but, driven away thence, he passed over 
to Eryx in Sicily, where he fell in a battle with 
the Egestaeans and Carthaginians, about B.C. 
508. (Hdt. v. 41-66 ; Diod. iv. 23 ; Paus. iii. 
16, 4.)— 2. Son of Diagoras of Rhodes [Dia- 
gobas], was celebrated for his victories in all 
the great Grecian games. He settled in Thurii, 
and from this place, after the defeat of the 
Athenians at Syracuse, he led thirty galleys to 
the aid of the Spartan cause in Greece, B.C. 412. 
He continued to take an active part in the war 
till 407, when he was captured by the Athenians ; 
but the people, in admiration of his size and 
beauty, dismissed him without a ransom. He 
is said at a later time to have been put to death 
by the Spartans. (Thuc. viii. 35, 44: Xen. 
Hell. i. L 5.) 

Dorimachus (Aopinaxos), a native of Tri- 
chonium in Aetolia, led a band of freebooters 
to plunder Messenia in B.C. 221, and fought 
against that country during the two following 
years. In 220 he was chosen general of the 
Aetolians, and in an invasion of Epirus de- 
stroyed the temple of Dodona. In 211 he made 
a treaty with the Romans against Philip. (Pol. 
iv. 3-19, v. 1-17, ix. 42, xviii. 37 ; Liv. xxvi. 24.) 

Doris (Aaipis). 1. Daughter of Oceanus and 
Thetis, wife of her brother Nereus, and mother 
of the Nereides. The Latin poets sometimes 
use the name of this divinity for the sea itself. 
(Verg. Eclog. x. 5.) — 2. One of the Nereides, 
daughter of the preceding. 

Doris (Aaipis). 1. A small and mountainous 
country in Greece, formerly called Dryopis 
(Apvowls), was bounded by Thessaly on the N., 
by Aetolia on the W., by Locris on the S., and 
.by Phocis on the E. It contained four towns 



— Bourn, Citinium, Erineus, andPindus — which 
formed the Dorian tetrapolis. These towns 
never attained any consequence, and in the 
time of the Romans were in ruins; but the 
country is of importance as the home of the 
Dorians (Aoipieis: Dores), one of the great 
Hellenic races, who claimed descent from the 
mythical Dorus. [Dobus.] The Dorians, how- 
ever, had not always dwelt in this land. Hero- 
dotus relates (i. 56), that they first inhabited 
Phthiotis in the time of Deucalion ; that next, 
under Dorus, they inhabited Histiaeotis at the 
foot of Ossa and Olympus ; that, expelled from 
thence by the Cadmeans, they settled on Mt. 
Pindus ; and that they subsequently took up 
their abode in Dryopis, afterwards called Doris. 
Their fifth and last migration was to Pelopon- 
nesus, which they conquered, according to 
tradition, eighty years after the Trojan war. 
It was related that Aegimius, the king of the 
Dorians, had been driven from his dominions 
by the Lapithae, but was reinstated by Hera- 
cles ; that the children of Heracles hence took 
refuge in • this land when they had been ex- 
pelled from Peloponnesus ; and that it was to 
restore them to their rights that the Dorians 
invaded Peloponnesus. Accordingly, the con- 
quest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians is usually 
called the Return of the Heraclidae, under 
which story probably lies the fact that the 
Dorians were aided by the Aetolians in the 
conquest of Peloponnesus. [See Heraclidae.] 
— The Dorians were divided into three tribes : 
the Hylleis ('YAAeis), Pamphyli (ndpupvAoi), 
and Dymanes (Avfiaves). The first derived 
their name traditionally from Hyllus, son of 
Heracles ; the last two, from Pamphylus and 
Dymas, sons of Aegimius. It is probable that 
the name Pamphyli denoted a tribe made up 
of a number of scattered elements [Diet, of 
Ant. art. Tribus]. The Dorians were the 
ruling class throughout Peloponnesus ; the old 
inhabitants were reduced to slavery, or became 
subjects of the Dorians under the name of 
Perioeci (TleptoLKoi). (Diet, of Antiq. art. 
Perioeci.) — 2. A district in Asia Minor consist- 
ing of the Dorian settlements on the coast of 
Caria and the neighbouring islands. Six of 
these towns formed a league, called the Dorian 
hexapolis, consisting of Lindus, Ialysus, and 
Camlrus in the island of Rhodes, the island 
Cos, and Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the 
mainland. There were also other Dorian 
settlements in the neighbourhood, but they 
were never admitted to the league. The mem- 
bers of the hexapolis were accustomed to cele- 
brate a festival with games on the Triopian 
promontory near Cnidus, in honour of the 
Triopian Apollo ; the prizes in those games 
were brazen tripods, which the victors had to 
dedicate in the temple of Apollo ; and Halicar- 
nassus was struck out of the league, because 
one of her citizens carried the tripod to his house 
instead of leaving it in the temple. The hexa- 
polis thus became a pentapolis. (Hdt. i. 144.) 

Doriscus (AoplcrKos), a town in Thrace at the 
mouth of the Hebrus, in the midst of an ex- 
tensive plain of the same name, where Xerxes 
reviewed his vast forces (Hdt. v. 98). 

Dorso, C. FablUS, greatly distinguished him- 
self when the Capitol was besieged by the 
Gauls, B.C. 390. The Fabian gens was accus- 
tomed to celebrate a sacrifice at a fixed time 
on the Quirinal hill, and accordingly, at the 
appointed time, C. Dorso, who was then a 
young man, descended from the Capitol, carry- 
ing the sacred things in his hands, passed in 



DORUS 

safety through the enemy's posts, and, after 
performing the sacrifice, returned in safety to 
the Capitol. (Liv. v. 46, 52 ; Val. Max. i. 1, 11.) 

Doras (Aupos), the mythical ancestor of the 
Dorians, is described either as a son of Hellen 
and the nymph Orsels, and a brother of Xuthus 
and Aeolus, or as a son of Apollo and Phthia, 
and a brother of Laodocus and Polypoetes 
(Hdt. i. 56 ; Diod. iv. 37, 58 ; Apollod. i. 7). 

Dorylaeum (Aopv\aiov : Aopvhatvs : JEski- 
Shehr), a town in Phrygia Epictetus, on the 
river Thymbris, with warm baths which are 
used at the present day ; important under the 
Romans as the place from which the roads 
diverged to Pessinus, Iconium, and Apamea 
(Strab. p. 576 ; Athen. p. 43). 

Dosiadas [AwtridSas), of Rhodes, the author 
of two poems in the Greek Anthology, the 
verses of which are so arranged that each poem 
presents the profile of an altar. 

Dositheus (Aaieri'0eos), surnamed Magister, a 
Greek grammarian, taught at Rome about 
a.d. 207. He has left behind him a work I 
entitled 'EpyuTjeeujuaTa, of which the first and ! 
second books contain a Greek grammar written 
in Latin, and Greek-Latin and Latin-Greek 
glossaries. The third book, which is the most 
important, contains translations from Latin 
authors into Greek, and vice, versa, and has 
been published by Bucking, Bonn, 1832. 

Dossennus Fabius, or Dorsennus, an an- 
cient Latin comic dramatist, censured by 
Horace (Ep. ii. 1. 173) on account of the exag- 
gerated buffoonery of his characters. It 
appears that the name Dossennus (like that of 
Macchus) was appropriated to one of the 
standard characters in the Atellane farces. 
Hence some have supposed that Dossennus in 
Horace is not the name of a real person. 

Dotium (Awriov: AuTieiisj, a town and plain 
in Thessaly S. of Mt. Ossa, on the lake Bobeis 
(Strab. pp. 61, 442). 

Drabescus lApafSyaKos, also ApafiitrKos), a 
town in Edonis in Macedonia, on the Strymon 
(Thuc. i. 103, iv. 102 ; Strab. p. 331). 

Dracanon {Apanavov), a town and promon- 
tory in the island Icaria. 

Draco (Apaxoiv), the author of the first 
written code of laws at Athens, which were 
called Of uui/i, as distinguished from the vd/xoi 
of Solon — that is to say, he adopted the custo- 
mary penalties which had usually been in- 
flicted by archons, and stereotyped them by 
committing them to writing; hence the severity 
belonged to the times rather than to the man. 
In this code he affixed the penalty of deatli to 
almost all crimes — to petty thefts, for instance, 
as well as to sacrilege and murder — which gave 
occasion to the remark that his laws were written 
not in ink, but in blood (Demades ap. Plut. Sol. 
17). We are told that he himself defended this 
extreme harshness by saying that small offences 
deserved death, and that he knew no severer 
punishment for great ones. His legislation is 
placed in B.C. 621. After the legislation of 
Solon (594), most of the laws of Draco fell into 
disuse ; but some of them were still in force at 
the end of the Peloponnesian war, as for 
instance the law which permitted the injured 
husband to slay the adulterer, if taken in the 
act. (Paus. ix. 86, 4 ; Dem. c. Aristocr. p. 637, 
§ 54.) In fact the laws of Draco on homicide 
generally seem to have been incorporated in 
the subsequent legislation (see Diet, of Ant. 
art. Phonos). But a much greater, importance 
than that of a mere codifier of criminal law is 
assigned to Draco in Aristotle's recently dis- 



DKEPANUM 



303 



covered ' A07)vai'coy 7roA.iTe/a, where we are told 
that Draco was a political reformer and the 
author of much of the constitution hitherto 
ascribed to Solon : especially that he created 
the senate of 400, established a property quali- 
fication, and gave a more definite shape to the 
Ecclesia. If this passage is both genuine and 
authentic there is some difficult;' in reconciling 
it with Aristotle's statements in the Politics 
that Draco did not meddle with the constitu- 
tion. It may be that the germs of these 
political institutions already existed and were 
more clearly defined by Draco. (Aristot. Pol. 
ii. 12, 13 = p. 1274; Bhet. ii. 25; 'Ad. ttoA. 4; 
Paus. ix. 36 ; Plut. Sol. 17 ; Gell. xi. 18.) 

Dracontius, Blossius Aemilms, a Christian 
poet of Carthage : wrote in the fifth century 
A.D. (1) De Laudibus Dei in three books; (2) a 
collection of short mythological epics; (3) an 
elegiac poem called Satisfactio, an apology to 
the Vandal king Gunthamund (a.d. 484-496) 
for having praised one of his enemies. His 
verses are framed on classical models, but are 
often too rhetorical. It is thought that the 
Orestis tragoedia, written in similar style, 
is also the work of Dracontius. (This is edited 
by Mahly, Lips. 1866.) Ed. by Bahrens, Poet. 
Lat. Mm. ; by Von Duhm, 1m;:;. 

Drangiana (Apayyiavq : Sedjestdn), a part 
of Ariana, was bounded by Gedrosia, Carmania, 
Arachosia, and Aria. It sometimes formed a 
separate satrapy, but was more usually united 
to the satrapies either of Arachosia or of 
Gedrosia, or of Aria. The chief product of the. 
country was tin : the chief river was the 
Erymanthus or Erymandrus tHilmcnd or 
Hind»iend). In the N. of the country dwelt the 
Drangae I Apdyycu), a warlike people, from whom 
; the province derived its name : their capital 
was Prophthasia. The Zarangae, Sarangae, or 
Darandae, who are also mentioned as inhabit- 
ants of the country, are probably only other 
forms of the name Drangae. The Ariaspae 
inhabited the S. part, j Akiaspae.] 

Draudacum (Dardasso), a fortress of the 
Penestae in Greek Illyria (Liv. xliii. 19). 

Dravus (Drave), a tributary of the Danube, 
rises in the Noric Alps near Aguntum, Hows 
through Noricum and Pannonia; and, after 
receiving the Murius (Muhr), falls into the 
Danube E. of Mursa (Esseck) (Strab. p. 314 ; 
Plin.iii. 139). 

Drecanum (ApeKavov) a promontory on the 
W. side of the island Cos. 

Drepanius, Latlnus Pacatus, a friend of 
Ausonius, and a correspondent of Symmachus, 
delivered a panegyric on the emperor Theo- 
dosius, a.d. 391, after the victory of the latter 
over Maximus. It is the eleventh in the col- 
lection of the Pancr/i/rici Veteres. 

Drepanum (AptTravov : Apewai'tvs), that is, a 
sickle. 1. Also Drepana (to Apiirava), more 
rarely Drepane (Trapwni) t B seaport town in 
the NW. comer of Sicily, so called because the 
land on which it was built was in the form of a 
sickle. It was founded by the Carthaginian 
Hamilcar, at the commencement of the first 
Punic war, and was one of the chief naval 
stations of the Carthaginians ; it was the 
attempt of Hanno to effect its relief that 
brought on the battle of Aegates Iu^ulm- (l'ol. 
i. 41-51 ; Liv. xxviii. 41). Under the Romans 
it was an important commercial town. It was 
here that Anchises died, according to Virgil. 
| (Cic. Verr. iv. 17 ; Ptol. iii. 4 ; Verg. Arn. iii. 
707, v. 24 ; Dionys. i. 52.) — 2. A promontory in 
Achaia. [Rhium.j — 3. The ancient name of 



304 



DREPSA 



DRUSUS 



Corcyra. — 4. Also Drepane, a town in Bithynia, 
on the Sinus Astacenus, the birthplace of 
Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, in 
whose honour it was called Helenopolis, and 
made an important place. In its neighbourhood 
were medicinal baths, which Constantine the 
Great frequently used in the latter part of his life. 

Drepsa (Ape\f/a, also "ASpa^a, AapcnJ/a, 
ApdtpaKa : Anderab or Indercib), a town in the 
NE. of Bactriana, on the frontiers of Sogdiana. 

Brilae (Ap'iAai), a brave people in Pontus, 
near Trapezus (Xen. Anab. v. 2, 14). 

Drilon, a river in Illyricum, flows into the 
Adriatic near Lissus (Strab. p. 316). 

Dromichaetes (Apofxixa'^Tjs), king of the Ge- 
tae, took Lysimachus prisoner. [Lysimachus.] 

Dromos Achilleus. [Achilleus Dromos.] 

Druentia (Durance), a large and rapid river 
in Gallia Narbonensis, rises in the Alps, and 
flows into the Rhone near Avenio (Avignon). 

Druna (Drome), a river in Gallia Narbonen- 
sis, rises in the Alps at M. Genevre, near 
Briaacon, and flows into the Rhone S. of 
Valencia (Valence) (Liv. xxi. 31 ; Strab. p. 203 ; 
Sil. It. iii. 478). 

Drusilla. 1. Livia, mother of the emperor 
Tiberius and wife of Augustus. [Iitia.] — 2. 
Daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina, mar- 
ried first to L. Cassius Longinus, and after- 
wards to M. Aemilius Lepidus ; but she lived 
in incestuous intercourse with her brother 
Caligula, whose passion for her exceeded all 
bounds. On her death, in a.d. 38, he com- 
manded that she should be worshipped, by the 
name Panthea, with the same honours as 
Venus. (Tac. Ann. vi. 15; Suet. Cal. 24; Dio 
Cass. lix. 11.) — 3. Daughter of Herodes Agrippa 
I., king of the Jews, married first Azizus, king 
of Emesa, whom she divorced, and secondly 
Felix, the procurator of Judea. She was pre- 
sent when St. Paul preached before Felix in 
a.d. 60 (Jos. Ant. xix. 7). Tacitus (Hist. v. 9) 
speaks of Drusilla the wife of Felix as being 
grand-daughter of Antony and Cleopatra, pro- 
bably daughter of Julia. Some reconcile this 
with Josephus by supposing two Drusillas wives 
of Felix (cf. Suet. Claud. 28). 

Drusus, the name of a distinguished family 
of the Livia gens. It is said that one of the 
Livii acquired the cognomen Drusus for him- 
self and his descendants by having slain in 
close combat one Drausus, a Gallic chieftain 
(Suet. Tib. 3). — 1. M. Livius Drusus, tribune 
of the plebs with C. Gracchus, B.C. 122. He 
was a staunch adherent of the aristocracy, and 
after putting his veto upon the laws proposed by 
Gracchus, he brought forward almost the very 
same measures, in order to gain popularity for 
the optimates. He proposed to release from 
rent those who received land under the law of 
Gracchus ; to declare their allotments inalien- 
able, and to plant twelve colonies. These 
laws were passed, and the people did not re- 
elect Gracchus as tribune. The success of his 
measures earned for him the designation 
patronns senatus. Drusus was consul 112, 
obtained Macedonia as his province, and con- 
quered the Scordisci. (Appian, B. C. i. 23 ; Plut. 
C. Gracch. 8-11 ; Liv. Ep. 63.)— 2. M. Livius 
Drusus, son of No. 1, an eloquent orator, and a 
man of great energy and ability. He was 
tribune of the plebs, 91, in the consulship of L. 
Mavcius Philippus and Sex. Julius Caesar. 
Although, like his father, he belonged to the 
aristocratical party, he meditated the most 
extensive and organic changes in the Roman 
state. To relieve the people and to reform the I 



constitution he proposed to increase the- 
largesses of corn, to reserve all the undistri- 
buted land in Italy and Sicily for colonies of 
citizens, to take away the office of jurymen 
from the equestrian order, and lastly he pledged 
himself to give the Roman franchise to the 
Italian allies. Neither the senate nor the 
equites were satisfied with the judicial 
reform, though he tried to content the latter- 
by proposing that 300 equites should be added 
to the senate. The Roman populace also were 
opposed to the Roman franchise being given to 
the Latins and the Socii, which measure, 
though not yet formally proposed by Drusus, 
was known to be intended. The senate per- 
ceiving the dissatisfaction of all parties, voted 
that all the laws of Drusus, being carried 
against the auspices, were null and void 
from the beginning. Shortly after, as Drusus 
was entering the hall of his own house, he 
was stabbed, and died a few hours afterwards. 
The assassin was never discovered, and no 
attempts were made to discover him. Caepio 
and Philippus were both suspected of having 
suborned the crime ; but Cicero attributes it to 
Q. Varius. The death of Drusus destroyed 
the hopes of the Socii, and was thus immedi- 
ately followed by the Social war, which his 
policy would have averted. (Appian, B. C. i. 35 ; 
Cic. de Or. i. 25 ; Liv. Ep. 71 ; Diod. xxxvii. 
10.) — 3. Livius Drusus Claudianus, father of 
Livia, who was the mother of the emperor 
Tiberius. He was one of the gens Claudia, and 
was adopted by a Livius Drusus. It was 
through this adoption that the Drusi became 
connected with the imperial family. The 
father of Livia, after the death of Caesar, 
espoused the cause of Brutus and Cassius, and, 
after the battle of Philippi (42), being pro- 
scribed by the conquerors, he killed himself in 
his tent.— 4. Claudius Drusus Nero, commonly 
called by the moderns Drusus Senior, to 
distinguish him from No. 5, was the son of Tib. 
Claudius Nero and Livia, and younger brother 
of the emperor Tiberius. He was born in the 
house of Augustus three months after the 
marriage of Livia and Augustus, 38. Drusus, 
as he grew up, was more liked by the people 
than was his brother. His manners were 
affable, and his conduct without reproach. He 
married Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir, 
and his fidelity to his wife was a theme of 
admiration in a profligate age. He was greatly 
trusted by Augustus, who employed him in 
important offices. He carried on the war 
against the Germans, and penetrated far into 
the interior of the country. In 15, in conjunc- 
tion with Tiberius, he defeated the Rhaeti and 
Vindelici (Dio Cass. liv. 19-22 ; Hor. Od. iv. 4). 
In 12 he drove the Sicambri and their allies 
out of Gaul, crossed the Rhine, then followed 
the course of the river down to the ocean, and 
subdued the Frisians. It was apparently 
during this campaign that Drusus dug a canal 
(Fossa Drusiana) from the Rhine near Arn- 
heim to the Yssel, near Doesberg : and he 
made use of this canal to sail from the Rhine 
into the ocean (Tac. Ann. xiii. 55, Hist. v. 
19). In his second campaign (11), Drusus sub- 
dued the Usipetes, invaded the country of the 
Sicambri, and passed on through the territory 
of the Cherusci as far as the Visurgis (Weser). 
On his return he was attacked by the united 
forces of the Germans, and defeated them with 
great slaughter. — In his third campaign (10), 
he conquered the Chatti and other German 
tribes, and then returned to Rome, where he 



DEYADES 

was made consul for the following year. — In 
his fourth campaign (9), which he carried on as 
consul, he advanced as far as the Albis (Elbe), 
sweeping everything before him . It is said 
that he had resolved to cross the Elbe, but was 
deterred by the apparition of a woman of 
dimensions greater than human, who said to 
him in the Latin tongue, ' Whither goest thou, 
insatiable Drusus ? The Fates forbid thee to 
advance. Away ! The end of thy deeds and 
thy life is nigh ' (Dio Cass. Iv. 1 ; Suet. Claud. 
1). On the return of the army to the Rhine, 



DUILIUS 



305 




Coin of Drusus Senior. 

Drusus died in consequence of a fracture of his 
leg, which happened through a fall from his 
horse. Upon receiving tidings of the dangerous 
illness of Drusus, Tiberius immediately crossed 
the Alps, and after travelling with extraordi- 
nary speed arrived in time to close the eyes of 
his brother. Tiberius brought the body to 
Italy : it was burnt in the field of Mars, and the 
ashes deposited in the tomb of Augustus. (Liv. 
Bp. 140 ; Val. Max. v. 5.) — 5. Drusus Caesar, 
commonly called by modern writers Drusus 
Junior, was the son of the emperor Tiberius 
by his first wife, Vipsania. He married Livia, 
the sister of Germanicus. After the death of 
Augustus, a.d. 14, he was sent into Pannonia to 
quell the mutiny of the legions. In 15 he was 
consul, and in 16 he was sent into Illyricum : 
he succeeded in fomenting dissension among 
the Germanic tribes, and destroyed the power 
of Maroboduus. In 21 he was consul a second 
time ; and in 22 he received the tribunicia 
potestas, by which he was pointed out as the 
intended successor to the empire. But Sejanus, 
the favourite of Tiberius, aspired to the empire. 
He seduced Livia, the wife of Drusus, and 
persuaded her to become the murderer of her 
husband. A poison was administered to 
Drusus, which terminated his life by a lingering 
disease, that was supposed at the time to be 
the consequence of intemperance, a.d. 23. (Tac. 
Ann. iv. 8-11; Suet. Tib. 62.)— 6. Drusus, 
second son of Germanicus and Agrippina. 
After the death of Drusus, the son of Tiberius 
No. 5], Drusus and his elder brother Nero 
became theheirs to the imperial throne. Sejanus 
therefore resolved to get rid of them both. He 
first engaged Drusus in the plots against his 
elder brother, which ended in the banishment 
and death of that prince. [Nero.] The turn 
of Drusus came next. He was accused in 30, 
and condemned to death as an enemy of the 
state. Tiberius kept him imprisoned for three 
years, and then starved him to death, 33. (Tac. 
Ann. vi. 23 ; Suet. Tib. 54.) 
Dryades. [Nymphae.] 

Dryas (Apvas), father of the Thracian king 
Lycurous, who is hence called Dryantides. 

Drymaea or Drymus (Apvftaia, Apu.urfs : Apu- 
juttus : Baba 1), a town in Phocis, a little S. of 



the Cephissus, was destroyed by Xerxes (Hdt. 

viii. 33; Paus. x. 3; Liv. xxviii. 7). 

Drymus (Apv/xos). 1. See Df.ymaea. — 2. In 
Attica, on the frontiers of Boeotia. 

Drymussa (Apufiovcraa : Apvfiovffcraios), an 
island in the Hermaean gulf, off the coast of 
Ionia, opposite Clazomenae. 

Dryope (ApvSwri), daughter of king Dryops, 
and the playmate of the Hamadryades on Mt. 
Oeta. She was beloved by Apollo, who, to gain 
possession of her, metarr orphosed himself into 
a tortoise. Dryope took the creature into her 
lap, whereupon the god changed himself into a 
serpent. The nymphs fled away in affright, 
and thus Apollo remained alone with Dryope. 
Soon after she married Andraemon, but became, 
by Apollo, the mother of Ajephissus. Dryope 
was afterwards carried off by the Hamadryades, 
and became a nymph. (Ant. Lib. 32 ; Ov. Met. 

ix. 331.) 

Dryopes (Apvoires), a Pelasgic people, de- 
scended from a mythical ancestor Dryops, dwelt 
first in Thessaly, from the Spercheus to Par- 
nassus, and afterwards in Doris, which was 
originally called from them Dryopis (Apvoiris). 
Driven out of Doris by the Dorians, they mi- 
grated to other countries, and settled at Her- 
mione and Asine in Peloponnesus, at StjTUS 
and Carystus in Euboea, and in the island of 
Cythnus, and in Ionia ; part also were esta- 
blished in Epirus, near Ambracia, in which 
district the name Dryopis remained. (Hdt. viii 
43, 46, 73 ; Strab. p. 373 ; Paus. iv. 34, v. 1 ; 
Dicaearch. v. 30.) 

Dryops (Apvo^), son of the river-god Sper- 
cheus and the Danaid Polydora, or of Lycaon 
and Dia, the daughter of Lycaon, the mythical 
ancestor of the Dryopes (Paus. iv. 84). 

Dryos Cephalae (Apvbs Ke<pa\ai), a narrow 
pass of Mt. Cithaeron, between Athens and 
Plataeae. 

Dubis (Doubs), a river in Gaul, rises in M. 
Jurassus (/ Ufa), flows past Vesontio (Besa nco7i), 
and falls into the Arar (Saone) near Cabillonum 
(CluLlons) (Strab. p. 186; Ptol. ii. 10). 

Dubris Portus (Dover), a seaport town of the 
Cantii, in Britain : here was a fortress erected 
by the Romans against the Saxon pirates. 

Ducas, Michael, a Byzantine historian, held 
a high office under Constantino X1IL, the last 
emperor of Constantinople. After the capture 
of Constantinople, a.d. 1453, he fled to Lesbos. 
His history extends from the death of John VI. 
Palaeologus, 1355, to the capture of Lesbos by 
the Turks, 1462. The best edition is by Bekker, 
Bonn, 1834. 

Ducetius (Aovk4tios), a chief of the Sicels, 
the native tribes in the interior of Sicily, en- 
larged and fortified his native town Menaenum, 
and afterwards founded a new city, Palice, in 
the plain below, near the sanctuary of tho 
Palici. He carried on a formidable war in the 
middle of the fifth century B.C. aguinst the 
Greeks in the island ; but having been at last 
defeated in a great battle by the Syracusans, 
he repaired to Syracuse as a suppliant, and 
placed himself at their mercy. The Syracusans 
spared his life, but sent him into an honourable 
exile at Corinth. He returned soon afterwards 
to Sicily, and founded the city of Calacte. He 
died about B.C. 410. (Diod. xi. 76-92, xii. 8, 29.) 

Duillus. 1. M., tribune of the plebs B.C. 47L 
He was one of the chief leaders of the plebeians, 
and it was on his advice that the plebeians mi- 
grated from tho Aventine to the Mons Sacor, 
just before the overthrow of the decemvirs. 
He was then elected tribune of the plebs a 



306 



DUILIUS 



DYABDANES 



second time, 449. (Liv. ii. 58, 61, iii. 52-64; 
Diod. xi. 68 ; Dionys. xi. 46.)— 2. K., one of the 
decemvirs, 450, on whose overthrow he went 
into voluntary exile (Liv. iii. 58.) — 3. C, con- 
sul 260, with Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina, in the 
first Punic War. In this year the Romans 
built their first fleet, using for their model a 
Carthaginian vessel which had been thrown on 
the coast of Italy. The command of this fleet 
was given to Scipio, who was defeated by 
the Carthaginians off Lipara. Thereupon 
Duilius was entrusted with the command, 
and as he perceived the disadvantages under 
which the clumsy ships of the Romans were 
labouring, he devised the grappling irons by 
means of which the enemy's ships might be 
drawn towards his, and the sea-fight thus 
changed into a land-fight. By this means he 
gained a brilliant victory over the Carthaginian 
fleet near Mylae, and then prosecuted the war 
in Sicily with success, relieving Egesta, and 
iaking Macella by assault. On his return to 




Columna Rostrata of Duilius. (From a copy in Museum 

of the Capitol.) • 

Rome, Duilius celebrated a splendid triumph, 
for it was the first naval victory that the Bo- 
mans had ever gained, and the memory of it 
was perpetuated by a column which was erected 
in the forum, and adorned with the beaks of the 
conquered ships (Columna Bostrata). This 
column was dug out of the ground in the 16th 
century, but the inscription upon it is not of 
the time of Duilius. It has affected archaisms 
side by side with later forms, and must be as- 
signed to the 1st century a.d. It is probable 
that the column had no inscription, or a very 
brief one, and that the extant words were 
placed on it when it was restored by Claudius 
(G. I. L. i. p. 40). Duilius was further re- 
warded for this victory by being permitted, 
whenever he returned home from a banquet at 
night, to be accompanied by a torch and a 
flute-player. (Pol. i. 22 fi. ; Diod. xvii. 44 ; 
Front. Strateg. iii. 2 ; Sil. It. vi. 667 ; Cic. de 
Seneot. 13.) 



Bulgibini, a people in Germany, dwelt SE 
of the Angrivarii, on the W. bank of theWeser. 

Dulichium. [Echinades.] 

Dumnorix, a chieftain of the Aedui, con- 
spired against the Romans, B.C. 58, but was 
pardoned by Caesar in consequence of the en- 
treaties of his brother, Divitiacus. When 
Caesar was going to Britain in 54, he suspected 
Dumnorix too much to leave him behind in Gaul, 
and he insisted upon his accompanying him. 
Dumnorix fled from the Boman camp with the 
Aeduan cavalry, but was overtaken and slain. 
(Caes. B. G. i. 3-20, v. 6 ; Dio Cass, xxxviii. 31.) 

Dunium. [Durotriges.] 

Dura (to. Aovpa : Aovp-r)v6s). 1. A town in 
Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, not far from 
Circesium, founded by the Macedonians, and 
hence surnamed Nicanoris ; also called Europus 
(Zvpceirds) by the Greeks. In the time of Julian 
it was deserted (Zos. iii. 14). — 2. (Dor), a town 
in Assyria, on the Tigris (Pol. v. 52). 

Duranius (Dordogne), a river in Aquitania, 
falling into the Garumna (Auson. Mosell. 464). 

Durla. 1. (Dora Baltea), a river which 
rises on the S. side of Mt. Blanc, with an af- 
fluent which rises in the Little St. Bernard, 
flows through the country of the Salassi, past 
Augusta Praetoria (Aosta), bringing gold dust 
with it, and falls into thePo (Strab.pp. 203,205). 
Strabo is probably correct about the gold, since 
mines have been worked in recent times high 
above the glacier which forms the principal 
source of this river ; but on p. 203, in speaking 
of its origin, he confounds it with the other 
river of the same name. — 2. (Dora Susa) rises 
on the Italian side of Mt. Genevre, flows past 
Segusio (Susa), and joins the Po at Augusta 
Taurinorum (Turin). 

Duris (Aovpis), of Samos, the historian, was 
a descendant of Alcibiades, and lived in the 
reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus (Plut. Ale. 32). 
He obtained the tyranny of his native island. 
He wrote a considerable number of works, 
I the most important being a history of Greece, 
from B.C. 370 to 281. He does not appear to 
have enjoyed reputation as an historian (Paus. 
vi. 13 ; Cic. ad Att. vi. 1 ; Plut. Pericl. 28). His 
fragments have been collected by Hulleman, 
Duridis Samii quae supersunt, Traject. ad 
Ehen. 1841. 

Diirius (Aovpws, Auiptos: Duero, Douro), one 
of the chief rivers of Spain, rises among the 
Pelendones, at the foot of M. Idubeda near 
Numantia, and flows into the Atlantic ; it was 
auriferous, and is navigable a long way from 
its mouth (Strab. p. 153). 

Durnovaria, in Britain, probably Dorchester. 

Durobrivae (Bochester), a town of the Cantii 
in Britain. 

Durocasis (Dreitx), a town of the Carnutes 
in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

Durocatalauni. [Catalauni.] 

Durocornovium, in Britain, probably Ciren- 
cester. 

Durocortorum (Bheims), the capital of the 
Bemi in Gallia Belgica, subsequently called 
Bemi (Caes. B. G. vi. 44). 

Duronla, a town in Samnium in Italy, W. of 
the Caudine passes (Liv. x. 39). 

Durotriges, a people in Britain, in Dorset- 
shire and the west of Somersetshire. 

Durovernum or Darvernum (Canterbury), a 
town of the Cantii in Britain, afterwards called 
Cantuaria. 

Dyardanes or Oedanes (Brahmaputra), a 
river in India, falls into the Ganges on the E. 
side (Curt. viii. 9, 9). 



DYMAS 



ECHEDORUS 



307 



Dymas (Avfias). 1. A Phrygian king in the 
district of the Sangarius, father of Asius and 
Hecuba (II. xvi. 717 : Ov. Met. xi. 761).— 2. 
Son of Aegimius, from whom the Dymanes, 
one of the three tribes of the Dorians, were 
believed to have derived their name (Paus. vii. 
17 ; Dores). 

Dyme or Dymae (Av^ri, Avfiai : Av/mTos, Dy- 
maeus; nr. Karavostasi, Ru.), a town in the 
W. of Achaia, near the coast ; one of the twelve 
Achaean towns (Hdt. i. 145 ; Pol. ii. 41) ; it 
founded, along with Patrae, the second Achaean 
League, and was at a later time colonised by 
the Romans, at first as a separate colony, but 
afterwards subordinate to Patrae (Plin. iv. 13; 
Strab. p. 665 ; Paus. vii. 17, 3). 

Dyras (Avpas), a small river in Phthiotis in 
Thessaly, falls into the Sinus Maliacus. 

DyrrhacMum lAvppdxtov : Avppdxtos, Avppa- 
Y7jy3s, Dyrrachlnus : Durazzu), formerly called 
Epidamnus ('EirLtianvos : 'Einod/j.vios), a town 
in Greek Illyria, on a peninsula in the Adriatic 
sea. It was founded by the Corcyraeans, and 
received the name Epidamnus (Thue. i. 24). The 
disputes regarding it between Corinth and Cor- 
cyra were one of the causes of the Peloponnesian 
war. Pliny (iii. 145) says that the Romans 
changed the name as being ill-omened : but 
Dyrrhaehium was probably an old name of the 
whole peninsula (Strab. p. 316). In 312 B.C. it 
fell into the hands of Glaucias, king of Illyria, 
and was seized by the Illyrian Monunius in 
B.C. 280, but not long afterwards put itself 
under the protection of Rome (Uiod. xix. 70, 78 ; 




Coin of Dyrrhachiom. 
Obv., cow suckling culf iukod coins of Corcyra) : rev., ayp 
(for ji^ >. and tno bo-callcd 'Gardens of Alcinous.' 



Liv. xxix. 12; Pol. ii. 11). Under the Romans 
it became an important place ; it was the usual 
place of landing for persons who crossed over 
from Brundisium. Commerce and trade were 
carried on here with great activity, whence it is 
called Taberna Adriae by Catullus (xxxvi. 15) ; 
and here commenced the great Egnatia Via, 
leading to the East. In the Civil war it was 
the head-quarters of Pompey, who kept all his 
military stores here. The Romans at first 
made it a free city (Appian, Illyr. 8 ; Cic. ad 
Fam. xiv. 1); and, when Augustus settled his 
veterans in Italy, Dyrrhaehium was one of the 
towns in which he planted a colony of the dis- 
possessed Italians (Dio Cass. Ii. 4). Under the 
later empire it became the capital of Epirus 
Nova. Destroyed by an earthquake a.d. 345. 

Dysaules (Av<rav\ris), a deity or hero of 
Agriculture (his name having reference to the 
two ploughings of the year). In Orphic legends 
he is father of Triptolemus and Eubulus. 
[Triptolemus.] 

Dysorum (to Avawpou), a mountain in Mace- 
donia with gold mines, between Chalcidice and 
Odomantice (Hdt. v. 17). 

Dyspontium { Avairlivrmv: AuitttiWiov : I'm-- 
gos), a town of Pisatis in Elis, N. of the Alpheus, 
was destroyed by the Eleans ; whereupon its 
inhabitants removed to Epidamnus and Apol- 
lonia. (Strab. p. 357 ; Paus. vi. 22.) 



E. 

Ebora. 1. Or Ebura Cerealis, a small town 
in Hispania Baetica, perhaps in the neighbour- 
hood of the modern Santa Cruz. — 2. Surnamed 
Liberalitas Julia (Evora), a Roman muni- 
cipium in Lusitania (Ptol. ii. 5, 8). — 3. Or 
Ebura (S. Linear de Barrameda), a town in 
Hispania Baetica, near the mouth of the 
Baetis. 

Eboracum or Eburacum (York), a town of 
the Brigantes in Britain, was made a Roman 
station by Agricola, and soon became the chief 
! Roman settlement in the whole island. It was 
j both a municipium and a colony. It was the 
I head-quarters of the sixth legion, and the resi- 
dence of the Roman emperors when they 
visited Britain. Here the emperors Septimius 
Severus and Constantius Chlorus died. Part 
of the ancient Roman walls still exist at York ; 
j and many Roman remains have been found in 
| the modern city. 

Eborolacum (Evreide on the river Sioule), a 
town in Aquitania. 

Ebrodunuin (Embrun), a town in Gallia 
NarbonensiSjin the CottianAlps (Strab. p. 179). 

Ebudae or Hebudae (Hebrides), islands in 
the Western Ocean off Britain. They were five 
in number, according to Ptolemy, two called 
Ebudae, Maleus, Epidium, and Ricina. 

Eburomagus or Hebromagus (nr. Bram or 
Villerazons), a town in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Eburones, a German people, who crossed the 
Rhine and settled in Gallia Belgica, between 
the Rhine and the ITosa (Maas) in a marshy 
and woody district. They were dependents 
(clientcs) of the Treviri and were in Caesar's 
time under the rale of Ambioriz and Cativolcus. 
Their insurrection against the Romans, B.C. 54, 
was severely punished by Caesar, and from this 
time they disappear from history. (Caes. B. G. 
ii. 4, vi. 34.) 

Eburovices. TAulerci.] 

Ebusus or Ebusus (Iviza), the largest of the 
Pityusae Insulae, off the E. coast of Spain, reck- 
oned by some writers among the Baleares. It 
was celebrated for its excellent figs. Its capital, 
also called Ebusus, was a civitas foederata, 
possessed an excellent harbour, and curried 
on a considerable trade. (Strab. pp. 123, 159.) 

Ecbatana (to 'EK0a.Ta.va, Ion. and Poet. 
'Ay&aTava: Hamadan), a great city, most 
pleasantly situated, near the foot of Mt. Orontes, 
in the N. of Great Media, was the capital of the 
Median kingdom, and afterwards the summer 
residence of the Persian and Parthian kings. 
Herodotus ascribes its foundation to Deioces, 
and Diodorus to Semiramis. It hud a circuit of 
240 stadia, and was surrounded by seven walls, 
each overtopping the one before it, and crowned 
with battlements of different colours : these 
walls no longer existed in the time of Polybius. 
The citadel, of great strength, was used as the 
royal treasury. Below it stood a magnificent 
palace, the tiles of which were silver, and the 
capitals, entablatures, and wainscotings, of 
silver and gold ; treasures which the Seleucidae 
coined into money, to the amount of 4000 talents. 
The circuit of this palace was seven stadia 
(Hdt. i. 08; Diod. ii. 18; Strab. pp. 522, 524.) 

Ecetra ( Kcetranus), an ancient town of the 
Volsci, and, according to Dionysius, the capital 
of this people, was destroyed by the Romans at 
an early period (Liv. ii. 25, vi. 81). 

Echedorus ('Ex*5upos, in Herod. 'Ex f & u P 0S )i 

X 2 



808 



ECHELIDAE 



EDESSA 



a small river in Macedonia, rises in Crestonia, 
flows through. Mygdonia, and falls into the 
Thermaio gulf (Hdt. vii. 124). 

Echelidae ('ExeAiSai : 'ExeAi'Srjs), an Attic 
demus E. of Munychia, called after a hero 
Echelus. 

Echemus ("Ex^n-os), son of Aeropus and 
grandson of Oepheus, succeeded Lycurgus as 
king of Arcadia. In his reign the Dorians in- 
vaded Peloponnesus, and Echemus slew, in 
single combat, Hyllus, the son of Heracles. In 
consequence of this battle, which was fought at 
the Isthmus, the Heraclidae were obliged to 
promise not to repeat their attempt upon Pelo- 
ponnesus for 50 years. (Hdt. ix. 26 ; Paus. viii. 
5 ; Diod. iv. 58.) 

Echestratus ('ExefTpaTOj), king of Sparta, 
son of Agis I., and father of Labotas or Leobotes. 

Echetla ('Ex^rAa), a town in Sicily, W. of 
Syracuse, in the mountains (Diod. xx. 32). 

EchetluS ("Ex^tAos), in the form of a country- 
man appeared in the battle of Marathon and slew 
many Persians with a ploughshare. An oracle 
directed the Athenians to honour him as a hero : 
represented in the Stoa Poecile. (Paus. i. 32, 4.) 

Echetus ("Exetos), a cruel king of Epirus. His 
daughter, Metope or Amphissa, who had yielded 
to her lover Aechmodicus, was blinded by her 
father, and Aechmodicus was cruelly mutilated. 
(Od. xviii. 85 ; Ap. Khod. iv. 1091). 

Echidna ("Ex'Sva), daughter of Tartarus and 
Gre, or of Chrysaor and Callirrhoe, or of Peiras 
and Styx (Paus. viii. 18). The upper part of 
her body was that of a beautiful maiden with 
black eyes, while the lower part was that of a 
serpent, of a vast size. She was a horrible and 
blood-thirsty monster. She became by Typhon 
the mother of the Chimaera, of the many -headed 
dog Orthus, of the hundred-headed dragon 
which guarded the apples of the Hesperides, of 
the Colchian dragon, of the Sphinx, of Cerberus 
(hence called Echiclniius canis), of Scylla, of 
Gorgon, of the Lernaean Hydra (Echidna Ler- 
naea), of the eagle which consumed the liver of 
Prometheus, and of the Nemean lion. She 
was killed in her sleep by Argus Panoptes. 
(Hes. Th. 295, 306; Hyg. Fab. 151.) According 
to Herodotus she lived with Typhon in a cave 
in the country of the Arimi, but another tradi- 
tion transported her to Scythia, where she be- 
came by Heracles the mother of Agathyrsus, 
Gelonus^and Scythes. (Hdt. iv. 8-10.) 

Echinades ('Ex^Ses or 'Ex^ou : Curzolari), 
small islands at the mouth of the Achelous, 
formed by the alluvial deposits of the river. 
The legend related that they were originally 
Nymphs, who dwelt on the mainland at the 
mouth of the Achelous, and that on one occasion 
having forgotten to present any offerings to 
the god Achelous, when they sacrificed to the 
other gods, the river-god, in wrath, tore them 
away from the mainland with the ground on 
which they were sacrificing, carried them out 
to sea, and formed them into islands. — The 
Echinades appear to have derived their name 
from their resemblance to the Echinus or sea- 
urchin. — The largest of these islands was named 
Dulichium (AouAixiov) : at present united to 
the mainland. It is mentioned by Homer, and 
from it Meges, son of Phyleus, went to the Tro- 
jan war. (II. ii. 625 ; Od. i. 246 ; Strab. p. 458.) 

Echion ('Exiwy)- 1. One of the five surviv- 
ing Sparti who had grown up from the dragons' 
teeth which Cadmus had sown. He married 
Agave, by whom he became the father of Pen- 
theus : he assisted Cadmus in the building of 
Thebes. (Apollod. iii. 4 ; Ov. Met. iii. 126.)— 



2. Son of Hermes, and Antianlra, twin-brother 
of Erytus or Eurytus, with whom he took part 
in the Calydonian hunt, and in the expedition 
of the Argonauts (Pind. Pyth. iv. 179). 

Echo ('Hx<i), an Oreade who, according to 
the legend related by Ovid, used to keep Juno 
engaged by incessantly talking to her, while 
Jupiter was sporting with the nymphs. Juno, 
however, found out the trick that was played 
upon her, and punished Echo by changing her 
into an echo — that is, a being with no control 
over its tongue, which is neither able to speak 




Pan and the Nymph Echo. (From a lamp at Athens.) 
(Baumeister.) 

before anybody else has spoken, nor to be silent: 
when somebody else has spoken. Echo in this 
state fell desperately in love with Narcissus ; 
but as her love was not returned, she pined 
away in grief, so that in the end there remained 
of her nothing but her voice. (Ov. Met. iii. 
356-401.) In another story Echo was beloved 
by Pan, and, because she rejected his love, 
was torn in pieces by shepherds, but her voice 
still lived. In works of art she is sometimes 
represented with Pan. 

Ecphantides ("E,K<pai>T'iSris), one of the earliest 
poets of the Old Attic Comedy, flourished about 
B.C. 460. The meaning of the surname of Kcnr- 
vias, which was given to him by bis rivals, seems 
to imply a mixture of subtilty and obscurity. 
He ridiculed the rudeness of the old Megaric 
comedy, and was himself ridiculed on the same 
ground by Cratinus and Aristophanes. (Schol. 
ad Aristoph. Vesp. 151.) 

Edessa or Antiochia Callirrh5e CE5e<ro-a,. 
'A<"ri<$x e 'a V «rl KaAAipp6ri, or 'A. fii^ofidp^apos : 
O. T. Ur : Urfah), a very' ancient city in theN. 
of Mesopotamia, the capital of Osroene. It be- 
longed to the province of Mesopotamia in the 
time of Trajan, and accordingly was afterwards 
sometimes under Boman, sometimes under 
Oriental, rule. [See Mesopotamia.] It was 
made a Boman colony and a metropolis, prob- 
ably by M. Aurelius, since it is so described 
on a coin of Commodus. It was the seat of a 
kingdom from B. c. 137 to A. D. 216, when the 
king was sometimes partially, sometimes wholly, 
a vassal of Home. [Abgabus.] It stood on 
the river Scirtus or Bardesanes, which often 
inundated and damaged the city. It was here 



EDETANI 



ELAGABALUS 



309 



that Caracalla was murdered. Having suffered 
by an earthquake in 525, the city was rebuilt by 
Justinian and named Justinopolis. — The Edessa 
of Strabo (p. 748 : if the text is right) is a differ- 
ent place — namely, the city usually called Bam- 
byce or Hierapolis. 




Coin of Edessa In Mesopotamia. 
Ofrr.. Antoninus (Caracallai :rer., koa. m. edessa. and the 
heads ol two cities, eastern and western ; below, small 
temple. 



Edetani or Sedetani, a people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, E. of the Celtiben. Their chief 
towns were VALENCIA, Saguntum, Caesab- 
augusta, and Edeta, also called Liria (Lyria). 
(Ptol. ii. 6; Liv. xxiv. 20 ; SiL It. iii. 371.) 

Edoni or Edones ('HSoivof, 'Howies), a Thra- 
cian people, between the Nestus and the Stry- 
nion. They were celebrated for their orgiastic 
worship of Bacchus; whence Horace says (Oil. 
ii. 7, 26), Non ego sanius bacchabor Edonis, 
and Edonis in the Latin poets signifies a 
female Bacchante. — The poets use Edoni as 
synonymous with Thracians. (Thuc. ii. 99 ; 
Hdt. v. 11 ; Aesch. Pers. 493 ; Soph. Ant. 955.) 

Eetion ('HeriW), king of the Placian Thebe 
in Cilicia, and father of Andromache, the wife 
of Hector. He and his sons were slain by Achil- 
les, when the hitter took Thebes. (II. vi. 415.) 

Egelasta, a town of the Celtiberi in Hispania 
Tarraconensis. 

Egeria, a goddess of fountains who, like the 
Camenae (also goddesses of fountains : see Ca- 
menae), possessed the gift of prophecy. Hence 
in Roman legends she was the adviser and the 
wife of Noma, who met her at the grove of the 
Camenae near the Porta Capena (Liv. i. 21 ; 
Pint. Num. 13; Juv. iii. 11). But she was 
specially worshipped in a sacred grove not only 
at Rome but also at Aricia ; and her connexion 
with Diana Nemorensis is further shown by the 
fact that she was also appealed to as the goddess 
of childbirth. [For the characteristics of Diana 
and Artemis as goddesses of fountains and of 
childbirth, see those articles.] Hence in some 
versions of N tuna's story he meets Egeria also 
at Aricia (Ov. Fast. iii. 275). Her connexion 
with the Camenae (as water nymphs) led to her 
being sometimes confounded with the Muses 
(Dionys. ii. 60), whose worship replaced that of 
the Camenae in Italy. [Camenae.] 

Egesta. [Segesta.] 

Egnatia (Torre d' Anaeeo), a town in Apulia, 
on the coast, called Gnatia by Horace (Sat. i. 5, 
97), who speaks of it as Li/mphis (i.e. Ni/niphia) 
iratia exatructa, probably on uccount of its bad 
or deficient supply of water. It was celebrated 
for its miraculous stone or altar, which of itself 
set on fire frankincense and wood (Plin. ii. 
210 ; Hor. Sat. i. 5, 98) : a prodigy which afforded 
amusement to Horace and his friends, who 
looked upon it as a mere trick. — Egnatia owed 
its chief importance to being situated on the 
great high road from Rome to Bnmdisium 
(Strab. p. 282). This road reached the sea at 
Egnatia, and from this town to Brundisium it 
bore the name of the Via Egnatia. The con- 
tinuation of this road on the other side of the 
Adriatic from Dyrrhachium to Byzantium also 



bore the name of the Via Egnatia. It was the 
great military road between Italy and the East. 
Commencing at Dyrrhachium, it passed by 
Lychnidus, Heraclea, Lyncestis, Edessa, Thes- 
salonica, Amphipolis, Philippi, and traversing 
the whole of Thrace, finally reached Byzantium. 

Egnatii, a family of Samnite origin, some of 
whom settled at Teanum. 1. Gellius Egna- 
tius, leader of the Samnites in the third Samnite 
war, fell in battle against the Romans, B.C. 295. 
— 2. BIabius Egnatius, one of the leaders of 
the Italian allies in the Social war, was killed 
in battle, 89. — 3. M. Egnatius Rufus, aedile 
20 and praetor 19, was executed in the following 
year, in consequence of his having formed a 
conspiracy against the life of Augustus. — 4. P. 
Egnatius Celeb. [Babea.] 
Eidothea, Eileithyia, Eirene. [Idothea, &c] 
Eion ('Huif : 'Hiovtiis : Cunte&sa or Iiendina), 
a town in Thrace, at the mouth of the Strymon, 
; 25 stadia from Amphipolis, of which it was the 
I harbour. Brasidas, after obtaining possession 
1 of Amphipolis, attempted to seize Eion also, 
but was prevented by the arrival of Thucydides 
with an Athenian fleet, B. c. 424. (Thuc. iv. 102.) 

Eiones ('Hi'oVes), a town in Argolis with a 
harbour, subject to Mycenae in the time of 
Homer, but not mentioned in later times (II. 
\ ii. 561; Strab. p. 373). 

Elaea ('EAaia : Kazhi), an ancient city on the 
coast of Aeolis in Asia Minor, said to have been 
founded by Mnestheus, stood twelve stadia S. 
of the mouth of the Cai'cus, and 120 stadia (or 
sixteen Roman miles) from Pergamus, to which 
city, in the time of the Pergamene kingdom, it 
served for a harbour (i ntvtiov). It was destroyed 
by an earthquake in B. c. 90. The gulf on which 
it stood, which forms a part of the great Gulf 
of Adramyttium, was named after it Sinus 
Elaiticus ('EAai'TiKos kSKitos, G. of Chandeli). 
(Strab. p. 615 ; Liv. xxxv. 13.) 

Elaeus ('EAaiovs, -ovvros : 'EAaioi'«rios). 1. 
Or Eleus ('EAeoSs: Critia), a town on the SE. 
pointof theThracian Chersonese, witli aharbour 
and a heroum of Protesilaus (Strab. p. 593 ; 
Hdt. ix. 118 ; Paus. i. 34, 2).— 2. (Mesolonghi), 
a town in Aetolia, S. of Pleuron (Pol. v. 65). — 
3. A town in Argolis. — 4. A demus in Attica, 
belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis. 

Elagabalus, Roman emperor, a.d. 218-222, 
son of Julia Soemias and Varius Marcellus, 
was bom at Emesa about 201, and was origin- 
ally called Vabius Avitus Bassianus. While 
i almost a child he became, along with his 
cousin Alexander Severus, priest of Elagabalus, 
the Syro-Phoenieian Sun-god, to whose worship 
a temple was dedicated in his native city, and 
whose sacred image was a large black conical 
stone, the ancient fetish of the place. It was 
from this circumstance that Varius Avitus 
obtained the name Elagabalus, by which he is 
usually known. He owed his elevation to the 
purple to the intrigues of his grandmother Julia 
Maesa (sister of Julia Domna), who circulated 
the report that Elagabalus was the offspring of 
a secret commerce between Soemius and Cara- 
calla, and induced the troops in Syria to salute 
him as their sovereign by the title of M. 
Aurelius Antoninus, the 16th of May, 218. 
Macrinus forthwitli marched against Elagaba- 
lus, but was defeated near Antioch, June 8th, 
and was shortly afterwards put to death. 
Elagabalus was now acknowledged as eni]>eror 
by the Henate, and, after remaining one year at 
Nicomedia, came in 219 to Rome, bringing the 
sacred stone and its attendant priests with him. 
The reign of tliis prince, who perished at tho 



310 



ELANA 



ELECTEYONE 



age of 21, after having occupied the throne 
nearly four years, was characterised throughout 
by an accumulation of the most fantastic folly 
and superstition in the worship of the Sun-god, 
together with the grossest impurity of life. In 
221 he adopted his cousin Alexander Severus, 




Elagabalus, Roman Emperor, A.D. '218-222. 
Obv., head of Elagabalus, IMP. ANTONINVS PIVSAVG.; 
rev., emperor standing by an altar -with a patera in right 
hand and branch in left ; above, star ; INVICTVS 
S[A]CEKDOS AVG. 

and proclaimed him Caesar. Having become 
jealous of Alexander, he attempted to put him 
to death, but was himself slain along with his 
mother Soemias by the soldiers, with whom 
Alexander was a great favourite. (Lamprid. 
Elacjab.; Herodian. iv. 12; Dio Cass, lxxviii. 31. J 
Elana. [Aelana.] 

Elara ('EAapa), daughter of Orchomenus or 
Minyas, bore to Zeus the giant Tityus. Zeus, 
from fear of Hera, concealed her under the 
earth. 

Elatea ('EActTeia: 'E\clt6vs). 1. (Nr. Ele- 
phtlia, Bu.), a town in Phocis, and the most 
important place in the country next to Delphi, 
was situated near the Cephissus in a fertile 
valley, which was an important pass from 
Thessaly to Boeotia (Strab. p. 424 ; Paus. x. 34). 
Elatea was thus frequently exposed to hostile 
attacks. The alarm caused at Athens when 
Philip seized this, the key of Southern Greece, 
is described by Demosthenes (de Cor. p. 284, 
§ 169; cf. Diod. xvi. 84). It is said to have 
been founded by Elatus, son of Areas. — 2. A 
town in Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, near Gonni 
(Liv. xlii. 54). — 3. Or Elatrea, a town in Epirus. 
near the sources of the Cocytus (Liv. xxxiv. 25). 

Elatus ("EAaros). 1. Son of Areas and 
Leanira, king of Arcadia, husband of Laodice, 
and father of Stymphalus, Aepytus, Cyllen, and 
Pereus. He resided on Mount Cyllene, and 
went from thence to Phocis, where he founded 
the town of Elatea (Paus. viii. 4). — 2. A prince 
of the Lapithae at Larissa in Thessaly, husband 
of Hippea, and father of Caeneus and Poly- 
phemus (Ov. Met. xii. 497). 

Elaver {Allier), subsequently Elaris or 
Elauria, a river in Aquitania, a tributary of 
the Liger. 

Elbo ('EA/3c6), an island on the coast of the 
Delta of Egypt, in the midst of the marshes 
between the Phatnitic and the Tanitic mouths 
of the Nile, was the retreat of the blind Pharaoh 
Anysis from the Aethiopian Sabacon, and after- 
wards of Amyrtaeus from the Persians (Hdt. 

ii. 140; Thuc. i. 110). It was probably the 
island of ThennOsis, now called Tennis, in the 
lake Menzadeh. 

Elea. (Telia.] 

Electra fHAe'fcTpa), i.e. the bright or brilliant 
one. 1. Daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, wife 
of Thaumas, and mother of Iris and the Har- 
pies, Ae'llo and Ocypete (Hes. Th. 266, 349; 
Nonn. Dion. 26, 360).— 2. Daughter of Atlas 
and Pleione, one of the seven Pleiades, and by 
Zeus mother of lasion and Dardanus. She is 
represented as living in Samothrace (Apollod. 

iii. 10 ; Apoll. Ehod. i. 916 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 
135). According to an Italian tradition, she 



was the wife of the Italian king Corythus, by 
whom she had a son lasion ; whereas by Zeus, 
she was the mother of Dardanus (Verg. Aen. 
iii. 167), and of Harmonia (Diod. iii. 48). It 
was through her means, according to another 
tradition, that the Palladium came to Troy ; and 
when she saw the city of her son Dardanus 
perishing in flames, she tore out her hair for 
grief, and was placed among the stars as a 
comet. According to others, Electra and her 
six sisters were placed among the stars as the 
seven Pleiades, and lost their brilliancy on 
seeing the destruction of Ilium (Eur. Phoen. 
1136; Serv. ad Georg. i. 138; Hyg. Fab. 192). 
The gate Electra at Thebes was called after her 
(Hellan. Fr. 129 ; Schol. ad Eur. Phoen.) : for 
it seems to be a mistake of Paus. iv. 33 to call 
her sister of Cadmus, instead of mother-in-law. 
— 3. Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytaem- 
nestra, also called Laodice, sister of Iphigenia 
and Orestes. She does not appear in Homeric 
story, though she is said to be the same as the 
Laodice of Homer. The earliest distinct account 




Orestes and Elecfra. (From a marble group at Naples, by 
Stephanus.) 

of her comes from Stesichorus (Fr. 41). After 
the murder of her father by her mother, she 
saved the life of her young brother Orestes by 
sending him under the protection of a slave to 
king Strophius at Phanote in Phocis, who had 
the boy educated together with his own son 
Pylades. According to Sophocles, she lived an 
unhappy and menial life during her brother's 
absence : according to Euripides, she was married 
by the orders of Aegisthus to a peasant-farmer 
near Mycenae. When Orestes had grown up 
to manhood, Electra excited him to avenge the 
death of Agamemnon, and assisted him in slay- 
ing their mother, Clytaemnestra. [Okestes.] 
After the death of the latter, Orestes gave her 
in marriage to his friend Pylades. The history 
and character of Electra form the subject of 
the Ghoephori of Aeschylus, the Electra of 
Euripides, and the Electra of Sophocles. 
Electrides Insulae. [Ebedanus.] 
Electryon ('HAeKTpiW), son of Perseus and 
Andromeda, king of Mycenae, husband of Anaxo, 
and father of Alcmene, the wife of Amphitryon. 
For details see Amphitryon. 
Electryone ('H\eKrpudvri). 1. Daughter of 



ELEON 

Helios and Rhodos, worshipped at Ialysos, 
probably a variation of the story of Electra 
No. 2 (Diod. v. 56). — 2. A patronymic from 
Electryon, given to his daughter, Alcmene. 

Eleon ('EK4<av), a town in Boeotia, near 
Tanagra. 

Eleos ("EAeos), the personification of pity or 
mercy, worshipped by the Athenians alone 
(Paus. i. 17J. 

Elephantine, or Elephantis l'E\fpavTivr\, 
'EA.ec/xu'Tis : Jezirah-el-Zahir, or Jezirah-el- 
Assouan), an island in the Nile, with a city of 
the same name, opposite to Syene, and 7 stadia 
below the Little Cataract, was the frontier 
station of Egypt towards Ethiopia (i.e. the 
southern limit of Upper Egypt), and was 
strongly garrisoned under the Persians and the 
Romans (Hdt. ii. 17, 30 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 61). The 
island was extremely fertile : it had also great 
quarries. Among the most remarkable objects 
in it were the temple of Cnuphis and a Nilo- 
meter ; and it is still celebrated for the ruins of 
its rock-hewn temples. The temple of Tehutmes 
III., of which considerable remains were drawn 
by artists in the beginning of this century, was 
destroyed by the Turkish governor of Assouan, 
and is now marked only by a heap of stones. 

Elephantis, a Greek poetess under the early 
Roman emperors, wrote amatory works, molles 
Elephantidos libelli (Mart. xii. 43, 5 ; Suet. 
Tib. 43). 

Elephenor ('EAecf>^i>wp), son of Chalcodon 
and of Imenarete or Melanippe, and prince of 
the Abantes in Euboea, whom he led against 
Troy. He was one of the suitors of Helen : killed 
before Troy by Agenor. (II. ii. 540, iv. 463.) 

Eleusis f EAeuin's, later 'EAei/mV : 'E\ev(Ti- 
vios : Leosina or Lessina), a town and demus 
of Attica, belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, 
was situated on the coast NW. of Athens, and 
about 12 miles from it. The town lay upon the 
slopes of a rocky hill which separates the 
Thriasian from the Parian plain. To the S. 
and E. of it is the Bay of Eleusis with Salamis 
in the background. The legendary history 
represents Eleusis as conquered by the Athe- 
nians under Erechtheus, who was helped by 
Eumolpus (Paus. i. 38, 8). It seems to have 
been an independent state with its own worship 
of Demeter in the time when the Homeric 
Hymn to Denneter was written. After its 
union under the headship of Athens, it became 
merely one of the demes, but of importance 
far beyond all other towns of Attica except 
Athens herself, since it gave its name to the 
great festival and mysteries of the Eleusinia 
which were celebrated in honour of Demeter 
and Persephone. [For an account of the festi- 
val see Diet, of Antiq. art. Eleusinia.] — The 
site was partly excavated in 1817 by the 
London Dilettanti Society ; the more complete 
excavations of 1887 by the Greek Archieological 
Society have made clear much of the topo- 
graphy, and Dr. Diirpfeld has based upon 
them the plan which is given on p. 812. — Eleu- 
sis was approached from Athens by the 
sacred way, which passed out of the Dipylon 
Gate across the Cephissus, and then through a 
ravine in Mount Corydallus (the Pass of 
Daphne) to the sea shore, along which it con- 
tinned to the town and the entrance of the 
sacred precincts. Tho great gate, or Propy- 
laea, was built by Hadrian ; just outside was ;i 
temple of Artemis ; beyond it was the smaller 
gateway of Appius Claudius, occupying the site 
of the old gateway in the wall of fortification, 
whioli gave entrance to the actual sacred pre- 



ELIS 



311 



eincts of pre-Roman times. On the right or 
west was the small temple of Hades or Pluto ; 
beyond it (probably) the two treasuries ; to the 
west at the northern end of the raised terrace 
was a temple, perhaps the temple of Demeter : 
the temple immediately to the east of it may 
have been that of Persephone. The sacred 
way led past these buildings to the great Hall 
of Initiation or of the Mysteries (re^eariipiov), 
the remains of which belong to various dates. 
The original building was destroyed by the 
Persians, but the 25 square column-bases in 
! the smaller hall are attributed to this oldest 
building, perhaps of the age of Pisistratus. In 
Cimon's time the building destroyed by Xerxes 
I was replaced by a hall with the same frontage 
I to the SE., but extending further back into 
the rock terrace ; this is traceable by the 20 
circular bases (the 21st in the north angle is 
not traceable). In the time of Pei-icles, Icti- 
nus added another chamber to the Hall of 
Cimon on the SW., which is marked by the 6 
large square bases, with two others dotted. 
The Porch of Philo was added at the expense 
of Demetrius Phalereus B.C. 310. Lastly, the 
Romans enlarged the whole by the building to 
which the 42 bases belong, forming a hall rather 
larger than the building completed by Ictinus ; 
and about 170 feet by 169. There was an 
upper story to the hall of Ictinus entered 
from the terrace, and therefore more directly 
from what is taken to be the temple of Deme- 
ter. This upper hall gave more space for great 
meetings of the initiated, since it was undi- 
vided. 

Eleutherae ('EkevOepai : 'EAeuflepeus), a 
town in Attica on the frontiers of Boeotia, 
originally belonged to the Boeotian confederacy, 
and afterwards united itself to Attica. 

Eleutherius CE\eu8tpios), a surname of 
Zeus, as the Deliverer. (Diet, of Ant. art. 
Eh utheria.) 

Eleutherna ('E\?v64pva : 'EAeuflepi/cuos), a 
town in the interior of Crete. 

EleutheruB ('EAeuflepos : Xahr-el-Kebir, i.e. 
Great Iiiver), a river forming the boundary 
between Syria and Phoenice, rose in Mount 
Bargylus, and fell into the sea between Ant- 
aradus and Tripolis. 

Elicius, a surname of Jupiter at Rome, 
where King Numa dedicated to Jupiter Elicius 
an altar on the Aventine. The origin of the 
name is referred to the Etruscans, who by 
certain prayers and sacrifices called forth 
(eliciebant or evocabant) lightning, or invited 
Jupiter to send lightning. The object of call- 
ing down lightning was to elicit prodigies (ad 
i prodigia elicienda. Liv. i. 20). 

Elimberrum. [Ars<i. 

Elimea, -ia, or Elimiotis CEAi.ueio, 'EXipAa, 
'EAijticuTis), a district of Macedonia, on the 
frontiers of Epirus and Thessaly, originally 
belonged to Ulyria, and was bounded by the 
I Cambunian mountains on the S. and the Tym- 
phaean mountains on the W. Its inhabitants, 
tin- Elimaei ('EAei^tiaiTai), were Epirots. 

Elis THAis, Dor. T AAis, 'HAd'a : 'HAfios, Dor. 
'AAioj, whence Alii in Plautus), a country on 
the W. coast of Peloponnesus, bounded by 
Achaiu on the N., Arcadia on the E., Messenia 
on the S., and the Ionian sea on the W. The 
country was fertile, wutered by the Alpheus 
and its tributaries, and is said to have been 
the only country in Greece which produced 
flax. The Pknki.s is the only other river in 
Elis of any importance. Elis was divided into 

three parte; — 1. Elis Proper or Hollow Elis 



312 



ELIS 



{r) KoiXt] HAis), the N. part, watered by the Minyae or Arcadians), of which Pylos was the 
Peneus, of which the capital was also called capital, lay between the Alpheus and the Neda. 
Elis. — 2. PiSatis (?) nica-m), the middle por- ■ — In the heroic times we find the kingdom of 




PlaJi of lUeusis. (After Dorpfeld.) 



tion, of which the capital was Pisa. — 3. Tri- 
phylia (?; Tp«pv\io), the S. portion (i.e. the 
abode of three tribes, Epeans, Eleans, and 



Nestor and the Pelldae in the S. of Elis ; while 
the N. of the country was inhabited by the 
Epeans ('E7reioi'), with whom some Aetolian 



ELISO 

tribes were mingled. On the conquest of 
Peloponnesus by the Heraclidae, the Aetolian 
chief Oxylus received Elis as his share of the 
conquest ; and it was the union of his Aetolian 
and Dorian followers with the Epeans, which 
formed the subsequent population of the 
country, under the general name of Eleans. 
Elis owed its importance in Greece to the 
worship of Zeus at Olympia near Pisa, in 
honour of whom a splendid festival was held 
every four years. [Olympia.] In consequence 
of this festival being common to the whole of 
Greece, the country of Elis was declared 
sacred, and its inhabitants possessed priestly 
privileges. Being exempt from war and the 
dangers of invasion, the Eleans became pro- 
sperous and wealthy ; their towns were unwalled 
and their country was richly cultivated. The 
prosperity of their country was ruined by the 
Peloponnesian war ; the Athenians were the 
first to disregard the sanctity of the country ; 
and from that time it frequently had to take 
part in the other contests of the Greeks. The 
women of Elis, like the Spartan women, enjoyed 
a greater freedom and exercised more influ- 
ence than was customary elsewhere in Greece ; 
but they were not allowed to be spectators at 
the Olympic games. The town of Elis was 
situated on the Peneus, and was built at the 
time of the Persian war by the inhabitants of 
eight villages, who united together, and thus 
formed one town. It originally had no walls, 
being sacred like the rest of the country, but 
subsequently it was fortified. The inhabitants 
of Elis formed a close alliance with the Spar- 



ELYSIUM 



313 




Coin of Ells, of 4th cent. B.C. 
Obv„ head of Zeus, and legend ft..\Klos (the digamma 
being preserved on coins of Ells till after the Roman 
conquest); nr., eagle on Ionic capital. 

tans, and by their means destroyed the rival 
city of Pisa, and became the ruling city of the 
country, B.C. 572. In the Peloponnesian war 
they quarrelled with the Spartans, because 
the latter had espoused the cause of Lepraeum, 
which had revolted from Elis. The Eleans 
retaliated upon the Spartans by excluding 
them from the Olympic games in the year 
420 (Thuc. v. 41). At the conclusion of" the 
war they relinquished their supremacy over 
the Triphylian towns and never regained it. 
At a later time, when the Eleans became the 
firmest adherents in the Peloponnesus to the 
Aetolian League, the Triphylians joined the 
hostile (but more pata-iotic) Achaean League. 
The importance of Elis when it formed part of 
the Roman province of Achaea wag preserved 
by the Olympic games, which lasted till the 
reign of Theodosius. 

Eliso. [Aliso.] 

Elissa. [Dido.] 

Ellopla ('EAAoTr(a). 1. A district in the N. 
of Euboea, near the promontory Conaeum, 
with a town of the same name : the whole 
island of Euboea is sometimes called Ellopia. 
— 2. An ancient name of the district about 
Dodoua in Epirus. 



E15ne ('EAaSj/rj), a town of the Perrhaebi in 
Thessaly, afterwards called Llmone (Aei/j.wi/-q). 

Elpenor ('EAirijvcop), one of the companions 
of Odysseus who were metamorphosed by Circe 
into swine and afterwards back into men. 
Intoxicated with wine, Elpenor one day fell 
asleep on the roof of Circe's palace, and in 
his attempt to rise he fell down and broke his 
neck. When Odysseus was in the lower world, he 
met the shade of Elpenor, who implored him to 
burn his bod}', which Odysseus did on his return 
to the upper world. (Od. x. 550, xi. 57, xii. 10.1 

Elpinice ('EA7riyiK7;), daughter of Miltiades, 
and sister of Cimon, married Callias. [Callias.j 

Elusates, a people in Aquitania, in the 
interior of the country. Their chief town was 
Elusa. (Nr. Euse or Eause.) It was the 
birthplace of Rufinus, the minister of Arca- 
dius (Claudius in Suf. i. 137). 

Elymaei, Elyrni. [Elymais.] 

Elymais, a district of Susiana, extending 
from the river Eulaeus on the W. to the 
Oroatis on the E., derived its name from the 
Elymaei or Elymi ('EAv/utuoi, "EKv/iot) a war- 
like and predatory people, who are also found 
in the mountains of Great Media : in the Per- 
sian armies they served as archers. (Strab. p. 
744 ; Liv. xxxvii. 40.) These Elymaei were 
probably among the most ancient inhabitants 
of the country N. of the head of the Persian 
Gulf: in the O. T. Susiana is called Elam. 
Under the Parthian empire the kings of Ely- 
mais held the highest place among the satraps. 

Elymi. [Elyjius.] 

Elyrniotis. [Elimea.] 

Elymus ('EAuuos), a Trojan, natural son of 
Anchises and brother of Eryx. Previous to the 
emigration of Aeneas, Elymus and Aegestus 
had fled from Troy to Sicily, and had settled on 
the banks of the river Crimisus. When after- 
wards Aeneas also arrived there, he built for 
them the towns of Aegesta and Elyme. The 
Trojans who settled in that part of Sicily called 
themselves Elymi, after Elymus. (Dionys. i. 
47. 52 ; Verg. Aen. v. 73.) 

ElyTUS ("EAypoj), a town in the W. of Crete, 
S. of Cydonia (Paus. x. 1(>, 3). 

Elysium CHAwo-joc -xio'iov, later simply 'H\v- 
mwj.V.'-.' Eh/sian fields. [Hades.] In Homer 
I Od. i v. 503) Elysium forms no part of the realms 
of the dead ; he places it on the W. of the earth, 
near Ocean, and describes it as a happy land, 
where there is neither snow, nor cold, nor rain, 
and always fanned by the delightful breezes of 
Zephyrus. Hither favoured heroes, like Mene- 
laus, pass without dying, and live happy under 
the rule of Rhadamanthus. Hesiod (Op. 1(!7) 
places the heroes of the fourth age, such as 
those who fought at Thebes and Troy, in the 
Isles of the Blessed (jjuxKapoiv vriaoi), which lie de- 
scribes as set apart along the circumfluent Ocean 
(cf. Hor. Enod. xvi. (18), where Cronus rules 
and the land is fruitful. Pindar distinguishes 
Elysium, or the place of rest, where the good 
live a tearless life, and the sun always shines, 
from the fiaKupwv vyaoi to which, as an ex- 
treme reward, those come who have gone 
through a probation thrice in this world and 
thrice in Elysium. Here Cronus reigns and 
Rhadamanthus judges. In this happy spot he 
places Peleus and Cadmus and Achilles (Ol. ii. 
til). In Er. 95 he describes the former place 
or Elysium, and the life of those who Swell 
there in flowery meadows, delighting themselves 
with games and music, and never without the 
sun. From these legends was imagined the 
: island of Atlantis. The Elysium of Virgil 



314 



EMATHIA 



ENCELADUS 



(Aen. vi. 541) is placed in the Under-world. 
[See Hades.] 

EmatMa ("H^aBial 'H/xadievs), a district of 
Macedonia, between the Haliacmon and the 
Axius, formerly part of Paeonia, and the origi- 
nal seat of the Macedonian monarchy. (In 
Homer II. xiv. 226 it lies between Pieria and 
Thrace.) The poets frequently give the name 
of Emathia 'to the whole of Macedonia, and 
sometimes even to the neighbouring Thessaly. 
Under the Romans it formed part of the third 
region of Macedonia. 

Emathides, the nine daughters of Pierus, 
king of Emathia (Ov. Met. v. 669). 

Emathion ('RfiaBiaiv), son of Tithonus and 
Eos, brother of Memnon, was slain by Heracles 
(Hes. Th. 984). 

Embolima {'E/j.pd\i/j.a), a city of the Paropa- 
misadae in N. India, near Aornos, sixteen days' 
march from the Indus (Curt. viii. 12). 

Emerita. [Augusta Emebjta.] 

Emesa or Emissa CE/xecra, ''E/xicrcra : 'E^a-r)- 
vos : Hams or Horns), a city of Syria, on the E. 
bank of the Orontes, in the province of Apa- 
mene, but afterwards the capital of Phoenice 
Libanesia, was in the first cent. B.C. the resi- 
dence of independent Arabian princes. When 
Pompey was in Syria in B.C. 69 it was ruled by 
an Arabian prince Sampsiceramus, who held his 
power as tributary. His dynasty lasted under 
Iamblichus, another Sampsiceramus and Azizus 
and others till the reign of Domitian, when it 
formed part of the province of Syria. Under 
Caracalla it was made a colony with the Jus 
Italicum. It is a remarkable place in the 
history of the Roman empire, being the native 
city of Julia Domna, the wife of Septimius 
Severus ; of Elagabalus, who exchanged the 
high-priesthood of the celebrated temple of the 
Sun in this city for the imperial purple, and of 
the emperor Alexander Severus ; and also the 
scene of the decisive battle between Aurelian 
and Zenobia, a.d. 273. (Strab. p. 753 ; He- 
rodian, v. 3 ; Dio Cass. liv. 8 ; Joseph. Ant. 
xix. 8; Cic. ad Att. ii. 16, ad Fam. xv. 1.) 

Emmenidae fEititej/i'Sai), a princely family at 
Agrigentum, who traced their origin to the 
mythical hero Polynices. Among its members 
we know Emmenides (from whom the family 
derived its name) the father of Aenesidamus, 
whose sons Theron and Xenocrates are cele- 
brated by Pindar as victors at the great games 
of Greece (Pind. 01. ii. 48, iii. 38, Pyth. vi. 5). 

Emodi Montes, or -us, or -es, or -on (to 
'HttcuSo opt), rb 'HitcuSby lipos, or 6 'HfiaSSs'. 
Himalaya M.), a range of mountains N. of 
India, forming the prolongation eastwards of 
the Paropamisus. 

Empedocles ('E/j.TeSoK\rjs), of Agrigentum in 
Sicily, flourished about B.C. 490. Although he 
was descended from an ancient and wealthy 
family, he joined the revolution in which Thra- 
sydaeus, the son and successor of Theron, was 
expelled. His zeal in the establislnnent of 
political equality is said to have been mani- 
fested by his magnanimous support of the poor, 
by his severity against the overbearing con- 
duct of the aristocrats, and by his declining the 
sovereignty which was offered to him. His 
brilliant oratory, his penetrating knowledge of 
nature, and the reputation of his marvellous 
powers, which he had acquired by curing 
diseases, by his successful exertions in dry- 
ing up marshy districts and in averting epi- 
demics and obnoxious winds, spread a lustre 
around his name. He was called a magician 
{-y6rjs), and he appears to have attributed to 



himself miraculous powers and a divine origin, 
though in natural science he was certainly no 
impostor. He travelled in Greece and Italy, and 
made some stay at Athens. His death happened 
about 430, apparently not in Sicily. Many 
legends grew up about it : one tradition repre- 
sented him as having been removed from the 
earth, like a divine being ; and another related 
that he threw himself into the flames of Mount 
Aetna, that by his sudden disappearance he 
might be believed to be a god ; but it was 
added that the volcano threw up one of his 
sandals, and thus revealed the manner of his 
death (Diog. La'e'rt. viii. 57-74 ; Hor. A.P. 464). 
The rhetorician Gorgias was his disciple. The 
works of Empedocles were all in verse. Frag- 
ments remain of the 'larpiicd, which assume the 
power to heal all diseases, even old age : of the 
Kadap/jioi, which teaches the purification from 
sin and evil, and of his greatest work, on 
natural science (Ilep! fyvcreais). He seems to 
have derived his mysticism from Pythagoras, 
and in natural science it is likely that Acron 
and Pausanias, great physicians of Sicily, were 
his first teachers. He held, that there were 
four indestructible elements — earth, air, fire, 
and water (which he called Zeus, Hera, A'ido- 
neus, and Nestis). These elements combine to 
form the visible world, but they combine only 
by the operation of <pi\'ia, or Love, which is 
therefore the creative power ; and they can be 
dissolved by Hate. Our senses are acted upon 
by the particles thrown off by things around 
us. He held the Pythagorean doctrine of 
' transmigration of souls. Lucretius speaks of 
j Empedocles with enthusiasm, and evidently 
makes him his model (i. 715 ff). 

Emporiae or Emporium ('Etnropi'cu, 'E/m-o- 
pzlov, 'E/j.v6pwv : 'E/xirop'trris : Anvpurias), a 
town of the Indigetes in Hispania Tarraconensis 
near the Pyrenees, was situated on the river 
Clodianus, which formed the harbour of the 
town. It was founded by the Phocaeans 
from Massilia, and was divided into two parts, 
at one time separated from each other by a 
wall: the part near the coast being inhabited 
by the Greeks, and the part towards the in- 
terior by the Indigetes. It was subsequently 
colonised by Julius Caesar. Its harbour was 
much frequented: here Scipio Africanus first 
landed when he came to Spain in the second 
Punic war. (Strab. p. 159 : Liv. xxi. 60.) 

Empulum (Ampiglione), a small town inLa- 
tium, near Tibur (Liv. vii. 18). 

Empusa ("E,u.irovcra), a monstrous spectre, 
which was believed to devour human beings. 
It could assume different forms, and was sent 
by Hecate to frighten travellers. It was be- 
lieved usually to appear with one leg of brass 
and the other of an ass, whence it was called 
ouoffKeX'is or bvoK<ii\T]. The Lamiae and Mor- 
molyceia, who assumed the form of handsome 
women for the purpose of attracting young 
men, and then sucked their blood like vampires 
and ate their flesh, were reckoned among the 
Empusae. (Aristoph. Ban. 294 ; Dem. de Cor. 
p. 270, § 130 ; Philostr. Apoll. Tyan. ii. 4, iv. 25.) 

Enarephorus ('Evavp-fiQopos), son of Hippo- 
coon, a passionate suitor of Helen, when she 
was yet quite young. Tyndareus, therefore, 
entrusted the maiden to the care of Theseus. 
Enarephorus had a heroum at Sparta. (Plut. 
Thes. 31 ; Paus. iii. 15.) 

Enceladus ('EyKeAaSos), son of Tartarus and 
Ge, and one of the hundred-armed giants who 
made war upon the gods. He was killed, ac- 
cording to some, by a flash of lightning, by 



ENCHELES 

Zeus, who buried him under Mount Aetna; | 
according to others, Athene killed him with her 
chariot, or threw upon him the island of Sicily. ! 
(Verg. Aen. iii. 578, iv. 179; Ov. Pont. ii. 2, 12; 
Pans. viii. 47 ; Eur. Cycl. 7.| 

Encheles ('EyxeKeis, also 'EyxsAe'ai, 'Eyxe- \ 
?uoi), an Illyrian tribe. 

Endius ("Evhios), a Spartan and a hereditary 
friend of Alcibiades, whose family name seems ! 
to have been adopted, for it was borne by the 1 
father of Endius. He was an Ephor, and was 
ambassador from Sparta to Athens in 420 and 
410. (Time. v. 44, viii. 6, 12 ; Diod. xiii. 52.) 

Endoeus ("EvSoios), an Athenian statuary, is 
called a disciple of Daedalus, whom he is said 
to have accompanied on his flight from Crete. 
These statements must be taken to express, not 
the time at which he lived, but the style of art 
which he practised. It is probable that he 
lived in the time of Pisistratus and his sons, 
about B.C. 560. (Paus. i. 2G, vii. 5, viii. 46.) 

Endymlon ('EfSvfMioivj, a youth distinguished 
by his beauty, and renowned in ancient story ' 
for his perpetual sleep (cf. Plat. Phaedr. p. 72 ; 
Aristot. Eth. N. x. 8). One set of traditions ' 
about Endymion refer us to Elis, and another 
to Caria, and others again are a combination , 
of the two. According to one set of legends, j 
he was a son of Aethlius and Calyce, or of 
Zeus and Calyce, and succeeded Aethlius in 
the kingdom of Elis (Paus. v. 8, 1), or led a I 
band of Aeolians from Thessaly and took 
possession of Elis (Paus. v. 1, 2 ; Apollod. i. 
7, 5). According to the Schol. on Ap. Eh. iv. 57, 1 
Hesiod and Phercydes also made him an El- 
ean. His tomb was shown at Olympia (Paus. 1 
v. 1, 4). Others related that he had come from 
Elis to Mount Latmus in Caria, whence he is 
called the Latniian (La/mius). This version 
first appears in Sappho (Fr. 131) ; and this lias 
been generally followed by poets of a later 
date (Theocr. xx. 37 ; Catull. lxvi. 5 ; Ov. A. 
A. iii. 83). Some stories tried to reconcile 
the two by making him migrate from Elis to 
Caria (Paus. v. 1, 5). The more poetical part 
of his story may belong specially to Curia, and 
may have been engrafted on other Endymions 
elsewhere ; but it might be imagined whenever 
the moon was observed touching the rocks 
with light and sinking behind them. As he 
slept on Latmus, his beauty warmed the cold 
heart of Selene (the moon), who came down 
to him, kissed him, and lay by his side. His 
eternal sleep on Latmus is assigned to differ- 
ent causes : Selene had sent him to sleep, that 
she might be able to kiss him without his 
knowledge (Cic. Tusc. i. 38, 02) ; or he begged 
from Zeus eternal sleep with immortal youth 
(Apollod.). By Selene he had fifty daughters, 
according to the story of the Eleans, and this is 
explained as referring to the fifty moons of the 
Olympic cycle. The best representation of the 
story is a fine relief in the Capitoline Museum, 
where there is also a beautiful relief of the 
single sleeping figure with his dog beside him. 
In the first he is represented as a shepherd, in 
the second as a hunter. 

Engyum ("Eyyvov, 'Eyyvinv : 'Eyyvivos, En- 
guinus : Gangi, or, according to others, Troina), 
a town in the interior of Sicily near the sources 
of the Monalus, originally a town of the Siculi, 
but said to have been colonised by the Cretans 
under Minos : it possessed a celebrated temple 
of the great mother of the gods, or, according 
toothers, of Qta\ part pa, perhaps the nurses of 
Zeus (Diod. iv. 70, xvi. 72; Plut. Marc. 20; 
Cic. Verr. iii. 43, v. 72). 



ENNIUS 



315 



Enipeus ('Eviirevs). 1. (Tschamarhjj, a river 
in Thessalj', rises in Mt. Othrys, receives the 
Apidanus near Pharsalus, and flows into the 
Peneus. Poseidon assumed the form of the god 
of this river in order to obtain possession of Tyro, 
who was in love with Enipeus. She became by 
Poseidon the mother of Pelias and Neleus. Ovid 
relates (Met. vi. 116) that Neptune (Poseidon) 
having assumed the form of Enipeus, became 
by Iphimedia the father of Otus and Ephialtes. 
— 2. A small river in Pisatis (Elis) flows into 
the Alpheus near its mouth (Strab. p. 356). — 
3. (Mavrolongos), a small river in Macedonia, 
which rises in Olympus. 

Enna or Henna ('E«/«: 'Euvaios: Castro 
Giovanni), an ancient and strong town of the 
Siculi in Sicily, on the road from Catania to 
Agrigentum, on the summit of a rocky hill, and 
hence a natural fortress (Strab. p. 272 ; Liv. 
xxiv. 37), said to be the centre of the island 
(o/xtpaKbs SiKfAi'as) (Callim. Hymn, in Cer. 15; 
Cic. Verr. iv. 48). It was surrounded by fertile 
plains, which bore large crops of wheat ; it was 
one of the chief seats of the worship of Demeter, 
and possessed a celebrated temple of this 
goddess. According to later tradition it was in 
a flowery meadow in the neighbourhood of 
Enna that Pluto carried off Persephone or 
Proserpine, and the cave was shown through 
which the god passed as he earned off his 
prize (Ov. Met. v. 385 ; Claud, de Rapt. Pros. 
ii. ; Diod. v. 3). Its importance declined from 
the time of the second Punic war, when it was 
punished by the Romans, because it had at- 
tempted to revolt to the Carthaginians. 

Ennius, Q., the Roman poet, was born at 
Rudiae, in Calabria, B.C. 230 (Gell. xvii. 21, 
43 ; Cic. de Or. iii. 42, 168, Brut. 18, 72). He 
was a Greek by birth, but a subject of Rome, 
and served in the Roman armies. In 204 Cato, 
who was then quaestor, found Ennius in Sar- 
dinia, and brought him in his train to Rome. In 
180 Ennius accompanied M. Fulvius Xobilior 
through the Aetolian campaign, and shared his 
triumph. Through the son of Nobilior, Ennius, 
when far advanced in life, obtained the rights of 
a Roman citizen. He dwelt in a humble house 
on the Aventine, and maintained himself by 
teaching Greek to the sons of the Roman 
nobles, and translating Greek plays for the stage. 
Ennius in truth, as a Greek by culture and 
partly by origin, gave to Roman poetry the 
form which it ultimately adopted. The epic of 
Naevius was in Saturn ian metre. Ennius intro- 
duced the Greek hexameter and the Homeric 
treatment,, and thus gave i.ie lead which was 
followed by Virgil. Though Cato disapproved 
of this as unpatriotic, it cannot be doubted that 
his choice was right. He lived on terms of the 
closest intimacy with the elder Scipio Africanus. 
He died 160, at the age of Beventy (Cic. de Sen. 
5, 14). He was buried in the sepulchre of the 
Scipios, and his bust was allowed a place among 
the effigies of that noble house. Ennius was 
regarded by the Romans as the father of their 
poetry (alter Humerus, Hor. Kp. ii. 1, 50). 
Cicero calls him Summits poeta noster {jm> 
Ball. 22,51 ; of. Luer. i. Ill), and Virgil was 
not ushamed to borrow many of his thoughts, 
and not a few of his expressions. All the works 
of Ennius ure lost witli tho exception of a few 
fragments. His most important work was an 
epic poem, in dactylic hexameters, entitled 
Annul inm Libri xviii., being a history of Rome 
from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy to his own 
times. No great space, however, ill allotted 
to the earlier records : the stcrios of Aeneas and 



316 



ENOPE 



EPAMINONDAS 



the royal period occupy the first three books ; 
three are given to the conquest of Italy and 
Pyrrhus ; and the contest with Hannibal, 
which was described with great minuteness, 
began with the seventh book, the first Punic 
war being passed over with a brief mention, as 
having been described already by Naevius. 
The Hannibalian war ended with the ninth 
book ; and the remaining nine brought the his- 
tory down to 181 B.C. or perhaps a few years 
later. His service to the drama was of less 
importance in literature : his translations were 
mostly from Euripides ; he wrote also praetex- 
tae, or tragedies on Roman subjects, of which 
the Ambracia probably told of its capture by 
Fulvius Nobilior, which he himself had seen : 
he wrote also Comedies and was the first notable 
writer of Saturae. His adaptations of Epichar- 
mus and Euhemerus were apparently on the 
rationalistic side, and no doubt offended those 
-who upheld the old Roman religion. The 
fragments of Ennius are published by Vahlen, 
Lips. 1854; L. Miiller, Petersb. 1885. 

Enope ('Evt)7rr)), a town in Messenia, men- 
tioned by Homer (II. i. 150), supposed by some 
to be the same as Gebenia. 

Entella ("EvreWa: Entellinus, Entellensis: 
Untella), an ancient town of the Sicani in the 
interior of the island on the ~W. side, said to 
have been founded by Entellus, one of the 
companions of the Trojan Aegestus (Verg. Aen. 
v. 387). It was subsequently seized and peopled 
by the Campanian mercenaries of Dionysius 
(Diod. xiv. 9). 

Entorla, daughter of an Italian peasant who 
entertained Cronos (Saturn). Cronos taught 
the culture of the vine, and the peasants being 
intoxicated, thought themselves poisoned, and 
stoned the father of Entoria, whose sons by 
Cronus hanged themselves. Long afterwards, 
to avert a plague Lutatius Catulus built a 
temple of Saturn on the Tarpeian (Plut. Parall, 
9 ; cf. Icarius). 

Enyalius ('EvvaXios), the Warlike, frequently 
occurs in the Iliad (never in the Odyssey) as an 
epithet of Abes. At a later time Enyalius and 
Ares were distinguished as two different gods of 
war; Enyalius was looked upon as a son of 
Ares and Enyo, or of Cronos and Rhea. 

Enyo ('Euvd), the goddess of war, who de- 
lights in bloodshed and the destruction of towns, 
and accompanies Ares in battles (II. v. 333, 
.592). The goddess Ma or Anaitis at Comana 
was called Enyo by the Greeks (Strab. p. 535). 
Respecting the Roman goddess of war, see 
Bellona. 

Eordaea ('EopSala, also 'EopSla), a district and 
town in the NW. of Macedonia, inhabited by 
the Eordi (Thuc. ii. 99). 

Eos ('Hds, Att. "Ews), in Latin Aurora, the 
goddess of the morning red, daughter of Hy- 
perion and Thia or Euryphassa (Hes. Th. 271 ; 
Hymn. Horn. xxxi. 4) ; or of the giant Pallas 
(Ov. Met. ix. 421). In Od. xii. 4, the island of 
Aea is spoken of as her dwelling; and there 
seems there to be a confusion between the 
eastern and western islands of the same name 
[Aea] ; it cannot be an allusion to the evening- 
red, since the ' rising of the sun ' is also placed 
there. Eos dwelt in the east, and at the close 
of every night she rose from the couch of her 
spouse Tithonus, and on a chariot (sometimes a 
quadriga, but usually a biga) drawn by the 
swift horses Lampus and Phaeton she ascended 
to heaven from the river Oceanus, to announce 
the coming light of the sun to the gods as 
well as to mortals (Od. xxiii. 253). In the 



Homeric poems Eos only travels till the sun is 
completely risen, or according to II. ix. 66, till 
towards midday ; but in later poets the paths of 
Aurora and the sun are the same : so also we 
find 'H/xepa and 'Hcos synonymous (Eur. Troad. 
847), and Eos has come to be regarded as the 
goddess of the daylight. Goddess of all that 
was young and fresh, she is represented in 
myth as loving and carrying off youths of 
notable beauty ; and this may also be significant 
of death in early youth, hv ®eo! (pihovaiv 
airoQvTitjKti vios. [For the stories thereon see 
Cephalus, Orion.] Memnon was her son by 
Tithonus. For these myths see Memnon and 
Tithonus. 

Epaminondas ('ETrafxetvdvSas, 'Eirafxii'di'fia.s), 

the Theban general and statesman, son of 
Polymnis, was born and reared in poverty, 
though his blood was noble. His close and en- 
during friendship with Pelopidas is said to have 
originated in the campaign in which they served 
together on the Spartan side against Mantinea, 
where Pelopidas having fallen in a battle, ap- 
parently dead, Epaminondas protected his body 
at the imminent risk of his own life, B.C. 385. 
(Plut. Pelop. 4 ; Xen. Hell. v. 2 ; Diod. xv. 5.) 
Epaminondas had refused to take part in the 
conspiracy for the liberation of Thebes, because 
it involved assassination, but when the Spar- 
tans had been expelled from it, he took an 
active part in public affairs. In 371 he was one 
of the Theban commanders at the battle of 
Leuctra, so fatal to the Lacedaemonians, in 
which the success of Thebes is said to have 
been owing mainly to his tactics. In 370 he 
was one of the generals in the first invasion 
of Peloponnesus by the Thebans; and before 
leaving Peloponnesus he restored the Messen- 
ians to their country and established a new city, 
named Messene. On their return home Epa- 
minondas and Pelopidas were impeached by 
their enemies, on a capital charge of having 
retained their command beyond the legal term. 
The fact itself was true enough ; but they were 
both honourably acquitted, Epaminondas hav- 
ing expressed his willingness to die if the 
Thebans would record that he had been put to 
death because he had humbled Sparta and 
taught his countrymen to face and to conquer 
their enemies. (Plut. Pelop. 25 ; Paus. ix. 14 ; 
Nep. Epam. 8.) In 369 he returned to the 
Peloponnesus and took possession of Sicyon, 
and by his presence in that district so occupied 
the Lacedaemonian forces that the inhabitants 
of the new cities Messene and Megalopolis could 
complete their fortifications. He was repulsed 
by Chabrias in an attack which he made on 
Corinth. In the following year we find him 
serving, but not as general, in the Theban army 
which was sent into Thessaly to rescue Pelo- 
pidas from Alexander of Pherae, and which was 
saved from utter destruction only by the ability 
of Epaminondas. In 367 he was sent at the 
head of another force to release Pelopidas, and 
accomplished his object without even striking a 
blow, and by the mere prestige of his name 
(Diod. xv. 71-75). Later in 367 he invaded the 
Peloponnesus for the third time, and in 362 for 
the fourth time. In the latter year he gained a 
brilliant victory over the Lacedaemonians at 
Mantinea ; but in the full career of victory he 
received a mortal wound. He was told that his 
death would follow directly on the javelin being 
extracted from the wound ; and he would not 
allow this to be done till he had been assured 
that his shield was safe, and that the victory 
was with bis countrymen. It was a disputed 



EPAPHRODITUS 

point by whose hand he fell : among others, the 
honour was assigned to Gryllus, the son of 
Xenophon. (Xen. Hell. vii. 5 ; Diod. xv. 87 ; 
Paus. ix. 15; "Seip.Epaminondas.) — Epaminon- 
das was one of the greatest men of Greece. He 
raised Thebes to the supremacy of Greece, 
which she lost almost as soon as he died. He 
was not only a great general and tactician 
and a wise statesman, but alike in public and 
in private life he was distinguished by integrity 
and uprightness, and he carried into daily prac- 
tice the lessons of philosophy, of which he was an 
ardent student. His patriotism was of the 
widest and most enlightened kind, studying the 
general interests of the Hellenic race as well as 
those of his own state. 

Epaphroditus ('ETracppoSiros). 1. A freedman 
and secretary of the emperor Nero. He assisted 
Nero in killing himself, and he was afterwards 
put to death by Domitian. The philosopher 
Epictetus was his freedman. (Tac. Awn. xv. 
55 ; Suet. Ner. 49, Dom. 14.) — 2. M. Mettlus 
Epaphroditus, of Chaeronea, a Greek gram- 
marian, the slave and afterwards the freedman 
of Modestus, the praefect of Egypt. He sub- 
sequently went to Rome, where he resided in 
the reign of Nero and down to the time of Nerva. 
He was the author of several grammatical works 
and commentaries. 

Epaphus CEircupos), son of Zeus and Io, bom 
on the river Nile, after the long wanderings of 
his mother. He was concealed by the Curetes, 
at the request of Hera, but was discovered by 
Io in Syria. He subsequently became king of 
Egypt, married Memphis, a daughter of Nilus, 
or, according to others, Cassiopea, and built the 
city of Memphis. He had a daughter Libya, 
from whom Libya (Africa) received its name. 
(Aesch. Pr. 84(5, Suppl. 536; Eur. Phoen. 
078 ; Pind. Pyth. iv. 25 ; Hyg. Fab. 149.) 

Epei. [Elis.] 

Epetmm ('EirtTiov :' nr. Stobrez, Ru.), a 
town of the Lissii in Dalmatia, with a good 
harbour. 

Epeus fEirei((s). 1. Son of Endymion, king 
in Elis, from whom the Epei are said to have 
derived theirname (Paus. v. 1). — 2. Son of Pano- 
peus, went with thirty ships from the Cyclades 
to Troy. He built the wooden horse with the 
assistance of Athene. (II. xxiii. 005 ; Od. viii. 
492 ; Paus. ii. 29 ; Verg. Aen. ii. 264.) 

Ephesus ("Eipeo-os : 'E<pe<rios : Ru. near 
Ai/asoluk, i.e. "Ayios @e6\oyos, the title of St. 
John), the chief of the twelve Ionian cities on 
the coast of Asia Minor, was said to have been 
founded as a Greek city by Androclus, the son 
of Codrus, at the time of the great Ionian mi- 
gration, and united with the old town of the 
Carians and Leleges. The Greek settlers adop- 
ted the worship of the Asiatic nature-goddess 
which already existed there, and gave her the 
name of Artemis. It stood a little S. of the 
river Cayster, near its mouth, where a marshy 
plain, extending S. from the river, is bounded by 
two hills, Prion or Lepre on the E', and Cores- 
8us on the S. The city was built originally on 
Mt. Coressus, but, in the time of Croesus, the 
people transferred their habitations to the 
valley, whence Lysimachus, the general of Alex- 
ander, compelled them again to remove to M. 
Prion. On the N. side of the city was a lake, 
communicating with tho Cayster, and forming 
the inner harbour, now a marsh ; the outer 
harbour (Trdvopfwt) was formed by the mouth of 
the river. In the plain, E. of the lake, ami N K. 
of the city, beyond its walls, stood the Cdlebnt- 
ted temple of Artemis. The original temple is 



EPHESUS 



SIT 




Coin of Ephesus, exhibiting 
the Temple of Artemis. 



, said to have been built by Theodorus of Sanios 
about 030 B.C. Another was built in the latter 
! half of the sixth century B.C., by an architect 
named Chersiphron. One of the sculptured 
! columns of this temple dedicated by Croesus,. 

and bearing part of his name inscribed on it, is 
1 now in the British Museum. This temple was 
burnt down by Herostratus in the night on 
which Alexander the Great was born (Oct. 
13-14, B.C. 356). The teniple which took its 
place, built by the joint efforts of all the Ionian 
states, was regarded as one of the wonders of 
the world (Plin. xxxvi. 
179 ; Vitruv. x. 2, 11 ; 
vii. Praef. 12, ii. Praef. 
1). Foundations of the 
two earlier temples 
and fragments of the 
columns of the second 
were discovered in 1870 
by Mr. "Wood beneath 
the great temple of the. 
Alexandrine age. Of 
this the bases of the 
columns were excava- 
ted and fragments of sculpture. [For description 
see Diet, of Ant.avt. Templum.~\ It stood nearly 
a mile outside the Coressian gate of the city. The 
temple was also celebrated as an asylum, till Au- 
gustus deprived it of that privilege. The other 
buildings at Ephesus of which there are ruins, 
are the agora, theatre, odeum, stadium, gymna- 
sium, and baths, temples of Zeus Olympius and 
of Julius Caesar, and a large building near the 
inner harbour : the foundations of the walls 
may also be traced. With the rest of Ionia,, 
Ephesus fell under the power successively 
of Croesus, the Persians, the Macedonians, 
and the Romans. It was always very flourish- 
ing, and became even more so as the other 
Ionian cities decayed. It was greatly favoured 
by its Greek rulers, especially by Lysimacluu , 
who, in honour of his second wife, gave it 
her name, Arsinoi-, which, however, it did not 
long retain. Attalus II. Philadelphus construc- 
ted docks for it, and improved its harbours. 
Under the Romans it was the administrative 
capital of the province of Asia (though Per- 
gamum was strictly the (twjTpoVoAts), and by far 
the greatest city of Asia Minor. (Plin. v. 120 ; 
Cic. ad Fam. v. 20; Jos. Ant. xiv. 10, xvi. 6.) 
It is conspicuous in the early history of the 
Christian Church, both St. Paul and St. John 
having laboured in it, and addressed epistles to 




Coin of EphoHUs. of -ith cent. H.c. 
01 jr., E* and bee, which wiu tho emblem of tho city, and 
connected with tho worship of tho EphoRlun Artomin ; 
ret. , part of a Mtntf (Hncred to Artemis), and palm true 
and muKlHlruto h name, Aril ruiHMOi. 

the church of Ephesus ; and at one time its 
bishop possessed the rank and power of a patri- 
arch over the churches in the province of Asia. 
Its position, and the excellence of its harbours, 
made it the chief emporium for the trade of all 
Asia west of tho Taurus; and its downfall was 
mainly owing to the destruction of its harbours 
by the deposits of the Cayster. — Pliny (v. 115) 



318 



EPHIALTES 



EPICEATBS 



states that in the earliest times Ephesus was 
called by various names, Aiope, Ortygia (which 
was the name of a sacred grove near it : Strab. 
p. 639 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 61), Morge, Smyrna, Tra- 
cheia, Haemonium, and Ptelea. 

Ephialtes ('E<pii\Tt]s). 1. One of the Aloldae. 
[Aloeus.] — 2. A Malian, who in B.C. 480, when 
Leonidas was defending the pass of Thermo- 
pylae, guided a body of Persians over the 
mountain path, and thus enabled them to fall 
on the rear of the Greeks. — 3. The Athenian 
statesman, was a friend and partisan of Pericles, 
whom he assisted in carrying his political mea- 
sures. He is mentioned in particular as chiefly 
instrumental in that abridgment of the power 
of the Areiopagus which inflicted such a blow 
on the oligarchical party. [Diet, of Ant. art. 
Areiopagus.] This measure was carried in the 
absence of Cimon, who, on his return, tried to 
rescind it ; but, in his struggle with Ephialtes, 
he failed and was ostracised. The services of 
Ephialtes to the democratic cause excited the 
rancorous enmity of some of the oligarchs, and 
led to his assassination during the night, 
probably in 456. (Plut. Gim. 10-16; Aristot. 
Pol. ii. 9, 3, 'A0. tto\. 26.) 

EpHppus ("Erptinros). 1. An Athenian poet 
.of the Middle Comedy.— 3. Of Olynthus, a Greek 
historian of Alexander the Great. 

Ephorus CEtpopos), of Cyme inAeolis, a cele- 
brated Greek historian, was a contemporary of 
Philip and Alexander, and lived from about 400 
to about 333 B.C. He studied rhetoric under 
Isocrates, of whose pupils he and Theopompus 
were considered the most distinguished. As 
he lacked, in the opinion of Isocrates, the 
energy required for political life, he was per- 
suaded to turn instead to historical writing. 
Accordingly he wrote A History ('Itrroplai) in 
thirty books, which began with the return of 
the Heraclidae, and came down to the siege of 
Perinthus in 341. It treated of the history of 
the barbarians as well as of the Greeks, and 
was thus the first attempt at writing a universal 
history that was ever made in Greece. It 
embraced a period of 750 years, and each of 
the thirty books contained a compact portion 
of the history which formed a complete whole 
by itself. Ephorus did not live to complete the 
work, and it was finished by his son Demophilus. 
Diyllus began his history at the point at which 
the work of Ephorus left off. Ephorus also 
wrote a few other works of less importance, of 
which the titles only are preserved by the 
grammarians. Of the history likewise we have 
nothing but fragments. It was written in a 
clear and polished style, but was at the same 
time deficient in power and energy. Ephorus 
appears to have been faithful and impartial in 
the narration of events ; but he did not always 
follow the best authorities (e.g. for the age of 
Pericles he followed the writings of the comic 
poets, without due allowance for caricature), 
and in the later part of his work he frequently 
differed from Herodotus, Thucydides, and 
Xenophon, on points on which they are entitled 
to credit. Diodorus Siculus made great use of 
the work of Ephorus; and he is commended 
by Polybius for his accounts of naval warfare, 
and by Strabo (Pol. xii. 25; Strab. p. 332). 
The fragments of his work have been published 
by Marx, Carlsruhe, 1815, and in Miiller's 
Fragm. Historicor. Graec. Paris, 1841. 

Ephyra ('Ecjivpa). 1. The ancient name of 
Corinth [Cobinthus]. — 2. An ancient town of 
the Pelasgi near the river Selleis in Elis, after- 
wards called Boenoa (II. ii. 659, xv. 531 ; 



Strab. p. 338). — 3. A town in Thessaly, after- 
wards called Chanon. — 4. A town in Epirus, 
afterwards called Cichyrus. 

Epicaste ('ETri/cdtrTTj), commonly called Jo- 
caste. 

Epicephesia ('Em/oyc^a-i'a: 'E-wiKri<pii<nos), a 
demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe Oeneis. 

Epicharmus ('Ewixap/xos), the chief comic 
poet among the Dorians, was born in the island 
of Cos, about B. c. 540. His father, Elothales, 
was a physician, of the race of the Asclepiads. 
At the age of three months, Epicharmus was 
carried to Megara, in Sicily ; thence he removed 
to Syracitse, when Megara was destroyed by 
Gelo (484 or 483). Here he spent the re- 
mainder of his life, which was prolonged 
throughout the reign of Hiero, at whose 
court Epicharmus associated with the other 
great writers of the time, and among them 
with Aeschylus. He died at the age of 90 (450), 
or, according to Lucian, 97 (443). Epicharmus 
was a Pythagorean philosopher, and spent the 
earlier part of his life in the study of philo- 
sophy, both physical and metaphysical. He is 
said to have followed for some time his father's 
profession of medicine ; and it appears that he 
did not begin writing comedies till his re- 
moval to Syracuse. Comedy had for some time 
existed at Megara in Sicily, which was a colony 
from Megara on the Isthmus, the latter of which 
towns disputed with the Athenians the inven- 
tion of comedy. But the comedy at the Sicilian 
Megara before Epicharmus seems to have been 
merely rude farces. It was he, together with 
Phormis, who gave it a new form, and intro- 
duced a regular plot, but with no chorus. The 
number of his comedies is differently stated at 
52 or at 35. There are still extant 35 titles. 
The majority of them are on mythological sub- 
jects — that is, travesties of the heroic myths ; 
and these plays no doubt very much resembled 
the satyric dramas of the Athenians. But 
besides mythology, Epicharmus wrote on 
other subjects, political, or relating to manners 
and customs: such were probably The Boor 
(' Ay ppwo-rTvos) and The Megarian Woman. 
In Hebe's Wedding or The Muses Heracles 
displayed the powers of eating which the Attic 
poets afterwards signalised ; and the Muses 
appeared in the garb of Syracusan fish-wives. 
The style of his plays appears to have been a 
curious mixture of the broad buffoonery which 
distinguished the old Megarian comedy and of 
the sententious wisdom of the Pythagorean 
philosopher. His language was remarkably 
elegant : he was celebrated for his choice of 
epithets : his plays abounded, as the extant 
fragments prove, with philosophical and moral 
maxims. He was imitated by Crates, and also 
(in aiming at rapid movement of the drama) by 
Plautus, as we learn from the line of Horace 
(Epist. ii. 1, 58),— 

Plautns ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi. 

Plato places him at the head of comedians 
(Theaet. p. 152), in which criticism, however, he 
is probably thinking most of the philosophical 
element in his plays (cf. Diog. Laert. iii. 10). 
Fragments in Meineke, Fr. Com. Graec. 

Epicnemidii Locri. [Loceis.] 

Epicrates ('EiriKparTis). 1. An Athenian, 
took part in the overthrow of the Thirty; but 
afterwards, when sent on an embassy to the 
Persian king, he was accused of receiving money 
from Artaxerxes. He appears to have been ac- 
quitted this time ; but he was tried on a later 
occasion, on another charge of corruption, and 



EPICTETUS 

cnly escaped death by a voluntary exile. (Dein. 
F. L. p. -130, § 315 ; Athen. p. 251.) He was 
ridiculed by the comic poets for his large beard, 
and for this reason was called (ra.Ke<r(p6pos 
(Aristoph. Eccles. 68, and Schol.).— 2. Of Am- 
braeia, an Athenian poet of the Middle Comedy. 

Epictetus ("Ett'ikttitos), of Hierapolis in 
Phrygia, a celebrated Stoic philosopher, was a 
freedman of Epaphroditus, who was himself a 
freedman of Nero. [Epaphroditus.] He lived 
and taught first at Rome, and, after the expul- 
sion of the philosophers by Domitian, at Nico- 
polis in Epirus. Although he was favoured by 
Hadrian, he does not appear to have returned 
to Rome ; for the discourses which Arrian took 
down in writing were delivered by Epictetus 
when an old man at Nieopolis. Only a few 
circumstances of his life are recorded, such as 
his lameness, which is spoken of in different 
ways, his poverty, and his few wants. Epictetus 
did not leave any works behind him, and the 
short manual (Enchiridion) which bears his 
name was compiled from his discourses by his 
faithful pupil Arrian. Arrian also wrote the 
philosophical lectures of his master in eight 
books, from which, though four are lost, we are 
enabled to gain a complete idea of the way in 
which Epictetus conceived and taught the Stoic 
philosophy. [Arriaxus.] He teaches that man 
should follow reason and his own conscience as 
liis guide patiently and trustfully; and may feel 
independent of all external circumstances which 
are beyond his control and need not trouble 
iiim if he knows how to find freedom and happi- 
ness in his own mind. He believes in a Deity 
or Providence who chooses better for men than 
they could for themselves, and in a Guiding 
Spirit or conscience (perhaps here following 
Socrates) which aids men to judge rightly of 
appearances, and to understand what they can 
and ought to control and what is to be borne 
patiently as beyond their control : the great 
rule of life was ' endurance and abstinence ' 

Epictetus Phrygia. [Phrygia.] 

Epicurus ('Eir'iKoupos), a celebrated Greek 
philosopher, and the founder of a philosophical 
school called, after him, the Epicurean. He 
was a son of Neocles and Charestrata, and was 
born B.C. 342, in the Attic demos of Gargettus, 
and hence is sometimes called the Gargettian. 
(Cic. ad Fam. xv. 10.) At an early age he 
was taken to Samos by his father, who had 
a settlement there as an Athenian colonist 
(K\T)povxos). At 18 Epicurus came to 
Athens, and there probably studied under 
Xenocrates, who was then at the head of the 
Academy. After a short stay at Athens he went 
to Colophon, and subsequently resided at Myti- 
lene and Lampsacus, in which places he was 
engaged for five years in teaching philosophy. 
In 80S) when he had attained the age of 35, lie 
again came to Athens, where he purchased for 
80minae a garden — the famous KrjTroi 'ZiriKovpou 
— in which he established his philosophical 
school. Here he spent the remainder of his 
life, surrounded by numerous friends and pupils. 
His mode of living was simple, temperate, and 
cheerful ; and the aspersions of comic poets 
and of later philosophers, who were opposed 
to his philosophy and describe him as a per- 
son devoted to sensual pleasures, unjustly fix 
upon hint the reproach which belonged to some 
of his followers at a later time. He took no 
part in public affairs. He died in 270, at the 
age of 72, after a long and painful illness, which 
he endured with truly philosophical patience 



EPICYDE 



319 




Bust of Epicurus. 



and courage. — Epicurus is said to have written 
300 volumes. Of these the most important 
was on On Nature (Ilepi <i>u<recos), in 37 books. 
All bis works are lost ; but some fragments of 
the work on Nature were found among the rolls 
at Herculaneum, and were published by Orelli, 
Lips. 1818. In his philosophical system (see 
Diog. Laert. book x. ; Lucre- 
tius, iii. 3, &c. ; Cic. de Fin. 
i. and ii., N. D. i.) Epicurus 
prided himself in being in- 
dependent of all his pre- 
decessors ; but he was in 
reality indebted both to De- 
mocritus and the Cyrenaics. 
His regard for science and 
physics was mainly on the 
ground that a true under- 
standing of them might 
free mankind from the fear 
of the gods (religio) and of 
death. He regarded our 
senses as the guide to truth 
in theory and our sensa- 
tions of pleasure and pain 
as the motives of choice in practical life. In 
his physics he followed Democritus in his 
atomic theory, except that he saw that atoms 
must fall with equal velocity, and therefore 
supposed some external force by which they were 
deflected from their perpendicular path, and 
hence, striking together, gave rise to a circular 
motion which created many different worlds. 
These worlds are separated by regions of space, 
which he called fttraKdcrfua. ( = inter mundia) ; 
all of them are subject to decay. The soul of 
animals and of man consists of elements of fire 
and air, and also of a certain matter derived 
from their parents, whence comes their powers 
of perception. Men have also a rational part 
added to the irrational elements of the soul. 
At death the atoms of the soul are scattered : 
therefore we cannot exist after death, and need 
not fear it. Freedom of will he maintained abso- 
lutely. The gods, owing to the universality of 
the belief in them, he did not seek to eliminate 
from his scheme ; but he makes them ideals of 
tranquil happiness : having fine bodies of light, 
they dwell in the intermundia, where there are 
no decaying bodies ; and they are troubled by 
no cares for the worlds around them, but alto- 
gether out of their sphere. Hence it follows 
that the gods need not inspire men with any 
terrors. In his ethics lie bids us seek for the 
absence of pain as the greatest good : this con- 
sists especially in repose of mind {inapa^ia) ; 
and, since virtue tends to this repose, therefore 
virtue is essential for true happiness. He does 
not indeed forbid sensual pleasures, but he de- 
mands that man should be independent of them, 
and not their slave. 

Epicydes CZmKuhris), a Syracusan by origin, 
but bom and educated at Carthage. He served, 
together with his elder brother, Hippocrates,with 
much distinction in the army of Hannibal, both 
in Spain and Italy ; and when, after the battle 
of Cannae (b. c. 21G), Hieronymus of Syracuse 
sent to make overtures to Hannibal, that gene- 
ral selected the two brothers as his envoys to 
Syracuse. They soon induced the young king 
to desert the Roman alliance. Upon the murder 
of Hieronymus shortly after, they were the 
leaders of the Carthaginian party at Syracuse, 
and eventually became the masters of the city, 
which they defended against Marcellus. Epi- 
cydes fled to Agrigentum, when lie saw that the 
fall of Syracuse was inevitable. (Liv. xxiv. 



320 



EPIDAMNUS 



EPIRUS 



6, 21, xxv. 23, 40 ; Plut. Marc. 14 ; Polyb. vii. 
2.) 

Epidamnus. [Dyrrhachium.] 

Epidaurus ('EwlSavpos: 'EviSavpios). 1. (Epi- 
davra), a town in Argolis on the Saronic gulf, 
formed with its territory Epidauria ('EiriSaupia), 
a district independent of Argos, and was not in- 
cluded in Argolis till the time of the Romans. 
It was originally inhabited by lonians and 
Carians, whence it was called Epicarics, but it 
was subdued by the Dorians under Deiphontes, 
who thus became the ruling race. Epidaurus 
was the chief seat of the worship of Asclepius, 
and was to this circumstance indebted for its 
importance. The temple of this god, which was 
one of the most magnificent in Greece, was 
situated about five miles SW. of Epidaurus. 
The excavations, begun in 1881, have produced 
the most important results : the ground plan of 
the great temple itself has been ascertained ; of 
the Tholos of Polycletus within the precincts ; 
of the temple of Artemis and the gymnasium : 
above all, inscriptions of the greatest value as 
throwing light on the worship of Asclepius have 
been found (see Ephem. Att. 1881, 1883, p. 197, 
1885, 1 ; Asclepius). On the slopes of Cynos- 
tion above the temple is the theatre, which is 
of the fourth century B. c, and the best pre- 
served example of a Greek theatre (see descrip- 
tion and plan in Diet, of Ant. art. Theatrum). 
— 2, Surnamed Limera ('q Ai/njpa : Monembasia 
or Old Malvasia), a town in Laconia, on the 
E. coast, said to have been founded by Epidau- 
rus in Argolis (Strab. p. 368). 

Epidellum ('Em54i\iov), a town in Laconia 
on the E. coast, S. of Epidaurus Limera, with a 
temple of Apollo and an image of the god, which 
is said to have been thrown into the sea at Delos 
and to have come to land at this place. 

Eplgenes ('Emy evris). 1. An Athenian poet 
of the Middle Comedy, about B. c. 380. — 2. Of 
Sicyon, said to have preceded Thespis, and to 
have been the most .ancient writer of tragedy 
(Suid. s. v. Thespis). — 3. Of Byzantium, a Greek 
astronomer, mentioned by Seneca (Q. N. vii. 30) 
and Pliny (vii. 193). He studied in Chaldea, 
but his date is uncertain. 

Epigoni ('E-n-iyovoi), that is, ' the Descend- 
ants,' the name in ancient mythology of the 
sons of the seven heroes who perished be- 
fore Thebes. [Adbastus.] Ten years after 
their death, the descendants of the seven 
heroes marched against Thebes to avenge their 
fathers. For the stories of the Epigoni, see 
Alcmaeon, Aegialeus, Diomedes, Pbomachus, 
Sthenelus, Thersandeb, Euryalus, :and 
Thebae. 

Epimenides ('Eiriij.evl5T)s). 1. A celebrated 
poet and proi^het of Crete, whose history is to a 
great extent mythical. He was reckoned 
among the Curetes, and is said to have been 
the son of a nymph. He was a native of 
Phaestus in Crete, and appears to have spent 
the greatest part of his life at Cnossus, whence 
he is sometimes called a Cnossian. There is a 
legend that when a boy, he was sent out by 
his father in search of a sheep, and that seek- 
ing shelter from the heat of the midday sun, 
he went into a cave, and there fell into a deep 
sleep, which lasted 57 years. On waking and 
returning home, he found to his great amaze- 
ment that his younger brother had in the mean 
u ime grown an old man. He is further said to 
have attained the age of 154, 157, or even of 
229 years. (Diog, Laert. i. 109-115 ; Strab. p. 
479 ; Paus. i. 14, 4.) — His visit to Athens, how- 
ever, is an historical fact, and determines his 



date. The Athenians, who were visited by a, 
plague in consequence of the crime of Cylon 
[Cylon], consulted the Delphic oracle about 
the means of their delivery. The god com- 
manded them to get their city purified, and the 
Athenians invited Epimenides to come and 
undertake the purification. Epimenides ac- 
cordingly came to Athens, B.C. 596, and per- 
formed the desired task by certain mysterious 
rites and sacrifices, in consequence of which 
the plague ceased. He refused the large sums 
of money offered him in gratitude by Athens, 
and accepted only a branch from the sacred 
olive of Athene. (Plut. Sol. 12; Aristot. 'Ad. 
iro\. 1.) — Epimenides was reckoned by some 
among the seven wise men of Greece ; but all 
that tradition has handed down about him sug- 
gests a different character from that of the 
others ; he must rather be ranked in the class of 
priestly bards and sages, such as Abaris and 
Aristeas. Many works, both in prose and verse, 
were attributed to him by the ancients, and the 
Apostle Paul has preserved (Titus i. 12) a cele- 
brated verse of his against the Cretans. 

Epimetheus. [Peometheus and Pandora.] 

Epiphanes, a surname of Antiochus IV. and 
Antiochus XL, kings of Syria. 

Epiphania or -ea ('Em^ayem). 1. In Syria 
(O. T. Hamath : Hamah), in the district of 
Cassiotis, on the left bank of the Orontes, an 
early colony of the Phoenicians ; may be pre- 
sumed, from its later name, to have been 
restored or improved by Antiochus Epiphanes. 
— 2. In Asia Minor (TJrzin), on the SE. border 
of Cilicia, close to the Pylae Amanides, was 
formerly called Oeniandus, and probably owed 
its new name to Antiochus Epiphanes. Pom- 
pey repeopled this city with some of the pirates 
whom he had conquered. (Cic. ad Earn. xv. 
4 ; Plin. v. 93 ; Appian, Mithr. 96.) 

Epiphanius ('Eirupavtos), one of the Greek 
Fathers of the Church. [Diet, of Christian 
Biography.] 

Epipolae. [Sybacusae.] 

Eplrus ("Hireipos : 'Hirzipwrris, fem. 'HTreipuris : 
Albania), that is, 'the mainland,' a country 
in the NW. of Greece, so called to distinguish 
it from Corcyra and the other islands off the 
coast. Homer gives the name of Epirus to the 
whole of the W. coast of Greece, thus includ- 
ing Acarnania in it. Epirus was bounded by 
Illyria and Macedonia on the N., by Thessaly 
on the E., by Acarnania and the Ambracian 
gulf on the S., and by the Ionian sea on the W. 
The principal mountains were the Aeroeeraunii, 
forming the NW. boundary, and Pindus, 
forming the E. boundary ; besides which there 
were the mountains Tomarus in the E., and 
Crania in the S. The chief rivers were the 
Celydnus, Thyamis, Acheron, and Arachthus. — 
The inhabitants of Epirus were numerous, but 
were not of pure Hellenic blood. The original 
population is spoken of as Pelasgic; and the 
ancient oracle of Dodona in the country 
was always regarded as of Pelasgic origin. 
These early inhabitants were subsequently 
mingled with Illyrians, who at various times 
invaded Epirus and settled in the country. 
Epirus contained fourteen different tribes. Of 
these the most important were the Chaones, 
Thespboti and Molossi, who gave their names 
to the three principal divisions of the country, 
Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis. The 
different tribes were originally governed by 
their own princes. The Molossian princes, who 
traced their descent from Pyrrhus (Neoptole- 
mus), son of Achilles, subsequently acquired 



EPIRUS 

the sovereignty over the whole country, and 
took the title of kings of Epirus. The first 
who bore this title was Alexander, who invaded 
Italy to assist the Tarentines against the 
Lucanians and Bruttii, and perished at the 
battle of Pandosia, B.C. 326. The most cele- 
brated of the later kings was Pyrrhus, who 
carried on war with the Romans. About B.C. 
200 the Epirots established a republic ; and the 
Romans, after the conquest of Philip, 197, | 
guaranteed its independence. But in conse- 
quence of the support which the Epirots 
afforded to Antiochus and Perseus, Aemilius 
Paulus received orders from the senate to 
punish them with the utmost severity. He 
destroyed seventy of their towns, and sold 
150,000 of the inhabitants for slaves. In the 
time of Augustus the country had not yet 
recovered from the effects of this devastation. 
Epirus at first formed part of the province of 
Achaia (Tac. Ann. ii. 37) ; but from the time of 
Hadrian (perhaps earlier) it formed an indepen- 
dent procuratorial province, separated from 
Achaia by the Achelous (C.I.L. iii. 536). 

Epirus Nova. [Iixyricum.] 

Epona (probably from the Celtic epo, horse), 
a goddess worshipped at Rome, the protectress 
of horses and mules. It is probable that she 
was not, as some have thought, a genuine 
Italian deity, included in the Indigitamenta, 
but a somewhat late introduction from Gaul. 
Her name does not occur in Latin literature 
before Juvenal (viii. 157 ; cf. Plut. Parall. min. 
29 ; Tert. Apol. 16 ; Apul. Met. iii. 27). Most 
of the inscriptions in her honour come from 
Gaul, Germany and Britain (C. I. L. iii. 788, , 
3420, 4776, vii. 747, 1114). Several representa- I 
tions of her have been found, generally seated, 
and laying her hands on the heads of animals. 

Epopeus ('Eirunrevs). 1. Son of Poseidon and 
Canace, came from Thessaly to Sicyon, of which 
place he became king. He carried away from 
Thebes the beautiful Antiope, daughter of 
Nycteus, who therefore made war upon Epopeus. 
The two kings died of the wounds which they 
received in the war. — 2. One of the Tyrrhenian 
pirates who attempted to carry off Dionysus 
but were changed by the god into dolphins. 

Eporedla (Ivrea), a town in Gallia Cisalpina, 
on the Duria, in the territory of the Salassi, 
colonised by the Romans, B.C. 100, on the com- 
mand of the Sibylline books, to fcerve as a bul- 
wark against the neighbouring Alpine tribes 
(Veil. Pat. i. 15 ; Strab. p. 205 ; Plin. iii. 123). 
It was important as commanding the approach 
to the Val d'Aosta and to the passes of the 
Great and Little St. Bernard. [Alpes,] 

Eporedoriz, a chieftain of the Aedui, was 
one of the commanders of the Aeduan cavalry 
sent to Caesar's aid against Vercingetorix, in 
B.C. 52 ; but he himself revolted soon afterwards 
and joined the enemy (Caes. B. G. vii. 88). 

Epytus. a Trojan, father of Periphas, who 
was a companion of lulus, and is called by the 
patronymic Epytides (Verg. Aen. ii. 340). 

Equus Tutlcus or Aequum Tutlcum, a 
small town of the Hirpini in Samnium, twenty- 
one miles from Beneventum (Cic. ad Att. vi. 
1). The Scholiast on Horace (Sat. i. 5, 87) 
supposes, but without sufficient reasons, that it 
is the town quod versa dicere non est. 

Erae ("Epoi : Sif/hnjik'i), a small but strong 
seaport town on the coast of Ionia, N. of Teos 
(Thuc. viii. 19 ; Strab. p. 664). 

Erana, a town of the Eleutherocilices in the 
district of M. Amanus. in the time of Cicero 
(Cic. ad Fam. xv. 4). 



ERATOSTHENES 



321 



Erannoboas ('Epawo06as : Gundul), a river 
of India, one of the chief tributaries of the 
Ganges, into which it fell at Palimbotlira. 

Erasinides ('EpatrtviSrisjiOiie ot the Athenian 
commanders at the battle of Arginusae. He 
was among the six commanders who returned 
to Athens after the victory, and were put to 
death, B.C. 406. 

Erasmus CEpacriVos). 1. (Kephalari), the 
chief river in Argolis, rises in the lake Stympha- 
lus, then disappears under the earth, rises again 
out of the mountain Chaon, and after receiving 
the river Phrixus, flows through the Lemaean 
marsh into the Argolic gulf (Strab. p. 275). — 2. 
A small river near Brauron in Attica. 

Erasistratus {'Epacrl<TTpaTos), a celebrated 
physician and anatomist, was born at Iulis in 
the Island of Ceos. He was a pupil of Chrys- 
ippus of Cnidos, Metrodorus, and apparently 
Theophrastus. He flourished from B.C. 300 to 
260. He lived for some time at the court of 
Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria, where he 
acquired great reputation by discovering that 
the illness of Antiochus, the king's eldest son, 
was owing to his love for his stepmother, 
Stratonice, the young and beautiful daughter of 
Demetrius Poliorcetes, whom Seleucus had 
lately married (Appian, Syr. 59-61 ; Plut. 
Demetr. 38). Erasistratus afterwards lived at 
Alexandria, which was at the time beginning to 
be a celebrated medical school. He gave up 
practice in his old age, that he might pursue 
his anatomical studies without interruption. 
He prosecuted his experiments in this branch of 
medical science with great success, and with 
so little scruple that he is said to have dissected 
criminals alive. He had numerous pupils and 
followers, and a medical school bearing his 
name continued to exist at Smyrna in Ionia 
about the beginning of the Christian era. 

Eratldae {'EpariSai), an illustrious family of 
Ialysus in Rhodes, to which Damagetus and 
his son Diagoras belonged (Pind. 01. vii. 20). 

Erato CEparu). 1. Wife of Areas, and 
mother of Elatus and Aphidas. [Arcas.] — 2. 
One of the Muses. [Musae.] 

Eratosthenes CEpaTOtrdevTji), of Cyrene, was 
born B.C. 276. He first studied in his native 
city and then at Athens. He was taught by 
Ariston of Chios, the philosopher ; Lysanias of 
Cyrene, the grammarian ; and Callimachus, the 
poet. He left Athens at the invitation of 
Ptolemy Euergetes, who placed him over the 
library at Alexandria. Here he continued till 
the reign of Ptolemy Epiphanes. He died at 
the age of 80, about B.C. 196, of voluntary star- 
vation, having lost his sight, and being tired of 
life. He was a man of very extensive learning, 
and wrote on almost all the branches of know- 
ledge then cultivated — astronomy, geometry, 
geography, philosophy, history, and grammar. 
He is supposed to have constructed the large 
armillae or fixed circular instruments which 
were long in use at Alexandria. His works have 
perished, with the exception of some fragments. 
His most celebrated work was a systematic 
treatise on geography, entitled r«j>ypa<piKa, in 
three books. The first book, which formed a 
sort of introduction, contained a critical review 
of the labours of his predecessors from the 
earliest to his own times, and investigations 
concerning the form and nature of the earth, 
which, according to him, was an immovable 
globe. The second book contained what is now 
called mathematical geography. He was the 
first person who attempted to measure tin- 
magnitude of the earth, in which attempt he 

Y 



822 



EEBESSUS 



brought forward and used the method which is 
employed to the present day. The third book 
contained political geography, and gave de- 
scriptions of the various countries, derived from 
the works of earlier travellers and geographers. 
In order to be able to determine the accurate 
site of each place, he drew a line parallel with 
the equator, running from the pillars of Hercules 
to the extreme east of Asia, and dividing the 
whole of the inhabited earth into two halves. 
Connected with this work was a new map of 
the earth, in which towns, mountains, rivers, 
lakes, and climates were marked according to 
his own improved measurements. This im- 
portant work of Eratosthenes forms an epoch 
in the history of ancient geography. Strabo, 
as well as other writers, made great use of it. 
Eratosthenes also wrote two poems on astro- 
nomical subjects : one entitled 'Epfirjs, or Kcrr- 
aaTzpiafioi, which treated of the constellations ; 
and another entitled 'Hpryovri : but the poem 
KoTacT^picTjiioi which is still extant under his 
name is not the work of Eratosthenes. He 
wrote several historical works, the most im- 
portant of which was a chronological work 
entitled Upovo-ypacpla, and a grammatical work, 
On the Old Attic Comedy. The best collection 
of his fragments is by Bernhardy; Eratosthe- 
trica, Berol. 1822. 

Erbessus ('Ep$ri(T<r6s), a town in Sicily, NE. 
of Agrigentum, near the sources of the Acragas, 
which must not be confounded with the town 
Herbessus near Syracuse (Pol. i. 18). 

Ercta (ElpKT^i, or EipKral), a fortress in Sicily, 
on a hill with a harbour, near Panormus. 
[Hamilcab.] 

Erebus ("Epe/3os), son of Chaos, begot Aether 
and Hemera (Day) by Nyx (Night), his sister. 
The name signifies darkness, and is therefore 
applied also to the dark and gloomy space 
under the earth, through which the shades pass 
into Hades (Hes. Th. 123). 

Erech.tb.eum ('Ep4x^tov) stood on the site of 
the ancient temple, said to have been built by 
Ebechtheus, which was burnt down by the 
Persians in B.C. 480. [For its position see plan 
of Acbopolis.] It was supposed to stand upon 
the spot where Athene and Poseidon strove for 
the possession of Athens, and (such at least 




Restored Plan oiErechiheurn. Scale, 50 feet to 1 inch. ■ 
(The dark parts remain ; the shaded are restorations.) 
A, Eastern Portico ; B, East Cella (usually taken to be the 
temple of Athene Polias) ; C, North Portico ; D,West Hall; 
E, West Cella ; F, South Portico (.Porch 0/ Caryatides). 

has been the view commonly received) to con- 
tain the three shrines, of Athene Polias (the 
protectress of Athens), of Poseidon, and of 



EBETEIA 

Erechtheus. This is, however, now disputed, 
and it is maintained by archaeologists of great 
repute that the old temple of Athene (Xen. 
Hell. i. 6 ; Strab. p. 396) discovered by Dr. 
Dorpf eld was really the shrine of Athene Polias, 
and that the eastern cella of the Erechtheum 
never was her shrine, though it contained her 
most ancient image. [For difficulties in this 
view see Acbopolis ; Parthenon.] The new 
Erechtheum was begun in the time of Pericles, 
but it was completed later, being still unfinished 
in 409 (C I. A. i. 322, where it is called 6 vtws 
iv § apx<£ov ayaAiia). In its complete 
form it was a beautiful Ionic temple, 70 feet 
long (including the E. portico) and 32 broad. 
It had three divisions : the eastern portion of 
the cella contained the oldest image, or JoWov, 
of Athene ; the central and western parts were 
sacred to Poseidon and Erechtheus. The main 
entrance was probably 
the eastern portico. Pau- 
sanias (though the identi- 
fication of the internal 
arrangements is only con- 
jectural) entered by the 
southern porch (the beau- 
tiful Caryatid portico), 
and passed thence into 
the western hall, where, 
probably, stood the three 
altars of Poseidon and 
Erechtheus,of Butes, and 
of Hephaestus ; thence 
he passed into the west 
cella (the central of the 
three chambers), in which 
were the well of salt 
water, the marks of the 
trident, and probably the 
statue of Poseidon : re- 
turning to the west hall 
he went by the side pas- 
sage and steps up into 
the eastern cella (usually 
taken to be the temple of 
Athene Polias), in which 
were the ancient wooden 
image (|<Woe) and the 
golden lamp of Calli- 
machus. If this was the 
temple of Athene Polias, 
he found there also the 
wooden Hermes. By the 
side of the main, or 
eastern, portico there is 
flight of uncovered steps 
by which the northern 
porch (rather larger than the southern) could be 
approached. This porch gave access by its main 
door to the western hall, and probably by a 
side door westwards into the enclosure of the 
Pandroseum, where stood a small temple of 
Pandrosos : in this enclosure stood the sacred 
olive tree. It is by no means certain which 
part of the building was sacred to Cecrops and 
spoken of sometimes as the Cecropeion ; but it 
may have been the southern or Caryatid porch. 
This porch had, instead of columns, six figures 
of maidens, one of which is now in the British 
Museum. 

Erechtheus. [Erichthonius.] 

Eresus, or Eressus CEpeaos, ''Epeacros : 
'Epeaios), a town on the W. coast of the island 
of Lesbos, the birthplace of Theophrastus and 
Phanias, and, according to some, of Sappho 
(Strab. p. 618 ; Thuc. iii. 25). 

Eretria {'Eperpta : 'Eperpievs: Aletria), an 




One of the Caryatides sup- 
porting the southern por- 
tico of the Erechtheum 
(now in the British Mu- 
seum). 



ERETUM 



ERIGONE 



323 



ancient and important town in Euboea, on the 
Euripus, with a celebrated harbour Porthmos 
(Porto Bufalo), was founded by the Athenians, 
but had a mixed population, among which was a 
considerable number of Dorians. Its com- 
merce and navy raised it in early times to im- 
portance ; it contended with Chalcis for the 
supremacy of Euboea (Time. i. 15) ; it ruled 
over several of the neighbouring islands, and 
planted colonies in Macedonia and Italy. It 
was destroyed by the Persians, B. c. 490, and 
most of its inhabitants were carried away into 
slavery (Hdt. vi. 125). Those who were left 
behind built, c.t a little distance from the old 




Coin of Eretria in Euboea (B.C. 197-146). 
( " he-id of Artemis ; rer., bull (in allusion probably to 
the bull dedicated by the Eretrians at Olyrnpia; Paus. 
v. 27. 9); with legend EPETPIEDN and «axiai. magis- 
trate's name. 

city, the town of New Eretria, which, however, 
never became a place of importance. (Strab. 
pp. 403,448.)— 2. A town in Phthiotis in Thes- 
saly, near Pharsalns. 

Eretum, a town of the Sabines, at the junc- 
tion of the Viae Salaria and Xomentana, 
about eighteen miles from Rome (Verg. Aen. 
vii. 711 ; Liv. xxvi. 11). 

Erginus ('Epy7vos), son of Clymenus, king of 
Orchomenos. After Clymenus had been killed 
at Thebes, Erginus, who succeeded him, 
marched against Thebes and compelled the The- 
bans to pay him an annual tribute of 100 oxen, 
from which they were released by Heracles, 
who killed Erginus. (Pind. O/.xiv. 2; Eur. H. 
F. 49 ; Paus. ix. 87, 38.) 

Erichthonius CEptxMi"os), or Erechtheus 
CEptX^tv*!- * ne ancient myths these two 
names indicate the same person ; but later 
writers mention two heroes, one of whom is 
usually called Erichthonius or Erechtheus I., 
and the other Erechtheus II. Homer knows 
only one Erechtheus, as an autochthon and king 
of Athens (27. ii. 547 ; OA. vii. 81 ; Hdt. viii. 55) ; 
and the first writer who distinguishes them 
is Pindar (ap. Harnocr. ». v. avr6xSov(s : cl. Plat. 
' i lhi ai. — 1. Erichthonius or Erechtheus 
I., son of Hephaestus and Atthis, the daughter 
of Cranaus ; according to others, of Hephaestus 
and the Earth (Gaia). Athene received the 
child from Gaia, and entrusted him to Agraulos, 
Pandrosos, and Herse, concealed in a chest. 
They were forbidden to oj>en the chest, but 
they disobeyed the command. Upon opening 
it they saw the child with a snake coiled 
round him, whereupon they were seized with 
madness, and threw themselves down the 
rock of the Acropolis, or, according to others, 
were killed by the snake. Erichthonius was 
brought up in the temple of Athene (in 
some stories, under the form of a snake) ; 
when he had grown up, he expelled Amphictyon 
(or, in other accounts, received the kingdom as 
a gift from Cecrops), and became king of Athens. 
His wife Pasithea bore him a son, Pandion. 
He is said to have instituted the festival of the 
Panathenaea, and to have built a temple of 
Athene on the Acropolis. He was further the 
first who used a chariot with four horses, for 



I which reason he was placed among the stars as 
Auriga. He was buried in the temple of Athene 
and was worshipped as a god after his death. 
| [Ekechtheuii.] The myth probably grew np 
! partly from the adoption of Athene as supreme 
1 goddess, when Erichthonius or Erechtheus, 
' originally a local nature-god and = Poseidon, 
was to be represented as inferior to Athene, 
and yet connected with her worship ; partly 
from the rites of the Arrhephoria. [Diet, of 
Ant. s. v.; and Pandrosos.] The story is 
given especially in Eur. Ion, Paus. i. 18, and 
Apollod. iii. 14 ; but it was represented in works 
of art earlier than the time of Euripides : espe- 
cially on an archaic terra-cotta at Berlin, where 
Athene receives the child from Gaia, while 
Cecrops, half man, half snake, stands by ; and 
on a vase also at Berlin. The opening of the 
chest is shown on a later vase in the British 
Museum. — 2. Erechtheus II. (or rather the 
Erechtheus of the stories which separate Erich- 
thonius from Erechtheus), grandson of the 
former, son of Pandion by Zeuxippe, and 
brother of Butes, Procne, and Philomela. 
After his father's death, he succeeded him as 
king of Athens, and was regarded in later times 
as one of the Attic eponymi. He was married 
to Praxithea, by whom he became the father of 
Cecrops, Pandoros, Metion, Orneus, Procris, 
Creusa, Chthonia, and Orithyia. In the war 
between the Eleusinians and Athenians, Eu- 
molpus, the son of Poseidon, was slain ; where- 
upon Poseidon demanded the sacrifice of one of 
the daughters of Erechtheus. [See Aglauros.] 
When one was drawn by lot, her three sisters 
resolved to die with her ; and Erechtheus was 
killed by Zeus with a flash of lightning at the 
] request of Poseidon. This story is first given 
by Euripides, especially in his Erechtheus (cl 
Ion, 2G7, 1007 ; Paus. i. 5 ; Apollod. iii. 15). 

Erichthonius, son of Dardanus and Batea, 
husband of Astyoche or Callirrhoe, and father of 
Tros or Assaracus. He was the wealthiest of 
all mortals; in his fields grazed 3000 mares, 
which were so beautiful that Boreas fell in 
love with them. (II. xx. 219 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 33.) 
Ericimum, a town in Thessaly near Gomphi. 
Eridanus {'Hpihavos), a river god, a son of 
Oceanus and Tethys, and father of Zeuxippe. 
He is called the king of rivers, and on his banks 
amber was found. In Homer the name does 
not occur, and the first writer who mentions it 
is Hesiod (Th. 338). Herodotus has heard of 
a river in the north of this name where amber 
was found (iii. 115). In later times the Eri- 
danus was supposed to be the same as the 
Padus, because amber was exported from its 
mouth, brought to that spot probably by traders 
from the Baltic. Hence the Elcctrides Insulae 
or ' Amber Islands ' are placed at the mouth of 
the Po. and here Phaethon was supposed to have 
fallen when struck by the lightning of Zeus 
(Paus. i. 4, 1, v. 12, 7). It is not absolutely im- 
possible that Hesiod may have heard of the river 
Po, though some maintain that this must be a 
more easterly river. Aeschylus seems to have 
placed the Eridanus in the west but to have 
confused it with the Rhone (Plin. xxxvii. 82). 
Euripides identifies it with the Po (Hipp. 782), 
and the Latin poets use Padus and Eridanus 
; as synonymous (cf. Plin. iii. 117). [Padus.] 
Erlgon ('Epiyuiv), a tributary of the Axius in 
Macedonia, the Agrianus of Herodotus. [Axiim.] 
Erlgone CHpiy6vri). 1. Daughter of Icarius, 
beloved by Bacchus. For the legend respecting 
her, see Icarius. — 2. Daughter of Aegisthus 
and Clytaemnestra, and mother of Pcnthilus 



324 



EEINEUS 



by Orestes. One legend relates that Orestes 
wanted to kill her with her mother, but that 
Artemis removed her to Attica, and there made 
her her priestess. Others state that Brigone 
put an end to herself when she heard that 
Orestes was acquitted by the Areiopagus (Paus. 
ii. 18; Hyg. Fab. 122). 

Erineus ('Epive6s or'Epiueov: 'Epivevs,'Epivea- 
T7js). 1. A small but ancient town in Doris, 
belonging to the Tetrapolis (Thuc. i. 107). 
[Doris.] — 2. A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly. — 
8. A small river on the E. coast of Sicily (now 
the Miranda), between the Cacyparis and the 
Asinarus (Thuc. vii. 30). 

Erinna ('HpiVra), a Greek poetess, said to 
have been born in Telos and to have been a 
contemporary and friend of Sappho (about B.C. 
612), who died at the age of 19. On the other 
hand, Eusebius places her two centuries later. 
Her chief poem was entitled 'HXaKarri, the 
Distaff: it consisted of 300 lines, of which only 
four are extant. Three epigrams in the Anthology 
bear her name. We have nothing to explain 
the opinion of an ancient critic who com- 
pared her to Homer. The poem to Borne be- 
ginning x°"P* /"<" P^M 7 ?! m Sapphic metre, which 
has sometimes been ascribed to Erinna, is by 
Melinnus, a poetess of Locri, in Italy, of the 
third century B.C. 

Erinyes ('Eptvves, 'Epivvs), also called Eu- 
menides (EvptviSes), and by the Romans 
Furiae or Dirae, the Avenging Deities, were 
conceived as the personification of curses pro- 
nounced upon a criminal. The name Erinys is 
the more ancient one ; the Greeks derived it 
from the Arcadian ipivvw, I am angry, so that 
the Erinyes were the angry goddesses (Paus. 
viii. 25, 4). Many modern writers take the 
name to be identical with an Indian goddess 
Saranyu. The name Eumenides, which signi- 
fies ' the kindly deities,' is a mere euphemism, 
because people dreaded to call these fearful 
goddesses by their real name (Soph. O. C. 128). 
It was said to have been first given them after 
the acquittal of Orestes by the Areiopagus, 
when the anger of the Erinyes had become 
soothed. But at Athens their proper title was 
Se/u.j'oi 0eal — that is, the venerable goddesses of 
the earth and of the underworld. Sometimes 
in the singular Erinys is spoken of in Homer 
and in later writers, but they are oftener a 
plurality of deities. Homer represents them 
as inhabitants of Erebos, where they remain 
quiet until some curse pronounced upon a 
criminal calls them into activity (II. ix. 568 ; 
cf. Aesch. Bum. 72). r' They watch particularly 
over the family ties : the crime which they 
especially punish is failure in duty to parents.' 
This is mentioned eight times in the Iliad and 
Odyssey, and in all cases except one (II. ix. 454) 
Erinyes of the mother are spoken of (cf. II. xxi. 
412 ; Od. ii. 135). But Homer also makes 
them intervene sometimes to check those who 
in other ways overstep the limits of what is 
becoming or right (cf. II. xix. 87, 418) ; and 
punish the perjured and those who spurn the 
beggar or the suppliant (II. xix. 259 ; Od. xvii. 
475). In punishing they took away from men 
all peace of mind, and led them into misery and 
misfortune. Hesiod says that they were the 
daughters of Ge, and sprung from the drops of 
blood that fell upon her from the body of 
Uranus ; and this, it may be noted, was a case 
of violence done to a father (Hes. Th. 185). 
Aeschylus calls them the daughters of Night ; 
and Sophocles of Darkness and Ge (Aesch. 
Eum. 321; Soph. 0. C. 40, 106). Aeschylus 



ERINYES 

describes them as divinities more ancient than 
the Olympian gods, dwelling in the deep dark- 
ness of Tartarus, dreaded by gods and men ; 
with bodies all black, serpents twined in their 
hair, and blood dripping from their eyes. Euri- 
pides and other later poets describe them as 
winged (Eur. Or. 317; Verg. Aen. xii. 848). 
Euripides is the earliest Greek poet who gives 
their number as three (Or. 408; Tro. 457), 
though not consistently (I. T. 968). With 
later writers their names are Tisiphone, 
Alecto, and Megaera (Verg. Aen. vi. 571, 
vii. 324, xii. 846; Apollod. i. 1, 4). In their 
worship at Athens, where they had a sanctuary 
and a cavern near the Areiopagus, in their 
worship at Colonus, in that at Sicyon, where a 
pregnant ewe was offered (Paus. ii. 11, 4), and 
still more in the Erinys Thelpusa or Tilphossa, 
they appear as ancient deities of the powers of 
the earth, but especially as deities which in anger 
withheld the fruits of the earth and must by all 
means be propitiated. This explains the identi- 
fication of Erinys Thelpusa with Demeter (i.e. 
the enraged Demeter : Paus. viii. 25, 4 ; Schol. 
Soph. Ant . 126) . The offerings to them at Athens 
were bloodless, cakes and milk and honey mixed 
with water (vri<pahia), since the drink offering 
had no wine. This, too, belonged to them as god- 
desses of the earth, who might give kindly gifts 
as well as punish. It is true that they are often 
described by poets in words which belong to 
lightning and fire, and this may be derived 
from the idea that Zeus punished often by the 
thunderbolt ; but there is no sufficient ground 
for saying that the myth of the Erinyes was 
derived from a thunderstorm. So far from the 




Erinyes (Furies). (From a painted vase.) 

snake necessaily implying lightning, as some 
modern writers argue, it is, rather, a symbol of 
the underworld : the scourge (which is also 
made to signify lightning) is a natural emblem 
of the avenger. Their torches have been 
pressed into the same theory ; but may more 
reasonably be taken to show their power of 
lighting up the dark places of crime and 
detecting the guilty. Still less reasonable is it to 
insist that the obvious comparison of avengers to 
hounds (e.g. Aesch. Clio. 904) shows them to be 



ERIPHUS 



EROS 



325 



cloud-deities. The idea of an avenging power 
is natural enough to man, and onr evidence 
points rather to the original Erinyes being 
deities of the earth. In art they seem to 
have been at first represented as mild and 
venerable beings (Paus. i. 28, G) ; and it is 
remarked that the Furies are not figured on the 
oldest vases. The type described above as 
given by Aeschylus does not seem to be older 
than his time, but prevailed afterwards. Their 
attributes, besides the snakes or snaky hair and 
wings, are the scourge, the torch, and the 
sickle, and they often appear in hunting garb. 
They gradually assumed the character of 
goddesses who punished men after death, and 
they seldom appeared upon earth. 

Eriphus ("Epupos), an Athenian poet of the 
Middle Comedy. 

Eriphyle ('EpKpuA/n), daughter of Talaus and 
Lysimache, and wife of Amphiaraus, whom she 
betrayed for the sake of the necklace of 
Harmonia. For details see Amphiakaus, 
Alcmaeon, Harmonia. 

Eris ("Epis), the goddess of Discord. Homer 
describes her as the friend and sister of Ares, 
and as delighting with him in the tumult of 
war and the havoc and anguish of the battle- 
field. How far even in Homer she was allegor- 
ised is seen by the description ' who, at first 
small, rears her head until it touches the sky 
while she walks on the earth ' (II. iv. 440 ; cf. 
v. 518, xi. 3, xx. 48 ; Eur. Phoen. 798). Ac- 
cording to Hesiod (Th. 225), she was a daughter 
of Night, and the poet describes her as the 
mother of a variety of allegorical beings, which 
are the causes or representatives of man's mis- 
fortunes. The story that Eris threw the golden 
apple marked ' For the Fairest ' into the as- 
sembly of gods at the wedding of Peleus 
(angry, like the malignant fairy in a fairy tale, 
because she alone was not invited) does not 
appear earlier than the Alexandrian literature | 
(Hyg. Fab. 92 : Apul. Met. 10 ; Lucian, 8ymp. 
:S5 ; Tzetz. Lyc. 93 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 27 ; Pajusj. 
— Virgil introduces Discordia as a being similar 
to the Homeric Eris ; for Discordia in like 
manner appears in company with Mars, Bellona, 
and the Furies. 

Eriza (to "Epi(a : 'EptfovSs), a city of Caria, 
on the borders of Lycia and Phrygia, on the 
river Choiis (or rather Caiis). The surrounding 
district was called Asia Erizena. 

Eros ('Epwj in older poets 'Epos), in Latin 
Amor or Cupido, the god of Love. In order | 
to understand the ancients properly, we must 
distinguish three gods of this name : (1 ) the 
Eros of the ancient cosmogonies ; (2) the Eros 
of the philosophers and mysteries, who bears 
great resemblance to the first ; and (3) the Eros 
whom we meet with in the epigrammatic and 
erotic poets. Homer does not mention Eros, 
and Hesiod, the earliest author who speaks of 
him, describes him as the cosmogonic Eros. 
First, says Hesiod, there was Chaos, then came 
Ge. Tartarus, and Eros, the fairest among the 
gods, who rules over the minds and the counsel 
of gods and men. By the philosophers and in 
the mysteries Eros was regarded as one of the 
fundamental causes in the formation of the 
world, inasmuch as he was the uniting power of 
love, which brought order and harmony among 
the conflicting elements of which Chaos con- 
sisted. The Orphic poets described him as a 
son of Cronus, or as the first of the gods who 
sprang from the world's egg ; and thus in Plato's 
Symposium he is called the oldest of the gods 
(cf. Aristoph. Av. 094;. Under this idea ho was 



worshipped from very ancient times at Thespiae, 
being represented by a mass of stone of un- 
known antiquity (afterwards replaced by the 
famous statue of Praxiteles) ; a somewhat simi- 
lar ancient worship of Eros existed at Parium, 
on the Hellespont. These two, both represent- 
ing an old Thracian religion, were the only 
places where Eros was really worshipped as a 
god of the state (Paus. ix. 27). In other parts 
of Greece we find, as an observance of histori- 
cal times, the statue of Eros, and sometimes 




Eros. (From a gem.) 



his altar, placed in or near gymnasia. Here 
he symbolised the affection and regard between 
companions, which led to the nobler emulation 
in warlike prowess : hence the Spartans sacri- 
ficed to Eros before the combat (Athen. p. 561). 
The Eros of later poets, who gave rise to that 
notion of the god which is most familiar to us, 
is one of the youngest of all the gods. In 
Pindar and Aeschylus, however, he appears 
only as a personification of feeling, not as a real 
Being, and this is also the case on archaic vases. 




Eros whetting hia dnrte. 1 '•■ la Chaascc, Gemmc 

A nliche.) 

As a personal deity he is prominent in Sophocles, 
and still more so in Euripides. The parentage 
of this Eros is very differently described. He is 
usually represented as a son of Aphrodite, but 
his father is either Ares, Zeus, or Hermes (Plut. 
Sump. p. 178 ; Cic. N. D. iii. 28). In this stage 
Eros has nothing to do with uniting the dis- 
cordant elements of the universe, or with tin- 
higher sympathy or love which binds human 
kind together, but he is purely the god of 



326 



EROS 



sensual love, who bears sway over the inha- 
bitants of Olympus as well as over men and all 
living creatures. His arms consist of arrows, 
which he carries in a golden quiver, and of 




Eros. {Museum CapitoUnum, vol. iv. tav. 57.) 

torches which no one can touch with impunity. 
His arrows are of different power: some are 
golden, and kindle love in the heart they wound ; 
others are blunt, and produce aversion and 
disaster (Eur. Iph. Aul. 548; Ov. Met. i. 468). 
Gentler attributes were flowers, as belonging to 
the god of spring, the time of love, and the lyre 
for love songs. In art he was at first generally 
represented as a beautiful boy approaching the 
age of a young man; and from an early period, 
though it is uncertain how early, with wings, 
which usually denote a fjadfxav rather than a 
6e6s- Phidias placed on the base of the statue 
of Zeus at Olympia Eros receiving Aphrodite 




Eros (as Dionysus) bridling the lion. (A mosaic, from Pompeii.) 



as she rises from the sea (Paus. v. 11, 8). It is 
probable that the silver medallion in the Louvre 
[see woodcut under Aphrodite, p. 86] represents 
this piece of sculpture. In the following century 



ERYSICHTHON 

the statues of Eros by Praxiteles at Thespiae 
and Parium were especially famous (Plin. xxxvi. 
23), represented no doubt as a youth. Both as 
a boy and as a child he is often represented as 
holding or stringing his bow : specially famous 
instances are that in the Vatican and that at 
Berlin, perhaps after Lysippus (Paus. ix. 27, 3). 
In later Greek and Roman times it became 
common to represent a child Eros with a number 
of winged Erotes, like a fairy-tale scene, en- 
gaged in any sort of work, making wreaths or 
carpentering. On one gem he is whetting his 
arrows (cf. Hor. Od. ii. 8, 16). A beautiful 
mosaic from Pompeii represents him as a child 
riding on a lion, and with all the attributes of 
Dionysus, the cup, the ivy crown, the thyrsus, 
and the tragic and comic masks around. This 
partly symbolises a connexion between Eros 
and Dionysus, the gods of wine and love, for 
the lion belongs to Dionysus ; but it can hardly 
be doubted that the power of Eros to tame and 
bridle wild beasts is also here Shown (as in Eur. 
Hipp. 1277). — Anteros, which literally means 
return-love, is usually represented as the god 
who punishes those who did not return the love 
of others : thus he is the avenging Eros, or a 
deus ultor (Ov. Met. xiii. 750). But in some 
accounts he is described as a god opposed to 
Eros and struggling against him. — -Respecting 
the connexion between Eros and Psyche, see 
Psyche. 

Erotianus ('Epa>Tiav6s), a Greek grammarian 
or physician in the reign of Nero, wrote a work 
still extant, entitled Taiv imp' 'Imro/cpaTei Azfcaiv 
~S,vva.ywyi), Vocum, quae apud Hippocratem 
sunt, Collectio. Edited by Franz, Lips. 1780. 

Erubrus (Buber), a small tributary of the 
Moselle, near Treves. 

Erymanthus {'Epvjxdv6os : 
Olenos). 1. A mountain, 
7300 feet high, in Arcadia, 
on the frontiers of Achaia 
and Elis, celebrated in 
mythology as the haunt of 
the savage Erymanthian 
boar destroyed by Heracles 
{Od. vi. 104 ; Strab. pp. 343, 
357). [Hebacles.] — The 
Arcadian nymph Callisto, 
who was changed into a she- 
bear, is called Erymanthis 
ursa, and her son Areas 
Erymanthidis ursae custos. 
[Aectos.] — 2. A river in 
Arcadia, which rises in the 
above-mentioned mountain, 
and falls into the Alpheus. 

Erymanthus or Ety- 
mandrus {"EpvfmvQos, 'Etu- 
fjuvSpos Arrian : Helmund), 
a considerable river in the 
Persian province of Aracho- 
sia, rising in M. Paropa- 
misus, and flowing SW. and 
W. into the lake called Aria 
(Zarah). 

Erysichthon {'Epvo-lxQw), 
that is, ' the Tearer up of the 
Earth.' 1. Son of Triopas, 
cut down trees in a grove 
sacred to Demeter, for which 
he was punished by the 
goddess with fearful hunger, 
so that after spending all his substance on food 
he made his daughter Mestra (apparently a 
later addition to the myth) support him by 
changing herself into various annuals and 



ERYTHINI 



ETEOCLES 



327 



■working for him : even that did not suffice, | fax S. as it extended, and also eastwards to the 
and he devoured his own limbs (Hellan. ap. shores of India, r] 'Epudprj BaXaaaa, and also 
Athen. 416; Callim. Hymn, in Cer. 34; Ov. r) NoTi'17 BaKaaaa ; though there are, again, some 
Met. viii. 738-878J. Some have tried to explain indications of a distinction between these two 
Erysichthon as meaning mildew ; a recent in- terms, the latter being applied to the whole 
genious interpretation is that it shows the expanse of ocean S. of the former ; in one pas- 
barrenness and famine which result from de- sage, however, they are most expressly identi- 
stroying forests. The story may at any rate fied (ii. 158). Afterwards, when the true form 
have had to do with tree-worship before it was ' of these seas became better known, under the 
fitted on to Demeter. — 2. Son of Cecrops and Ptolemies, their parts were distinguished by 
Agraulos, died in his father's lifetime on his re- different names, the main body of the sea being 
turn from Delos, from whence he brought to called Indicus Oceanus, the Bed Sea Arabicus 
Athens the ancient image of Hithyia (Paus. i. Sinus, the Persian Gulf Persicus Sinus, and 
18, 5). I the name Erythraeum Mare being confined 

Erythlni ('Epvffivoi), a city on the coast of '■ by some geographers to the gulf between the 
Paphlagonia, between Cromna and Amastris Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and the Indian 
(II. ii. 855; Strab. p. 545j. A range of cliffs Ocean, but far more generally used as identical 
near it was called by the same name. j with Arabicus Sinus, or the corresponding 

Erythrae ('Epvdpai: 'Eputipcuosi- 1. (Nr. genuine Latin term, Mare Rubrum (Bed Sea 1. 
Pigadia, Ru.), an ancient town in Boeotia, not 1 Still, however, even long after the commence- 
far from Plataeae and Hysia, and celebrated as ment of our era, the name Erythraeum Mare 
the mother city of Erythrae in Asia Minor was sometimes used in its ancient sense, as in 
(Horn. II. ii. 499 ; Strab. p. 404). — 2. A town of the Ilfpi'ir Kovs tt)s 'Epvdpas Bakdaaris, ascribed 
the Locri Ozolae, but belonging to the Aetolians, to Arrian, but really the work of a later period. 
E. of Naupactus (Liv. xxviii. 8). — 3. {Bitri, which is a description of the coast from Myo> 
Ru.), one of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia Hormos on the Red Sea to the shores of India. 
Minor, stood at the bottom of a large bay, on The origin of the name is doubtful : it is gene- 
the W. side of the peninsula which lies opposite rally supposed that the sea was called ' Red 
to Chios. Tradition ascribed its foundation to because of the coral banks which fringed it in 
a mixed colony of Cretans, Lycians, Carians, its southern part. 

and Pamphylians, under Erythros the son of Eryx (*Epu£). 1. Also Erycue Mons (S. Giu- 
Rhadamanthus ; and the leader of the Ionians, liano), a steep and isolated mountain in the 
who afterwards took possession of it, was said NW. of Sicily, near Drepanum. On the summit 

of this mountain stood an ancient and cele- 
brated temple of Aphrodite (Venus), said to 
have been built by Eryx, king of the Elymi, ov, 
according to Virgil, by Aeneas, but more prob- 
ably by the Phoenicians, who introduced the 
worship of Aphrodite into Sicily. [Aphrodite. 
From this temple the goddess bore the surname 
Erycina, under which name her worship whs 
introduced atRome about the beginning of the 
second Punic war. At present there are 
Coin of Erythrae. 01 «th cent. B.c. I on the summit of the mountain the remains 

06e.. bead of Heracles ; r> r.. club and bow In cafe (for of a castle, originally built by the Saracens. — 
Heracle.) and owl ,for Athene: legend epy and MOAIQN 2 X he town of this name was on the W. slope 
(magistrate I name). _ , , , f 

of the mountain. It was destroyed by the 

to have been Cnopus, the son of Codrus, after Carthaginians in the time of Pyrrhus, was 
whom the city was also called Cnopopolis subsequently rebuilt, but was again destroyed 
(Ki>tDTco\nro\is). (Strab. p. 633; Polyaen. viii. 43.) by the Carthaginians in the first Punic war. 
The little river Aleos (or rather Axus, a9 it and its inhabitants removed to Drepanum. 
appears on coins) flowed past the city, and (Pol. i. 58; Diod. xxiv. 8.) 

the neighbouring seaport towns of Cyssus or Eadraela ('EtrSpariAd) and Esdraelon or 
Casystes and Phoenicus formed its harbours. Esdrelon. or Ota ('EabpriKuv or -t£/i), the Greek 
Erythrae contained a temple of one of the Idaei names for the city and valley of Jezreel in 
Dactyli worshipped here under the name of Palestine. 
Heracles Ipoctonos (Paus. ix. 27, 5; Strab. p. Esquiliae. [Roma.] 

613; Heracles), and also one of Athene Polias. Essubii, a people in Gaul, W. of the Sequana, 
It was noted also as the dwelling of an inspired ] also written Essui and Sessuvil (Caes. B. G. ii. 
prophetess or Sibyl (Strab. p. 645; Tac. Ann. 84, iii. 7, v. 24). Their name seems to be pre- 
vi. 18) ; and on the coast near the city was a served in Exmes, a little north of Alencon. 
rock of trachyte called Nigrum Promontorium Estionea, a people in Rhaetia Secunda or 
{&Kpa M f Aaira . from which mill stones were Vindelicia. whose capital was Campoduiiiiiu 
hewn. ; (Kempten) on the Iller (Strab. p. 206). 

Erythraeum Mare 17; 'EpvBpa 6<L\a<nra, also Eteocles i'Etcoka^s). L Son of Andreas and 
rarely 'EpvBpcuos -rdvros), was the name applied Euippe, or of Cephisus ; said to have been tin- 
originally to the whole expanse of sea between ' first who offered sacrifices to the Chnrites at 
Arabia and Africa on the W., and India on the Orchomenos in Boeotia (Paus. ix. 84, 85l. — 
E., including its two great gulfs (the Bed Sea 2. A son of Oedipus and Jocaste (according to 
and Persian Gulf). In this sense it is used by Paus. ix. 5, 5, born from a second marriage, with 
Herodotus, who also distinguishes the Bed Sea Eurygameia l. After his father's (light from 
by the name of 'Apa&ios n6\iros. 1 Arabicus Thebes, he and his brother Polyniccs under- 
Sinus.] Supposing the shoreH of Africa and took the government of Thebes by turns. 
Arabia to trend more and more away from each ! But, disputes having arisen between them, Poly- 
other the further S. you go, he appears to I nices fled to Adrastus, who then brought ubout 
have called the head of the sea between them < the expedition of the Seven against Thebes. 
6 Apa/3ios k6Kitos, and the rest of that sea, as \ [Adrastus. j (Eur. Phoen. 69 ff. ; Apollod. iii. 




328 



ETEOCLUS 



ETRURIA 



6 ; Stat. Theb. i. 137.) When many of the heroes 
had fallen, Eteocles and Polynices resolved upon 
deciding the contest by single combat, and both 
the brothers fell. Sophocles (perhaps to make 
Antigone's case stronger) throws the blame for 
this quarrel chiefly on Eteocles, whom he repre- 
sents as the younger brother (0. C. 375, 1295). 
Euripides (Phoen. 71) following the commoner 
tradition makes Eteocles the elder. [Anti- 
gone.] 

Eteoclus ('EreoK\os), a son of Iphis, was one 
of the seven heroes who went with Adrastus 
against Thebes. He had to make the attack 
upon the Neitian gate, where he was opposed by 
Megareus (Aesch. Theb. 456). 

Eteonus ('Ereou/ds), a town in Boeotia, be- 
longing to the district Parasopia, mentioned by 
Homer, subsequently called Scarphe (II. ii. 497 ; 
Strab. n. 408). 

Etesiae ('yLr-qaiai, sc. fo/e/ioi), the Etesian 
Winds, derived from eros, ' year,' signifying any 
periodical winds, but more particularly nor- 
therly winds, which blew in the Aegaean for 
forty days from the rising of the dog star. 

Etis or Etia C Htis, "HT6ia: "Hrws, 'Ht€?os), 
a town in the S. of Laconia near Boeae, said to 
have been founded by Aeneas, and named after 
his daughter Ettas'. Its inhabitants were trans- 
planted at an early time to Boeae, and the place 
disappeared. (Paus. iii. 22, 11.) 

Etovissa, a town of the Edetani in Hispania 
Tarraconensis. 

Etruria or Tuscia, called by the Greeks 
Tyrrherna or Tyrsenia {Tvppnvla, Tvpcrnvla), 
a country in central Italy. The inhabitants 
were called by the Romans Etrusci or Tusci, 
by the Greeks Tyrrheni or Tyrseni [Tvpprivot, 
Tvpa-rjvoi), and by themselves Rasena. Etruria 
was bounded on the N. and NW. by the Apen- 
nines and the river Macra, which divided it from 
Liguria, on the W. by the Tyrrhene sea or Mare 
Inferum, on the E. and S. by the river Tiber, 
which separated it from Umbria and Latium. 
It was intersected by numerous mountains, off- 
shoots of the Apennines, consisting of long 
ranges of hills in the N., but in the S. lying in 
detached masses, and of smaller size. The land 
' was celebrated in antiquity for its fertility, and 
yielded rich harvests of corn, wine, oil, and 
flax. The upper part of the country was the 
most healthy— namely, the part at the foot of 
the Apennines, near the sources of the Tiber 
and the Arnus, in the neighbourhood of Arre- 
tium, Cortona, and Perusia. The lower part 
of the country on the coast was marshy and 
unhealthy, like the Maremma at the present 
day. — The early history of the population of 
Etruria has given rise to much discussion in 
modern times. In their physical form, in their 
gloomy religion, in their customs, especially of 
burial, and in their language they were distinct 
alike from Greeks and Italians. It is admitted 
on all hands that the people known to the 
Romans under the name of Etruscans were not 
the original inhabitants of the country, but a 
mixed race. The most ancient inhabitants ap- 
pear to have been Ligurians in the N. and Sicu- 
lians in the S., both of whom were subsequently 
expelled from the country by the Umbrians. 
So far most accounts agree ; but from this point 
there is great difference of opinion. The an- 
cients — except one writer, who believed them to 
be autochthonous (Dionys. i. 28) — generally 
stated that a colony of Lydians, led by Tyr- 
senus, son of the king of Lydia, settled in the 
country, to which they gave the name of their 
leader (Hdt. i. 94 ; Strab. p. 221 ; Plut. Bom. 2 ; 



Tac. Ann. iv. 55). It is difficult to believe that 
j no ground for this persistent tradition existed 
except a fancied resemblance of their name to 
the Lydian Torrhebi. On the other hand, there 
! is much force in the argument that their oldest 
and most important settlements were inland, 
and therefore that they probably arrived by 
land. It is thought that they came down from 
Rhaetia, where we are told that the Etruscan 
language was spoken in historical times (Liv. v. 
34) : hence they may have migrated into Lom- 
bardy and pushed on southwards. It is by no 
means impossible that this invading race of 
barbarous Rasena from the north found a people 
of mixed Greek and Lydian (Tyrrheno-Pelas- 
gian) origin in possession of Etruria, won by 
them from the Umbrians, and that the Etruscan 
nation was formed by the union of the conquer- 
ing Rasena with this more civilised race. If so, 
the Rasena were numerically strong enough to- 
preserve their language, while the art and to 
some extent the religion of the Lydian and 
Greek element were adopted. A likeness has been 
traced between the character of the tombs in 
Etruria and in Lydia. The language of a people 
is the only means by which we can pronounce 
with certainty respecting their origin. On this, 
point there is the greatest difference of opinion. 
The most notable views are those of Corssen 
who pronounces the language to be Italian (a 
view which Mommsen is 6n the whole disposed 
to adopt), and the totally opposite opinion, 
which is now favoured by Deecke, that it was 
Turanian or Finnish. If this latter opinion is. 
correct, it would support the idea of an im- 
migration from the north for the Rasena them- 
selves. But it must be confessed that little 
has as yet been made of their inscriptions, 
which, indeed, for the most part consist of per- 
sonal names. [It is possible that a book written 
on linen, which was found in a mummy case, 
and has just been recognised as Etruscan, may 
furnish the key ; but as yet the meaning has not 
been ascertained.] But whatever may have been 
the origin of the Etruscans, we know that they 
were a very powerful nation when Rome was 
still in its infancy, and that they had at an 
early period extended their dominion over the 
greater part of Italy, from the Alps and the 
plains of Lombardy on the one hand, to Vesu- 
vius and the Gulf of Sorrento on the other. 
These dominions may be divided into three 
great districts : Circumpadane Etruria in the 
N., Etruria Proper in the centre, and Campanian 
Etruria in the S. In each of these districts 
there were twelve principal cities or states, who 
formed a confederacy for mutual protection. 
Through the attacks of the Gauls in the N., and 
of the Sabines, Samnites, and Greeks in the 
S., the Etruscans became confined within the 
limits of Etruria Proper, and continued long 
to flourish in this country, after they had dis- 
appeared from the rest of Italy. Of the twelve 
cities which formed the confederacy in Etruria 
Proper no list is given by the ancients. They 
were most probably Cortona, Abeetium, Clu- 
sium, Perusia, Volaterrae, Vetulonia, Ru- 

SELLAE, VOLSINII, TaRQUINII, VALERII, VOLGI, 

Caere more anciently called Agylla. Of these, 
however, there is no certainty except as regards 
Volsinii, Tarquinii, Perusia, Vetulonia, and 
Volci. Each state was independent of all the 
others. The government was a close aristo- 
cracy, and was strictly confined to the Lucu- 
mones, who united in their own persons the 
ecclesiastical as well as the civil functions. The 
people were not only rigidly excluded from all 



ETRURIA 



EUBULIDES 



329 



share in the government, but appear to have 
been in a state of vassalage or serfdom. From 
the noble and priestly families of the Lueumones 
a supreme magistrate was chosen, who appears 
to have been sometimes elected for life, and to 
have borne the title of king ; but his power 
was much fettered by the noble families. At a 
later time the kingry dignity was abolished, and 
the government was entrusted to a senate. A 
meeting of the confederacy of the twelve states 
was held annually in the spring, at the temple 
of Voltumna near Volsinii. — The Etruscans 
were a highly civilised people, and from, them 
the Romans borrowed many of their religious 
and political institutions. The last three kings 
of Rome were undoubtedly Etruscans, and they 
left in the city enduring traces of Etruscan 
power and greatness. The Etruscans paid the 
greatest attention to religion ; and their religious 
system was closely interwoven with all public 
and private affairs. The principal deities were 
divided into two classes. The highest class 
were the ' Shrouded Gods,' who did not reveal 
themselves to man, and to whom all the other 
gods were subject. The second class consisted 
of the twelve great gods, six male and six female, 
called by the Romans Dii Consentes. [Con- 
sentes.] They formed the council of Tina or 
Tinia, the Roman Jupiter, and the two other 
most powerful gods of the twelve were Cupra, 
corresponding to Juno, and Menrvaoi Menerva, 
corresponding to the Roman Minerva. Besides 
these two classes of gods, there was a great 
number of other gods, penates and lares, to 
whom worship was paid. The mode in which 
the gods were worshipped was prescribed in 
certain sacred books, said to have been written 
by Tages. These books contained the ' Etrusca 
Disciplina,' and gave minute directions respect- 
ing the whole of the ceremonial worship. They 
were studied in the schools of the Lueumones, 
to which the Romans also were accustomed to 
send some of their noblest youths for instruc- 
tion ; since it was from the Etruscans that the 
Romans borrowed most of their arts of divina- 
tion. — In architecture, the Etruscans were ac- 
quainted with the use of the arch at an early 
period, and they employed it in constructing 
the great cloacae at Rome. In sculpture and 
painting also they attained to great skill, but it 
was rather skilful imitation than an original 
school of art. In the Etruscan tombB some 
Greek and some Egyptian influence may be 
traced. The Etruscan bronze statues were 
famous (' Tyrrhena sigilla,' Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 180) 
and examples still remain, especially the She 
Wolf of the Capitol and the Orator of the Flor- 
ence Gallery. The beautiful vases which have 
been discovered in such numbers in Etruscan 
tombs cannot be cited as proofs of the excel- 
lence of Etruscan workmanship, since it is now 
admitted by the most competent judges, that 
these vases were either made in Greece, or by 
Greek artists settled in Italy ; and though the 
bronze mirrors are a special product of Etruria, 
the engravings on them are Greek in design and 
origin. The Etruscans were skilled also in terra- 
cottaornamentation, sometimes in works of great 
size,e.</. the Sarcophagus in the British Museum. 
— Of the private life of the Etruscans we have a 
lively picture from the paintings discovered in 
their tombs ; but into this subject our limits 
forbid us to enter. — In their earlier history they 
were allied with the Carthaginians, with whoso 
aid they occupied and retained Corsica : and, 
as might be expected, they were at enmity with 
the Syracusans, who defeated them in 471 at 



| Cyme, and who sought by incursions on the 
coasts of Etruria to repress the Tuscan pirates. 
Later the history of Etruria is a struggle against 

i the rising power of Rome, to which it was finally 
compelled to yield. After the capture of Veii 
by the dictator Camillus, B. c. 396, the Romans 
obtained possession of the E. part of Etruria ; 
and the Ciminian forest, instead of the Tiber, 
now became the boundary of the two people. 
The defeat of the Etruscans by Q. Fabius 
Maximus, in 310, was a great blow to their power. 
They still endeavoured to maintain their in- 
dependence with the assistance of the Samnites 
and the Gauls ; but after their decisive defeat 
by Cornelius Dolabella in 283, they became the 

J subjects of Rome. In 91 they received the 
Roman franchise. The numerous military 
colonies established in Etruria by Sulla and 
Augustus destroyed to a great extent the na- 
tional character of the people, and the country 
thus became in course of time completely 
Romanised. 

Euboea (EisBota : Evffoievs, Ei&oevs, fern. 
Evfiots). 1. (Negropont), the largest island of 
the Aegaean sea, lying along the coasts of 
Attica, Boeotia, and the S. part of Thessaly, 
from which countries it is separated by the 
Euboean sea, called the Euripus in its narrowest 
part. Euboea is about ninety miles in length ; 
its extreme breadth is thirty miles, but in the 

[ narrowest part it is only four miles across. 
Throughout the length of the island runs a 
lofty range of mountains (a prolongation of 
Mt. Othrys), which rise in one part as high as 

! 72CG feet above the sea. It has a dangerous 

I rocky shore towards the Aegaean, but good 
harbours, such as Chalcis and Eretria on its 

■ western coast. It contains nevertheless many 

! fertile plains, and was celebrated in antiquity 
for the excellence of its pasturage and corn- 
fields. According to the ancients it was once 
united to Boeotia, from which it was separated 
by an earthquake (Plin. iv. 03 ; cf. Strab. p. 58). 
In Homer the inhabitants are called Abantes, 
and are represented as taking part in the expe- 
dition against Troy (II. ii. 530 ; Strab. p. 445). 
In the N. of Euboea dwelt the Histiaei, from 
whom that part of the island was called 
Histiaea ; below these were the Ellopii, who 
gave the name of Ellopia to the district, extend- 
ing as far as Aegea and Cerinthus ; and in the 
S. were the Dryopes. The centre of the island 
was inhabited chiefly by Ionians. At what time 
the Ionians came there it is impossible to say ; 
but there was probably at an early date an 
amalgamation of these Greek immigrants with 
the Abantes, who were a Thracian people I Strab. 
/. c. ; Hdt. i. 146). It was in this part of Euboea 
that the Athenians planted the colonies of 
Chalcis and Erethia, which were the two 
most important cities in the island. After the 
Persian wars Euboea became subject to the 
Athenians, who attached much importance to 
its possession ; and consequently Pericles made 
great exertions to subdue it when it revolted 
in B.C. 445. For its wars in 350 see Calllas. 
Under the Romans Euboea formed part of the 
province of Achaia. — Since Cumae in Italy was 
a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, the adjective 
Euboicm is used by the poets in reference to 
the former city. Thus Virgil (Aen. vi. 2) speaks 
of Euboxcia Cumarum oris. — 2. A town in the 
interior of Sicily, founded by Chalcis in Euboea, 
hut destroyed at an early period. 

Eubulldes (Eu/3oiMi'5tjsI. 1. Of Miletus, a 
philosopher of the Megaric school. He was a 
contemporary of Aristotle, against whom he- 



330 



EUBULUS 



EUDOXUS 



wrote with great bitterness ; and he is stated to 
have given Demosthenes instruction in dialec- 
tics. He is said to have invented the forms of 
several of the most celebrated false and 
captious syllogisms. (Diog. Laert. i. 111.) — 2. 
An Athenian sculptor of the second century B.C. 
son of Eucheir. Pausanias (i. 2, 5) mentions 
an Apollo by him in a precinct of Dionysus 
near the Dipylon Gate. Portions of a group by 
him were excavated in this neighbourhood in 
1837, and a marble head of Athene by him was 
found in 1874. These fragments may all be 
parts of the votive offering mentioned by Pau- 
sanias, but this is a disputed question on which 
there is no sufficient evidence. 

Eubulus (Et&ovXos). 1. An Athenian, of the 
demus Anaphlystus, a distinguished orator and 
statesman, was one of the most formidable 
opponents of Demosthenes. It was with him 
that Aeschines served as secretary in the earlier 
part of his life. — 2. An Athenian, son of Eu- 
phranor, of the Cettian demus, a distinguished 
poet of the Middle Comedy, flourished B.C. 376. 
He wrote 104 plays, of which there are extant 
more than fifty titles. His plays were chiefly 
on mythological subjects. Several of them 
contained parodies of passages from the tragic 
poets, and especially from Euripides (Meineke, 
Frag. Com. Gr.). 

Euclldes (Eu(cA.6i'Sr;s). 1. The celebrated 
mathematician, who has almost given his own 
name to the science of geometry in every 
country in which his writings are studied ; but 
we know next to nothing of his private history 
The place of his birth is uncertain. He lived 
at Alexandria in the time of the first Ptolemy, 
B.C. 323-283, and was the founder of the Alex- 
andrian mathematical school. He was of the 
Platonic sect, and well read in its doctrines. 
It was his answer to Ptolemy, who asked if 
geometry could not be made easier, that there 
was no royal road. Of the numerous works 
attributed to Euclid the following are still 
extant : — 1. SToixeia, the Elements, in 13 
books, with a fourteenth and fifteenth added by 
Hypsicles. 2. AeSo/xeva, the Data, containing 
100 propositions, with a preface by Marinus of 
Naples. 3. Kararofx^ Kav6i>os, the Division of 
the Scale. 4. A work on astronomy, called 
$aiv6fitva, the Appearances (of the heavens). 
Besides these, Eicrayoey^ 'Apixointcr) (an intro 
duction to music), 'Own/to. (on Optics) and Kar- 
OTTTpLKa (on Catoptrics) have been attributed to 
him, but are probably by other writers. The 
only complete edition of all the reputed works 
of Euclid is that published at Oxford, 1703, 
folio, by David Gregory, with the title 
Ei/KteiSov Ta <rw(6fj.eva. The Elements and the 
Data were published in Greek, Latin, and 
French, in 3 vols. 4to, Paris, 1814-16-18, by 
Peyrard. The most convenient edition for 
scholars of the Greek text of the Elements is 
the one by August, Berol. 1826, 8vo. — 2. Of 
Megara, was one of the chief of the disciples 
of Socrates, but before this, he had studied 
the doctrines, and especially the dialectics, 
of the Eleatics. Socrates on one occasion 
reproved him for his fondness for subtle and 
captious disputes. On the death of Socrates 
(B.C. 399), Euclides took refuge in Megara, and 
there established a school which distinguished 
itself chiefly by the cultivation of dialectics. 
The doctrines of the Eleatics [Pabmenides] 
formed the basis of his philosophical system; 
but, while he held that the real existence or 
' God ' was one and unchangeable, he gives it 
various names, 1 God,' ' Eeason ' &c, to explain | 



how that which was one appeared to be many. 
With these he blended the ethical and dialecti- 
cal principles of Socrates. He was the author 
of six dialogues, none of which, however, have 
come down to us. He has frequently been 
confounded with the mathematician of the 
same name. The school which he founded was 
called sometimes the Megaric, sometimes the 
Dialectic or Eristic. (Diog. Laert. ii. 108 ; Cic. 
Acad. ii. 42, 129 ; Gell. vi. 10.)— 3. The Archon 
Eucleides was Arch. Eponymus in B.C. 403 (01. 
94, 2), which is an important epoch both as 
marking the restored constitution after the fall 
of the Thirty, and also the adoption of the full 
Ionic alphabet of twenty-four letters instead of 
the old Attic alphabet. Thenceforth the laws 
and all state acts were to be written in the full 
Ionic alphabet. (Plut. Arist. 1; Arist. 'AO. 
iroA. 39.) 

Eucratldes (EvKpariSris), king 'of Bactria, 
from about B.C. 181 to 161, was one of the most 
powerful of the Bactrian kings, and made great 
conquests in the N. of India. 

Euctemon, the astronomer. [Meton.] 
Eudamldas (EvSap-iSas). I., King of Sparta, 
reigned from B.C. 330 to about 300. He was the 
younger son of Archidamus III., and succeeded 
his brother Agis III. — II., King of Sparta, was 
son of Archidamus IV., whom he succeeded, 
and father of Agis IV. 

Eudemus (EvSri/xos). 1. Of Rhodes, a Peri- 
patetic philosopher, and one of the most 
important of Aristotle's disciples. He edited 
many of Aristotle's writings ; and one of them 
even bears the name of Eudemus — namely, the 
'HdiKa EvSri/u^ia, which work was in all proba- 
bility a recension of Aristotle's lectures edited 
by Eudemus [see p. 118]. — 2. The physician of 
Livilla, the wife of Drusus Caesar, assisted her 
and Sejanus in poisoning her husband, a.d. 23. 

Eudocia (EvSoklo). 1. Originally called 
Athenais, daughter of the sophist Leontius, 
was distinguished for her beauty and attain- 
ments. She married the emperor Theodosius 
II., A.D. 421 ; and on her marriage she embraced 
Christianity, and received at her baptism the 
name of Eudocia. She died at Jerusalem, A.D. 
460. The theological cento formed from Homer 
is attributed to her (Teucher, Lips. 1793). — 2. 
Of Macrembolis, wife of the emperors Constan- 
tine XI. Ducas and Romanus IV. Diogenes 
(a.d. 1059-1071), wrote a dictionary of history 
and mythology, which she called 'lavid, Viola- 
rium, or Bed of Violets. Printed for the first 
time by Villoison, in his Anecdota Graeca, 
Venice, 1781. Its sources are nearly the same 
as those used by Suidas. 

Eudoses, a people in Germany near the Varini, 
probably in the modern Mecklenburg. 

Eudoxus (EuSofos). 1. Of Cnidus, son of 
Aeschines, a celebrated astronomer, geometer, 
physician, and legislator, lived about B.C. 366. 
He was a pupil of Archytas and Plato, and also 
went to Egypt, where he studied some time with 
the priests. He afterwards returned to Athens, 
but it would appear that he must have spent 
some time in his native place, for Strabo says that 
the observatory of Eudoxus at Cnidus was ex- 
isting in his time. He died at the age of fifty- 
three. He is said to have been the first who 
taught in Greece the motions of the planets ; 
and he is also stated to have made separate 
spheres for the stars, sun, moon, and planets. 
He wrote various works on astronomy and geo- 
metry, which are lost ; but the substance of his 
QcuvOfAeua is preserved by Abatus, who turned 
into verse the prose work by Eudoxus with that 



EUGAMON 



EUMENES 



331 



title. (Strab. pp. 119, 806 ; Sen. Q. N. vii. 3.)— 
2. An Athenian comic poet of the New Comedj-, 
was by birth a Sicilian and the son of Agathocles. 
— 3. Of Cyzicus, a geographer, who went from 
his native place to Egypt, and was employed by 
Ptolemy Euergetes and his wife Cleopatra in 
voyages to India ; but afterwards being robbed 
of all his property by Ptolemy Lathyrus, he 
sailed away down the Eed Sea, and at last 
arrived at Gades. He afterwards made attempts 
to circumnavigate Africa in the opposite direc- 
tion, but without success. He lived about B.C. 
130. (Strab. p. 98.) 

Eugamon (Evydnuiv), one of the Cyclic poets, 
was a native of Cyrene, and lived about B.C. 568. 
His poem (TljAe-yovfa) was a continuation of the 
Odyssey, and formed the conclusion of the epic 
cycle. It concluded with the death of Odysseus. 

Euganei, a people who formerly inhabited 
Venetia on the Adriatic sea, and were driven 
towards the Alps and the Lacus Benacus by tbe 
Heneti or Veneti (Liv. i. 1 ; Plin. iii. 130, 134). 
According to some traditions they founded 
Patavium, Verona and Altinum, in the neigh- 
bourhood of which were the Euganei Colles. 
They possessed numerous flocks of sheep, the 
wool of which was celebrated (Juv. viii. 15 ; 
Mart. xiv. 155). 

Euhemerus (Ev-ti/xepos), probably a native of 
Messene in Sicily, lived at the court of Cassander 
in Macedonia, about B.C. 316. Cassander fur- 
nished him with the means to undertake a 
voyage of discovery. He is said to have sailed 
down the Red Sea and round the southern 
coasts of Asia, until he came to an island called 
Panchaea. After his return he wrote a work 
entitled 'Upa ' hv ay pa<pi\, or a Sacred History, 
in nine books. He gave this title to his work I 
because he pretended to have derived his infor- 
mation from 'AvaypaQai, or inscriptions in 
temples, which he had discovered in his travels, 
especially in the island of Panchaea. Euhe- 
merus had been trained in the school of the 
Cyrenaics, who were notorious for their scep- 
ticism in matters connected with the popular 
religion ; and the object of his work was to ex- 
clude everything supernatural from the popular 
religion, and to dress up the myths as so many 
plain histories. In his work the several gods 
were represented as having originally been men 
who had distinguished themselves either as 
warriors, or benefactors of mankind, and who 
after their death were worshipped as gods by 
the grateful people. Zeus, for example, was a 
king of Crete, who had been a great conqueror ; 
and Euhemerus asserted that he had seen in 
the temple of Zeus Triphylius a column with an 
inscription detailing all the exploits of the kings 
Uranus, Cronus, and Zeus (Plut. Is. it Os. 23; 
Euseb. Praep. Ev. ii. 2 ; Strab. pp. 47, 102, 104, 
299). The book was written in an attractive 
style, and became very popular, and many of 
the subsequent historians, such as Diodorus, 
adopted his mode of dealing with myths. Ennius 
made a Latin translation of the work (Cic. N. 
D. i. 42, 119). This method of rationalising an- 
cient myths (generally a false explanation) was 
followed in later times, and called Euhemerism. 

Eulaeus (EvKaios : O. T. Ulai : Karoori), a 
river in Susiana, on the borders of ElymaTs, 
rises in Great Media, flows S. through Mesoba- 
tcne, passing E. of Susa, and, after uniting 
with the Pasitigria and the Choaspes, falls into 
the head of the Persian Gulf. 

Eumaeus (EHfiaios), the faithful swineherd of 
Odysseus, had been carried away from his 
father's house by a Phoenician slave, and Phoe- 



nician sailors, who sold him to Laertes, the 
father of Odysseus. 

Eumelus (EC/xti\os). 1. Son of Admetus and 
Alcestis, went with eleven ships from Pherae to 
Troy. He was distinguished for his excellent 
horses, which had once been under the care of 
Apollo. His wife was Iphthima, daughter of 
Icarius (II. ii. 711, xxiii. 375, 536 ; Od. iv. 798 ; 
Strab. p. 436).— 2. Of Corinth, one of the Bae- 
chiadae, an ancient Epic poet, flourished about 
B.C. 760. His principal poem seems to have 
been his Corinthian History. 

Eumenes (Ev/j.€vtis). 1. Of Cakdia, served as 
private secretary to Philip and Alexander, whom 
he accompanied throughout his expedition in 
Asia, and who treated him with marked confi- 
dence and distinction. After the death of Alex- 
ander (B.C. 323) Eumenes obtained the govern- 
ment of Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus, 
which provinces had never yet been conquered 
by the Macedonians. Eumenes entered into a 
close alliance with Perdiccas, who subdued these 
provinces for him. When Perdiccas marched 
into Egypt against Ptolemy, he committed to 
Eumenes the conduct of the war against Anti- 
pater and Craterus in Asia Blinor. Eumenes 
met with great success ; he defeated Neopto- 
lemus, who had revolted from Perdiccas ; and 
subsequently he again defeated the combined 
armies of Craterus and Neoptolemus : Craterus 
himself fell, and Neoptolemus was slain by 
Eumenes with his own hand, after a deadly 
struggle in the presence of the two armies. 
Meantime the death of Perdiccas in Egypt 
changed the aspect of affairs. Antigonus now 
employed the whole force of the Macedonian 
army to crush Eumenes. The struggle was 
carried on for some years (320-316 1 . It was 
conducted by Eumenes with consummate skill ; 
and notwithstanding the numerical inferiority 
of his forces, he maintained his ground against 
his enemies, till he was surrendered by the 
Argyraspids to Antigonus, by whom he was put 
to death, 316. He was forty-five years old at 
the time of his death. Of his ability, both as a 
general and a statesman no doubt can be enter- 
tained ; and it is probable that he would have 
attained a far more important position among 
the successors of Alexander, had it not been for 
the accidental disadvantage of his birth. But 
as a Greek of Cardia, and not a native Mace- 
donian, he was constantly looked upon with 
dislike both by his opponents and companions 
in arms (Life by Plutarch and by Nepos ; 
cf. Diod. xviii., xix. ; Arrian, Anab. vii.). — 
2. I., King of Peboamum, reigned B.C. 263-241 ; 
and was the successor of his uncle, Philetaerus. 
He obtained a victory near Sardis over Antiochus 
, Soter, and thus established his dominion over 
! the provinces in the neighbourhood of his 
capital (Strab. p. 6241.— 3. II., King of Pbb- 
oamum, reigned B.C. 197-159: and was the son 
! and successor of Attalus I. He inherited from 
his predecessor the friendship and alliance of 
the Romans, which he took the utmost pains to 
cultivate. He supported the Romans in their 
war against Antiochus ; and after the conquest 
of the latter (190) he received from the senate 
Mysia, Lydia, both Phrygias, and Lycaonia, as 
well as Lysimachia, and the Thracian Cher- 
sonese. (Liv. xxxvii. 45-55 ; Pol. xxii. 1-27.) 
By this means he was at once raised from a 
state of comparative insignificance to be the 
sovereign of a powerful monarchy. Subsequently 
he was involved in war with Pharnaces, king of 
Pontus, and Prusias, king of Bithynia, but both 
wars were brought to a close by the interposi- 



332 



EUMENIA 



EUPHORION 



tion of the Romans (Pol. xxv. 2). At a later 
period Eumenes was regarded with suspicion by 
the Roman senate, because he was suspected of 
having corresponded secretly with Perseus, king 
of Macedonia, during the war of the latter with 
the Romans (Pol. xxx. 17, xxxii. 5). For the 
splendour of his capital see Pebgamum. 

Eumenia (Evfiev eia or Ev/xeuia : Ishekli), a 
city of Great Phrygia, on the rivers Glaucus 
and Cludrus, N. of the Maeander, named by 
Attalus II. after his brother Eumenes II. 
Eumerudes. [Erinyes.] 
Eumenius, a Roman rhetorician of Augusto- 
dunum (Autun) in Gaul, held a high office 
under Constantius Chlorus. He is the author 
of four orations in the ' Panegyrici Veteres.' 

Eumolpus (EuyuoAiros), that is 'the good 
singer,' a Thraeian bard, usually represented as 
a son of Poseidon and Chione, the daughter of 
Boreas. As soon as he was born, he was thrown 
into the sea by his mother, who was anxious to 
conceal her shame, but was preserved by his 
father Poseidon, who had him educated in 
Ethiopia by his daughter Benthesicyma. When 
he had grown up, he married a daughter of 
Benthesicyma ; but as he made an attempt upon 
the chastity of his wife's sister, he was expelled 
together with his son Ismarus. They went to 
the Thraeian king Tegyrius, who gave his 
daughter in marriage to Ismarus ; but as Eu- 
molpus drew upon himself the suspicion of 
Tegyrius, he was again obliged to take to flight, 
and came to Eleusis in Attica, where he formed 
a friendship with the Eleusinians. After the 
death of his son Ismarus, he returned to Thrace 
at the request of Tegyrius. The Eleusinians, 
who were involved in a war with Athens, called 
Eumolpus to their assistance. Eumolpus came 
with a numerous band of Thracians, but he was 
slain by Erechtheus. Eumolpus was regarded 
as the founder of the Eleusinian mysteries, and 
as the first priest of Demeter and Dionysus. 
He was succeeded in the priestly office by his 
son Ceryx (who was, according to some ac- 
counts, the son of Hermes), and his family, the 
Emiwlpidae, continued till the latest times the 
priests of Demeter at Eleusis. (Apollod. iii. 14, 
4 ; Paus. i. 38, 2, ii. 14, 3 ; Hymn, ad Cer. 476.) 
— The legends connected Eumolpus with Hera- 
cles, whom he is said to have instructed in 
music, or initiated into the mysteries (Theocr. 
xix. 110, where he is called son of Philammon). 
Another story makes him son of Musaeus. It 
is probable that part of his story is due to the 
old worship of Poseidon in Attica, and part to 
the connexion of the Eumolpidae with the 
mysteries, for which reason Eumolpus is made 
the planter of trees and vines (Plin. vii. 199). 

Eunaplus (Evvdmos), a Greek sophist, was 
born at Sardis a.d. 347, and lived and taught at 
Athens as late as the reign of Theodosius II. 
He wrote, 1. Lives of Sophists (Bi'oi <pi\oa6<pwv 
koL ffo<pi(ni>v), still extant, which supply us 
with our only information respecting the Neo- 
Platonism of that period. Edited by Boisso- 
nade, Amsterdam, 1822. 2. A continuation of 
the history of Dexippus (Mera Aef nrn-ov xpoviK^ 
iaropia), in fourteen books, began with a.d. 270, 
and went down to 404, of which we have only 
extracts published along with Dexippus. 
[Dexippus.] 

Euneus (EHv-qos or Etivtvs), a son of Jason 
and Hypsipyle in Lemnos, supplied the Greeks 
with wine during their war against Troy. He 
purchased Lycaon of Patroclus for a silver urn. 
(II. vii. 468, xxiii. 747 ; Hypsipyle.) 
Eunomia. [Hoeae.] 



EunSmus (Evyo/xos), king of Sparta, is de- 
scribed by some as the father of Lycurgus and 
Polydectes (Paus. iii. 7; Plut. Lye. 2). Hero- 
dotus, on the contrary, places him in his list 
after Polydectes (viii. 131). In all probability, 
the name was invented with reference to the 
Lycurgean Evvop-'ia, and Eunomus, if not wholly 
rejected, must be identified with Polydectes. 

Eunus (Evvovs), a Sicilian slave, and a native 
of Apamea in Syria, was the leader of the 
Sicilian slaves in the Servile war. He attracted 
attention by pretending to the gift of prophecy, 
by appearing to breathe flames from his mouth, 
and other similar juggleries. He was pro- 
claimed king, and soon collected formidable 
forces, with which he defeated several Roman 
armies. The insurrection now became so for- 
midable that for three successive years (B.C. 
134-132) three consuls were sent against the 
insurgents, and it was not till the third year 
(132) that the revolt was finally put down, by 
the consul Rupilius. Eunus was taken prisoner, 
and died in prison at Morgantia. (Diod. Fr. 
34 ; Liv. Bp. 56 ; Plut. Sull. 36.) 

Eupalium (EvwlAiov : Eu7ra\i6i5s), a town of 
the Locri Ozolae, subsequently included in 
Aetolia Epictetus (Strab. p. 427). 

Eupator (Eu7raTa>p), a surname assumed by 
many of the kings in Asia. See Antiochus, 
Mithbidates. 

Eupatorla. [Magnopolis.] 

Eupatorium (Evwar6ptov : Eupatoria), a 
town in the Chersonesus Taurica, founded by 
Mithridates Eupator (Strab. p. 312). 

Euphaes (Evcpdajs), king of the Messenians, 
fell in battle against the Spartans in the first 
Messenian war. He was succeeded by Abisto- 
demus. 

Euphemus (Ei/cp-q/ios), son of Poseidon by 
Europe, the daughter of Tityus, or by Meci- 
onice or Oris, a daughter of Orion or Eurotas 
(Schol. ad Pind. Pyth. iv. 15). According to 
one account he was an inhabitant of Panopeus 
on the Cephissus in Phocis, and according to 
another of Hyria in Boeotia, and afterwards 
lived at Taenarus. He was married to Lao- 
nome, the sister of Heracles ; he was one of the 
Calydonian hunters, and the helmsman of the 
vessel of the Argonauts, and, by a power which 
his father had granted to him, he could walk 
on the sea just as on firm ground. He is men- 
tioned also as the ancestor of Battus, the 
founder of Cyrene. (Ap. Rh. i. 182; Pind. 
Pyth. iv. 1 ; Hdt. iv. 150.) 

Euphorbus (E£><pop/3os). 1. Son of Panthous, 
one of the bravest of the Trojans, was slain by 
Menelaus, who subsequently dedicated the 
shield of Euphorbus in the temple of Hera, 
near Mycenae (II. xvi. 806, xvii. 1 ; Paus. ii. 
17, 3 ; Gell. iv. 11). Pythagoras asserted that 
he had once been the Trojan Euphorbus, and in 
proof of his assertion took down at first sight 
the shield of Euphorbus from the temple of 
Hera (clipeo Trojana refixo tenvpora testatus, 
Hor. OA. i. 28, 11).— 2. Physician of Juba 
II., king of Mauretania, about the end of the 
first century B.C., and brother to Antonius 
Musa, thej>hysician to Augustus. 

Euphorion (Eixpopiwv). 1. Father of the 
poet Aeschylus. — 2. Son of Aeschylus, who 
brought out four plays of his father, not pro- 
duced on the stage in the lifetime of their 
author. Each won the first prize. He also 
wrote plays himself. — 3. Of Chalcis in Euboea, 
an eminent grammarian and poet, son of Poly- 
mnetus, was born about B.C. 274. He became 
I the librarian of Antiochus the Great, 221, and 



EUPHRAXOR 



EURIPIDES 



333 



died in Syria, either at Apamea, or at Antioch. 
Of his works fragments are collected by 
Meineke, in Analecta Alexandrina, Berol. 1843. 

Euphranor (EiMppdvuip), a distinguished 
sculptor and painter, was a native of the Corin- 
thian isthmus, but worked at Athens about B.C. 
536. He was noted for power of expression. 
His most celebrated statues were the Apollo 
Patroos (Paus. i. 3, 3), and the Paris, which 
expressed alike the judge of the goddesses, 
the lover of Helen, and the slayer of Achilles. 
His best paintings were preserved in a porch 
in the Ceramicus at Athens. On the one side 
were the twelve gods ; and on the opposite wall 
Theseus, with Democracy and Demos. (Plin. 
xxxiv. 77, xxxv. 128.) 

Euphrates (Evipparris), an eminent Stoic 
philosopher, was a native of Tyre, or, according 
to others, of Byzantium. He was an intimate 
friend of the younger Pliny. In his old age he 
became tired of life, and obtained from Hadrian 
permission to put an end to himself by poison. 
(Plin. Ep. i. 10 ; Dio Cass. lxix. 8.) 

Euphrates CEv<ppaT7is : 0. T. Phrat : El- 
Frat), a great river of W. Asia, forming the | 
boundary of Upper and Lower Asia, consists, in 
its upper course, of two branches, both of which 
rise in the mountains of Armenia. The N. J 
branch (Kara-Su), which is the true Euphrates, | 
rises in the mountain above Erzeroum (the M. t 
Abus or Capotes of the ancients) and flows W. 
and SW. to a little above lat. 39° and E. of 
long. 39°, where it breaks through the chain of 
the Anti-Taurus, and, after receiving the S. 
branch (Mourad-Chai), or, as the ancients 
called it, the Arsanias, it breaks through the 
main chain of the Taurus between Melitene 
and Samosata, and then flows in a general S. 
direction, till it reaches lat. 36°, whence it flows 
in a general SE. direction, till it approaches 
the Tigris opposite to Seleucia, where the dis- 
tance between the two rivers was reckoned at 
only 200 stadia. Then it flows through the 
plain of Babylonia, at first receding further 
from the Tigris, and afterwards approaching it 
again, till it joins it about 60 miles above the 
mouth of the Persian Gulf, having already had 
its waters much diminished by numerous 
canals, which irrigated the country in ancient 
times, but the neglect of which at present has 
converted much of the once fertile district 
watered by the Euphrates into a marshy 
desert. The whole length of the Euphrates is 
between 500 and 600 miles. In its upper 
course, before reaching the Taurus, its N. 
branch and a part of the united stream divided 
Armenia Major from Colchis and Armenia 
Minor, and its lower course divided Mesopo- 
tamia from Syria. Its chief tributary, besides 
the Arsanias, was the Chabobas. [Hdt. i. 
180 ; Strab. pp. 521, 739, 746.] 

Euphron (ECrppwv). an Athenian poet of the 
New Comedy, whose plays, however, partook 
largely of the character of the Middle Comedy. 

Euphrosyne. one of the Charites or Graces. 
[Charis.] 

Eupolis (ECttoAis), son of Sosipolis, an Athe- 
nian poet of the Old Comedy, and one of the 
three who are distinguished by Horace, in his 
well-known line, ' Eupolis, atque Cratinus, 
Aristophanesque poetae,' above all the others 
' quorum prisca comoedia virorum est.' He 
was born about B.C. 446, and is said to have ex- 
hibited his first drama in his seventeenth year, 
429, two years before Aristophanes. The date 
of his death is uncertain. The common story 
was that Alcibiades, when sailing to Sicily 



(415), threw Eupolis into the sea, in revenge 
for an attack which he had made upon him in 
his Bdirrat ; but this cannot be true, as we 
know that Eupolis produced plays after the 
Sicilian expedition. He probably died in 411. 
The chief characteristic of the poetry of Eupolis 
seems to have been the liveliness of his fancy, 
and the power which he possessed of imparting 
its images to the audience. In elegance he is 
said to have- even surpassed Aristophanes, while 
in bitter jesting and personal abuse he emulated 
Cratinus. Among the objects of his satire was 
Socrates, on whom he made a bitter, though 
less elaborate attack than that in the Clouds of 
Aristophanes. The dead were not exempt 
from his abuse, for there are still extant some 
lines of his in which Cimon is most unmerci- 
fully treated. A close relation subsisted be- 
tween Eupolis and Aristophanes, not only as 
rivals, but as imitators of each other. Cratinus 
attacked Aristophanes for borrowing from Eu- 
polis, and Eupolis in his Bairroi made the same 
charge, especially with reference to the Knigh ts. 
The Scholiasts specify the last Parabasis of 
the Knights as borrowed from Eupolis. On 
the other hand, Aristophanes, in the second lor 
third) edition of the Clouds, retorts upon Eu- 
polis the charge of imitating the Knights in 
his Maricas. The truth may be that Eupolis 
to some extent collaborated with Aristophanes 
in this play and considered that the obligation 
was not sufficiently acknowledged. (Meineke, 
Frag. Com. Graec. 1847.) 

Eupompus (EforojUTros), of Sicyon, a distin- 
guished Greek painter, was the contemporary 
of Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Timanthes, and the 
instructor of Paniphilus, the master of Apelles. 
The fame of Eupompus caused the Sicyonian 
school to take its place beside the Ionic and 
Attic (Plin. xxxv. 74). 

Euripides (Ei/pnr'iSris). 1. The third great 
Attic tragedian, was the son of Mnesarchus and 
Clito, and is said to have been born at Salamis. 
B.C. 480, on the very day that the Greeks defeated 
the Persians off that island, whither his parents 
had fled from Athens on the invasion of Xerxes. 
Some writers relate that his parents were in 
mean circumstances, and his mother is repre- 
sented by Aristophanes as a herb-seller (Ach. 
454, Thesm. 887, Eq. 19, Ban. 339), but this is 
a tale unworthy of credit : it is contradicted by 
Philochorus ; and we know, too, that the poet, 
when a boy, was cup-bearer to a chorus of noble 
Athenians at the Thargelian festival — an office 
for which nobility of blood was requisite — and 
that he was taught rhetoric by Prodicus, who 
was certainly not moderate in his terms for in- 
struction, and who was in the habit of seeking 
his pupils among youths of high rank. It is 
said that the future distinction of Euripides was 
predicted by an oracle, promising that lie should 
be crowned with ' sacred garlands,' in conse- 
quence of which his father had him trained to 
gymnastic exercises ; and we learn that, while 
yet a boy, he won the prize at the Eleusinian 
and Thesean contests, and offered himself, when 
seventeen yearsold, asa candidate at the Olympic 
games, but was not admitted because of some 
doubt about his age. But he soon abandoned 
gymnastic pursuits, and studied the art of 
painting, not, as we learn, without success. 
To philosophy and literature he devoted him- 
self with much interest and energy, studying 
physics under Anaxagoras and rhetoric, as we 
have already seen, under Prodicus. He lived 
on intimate terms with Socrates, and traces of 
the teaching of Anaxagoras have been re- 



334 



EUBIPIDES 



marked in many passages of his plays. He is said 
to have written a tragedy at the age of eighteen ; 
but the first play which was exhibited in his 
own name was the Peliades, when he was 
twenty-five years of age (b. c. 455). In 441 he 
gained for the first time the first prize, and he 
continued to exhibit plays until 408, the date of 
the Orestes. Soon after this he left Athens 
for the court of Archelaiis, king of Macedonia, 
his reasons for which step can only be matter 
of conjecture. It. was alleged that he was dis- 
gusted by the taunts of the comic poets about 
his unhappy domestic relations : for his first 
wife, Choerile, was divorced for infidelity, and 
the second, Melito, separated from him. But 
these are rather matters of ill-natured gossip, 
and it may be believed that other causes led him 
to accept an invitation from Archelaiis, at whose 
court the highest hoHours awaited him. The 
attacks of Aristophanes and others had prob- 
ably not been without their effect, and he 
must have been aware that his philosophical 
tenets were regarded with considerable sus- 
picion. He died in Macedonia in 406, at the 
age of seventy-five. Little credit need be given 
to the story that he was torn in pieces by the 
king's dogs, which, according to some, were set 
upon him through envy by Arrhidaeus and 
Crateuas, two rival poets. The regret of 
Sophocles for his death is said to have been so 
great, that at the representation of his next play 
he made his actors appear 
uncrowned. The accounts 
which we find in some writers 
of the profligacy of Euripides 
are mere idle scandal, and 
soarcely worthy of serious re- 
futation. Nor does there ap- 
pear to be any better founda- 
tion for that other charge 
which has been brought 
against him, of hatred to the 
female sex. He was a man of 
serious and austere temper 
and it was in consequence of 
this that the charge probably originated. It is 
certain that the poet who drew such characters 
as Alcestis was not blind to the gentleness, the 
strong affection, the self-abandoning devoted- 
ness of women. With respect to the world and 
the Deity, he seems to have adopted the doc- 
trines of Anaxagoras, not unmixed apparently 
with pantheistic views. [Anaxagoras.] To 
class him with atheists, as some have done, is 
undoubledly unjust. At the same time, it must 
be confessed that we look in vain in his plays 
for the unquestioning faith of Aeschylus ; nor 
can we fail to admit that the pupil of Anaxa- 
goras could not sympathise with the popular 
religious system around him. He frequently 
altered the traditional treatment of ancient 
legends. Thus, in the Orestes, Menelaiis comes 
before us as a selfish coward, and Helen as a 
worthless wanton ; in the Helena, the notion of 
Stesichorus is adopted, that the heroine was 
never carried to Troy at all, and that it was a 
mere ei'SoiAor of her for which the Greeks and 
Trojans fought ; Andromache, the widow of 
Hector and slave of Neoptolemus, seems almost 
to forget the past in her quarrel with Hermione 
and the perils of her present situation ; tragedy 
is brought down into the sphere of every-day 
life ; men are represented, according to the re- 
mark of Sophocles quoted with approval by 
Aristotle {Poet. 25), not as they ought to be, but 
as they are ; under the names of the ancient 
heroes the characters of his own time are set 




BuBt of Euripides. 



before us ; it is not Medea, or Iphigenia, or 
Alcestis that is speaking, but abstractedly a 
mother, a daughter, or a wife. All this, indeed, 
gave fuller scope, perhaps, for the exhibition of 
passion and for those scenes of tenderness and 
pathos in which Euripides especially excelled. 
Hence Aristotle {Poet. 13) calls Euripides ' the 
most tragic of poets,' because he neglected no 
means of appealing to the feelings of the 
audience — not even the misery of appearance, 
such as that of Telephus — and therefore most 
worked upon pity, which is the office of Tragedy, 
Hence, perhaps, also the preference given to his 
plays by the practical Socrates, who is said 
to have never entered the theatre unless when 
they were acted, as well as for the admiration 
felt for him by Menander and Philemon, and 
other poets of the New Comedy. The most 
serious defects in his tragedies, artistically 
speaking, are : his constant employment of the 
' Deus ex machina ; ' the disconnexion of his 
choral odes from the subject of the play ; the 
extremely awkward and formal character of his 
prologues ; and the frequent introduction of 
frigid yva/xai and of philosophical disquisitions, 
making Medea talk like a sophist, and Hecuba 
like a freethinker, and aiming rather at subtilty 
than simplicity. On the same principles on 
which he brought his subjects and characters to 
the level of common life, he adopted also in his 
style the every-day mode of speaking. But 
while, on the one hand, in many of his plays, the 
Electra, for instance, and the Andromache, he 
ranks far below his two predecessors and fails 
altogether in harmony of composition: in 
others, such as the Hippolytus, the Medea, the 
Iphigenia in Tauris, the Ion, and, perhaps 
above all, the Bacchae, he reaches a height of 
poetry equal to that of Sophocles. — According 
to some accounts, he wrote, in all, seventy-five 
plays ; according to others, ninety- two. Of these, 
eighteen are extant, if we omit the Rhesus, 
which is probably spurious : of the 18 a list is 
subjoined, with their dates, ascertained or pro- 
bable :—Alcestis,B.c. 438, brought out as the last 
of a tetralogy, and stood therefore in the place 
of a satyric drama, to which indeed it bears, in 
some parts, great similarity, particularly in the 
representation of Heracles in his cups. 
Medea, 431 (ed. by Porson ; Verrall). Hip- 
polytus Coronifer, 428 (upon which Bacine 
founded his Phedre), gained the first prize 
(ed. Monk). Hecuba, exhibited before 423. He- 
raclidae, about 421. Supplices, about 421. 
Ion, of uncertain date. Hercules Fur ens, of 
uncertain date (ed. Hutchinson, 1878). 
Andromache, about 420. Troades, 415. 
Electra, about 415-413. Helena, 412. Iphi- 
genia at Tauri, of uncertain date. Phoenissae, 
411 (ed. Porson). Orestes, 408. Bacchae : 
this play was written for representation in 
Macedonia, and therefore at a very late period 
of the life of Euripides. It is notable not only 
as among the grandest of Attic tragedies but 
also as inspired by the actual scenes amid which 
it was composed, in the country where he might 
see the Maenads with brandished torches 
dashing down the mountain side. (Editions by 
Elmsley ; by Sandys, 1874; by Tyrrell, 1871.) 
Iphigenia at Aulis : this play, together with 
the Bacchae and the Alcmaeon, was brought 
out at Athens, after the poet's death, by the 
ycviger Euripides. Cyclops, of uncertain 
df te : it is interesting as the only extant speci- 
men of the Greek satyric drama. Besides the 
plays, there are extant five letters, purporting to 
have been written by Euripides, but they are 



EURIPUS 

spurious. — Editions of complete plays. In 
Dindorf'sPoeiae Scenici ; by Nauch,1871 ; with 
notes by Paley, 1872. — 2. The youngest of the 
three sons of the above. After the death of his 
father he brought out three of his plays at the 
great Dionysia, viz. the Alcmaeon (no longer 
extant), the Iphigenia at Aulis, and the 
Bacchae. 

Euripus (EtfpiTros), any part of the sea where 
the ebb and flow of the tide were remarkably 
violent, is the name especially of the narrow 
strait which separates Euboea from Boeotia. 
The extraordinary tides of the Euripus have 
been noticed by modern observers : the water 
sometimes runs as much as eight miles an hour. 
At Chalcis there was a bridge over the Euripus, 
uniting Euboea with the mainland. [Chalcis.] 

Euromus (Ei/pwfws : Jaklys), a small town of 
Caria, at the foot of Mt. Grion (a ridge parallel 
to Mt. Latmus), in the conventus juridieus of 
Alabanda. It lay eight English miles NW. of 
Mylasa. 

Europa (Evpwirri), according to the Iliad (xiv. 
321), a daughter of Phoenix, but according to 
the common tradition a daughter of the Phoe- 



EURYCLEA 



335 




Europa. Schlichtcrgroll, Stosch Collection 

nician king Agenor (Hdt. iv. 147; Eur. Phoen. 
281; Diod. v. 78; Ov. Met. ii. 858). Her sur- 
passing beauty charmed Zeus, who assumed 
the form of a bull and mingled with the herd 
as Europa and her maidens were sporting on 
the sea-shore. Encouraged by the tameness of 
the animal, Europa ventured to mount his back ; 
whereupon Zeus rushed into the sea, and swam 
with her in safety to Crete. (Hor. O'l. iii. 27, 
25; Apollod. iii. 1 ; Anth.Pal. i. 110; Ov. Met. 
ii. 850, Fast. v. 605.) Here she became by Zeus 
the mother of Minos, Rhadamanthus, and, in 
post-Homeric story, of Sarpedon (Hdt. i. 173 ; 
Eur. Hlies. 29). She afterwards married Aste- 
rion, king of Crete, who brought up the children 
whom she had had by the king of the gods 
(Apollod. /. c. ; Diod. iv. GO). After her death 
she was deified under the name Hellotis or 
Hellotia (cf. Athen. p. G78). Among various 
attempts to rationalise the myth was the ex- 
planation that Europa was carried away captive 
by a Cretan king in a ship which had a bull as 
figure-head. Modern writers, though without 
very sure grounds, have interpreted Europa to 
be a moon-goddess. 

Europa (Eupunnj), one of the three divisions 
of the ancient world. The name is not found 



in the Iliad and Odyssey, and first occurs in 
the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (251), but even 
there it does not indicate the continent, but 
simply the mainland of Hellas proper, in oppo- 
sition to Peloponnesus and the neighbouring 
islands; and so perhaps Pind. Nem. iv. 70. 
Aeschylus (Prom. 735) and Herodotus (iv. 45) 
are the earliest writers who use it in the sense 
of one of the divisions of the world. The 
meaning of the name is doubtful Some give 
it a Greek root, and make it signify either 
'widely extended' (evpvs...bir) or 'dark' — i.e. 
western (cf. epefios); others obtain the latter 
meaning from a Semitic root. Most of the 
ancients supposed the name to be derived from 
Europa, the daughter of Agenor. The boun- 
daries of Europe on the E. differed at various 
periods. In earlier times the river Phasis was 
usually supposed to be its boundary, and some- 
times even the Araxes and the Caspian sea ; but 
at a later period the river Tanais and the Palus 
Maeotis were usually regarded as the boun- 
daries between Asia and Europe. The N. of 
Europe was little known to the ancients, but it 
was generally believed, at least in later times, 
that it was bounded on the N. by 
the Ocean. 

Europus (Evpwnos). 1. A town of 
Emathia, on the river Axius (Strab. 
p. 327).— 2. (Yera-bolus, or Eulat- 
nl-Nejin?), a city in the district of 
Cyrrhestice in Syria, on the TV. bank 
of the Euphrates, a few miles S. of 
Zeugma. — 3. Europus was the earlier 
name of Dura Nicanoris in Mesopo- 
tamia ; and (4) it was also given by 
Seleucus Xicator to Rhagae in Media. 
— 5. A river of Thessaly, also called 
Titaresius. [Titaeesius.] 

Euxotas (Evpiiras : Iri), the chief 
river in Laconia. but not navi- 
gable, rises in Mt. Boreum in Arcadia 
(according to Pausanias and Strabo, 
from a common source with the 
Alpheus), then disappears under 
the earth, rises again near Sciritis, 
and flows southwards, passing Sparta 
on the E., through a narrow and 
fruitful valley, into the Laconian 
gulf (Paus. viii. 44 ; Strab. p. 343). 
Euryalus (EupvaKos). 1. Son of Mecisteus, 
one of the Argonauts and of the Epigoni, ac- 
companied Diomedes to Troy, where he slew 
several Trojans (II. ii. 565, vi. 20; Apollod. i. 
9, 16, iii. 7, 2). — 2. Son of Odysseus and Evippe, 
slain by Telemachus, hero of a play of Sopho- 
cles (Eustath. p. 1796, 52). 
Euryanassa. [Pelops.] 
Eurybates (EupugaTTjs), called Eribotcs by 
Latin writers, one of the Argonauts. 

Eurybatus (EvpvfSaros), an Ephesian, whom 
Croesus sent with a large sum of money to the 
Peloponnesus to hire mercenaries for him in 
his war with Cyrus. He, however, betrayed 
the whole matter to Cyrus. In consequence of 
this treachery, his name passed into a proverb 
amongst the Greeks (Plat. Protag. p. 327, d). 

Eurybia (Evpv&'ia), daughter of Pontus and 
Ge, mother by Crius of Astraeus, Pallas, and 
Panes. 

Eurybiades. [Themistocles.] 

Euryclea {EvpvKAua). 1. Daughter of Ops, 
waB purchased by Lai : rtes and brought up Tele- 
machus. When Ulysses returned home, she 
recognised him by a scar, and afterwards faith- 
fully ussisted him against the suitors (0<l. i. 
129, xix. 401).— 2. Mother of Oempub. 



336 



EURYDICE 



EUEYTUS 



Eurydice (Ei>pu5//C7j). 1. Wife of Orpheus. 
[Oepheus.] — 2. An Illyrian princess, wife of 
Amyntas II., king of Macedonia, and mother of 
the famous Philip. — 3. An Illyrian, wife of 
Philip of Macedon, and mother of Cynane or 
Cynna. — 4. Daughter of Amyntas, son of Per- 
diccas III., king of Macedonia, and Cynane, 
daughter of Philip. After the death of her 
mother in Asia [Cynane], Perdiccas gave her 
in marriage to the king Arrhidaeus. She was a 
woman of a masculine spirit, and entirely ruled 
her weak husband. On her return to Europe 
with her husband, she became involved in war 
with Polysperchon and Olympias, but she was 
defeated in battle, taken prisoner, and com- 
pelled by Olympias to put an end to her life, 
B.C. 317. (Diod. xviii. 39, xix. 11 ; Athen. p. 
560.) — 5. Daughter of Antipater, and wife of 
Ptolemy, the son of Lagus. She was the mother 
of three sons, viz. Ptolemy Ceraunus, Meleager, 
and a third (whose name is not mentioned) ; 
and of two daughters, Ptolemai's, afterwards 
married to Demetrius Poliorcetes, and Lysandra, 
the wife of Agathocles, son of Lysimachus 
(Plut. Demetr. 46). — 6. An Athenian, of a family 
descended from the great Miltiades. She was 
first married to Ophelias, the conqueror of Cy- 
rene, and after his death returned to Athens, 
where she married Demetrius Poliorcetes. 

Euryldchus (EvpvKoxos). 1. Companion of 
Odysseus in his wanderings, was the only one 
that escaped from the house of Circe when his 
friends were metamorphosed int' swine (Od. x. 
203, xii. 339). — 2, A Spartan commander, in the 
Peloponnesian war, B.C. 426, defeated and slain 
by Demosthenes at Olpae (Thuc. iii. 100-109). 

Eurymedon (Eipv/ieSiou). 1. One of the 
Cablri, son of Hephaestus and Cabiro, and 
brother of Alcon. — 2. An attendant of Nestor. 
— 3. Son of Ptolemaeus, and charioteer of Aga- 
memnon. — i. Son of Thucles, an Athenian 
general in the Peloponnesian war. He was one 
of the commanders in the expedition to Corcyra, 
B.C. 428, and also in the expedition to Sicily, 
425. In 414, he was appointed, in conjunction 
with Demosthenes, to the command of the 
second Syracusan armament, and fell in the 
first of the two sea-fights in the harbour of 
Syracuse (Thuc. vii. 52). 

Eurymedon (Eipv/xeSoiv : Kapri-Su), a small 
river in Pamphylia, navigable as far up as the 
city of Aspendus, through which it flowed; 
celebrated for the victory which Cimon gained 
over the Persians on its banks, B.C. 469 (Thuc. 
i. 100 ; Xen. Hell, iv. 8, 30). 

Eurymenae (Evpufievaij, a town in Magnesia 
in Thessaly, E. of Ossa. 

Eurynome (EvpvvSfiri), daughter of Oceanus 
(Hes. Th. 358). When Hephaestus was ex- 
pelled by Hera from Oljonpus, Eurynome and 
Thetis received him in the bosom of the sea 
(II. xviii. 398). Before the time of Cronos and 
Rhea, Eurynome and Ophion had ruled in 
Olympus over the Titans. The worship of 
Eurynome was localised at Phigalea in Arcadia, 
where she was represented half woman and 
half fish, and was identified with Artemis (Paus. 
viii. 41) : that is to say, the older worship of 
Eurynome in this place was at some time 
transferred to the religion of Artemis, prevail- 
ing at a later time. 

Euryphon (Eupv<p&v), a celebrated physician 
of Cnidos in Caria, was a contemporary of Hip- 
pocrates, but older. He is quoted by G-alen, 
who says that he was considered to be the 
author of the ancient medical work entitled 
Kfi'Siai Tv£/xai, and also that some persons 



attributed to him several works included in the 
Hippocratic Collection. 

Eurypon, otherwise called Eurytion (Evpv- 
ttSiv, EiipvTiwv), grandson of Procles, was the 
third king of that house at Sparta, and thence- 
forward gave it the name of Eurypontidae 
(Paus. iii. 7 ; Plut. Lyc. 2). 

Eurypylus (EvpyirvKos). 1. Son of Euaemon 
and Ops, appears in different traditions as king 
either of Ormenion, or Hyria, or Cyrene. In 
the Iliad he is represented as having come from 
Ormenion to Troy with forty ships (II. ii. 734, 
v. 76, vi. 36, xi. 575; Ov. Met. xiii. 357). Ac- 
cording to some traditions it was this Eurypylus 
who was worshipped as a hero at Patrae (Paus. 
vii. 19). — 2. A son of Poseidon and Celaeno, 
who went to Libya, where he ruled in the 
country afterwards called Cyrene, and there 
became connected with the Argonauts. He 
married Sterope, the daughter of Helios, by 
whom he became the father of Lycaon and 
Leucippus i(Pind. Pyth. iv. 33; Ap. Rh. iv. 
1551). — 3. Son of Poseidon and Astypalaea, 
king of Cos, was killed by Heracles, who on his 
return from Troy landed in Cos, and being taken 
for a pirate, was attacked by its inhabitants. 
According to another tradition Heracles at- 
tacked the island of Cos, in order to obtain 
possession of Chalciope, the daughter of Eury- 
pylus, whom he loved (II. ii. 677 ; Pind. Nem. 
iv. 25; Hyg. Fab. 254).— 4. Son of Telephus 
and Astyoche, king of Mysia or Cilicia, was in- 
duced by the presents which Priam sent to his 
mother or wife, to assist the Trojans against 
the Greeks. Eurypylus killed Machaon, but 
was himself slain by Neoptolemus. (Od. xi. 519 ; 
Q. Smyrn. vi. 408.) 

Eurysaces (Eupucraiojs), son of the Telamo- 
nian Ajax and Tecmessa, named after the 
' broad shield ' of his father (Soph. Aj. 575). 
An Athenian tradition related that Eurysaces 
and his brother Philaeus had given up to the 
Athenians the island of Salamis, which they 
had inherited from their grandfather, and that 
the two brothers received in return the Attic 
franchise. Eurysaces was honoured like his 
father, at Athens, with an altar. (Plut. Sol. 10.) 
Pausanias (i. 35) ascribes this gift to Philaeus 
the son of Eurysaces. 

Eurysthen.es (EvpvaOivjis), and Procles (Tlpo- 
kA.7;s), the twin sons of Aristodemus, were born, 
according to the common account before, but 
according to the genuine Spartan story after, 
their father's return to Peloponnesus and occu- 
pation of his allotment of Laconia. He died 
immediately after the birth of his children, and 
had not even time to decide which of the two 
should succeed him. The mother professed to 
be unable to name the elder, and the Lacedae- 
monians applied to Delphi, and were instructed 
to make them both kings, but give the greater 
honour to the elder. The difficulty thus re- 
maining was at last removed at the suggestion 
of Panites, a Messenian, by watching which of 
the children was first washed and fed by the 
mother ; and the first rank was . accordingly 
given to Eurysthenes and retained by his 
descendants. Prom these two brothers, the two 
royal families in Sparta were descended, and 
were called respectively the Eurysthenidae 
and Proclidae. The former were also called 
the Agidae from Agis, son of Eurysthenes ; 
and the latter Eurypontidae from Eurypon, 
grandson of Procles. (Hdt.vi. 51; Paus. iii. 16). 
Eurystheus. [Hebacles.] 
Eurytus (Eijpvros). 1. Son of Melaneus and 
Stratonice, was king of Oechalia, probably the 



EUSEBIUS 

Thessalian town of this name. He was a skilful I 
archer and married to Antioche, by whom he 
became the father of Iole, Iphituj, Molion or 
Delon, Clytius, and Toxeus. He was proud of 
his skill in using the bow, and is said to have 
instructed even Heracles in his art. He offered 
his daughter Iole as a prize to the man who 
should conquer him and his sons in shooting 
with the bow. Heracles won the prize, but 
Eurytus and his sons, with the exception of Iphi- 
tus, refused to give up Iole, because they feared 
lest Heracles should kill the children he might 
have by her. Heracles accordingly marched 
against Oechalia with an army, took the place 
and killed Eurytus and his sons. According to 
Homer, on the other hand, Eurytus was killed 
by Apollo, whom he presumed to rival in using 
the bow. (Od. viii. 224, xxi. 14; Soph. Track. 
354 ; Theocr. xxiv. 105 ; Ap. Eh. i. 88 ; Apollod. 
ii. 6.) He was worshipped as a hero in the 
mystic rites at Andania (Paus. iv. 2). — 2. Son 
of Actor and Molione of Elis. [Moliokes.] — 
3. Son of Hermes and Antianlra, and brother 
of Echion, was one of the Argonauts (Paus. ii. 
15). — 4. A Pythagorean philosopher, a disciple 
of Philolaus (Diog. Lai ; rt. iii. 6). 

EuseMus (Eu<re/3ios) was bom in Palestine 
about a.d. 264, was made bishop of Caesarea 
315, and died about 340. His works are valu- 
able for general history, quite apart from their 
great importance in Church history. [See Diet, 
of Christ. Biogr.] 

Eustathius (EtWaflios). 1. Of Cappadocia, 
a Neo-Platonic philosopher, was a pupil of 
Iamblichus and Aedesius. In a.d. 358, he was 
sent by Constantius as ambassador to king 
Sapor, and remained in Persia, where he was 
treated with the greatest honour. — 2. Or Eu- 
mathius, probably lived as late as the twelfth 
century of our era. He wrote a Greek romance 
in eleven books, still extant, containing an 
account of the loves of Hysminias and Hys- 
mine. The tale is wearisome and improbable. 
Edited by Gaulmin, Paris, 1017, and by 
Teucher, Lips. 1792. — 3. Archbishop of Thes- 
salonica, was a native of Constantinople, and 
lived during the latter half of the twelfth 
century. He was a man of great learning and 
wrote numerous works, the most important of 
which is his commentary on the Iliad and 
Odyssey (UapfK^oKal (is rr)v 'Opripov 'WiiZa 
Kal 'OZvoo(ttw), or rather his collection of ex- 
tracts from earlier commentators on those two 
poems. This vast compilation was made from 
the numerous and extensive works of the 
Alexandrian grammarians and critics ; and as 
nearl/ all the works from which Eustathius 
made hat extracts are lost, his commentary is 
of grea-t value. Editions : at Rome, 1542- 
1550, 4 vols. fol. ; at Basle, 1550-60 ; at Leipzig, 
1825-26, containing the commentary on the 
Odyssey, and at Leipzig, 1827-29, the commen- 
tary on the Iliad. There is also extant by 
Eustathius a commentary on Dionysius Peri- 
egetes, which is published with most editions 
of Dionysius. — 4. Usually called Eustathius 
Romanus, a celebrated (iraeco- Roman jurist 
from a.d. 900 to 1000. 

Euterpe. [Musae.] 

Euthydemus (Eu0u5ijm<»'- 1- A sophist, was 
born at Chios, and migrated with his brother 
Dionysodorus to Thurii in Italy. Being exiled 
thence, they came to Athens, where they resided 
many years. The pretensions of Euthydemus 
and his brother are exposed by Plato in the dia- 
logue which bears the name of the former. — 2. 
King of Bactria, was a native of Magnesia. We 



E U T YC HIDE S 



337 



know nothing of the circumstances attending 
his elevation to the sovereignty of Bactria. He 
extended his power over the neighbouring pro- 
vinces, so as to become the founder of the 




Coin of Euthydemus, King of Bactria. about B.C. 212. 
Obv., bead of Euthydemus ; rev,, Heracles. 

greatness of the Bactrian monarchy. His do- 
minions were invaded about B.C. 212, by Antio- 
chus the Great, with whom he eventually con- 
cluded a treaty of peace. (Polyb. xi. 34 ; Strab. 
p. 515.) He had a son Demetrius and a grand- 
son Euthydemus II. 

Euthymus {EiBvfxos), a hero of Locri in Italy, 
son of Astycles or of the river-god Caecinus. 
He was famous for his strength and skill in 
boxing, and delivered the town of Temesa from 
the evil spirit Polites, to whom a fair maiden 
was sacrificed every year. Euthymus himself 
disappeared at an advanced age in the river 
Caecinus. (Paus. vi. 0, 2 ; Strab. p. 255.) 

Eutrapelus, P. Volumnius, a Roman knight, 
obtained the surname of Eutrapelus (EvTpd- 
ircAos), on account of his liveliness and wit. He 
was an intimate friend of Antony, and a com- 
panion of his pleasures and debauches. Cytheris, 
the mistress of Antony, was originally the freed- 
woman and mistress of Volumnius Eutrapelus 
(whence we find her called Volumnia), and was 
surrendered to Antony by his friend. Eutra- 
pelus is mentioned by Horace (Epist. i. 18, 31). 

Eutresii lEvrpria-ioi), the inhabitants of a dis- 
trict in Arcadia, N. of Megalopolis. 

Eutresis (Edrp-riais), a small town in Boeotia 
between Thespiae and Plataeae, with a temple 
and oracle of Apollo, who hence had the sur- 
name Eutresltes (II. ii. 502 ; Strab. p. 411). 

Eutropius. 1. A Roman historian, held the 
office of a secretary under Constantine the 
Great, was patronised by Julian, whom he 
accompanied in the Persian expedition, and 
was alive in the reign of Valentinian and 
Valens. He is the author of a brief com- 
pendium of Roman history in ten books, from 
the foundation of the city to the accession of 
Valens, a.d. 304, to whom it is inscribed. In 
drawing up this abridgment Eutropius appears 
to have consulted the best authorities, and to 
have executed his task in general with care. 
The style is in perfect good taste and keeping 
with the nature of the undertaking, being plain, 
precise, and simple. It was translated into 
Greek by Paeanius, and was used as the basis 
of his work by Paulus Diaconus. Editions are 
by Tzchucke, Lips. 1796; by Grosse, Hal. 1818, 
and by Droysen, Berl. 1878. — 2. A eunuch, the 
favourite of Arcadius, became the virtual 
governor of the E. on the death of Rufinus, 
a.d. 395. Ho was consul in 399, but in that 
year was deprived of his power by the intrigues 
of the empress Eudoxia and Gainas, the Goth ; 
j he was firBt banished to Cyprus, was shortly 
afterwards recalled and put to death at Chalce- 
don. The poet Claudian wrote an invective 
against Kutropius. 

EutychIdes(EuTi/xi'57ji),of Sicyon, a sculptor, 



338 



EUXINUS 



FABATUS 



and a pupil of Lysippus, flourished B.C. 300, 
was the author of a statue representing Antioch 
(Paus. vi. 2, 4), which is preserved by a copy 
now in the Vatican [see Antiochia.] 

Euxinus Pontus. [Pontus Euxinus.] 

Evadne (EvdSprj). 1. Daughter of Poseidon 
and Pitane, who was brought up by the Arca- 
dian king Aepytus, and became by Apollo the 
mother of Iamus. — 2. Daughter of Iphis (hence 
called Iphias), or Philax, and wife of Capaneus. 
For details see Capaneus. 

Evagoras (Evaydpas), king of Salamis in 
Cyprus. He was sprung from a family which 
claimed descent from Tetjceb, the reputed 
founder of Salamis ; and his ancestors appear 
to have been during a long period the heredi- 
tary rulers of that city under the supremacy of 
Persia. They had, however, been expelled by 
a Phoenician exile, who obtained the sove- 
reignty for himself, and transmitted it to his 
descendants. [Cypbus.] Evagoras succeeded 
in recovering his hereditary kingdom, and 
putting the reigning tyrant to death, about 
B.C. 410. His rule was distinguished for its 
mildness and equity, and he greatly increased 
the power of Salamis, specially by the forma- 
tion of a powerful fleet. He gave a friendly 
reception to Conon, when the latter took refuge 
at Salamis after the defeat of the Athenians at ! 
Aegospotami, 405 ; and it was at his interces- 
sion that the king of Persia allowed Conon the 
support of the Phoenician fleet at the time of 
the battle of Cnidus (394) : hence he was a 
main cause of the Athenian success. In grati- 
tude for these good offices, the Athenians 
placed his statue in the Ceramicus (Isocr. Evag. 
51-68 ; Xen. Sell. ii. 1, 29 ; Paus. i. 3, 2). But 
his growing power excited the jealousy of the 
Persian court, and at length war was declared 
against him by Artaxerxes. Evagoras received 
the assistance of an Athenian fleet under 
Chabrias, and at first met with great success ; 
but the fortune of war afterwards turned against 
him, and he was glad to conclude a peace with 
Persia, by which he resigned his conquests in 
Cyprus, but was allowed to retain possession 
of Salamis with the title of king. This war 
was brought to a close in 385. Evagoras was ] 
assassinated in 374, together with his eldest 
son Pnytagoras (Diod. xv. 2-9 ; Arist. Pol. 
v. 8, 10). There is extant an oration of Iso- 
lates in praise of Evagoras, addressed to his 
son Nicocles, who succeeded him. 

Evagrlus (Evdypios), of Epiphania in Syria, 
born about a.d. 536; wrote An Ecclesiastical 
mstonj, still extant. [See Diet, of Christ. 
Biogr.] 

Evander (EvavSpos). 1. Son of Hermes by 
an Arcadian nymph, called Themis or Nico- 
strata, and in Roman traditions Carmenta or 
Tiburtis (Dionys. i. 31 ; Liv. i. 5 ; Paus. viii. 43). 
About sixty years before the Trojan war, 
Evander is said to have led a Pelasgian colony 
from Pallantium in Arcadia into Italy, and 
there to have built a town, Pallantium, on the 
Tiber, at the foot of the Palatine Hill, which 
town was subsequently incorporated with Rome. 
Evander taught his neighbours milder laws and 
the arts of peace and of social life, and espe- 
cially the art of writing, with which he himself 
had been made acquainted by Heracles, and 
music ; he was said also to have introduced 
among them the worship of the Lycaean Pan 
( = Lupercus), of Demeter, Poseidon, and 
Heracles. (Liv. I.e. ; Dionys. i. 33 ; Plut. Q. B. 
56 ; Tac. Ann. xi. 14 ; Justin, xliii. 1, 6.) Virgil 
(Aen. viii. 51) represents Evander as still alive 



at the time when Aeneas arrived in Italy, and 
as forming an alliance with him against the 
Latins. Evander was worshipped at Pallan- 
tium in Arcadia as a hero. At Rome he had 
an altar at the foot of the Aventine. Most 
modern historians (see especially Schwegler) 
reject the idea of the Arcadian immigration 
altogether. The authorities for it are mani- 
festly late, and the Arcadians are the most 
unlikely colonists. It is probable that the 
story grew out of the resemblance of the Luper- 
calia to the Arcadian festivals of Pan. It is 
suggested, with much probability, that in 
Evander himself (whose name, ' the kindly,' 
may have the same meaning) we have the native 
Italian deity Faunus transformed into an 
apparently historical person, who is said to have 
founded the ritual out of which his own story 
was developed. [Faunus.] — 2. A Phocian, was 
the successor of Lacydes as the head of the 
Academic School at Athens, about B.C. 215. 

Evenus (Evrfvos). 1. Son of Ares and 
Demonice, and father of Marpessa. For details 
see Marpessa. — 2. Two elegiac poets of Paros. 
One of these poets, though it is uncertain 
whether the elder or the younger, was a con- 
temporary of Socrates, whom he is said to have 
instructed in poetry; and Plato in several 
passages refers to Evenus, somewhat ironically, 
as at once a sophist or philosopher and a poet. 
There are sixteen epigrams in the Greek 
Anthology bearing the name of Evenus, but it 
is difficult to determine which of them should 
be assigned to the elder and which to the 
younger Evenus. (Plat. Apol. p. 20, Phaed. 
p. 60, Phaedr. p. 267.) 

Evenus {Evr]vos : Eidhari), formerly Lycor- 
mas, rises in Mt. Oeta, and. flows through 
Aetolia into the sea, W. of Antirrhium (Strab. 
p. 451 ; Thuc. ii. 83 ; Ov. Met. ix. 104). 

Evenus (Etl-qvos : Sandarli), a river of Mysia, 
rising in Mt. Temnus, flowing S. through Aeolis, 
and falling into the Sinus Elalticus near Pitane. 
The city of Adramyttium, which stood nearly 
due W. of its sources, was supplied with water 
from it by an aqueduct (Strab. p. 614). 

Evergetes (Evipyirr)s), the 'Benefactor,' a 
title of honour frequently conferred by the 
Greek states upon those from whom they had 
received benefits. It was assumed by many of 
the Greek kings in Egypt and elsewhere. 
[Ptolemaeus.] 

Evlus. [Dionysus.] 

Exadlus ('E|aSioy), one of the Lapithae, 
fought at the nuptials of Pirithoiis (II. i. 204 ; 
Ov. Met. xii. 266). 

Exsuperantius, Julius, a Roman historian, 
who lived probably about the fifth century of 
our era. He is the author of a short tract 
entitled De Marii, Lepidi, ac Sertorii bellis 
civilibus, which many suppose to have been 
abridged from the Histories of Sallust. It is 
appended to several editions of Sallust. 

Eziongeber. [Bebenice, No. 1.] 



F. 

Fabaris or Farfarus (Far/a), a small river 
in the Sabine territory between Reate and Cures 
(Verg. Aen. vii. 715 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 330). 

Fabatus, L. Roscius, one of Caesar's lieu- 
tenants in the Gallic war, and praetor in B.C. 49, 
espoused Pompey's party. He was killed in 
the battle at Mutina, B.C. 43. (Caes. B. <?. v. 
24, 53, B. C. i. 8 ; Cic. ad Earn. x. 33.) 

Fabatus, Calpumlus, a Roman knight, 



FABERIUS 



FALERII 



339 



accused in a.d. 64 ; was grandfather of Cal- 
purnia, wife of the younger Pliny, many of 
whose letters are addressed to him. (Tac. Ann. 
xvi. 8 ; Plin. Ep. viii. 10.) 

Faberius. 1. A debtor of M. Cicero (Cic. 
ad Att. xii. 21, 51). — 2. One of the private 
secretaries of C. Julius Caesar. 

Fabia, two daughters of M. Fabius Ambustus. 
The elder was married to Ser. Sulpicius, 



Cornelius Rufinus, on account of his possessing 
ten pounds' weight of silver plate. The love of 
luxury and the degeneracy of morals which had 
already begun brought out still more promi- 
nently the simplicity of life and the integrity of 
character which distinguished Fabricius as 
well as his contemporary Curius Dentatus : and 
ancient writers love to tell of the frugal way in 
which they lived on their hereditary farms, and 



patrician, and one of the military tribunes I how they refused the rich presents which the 



B.C. 376, and the younger to the plebeian C. 
Licinius Stolo. 

Fabia Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
gentes at Rome, which traced its origin to Her- 
cules and the Arcadian Evander. The Fabii 
occupy a prominent part in history soon after 
the commencement of the republic ; and three 
brothers belonging to the gens are said to have 
been invested with seven successive consul- 



Samnite ambassadors offered them. Fabricius 
died as poor as he had lived ; he left no dowry 
for his daughters, which the senate, however, 
furnished ; and, in order to pay the greatest 
possible respect to his memory, the state 
interred him within the pomerium, although 
this was forbidden by the Twelve Tables (Cic. 
Tusc. iii. 23; Val. Max. iv. 4, 10; Gell. iv. 8; 
Plut. Sull. 1). — 2. L. Fabricius, curator 



ships, from B.C. 485 to 479. The house derived | viarum in B.C. 62, built a new bridge of stone, 
its greatest lustre from the patriotic courage I which connected the city with the island in the 
and tragic fate of the 306 Fabii in the battle on | Tiber, and which was, after him, called pons 



the Cremera, B.C. 477. [Vibulanus.] The 
principal families of this gens bore the names 
of Ambustus, Buteo, Dorso, Labeo, Maximus, 
Pictor and Vibulanus. 

Fablanus, Papirius, a Roman rhetorician 
and philosopher in the time of Tiberius and 
Caligula. He wrote works on philosophy and 
physics (Sen. Ep. 40, 100). 

Fabrateria (Fabraternus : Falvaierra), a 
town in Latium on the right bank of the Trerus, 
originally Volscian, but colonised by the Ro- 
mans (Strab. p. 237 ; Liv. viii. 19; Veil. Pat. i. 15). 

Fabricii belonged originally to the Hernican 
town of Aletrium, where some of this name 
lived as late as the time of Cicero. 1. C. Fa- 
bricius Luscinus, was probably the first of his 
family who quitted Aletrium and settled at 
Rome. He was one of the most popular heroes 
in the Roman annals, and, like Cincinnatus 
and Curius, is the representative of the purity 
and honesty of the good old times. In his 
first consulship, B.C. 282, he defeated the 
Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites, gained a 
rich booty and brought into the treasury more 
than 400 talents (Liv. Ep. 12 ; Val. Max. L 8, 6). 
Fabricius probably served as legate in the 
unfortunate campaign against Pyrrhus in 280 ; 
and at its close he was one of the Roman 
ambassadors sent to Pyrrhus at Tarentum to 
negotiate a ransom or exchange of prisoners. 
The conduct of Fabricius on this occasion 
formed one of the most celebrated stories in 
Roman annals. Pyrrhus used every effort to 
gain Fabricius ; he offered him the most 
splendid presents and endeavoured to persuade 
him to enter into his service, but the sturdy 
Roman was proof against all his offers. On 
the renewal of the war in the following year 
(279), Fabricius again served as legate, and 
shared in the defeat at the battle of Asculum. 
In 278 Fabricius was consul a second time, and 
had the conduct of the war against Pyrrhus. 
The king was anxious for peace ; and the 
generosity with which Fabricius sent back to 



Fabricius. The name of its author is still seen 
on the remnants of the bridge, which now bears 
the name of Ponie Quaitro Cap;, in allusion to 
a head of Janus which stood upon the parapet 
[Diet, of Ant. art. Pons].— 4J. Q. Fabricius, 
tribune of the plebs, 57, proposed as early as 
the month of January of that year, that Cicero 
should be recalled from exile ; but this attempt 
was frustrated by P. Clodius by armed force 
(Cic. Sest. 35). 

Fadus, Cuspius, appointed by the emperor 
Claudius procurator of Judaea in a.d. 44. He 
was succeeded by Tiberius Alexander. 

Faesfilae (Faesulanus : Fiesole), a very 
ancient and important city of the Etruscans, 
situated on a hill three miles NE. of Florence 
(Sil. It. viii. 477 ; Pol. ii. 25). Sulla sent to it a 
military colony ; and it was the head-quarters 
of Catiline's army (Cic. Muren. 24, Cat. iii. 6, 
14; Sail. Cat. 24-32). The growing import- 
ance of Florentia lessened that of Faesulae, 
which, however, was a strong place in the 
Gothic wars (Procop. B. G. ii. 23-27). There are 
still to be seen the magnificent remains of the 
ancient walls and also a Roman theatre. 

Falacrine or Falacrinum, a Sabine town at 
the foot of the Apennines on the Via Salaria 
between Asculum and Reate, the birthplace of 
the emperor Vespasian (Suet. Vesp. 2). 

Falerii or Falerium, a town in Etruria, 
situated on a steep and lofty height near Bit. 
Soracte, said to have been founded by Halesus, 
from Argos (Dionys. i. 21 ; Plin. iii. 51). Its in- 
habitants were called Falisci, and were regarded 
by many as of the same race as the Aequi, 
whence we find them often called Aequi Falisci. 
Falerii afterwards became one of the twelve 
Etruscan cities ; but its inhabitants continued 
to differ from the rest of the Etruscans both in 
their language and customs even in the time of 
Augustus. After a long struggle with Rome, 
the Faliscans yielded to Camillus, B.C. 394 
(Liv. v. 8-19). They subsequently joined 
their neighbours several times in warring 



Pyrrhus the traitor who had offered to poison against Rome, but were finally subdued. At 



him afforded an opportunity for opening nego- 
tiations, which resulted in the evacuation of 1 
Italy by Pyrrhus (Plut. Pyrrh. 18-24; Val. 
Max. ii. 7, 15 ; Gell. iii. 8). Fabricius then 
subdued the allies of the king in the S. of Italy 
(Eutrop. ii. 13). He was censor in 275, and 
distinguished himself by the severity with which 
he attempted to repress the growing taste for 
luxury. His censorship is particularly cele- 
brated from his expelling from the senate P. 



the close of the first Punic war, 241, they again 
revolted. The Romans now destroyed Falerii 
and compelled the Faliscans to build a new 
town in the plain (Pol. i. 65 ; Eutr. ii. 28). The 
ruins of the new city are to be seen at Fallrri; 
while the remains of the more ancient one aro at 
Civita Cattellana. The ancient town of 
Falerii was afterwards colonised by the Ro- 
mans under the name of ' Colonia Etruacorum 
Falisca,' or ' Colonia Junonia Faliscorum,' but 

t 2 



340 



FALEENUS 



it never became again a place of importance. 
The ancient town was celebrated for its worship 
of Juno Ouritis or Quiritis, and it was in 
honour of her that the Romans founded the 
colony. Minerva and Janus were also wor- 
shipped in the town. — Falerii had extensive 
linen manufactories, and its white cows were 
prized at Rome as victims for sacrifice (Ov. 
Am. iii. 13). 

Falernus Ager, a district in the N. of Cam- 
pania, extending from the Massic hills to the 
river Vulturnus. It produced some of the finest 
wine in Italy, which was reckoned only second 
to the wine of Setia. Its choicest variety was 
called Faustianum. It became fit for drinking 
in ten years, and might be used when twenty 
years old (Diet, of Antiq. s. v. Vinum). 

Falesia Portus, a harbour in Etruria S. of 
Populonium, opposite the island Ilva. 

Falisci. [Falebii.] 

Faliscus. TO-battius.] 

Fannia, 1. A woman of Minturnae, who 
hospitably entertained Marius, when he came 
to Minturnae in his flight, B.C. 88, though he 
had formerly pronounced her guilty of adultery. 
— 2. The second wife of Helvidius Priscus. 

Fannius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs, B.C. 
187 (Liv. xxxviii. 60). — 2. L., deserted from the 
Roman army in 84, with L. Magius, and went 
over to Mithridates, whom they persuaded to 
enter into negotiations with Sertorius in Spain. 
Fannius afterwards commanded a detachment 
of the army of Mithridates against Lucullus 
(Plut. Sert. 24).— 3. C, consul B.C. 122, author 
of a speech against C. Gracchus, which is 
praised by Cicero (Brut. 26, 99). — 4. C, son of 
a M. Fannius, was present at the taking of 
Carthage, and was an annalist of some reoute 
(Cic. Brut. 27, 101 ; Plut. Ti. Gracch. i).— 5. 
C., one of the persons who signed the accusa- 
tion brought against P. Clodius in 61 (App. 
B. G. v. 139). In 59 he was mentioned by L. 
Vettius as an accomplice in the alleged con- 
spiracy against Pompey. — 6. C, tribune of the 
plebs, 59, opposed the lex agraria of Caesar. 
He belonged to Pompey's party, and in 49 went 
as praetor to Sicily (Cic. Sest. 53). — 7. A worth- 
less poet, contemporary of Horace (Hor. Sat. 
i. 4, 21). — 8. A contemporary of the younger 
Pliny, the author of a work, very popular at 
the time, on the deaths of persons executed or 
exiled by Nero (Plin. Fp. v. 5). 

Fannius Caeplo. [Caepio.] 

Fannius Quadratus. [Quadbatus.] 

Fannius Strabo. [Steabo.] 

Fanum Fortunae (Fano), an important 
town in Umbria at the mouth of the Metaurus. 
with a celebrated temple of Fortuna, whence 
the town derived its name. Augustus sent to it 
a colony of veterans, and it was then called 
'Colonia Julia Fanestris.' Here was a trium- 
phal arch in honour of Augustus. (Caes. B. C. 
i. 11 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 50 ; Mel. ii. 4, 5.) 

Farfarus. [Fababis.] 

Faula or Fauna. [Bona Dea.] 

Faunus, son of Picus, grandson of Saturnus, 
and father of Latinus, was the third in the 
series of the kings of the Laurentes (Verg. Aen. 
vii. 45 ; Arnob. ii. 71). So far from being an 
ancient hero honoured as a god, as it was once 
held (Serv. ad Aen. viii. 275), he must rather 
be regarded as an old Italian nature-god, whom 
tradition changed into a pre-historic king. It 
is held with great probability that Mars, 
Silvanus and Faunus were kindred Italian 
deities with different provinces, that of Faunus 
being especially the rural community or pagus. 



FAUSTINA 

Hence his guardianship of country life and 
pursuits, and of herds (Ov. Fast. ii. 361 : Hor. 
OA. i. 4, 12, i. 17, iii. 18, 12). It is probable, 
though not certain, that the name Lupebcus, 
which belongs to him means 'the averter of 
the wolf ' (from the flocks). The Lupervalia, in 
which Faunus was worshipped (Diet, of Antiq. 
s. v.) were therefore at once a purification by 
which evil influences were scourged away and 
an offering for the increase of the flocks. 
Faunus, like other deities of the earth, had also 
prophetic powers, conveyed sometimes by 
mysterious voices from hills or woods, some- 
times by visions in sleep (Dionys. v. 16 ; Liv- 
ii. 7 ; Cic. Div. i. 101 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 82 ; Ov. 
Fast. iv. 649). The true Italian representation 
of Faunus was probably as a man of middle age, 
bearded, and with a ' Jupiter ' type of head, 
wearing a goat-skin over the shoulders and 
bearing a staff or club in one hand and a horn 
in the other. The more familiar type is due to 




A Faun, Irom an ancient gem Gori, Gem. Ant. Flor.) 

the Greek influence which identified Faunus 
with Pan, and imagined a plurality of Fauns, 
represented as Satyrs. 

Fausta. 1. Cornelia, daughter of the dic- 
tator Sulla, and twin sister of Faustus Sulla, 
was born about B.C. 88. She was first married 
to C. Memmius, and afterwards to Milo. She 
was infamous for her adulteries, and Villius was 
one of her paramours, whence Horace calls him 
' Sullae gener ' (Sat. i. 64).— 2. Flavla Maxi- 
miana, daughter of Maximianus, and wife of 
Constantine the Great, to whom she bore 
Constantinus, Constantius, and Constans. 

Faustina. 1. Annia Galeria, commonly dis- 
tinguished as Faustina Senior, the wife of 
Antoninus Pius, died in the third year of his 
reign, a.d. 141. Notwithstanding the profligacy 
of her life, her husband loaded her with 
honours both before and after her decease. It 
was in honour of her that Antoninus established 
a hospital for the education and support of 
young females, who were called after her 
piteUae alimentariae Faustinianae. [Anto- 
ninus.] — 2. Annia, or Faustina J unior, daughter 
of the elder Faustina, was married to M. 
Aueelius in A.D. 145 or 146, and she died in a 
village on the skirts of Mount Taurus in 175, 
having accompanied the emperor to Syria. 
Her profligacy was so open and infamous, 
that the good nature or blindness of her 



FAUSTULUS 

husband, who cherished her fondly while alive, 
and loaded her with honours after her death, 
appears truly marvellous. [M. Avjrelivjs.] — 3. 
Annia grand-daughter or great-grand-daughter 
of M. Aurelius, the third of the numerous wives 
of Elagabalus. 
Faustulus. [RosruLus.] 

Faventia (Faventlnus : Faenza), a town in 
Gallia Cisalpina on the river Anemo and on 
the Via Aerniha, celebrated for its linen manu- 
factories (Strab. p. 217 ; Plin. xix. 1). 

Favonii Portus (Porto Favune), a harbour on 
the coast of Corsica. 

Favonius, the West wind. [Zephyrus.] 

M. Favonius, an imitator of Cato Uticensis, 
whose character and conduct he copied so 
servilely as to receive the nickname of Cato's 
ape. He was a warm supporter of the party of 
the optimates, and opposed all the measures of 
the first triumvirate. On the breaking out of 
the Civil war in B.C. 49, he joined Porupey, not- 
withstanding his personal aversion to him, and 
opposed all proposals of reconciliation with 
Caesar. He served in the campaign against 
Caesar in Greece in 48, and after the defeat of 
his party at Pharsalus, he accompanied Pompey 
in Ins flight. Upon Pompey's death he 
returned to Italy, and was pardoned by Caesar. 
He took no part in the conspiracy against 
Caesar, but, after his murder, espoused the side 
of Brutus and Cassius. He was taken prisoner 
in the battle of Philippi in 42, and was put to 
death by Octavianus. (Plut. Cat. Hin. 32-46, 
Pomp. 60; Suet. Aug. lb.) 

Favorinus, a philosopher and sophist in the 
reign of Hadrian, was a native of Aries in Gaul. 
He resided at different periods of his life in 
Rome, Greece, and Asia Minor, and obtained 
high distinctions. He was intimate with Plu- 
tarch, who dedicated to him his treatise on 
the principle of cold, and with Herodes 
Atticus, to whom he bequeathed his library and 
house at Rome. He wrote several works on 
various subjects, but none of them are extant. 

Febris, the goddess, or rather the averter, of 
fever. She had three sanctuaries at Rome, in 
which amulets were dedicated which people had 
worn during a fever (Cic. N. D. iii. 25, 63, 
Legg. ii. U, 28; Plin. ii. 16). A dea Tertiana 
{i.e. goddess of tertian fevers or agues) is men- 
tioned in an inscription (C. I. L. vii. 999). 

Februus, an ancient Italian divinity, to 
vhoin the month of February was sacred, for in 
the latter half of that month general purifica- 
tions and lustrations were celebrated. The 
name is connected with fr.briirire (to purify), 
and februae (purifications). Februus was also 
n -garded as a god of the lower world, and the 
festival of the dead (Feralia) was celebrated in 
February (Dirt, of Ant. art. Fcbrua). 

FellCltas, the personification of happiness, to 
whom a temple was erected by Lucullus in B.C. 
75 ; and a second was dedicated by M. Aemilius 
Lepidus (Plin. xxxv. 151!, xxxvi. 39; Cic. Verr. 
iv. 2 ; cf. Strab. p. 881 ; Dio Cass. xliv. 5). 
Felicitas is frequently seen on Roman medals, 
in the form of a matron, with the stall of 
Mercury (caduceus) and a cornucopia. 

Felix Antonlus, procurator of Judaea, in the 
reigns of Claudius and Nero, was a brother 
of the freedman Pallas, and was himself a 
freedman of the emperor Claudius. Hence 
he is also called Claudius Felix. In his pri- 
vate and his public character alike Felix 
was unscrupulous and profligate. Having 
fallen in love with Drusilla, daughter of Agrippa 
I., and wife of Azizus, king of Emesa, lie 



FERRATUS 



341 



induced her to leave her husband ; and she was 
still living with him in 60, when St. Paul 
preached before him. His government, though 
cruel and oppressive, was strong : he suppressed 
all disturbances, and cleared the country of 
robbers. He was recalled in 62, and succeeded 
by Porcius Festus ; and the Jews having lodged 
accusations against him at Rome, he was saved 
from punishment only by the influence of his 
brother Pallas with Nero (Tac. Ann. xii. 54, Hist. 
v. 9; Suet. Claud. 28; Jos. Ant. xx. 7). 

Felix, M. Minucius, a Roman lawyer, who 
flourished about A.D. 239, wrote a dialogue en- 
titled Octavius, which occupies a conspicuous 
place among the early Apologies for Christian- 
ity. Edited by Gronovius, Lug. Bat. 1707 ; 
by Ernesti, ibid. 1773 ; by Muralto, Turic. 1836. 
* Felsina. [Bononia.] " 
Feltria (Feltrinus : Feltre), a town in 
Rhaetia, a little N. of the river Plavis. 

Fenestella. a Roman historian, who lived in 
the time of Augustus, and died a.d. 21, in the 
seventieth year of Iris age I Sen. Ep. 108 ; Plin. 
viii. 19, ix. 65, xv. 1 ; Gell. xv. 28). His work, en- 
titled Annales, extended to at least 22 books. 
The few fragments preserved relate to events 
subsequent to the Carthaginian wars ; and we 
know that it embraced the greater part of 
! Cicero's career. A treatise, De Sacerdotiis et 
\ Magistratibus Momanorum Librill, ascribed 
; to Fenestella, is a work of the loth century, not 
apparently intended as a forgery, since the 
author (Fiocchi) speaks in one passage of 
Christian bishops. 

Fenni, a savage people living by the chase, 
! whom Tacitus (Germ. 46) reckons among the 
Germans. They appear to have dwelt in the 
further part of E. Prussia, and to have been 
the same as the modern Finns. 

Ferentina, a goddess of the Latins, at 
whose sacred spring and grove the meetings of 
the Latin League were held (Li v. i. 50, 52, ii. 
38, vii. 25 ; Dionys. iii. 84, 51). The situation 
is doubtful, but it was near Alba Longa — accord- 
, ing to some, close to Marino ; according to 
others, nearer Nenii. 

Ferentmum iFerentlnas, Ferentmus). 1, 
' (Fcrento), a town of Etruria, S. of Volsinii, the 
birthplace of the emperor Otho. It is called 
both a colonia and a municipium. There are 
still remains of its walls, of a theatre and of 
sepulchres at Ferento. (Strab. p. 226 ; Tac. 
Hist. ii. 50jl. — 2. (Ferento), an ancient town of 
the Hemici in Latium, SW. of Anagnia, colon- 
ised by the Romans in the second Punic war. 
j There are still remains of its ancient walls. 

polygonal, but patched with Roman masonry. 
| (Strab. p. 287; Gell. x. 3; Li v. xxxiv. 42; Hor. 
Ep. i. 17, 8.) 
Ferentum. [Fokentum.] 
Feretrius. >.Ji i-itkr.] 

Feronla. a goddess of the central Italians, 
probably a goddess of the earth and its fruits, 

j especially of com. Her chief sanctuaries were 
at the foot of Mt. Soracte near Capena (I,iv. 
xxii. l.xxiv. 11) ; near Terracina (Hor. Sat. i. 5, 
24; Verg. Aen. vii. 800; Plin. ii. 146), where 

| remains of a temple at a spring, still called 
Ferronia, have been found. Her worship was 
earned by Latin colonists to other places (e.g. 
Aquileia, C.l.L. v. 412) ; and to Rome by the 
Subines (Varr. L. L. v. 74). There her festival 
was held on November 14 (the seed-time). 

Ferratus Hons iJclni.i urjurah), one of the 
principal mountain-chains in the Lesser Atlas 
system, in N. Africa, on the borders of Maure- 
tania Caesariensis and Mauri tania Sitifensis. 



342 



FESCENNIUM 



FIMBBIA 



Fescennlum or Fescennia (Fescennmus)), a 
town of the Falisci in Etruria, and conse- 
quently, like Falerii, of Pelasgic origin. 
[Falebii.] From this town the Romans are 
said to have derived the Fescennine songs. 
[Diet, of Antiq. s.v.] The site of the town may 
perhaps be placed at S. Silvestro. 

Festus, Sext. Pompeius, a Roman gram- 
marian, probably lived in the second century of 
our era, since he is quoted by Julius Romanus 
(ap. Charis. ii. 220), who lived in the third cen- 
tury. His name is attached to a dictionary or 
glossary of Latin words and phrases, divided 
into 20 books, and commonly called Sexti 
Pompeii Festi de Verborum Significations. 
It was abridged by Festus from the great work 
with the same title by M. Verrius Flaccus, a 
celebrated grammarian in the reign of Augus- 
tus. Festus made alterations and criticisms 
(of little value) of his Own, and inserted nu- 
merous extracts from other writings of Verrius ; 
but, unfortunately, altogether omitted those 
words which had fallen into disuse, intending 
to make these the subject of a separate volume. 
Towards the end of the eighth century, Paul, 
son of Warnefrid, better known as Paulus Dia- 
conus, from having officiated as a deacon of 
the church at Aquileia, abridged the abridg- 
ment of Festus. The original work of Verrius 
Flaccus had perished with the exception of 
one or two inconsiderable fragments. Of the 
abstract by Festus one MS. only has come 
down to us, containing the second half only of 
the work (letters M-V), and that in an im- 
perfect condition. The numerous blanks in 
this MS. have been ingeniously filled up by 
Soaliger and Ursinus, partly from conjecture 
pnd partly from the corresponding paragraphs 
of Paulus, whose performance appears in a 
complete form in many MSS. The best 
editions of Festus are by K. O. Miiller, Lips. 
1839 and 1880 (in which the text of Festus is 
placed face to face with the corresponding text 
of Paulus, so as to admit of easy comparison), 
and by E. Thewrewk, Pesth, 1889. The work 
is one of great value, containing a rich treasure 
.)f learning upon many points connected with 
antiquities, mythology, and grammar. 

Festius, Porcius, before whom St Paul was 
brought, succeeded Antonius Felix as procura- 
tor of Judaea in a.d. 62, and died not long after. 

Fibrenus. [Abpinum.] 

Ficana (Ficanensis), one of the Latin 
towns destroyed by Ancus Martius (Liv. i. 33). 

Ficulea (Ficuleas, -atis, Ficolensis), a town 
of the Sabines, E. of Fidenae, said to have 
been founded by the Aborigines, but early sunk 
into decay (Dionys. i. 13 ; Liv. i. 38). 

Fidenae, sometimes Fidena (Fidenas, -atis : 
Castel Giubileo), an ancient town in the land 
of the Sabines, nearly five miles NE. of 
Rome, situated on a steep hill, between the 
Tiber and the Anio. It is said to have been 
founded by Alba Longa, and also to have been 
conquered and colonised by Romulus ; but the 
population appears to have been partly Etrus- 
can, and it was probably colonised by the 
Etruscan Veii, with which city we find it in 
close alliance. (Verg. Aen. vi. 773 ; Dionys. ii. 
53; Liv. i. 15, 27.) It frequently revolted and 
was frequently taken by the Romans. Its last 
revolt was in B.C. 438, and in the following 
year it was destroyed by the Romans. Sub- 
sequently the town was rebuilt ; but it is 
spoken of as a poor place (Cic. de Leg. Agr. 
ii. 35 ; Hor. Bp. i. 11, 7 ; Juv. x. 100). In the 
reign of Tiberius, in consequence of the fall of 



a temporary wooden theatre here, 20,000 or, ac- 
cording to some accounts, 50,000 persons lost 
their lives (Tac. Ann. iv. 62 ; Suet. Tib. 40). 

Fidentia (Fidentinus : Borgo S. Donino), a 
town in Cisalpine Gaul on the Via Aemilia, 
between Parma and Placentia, memorable for 
the victory which Sulla's generals gained over 
Carbo, B.C. 82. 

Fides, the personification of fidelity or faith- 
fulness. Numa is said to have built a temple 
to Fides publica, on the Capitol, and another 
was built there in the consulship of M. Aemilius 
Scaurus, b.c. 115 (Plut. Num. 16; Cic. Off. iii.. 
104, N. D. ii. 61). She was represented as a 
matron wearing a wreath of olive or laurel 
leaves, and carrying in her hand corn ears, or a 
basket with fruit. She is also symbolised on 
coins by joined hands, and by the caduceus. 

Fidius. The name Dius Fidius betokened 
the Genius Jovis— that is, the God of Right and 
Faith upon earth, who guarded faith for men 
in their own families and communities, as 
Jupiter did for the gods. Dius Fidius was 
identical with the Sabine demigod Semo Sancus 
(Dionys. ii. 49 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 213 ; Fest. p. 238 ; 
Sil. It. viii. 422 ; cf. Varr. L.L. v. 66), and Semo- 
Sancus again was 'identical with the Italian 
Hercules, who watched over the rights and the 
faith of the homestead and family (Prop. v. 9,. 
71; Varr. I.e.). Hence we find the names Semo- 
Sancus Dius Fidius combined together (C.I.L. 
vi. 568), and hence also the oaths me Dius 
Fidius (juvet) and me Hercules juvet are 
equivalent. There was a temple of Dius Fidius 
on the Quirinal, and his festival was on June 
5th (Ov. Fast. I.e.). The custom of swearing 
by him only under the open sky (Varr. L L. v. 66) 
seems to betoken his connexion with Jupiter, 
the god of the sky, and some have explained the 
bronze orbs dedicated in the temple of Sancus. 
(Liv. viii. 20) in the same way. 

Figiilus, C. Marcius. 1. Consul B.C. 162, and 
again consul 156, when he carried on war with 
the Dalmatae in Illyricum. — 2. Consul 64, sup- 
ported Cicero in his consulship. 

Figiilus, P. Nigldius, a Pythagorean philo- 
sopher of high reputation, who flourished about 
B.C. 60. Mathematical and physical investiga- 
tions appear to have occupied a large share of 
his attention ; and such was his fame as an 
astrologer, that it was generally believed, in 
later times at least, that he had predicted the 
future greatness of Octavianus on hearing the 
announcement of his birth. He, moreover, pos- 
sessed considerable influence in political affairs ; 
was one of the senators selected by Cicero to- 
take down the depositions of the witnesses who- 
gave evidence with regard to Catiline's con- 
spiracy, B.C. 63 ; was praetor, 59 ; took an active 
part in the Civil war on the side of Pompey ; was- 
compelled in consequence by Caesar to live 
abroad, and died in exile, 44. 

Fimbria, C. Flavius. 1. A homo nov us, who- 
rose to the highest honours through his own 
merits and talents. Cicero praises him both as a 
jurist and as an orator. He was consul B.C. 104, 
and was subsequently accused of extortion in 
his province, but was acquitted (Cic. Verr. v. 
70, Brut. 34, Off. iii. 19).— 2. Probably son of 
the preceding, was one of the most violent par- 
tisans of Marius and China during the Civil war 
with Sulla. In B.C. 86 he was sent into Asia as 
legate of Valerius Flaccus, and took advantage 
of the unpopularity of his commander with the 
soliers to excite a mutiny against him. Flaccus 
was killed at Chalcedon, and was succeeded in 
the command by Fimbria, who carried on the 



PINES 

war with success against the generals of Mithri- 
dates. In 84 Sulla crossed over from Greece 
into Asia, and, after concluding peace with 
Mithridates, marched against Fimbria. The 
latter was deserted by his troops, and put an 
end to his life (Veil. Pat. ii. 24 ; Plut. Sull. 23). 

Fines, the name of a great number of places, 
either on the borders of Roman provinces or of 
different tribes. These places are usually found 
only in the Itineraries, and are not of sufficient 
importance to be enumerated here. 

Firmanus, Tarutius, a mathematician and 
astrologer, contemporary with M. Varro and 
Cicero. At Varro's request Firmanus took the 
horoscope of Romulus, and from the circum- 
stances of the life and death of the founder 
determined the era of Rome (Cic. Div. ii. 47, 
98 ; Plut. Bom. 12). 

Firmianus Symposius, Caellus, of uncertain 
age and country, the reputed author of 100 
insipid riddles, each comprised in three hexa- 
meter lines, collected, as we are told in the pro- 
logue, for the purpose of promoting the festi- 
vities of the Saturnalia. There is, however, 
some doubt whether they are not the work of 
Lactantius Firmianus, and entitled his ' Sympo- 
sium.' [Lactantius.] Printed in the Poet. 
Lat. Mm. of Wernsdorf, vol. vi. 

Firmicus Maternus, the author of a work 
entitled Matheseos Libri VIII, which is a 
complete system of astrology, according to the 
discipline of the Egyptians and Babylonians. 
The writer lived in the time of Constantine the 
Great. In his views he is a Neo-Platonist and op- 
posed to Christianity. The work is of interest as 
showing the importance attached to astrology. — 
Editions, Aldine 149!) ; K. Sittl, 1892.— 2. About 
the same time another Firmicus Maternus 
wrote a work in favour of Christianity, entitled 
De Errors Profanarum BeUgionwm ad Con- 
sta/nttum et Comtantem. Edited by F. Oehler, 
Lips. 1847. 

Firmum (Firmanus : Fermo), a town in 
Picenum, three miles from the coast, and S. of 
the river Tinna, colonised by the Romans at the 
beginning of the first Punic war. On the coast 
was its strongly fortified harbour, Castellum 
Firmanum or Firmanorum (Porto di Fermo), 

M. Firmus, a native of Seleucia, the friend 
and ally of Zenobia, seized upon Alexandria, 
and proclaimed himself emperor, hut was de- 
feated and slain by Aurelian, A.D. 278. 

Flaccus, Calpurnius, a rhetorician, probably 
in the reign of Hadrian, excerpts of whose fifty- 
one declamations are edited with those of Quin- 
tilian by liurmann (Laid. 1020). 

Flaccus, Fulvius. 1. M., consul with App. 
Claudius Caudex, B.C. 204, in which year the 
first Punic war broke out. — 2. Q., son of No. 1, 
consul 237, fought against the Ligurians in Italy. 
In 221 he was consul a second time, and con- 
quered the Gauls and Lnenbrians in the N. of 
Italy. In 215 he was praetor, after having been 
twice consul ; and in the following year (214) he 
was re-elected praetor. In 21 8 he was consul 
for the third time, and carried on the war in 
Campania against the Carthaginians. He and 
his colleague, Ap. Claudius Pulcher, took 
Hanno's camp by storm, and then laid siege to 
(!apua, which they took in the following year 
|212). In 209 he was consul for the fourth time, 
and continued the war against the Carthaginians 
in the S. of Italy. (Liv. xxvi. 8, xxvii. 15.) — 3. Cn., 
toother of No. 2, was praetor 212, and had 
Apulia for his province : he was defeated by 
Hannibal near Herdonea. In consequence of 
ilis cowardice in this battle he was accused 



FLACCUS 



343 



before the people, and went into voluntary 
exile before the trial. (Liv. xxvi. 2.) — 4. Q., son 
of No. 2, was praetor 112, and carried on war in 
Spain against the Celtiberians, whom he defeated 
in several battles. He was consul 179 with his 
brother, L. Manlius Acidinus Fulvianus, who 
had been adopted by Manlius Acidinus. In 
his consulship he defeated the Ligurians. In 
174 he was censor with A. Postumius Albinus. 
Shortly afterwards he became deranged, and 
hanged himself in his bedchamber. (Liv. xl. 16, 
xlii. 28.) — 5. M., nephew of No. 4, and a friend 
of the Gracchi, was consul 125, when he subdued 
the Transalpine Ligurians. fie was one of the 
triumvirs for carrying into execution the 
agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus, and was slain 
together with C. Gracchus in 121 (Cic. Phil. iv. 
4). He was a man of a bold and determined 
character, and was more ready to have recourse 
to violence and open force than C. Gracchus. — 
6. Q., praetor in Sardinia, 187, and consul 180. 
— 7. Ser., consul 135, subdued the Vardaeansin 
niyricum. 

Flaccus. Granlus, a contemporary of Julius 
Caesar, wrote a book, De Jure Papiriano, which 
was a collection of the laws of the ancient kings 
of Rome, made by Papirius. [PAPLRrus.J 

Flaccus, Horatius. [Hohatius.] 

Flaccus, Hordeonlus, consular legate of 
Upper Germany at Nero's death, A.r>. 68. He 
was secretly attached to the cause of Vespasian, 
for which reason he made no effectual attempt 
to put down the insurrection of Civilis [Civilis]. 
His troops, who were in favour of Vitellius, 
compelled him to give up the command to 
Vocula, and put him to death. 

Flaccus, C. Norbanus, a general of Octavian 
and Antony in the campaign against Brutus and 
Cassias, b.c. 42. He was consul in 38. (Appian, 
B.C. iv. 87-100.1 

Flaccus, Persius. [Persivs.] 

Flaccus Siculus, an agrimensor by profession, 
probably lived about the reign of Nerva. He 
wrote a treatise De Conditionibus Agrorutn, 
of which the beginning is preserved in the 
collection of Agrimensores. [Fbontixus.] 

Flaccus, Valerius. 1. L., curule aedile B.C. 
201, praetor 200, and consul 195 with M. Porcius 
Cato. In his consulship, and in the following 
year, he earned on war, with great success, 
against the Gauls in the N. of Italy. En 1H4 lie 
was the colleague of M. Cato in the censorship, 
and in the same year was made princeps senatus. 
He died 180. (Liv. xxxi. 4, xxxiv. 21, xxxix. 40.) 
— 2. L., consul 181, with P. Licinias Crassus. — 
3. L., consul 100 with C. Marius, whe n he took 
an active part in putting down the insurrection 
of Saturninus. In 97 he was censor with M. 
Antonius, the orator. In 86 he was chosen 
consul in place of Marius, who had died in his 
Seventh consulship, and was sent by China into 
Asia to oppose Sulla, and to bring the war 
against Mithridates to a close. The avarice and 
severity of Flaccus made him unpopular with 
the soldiers, who at length rose in mutiny at the 
instigation of Fimbria. Flaccus was then put 
to death by order of Fimbria. [Fimbria.; — 4. L., 
the interrex, who proposed that Sulla should be 
made dictator, 82, and who was afterwards made 

by s 1 1 1 1 a his magister eqnitnm (Plut. Suit. 88). 
— 5. C, praetor 98, consul 98, and afterwards 
proconsul in Spain. — 6. L., praetor 68, and 
afterwards propraetor in Asia, where he was 
succeeded by Q. Cicero. In 59 he was accused 
by V>. Laeliusof extortion in Asia ; but, although 
Undoubtedly guilty, he was defended by Cicero 
(in the oration pro Flacco, which is still extant) 



344 



FLACCUS 



FLAVIUS 



and Q. Hortensius, and was acquitted. — 7. C, a 
poet, was a native of Padua, and lived in the 
time of Vespasian. He is the author of the 
Argonautica, an unfinished heroic poem in eight 
books, on the Argonautic expedition, in which 
he follows Apollonius Ehodius. The eighth 
book terminates abruptly, at the point where 
Medea is urging Jason to make her the com- 
panion of his homeward journey. Flaccus is 
only a second-rate poet. His diction is pure ; 
his general style is free from affectation; his 
versification is polished and harmonious ; his 
descriptions are lively and vigorous ; but he 
displays no originality, nor any of the higher 
attributes of genius. Editions by Wagner, 
1805 ; by Schenkl, 1871 ; by Bahrens, 1875. 

Flaccus, Verrius, afreedman by birth, and a 
distinguished grammarian, in the reign of Au- 
gustus. He was renowned for his success as a 
teacher. His method was to employ competi- 
tion, setting subjects upon which those of the 
same age might write, and giving a book as a 
prize for the winner. Augustus showed his 
approval by making him the tutor of his grand- 
sons, Caius and Lucius Caesar, with a salary of 
about l,OO0Z. a year. He died at an advanced 
age, in the reign of Tiberius. (Suet. Gr. 17 ; 
Gell. iv. 5, xvii. 6.) He is frequently cited by 
Pliny the Elder. At the lower end of the market- 
place at Praeneste was a statue of Verrius 
Flaccus, fronting the Hemicyclium, on the 
inner curve of which were set up marble tablets, 
inscribed with the Fasti Verriani. These Fasti 
were a calendar of the days and vacations of 
public business — dies fasti, nefasti, and inter- 
cisi — of religious festivals, triumphs, &c, espe- 
cially including such as were peculiar to the 
family of the Caesars. They supplied Ovid with 
the framework of his Fasti, which, as far as can 
be judged from the extant remains of the Fasti 
Verriani, expresses the same views (C. I. L. i. 
pp. 295, 311). The fragments were discovered in 
1770 in the ruins of a building about two miles 
from Praeneste. But the great work of Verrius 
was his lexicon, entitled De Verborum Significa- 
tione, which was abridged by Festus. [Festus.] 

Flamininus, Quintius. 1. T., a distinguished 
general, was consul B.C. 198, and had the con- 
duct of the war against Philip of Macedonia, 
which he brought to a close in 197, by the 
defeat of Philip, at the battle of Cynos- 
cephalae in Thessaly ; and peace was shortly 
afterwards concluded with Philip. Flamininus 
continued in Greece for the next three years, 
in order to settle the affairs of the country. 
At the celebration of the Isthmian games 
at Corinth in 196, he caused a herald to pro- 
claim, in the name of the Roman senate, the 
freedom and independence of Greece. In 195 
he made war against Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, 
who had refused to give up Argos to the 
Achaean League. Nabis was compelled to yield 
to the terms agreed upon ; but otherwise Sparta 
was left independent in her Greek possessions ; 
and at this period it may fairly be said that 
the Romans acted up to their proclamation of 
Greek liberty. The change in their policy did 
not come till after the wars with Antiochus. 
Flamininus in 194 returned to Rome, having 
won the affections of the Greeks by his prudent 
and conciliating conduct. In 192 he was again 
sent to Greece as ambassador, and remained 
there till 190, exercising a sort of protectorate 
over the country, In 183 he was sent as am- 
bassador to Prusias of Bithynia, in order to 
demand the surrender of Hannibal- He died 
about 174. (Plut. Flamin. ; Liv. xxxii.-xxxix. ; 



Pol. xvii., xviii.) — 2. L., brother of the pre- 
ceding, was curule aedile 200, praetor 199, and 
afterwards served under his brother as legate 
in the war against Macedonia. He was consul 
in 192, and received Gaul as his province, where 
he behaved with the greatest barbarity. On 
one occasion he killed a chief of the Boii who 
had taken refuge in his camp, in order to afford 
amusement to a profligate favourite. For this 
and similar acts of cruelty he was expelled from 
the senate in 184, by M. Cato, who was then 
censor. He died in 170. (Liv. xxxix. 42 ; Cic. 
de Sen. 12, 42.)— 3. T., consul 150, with M'. 
Acilius Balbus. — 4. T., consul 123, with Q. Me- 
tellus Balearicus. Cicero says that he spoke 
Latin with elegance, but that he was an illite- 
rate man (Brut. 28, 74). 

Flaminius. 1. C., was tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 232, in which year, notwithstanding the 
violent opposition of the senate, he carried an 
agrarian law, ordaining that the Ager Gallicus 
Picenus, which had recently been conquered, 
should be distributed among the plebeians (Pol. 
ii. 21). In 227, in which year four praetors 
were appointed for the first time, he was one 
of them, and received Sicily for his province, 
where he earned the goodwill of the provincials 
by his integrity and justice. In 223 he was 
consul, and marched against the Insubrian 
Gauls. As the senate were anxious to deprive 
Flaminius of his office, they declared that the 
consular election was not valid on account of 
some fault in the auspices, and sent a lette"r to 
the consuls, with orders to return to Rome. 
But as all preparations had been made for a 
battle against the Insubrians, the letter was left 
unopened until the battle was gained. (Pol. ii. 
32 ; Liv. xxi. 63, xxii. 6.) In 220 he was censor, 
and executed two great works, which bore his 
name, viz. the Circus Flaminius and the Via, 
Flaminia. In 217 he was consul a second time, 
and marched against Hannibal, but was de- 
feated by the latter at the fatal battle of the 
Trasimene lake, on the 23rd of June, in which 
he perished with the greater part of his army 
(Liv. xxii. 3 ; Pol. hi. 77). — 2. C, son of No. 1, 
was quaestor of Scipio Africanus in Spain, 210 ; 
curule aedile 196, when he distributed among 
the people a large quantity of grain at a low 
price, which was furnished him by the Sicilians 
as a mark of gratitude towards his father and 
himself ; was praetor 193, and obtained His- 
pania Citerior as his province, where he carried 
on the war with success ; and was consul 185, 
when he defeated the Ligurians (Liv. xxxix. 1). 

Flanaticus or Flanonicus Sinus (Gulf of 
Quamaru), a bay of the Adriatic sea on the 
coast of Liburnia, named after the people Fla- 
nates and their town Flanona (Fianona). 

Flavia, a surname given to several towns in 
honour of the Flavian family. 

Flavia gens, celebrated as the house to which 
the emperor Vespasian belonged. During the 
later period of the Roman empire, the name 
Flavius descended from one emperor to another, 
Constantius, the father of Constantine the 
Great, being the first in the series. 

Flavia Domitilla. [Domtilla.] 

Flavius, Cn, the son of a freedman, became 
secretary to App. Claudius Caecus, and, in conse- 
quence of this connexion, became curule aedile 
B.C. 303. He drew up and published a list of 
dies fasti and nefasti, and also an account of 
legal procedure (legis actiones), which pre- 
viously had been kept secret as the exclusive 
patrimony of the pontiffs and the patricians. 
(Liv. ix. 46 Val. Max. ii. 219 Cic. Mar. 11, 25.) 




Flora. <T rora a 
Koman coin.) 



FLAVIUS 

Flavins Fimbria. [Fimbria.] 
Flavins Josephus. [Josephus.] 
Flavius Vopiscus. [Vopiscus.] 
Flavus, L. Caesetius, tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 44, was deposed from his office by C. Julius 
Caesar, because, in concert with C.Epidius Ma- 
nillas, one of his colleagues in the tribunate, 
he had removed the crowns from the statues of 
the dictator, and imprisoned a person who had 
saluted Caesar as ' king ' (Suet. Jul. 79). 

Flavus or Flavius, Subrius, tribune in the 
Praetorian guards, was the most active agent in 
the conspiracy against Nero, a.d. 00, which, 
from its most distinguished member, was called 
Piso's conspiracy (Tac. Ann. xv. 49). 

Flevum [Tac. Ann. iv. 72), a fortress in Ger- 
many at the mouth of the Amisia (Ems). 
Flevum, Flevo. [Rhesus." 
Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers and 
spring. The writers whose object was to bring 
the Roman religion into contempt relate that 
Flora was a courtesan, who had accumulated a 
large property, and bequeathed it to the Roman 
people, in return for which she was honoured 
with the annual festival of 
the Floralia (Lactant. de Fals. 
Bel. i. 20 1. But her worship 
was establislied at Rome in 
the very earliest times, for a 
temple is said to have been 
vowed to her by king Tatius, 
and Numa appointed a flamen 
to her (Varr. L. L. v. 32, 74, 
158; Mart. v. 22). The re- 
semblance between the names 
Flora and Chloris led the later Romans to 
identify the two divinities. Her temple at 
Rome was situated near the Circus Maximus, 
and her festival was celebrated from the 28th 
of April till the 1st of May, with extravagant 
merriment and lasciviousness. [Diet, of Ant. 
art. Floralia.) 

Florentia (Florentinns). 1. (Firenze, Flor- 
ence), a town in Etruria on the Anius, was a 
Roman colony, and was probably founded by 
the Romans during their wars with the Li- 
gurians. In the time of Sulla it was a flourish- 
ing municipium, but its greatness as a city 
dates from the middle ages. (Flor. iii. 21, 27 ; 
Tac. Ann. i. 79; Ptol. hi. 1, 4H.i — 2. (Fiorcn- 
zuola), a town in Cisalpine Gaul on the 
Aemilia Via, between Placentia and Parma. 

FlorentinUB, a jurist, one of the council of 
the emperor Severus Alexander, wrote Insti- 
tutionca in twelve books, which are quoted in 
the Corpus Juris. 

Florianus, M. Annius, tin brother, by a 
different father, of the emperor Tacitus, upon 
whose decease he was proclaimed emperor at 
Rome, A.D. 270. He was murdered by his own 
troops at Tarsus, after a reign of about two 
months, while on his march against I'robns, 
who had been proclaimed emperor by the 
legions in Syriu. 

Florus 1, L. Julius or Annaeus (the titles 
vary in the MSS.), a Roman historian, lived 
under Trajan and Hadrian, and wrote a sum- 
mary of Roman history, divided into two books, 
extending from the foundation of the city to 
the establishment of the empire under Augus- 
tus, entitled Epitomar ilr T. l.irio lirllorum 
omnium annorum DCC libri duo. But, 
though it is drawn chiefly from Livy, the 
author does not strictly follow him. His work 
is of a rhetorical character, intended to glorify 
Rome. Editions by O. John, 1862; ('. Halm, 
1854. — 2. A rhetorician and poet under Hadrian, 



FORNAX 



34f- 



I possibly, as some think, the same person as 
| No. 1 ; or he may be identified with P. Annius 
Florus, who -wrote a dialogue about Virgil's 
• claim to be an orator or poet. (Included in the 
editions of No. 1.) 

Florus, Gessius, a native of Clazomenae, 
succeeded Albinus as procurator of Judaea, 
a.d. 64-05. His cruel and oppressive govern- 
ment was the main cause of the rebellion of 
the Jews. (Tac. Mist. v. 10 ; Suet. Vesjp. 4 ; 
Joseph. B. J. ii. 14.) 

Florus, Julius, addressed by Horace in two 
epistles (i. 3, ii. 2), was attached to the suite of 
Claudius Tiberius Nero, when the latter was 
despatched by Augustus to place Tigranes upon 
the throne of Armenia. He was a writer of 
satires. 

Foca or Phocas, a Latin grammarian, author 
of a dull, foolish Life of Virgil in hexameter 
verse, of which 119 lines remain. Printed in the 
Anthol. hat. of Burmann and Wernsdorf. 

Foenicularius Campus, a plain covered with 
fennel, near Tarraco in Spain (Strab. p. 160 ; 
Cic. ad Att. xii. 10). 

Fonteius, M., propraetor of Narbomiese 
Gaul, between B.C. 70-73, was accused of ex- 
tortion in his province by M. Plaetorius in 09. 
He was defended by Cicero in an oration (jjro 
M. Fontcio), part of which is extant. 

Fonteius Capito. [Capito.] 

Fontus or Fontanus, a Roman divinity, son 
of Janus, had an altar on the Janiculum, which 
derived its name from his father, and on which 
Numa was believed to be buried (Arnob. iii. 
29). The name of this divinity is connected 
with. /on*, a fountain ; and he was the personi- 
fication of the flowing waters. On the 13th of 
October the Romans celebrated the festival of 
the fountains called Fontinalia, at which the 
fountains were adorned with garlands. 

Forentum or Ferentum (Forentanus : Fo- 
rcitza), a town in Abulia, surrounded by fertile 
fields and in a low situation, according to 
Horace (arvum pi/ngue huniilis Furetiti: Od. 
iii. 4, 10). Livy (ix. 20) describes it as a forti- 
fied place, which was taken by C. Junius 
Bubulcus, B.C. 317. The modern town lies on 
a hill. (Strab. p. 233 ; Plin. iii. 105.) 

Formiae (Fonnianus: nr. Mold di Gait a, 
Ru.), a town in Latium, on the Appia Via, in 
the innermost comer of the beautiful Sinus 
Caietanus (Gulf of Ga'cta). It was a very 
ancient town, founded by the Pelasgic Tyr- 
rhenians ; and it appears to have been one oi 
1 the head-quarters of the Tyrrhenian pirates, 
I whence later poets supposed the city of Lamus, 
inhabited by the Laestrygones, of which Homer 
speaks (Od. x. 81), to Vie the same as Formiae; 
and from this Lamus the Roman Lamiae 
claimed to be descended. (Cic. ad Att. ii. 13 ; 
Hoi*. Od. iii. 17; Sil. It. viL 410.) Formiae 
became a municipium without the suffrayium 
fcf. Caeke] in 338 B.C., having sided with Rome 
in the Latin war (Liv. viii. 14 ; Veil. Pat. i. 
14)) and received the full franchise in 1H8 (Liv. 
xxxviii. 30). The beauty of the surrounding 
country induced many of the Roman nobles to 
build villas at this spot; of these the best 
known is the Formianum of Cicero, near which 
he was killed. The remains of Cicero's villa 
are still to be seen at the Villa Mnrsana near 
QattigKont- The hills of Formiae produced 
good wine (Hor. Od. i. 20). 

Formio (Formionr, Jtnnano), a small river, 
forming the N. boundary of Istria. 

Fornax, a Roman goddess, who presided over 
the oven for drying the corn, and whose fes- 



346 



FORTUNA 



tival was a thanksgiving for the good supply, 
and was also connected with the division of the 
Curiae (Ov. Fast. ii. 575 ; Diet, of Antiq. art. 
Fornacalia). 

Fortuna (T&xri), the goddess of fortune, was 
worshipped both in Greece and Italy. Hesiod 
describes her as a daughter of Oceanus ; Pindar 
in one place calls her a daughter of Zeus the 
Liberator, and in another place one of the 
Moerae or Fates. But the worship of Tvxv as 
a personal deity was far less distinct in Greece 
than in Italy, where it was of ancient native 
origin. Praeneste and Antium were special 
seats of her worship, and may, perhaps, repre- 
sent older forms of it than any other places. 
At Praeneste she was worshipped as Fortuna 
Primigenia, i.e. as the eldest child of the gods, 
daughter of Jupiter, whose power over the 
world dated from the very beginning. Her 
temple at Praeneste was also the seat of an 
oracle. At Antium (cf. Hor. Od. i. 35) the 
temple was also oracular, and it appears from 
coins and inscriptions that here two sister 
deities, Fortunae, were worshipped (cf. Mart. 

v. 1, 3 ; Suet. Gal. 57; Macrob. Sat. i. 23, 13), 
either because one presided over peace and the 
other over fortunes of war, or because one ruled 
on land and the other on the sea. At Rome 
her worship is said to have been introduced in 
the reigns of Ancus Martius and Servius Tullius, 
and the latter is said to have built two temples 
to her, the one in the Forum Boarium, and the 
other on the banks of the Tiber. (Ov. Fast. 

vi. 781, Val. Max. iii. 4, 3; Plut. de Fort. 
Bom. 10, Q.B. 74, 106.) She was often known 
as Fors Fortuna, which may, as some hold, be 
the names of originally distinct goddesses but 
as a double name signified Fortune in her aspect 
of uncertainty. As the state goddess she was 
spoken of as Fortuna Publica or Populi 
Romani, with other epithets describing her 
attributes, such as obsequens, felix, viscata 

(i.e. ensnaring) . 
But she was also 
regarded in much 
the same way as 
the Genius, and 
attached to spe- 
cial corporations, 
families, or indi- 
viduals (cf. Plin. ii. 
22). Thus we find 
Fortuna eques- 
tris, presiding over 
the Equites ; viri- 
lis, addressed by 
women that they 
might please their 
husbands ; mulie- 
bris, said to have 
originated when 
Coriolanus was 
persuaded by the 
women to spare 
Rome : a temple 
with this designa- 
tion stood on the 
Via Latina, four 
miles from Rome 
(Val. Max. i. 8). 
A special signifi- 
cance attached to the title Fortuna Bedux, 
or Fortima Bedux Augustorum, which was 
originally commemorative of the return of 
Augustus to Rome in B.C. 19, and afterwards 
denoted the protectress of the imperial house, 
especially on their campaigns or journeys. 




Fortuna. (Bronze, in the British 
Museum.) 



FORUM 

These various functions are denoted by her 
emblems on coins or statuettes. Fortuna is 
represented holding a rudder (to show thafc 
she guided the destinies of men or states) ; r, 
cornucopia to show that she gave wealth and 
prosperity, and with a ball or globe, denoting 
either the revolutions of chance, or the world 
itself as subject to chance. The former of 
these ideas is shown by the wheel which some- 
times appears (Hor. Od. iii. 10, 10 ; Cic. 
Pis. 10, 22) ; and her mutability is sometimes 
shown also by wings (cf. Hor. Od. iii. 29, 53). 
In the imperial period, new forms of worship 
came in, under the titles Fortuna-Isis and 
Fortmia-Panthea. Fortuna when identified 
with Isis was represented with the attributes 
of Isis, the lotus-flower, the horns, and erect 
feathers upon the head with the crescent 
and orb between, holding a sistrum (but also 
with the rudder and the cornucopia). Fortuna- 
Panthea expressed the idea that Fortuna 
included the attributes of other deities : she was 
represented like Fortuna-Isis, but with wings. 

Fortunatae or -orum Insulae (<xi twv fiaicd- 
pa)v vrjcroi, i.e. the Islands of the Blessed). The 
early Greeks, as we learn from Homer, placed 
the Elysian fields, into which favoured heroes 
passed without dying, at the extremity of the 
earth, near the river Oceanus. In poems later 
than Homer, an island is clearly spoken of as 
their abode ; and though its position was of 
course indefinite, both the poets and the geo- 
graphers who followed them placed it beyond 
the Pillars of Hercules. Hence when, just after 
the time of the Marian civil wars, certain 
islands were discovered in the Ocean, off the 
W. coast of Africa, the name of Fortunatae In- 
sulae was applied to them (Plut. Sert. 8 ; 
Plin. iv. 119). As to the names of the individual 
islands (Capraria, Oanaria, Junonia, Nivaria,. 
Ombrios, with some other variations in Plin. 
vi. 202), and the exact identification of them 
by their modern names, there are difficulties ; 
but it may be safely said, generally, that the 
Fortunatae Insulae of Pliny, Ptolemy, and 
others, are the Canary Islands, and probably 
the Madeira, group ; the latter being perhaps 
those called by Pliny (after Juba) Purpurariae. 
[Elysium.] 

For tuna tianus, Atilius, a Latin grammarian,, 
author of a treatise (Ars) upon prosody, and the 
metres of Horace. Ed. by Keil, Halle, 1885. 

Fortunatianus, Chirius, about 400 a.d., was 
the author of a compendium of technical rhe- 
toric, in three books, under the title Curii 
(Chirii) Fortunatiani Consulti Artis Bhe- 
toricae Scholicae libri tres, which at one period 
was held in high esteem as a manual. Printed 
in C. Halm's Bhet. Lat. Mm. 

Forum. [Roma.j 

Forum, the name of several towns in various 
parts of the Roman empire, which were origin- 
ally simply markets or places for the adminis- 
tration of justice. 1. Alieni (Ferraral), in 
Cisalpine Gaul. — 2. Appii (nr. S. Donato, Ru.), 
in Latium, on the Appia Via, in the midst of 
the Pomptine marshes, 43 miles SE. of Rome, 
founded by the censor Appius Claudius when 
he made the Appia Via (Strab. p. 233 ; Suet. 
Tib. 2 ; Hor. Sat. i. 5, 3).— 3. Amelii or Ame- 
lium (Montalto), in Etruria, on the Aurelia 
Via. — 4. Cassii, in Etruria, on the Cassia Via, 
near Viterbo. — 5. Clodli (Oriuolo), in Etruria. — 
6. Cornelli (Imola), in Gallia Cispadana, on 
the Aemilia Via, between Bononia and Faventia,. 
a colony founded by Cornelius Sulla (Strab. p. 
216). — 7. Flaminii, in Umbria on the Flaminia 



FOSI 

Via. — 8. Fulvii, surnamed Valentlnum (Va- ' 
lenza), in Liguria, on the Po, on the road from 
Dertonato Asta. — 9. Galloruml Cosf Franco), 
in Gallia Cisalpina, on the Aemilia Via, between 
Mutina and Bononia, memorable for the two 
battles fought between Antonius and the con- > 
3uls Pansa and Hirtius (Appian, B. C. iii. 66). 
. — 10. Hadriani (Voorburg), in the island of 
the Batavi in Gallia Belgica, where several 
Roman remains have been found. — 11. Julli 
or Julium (Forojuliensis : Frejus), a Roman [ 
colony founded by Julius Caesar, B.C. 44, in 
Gallia Narbonensis, on the river Argenteus and 
on the coast, 600 stadia NE. of Massilia. It I 
possessed a good harbour, and was the usual 
station of a part of the Roman fleet. It was 
the birthplace of Agricola. At Frejus are the 
remains of a Roman aqueduct, circus, arch, &c. 
(Strab. p. 184; Cic. Fam. x. 15; Tac. Ann. iv. 
63, Hist. ii. 43). — 12. Julli or Julium (Friauh, 
a fortified town and a Roman colony in the 
country of the Carni, NE. of Aquileia : in the 
middle ages it became a place of importance. — 
13. Julium. See Illiturgis. — 14. Livli (Forli), 
in Cisalpine Gaul, in the territory of the Boii, 
on the Aemilia Via, SW. of Ravenna : here the 
Gothic king Athaulf married Galla Placidia. — 
15. Popilii (Forlimpopoli), in Gallia Cisalpina, I 
E. of No. 14, and on the same road. — 16. Popilii 
(Polla), in Lucania, E. of Paestum on the 
Tanger and on the Popilia Via. On the wall of 
an inn at Polla was discovered an inscription 
respecting the praetor Popilius. — 17. Segusia- 
norum (Feurs), in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the 
Liger, and W. of Lugdunum, a town of the 
Segusiani and a Roman colony with the sur- 
name Julia Felix. — 18. Sempronii (Forosem- 
proniensis: Fossonibrone), a municipium in 
Umbria, on the Flaminia Via. — 19. Vocontii 
(Vidauban, E. of Canet), a town of the Salyes | 
in Gallia Narbonensis. 

Fosi, a people of Germany, the neighbours 
and allies of the Cherusci, in whose fate they 
shared. [Cherusci.] It is supposed that their 
name is retained in the river Fuse in Brunswick. 

Fossa or Fossae, a canal. 1. Clodla. a canal 
between the mouth of the Po and Altinum in 
the N. of Italy ; there was a town of the same 
name upon it. — 2. Cluilia or Cluiliae, a trench 
about five miles from Rome, said to have been 
the ditch with which the Alban king Cluilius 
protected his camp, when he marched against 
Rome in the reign of Tullus Hostilius. — 
3. Corbuldnls, a canal in the island of the 
Batavi, connecting the Maas and the Rhine, 
dug by command of Corbulo in the reign of 
Claudius (Tac. Ann. xi. 20; Dio Cass. lx. 80). 
— 4. Drusianae or Drusinae, a canal which 
Drusus caused his soldiers to dig in B.C. 11, 
Uniting the Rhine with the Yssel. It probably 
commenced near Arnheim on the Rhine and 
fell into the Yssel near Docsberg. (Tac. Ann. ii. 
H.) — 5. Mariana or Marianae, a canal dug by 
command of Marius during his war with the 
Cimbri, in order to connect the Rhone witli 
the Mediterranean, and thus make an easier 
passage for vessels into the Rhone, because the 
mouths of the river were frequently choked up 
with sand. The canal commenced near Arelate, 
but in consequence of the frequent changes in 
the course of the Rhone, it is impossible now 
to trace the course of the canal. (Pint. Mar. 
15; Strab. p. 183.) — 6. Xerxis. See Athob. 

Franci, i.e. ' the Free men,' a confederacy 
of German tribes, formed on the Lower Rhine 
in the place of the ancient league of the 
Cherusci, and consisting of L 1 1 - - Sigambri, the 



FRONTINUS 



347 



chief tribe, the Chamavi, Ampsivarii, Bructeri, 
Chatti, &c. They are first mentioned about 
a.d. 240 (Vopisc. Aurel. 7). After carrying on 
frequent wars with the Romans, they at length 
settled permanently in Gaul, of which they 
became the rulers under Clovis, a.d. 496. 

Fregellae I Fregellanus : Ceprano), an an- 
cient and important town of the Volsci com- 
manding the passage of the Liris in Latium, 
conquered by the Romans, and colonised B.C. 
328. It took part with the allies in the Social 
war and was destroyed by Opimius. (Strab. p. 
237 ; Liv. viii. 22 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 6.) 

Fregenae, sometimes called Fregellas 
(Torre Maccarese), a town of Etruria on the 
coast between Alsium and the Tiber, on a low 
swampy shore, colonised by the Romans, prob- 
ably in B.C. 245 (Strab. p. 226; Liv. xxxvi. 3). 

Frentani, a Samnite people, inhabiting a 
well watered territory on the coast of the 
Adriatic, from the river Sagrus on the N. (and 
subsequently almost as far N. as from the 
Aternus) to the river Frento on the S., from 
which they derived their name. They were 
bounded by the JIarrucini on the N., by the 
Peligni and by Samnium on the W., and by 
Apulia on the S. They submitted to the 
Remans in B.C. 304 and concluded a peace with 
the republic iLiv. ix. 45). 

Frento (Fortore), a river in Italy, forming 
the boundary between the Frentani and Apulia, 
rises in the Apennines and falls into the 
Adriatic sea. 

Friniates, a people in Liguria, probably the 
same as the Briniates, who, after being sub- 
dued by the Romans, were transplanted to 
Samnium. 

Frisiabones, a tribe of the Frisii, inhabiting 
the islands at the mouth of the Rhine. 

Frisii, a people in the NW. of Germany, in- 
habited the coast from the E. mouth of the 
Rhine to the Amisia (Ems), and on the S. to 
the Bructeri, comprising Fricsland, Griiningen, 
&c. Tacitus divided them into Majores and 
Minores, the former in the E., and the latter 
in the W. of the country. The Frisii were on 
friendly terms with the Romans from the first 
campaign of Drusus till a.d. 28, when the 
oppressions of the Roman officers drove them 
to revolt. In the fifth century they joined the 
Saxons and Angli in their invasion of Britain. 
(Tac. Germ. 34 : Dio Cass. liv. 32 ; Procop. 
B. G. iv. 20.) 

Frontinus, Sex. Julius, was praetor a.d. 70, 
and in 75 succeeded Cerei lis as governor of 
Britain, where he distinguished himself by the 
conquest of the Silures, and maintained the 
Roman power unbroken until superseded by 
Agricola in 78. In 97 Frontinus was nomi- 
nated curator aquarian. He died about 106. 
(Tac. Hist. iv. 39; Agr. 17; Plin. Bp. iv. 8 r 
ix. 19.) He evidently possessed considerable 
knowledge both of engineering and of strategy. 
Two of his works are still extant: — 1. Stratrge- 
matieon Libri III, a sort of treatise on the art 
of war, developed in a collection of the sayings 
and doings of the most renowned leaders of 
antiquity, written as a supplement to a military 
work which is lost: a fourth book is different 
in plan and style and was added by an unknown 
writer. 2. Dc Aquaciluitibus Urbix Iiomac 
Libri If, which forms a valuable contribution 
to the history of architecture (Dirt, of Ant. 
art. Aquaeductns). The best edition of the 
Strategematica is by Gundennann, Lips. 
1888; of the J)r Aquaethirtibus by l'olenus, 
Patav. 1722, and by Bucheler, Lips'. 1858. It- 



348 



FRONTO 



FURIA 



is often published with Vitruvius. — In the 
collection of the Agrimensores or Rei Agrariae 
Auctores (ed. Goesius, Amst. 1674 ; ed. Lach- 
mann, Berlin, 1848) are preserved extracts 
from treatises ascribed to Frontinus on the art 
of measuring land and ascertaining boundaries. 
[Diet, of Ant. art. Groma.] 

Pronto, M. Cornelius, was born at Cirta in 
Numidia, in the reign of Domitian, and came 
to Rome in the reign of Hadrian, where he 
attained great celebrity as a pleader and a 
teacher of rhetoric. He was entrusted with 
the education of the future emperors M. 
Aurelius and L Verus, who entertained, especi- 
ally the former, the deepest affection for him, 
and rewarded him with wealth and honours. 
He was raised to the consulship in a.d. 143. So 
great was his fame as a speaker that a sect of 
rhetoricians arose who were denominated 
Frontoniani, professing to avoid the exag- 
geration of the Greek sophistical school, and 
bestowing especial care on the purity of their 
language and the simplicity of their style. But 
that Fronto's influence upon taste and educa- 
tion was not good is evident from the fact that 
he led the way in depreciating the authors of 
the Augustan age, that Gracchus, Cato, Ennius, 
and Plautus took the place of Cicero, Virgil and 
Horace in schools and in public esteem (Diet. 
qfAnt'.&vi. Ludits Litter arius). Fronto lived 
till the reign of M. Aurelius. The latest of his 
epistles belongs to the year 166. — Up to a 
recent period no work of Fronto was known to 
be in existence, with the exception of a corrupt 
and worthless tract entitled De Differentiis 
Vocabuloriim, and a few fragments preserved 
by the grammarians. But about the year 1814 
Angelo Mai discovered on a palimpsest in the 
Ambrosian Library at Milan a considerable 
number of letters which had passed between 
Fronto, Antoninus Pius, M. Aurelius, L. Verus, 
and various friends, together with some short 
essays. These were published by Mai at Milan 
in 1815, and in an improved form by Niebuhr, 
Buttmann and Heindorf, Berlin, 1816. Subse- 
quently Mai discovered on a palimpsest in the 
Vatican Library at Borne, upwards of 100 new 
letters ; and he published these in Rome in 
1823, together with those which had been pre- 
viously discovered. It is clear from his works 
that his reputation as a great writer and orator 
was undeserved. As an author he is without 
genius, but vain and pretentious, with a man- 
nerism arising from his effort to revert to an 
antique style. The value of his writings lies in 
their notice of contemporary men and manners. 
Ed. by S. Naber, Lips. 1867. 

Fronto, Papirius, a jurist, who probably 
lived about the time of Antoninus Pius, or 
rather earlier. 

Frusino (Frusinas, -atis: Frosinone), a town 
of the Hernici in Latium, in the valley of the 
river Cosas, and subsequently a Roman colony. 
It was celebrated for its prodigies. (Strab. p. 
-237 ; Juv. iii. 224 ; Liv. xrvi. 9.) 

Fucentis, Fucentia. [Alba, No. 4.] 

Fucinus Lacus (Lago di Celano or Capi- 
strano), a large lake in the centre of Italy and 
in the country of the Marsi, about thirty miles 
in circumference, into which all the mountain 
streams of the Apennines flow. As the water 
of this lake had no visible outlet, and frequently 
inundated the surrounding country, the emperor 
Claudius constructed an emissarium or artificial 
channel for carrying off the waters of the lake 
into the river Liris. (Verg. Aen. vii. 759 ; Tac. 
Ann. xii. 57; Suet. Claud. 20; Plin. xxxvi. 



124.) This emissarium is still nearly perfect : 
it is almost three miles in length. It appears 
that the actual drainage was relinquished soon 
after the death of Claudius, for it was reopened 
by Hadrian. (For a fuller description see Diet, 
of Ant. art. Emissarium). 
Fufius Calenus. [Calenus.] 
Fufluns, the Etruscan name of Dionysus. 
Fulgentius, Fabius Planciades, a Latin 
grammarian about a.d. 480 to 550. He was re- 
lated to Fulgentius bishop of Ruspe, in Africa, 
A.D. 508, and probably belonged to the same 
country. He is the author of : 1. Mytholo- 
giarwm Libri III ad Catum Presbyterum, a 
collection of mythological tales. His models 
are Apuleius and Martianus Capella. 2. Expo- 
sitio Sermonnm Antiquorum cum Testimoniis, 
a glossary of obsolete words and phrases; of 
very little value. 3. Liber de Expositione 
Virgilianae Continentiae, an allegorical ex- 
planation of the Virgilian poems. 4. De Aeta- 
tibus Miindi, a universal history, of little worth. 
Ed. by Van Staveren, Lug. Bat. 1742, and in 
Mythogr. Lat. by Bunte, Bremen, 1852. 

Fulginia, Fulginium (Fulginas, -atis: Fo- 
ligno), a town in the interior of Umbria on the 
Via Flaminia, was a municipium. 

Fulvia. 1. The mistress of Q. Curius, one 
of Catiline's conspirators, divulged the plot to 
Cicero. [Catilina.] — 2. A daughter of M. Ful- 

\ vius Bambalio of Tusculmn, thrice married, 

! first to the notorious P. Clodius, by whom she 
had a daughter Clodia, afterwards the wife of 

; Octavianus; secondly to C. Scribonius Curio, 
and thirdly to M. Antony, by whom she had 
two sons. She was a bold and ambitious woman. 
In the proscription of B.C. 43 she acted with 
the greatest arrogance and brutality :.»she gazed 

: with delight upon the head of Cicero, the victim 
of her husband. Her turbulent and ambitious 
spirit excited a new war in Italy in 41. Jealous 
of the power of Octavianus, and anxious to 
withdraw Antony from the East, she induced L. 
Antonius, the brother of her husband, to take 
up arms against Octavianus. But Lucius was 
unable to resist Octavianus, and threw himself 
into Perusia, which he was obliged to surrender 
in the following year (40). Fulvia fled to 
Greece and died at Sicyon in the course of the 
same year (Veil. Pat. ii. 74). 

Fulvia Gens, plebeian, but one of the most 
illustrious Roman gentes. It originally came 
from Tusculum. The principal families in the 
gens are those of Centumalus, Flaccus, Nobi- 
lior, and Paetinus. 

Fundanius. 1. C, father of Fundania, the 
wife of M. Terentius Varro, is one of the speakers 
in Varro's dialogue De Be Rustica. — 2. M., 
defended by Cicero, B.C. 65; but the scanty 
fragments of Cicero's speech do not enable us 
to understand the nature of the charge. — 3. A 
writer of comedies praised by Horace (Sat. i. 
10, 41, 42). 

Fundi (Fundanus : Fondi), an ancient town 
in Latium on the Appia Via, at the head of a 
narrow bay of the sea running a considerable 
way into the land, called the Lacus Fundanus. 
Fundi was a municipium sine suffragio [Caere] 
in B.C. 338, received the full franchise in 188, 
and was subsequently colonised by the veterans 
of Augustus. The surrounding country pro- 
duced good wine. There are still remains at 
Fondi of the walls of the ancient town. (Liv. 
viii. 14, xxxviii. 36 ; Strab. p. 234 ; Hor. Sat. i. 
5, 34 ; Mart. xiii. 113.) 
Furculae Caudinae. [Caudium.] 
Furia Gens, an ancient patrician gens, piob- 



FURIAE 

ably" came from Tuseulum. The most cele- 
brated families of the gens bore the names of 
Camillus, Meduixinus, Pacilus, and Philus. 
For others of less note see Bibaculus, Cbas- 

SIPES, PuBPUREO. 

Furiae. [Ekinyes.] 

Furina, an Italian divinity, who had a sacred 
grove at Rome. Her worship seems to have 
become extinct at an early time. An annual 
festival (Furinalia or Furinales feriae) had 
been celebrated in honour of her on July 25, 
and aflamen (flamen Furinalis) conducted her 
worship. She had also a temple in the neigh- 
bourhood of Satrieum. (Cic. jV. D. iii. 46; ad 
Q. Fr. iii. 1 ; Varr. L. L. vi. 19.) She is con- 
nected by some writers with the Furies ; but 
this seems only an attempt at etymology. 

C. Furnius, a friend and correspondent of 
Cicero, was tribune of the plebs B.C. 50 ; sided 
with Caesar in the Civil war ; and after Caesar's 
death was a staunch adherent of Antony. After 
the battle of Actiurn, 31, he was reconciled to 
Augustus, through the mediation of his son, 
was appointed consul in 29, and was prefect of 
Hither Spain in 21. (Appian, B. C. v. 30, 137 ; 
Dio Cass. Iii. 42; Cic. Fam. viii. 11.) 

Fuscus. 1. Arellius, a rhetorician at Rome 
in the latter years of Augustus, instructed in 
rhetoric the poet Ovid. He declaimed more 
frequently in Greek than in Latin, and his style 
of declamation is described by Seneca as more 
brilliant than solid, antithetical rather than 
eloquent (Sen. Contr. ii. 1). His rival in teach- 
ing and declaiming was Porcius Latro. [La- 
tro.] — 2. AristlUS, a friend of the poet Horace, 
who addressed to him an ode (Od. i. 22) and 
an epistle {Hp. i. 10), and who also introduces 
him elsewhere {Sat. i. it, 01 ; 10, 83). — 3. Corne- 
lius, one of the most active adherents of 
Vespasian in his contest for the empire, a.d. 69. 
In the reign of Domitian lie was sent against 
the Dacians, by whom he was defeated. (Juv. 
iv. 112; Tac. Hist. ii. 86, iii. 42, iv. 4.) Martial 
wrote an epitaph on Fuscus {Hp. vi. 76), in 
which he refers to the Dacian campaign. 



G. 



Gabae trdt)at). 1. [Darabgherd ?), a fortress 
and royal residence in the interior of Persis, SE. 
of Pasargadae, near the borders of Carmania 
(Strab. p. 728). — 2. Or Gabaza, or Cazaba, a 
fortress in Sogdiana, on the confines of the 
Massagetae (Arrian, iv. 17). 

Gabala (rdQaAa), a seaport town of Syria 
Seleucis, S. of Laodicea ; whence good storax 
was obtained (Plin. xii. 124). 

Gabali, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, whose 
country possessed silver mines and good pastu- 
rage. Their chief town was Audcritum Axte- 
rieux). (Caes. B. G. vii. 75; Strab. p. 191.) 

Gabiana or -ene {Vafiiavh, ra/3i7jW>), a fertile 
district in the Persian province of Susiana, W. 
of M. Zagros. 

Gabii (Gabinus : nr. Ca&tiglione, Ru.l, a town 
in Latium, on the Lacus Gabinus {Logo di 
Oavi), between Rome and Praeneste, was in 
early times one of the most powerful Latin 
cities; a colony from Alba Longa; and the 
place, according to tradition, when; Romulus 
was brought up (Plut. Horn. 6; Dionys. i. 81). 
It was taken by Tarquinius Superbus by strata- 
gem (Liv. i. 53), and it was in ruins in the time 
of Augustus (Gabiis desertior virus, Hor. Hp. i. 
11. 7). The cinrttis Gabiinm, a peculiar mode 
of wearing the toga at Rome, appears to have 



GADES 



34IV 



been derived from this town. Near Gabii are 
the immense stone quarries from which a part 
of Rome was built (cf. Tac. Ann. xv. 43). 

A. Gabinius, dissipated his fortune in youth 
by his profligate mode of life. He was tribune 
of the plebs B.C. 66, when he proposed and 
carried a law conferring upon Pompey the com- 
mand of the war against the pirates, with power 
to raise an army and a fleet of 500 ships, and to 
select his legati and quaestors, while he acted 
as supreme commander (practically a dictator) 
for three years over all the Mediterranean and 
over the coasts for fifty miles inland. He 
was praetor in 61, and consul in 58 with L. 
Piso. Both consuls supported Clodius in his 
measures against Cicero, which resulted in the 
banishment of the orator. In 57 Gabinius went 
to Syria as proconsul. His first attention was 
directed to the affairs of Judea. He restored 
Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood, of which lie 
had been dispossessed by Alexander, the son of 
Aristobulus, and he suppressed revolts of Jews, 
imposing heavy taxation. He next marched 
into Egypt, and restored Ptolemy Auletes to 
the throne. The restoration of Ptolemy had 
been forbidden by a decree of the senate, and 
by the Sibylline books; but Gabinius had been 
; promised by the king a sum of 10.000 talents 
i for this service, and set at nought both the 
senate and the Sibyl. His government of the 
province was marked by the most shameful 
venality and oppression. He returned to Rome 
in 54. He was accused of majestas or high 
treason, on account of iiis restoration of Ptolemy 
Auletes in defiance of the Sibyl and the au- 
thority of the senate. He was acquitted on this 
charge; but be was forthwith accused of ex- 
i tortion, specially on account of the receipt of 
i 10,000 talents from Ptolemy. He was defended 
by Cicero, who had been persuaded by Pompey 
to undertake the defence. Gabinius was con- 
' demned on this charge, and went into exile. 
He was recalled by Caesar in 49, and in the- 
following year (48) was sent into Illyricum by 
Caesar with some newly levied troops to re- 
inforce Q. Cornificius. He died in Illyricum 
about the end of 48. (Cic. de Imp. Pomp.; 
Plut. Pump. 25 ff. ; Dio Cass, xxxix. 55-63; 
Bell Alex. 44.) 

Gadara (Tdoapa: TaZaprivus : Vm-Keis), a 
large fortified city of Palestine, one of the ten 
which formed the Decapolis in Peroea, stood a 
little S. of the Hieromax (Ytirmul;), an eastern 
tributary of the Jordan. The surrounding dis- 
trict, SE. of the lake of Tiberias, was called 
Gadaris, and was very fertile. Augustus pre- 
sented Gadara to king Herod, after whose death 
it was assigned to the province of Syria. It was 
made the seat of a Christian bishopric. There 
were celebrated baths in its neighbourhood, at 
Amatha. (Strab. p. 759; Jos. Ant. xii. 8.) 

Gades (to. TdSapa: TaSfipeur, GudiUinus : 
Cadiz), a very ancient town in Hispania Baetica, 
\V. of the Pillars of Hercules, founded by the 
1'hoeniciiinH, and one of the chief seats of their 
commerce in the \V. of Europe, was situated on 
a small island of the same name (/. de Leon), 
separated from the mainland by a narrow chan- 
nel, which in its narrowest part was only the 
breadth of a stadium, and over which a 1 ridge 
was built. Herodotus says (iv. 8) that the 
island of Erythia was close to (iadeira; whvncc 
most later writers supposed the island of Gades 
to be the same as the mythical island of Erythia, 
from which ll<Tiu lc carried off the oxen ol 
(ienon (Strab. pp. 148, 168; Diod. v. 20; Hes 
Tli. 287, 979). In Roman times u new towr 



360 



GAEA 



GALATIA 



was built by Cornelius Balbus, a native of 
Gades, and the circumference of the old and 
new towns together was only 20 stadia. The 
town, however, included inhabitants on the main- 
land opposite the island, as well as those on a 
smaller island (S. Sebastian or Trocadero) in 
the immediate neighbourhood of the larger one. 
After the first Punic war Gades came into the 
hands of the Carthaginians, having previously 
been merely under their hegemony ; and in the 
second Punic war it surrendered of its own 
accord to the Romans. Its inhabitants received 
the Roman franchise from Julius Caesar in B.C. 
49 (Dio Cass. xli. 24). It became a municipium, 
and was called Augusta urbs J ulia Gaditana. 
— Gades was from the earliest to the latest 
times an important commercial town. Its 
inhabitants were wealthy and luxurious, and 
their licentious dances were notorious at 
Rome (Juv. xi. 162). Gades possessed cele- 
brated temples of Cronus and Heracles. — Gades 
gave its name to the Fretum Gaditanum, 
the straits at the entrance of the Mediterra- 
nean between Europe and Africa (Straits of 
Gibraltar). 

Gaea or Ge (Fcua or rfi), the personification 
of the earth. Homer describes her as a divine 
being, to whom black sheep were sacrificed, and 
who was invoked by persons taking oaths ; 
and he calls her the mother of Erechtheus and 
Tityus. But though she takes in Homer no 
prominent position, yet the inference is that he 
has merely put aside the myths about her, not 
that they are later than his period. Her im- 
portance before Homer's time is indicated by 
her position in the oaths and sacrifices beside 
Zeus and Helios (II. iii. 103, xviii. 259). In 
Hesiod she is the first being that sprang from 
Chaos, and gave birth to Uranus and Pontus. 
By Uranus she became the mother of Oceanus, 
Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Thia, Rheia, 
Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Thetys, Cronos, 
the Cyclopes, Brontes, Steropes, Arges, Cottus, 
Briareus, and Gyges. These children were 
hated by their father, and Ge therefore con- 
cealed them in the bosom of the earth ; but she 
made a large iron sickle, gave it to her sons, 
and requested them to take vengeance upon 
their father. Cronos undertook the task, and 
mutilated Uranus. The drops of blood, which 
fell from him upon the earth (Ge), became the 
seeds of the Erinyes, the Gigantes, and the 
Melian nymphs. [For this myth see Ueanus.] 
Subsequently Ge became, by Pontus, the mother 
of Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and Eury- 
bia. As regards her functions : (1) Ge belonged 
to the deities of the nether world (Qeol xflrfpioi), 
and hence she is frequently mentioned where 
they are invoked (cf. Aesch. Pers. 220, 621). 
(2) The surnames and epithets given to her have 
more or less reference to her character as the 
all-producing and all-nourishing mother (ira/x- 
fiT)reipa, KovpoTp6(t>os, omniparens). (3) She had 
oracular power, which accordingly was shared 
by other deities connected with the earth and 
its fruits, or with the underworld (Aesch. Eum. 
2; Eur. Iph. T. 1249; Paus. x. 5, 5; Did. 
of Antiq. art. Oraculum). Her worship was 
noticeable especially at Athens under the name 
of KovporpScpos on the Areiopagus and possibly 
on the Acropolis, and at Olympia in the pre- 
cinct of Zeus (Thuc. ii. 15 ; Paus. i. 18) ; but 
altars in her honour existed in many, probably 
in most, Greek cities. At Rome the earth was 
worshipped under the name of Tellus (which is 
only a variation of Terra). She was regarded 
by the Romans also as one of the gods of the 



nether world (Inferi), and is mentioned in con- 
nexion with Dis and the Manes. A temple was 
built to her by the consul P. Sempronius So- 
phus, in B.C. 304. Her festival was celebrated 
on the 15th of April, and was called Fordicidia 
or Hordicidia [see Diet, of Antiq. art. Fordi- 
cidia]. This sacrifice, consisting of cows, was 
offered up in the Capitol in the presence of 
the Vestals. In art Gaea is represented as a 
matronly figure, often with a cornucopia or 
with fruits about her : in some reliefs with little 
children beside her: she either reclines on 
the ground, or is a half-figure emerging from 
beneath, as in the relief of Pergamum (Giganto- 
machia), and in the terracotta of the birth of 
Erichthonius 

Gaeson, Gaesus, or Gessus (Valaav), a river 
of Ionia in Asia Minor, falling into the Gulf of 
Maeander near the promontory of Mycale. 

Gaetulia (TairovXia), the interior of N. Africa, 
S. of Mauretania, Numidia, and the region bor- 
dering on the Syrtes, reaching to the Atlantic 
Ocean on the W., and of very indefinite extent 
towards the E. and S. The people included 
under the name Gaetuli (TatTovXoi), in its 
widest sense, were the inhabitants of the region 
between the countries just mentioned and the 
Great Desert, and also in the Oases of the 
latter, and nearly as far S. as the river Niger. 
They were a nomad race, including several 
tribes, the chief of whom were the Autoteles 
and Pharusii on the W. coast, the Darae, or 
Gaetuli-Darae, in the steppes of the Great 
Atlas, and the Melanogaetuli, a black race re- 
sulting from the intermixture of the Gaetuli 
with their S. neighbours, the Nigritae. The 
pure Gaetulians were not an Aethiopic (i.e. 
negro), but a Libyan race, supposed to have 
been the ancestors of the Berbers (Strab. pp. 
826-829; Plin. v. 9, 10). 
Gaetulicus. [Lentulus.] 
Gainas. [Abcapius.] 
Gaius or Caius. [Caligula.] 
Gams, a celebrated Roman jurist, wrote 
under Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius. His 
works were very numerous, and great use was 
made of them in the compilation of the Digest. 
One of his most celebrated works was an ele- 
mentary treatise on Roman law, entitled Insti- 
tutiones, in four books. This work was for a 
long time the ordinary text book used by those 
who were commencing the study of the Roman 
law; but it went out of use after the com- 
pilation of the Institutiones of Justinian, and 
was finally lost. It was again discovered by 
Niebuhr in 1816 in the library of the Chapter 
at Verona. The MS. containing Gaius was 
a palimpsest. The original writing of Gaius 
had on some pages been washed out, and on 
others scratched out, and the whole was re- 
written with the Letters of St. Jerome. The 
task of deciphering the original MS. was a very 
difficult one, and some parts were completely 
destroyed. Ed. by Gb'schen in 1821 ; by Muir- 
head, 1880 ; by Kriiger and Studemund, 1884. 

Gagae (Tdyat), a town on the coast of Lycia, 
E. of Myra, whence was obtained the mineral 
called Gagates lapis — that is, jet, or, as it is still 
called in German, gagat (Plin. xxxvi. 141). 
Galaesus. [Galbsus.] 
Galanthis. [Gaxinthias.] 
Galatea (YaKd-Tiia), daughter of Nereus and 
Doris. For details, see Acis. 

Galatia (raKar'ta : raXarris : in the E. part of 
Anadoli and the W. part of Bumili), a country 
of Asia Minor, composed of parts of Phrygia 
and Cappadocia, and bounded on the W., S., 



GALATIA 



GALBA 



".51 



and SE. by those countries, and on the NE., 
N., and NW. by Pontus, Paphlagonia, and 
Bithynia. It derived its name from its inha- 
bitants, who were Gauls that had invaded and 
settled in Asia Minor at various periods during 
the third century B.C. First, a portion of the 
army which Brennus led against Greece sepa- 
rated from the main body and marched into 
Thrace, and, having pressed forward as far as 
the shores of the Propontis, some of them 
crossed the Hellespont on their own account, 
while others, who had reached Byzantium, were 
invited to pass the Bosporus by Nicomedes L, 
king of Bithynia, who required their aid against 
his brother Zipoetus (b.c. 279). (Liv. xxxviii. 
16 ; Just. xxv. 2 ; Strab. p. 541.) They speedily 
overran all Asia Minor within the Taurus, and 
exacted tribute from its various princes, and 
served as mercenaries not only in the armies 
of these princes, but also of the kings of Syria 
and Egypt ; and, according to one account, 
a body of them found their way to Babylon. 
During their ascendency, other bodies of Gauls 
followed them into Asia. Their progress was 
at length checked by the arms of the kings of 
Pergamum : Eumenes fought against them with 
various fortune ; but Attalus I. gained a com- 
plete victory over them (b.c. 230), and compelled 
them to settle down within the limits of the 
country thenceforth called Galatia, and also, 
on account of the mixture of Greeks with the 
Celtic inhabitants, which speedily took place, 
Graeco-Galatia and Gallograecia. The people 
of Galatia adopted to a great extent Greek 
habits and manners, but preserved their own 
language, which is spoken of as resembling 
that of the Treviri, and some features of their 
national religion, e.g. their assemblies in the 
sacred oak-grove. They retained also their 
political divisions and forms of government. 
They consisted of three great communities or 
cantons, the Tolistobogi, the Trocmi, and the 
Tectosages, each subdivided into four parts, 
called by the Greeks T6Tpapx' a< - At the head 
of each of these twelve Tetrarchies was a chief, 
or Tetrarch, who appointed the chief magistrate 
(SikchtHjs), and the commander of the army 
((TrpoToipuAa^), and two lieutenant-generals (viro- 
(TTparo<pv\aKfs). The twelve tetrarchs together 
had the general government of the country, but 
their power was checked by an assistant senate 
of 800, who met in a place called Dryaenetum, 
i.e. the oak-grove, and had jurisdiction in all 
capital cases (Strab. p. 500; Diet, of Ant. art. 
Pagns). This form of government had a na- 
tural tendency to monarchy, according as either 
of the twelve tetrarchs became more powerful 
than the rest, especially under the protection 
of the Romans, to whom Galatia became vir- 
tually subject as the result of the campaign 
which the consul Cn. Manlius undertook against 
the Gauls, to punish them for the assistance 
they had given to Antiochus the Great (b.c. 189). 
At length one of the tetrarchs, Dkiotarus, was 
rewarded for his services to the Romans in the 
Mithridatic war, by the title of king, together 
with a grant of Pontus and Armenia Minor; 
but after the death of his successor, Amyntas, 
Galatia was made by Augustus a Roman pro- 
vince (b.c. 25). It was soon after enlarged by 
the addition of Paphlagonia. Under Constan- 
tino it was restricted to its old limits, and 
under Valens it was divided into two provinces, 
Galatia Prima and Galatia Secunda. The 
country was beautiful and fertile, being watered 
by the rivers Halys and Snngarius. Its only 
important cities were, in the S\V. PebsinUB, 



the capital of the Tolistobogi; in the centre 
Ancyka, the capital of the Tectosages ; and in 
the NE. Tavium, the capital of the Trocmi. — 
Cicero speaks of the Galatians as being among 
the best soldiers levied in Asia (ad Att. vi. 5). 
[For the history of their Christian churches 
see Diet, of the Bible.} 

Galaxrus (ra\d£ios), a small river in Boeotia, 
on which stood a temple of Apollo Galaxios : it 
derived its name from its milky colour, which 
was owing to the chalky nature of the soil 
through which it flowed. 

Galba, Sulplcius, a patrician name. 1. P., 
consul e.c. 211, defeated by Hannibal in his re- 
treat from Rome in that year, a loss which was 
compensated by Capua falling into the hands of 
the Romans. Galba received Macedonia as his 
province, where he remained as proconsul till 
204, and carried on the war against Philip. In 
200, he was consul a second time, and. again 
obtained Macedonia as his province ; but he 
was unable to accomplish anything of" import- 
ance against Pliilip, and was succeeded in the 
command in the following year by Villius 
Tappulus. He was one of the ten commis- 
sioners sent to Greece in 196, after the de- 
feat of Philip by Flamininus, and was one of 
the ambassadors sent to Antiochus in 193. 
(Liv. xxv. 41, xxvii. 22-33, xxxv. 13-16 ; Polyb. 
ix. 6, xxiii. 8). — 2. Ser., was praetor 151, and 
received Spain as his province. His name 
is infamous on account of his treacherous 
murder of the Lusitanians, with their wives 
and children, who had surrendered to him on 
the promise of receiving grants of land. Viri- 
athus was one of the few Lusitanians who 
escaped from the bloody scene. [Vikiathus.] 
i On his return to Rome in 149, he was brought 
to trial on account of the massacre of the 
Lusitanians. His conduct was denounced in 
the strongest terms by Cato, who was then 
eighty-five years old, but he was nevertheless 
acquitted. He was consul 144. Cicero praises 
his oratory in the highest terms. (Appian, Hisp. 
58-60; Plut. Cat. Maj. 15; Nep. Cat. 3; Cic. 
de Or. i. 10, 40). — 3. Ser., great-grandfather of 
the emperor Galba, served under Caesar in the 
Gallic war, and was praetor in 54. After 
Caesar's death he served against Antony in the 
war of Mutina. — 4. C, father of the emperor 
Galba, was consul in A.D. 22. 

Galba, Ser. Sulpiclus, Roman emperor, from 
June, a.d. 68, to January, A.D. 69. He was born 
near Terracina, on the 24th of December, B.C. 8. 
Both Augustus and Tiberius are said to have 
told him that one day lie would be at the head 
of the Roman world, from which we must infer 
that he was a young man of more than ordinary 
talents (Tac. Ann. vi. 20). From his parents 
he inherited great wealth. He was invested 
with the curule offices before the legitimate 
age. He was praetor a.d. 20, and consul 33. 
After his consulship he had the government of 
Gaul, 89, where he carried on a successful war 
against the Germans, and restored discipline 
among the troops. On the death of Caligula 
many of his friends urged him to seize the 
empire, but he preferred a private station. 
Claudius en tnwled him, in 45, with the adminis- 
tration of Africa, which he governed with 
wisdom and integrity. In the reign of Nero he 
lived for several years in retirement, through 
fear of the tyrant's suspicion ; but in 61 Nero 
gave him the government of Hispania Tarra- 
! conensis. where he remained for eight years. 
I In 68 Vindex rebelled in Gaul. About the 
I same time Galba was informed that Nero had 



352 



GALENUS 



sent secret orders for his assassination. He 
therefore resolved to follow the example of 
Vindex ; but he did not assume the imperial 
title, and professed to act only as the legate of 




Ser. Sulpicius Galba, Roman Emperor, A.D. 68-( 
Obv., head of emperor, HIP. SEE. GALBA AVG. ; )•<•!■.. 
crown of oak-leaves {coro7ia civica), SPQR OB C S (em's 
servatos). 

the Roman senate and people. Shortly after- 
wards Nero was murdered ; and Galba pro- 
ceeded to Rome, where he was acknowledged 
as emperor. But his severity and avarice made 
him unpopular, especially with the soldiers. 
His powers had also become enfeebled by age, 
and he was under the sway of favourites, who 
perpetrated many enormities in his name. Per- 
ceiving the weakness of his government, he 
adopted Piso Licinianus as his successor. But 
this only hastened his ruin. Otho, who had 
hoped to be adopted by Galba, formed a con- 
spiracy among the soldiers, who mutinied six 
days after the adoption of Piso. Galba was 
murdered, and Otho was proclaimed emperor. 
(Life by Suet, and Plut. ; Tac. Hist. i. 7-49; 
Dio Cass, lxiii. 22 S.). 

Galenus, Claudius, commonly called Galen, 
the celebrated physician, whose works have had 
a longer and more extensive influence on the 
different branches of medical science than those 
of any other individual either in ancient or 
modern times. He was born at Pergamum in 
a.d. 130. His father, Nicon, who was an archi- 
tect and geometrician, carefully superintended 
his education. In his seventeenth year (146), 
his father, who had hitherto destined him to be 
a philosopher, altered his intentions, and, in 
consequence of a dream, chose for him the 
profession of Medicine. He at first studiet. 
medicine in his native city. In his twentieth 
year (149), he lost his father, and about the 
same time he went to Smyrna for the purpose 
of studying under Pelops the physician, and 
Albinus the Platonic philosopher. He after- 
wards studied at Corinth and Alexandria. He 
returned to Pergamum in his twenty-ninth 
year (158), and was immediately appointed 
physician to the school of gladiators, an office 
which he filled with great success. In 164 lie 
went to Borne for the first time. Here he 
stayed about four years, and gained great 
reputation from his skill in anatomy and 
medicine. He returned to Pergamum in 168, 
but had scarcely settled there, when he re- 
ceived a summons from the emperors M. 
Aurelius and L. Verus to attend them at 
Aquileia in Venetia. From Aquileia Galen 
followed M. Aurelius to Borne in 170. When 
the emperor again set out, to conduct the war 
on the Danube, Galen with difficulty obtained 
permission to be left behind at Rome, alleging 
that such was the will of Aesculapius. Before 
leaving the city the emperor committed to the 
medical care of Galen his son Commodus, who 
was then nine years of age. Galen stayed at 
Rome some years, during which time he em- 
ployed himself in lecturing, writing, and prac- 
tising, with great success. He subsequently 
returned to Pergamum, but whether he again 
visited Borne is uncertain. He is said to have 



GALINTHIAS 

died in the year 200, at the age of seventy, in 
the reign of Septimius Severus ; but it is not 
improbable that he lived some years longer. 
Galen wrote a great number of works on 
medical and philosophical subjects. The 
works still extant under his name consist of 
eighty-three treatises acknowledged to be 
genuine ; nineteen whose genuineness has been 
doubted ; forty-five undoubtedly spurious ; 
nineteen fragments ; and fifteen commentaries 
on different works of Hippocrates. Galen 
attached himself exclusively to none of the 
medical sects into which the profession was 
divided, but chose from the tenets of each what 
he believed to be good and true, and called 
those persons slaves who designated them- 
selves as followers of Hippocrates, Praxagoras } 
or any other man. The best edition of his 
works is by Kiihn, Lips. 1821-1833, 20 vols. 8vo. 

Galepsus (raA7)»J/oi : raAr^ios), a town in 
Macedonia, on the Toronaic gulf (Thuc. iv. 107). 

Galenus Maximianus. [Maximianus.] 

Galenus Trachalus. [Trachalus.] 

Galesus or Galaesus (Galeso), a river in the 
S. of Italy, flows into the gulf of Tarentum 
(Liv. xxv. 11), through the meadows where the 
sheep fed whose wool was so celebrated in 
antiquity (clulce pellitis ovibus Galaesi flu- 
men, Hor. Od. ii. 6, 10 ; cf. Mart. xii. 63, 3). 

Galeus (TaAeos) — that is, ' the lizard ' — son of 
Apollo and Themisto, the daughter of the 
Hyperborean king Zabius. In pursuance of an 
oracle of the Dodonean Zeus, Galeus emigrated 
to Sicily, where he built a sanctuary to his 
father Apollo. (Cic. Div. i. 20 ; Ael. V. H. xii. 
46 ; Paus. vi. 2, 2.) The Galeotae, a family of 
Sicilian soothsayers, derived their origin from 
bim. The principal seat of the Galeotae was 
the town of Hybla, which was hence called 
Galeotis or Galeatis. The lizard was a sacred 
animal of Apollo, and it is probable that the 
whole story denotes an early establishment of 
the worship of Apollo in Sicily. 

Galgacus or Calgacus, the chief of the Cale- 
donian tribes who fought with the Bomans at 
the Mons Graupius (Tac. Agr. 29). 

Galilaea (raAiAa/a), the N.-most of the three 
divisions of Palestine W. of the Jordan. It lay 
between the Jordan and the Mediterranean on 
the E. and W., and the mountains of Hermon 
and Carmel on the N. and S. It was divided 
into Upper or N. Galilee, and Lower or S. 
Galilee. (Strab. p. 760.) It was very fertile 
and densely peopled ; but its inhabitants were 
a mixed race of Jews, Syrians, Phoenicians, 
Greeks, and others, and were therefore despised 
by the Jews of Judaea. [Palaestina.] 

Galinthias or Galanthis (Ov. Met. ix. 306), 
daughter of Proetus of Thebes and a friend of 
Alcmene. "When Alcmene was on the point of 
giving birth to Heracles, and the Moerae and 
Hithyiae, at the request of Hera, were en- 
deavouring to delay the birth, Galinthias 
suddenly rushed in with the false report that 
Alcmene had given birth to a son. The hostile 
goddesses were so surprised at this information 
that they withdrew their hands. Thus the charm 
was broken, and Alcmene was enabled to give 
birth to Heracles. The deluded goddesses 
1 avenged the deception practised upon them by 
metamorphosing Galinthias into a weasel or 
a cat (yaXri). Hecate, however, took pity upon 
her, and made her her attendant, and Heracles 
afterwards erected a sanctuary to her. At 
Thebes it was customary at tbe festival of 
Heracles first to offer sacrifices to Galinthias. 
(Ov. Met. ix. 284 ; Ant. Lib. 29.) 



GALLA 

Galla. 1. Wife of Constantius, son of the em- 
peror Constantius Chlorus. She was the mother 
of Gallus Caesar. [Gallus." — 2. Daughter 
of the emperor Valentinian L, and second wife 
of Theodosius the Great. — 3. Galla Placidia 
or simply Placidia, daughter of Theodosius the 
Great by No. 2. She fell into the hands of 
Alaric, when he took Rome, a.d. 410 ; and 
Ataulphu3, the Gothic king, married her in 
411. After the death of Ataulphus she was 
restored to Honorius : and in 417 she was mar- 
ried to Constantius, to whom she bore the 
emperor Valentinian III. During the minority 
of the latter she governed the "Western Empire. 
She died about 450. 

Gallaecia, the country of the Gallaeci (KoX- 
Kcuko'i), in the X. of Spain, between the Astures 
and the Durius, was in earlier times included 
in Lusitania. Gallaecia was sometimes used 
in a wider sense to include the country of the 
Astures and the Cantabri. It produced tin 
(especially the country of the Artabri ; cf . Cas- 
sitebedes), gold, and a precious stone called 
gemma Gallaica. Its inhabitants were among 
the most uncivilised in Spain. They were 
defeated by D. Brutus, consul B.C. 138, who 
obtained in consequence the surname of Gal- 
laecus. (Strab. pp. 147, 152, 155.) 

Gallia (r) KeKriici), TaXariat. was used before 
the time of Julias Caesar to indicate all the 
land inhabited by the Galli or Celtae, and con- 
sequently included not only the later Gaul and 
the X. of Italy, but a part of Spain, the greater 
part of Germany, the British isles, and other 
countries. The early history of the Celtic race, 
and their various settlements in different parts 
of Europe, are related under Celtae. — 
1. Gallia, also called Gallia Transalplna 
(Varr. B. B. i. 7, 8), or Gallia Ulterior (ri tnrtp- 
dAirfioj or virtp ri>v 'AKwiaiv KeAriidj, Strab. 
p. 176 ; ToAdTOi TpavaaKinvoi, Polyb. ii. 15), to 
distinguish it from Gallia Cisalpina or the X. 
of Italy. Gallia Braccata and Gallia Comata 
are also used in contradistinction to Gallia 
Togata or the X. of Italy, but these names are 
not identical with the whole of Gallia Trans- 
alpina. Gallia Braccata was the part of the 
country first subdued by the Romans, the later 
Provincia, and was so called because the 
inhabitants wore braccae or trowsers. Gallia 
Comata was the remainder of the country, 
excluding Gallia Braccata, and derived its 
name from the inhabitants wearing their hair 
long. The Bomans were acquainted with only 
a small portion of Transalpine Gaul till the 
time of Caesar. In the time of Augustus it was 
bounded on the S. by the Pyrenees and the 
Mediterranean ; on the E. by the river Varus 
and the Alps, which separated it from Italy, 
and by the river Rhine, which separated it 
from Germany : on the X. by the German 
Ocean and the English Channel ; and on the 
W. by the Atlantic : thus including not only 
the whole of France and Belgium, but a part of 
Holland, a great part of Switzerland, and all 
the provinces of Germany W. of the Rhine. 
The greater part of this country is a plain, well 
watered by numerous rivers. The principal 
mountains were Mons Cebesna or Gehenna 
in the S. ; the range of Mons Jura in the E., 
separating the Sequani and the Helretii ; and 
Mons Voseous or Vooesus, a continuation of 
the Jura. The chief forest was the Silva An- 
duesna, extending from the Rhine anil the 
Treviri as far as the Scheldt. The principal 
rivers were, in the E. and X., the Rhesus 
(Bhine), with its tributaries the Mosa (Haas) 



GALLIA 



353 



and Mosella (Moselle) ; the Scaldis (Scheldt) ; 
the Sequana (Seine), with its tributary the 
Matboxa (Marne) : in the centre the Ltgeris 
(Loire) ; in the W. the GabuMNA (Garonne) ; and 
in the S. the Rhodaxus (Rhone). These river 
names dated from a time long before the Ro- 
man acquaintance with Gaul. The Arab was so 
called by the Romans, instead of its original 
name Sauconna, which came again into use and 
still survives in the modern name Sadne. The 
country was celebrated for its fertility in 
ancient times, and possessed a numerous and 
warlike population. — The Greeks, at a very 
early period, became acquainted with the S. 
coast of Gaul, where they founded, in B.C. 600. 
the important town of Massill^, which in it? 
turn founded several colonies, and exercised a 
kind of supremacy over the neighbouring dis- 
tricts. The Romans did not attempt to make 
any conquests in Transalpine Gaul till they had 
finally conquered, not only Africa, but Greece 
and a great part of Western Asia. In B.C. 154 
Q. Opimius went to aid the Massiliots and 
subdued their enemies the Ligures. In B.C. 125 
the consul M. Fulvius Flaccus commenced the 
subjugation of the Salluvii in the S. of Gaul. 
In the next three years (124—122) the Salluvii 
were completely subdued by Sextius Calvinus, 
and Aquae Sextiae (Aix) was founded in their 
countrv, as a fortress (castellum or (ppovpd, 
Strab. p. 180 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15 ; in Liv. Ep. 61 it 
is erroneously called a colony). In 121 the 
Allobrogea were defeated by the proconsul 
Domitius Ahenobarbus ; and in the same year 
Q. Fabius Maximus gained a great victory over 
the united forces of the Allobroges and Ar- 
verni, at the confluence of the Isara and the 
Rhone. The S. of Gaul was now made !■ 
Roman province (Caes. B. G. i. 45) ; and in llf 
was founded the colony of Xarbo Martius I Ufa r- 
bomie), which was the chief town of the pro- 
vince (Cic. Brut. 43, 160; Veil. Pat. i. 15). In 
Caesar's Commentaries the Roman province is 
called singly Proviitcia. in contradistinction to 
the rest of the country : hence comes the 
modern name of Provence. It was bounded on 
the E. by the Alps, on the X. by the bend of 
the Rhone from the Lake of Geneva to Vienne, 
on the W. by the Upper Garonne and the 
Cevennes, on the S. by the sea and the Eastern 
Pyrenees. The rest of the country was sub- 
dued by Caesar after a struggle of several 
years (58-50J. At this time Gaul was divided 
into three parts, Aquitania, Celtica, and Bi l- 
gica, according to the three different races by 
which it was inhabited. The Aquitani dwelt 
in the SW. between the Pyrenees and the 
Garumna ; the Celtae, or Galli proper, in the 
centre and W., between the Garumna and the 
Sequana and the Matrona ; and the Belgae in 
the XE. between the two last mentioned rivers 
and the Rhine. The different tribes inhabiting 
Aquitania and Belgica are given elsewhere. 
[Aquitania : Beloae.] The most important 
tribes of the Celtae or Galli were : 1. Between the 
Sequana and the Liger : the Armoricae civi- 
tates, under which name were included several 
tribes dwelling on the coast between the mouths 
of these two rivers [Armohica] ; the Aulerci, 
dwelling more inland, the Xamsetes, Asde- 
cavi or Andes, on the banks of the Liger ; E. of 
them the Carsutes ; and on the Sequana, tin- 
Parish, Sesoses, and Tuicasses. — 2 Between 
the Liger and the Garumna : on the coast the 
Pictoses and Santoses ; inland the Turones, 
probably on both sides of the Liger, the 
BiTt'RioES Cubi, Lemovices, Petrocorii, and 

A A 



554 



GALLIA 



GALLIENUS 



Cadurci; E. of these, in the mountains of 
Gehenna, the powerful Arveeni (in the modern 
Auvergne) ; and S. of them the Euteni. — 3. On 
the Rhone and in the surrounding country : 
between the Khone and the Pyrenees, the 
Volcae ; between the Rhone and the Alps, 
the Salyes or Salluvii ; N. of them the 
Cavaees ; between the Rhone, the Isara, and 
the Alps, the Allobboges ; and further N. the 
Aedui, Sequani, and Helvetii, three of the 
most powerful people in all Gaul. — Augustus 
divided Gaul into four provinces. 1. Gallia 
Narhonensis, the same as the old Provincia, 
under a proconsul. 2. G. Aquitanica, which 
extended from the Pyrenees to the Liger. 3. G. 
Lugdunensis, the country between the Liger, 
the Sequana, and the Arar, so called from the 
colony of Lugdunum (Lyon), founded by Mu- 
natius Plancus. 4. G. Belgica, the country 
between the Sequana, the Arar, and the Rhine. 
These three last named, conquests of Julius 
Caesar, were (in distinction to G. Narbonensis) 
called Tres Galliae (Liv. Ep. 134; Plin. iv. 
105) ; they were imperial provinces and each 
was administered by a legatus of the emperor. 
Shortly afterwards the portion of Belgica 
bordering on the Rhine, and inhabited by 
German tribes, was subdivided into two new 
provinces, called Germania Prima and Se- 
cunda, or Germania Superior and Inferior. 
[Germania.] At a later time the provinces of 
Gaul were still further subdivided, till at 
length, under the emperor Gratian, they 
reached the number of seventeen. The 
difference of administration in the old pro- 
vince of G. Narbonensis, and in the 'three 
Gauls' was much greater than the super- 
ficial distinction of senatorial and imperial 
government. The southern province was 
completely Romanised, and Roman colonies 
took the place of old cantons. Important 
towns of a purely Roman character were thus 
established. Besides Narbo, these were es- 
pecially Arelate (Aries), with commerce from 
the mouth of the Rhone ; Forum Julii (Frejus) 
the station of the fleet ; Baeterrae (Beziers), 
Arausio (Orange), and Nemausus (Nismes) : 
other burgess communities were added after- 
wards : hence the Latin language early took 
root and the distinction began, which still 
exists, between the countries of Langue d'oc and 
Langue d'oil. On the other hand, in the 
three more northern provinces the Celtic 
cantonal organisation remained [Diet, of Ant. 
art. Pagus] ; and therefore the old tribal 
influence lasted, and those districts became 
more slowly and less completely Romanised. 
The only town in these provinces which was 
founded as a colony in an early period of the 
conquest, and did not grow out of a canton, was 
Lugdunum, which eventually took the pre- 
cedence of all Gallic towns until the end of the 
third century, when Treviri (Treves) became 
the capital of Gaul. And the policy of 
Augustus allowed to the three provinces the 
right of assembling at Lugdunum a diet of 
representatives from sixty-four cantons, which 
not only consolidated the nation in religious 
matters but also had political functions for 
considering and presenting to Rome their 
complaints or desires. The rhetoricians and 
poets of Gaul, first in the towns of the old 
province and at Lugdunum, but afterwards in 
others also, occupy a distinguished place in the 
later history of Roman literature ; and Buedi- 
gala, Nabbo, Lugdunum, Augustodunum, and 
other towns, possessed schools, in which litera- 



ture and philosophy were cultivated with, 
success. On the dissolution of the Roman 
empire, Gaul, like the other Roman provinces, 
was overrun by barbarians, and the greater 
part of it finally became subject to the Franci 
or Franks, under their king Clovis, A.D. 496. — 
2. Gallia Cisalpina, also called G. Citerior 
and G. Togata, a Roman province in the N. of 
Italy, was bounded on the W. by Liguria and 
and Gallia Narbonensis (from which it was 
separated by the Alps), on the N. by Rhaetia 
and Noricum, on the E. by the Adriatic and 
Venetia (from which it was separated by the 
Athesis), and on the S. by Etruria and Umbria 
(from which it was separated by the river 
Rubico). It was divided by the Po into Gallia 
Transpadana, also called Italia Transpad ana, 
in the N., and Gallia Cispadana in the S. 
The greater part of the country is a vaBt plain, 
drained by the Padus (Po) and its affluents, 
and has always been one of the most fertile 
countries of Europe. It was originally in- 
habited by Ligurians, Umbrians, Etruscans, 
and other races ; but its fertility attracted the 
Gauls, who at different periods crossed the 
- Alps, and settled in the country, after expelling 
the original inhabitants. We have mention of 
five distinct immigrations of Gauls into the N. 
of Italy. The first was in the reign of Tar- 
quinius Priscus, and is said to have been led by 
Bellovesus, who settled with his followers in 
! the country of the Insubres, and built Milan. 
The second consisted of the Cenomani, who 
settled in the neighbourhood of Brixia and 
Verona. The third of the Salluvii, who pressed 
forward as far as the Ticinus. The fourth of 
the Boii and Lingones, who crossed the Po, and 
took possession of the country as far as the 
Apennines, driving out the Etruscans and 
Umbrians. The fifth immigration was the 
most important, consisting of the warlike race 
of the Senones, who invaded Italy in immense 
numbers, under the command of Brennus, and 
took Rome in B.C. 390. Part of them subse- 
quently recrossed the Alps and returned home ; 
but a great number of them remained in the 
N. of Italy, and were for more than a century 
a source of terror to the Romans. After the 
first Punic war the Romans resolved to make 
a vigorous effort to subdue their dangerous 
neighbours. In the course of four years 
(225-222) the whole country was conquered, 
and the Latin colonies Cremona and Placentia 
were founded in 218 to retain the hold upon it. 
The inhabitants, however, did not bear the yoke 
patiently, and it was not till after the final 
defeat of the Boii in 191 that the country 
became submissive to the Romans. Roman 
colonies, Bononia (189) and Parma and 
Mutina (183), were now founded, and other 
towns grew up with the prolongation of the Via 
Flaminia (under the name of Via Aemilia) to 
Placentia. By Sulla it was erected into a 
Roman province under a proconsul in B.C. 61. 
In 49 the civitas, which since the Social war 
had belonged to G. Cispadana, was extended to 
G. Transpadana. After 42, however, it reckoned 
as part of Italy, and Augustus constituted G. 
Cispadana the eighth, and G. Transpadana the 
eleventh, region. — The most important tribes 
were : in Gallia Transpadana, in the direction 
of W. to E., the Taurini, Salassi, Libici, 
Insubres, Cenomani ; in G. Cispadana, in the 
same direction, the Bon, Lingones, Senones. 

Gallienus, with his full name, P. Licinius 
Valeeianus Egnatius Gallienus, Roman em- 
peror, a.d. 260-268. He succeeded his father 



GALLIXARIA 



GALLUS 



355 



Valerian, when the latter was taken prisoner by 
the Persians in 260 ; but he had previously 
reigned in conjunction with him from 253. 
Gallienus was indolent, profligate, and indif- 
ferent to the public welfare ; and his reign was 
one of the most ignoble and disastrous in the 
history of Rome. The barbarians ravaged the 
fairest portion of the empire, and the inhabi- 
tants were swept away by one of the most 
frightful plagues recorded in history. This 




Gallienus. Roman Emperor, A.X>. 2CO-2C8. 
Obv.. head of Gallienus. GALL1ENVS AVG. : r.r.. Fides 
holding military standards. FII'ES JIILIT. 



pestilence followed a long protracted famine. 
When it was at its greatest height, 5000 sick 
are said to have perished daily at Rome ; and, 
after the scourge had passed away, it was 
found that the inhabitants of Alexandria were 
diminished by nearly two-thirds. The over- 
throw of the empire was averted mainly by 
able officers, who sprang up in every dis- 
trict, and asserted the dignity of independent 
orinces. The armies levied by these usurpers, 
>vho are commonly distinguished as Tlie Thirty 
Tyranta. in many cases protected the empire 
from external dangers by arresting the pro- 
gress of the invaders, and restored order in the 
provinces which they governed. Gallienus was 
at length slain by his own soldiers in 208, while 
besieging Milan, in which the usurper Aureolus 
had taken refuge. )Trebell. Poll. Gallienus; 
Zos. i. 37 ff.) 

Gallinana. 1. (Galinara), an island off the 
coast of Liguria, celebrated for its number of 
hens ; whence its name. — 2. Silva, a forest of 
pine-trees near Cumae in Campania (Cic. 
Fam. ix. 23; Juv. iii. 307 ; Strab. p. 243). 

Gallic Junius. 1. A Roman rhetorician, 
and a friend of M. Annaeus Seneca, the rheto- 
rician, whose son he adopted I Quint, iii. 1, 
21 ; Tac. Dial. 26). He was put to death by 
Nero. In early life he had been a friend of 
Ovid (Ex Pont. iv. 11). — 2. Son of the rhetori- 
cian M. Annaeus Seneca, and an elder brother 
of the philosopher Seneca, was adopted by 
No. L After his consulship he became, in a.d. 
52, proconsul of Achaia. He is spoken of with 
great affection by Seneca and by Statins I who 
calls him dulcin ; he survived Seneca, but put 
an end to his own life soon afterwards in 04. 
(Dio Cass. lx. 85, lxii. 25 ; Sen. Ep. 104 ; Stat. 
Silv. ii. 7, 32 ; Tac. Ann. xv. 73.| 

Q. Gallius. was a candidate for the praetor- 
ship in B.C. 64, and was accused of ambitus or 
bribery by M. Calidius. He was det»-nded on 
that occasion by Cicero in an oration of which 
a few fragments have come down to us. He 
was praetor urbanus B.C. 68, and presided at 
the trial of C. Cornelius. iVal. Max.viii. 10.) — 
He left two sons. Q. Gallius, who was praetor 
in 48. and was put to death by the triumvirs ; 
and M. Gallius, who is mentioned as one of 
Antony's partisans in 48 (Suet. Aug. 27). 

Gallograecia "Galatia.] 

Gallonius. a public crier at Rome, probably 
contemporary with the younger Scipio, whose 
wealth and gluttony passed into the proverb 
'to live like Gallonius' (Cic. De Fin. ii. 8. 



24, pro Quint. 30. 941. He was satirised by 
Lucilius and by Horace (Sat. ii. 2, 46). 

Gallus, Aelius. 1. A jurist, contemporary 
with Cicero and Varro, though probably rather 
older than either. He was the author of a 
treatise, De Verborum, quae ad Jus Civile 
pertinent, Significatione, which is frequently 
cited by the grammarians. (Gell. xvi. 5 ; 
Macrob. vi. 8, 16.) — 2. An intimate friend of the 
geographer Strabo, was prefect of Egypt in 
the reign of Augustus. In B.C. 24 he invaded 
Arabia, but was misled by a treacherous guide 
' and wandered for nearly six months to a point 
from which he was able to return in sixty days. 
' His army had suffered dreadfully from the heat 
and want of water, and he was obliged to re- 
treat with great loss. (Strab. p. 780 ; Dio Cass. 
; liii. 29; cf. Hor. Od.i. 29.) 

Gallus, L Anicius. praetor b.c. 168, con- 
ducted the war against Gentius, king of the 
Illyrians. whom he compelled to submit to the 
Romans (Liv. xliv. 30, xlv. 43). 

Gallus, C. Aquilllus. a distinguished Roman 
jurist, was a pupil of Q. Mucius Scaevola, and 
the instructor of Serv. Sulpicius. He was 
praetor along with Cicero, B.C. 66. He is often 
cited by jurists in the Digest, but there is no 
direct extract from his own works in the Digest 
(Cic. pro Caec. 27, 77.) 

Gallus Salonin^.s. L. Asinrus. 1. Son of C. 
Asinius Pollio, was consul B.C. 8. He was 
hated by Tiberius, because he had married 
Vipsania, the former wife of Tiberius. In a.d. 
30, Tiberius got the senate to sentence him to 
death, and kept him imprisoned for three years, 
on the most scanty supply of food. He died in 
prison of starvation, but whether his death was 
compulsory or voluntary is unknown. Gallus 
wrote a work, entitled De Coniparatione Patris 
ac Ciceronis, which was unfavourable to the 
latter, and against which the emperor Claudius 
wrote his defence of Cicero. (Tac. Ann. vi. 
29; Suet. Claud. 41: Gell. xvii. 1.)— 2. Son of 
the preceding, half-brother of Drusus, the son 
of Tiberius. He formed a conspiracy against 
Claudius and was exiled. (Suet. Claud. 13; 
Dio Cass. lx. 27.) 

Gallus, L. Caninius. was tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 56, when he supported Pompey. During 
the Civil war he appears to have remained 
neutral. He died in 44. (Cic. ad Att. xv. 18, 
xvi. 14 ; Dio Cass, xxxix. 16 ; Val. Max. iv. 2, 6.) 

Gallus, Cestius, governor of Syria (legatus 
a.d. 64, 65), under whom the Jews broke out into 
the rebellion which ended in the destruction of 
their city and temple by Titus (Tac. Hist. v. 10). 

Gallus, Constantius, son of Julius Constan- 
tius and Galla, grandson of Constantius Chlorus, 
nephew of Constantine the Great, and elder 
brother, by a different mother, of Julian the 
Apostate. In a.d. 351 he was named Caesar 
by Constantius II., and was left in the com- 
mand of the East, where he conducted himself 
with the greatest haughtiness and cruelty. In 
354 he went to the West to meet Constantius at 
Milan, but was arrested at I'etovio in Pannonia, 
and sent to Polo in Istria, where he was put to 
death. 

Gallus. C. Cornelius, was born at Forum 
Jnlii (Frijui) in Gaul, of poor parents, about 
B.O. 66. He went to Italy at an early age, and 
began his career as a poet when he was about 
twenty. He had already attained considerable 
distinction at the time of Caesar's death, 44; 
and upon the arrival of Oetavian in Italy after 
that event, (rallus joined his party, and soon 
acquired great influence witli him. In 41 he 

a A 2 



356 



GALLUS 



GANYMEDES 



■was one of the triumviri appointed by Octa- 
-vian to distribute lands in the N. of Italy 
among his veterans, and on that occasion he 
afforded protection to the inhabitants of Man- 
tua and to Virgil. He afterwards accompanied 
Octavian to the battle of Actium, 31, and com- 
manded a detachment of the army. After the 
battle, Gallus was sent with the army to Egypt, 
in pursuit of Antony ; and when Egypt was 
made a Roman province, Octavian appointed 
Gallus the first prefect of the province. He 
remained in Egypt for nearly four years ; but 
he incurred at length the enmity of Octavian, 
though the exact nature of his offence is un- 
certain. According to some accounts he spoke 
of the emperor in an offensive and insulting 
manner ; he erected numerous statues of himself 
in Egypt. , and had his own exploits inscribed on 
the pyramids. The senate deprived him of his 
estates, and sent him into exile ; whereupon he 
put an end to his life, B.C. 26. (Dio Cass. li. 9, 17, 
23 ; Suet. Aug. 66 ; Strab. p. 819 ; Eutrop. vii. 7.) 
The intimate friendship existing between Gal- 
lus and the most eminent men of the time, as 
Asinius Pollio, Virgil, Varus, and Ovid, and the 
high praise they bestow upon him, prove that he 
was a man of great intellectual powers and 
acquirements. Ovid (Trist. iv. 10, 5) as- 
signs to him the first place among the Roman 
elegiac poets. We know that he wrote a col- 
lection of elegies in four books, the principal 
subject of which was his love of Lycoris, whose 
real name was Cytheris (cf. Ov. Trist. ii. 4, 45, 
Am. iii. 9, 63 ; Propert. hi. 34, 91 ; Verg. Eel. 
ix. 10, x. 1). But all his productions have 
perished; for the four fragmentary poems 
attributed to Gallus (in Wernsdorf, Poet. Lat. 
Min.) are undoubtedly forgeries. 

Gallus, M. Fadius, a friend of Cicero, 
wrote a panegyric on Cato Uticensis (Cic. ad 
Fam. xxiv. 2). Cicero speaks also of a Q. 
Fadius Gallus and a T. Fadius Gallus, the 
latter of whom was his quaestor in B.C. 63 
(Cic. ad Q. F. i. 4, ad Att. iii. 23). 

Gallus, Sulpicius, a distinguished orator and 
man of learning, was praetor B.C. 169, and con- 
sul 166, when he fought against the Ligurians. 
In 168 he served as tribune of the soldiers 
under Aemilius Paulus in Macedonia, and dur- 
ing this campaign predicted an eclipse of the 
moon. (Cic. Brut. 20, 78, de Off. i. 6, 19; 
Liv. xliii. 2, 16, xlv. 44.) 

Gallus, Trebonianus, Roman emperor, a.d. 
251-254. His full name was C. Vibius Tbebo- 
nianus Gallus. He served under Decius in 
the campaign against the Goths, 251, and he is 
said to have contributed by his treachery to 
the disastrous issue of the battle, which proved 
fatal to Decius and his son Hetennius. Gallus 
was thereupon elected emperor, and Hostilia- 
nus, the surviving son of Decius, was nominated 
his colleague. He purchased a peace of the 
Goths by allowing them to retain their plunder, 
and promising them a fixed annual tribute. In 
253 the Goths again invaded the Roman 
dominions, but they were driven back by Aemi- 
lianus, whose troops proclaimed him emperor 
in Moesia. Aemilianus thereupon marched into 
Italy ; and Gallus was put to death by his own 
soldiers, together with his son Volusianus. 
The name of Gallus is associated with nothing 
but cowardice and dishonour. In addition to 
the misery produced by the inroads of the 
barbarians during this reign, a deadly pesti- 
lence broke out in 252, and continued its ravages 
over every part of the empire for fifteen years. 
(Zosim. i. 23-28 ; Zonar. xii. 20.) 



Gallus. 1. A river in Bithynia, rising near 
Modra, on the borders of Phrygia, and falling 
into the Sangarius near Leucae (Strab. p. 543). 
— 2. A river in Galatia, which also fell into the 
Sangarius, near Pessmus. From it the priests 
of Cybele are said to have obtained their name 
of Galli (Ov. Fast. iv. 364). 

Gamelii (ya.fiii\wi 8zoi), that is, the divinities 
protecting and presiding over marriage. These 
divinities are usually regarded as the protec- 
tors of marriage. In Plutarch the names are 
Zeus, Hera, Aphrodite, Peitho, and Artemis 
(Q. M. 2); in Pollux, Hera, Artemis, and the 
Fates. At Troezen Athene Apaturia was thus 
regarded (Paus. ii. 53). 

Gandarae (VauSdpai), or Gandaridae, an 
Indian people tributary to the Persian king in 
the Paropamisus, on the NW. of the Punjab, 
between the rivers Indus and Suastus. Their 
country was called Gandarltis (ravSapins). 
(Hdt. iii. 91, vii. 66 ; Strab. pp. 697, 699.) 

Gangaridae (rayyapiSai), an Indian people 
about the mouths of the Ganges. 

Ganges ( ray77| s : Ganges or Crania), the great 
river of India, which it divided into the two 
parts named by the ancients India intra Gangem 
(Hindustan) and India extra Gangem (Bur- 
mah, Cochin China, Siam, and the Malay 
Peninsula). It rises in the highest part of the 
Emodi Montes (Himalaya), and flows in a 
general SE. direction till it falls by several 
mouths into the head of the Gangeticus Sinus 
(Bay of Bengal) (Strab. p. 719). Like the 
Nile, it overflows its banks periodically, and 
these inundations render its valley the most 
fertile part of India. The knowledge of the 
ancients respecting it was very imperfect, and 
they give very various accounts of its source, 
its size, and the number of its mouths. The 
breadth which Diodorus assigns to it in the 
lower part of its course, thirty-two stadia, or 
about three miles, is perfectly correct (Diod, 
xvii. 93). The following rivers are mentioned 
as its tributaries : Cainas, Jomanes or Diamu- 
nas, Sarabus, Condochates, Oedanes, Cosoagus 
or Oossoanus, Erannoboas, Sonus or Soas, Sit- 
tocestis, Solomatis, Sambus, Magon, Agoranis, 
Omalis, Commenases, Cacuthis, Andomatis, 
Amystis, Oxymagis, and Errhenysis (Arrian, 
Ind. 4). — The name Ganga (rdyyri)) is applied 
to a city in the interior of India, on the GangeSj 
where it makes it great bend to the E., perhaps 
Allahabad (Strab. 1. c.). 

Gangra (rdyypa : Kankari), afterwards called 
Germanicopolis, a city of Paphlagonia, near 
the confines of Galatia, was originally a fortress ; 
in the time of king Deiotarus, a royal residence. 
In B.C. 7 it was added to Galatia. (Strab. p. 562.) 

Ganos (Tdvos), a fortress in Thrace, on the 
Propontis (Xen. Anab. viii 5, 81). 

Ganymedes (ravvfiiSris), son of Tros and 
Callirrhoe, and brother of Ilus and Assaracus, 
was the most beautiful of all mortals, and was 
carried off by the gods that he might fill the 
cup of Zeus, and live among the eternal gods 
(II. v. 265, xx. 232 ; Apollod. iii. 12). This is 
the Homeric account ; but other traditions give 
different details. Some call him son of Laome- 
don, others son of Ilus, and others again of 
Erichthonius or Assaracus. (Eur. Tro. 822 ; 
Tzetz. Bye. 34; Hyg. Fab. 224, 271.) The 
manner also in which he was carried away from 
the earth is differently described ; for while 
Homer mentions the gods - in general, later 
writers state that he was carried off by the eagle 
of Zeus (Verg. Aen. v.' 253 ; Hor. Od. iv. 4, 2; 
Apollod. 1. c.) ; and this is developed into the 



GARAMA 

accotmt that Zeus himself in the form of an 
eagle was the robber |pv. Met. x. 155; Nonn. 
Dionys. xv. 280). There is, further, no agree- 
ment as to the place where the event occurred ; 



GAZA 



357 




Ganymedes. (rom a copy of the group by Lecchares. 
(Vlsconti, Mus. J'io Clem.) 

and some legends mentioned Crete (Plat. Leyy. 
i. p. 636), though later writers usually represent 
him as carried off from Mount Ida (raptus ah 
Ida, Hot. Od. iii. 20, 15). The early legend 
simply states that Ganymedes was carried off 
that he might be the cup-bearer of Zeus, in 
which office he was conceived to have succeeded 
Hebe (II. xx. 234 ; Pind. 01. xi. 105) ; but later 
writers describe hi mas the beloved and favourite 




Ganymede*. (Zannonl. <;-il. di Firrn;r. eerie 4. vol. li. 
tav. 101.) 

of Zeus, without allusion to his office. Zeus 
compensated the father for his loss by a pair of 
divine horses. Astronomers have placed Gany- 
medes among the stars under t lie name of Aqua- 
rius (Serv. ad Aen. i. 28). The Romans culled 
him by u corrupt form of hi* name, Catamitus. 
On vase paintings Zeus in his own shape is 
usually represented as pursuing Ganymedes, but 
in sculpture the eagle carrying off Ganymedes 
is a favourite subject (of. Plin. xxxiv. 79) : others 
represent Ganymedes in Phrygian cap fondling 
the eagle or giving liiiu drml: ir"m ,i bowl. 

Garama. <; lram \vi eb. 

Oaramantes l ripouai/Ttsl, the 3. most people 
known to the ancients in X. Africa, dwelt far S. 
of the Great Syrtis in the region called Phazania 
IFezzan), where they had a capital city, Garama 
(Topa.ua : MouTMOuk, Int. 96 S8' X., loiig. 14° 10' 



E.). They were mentioned by Herodotus as 
an unwarlike people; he places them nineteen 
days' journey from Aethiopia and the shores of 
the Indian Ocean, fifteen days' journey from 
Ammonium, and thirty d:>ys' journey from 
Egypt. The Romans obtained fresh knowledge 
of them by the expedition of Cornelius Balbus 
in B.C. 19." iHdt. iv. 174, 183; Plin. v. 36; Verg. 
' Aen. vi. 795.) In Tacitus they are mentioned 
as allies of Tacfarinas [Ann. iv. 23). 

Garganus Mons l Monte Garyano), a moun- 
tain and promontory in Apulia, on which were 
oak forests (Hor. Od. ii. 9, 7, Ep. ii. 1, 102). 

Gargara, -on, or -us irdp7apa, -ov, -os : Vap- 
yapevs). 1. (Kaz-Dayli\ the S. summit of M. 
Ida, in the Troad (17. viii. 48 ; Strab. p. 583). — 
2. A city at the foot of M. Ida, on the shore of 
the Gulf of Adramytthim. between Assus and 
Antandrus ; said to have been founded origi- 
nally on the summit of the mountain by the 
Leleges ; afterwards colonised from Miletus ; 
and removed to the lower site on account of the 
inclemency of its situation on the mountain. 
Its neighbourhood was rich in corn. (Strab. pp 
006, 618 ; Verg. Geory. i. 103.) 

Gargettus ifapyr/TTtis : rapyfjTTtos), a demns 
in Attica, belonging to the tribe Aegeis, on the 
X W. slope of Mt. fiymettus ; the birthplace of 
the philosopher Epicurus. 

Garites, a people in Aquitania, neighbours of 
the Ausci, in the modem Comte de Gauve 
iC'aes. B.G. iii. 27). 

Garsauria, pi -Itis I Tapa-aovpia, or -Iris), a 
praefectura in Cappadociu, on the borders of 
Lycaonia and Tyanitis. Its chief town was 
called Tapaiovpa. (Strab. p. 663.) 

Garuh. a people of Liguria in the Apennines. 

Garumna IGaronnet, one of the chief rivers 
of Gaul, rises in the Pyrenees, flows NW. through 
Aquitania, and forms an estuary below Burdi- 
gala (Bordeaux) (Strab. p. 190; Tibnll. i. 7, 11). 

Garumni, a people in Aquitania on the Ga- 
rumna. 

Gatheae (raOeai), a town in Arcadia on the 
Gatheatas, a river which Hows into the Alpheus. 
I WSW. of Megalopolis (Paus. viii. 341. 

Gaugamela Ira ravydu-qKa : Karmelis), a 
village in the district of Aturia in Assyria, the 
scene of the last and decisive battle between 
Alexander and Darius Codomannus, B.C. 331, 
1 commonly called the battle of Aubela. 

Gaulanitis ifai/Aai'n-ij : Janlan), a district in 
1 the X. of Palestine, on the E. side of the Lake, 
of Tiberias, as far S. as the river Hieromax, 
named from the town of Golan (TavKava). 

Gaulos irauAos : rauAiTTjy: Gozo), an island 
and a municipinm in the Sicilian sea near 
Melite (Malta) (Plin. iii. 921. 

Gaureleon. Gannon. AsnRos.J 

Gaurus Mons, Gauranus ..r -ni M. [Monte 
Gauro),a volcanic range of mountains in 0am- 
' pania, between Cumae and Neapolis, in tho 
neighbourhood of Puteoli, noted for good wine, 
and memorable for the defeat of the Samnites 
by M. Valerius Corvtis. i:.r. :'.4;; iLiv. vii. 32). 

Gaza (Tafai. 1. (Ohutuh), the last city on 
the BW< frontier of Palestine, and the key of 
the country on the side of Egypt, stood on an 
eminence about two miles from the sea, and Won, 
from the very earliest times of which we have 
any record, strongly fortified. It was one of 
the five cities of the Philistines ; and, though 
taken from them more than once by the .lews, 
was each time recovered. It was taken by 
Cyras the Great, and remained in the hands of 
the Persians till the time A 1 • x 1 1 1 • i . - r . wl. • 
only gained possession of it after an obstinate 



358 



GAZACA 



GELLIUS 



defence of several months (Arrian, An. ii. 27 ; 
Polyb. xvi. 40). In B.C. 315, it fell into the power 
of Ptolemy the son of Lagus, as the result of his 
victory over Demetrius before the city, and was 
destroyed by him. But it again recovered, and 
was possessed alternately by the kings of Syria 
and Egypt, during their prolonged wars, and 
afterwards by the Asmonaean princes of Judaea, 
one of whom, Alexander Jannaeus, again de- 
stroyed it, B.C. 96. It was rebuilt by Gabinius ; 
given by Augustus to Herod the Great ; and, 
after Herod's death, united to the Roman pro- 
vince of Syria (Jos. Ant. xv. 7, 8, xvii. 11, 4). 
In a.d. 65, it was again destroyed in an insur- 
rection of its Jewish inhabitants ; but it re- 
covered once more, and remained a flourishing 
city till it fell into the hands of the Arabs in 
a.d. 634. It was made a Roman colony (Wad- 
dington, 1904), but at what period is uncertain. 
In addition to its importance as a military post, 
it possessed an extensive commerce, carried on 
through its port, Majunia, or Constantly. — 
2. (Ghaz), a city in the Persian province of 
Sogdiana, between Alexandria and Cyropolis ; 
one of the seven cities which rebelled against 
Alexander in B.C. 328 (Arrian, An. iv. 2). 

Gazaca (rd(wca : Tabreez), a city in the N. of 
Media Atropatene, equidistant from Artaxata 
and Ecbatana, was a summer residence of the 
kings of Media (Strab. p. 523). 

Gazelon (ra(r}\iiv : al. raSi\wi'), a town E. of 
the Halys, on the borders of Pontus and Paphla- 
gonia, prob. Vezir Kupreu. It was chief town 
of the district Gazelonitis (Strab. pp. 547, 553). 

Gaziura (ra('iovpa), in Pontus Galaticus, on 
the river Iris, below Amasia, once the residence 
of the kings of Pontus (Strab. p. 547). 

Gebalene (re/BaATjWj), the district of Arabia 
Petraea around the city of Petba. 

Gebenna Mons. [Cebenna.] 

Gedrosia (TtSpoxna, and TaZpoxrla: SE. part 
of Beloochistan), the furthest province of the 
Persian empire on the SE., and a subdivision of 
Abiana, was bounded on the W. by Carmania, 
on the N. by Drangiana and Arachosia, on the 
E . by the country about the lower course of the 
Indus, and on the S. by the Indian Ocean. It 
is formed by a succession of sandy steppes, 
rising from the sea-coast towards the table-land 
of Ariana, and produced little besides aromatic 
shrubs. The slip of land between the coast and 
the lowest mountain range is watered by several 
rivers ; but even this district is for the most 
part only a series of salt marshes. Gedrosia is 
known in history chiefly through the distress 
from want of water suffered by the armies of 
Cyrus and of Alexander (Axria,n,An. vi. 24). The 
inhabitants were divided by the Greek writers 
into two races, the Ichthyophagi on the sea 
coast, and the Gedrosi in the interior (Strab. 
pp. 720-723). The latter were a nomad people, 
whom even Alexander was only able to reduce 
to a temporary subjection. The whole country 
was divided into eight districts. Its chief cities 
were Rhambacia and Pura, or Parsis. 

GeganiaGens, traced its origin to the mythi- 
cal Gyas, one of the companions of Aeneas. It 
was transplanted to Rome on the destruction of 
Alba by Tullus Hostilius, and enrolled among 
the Roman patricians (Liv. i. 30). There ap- 
pears to have been only one family in this gens, 
that of Macerinus, to which belonged consuls 
in the years 492, 432, B.C. (Liv. ii. 34, iv. 22). 

Gela (ri FeXa, Ion. TeXy : TeXyos, Gelensis : 
nr. Terra Nuova, Ru.), a city on the S. coast of 
Sicily, on a small river (poetically exaggerated) 
of the same name (Fiume di Terra Nuova), 



founded by Rhodians from Lindos, and by 
Cretans, B. c 690 (Hdt. vii. 153 ; Diod. viii. 25; 
Strab. p. 272). It was originally called Lindii 
(Thuc. vi. 4); and it is suggested with proba- 
bility that Lindii was on the west, side of the 




Coin of Gela, about 4G0 B.C. 
Obv., man-headed bull (river-god), rt.\A2 ; rev., horseman 
with spear. 

river, and that Gela was originally an outpost 
on the east bank. It soon obtained great power 
and wealth ; and, in 582, it founded Agrigentum, 
which became more powerful than the mother 
city. Like the other cities of Sicily, it was 
subject to tyrants, of whom the most important 
were Hippocrates, Gelo, and Hieeo. Gelo 
transported half of its inhabitants to Syracuse; 
the place gradually fell into decay, and in the 
time of Augustus was no longer inhabited. The 
poet Aeschylus died here. — N. of Gela were the 
celebrated Campi Gelvi, which produced rich 
crops of wheat (Verg. Aen. iii. 701). 
Gelae, [Cadusii.] 

Gelanor (Te\avuip), king of Argos, was ex- 
pelled by Danaus. 

Gelduba (Gellep, below Cologne), a fortified 
place of the Ubii on the Rhine in Lower Ger- 
many (Tac. Hist. iv. 25 ; Plin. xix. 90). 

Gellia Gens, plebeian, was of Samnite origin, 
and afterwards settled at Rome. There were 
two generals of this name in the Samnite wars : 
Gellius Statius in the second Samnite war, who 
w ; as defeated and taken prisoner, b. c 305, and 
Gellius Egnatius in the third Samnite war. 
[Egnatius.] The chief family of the Gellii at 
Rome bore the name of Publicola. 

Gellias (TeAAi'as), a citizen of Agrigentum in 
the fifth century B. c celebrated for his wealth 
and his hospitality. When Agrigentum was 
taken by the Carthaginians in 406, he set fire 
to the temple of Athene and perished in the 
flames. (Diod. xiii. 83-90 ; Val. Max. iv. 8.) 

Gellius. 1. Cn., a contemporary of the 
Gracchi, the author of a history of Rome from 
the earliest epoch down to B. c. 145 at least. 
The work is lost, but it is frequently quoted by 
later writers (Dionys. ii. 31 ; Macrob. i. 16, 21). 
— 2. Aulus, a Latin grammarian of good family, 
was probably a native of Rome. He studied 
rhetoric under T. Castricius and Sulpicius 
Apollinaris, philosophy under Calvisius Taurus 
and Peregrinus Proteus, and enjoyed also the 
friendship and instructions of Favorinus, 
Herodes Attieus, and Cornelius Fronto. While 
yet a youth he was appointed by the praetor to 
act as an umpire in civil causes. The precise 
dates of his birth and death are unknown ; but 
he must have lived under Hadrian, Antoninus 
Pius, and M. Aurelius, a. d. 117-180. He wrote 
a work entitled Nodes Atticae, because it was 
composed in a country house near Athens, 
j during the long nights of winter. It is of great 
value for its citations from books which have 
perished, and for its notices of persons and of 
manners and customs, being a sort of miscel- 
lany, containing numerous extracts from Greek 
and Roman writers, on a variety of topics con- 
nected with history, antiquities, philosophy, and 
philology, interspersed with original remark. 



GELO 



GENIUS 



359 



the whole thrown together into twenty books, 
without any attempt at order or arrangement. 
The eighth book is lost with the exception of 
the index. Ed. by Hertz, Berl. 1883 and 1886. 

Gelo (Yihwv). 1. Son of Dinomenes, tyrant 
of Gela, and afterwards of Syracuse, was de- 
scended from one of the most illustrious families 
in Gela. He held the chief command of the 
cavalry in the service of Hippocrates, tyTant of . 
Gela ; shortly after whose death he obtained j 
the supreme power, B. c. 491. In 485 his aid 
was sought by the Gamori, or oligarchic party 
at Syracuse, who had been driven out by the 
populace. Gelo restored them, but used the 
opportunity to get possession of Syracuse. 
From this time he neglected Gela, and bent all 
his efforts to the aggrandisement of Syracuse, 
to which place he removed many of the in- 
habitants of other cities of Sicily, especially 
Camarina, Megara, and Hyblaea. When the 
Greeks asked his aid against Xerxes, he offered 
'them a force of 30,000 men on condition that 
he should command the allied army. This 
they refused, fearing perhaps that he might try 
to master Greece as he had mastered Syracuse 
(Hdt. vii. 171). It may have been the case that 
the negotiations fell through because of the 




Coin of Gelo. 

Olv., head ot Gelo ; ret.. Victory 1 a blga. IYPaKOIIOI 
fEAQNui. 



need of troops in Sicily herself ; for in 480 the 
Carthaginians invaded Sicily with an army 
amounting, it is said, to the number of 300,000 
men. Gelo gained a brilliant victory over them 
at Himera on the same day as the battle of 
Salamis. Gelo died in 478 of a dropsy, after 
reigning seven years at Syracuse, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother, Hiero. His subjects 
showed their sense of the dangers from which 
he saved them. A splendid tomb was erected 
to him by the Syracusans at the public ex- 
pense, and heroic honours were decreed to his 
memory. (Diod.xi. 20-38 ; Pind. Pyth. i. 75.) — 
2. Son of Hiero EL, king of Syracuse, who died 
before his father. He received the title of king 
in the lifetime of his father. 

Geloni (rfAtaipoi), a Scythian people, who 
dwelt in Sarmatia Asiatica, to the E. of the 
river Tanals {Don). They were said to have 
been of Greek origin, anil to have migrated 
from the shores of the Euxine ; but they inter- 
mixe_d with the Scythians, and lost all traces 
of their Hellenic race. Their chief city was 
called Gelonus {Tt \<av6i). iHdt. iv. 108; Verg. 
Georg. ii. 115 ; Hor. (Ml. ii. 9, 23.) 

GemlnuB (ttfuvos), an astronomer, was a 
native of Rhode.-., and flourished about B. C. 77. 
He is the author of an extant work, entitled 
EiVtrycuy)) eis to •baivuy.tva, which is a descrip- 
tive treatise on elementary astronomy, with a 
great deal of historical allusion. It is printed 
in the Uranoluyitm of Petavius, Paris, 1(530, 
and in Halma's edition of Ptolemy, Paris, 1810. 

Geminus, Servillus. 1. P., twice consul with 
C. Aurelius Cotta in the first Punic war — 
namely, in B. c. 352 ami 24*. In both years lie 
carried on war against the Carthaginians I Zonar. 
viii. 14). — 2. Cn., sou of No. 1, was consul 217 



with C. Flaminius, in the second Punic war, 
and ravaged the coast of Africa. He fell in the 
battle of Cannae, 216 [lav. xxii. 31-49,1.-3. BE., 
also surnamed Pulex, consul 202 with Tib. 
Claudius Nero, obtained Etruria for his pro- 
vince (Liv. xxvi. 23). 

Gemoniae (scalaej or Gemonii (gradus), a 
flight of steps cut out of the Aventine, down 
which the bodies of criminals strangled in the 
prison were dragged by hooks, and afterwards 
thrown into the Tiber (Juv. x. 66; Tac. Ann. 
iii. 14, Hist. iii. 74). 

Genabum or Cenabum (Orleans), a town in 
Gallia Lugdunensis, on the N. bank of the 
Ligeris, was the chief town of the Carnutes ; it 
was plundered and burnt by Caesar, but subse- 
quently rebuilt. In later times it was called 
Civitas Aurelianorum or Aurelianensis Urbs. 
whence its modern name. (Caes. B.G. viii. 3.1 
Genauni. a people in Tindelicia, the inhabit- 
ants of the Alpine valley now called Valle di 
Non, were subdued bv Drusus (Hor. Od. iv. 
14, 10 ; Strab. p. 206). 
Genava (Genavensis: Geneva), the last town 
I of the Allobroges on the frontiers of the Hel- 
vetia was situated on the S. bank of the Rhone, 
at the spot where the river flowed out of the 
Lacus Lemannus (Caes. B.G. i. 6). There was 
j a bridge here over the Rhone. 

Genesius, Josephus, lived about A.D. 940, 
and wrote in four books a history of the Byzan- 
tine emperors from a. d. 813 to 886. Edited by 
Lachmann, Bonn, 1834. 

Genetes (6 T^tt;?), a rocky point on the 
Euxine, close to Pr. Iasonium, where there was 
a temple of Zeus Genetaeus I Strab. p. 548; 
I Ap. Rh. ii. 378, 1009 ; Yal. Flacc. v. 148). 

Genetiva, a Roman colony founded in B.C. 44 
according to the directions of Julius Caesar, at 
Urso in the Spanish province of Baetica, a 
little north of Munda. Its full title was Colonia 
Julia Genetiva. In Pliny (iii. 12) the words 
' Urso quae Genua urbanorum ' are altered by 
some to ' Genetiva urbanorum ' ; by others to 
' Genetiva Ursaonum.' The old name reappears 
in the modern town Ossuna. The importance 
of Genetiva to historians is due to the fact that 
i in 1870-1875 considerable fragments were found 
j at Ossuna of the law for the regulation of the 
colony, which throw much light on Roman 
[ colonial administration. (C'.I.L. ii. p. 191 ; 
Slommsen, Ephem. Ejiig. ii. p. 119.) 

Genita Mana (cf. Manes, Slanial, an ancient 
Italian deity who watched over both the birth 
and death of human beings. Her connexion 
with death and the underworld is indicated by 
the custom of sacrificing dogs to her. (Plut. 
Q.B. 52 ; Plin. xxix. 58). 
Genltrix. i Venus.] 

Genius, in its earliest form a purely Italian 
I conception, to which there was nothing exactly 
! similar in the Greek religion. 1. The Genius 
(from gigno) was that Power which gave fruit 
fulness to each man or to the earth itself. For 
each woman the similar Power was called her 
Juno I'l'ibull. iv. (1; Petron. 25; Plin. ii. 16, 
' Junones Genioscjue This idea of an influ- 
ence for fruitfulness is expressed in tin- /ictus 
genialis, which stood in the atrium of the 
married (Hor. Ej>. i. 1, 87 ; Cic. CIk. 6, 14 ; 
Juv. x. 833). 2. The genius of each man came 
into being with him and was somewhat like a 
guardian spirit through his life (Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 
187), sometimes with favourable fortune, some- 
times with the reverse. Hence it is that Horace 
calls the genius ' albus et ater ' and ' voltu 
mutabilis ' : it is a question whether morulia 



300 



GENIUS 



should be read for mortalis in that passage: 
the latter word would allude to the belief that 
the guardianship of the genius ended with the life 
of the man (cf. Macrob. Sat* i. 10) ; on the other 
hand moralis would in some ways agree better 
with the context which calls the genius ' naturae 
deus humanae (cf . Serv. ad Georg. i. 302), and re- 
presents him as having to do with the character 
of the man ; this again agrees with the frequent 
allusions to the genius as meaning the natural 
capacity for enjoyment or the reverse : ' genio 
indulgere,' ' genium defraudare ' (Pers. v. 151 ; 
Plaut. Aid. 728, Pers. 263). 3. It is a natural 
sequence of this that the Genius was regarded 
as one of the Lares and was honoured under 
the title of ' genius domus.' 4. Further, the 
genius of each person expressed the Roman's 
belief in immortality, and, like the Dii Manes, 
was the soul or divine part of him which lasted 
after death, so that ' manibus et genio ' is a 
phrase on monuments, and in the case of a 
married couple ' genio et junoni ' (C.I.L. v. 246, 
viii. 3695). 5. "When the tendency arose, per- 
haps from Greek influence, to make the nature 
of the gods more completely correspond with 
that of man, the Romans began to speak in a 
similar manner of the genius of gods, and we 
find 'genius Jovis,' &c, spoken of as an attri- 
bute of the deity, but not as in any way a se- 
parate personality. The earliest instance of 
this which has been cited is dated B. c. 58 (C.I.L. 
i. 603). 6. Genius loci. Divine protectors 
were imagined also as watching over and in- 
fluencing each place as well as each person — 
an idea which can belong to the most primitive 
religion. Thus we have ' genius pagi,' ' vici,' 
' horreorum,' &c. 7. Analogous to the genius 
loci is the genius civitatis. The Genius Romae, 
representing both the creation and the preser- 
vation of Rome was honoured as early as 218 
B.C. (Liv. xxi. .62), and the same idea is ex- 
tended to the provinces : e.g. ' Genius terrae 
Britannicae' (C.I.L. vii. 1113). 8. A later 
development was the worship of the Genius of 
the Emperor, more akin in its nature to the 
Greek custom of paying divine honours to the 
hero after his death ; but differing in so far 
that he received the worship in his lifetime 
(but cf. avSpanro^al/xoiy, Eur. Mhes. 971). It was 
a method of introducing the deifieation of the 
emperor, resting perhaps on his claim to em- 
body the Genius populi Romani. The Genius 
Aitgusti was associated with the worship of the 
Lares after the battle of Actium (Ov. Fast. v. 
145 ; Dio Cass. li. 19), and thenceforward the 
imperial image found a place in the lararium 
and received honours at meal-times (cf. ' alteris 
te mensis adhibet deum .... Laribus tuum 
miscet numen,' Hor. Od. iv. 5, 31). In art the 
genius loci was commonly represented by a 
snake, which points to the double connexion of 
the genius with the earth and its fruits and 
with the underworld of the dead (the snake 
being a symbol of the deities who were so con- 
nected). This explains some well-known pas- 
sages, the ' geniumne loci famulumne parentis ' 
in Verg. A en. v. 95, and the ' pinge duos angues, 
sacer est locus ' in Pers. i. 113. It is illustrated 
by a picture found at Herculaneum represent- 
ing the genius of a spot on the hillside. The 
snake is the genius devouring the offerings laid 
upon his altar. The naked boy is perhaps marked 
out by the lotos on his forehead and the rais- 
ing of his hand to his lips as Harpocrates : 
others see in him merely a boy who has made 
an offering. The genius of a person is repre- 
sented by the idealised figure of the person 



GENUCIA 

himself with the toga drawn over his head as 
in the ritus Romanus and with a cornucopia 
in his hand. The Genius Augusti is thus repre- 
sented in a statue in the Vatican. It was a 



CENIV 5 ) 
HVIVS LOCI 
MONTI 5 




Snake as Genius Loci. (From a painting at Herculaneum.) 

mistaken idea that the winged figures [Eeos] 
found in various sculptures and paintings re- 
present Genii. There is no ground for the belief 
that the Genius was so represented ; but the idea 
may be partly due to the confusion of the Genius 
with the Greek Sa'i/Muv, who was commonly 
represented by the Greek artists as winged. 

Genseric, king of the Vandals, and the most 
terrible of all the barbarian invaders of the em- 
pire. In A. D. 429 he crossed over from Spain 
to Africa, and ravaged the country with fright- 
ful severity. Hippo was taken by him in 431, 
Carthage did not fall into his hands till 439. 
Having thus become master of the whole of the 
NW. of Africa, he attacked Italy itself. In 
455 he took Rome and plundered it for fourteen 
days, and in the same year he destroyed Capua, 
Nola, and Neapolis. Twice the empire endea- 
voured to revenge itself, and twice it failed : 
the first was the attempt of the Western em- 
peror Majorian (457), whose fleet was destroyed 
in the bay of Carthagena. The second was the 
expedition sent by the Eastern emperor Leo 
(468), which was also baffled by the burning of 
the fleet off Bona. Genseric died in 477, at a 
great age. He was an Arian ; and in the 
cruelties exercised under his orders against his 
Catholic subjects he exhibited the first instance 
of persecution carried on upon a large scale by 
one body of Christians against another. 

Gentlus or Genthius (reV0(os), son of Pleu- 
ratus, a king of the Illyrians. As early as 
b. c. 180, he had given offence to the Romans 
on account of the piracies of his subjects ; and 
in 168 he entered into an alliance with Perseus, 
king of Macedonia. In the following year the 
praetor L. Anicius Gallus was sent against him. 
The war was finished within thirty days. Gen- 
tius was defeated in battle, and then surren- 
dered himself to Anicius, who carried him to 
Rome to adorn his triumph. He was after- 
wards kept as a prisoner at Spoletium. (Liv. 
xliv. 30, xlv. 26 ; Plut. Aemil. 29.) 

Genua (Genuas, -atis, Genuensis : Genoa), 
an important commercial town in Liguria, 
situated at the extremity of the Ligurian gulf 
(Gulf of Genoa), was in the possession of the 
Romans at the beginning of the second Punic 
war, but towards the end of the war was held 
for some time by the Carthaginian Mago (Liv. 
xxi. 32, xxviii. 40 ; Strab. pp. 201, 216). It was 
a Roman municipium, but it did not become of 
political importance till the middle ages, when 
the name often appears as Janua. 

Genficia Gens, patrician, of which the prin- 
cipal families bore the names of Aventinensis 
and Augurinus. 



GEXUSUS 

Genu8ns (IsTcumi), a river in Greek Illyria, 
N. of the Apsus (Caes. B.C. iii. 75). 

Gephyraei i YtQvpaioi) [Harmodius.] 

Gepidae, a Gothic people, who came from 
Scandinavia, and first settled in the country 
between the Oder and the Vistula, from which 
they expelled the Burgundiones. Subsequently 
they joined the hosts of Attila ; and alter his 
death they settled in Dacia, near the Danube. 
As they were dangerous neighbours, Justinian 
invoked the aid of the Langobardi or Lom- 
bards, who conquered the Gepidae and de- 
stroyed their kingdom (Procop. B.G. vi. 5). 

Ger or Gir (Teip : Ghir or Mansolig), a river 
of Gaetulia in Africa, flowing SE. from the M. 
Atlas, till it is lost in the desert. It first be- 
came known to the Romans through the expe- 
dition of Suetonius Paulinus in the reign of 
Nero (Plin. v. 15). 

Geraestus tTepauiTTos : TepalaTios), a promon- 
tory and harbour at the S. extremity of Euboea, 
with a celebrated temple of Poseidon, in whose 
honour the festival of the Geraestia | repcdcma) 
was here celebrated (Oil. iii. 177; Hdt. viii. 7 ; 
Strab. p. 446). 

Geranea I q repay em), a range of mountains, 
beginning at the SW. slope of Cithaeron, and 
running along the W. coast of Megaris, till it 
terminated in the promontory Olmiae in the 
Corinthian territory (Paus. i. 40, 1 ; Thuc. i. 105). 

Gerenia irepTjem), an ancient town in Mes- 
senia, the birthplace of Xestor, who is hence 
called Gerenian (Teprji'ios). It was on the 
western side of Messenia near the river Choerius, 
or possibly a little further N. and near Pherae : 
some writers place it at the modern Zarnata. 
Strabo says that the people of Elis asserted it 
to be a place called Gerenus in their own terri- 
tory (Strab. pp. 340, 360; Paus. iii. 26, 8). 

Gergis, or Gergitha, or -es, or -us ITepyts, 
ripyiBa, or -es, or -os : rep-yitfios), a town in the 
Troad, N. of the Scamander, inhabited by Teu- 
crians (Hdt. v. 122, vii. 43). Attalus removed 
the inhabitants to the sources of the Calcus, 
where mention is made of a place called Ger- 
getha or Gergithion, in the territory of Cvme 
(Strab. p. 616). 

Gergovla, a fortified town of the Arverni 
in Gaul, situated on a hill, which is precipitous 





En y/««A Xa rt/j. 







fooo joqo aooo i.ooo 






Plan of the Mountain of Gergovla ami Its environs. 
1. Plateau of Qergovia; 2. H. Auton ; B. In Unrhe and 
smaller Roman camp: 4. Largo camp: '<■ I'uy >!*• .Itivutt; 
6. Romagnat; 7. R. CUmentat ; s. Woni H«nan« : »• Hill «/ 
Mullet connected with plateau by ridgo tjuQum). 

or very difficult of approach on all sides except 
a portion of the SW., where the slope is gentler. 
It is about four miles S. of Clermont-Ferrand, 



GERMANIA 361 

close to the village of Bomagnat, and between 
the streams Clemensat and Auzon, which flow 
eastward into the Allier. On the summit is a 
plateau about three-quarters of a mile long. It 
is remarkable as being the scene of Caesar's only 
Gallic repulse. His unsuccessful attack was 
delivered from the SW. corner, above the Auzon . 
where a cart-road now ascends to the plateau. 
(Caes. B. G. vii. 34.) 

Germa trep/x-q), the name of three cities in 
Asia Minor. 1. (Germa$lu,~R\i.) in Mysia Minor, 
near Cyzicus. — 2. (Yermatepe) in Mysia, be- 
tween Pergamus and Thyatira. — 3. (Yerma),m. 
Galatia, between Pessinus and Ancyra ; a colo- 
nia (Ptol. v. 4, 7). 

Germania, was bounded by the Rhine on the 
W., by the Vistula and the Carpathian moun- 
tains on the E., by the Danube on the S., and 
by the German Ocean and the Baltic on the X. 
It thus included much more than modern Ger- 
many on the X. and E., but much less in the W. 
and S. Out of the country W. of the Rhine, 
originally reckoned in Gallia Belgica, were 
formed under the empire the separate provinces 
of Upper and Lower Germany [see below^ ; and 
it was in contradistinction to these provinces 
that Germania proper was also called Germania 
Magna or G. Transrhenana or G. Barbara. It 
was not till Caesar's campaigns in Gaul (B.C. 
58-50) that the Romans obtained any real 
knowledge of the country. The Roman writers 
represent Germany as a dismal land, covered for 
the most part with forests and swamps, pro- 
ducing little corn, and subject to intense frosts 
and almost eternal winter (Tac. Germ. 2; Sen. 
de Prov. 4). Although these accounts are pro- 
bably exaggerated, yet there can be no doubt 
that the clearing of woods and draining of mo- 
rasses have produced changes in the climate. 
Pliny, however, praises its pasturage (xvii. 26). 
The X. of Germany is a vast plain, but in the S. 
are many mountains, which were covered in 
antiquity with vast forests, and thus were c illed 
Silvae. Of these the most important was the 
Hekcynia Silva : the other mountain dis- 
tricts most noticed by Roman authors were 
the Tauxus and Abnoba, the source of the 
Danube. — The chief rivers were the Rht.nvk 
(Rhine), Danvbius iDiinubei, Vistula, Amisia 
{Ems), Visurgis (Weser), Alms (Elbe), Viadis 
(Oder). — The inhabitants were called German i 
by the Romans. Tacitus says (Germ. 2) that 
Oermani was the name of the Tungri, who were 
the first German people that crossed the Rhine. 
It would seem that this name properly belonged 
only to those tribes who were settled in Gaul : 
and as these were the first liennan tribes with 
which the Romans came into contact, they ex- 
tended the name to the whole nation. The 
Germans themselves do not appear to have used 
any one name to indicate the whole nation ; for 
there is no reason to believe, as some have done, 
1 h it the name 1'entones was the general name 
ot the nation in the time of the Romans. The 
Germans regarded themselves as indigenous in 
the country ; but there can be no doubt that 
they were a branch of the great Indo-Germauii- 
race, who, along with the Celts, migrated into 
Europe from the Caucasus and the countries 
around the Black and Caspian seas, at a period 
long anterior to historical records. They are 
described as a people of high stature and of 
great bodily strength, with fair complexions, 
blue eyes, and yellow or red hair. Notwith- 
standing the severity of tlfeir climate, they woro 
little clothing, and their children went entirely 
naked. They hadscarcelyanydefensivearmour: 



3G2 



GEEMANIA 



their chief offensive weapon was the Jramea, 
a long spear with a narrow iron point, which 
they either darted from a distance or pushed in 
close combat. Their houses were only low huts, 
made of rough timber, and thatched with straw. 
A number of these were of course often built 
near each other ; but they could not be said to 
have any towns properly so called. Many of 
their tribes were nomad, and every year changed 
their place of abode. They were disinclined to 
husbandry, growing little corn, and supporting 
themselves mainly by the produce of their herds 
and by hunting. The men found their chief de- 
light in the perils and excitement of war. In 
peace their chief amusements were gaming and 
excessive drinking. Their chief drink was beer ; 
and their carouses frequently ended in blood- 
shed. The women were held in high honour. 
Their chastity was without reproach. They ac- 
companied their husbands to battle, and cheered 
them on by their presence, and frequently by 
their example as well. Both sexes were equally 
distinguished for their unconquerable love of 
liberty ; and the women frequently destroyed 
both themselves and their children, rather than 
fall into the power of their husbands' con- 
querors. — In each tribe we find the people 
divided into four classes : the nobles, the free- 
men, the freedmen or vassals, and the slaves. 
All questions relating to peace and war, and the 
general interests of the tribe, were decided in 
the popular assembly, in which each freeman 
had a right to take part. In these assemblies 
a king was elected from among the nobles ; but 
his power was very limited, and he only acted 
as the supreme magistrate in time of peace ; 
lor when a war broke out, the people elected a 
distinguished warrior as their leader, upon whom 
the prerogatives of the king devolved. — The 
religion of the Germans is known to us only 
from, the Greek and Roman writers, who have 
confused the subject by seeking to identify the 
gods of the Germans with their own divinities. 
We know that they worshipped the Sun, the 
Moon, and the Stars. According to the Roman 
account, they are also said to have paid espe- 
cial honour to Mercury, who was probably the 
German Wodan or Odin. Their other chief di- 
vinities were Isis (probably Freia, the wife of 
Odin) ; Mars [Tyr or Zio, the German god of 
war) ; the mother of the gods, called Nerthus 
(less correctly Herthus oxHertha) ; and Jupiter 
(Thor, or the god of thunder). The worship of 
the gods was simple. They had both priests 
and priestesses to attend to their service ; and 
some of the priestesses, such as Veleda among 
the Bructeri, were celebrated throughout Ger- 
many for their prophetic powers. (Tac. Germ. ; 
Caes. B. G. iv. 1-3, vi. 21-28 ; Strab. vii. 1 ; 
Mel. iii. 2, 3.) — The Germani first appear in 
history in the campaigns of the Cimbri and Teu- 
tones (b.c. 113), the latter of whom were un- 
doubtedly a Germanic people. [Teutones.] 
About fifty years afterwards Ariovistus, a Ger- 
man chief, crossed the Rhine, with a vast host 
of Germans, and subdued a great part of Gaul ; 
but he was defeated by Caesar with great 
slaughter (58), and driven beyond the Rhine. 
Caesar twice crossed this river (55, 23), but made 
no permanent conquest on the E. bank. Several 
German tribes, the remnants of the armies of 
Ariovistus, were settled by Caesar's arrange- 
ment on the Gallic side of the Rhine ; the 
Triboci in Alsace, the Nemetes at Spires, and 
the Vangicnes at Worms. The Germans on 
this side of the Ehine were more friendly to 
Borne than to the Celts, and those who sought 



the alliance of Rome were desirous of passing 
the boundary. Cologne itself grew out of a 
settlement of the Ubii on the Roman bank, 
effected by Agrippa B.C. 38. Attempts to cross 
the Ehine made by the hostile Usipii and 
Tencteri in 16 led to the unfortunate expedi- 
tion of Lollius. The campaign of Drusus fol- 
lowed (B.C. 12-9), in which the Eomans acquired 
the coast from the mouth of the Rhine to the 
Weser, and then attempted the conquest of the 
interior. They occupied the whole country 
between the Rhine and Weser, and Drusus 
advanced as far as the Elbe. On his death 
(9), his brother Tiberius succeeded to the com- 
mand; and under him the country between 
the Rhine and the Visurgis [Weser) was en- 
tirely subjugated, and for about twenty years 
reckoned as a Roman province. But in a.d. 
9, the impolitic and tyrannical conduct of 
the Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, pro- 
voked a general insurrection of the various 
German tribes, headed by Arminius, the Che- 
ruscan. Varus and his legions were defeated 
and destroyed, and the Romans lost all their 
conquests E. of the Ehine. [ Varus.] The de- 
feat of Varus was avenged by the successfnl 
campaigns of Germanicus, who would probably 
have recovered the Roman dominions E. of the 
river ; but the policy of the emperor was altered 
and he was recalled to Rome a.d. 16. [For de- 
tails, see Germanicus.] Prom this time the 
! Eomans abandoned all further attempts to con- 
■ quer Germany beyond the Rhine, except that 
; they were enabled to obtain peaceable posses- 
sion of a large portion of the SW. of Germany 
between the Rhine and the Danube, to which 
I they gave the name of the Agbi Decumates. 
[See p. 37, b.J On the death of Nero, several 
of the tribes in W. Germany joined the Batavi 
j in their insurrection against the Romans (a.d. 
69-71). Domitian and Trajan had to repel the 
attacks of some German tribes : but in the 
reign of Antoninus Pius, the Marcomanni, joined 
by various other tribes, made a more formid- 
able attack upon the Roman dominions, and 
threatened the empire with destruction. From 
this time the Romans were often called upon to 
defend the left bank of the Rhine against their 
dangerous neighbours, especially against the 
two powerful confederacies of the Alemanni and 
Pranks [Alemanni ; Feanci] ; and in the 4th 
and 5th centuries the Germans obtained posses- 
sion of some of the fairest provinces of the 
empire. — In considering the administration of 
Germany it is necessary first to distinguish the 
provinces. Germania Superior and Germania 
Inferior — or, as they were afterwards called, 
Germania Prima and Secunda — from the inde- 
finite Germania Magna beyond the Rhine 
which was not subjugated by the Romans, 
except during the twenty years between the 
campaign of Drusus in B.C. 12 and the defeat 
of Varus in a.d. 9. The original intention, no 
doubt, was to retain this as the province of 
Germania, and to leave the territory west of 
the Rhine in the Belgic province ; but the 
necessity of keeping strong military posts of 
the legions who guarded the Rhine frontier 
after the withdrawal from Germania Magna, 
led to the creation of two separately adminis- 
tered provinces. Germania Superior extended 
from the Jura mountains northwards to a 
line a little beyond Coblentz ; Mogontiacum 
(Maintz) was the capital and residence of the 
legatus ; its western boundary included the 
districts of the Helvetii (Switzerland), the 
Sequani (Besanqon), the Lingones (Langres), 



GERMANICLA. 



GEROXTHRAE 



363 



Rauraci (Basle'i, the Triboci (Alsace), the 
Kemetea {Spires), and the Vangiones (Worms). 
The districts of the Treveri I Treves), and the 
Mediomatrici I Met 2), reckoned in the Gallic pro- 
vinces. To the E. Gerniauia Superior was at 
first limited by the Rhine, but in Domitian's 
reign it extended again beyond the Rhine, and 
in Hadrian's time the Limes, or fortified boun- 
dary marked its eastern limit, and was guarded 
by a chain of forts. It extended 228 miles, 
from Rheinbrohl to Larch. It included the 
Taunus and Friedberg, then turned S. to the 
Main above Frankfort : thence followed the 
Main to its bend at Miltenberg, thence to the 
Neckar at Wimpfen. From this point it con- 
tinued up the Neckar to the neighbourhood of the 
Stuttgart, where it jcinedthe Rhaetian Limes. 
The forts on this Germanic frontier were about 
nine miles apart, and, moreover, wherever 
the boundary was not a river, it was marked 
first by a palisade, and later by a wall and ditch 
with towers at intervals. Germania Inferior 
extended from Rentage n northwards, the Rhine 
and the lower Ems forming the boundary of 
the province. Westward it extended to the 
Scheldt and the Sambre. Its capital and the 
residence of the legatus was Colonia Agrippin- 
ensis (Cologne). Under Diocletian, the two pro- 
vinces were called Germania Prima and G. 
Secunda. 

Germanicia or Caesarea Germanica iTep/xo- 
v'tKfta, Kcutrdpfta TipnaviKr, : Ma rash \, a town in 
the Syrian province of Commagene, near the 
borders of Cappadocia. 

Germanicopolis. 1. (Ermenck), a town in 
the west of Cilicia on t lie road from Laranda 
to Anemurium. — 2. [Gangra.] 

Germanicus Caesar son of Nero Claudius 
Drusus and Antonia, the daughter of the tri- 
umvir Antony, was born B.C. 15. He was 
adopted by his uncle Tiberius in the lifetime 
of Augustus, and was raised at an early age to 
the honours of the state. He assisted Tiberius 
in the war against the Pannonians and Dalma- 
tians (a.D. 7-10), and also fought along with 
Tiberius against the Germans in the following 
year. In 12 he filled the consulship at Rome 
while Tiberius commanded alone on the Rhine 
(Dio Cass. lvi. 21!) ; but in the next year (13) he 
was sole commander of the Rhenish army, and 
was holding this office when the alarming 
mutiny broke out among the troops in Ger- 
many and Illyricuni, upon the death of Augus- 
tus (14). Germanicus was a favourite with the 
soldiers, and they offered to place him at the 
head of the empire : but he rejected their pro- 
posals, and exerted all his influence to quell the 
mutiny, and reconcile them to their new 
sovereign. After restoring order among the 
troops, he crossed the Rhine frcm Vetera, and 
laid waste the country of the Usipii and Brue- 
teri about the Z/ippe. In the following year 
(15), he again crossed the Rhine and attacked 
the Marsi and Cherusci. He penetrated as far 
as the Saltus Teutoburgiensis, N. of the Lippe, 
in which forest the army of Quintilius Varus had 
been destroyed by the Germuns. Here his troops 
gathered up the bones of their ill-fated com- 
rades, and paid the last honours to their 
memory. But meantime Arminius had col- 
lected a formidable army, with which he 
attacked the Romans: and it waH not without 
considerable loss that (iermanicus and Caecina 
each made good his retreat to the Rhine. It 
VU in this campaign that Thusnelda, the wife 
of Arminius, fell into the hands of Germanicus 
[ARMiNIvsj. (Tan. Ann. i. 51-03.) Next year 



(16) Germanicus placed his troops on board a 
fleet of 1,000 vessels, and sailed through the 
canal of his father, Drusus [see p. 304, b.], and 
the Zuyder Zee to the ocean, and from thence 
to the mouth of the Aniisia (Ems), where he 
landed his forces. After crossing the Ems and 
the Weser, he fought two battles with Arminius. 
in both of which the Germans were completely 
defea-ted. The complete success of this year 
was marred by the destruction of a great 
part of his fleet with part of his legions in the 
North Sea ; but as a result of the campaign the 
Germans could no longer offer him any effectual 
resistance, and Germanicus considered that he 
needed only another year to reduce completely 
the whole country between the Rhine and the 
Elbe. Tiberius, however, thought otherwise. 
It has been said that he was jealous of the 
success of Germanicus : it is more likely that 
he began to consider the subjugation and 
reteution of the country between the Rhine 
and the Elbe too great and hazardous a task, or 
too heavy a tax on his resources. However 
that may be. upon pretence of the dangerous 
stat • of affairs in the East, the emperor recalled 
Germanicus to Rome, which he entered in 




Coin ot Germanicus. commemorating conquest ot 
Germany, A.D. 16. 
Obc. Germanicus in triumphal chariot. GERIIANICVS 
CAESAB : rev., Gerniauiiu?. right hand rai-ed and 
hul lim; standard in left. SIGNIS liECE [ptto] DEVICTIS 
GERM. S. 0. 

triumph on the 26th of May, 17. (Tac. Ann. 
ii. 6-41 : Sfcrab. p. 291). In the same year all 
the Eastern provinces were assigned to Ger- 
manicus ; but Tiberius placed Cn. Piso in 
command of Syria, with secret instructions to 
check and thwart Germanicus. Piso soon 
showed his hostility to Germanicus. and his 
wife Plancina, in like manner, did every thing 
in her power to annoy Agrippina, the wife of 
Germanicus. In lb, Germanicus proceeded to 
Armenia, where he placed Zeno iwho as king 
assumed the name of Artaxiasi on the throne, 
and in the following year (19) he visited Egypt, 
and on his return he was seized with a danger- 
ous illness, of which he died. He believed 
that he had been poisoned by Piso, and shortly 
before he died, he summoned his friends, and 
called upon them to avenge his murder. He 
was deeply and sincerely lamented by the 
Roman people ; and Tiberius was obliged to 
sacrifice Piso to the public indignation. (Tac. 
Ann. ii. 43 — iii. 4; Suet. Cat. 1; Dio Cass, 
lvii. 18.) [Piso.] By Agrippina he hul nine 

children, of whom six survived him. Of these 
the most notorious were the emperor Caligula, 
and Agrippina, the mother of Nero. Germani- 
cus was an author of some repute. He wrote 
several poetical works. We still possess the 
remains of his Latin translation of the Phai • 
minima of Anitus. 'Suet. Cat. !1, I'laittl. 11; 
Plin. viii. 155; Ov. Pont. iv. 8, 67.) Ed. by 
Orelli at (he end of his Phaedrns, Zurich, 1831; 
by Brejmig, BerL 1867. 
Geronthrae iVtp6vdpat: Oeraki) a town of 



364 



GERRA 



GIGANTES 



Laconia SE. of Sparta. It was an old Achaean Geranium (Oirone), a town of Apulia near 
town whose inhabitants were dispossessed by : Larinum iLiv. xxii. 18). 

the Dorian invaders. (Paus. iii. 22, 5.) j Geryon or Geryones (T-qpvov-qs), son of Chry- 

Gerra {Tippa: Djerra), one of the chief saor and Callirrhoe, a monster with three 
cities of Arabia, and a great emporium for the ! heads, or, according to others, with three bodies 



trade of Arabia and India, stood on the NE 
coast of Arabia Felix, 200 stadia (20 geog. 
miles) from the shore of the Sinus Gerraeus or 



united together, was a king in Spain, and pos- 
sessed magnificent oxen, which Heracles carried 
away (Hes. Th. 287 ; Aesch. Ag. 870 ; Verg. Aen. 

vi. 289 ; Apollod. ii. 




5, 10). For details 
see Hebacles. 

Gesoriacum(Bow- 
logne) a port of the 
Morini in Gallia 
Belgica, at which 
persons usually em- 
\ barked to cross over 
to Britain : it was 
subsequently called 
Bononia, whence its 
modern name (Plin. 
iv. 102; Suet. Claud. 
17 ; Mel. iii. 2 ; Am- 
mian. xx. 9 ; Eutrop. 
ix. 21). 

Gessius Floras. 
[Flobtjs.] 

Geta, Septlmiue, 
brother of Caracalla, 

Battle of Gods and Giants. (From a vase painting of the end of :th cent. B.C., now at Berlin.) whom he was 

assassinated, A.D. 



Gerraicus, a bay on the W. side of the Persian 
Gulf, 2,400 stadia (240 geog. miles = 4° of lat.) 
from the mouth of the Tigris. The city was 
five Roman miles in circuit. The inhabitants, 
called Gerraei (Teppaioi), were said to have been 
originally Chaldaeans who were driven out of 
Babylon. (Strab. p. 766 ; Plin. vi. 147.) 

Gerrhus (Teppos), a river of Scythia, flowing 



212. For details see Cabacalla. 

Getae, a Thracian people, called Daci by the 
Romans. Herodotus and Thucydides place 
them S. of the Ister (Danube) near its mouths ; 
but in the time of Alexander the Great they 
dwelt beyond this river and N. of the Tri- 
balli. They were driven by the Sarmatians 
further W. towards Germany. (Hdt. iv. 93 ; 




Athene and Giant. (From great altar at Pergamum. Berlin.) Athene grasps Enceladus by the hair, while her 
serpent (not easily distinguishable from the serpent. legs of the other giants on the frieze) has coiled round him. 
On her left is Victory ; below, Ge with uplifted hand entreats for her children. 



through a country of the same name, was a 
branch of the Borysthenes, and flowed into the 
Hypacyris, dividing the country of the Nomad 
Scythians from that of the Royal Scythians 
(Hdt. v. 53 ; Ptol. iii. 5, 12). 

Gerunda (Gerona), a town of the Ausetani 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from 
Tarraco to Narbo in Gaul. 



Thuc. ii. 96 ; Strab. p. 294.) For their later 
history see Dacia. 

Gigantes (rtydvTes), the giants. According 
to Homer, they were a gigantic and savage 
race of men, dwelling in the distant W. in the 
island of Trinacria, near the Cyclopes, and 
were destroyed on account of their impiety. 
(Od. vii. 59, 206, x. 120 ; cf. Paus. viii. 29, 2.) 



GIGAXTES 
Hesiod cousiders them divine beings, who 1 
sprang from the blood that fell from Uranus 
upon the earth, so that Ge (the earth) was 
their mother (Th. 1851. Neither Homer nor 
Hesiod know anything about their contest with 
the gods. Later poets and mythographers 
frequently confound them with the Titans, 
and represent them as enemies of Zeus and 
the gods, whose abode on Olympus they 
attempt to take by storm. Their battle with 
the gods seems to be only an imitation of the 
revolt of the Titans against Uranus. Ge, it is 
said (Apollod. i. 6), indignant at the fate of her 
former children, the Titans, gave birth to the 
Gigantes, who were beings of a monstrous 
size, with fearful countenances and legs ending 
in serpents. They were bom, according to some, 
in the Phlegraean plains in Sicily, Campania, 
or Arcadia, and, according to others, in the 
Thracian Pallene. In their native land they 
made an attack upon heaven, being armed with 
huge rocks and trunks of trees. The gods 
were told that they could not conquer the 
giants without the assistance of a mortal : 
whereupon they summoned Heracles to their 



GLABRIO 



365 




Zeus and the GUnts. (Neapolitan gem.) 



aid. The giants Alcyoneus, Enceladus and 
Porphyrion distinguished themselves above 
their brethren. Alcyoneus (whose story be- 
longed to the Isthmus of Corinth i was slain 
by Heracles (Pind. Xem. iv. 27); Porphyrion 
was felled by the bolt of Zeus and slain by the 
arrows of Heracles ; Enceladus was overthrown 
either by the lightning of Zeus or by the aegis 
of Athene, and buried under Sicily. The other 
giants, whose number is said to have been 
twenty-four, were then killed one after another 
by the gods and Heracles, and some of them 
were buried by their conquerors under 
canic, islands. Thus Polybotes, pursued by 
Poseidon over the Aegaean, was buried by him 
under a fragment snatched from Cos, which 
became the island of Nisyros. Among the 
others named are Mimas, Phrytos or Bhoetus, 
Ephialtes, and Pallas. (Pind. Xem. i. 07, Hor. 
Od. iii. 4, 42 ; Ov. Met. i. 151 : Strnb. pp. 24.'.. 
281, 380 ; Apollod. I. c.) It is worthy of 
remark, that most writers place the giants in 
volcanic districts ; and it is probable that the 
story of their contest with the gods took its 
origin from volcanic convulsions. The Battle 
of the Giants was not only a frequent subject 
for vase paintings, but was a sculptured deco- 
ration of many temples (Paus. ii. 17, 3, viii. Ill, 
!) ; Diod. xiii. H2 ; Eur. Ion, 206). In the most 
famous of all, the reliefs from the great altar of 
Pergamum, some of the giants have serpent- 
feet and wings, others are of wholly human 



form. The serpent-footed form scarcely appears 
in any vase painting, and was clearly not the 
oldest conception, though not an unlikely way 
of indicating an earth-bom race. 

Gigcnus | Tiycvvos : IYycii'iosi, town and pro- 
montory of Macedonia on the Thermaic gulf. 

Gildo. or Gildon. a Moorish chieftain, go- 
verned Africa for some years as a subject of the 
Western empire ; but in a.d. 397, he transferred 
his allegiance to the Eastern empire, and the 
emperor Arcadius accepted him as a subject. 
Stilicho, guardian of Honorius, sent an army 
against him. Gildo was defeated ; and being 
taken prisoner, put an end to his own life (398). 
This war forms the subject of one of Claudian's 
poerus (De Bello Gildonico ; cf. Amm. Marc, 
xxix. 5 ; Oros. vii. 36 ; Zos. v. 11). 

Gindarus iFivSapos: Gindwries), a strong 
fortress in Cyrrhestice in Syria, NE. of Antioch. 

Girba, a city on the island of Meninx (Jer- 
bah), at the S. extremity of the Lesser Syrtis : 
celel sated for its manufactures of purple. 

Gisco or Gisgo i ViaKoiv or TioKa>v\. 1. Son 
' of the Hamilear who was defeated and killed 
in the battle of Himera, B.C. 480. Li conse- 
quence of this calamity, Gisgo was banished 
from Carthage. He died at Selinus in Sicily. 
( Diod. xiii. 43.) — 2. Son of Hanno, was in exile 
when the Carthaginians were defeated at the 
river Crimissus by Timoleon, 339. He was 
then recalled from exile, and sent to oppose 
Timoleon. (Diod. xvi. si; Plut. Timol. 80-84.) — 
3. Commander of the Carthaginian garrison at 
Lilybaeum, at the end of the first Punic war. 
After the conclusion of peace, 241. he was de- 
puted by the government to treat with the mer- 
cenaries who had risen in revolt, but he was 
seized by them and put to death. (Pol. i. 66-80.) 

Gitiadas (IYnoSas), a Lacedaemonian sculp- 
tor and poet, about 520 B. c. He made a 
bronze statue of the goddess for the temple of 
Athene Poliouchos at Sparta, and ornamented 
the interior of the building with works in bronze 
(i.e., probably, overlaid the walls with bronze 
plates sculptured ill relief), from which it was 
called the Brazen House, and hence the goddess 
received the surname of XaAKiuiKos. He com- 
posed a hymn to the goddess, besides other 
poems (Paus. iii. 17, 2; Is, 8). 

Glabrio, Acilius, a plebeian name. 1. C., 
quaestor B.C. 203, and tribune of the plebs 197. 
He acted as interpreter to the Athenian embassy 
in 155, when the 'hive philosophers, Carneades, 
Diogenes, and Critolaus came as envoys to 
Rome (Gell. vii. 14 ; Plut. Cat. Maj. 22). He 
wrote in Greek a history of Rome from the 
earliest period to his own times. It was trans- 
lated into Latin by one Claudius, and his version 
: is cited by Livy, under the titles of Annalet 
Aciliaiii (zxy. 89) and Libri AciMani (xxxv. 14). 
— 2. M'., tribune of the plebs 201, praetor 196, 
and consul 191. In his consulship he defeated 
Antiochus at Thermopylae, and the Aetolians 
also (Liv. xxxvi. 2, 22). — 3. M'., married a 
daughter of M. Aemilius Scaurus, consul 115 
whom Sulla, in S2, compelled him to divorce. 
Glabrio was praetor urhanus in 70, when hi 
presided at the impeachment of Verres. Ho 
was consul in 67, and in the following year pro 
consul of Cilicia. He succeeded L. LneulluB in 
the command of the war against Mithi idates, 
but remained inactive in Bithvnia. He was 
superseded by Cn. Pompev (Cic. pro Li t/. Man. 
'.), 17, Plut. I'umji. 30).'— 4. M'., mhi <>i N. 
was born in the house of Cn. Pompey, B. c. 81, 
, who married his mother after her compulsory 
divorce from the elder Glabrio. Aemilia died 



366 



GLANIS 



in giving birth to him. In the Civil war, Gla- 
brio was one of Caesar's lieutenants ; com- 
manded the garrison of Oricum in Epirus in 48, 
and was stationed in Sicily in 46. He was twice 
defended on capital charges by Cicero, and ac- 
quitted. (Plut. Sull. 33, Pomp. 9 ; Caes. B. C. 
iii. 15 ; Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 30-39.) 

Glanis, more usually written Clanis. 

Glanum Livii (nr. St Remy, Ru.), a town of 
the Salyes in Gallia Narbonensis (Plin. iii. 36). 

Glaphyra. [Abchelaus, No. 6.] 

Grlau.ce (TXavKr\). 1. One of the Nereides, 
the name Glauce being only a personification 
of the colour of the sea (II. xviii. 39 ; Hes. Th. 
244). — 2. Daughter of Creon of Corinth, also 
called Creusa. For details see Creon. 

Glaucia, C. Servilius, praetor b. c. 100, the 
chief supporter of Saturninus, with whom he 
was put to death in this year. [Satubninus.] 

Glaucias (TXavKias). 1. King of the Taulan- 
tians, one of the Illyrian tribes, fought against 
Alexander the Great, b. c. 335. In 316 he 
afforded an asylum to the infant Pyrrhus, and 
refused to surrender him to Cassander. In 307 
he invaded Epirus, and rJaced Pyrrhus, then 
twelve years old, upon the throne (Plut. Pyrrh. 
3; Diod. xix. 67). — 2. A Greek physician, who 
probably lived in the third or second century 
B. c. — 3. A sculptor of Aegina, who made the 
bronze chariot and statue of Gelo, to comme- 
morate an Olympian victory B. c. 488 (Paus. vi. 
9, 2). The name of Glaucias was found on a 
base at Olympia in the excavations of 1878. 

Glaucon (TXavKaiv). 1. Son of Critias, brother 
of Callaeschrus, and father of Charmides and 
of Plato's mother, Perictione. — 2. Brother of 
Plato : one of the speakers in the Republic. 

GlaucuS (TXavKos). 1. Grandson of Aeolus, 
son of Sisyphus and Merope, and father of Bel- 
lerophontes (II. vi. 154 ; Apollod. ii. 3 ; Paus. 
ii. 4, 3). He lived at Potniae, despised the 
power of Aphrodite, and did not allow his mares 
to breed, that tbey might be the stronger for 
the chariot race. This excited the anger of 
Aphrodite, who destroyed him. According to 
others he fed them with human flesh. According 
to some accounts his horses became frightened 
and threw him out of his chariot, as he was 
contending in the funeral games celebrated by 
Acastus in honour of his father, Pelias (Paus. vi. 
20,19; Ov. Ibis, 557; Hyg. Fab. 250, 273). Ac- 
cording to others, his horses tore him to pieces, 
having drunk from the water of a sacred well 
in Boeotia, or eaten the herb Hiprjomanes, in 
consequence of which they were seized with 
madness (Paus. ix. 8, 1 ; Strab. p. 409 ; Verg. 
Georg. iii. 267 ; Plin. xxv. 94 ; cf. Eur. Phoeh. 
1124). Glaucits of Potniae (FXavKos TloTvievs) 
was the title of one of the lost tragedies of 
Aeschylus. It is probable that this Glaucus 
was a local sea-deity (like No. 5), upon whose 
worship these stories were engrafted. An indi- 
cation of Poseidon having taken his place is 
afforded by the story which makes Bellerophon 
the son of Poseidon (Hyg. Fab. 191). That 
horses were sacrificed to him as to Poseidon is 
probable enough, and thence the story of his 
death might have arisen. The Euhemeristic 
interpretation was that he merely ruined him- 
self by racing (Palaeph. nepl cnnVr. 26). — 2. Son 
of Hippolochus, and grandson of Bellerophontes, 
was a Lycian prince, and assisted Priam in the 
Trojan war. He was connected with Diomedes 
by ties of hospitality; and when they discovered 
this in the battle, they abstained from fighting, 
and exchanged arms with one another, the 
armour of Glaucus being golden, that of Dio- 




GLAUCUS 

medes bronze. Glaucus was slain by Ajax. (II. 
vi. 119-236; Hyg. Fab. 112, 113 ; Dictys, ii. 35.) 
The story gave rise 
to a proverb xpvrrea 
XoA/cei'cov(takenfrom 
II. vi. 236), to express 
a bad exchange (cf. 
Geil. ii. 23).— 3. Son 
of the Messenian 
king Aepytus, whom 
he succeeded on the ■ 
throne. — 4. One of ( 
the sons of the Cre- 
tan king Minos by 
Pasiphae or Crete. 
When a boy, he fell 
into a cask full of 
honey, and was _ 
smothered. Minos Glauens and Diomede. From 
searched for his son ancient gem at Florence 

(Overbeck). 

m vain, and was at 

length informed by Apollo or the Curetes that 
the person who should devise the most appro- 
priate comparison of a cow which could assume 
three different colours, with any other object, 
would find the boy. The soothsayer Polyidus of 
Argos solved the problem by likening the cow to 
a mulberry, which is at first white, then red, and 
in the end black. By his prophetic powers he 
then discovered the boy. Minos now required 
Polyidus to restore his son to life ; but as he 
could not accomplish this, Minos ordered him 
to be entombed alive with the body of Glaucus. 
When Polyidus was shut up in the vault, he 
saw a serpent approaching the dead body, and 
killed the reptile. Presently another serpent 
came, and placed a herb upon the dead serpent, 
which was thereby restored to life. Thereupon 
Polyidus covered the body of Glaucus with the 
same herb, and the boy at once rose into life 
again. (Hyg. Fab. 136 ; Apollod. iii. 1, 2 ; 
Tzetz. ii/c. 811 ; Claud. Bell. Get. 442.) Some 
modern authorities see in the myth the setting 
and rising of the morning star. It is a. more 
probable conjecture that it may have something 
to do with the death and renewal of vegetation, 
originally expressed in the story of the death of 
the youthful Cretan deity, the search, and the re- 
storation to life. rXavicos iriiiu /j.eXi ai/carr) be- 
came a proverb for an unexpected recovery. 
— 5. Of Anthedon in Boeotia, a fisherman, who 
became immortal by eating a part of the divine 
herb which Cronos had sown (this part of his 
story bears some resemblance to No. 4). His 
parentage is differently stated : some called his 
father Copeus, others Polybus, the husband of 
Euboea, and others again Anthedon or Poseidon. 
He was further said to have been a clever diver, 
to have built the ship Argo, and to have accom- 
panied the Argonauts as their steersman. In 
the sea-fight of Jason against the Tyrrhenians, 
Glaucus alone remained unhurt ; he sank to the 
bottom of the sea, where he was visible to none 
save Jason. From this moment he became a 
sea-god, and was of service to the Argonauts. 
The story of his sinking or leaping into the sea 
was variously modified in the different tradi- 
tions — from a frenzy on the discovery that he 
was immortal, or from love of the sea-deity 
Melicertes. There was a belief in Greece that 
once in every year Glaucus visited all the coasts 
and islands, accompanied by sea monsters, 
and gave his prophecies. Fishermen and 
sailors paid particular reverence to him, and 
watched his oracles, which were believed to be 
very trustworthy. He is said to have even in- 
structed Apollo in the prophetic art. Some 



GLAUCUS 



GORDIAXUS 



367 



writers stated that he dwelt in Delos, where he 
prophesied in conjunction with the nymphs; 
but the place of his abode varied in different 
traditions. (Ov. Met. xhi. 904 ; Tzetz. Lyc. 
753; Paus. is. 22, 6; Verg. Georq. i. 437, Aen. 
iii. 420, v. 832, vi. 36 : Serv. ad loc. ; Strab. p. 
405 ; Schol. ad Plat. Sep. p. Oil ; Athen. pp. 
296, 297). The stories about his various loves 
were favourite subjects with the ancient poets. 
He is described as biformis, with the body of a 
man covered with seaweed and shells ending in 
the tail of a fish (Plat. Sep. p. 611 ; Veil. Pat. 
ii. 83; Stat. Thet. vii. 335)1 Aeschylus wrote a 
play YhavKos TIovtios about this Glaucus also. 
His reception by Poseidon and Amphitrite is a 
subject of vase paintings. — 6. A Lacedaemonian, 
son of Epicydes. He was famed for his honesty, 
and therefore was asked by a Milesian to take 
care of his money : when the sons reclaimed it, 
he denied the possession, but asked the oracle 
at Delphi if he might persist in the denial. The 
god punished his falsehood, and his sin of tempt- 
ing the deity, by the destruction of his family 
(Hdt. vi. 86 ; Paus. ii. 18, 2, viii. 7, 4 ; Juv. xhi. 
199). — 7. Of Chios, a sculptor and worker in 
metal, distinguished as the inventor of the art 
of soldering I/coWtjctis), flourished B.C. 490. 
His most noted work was an iron base (vnoKpri- 
rripiSiov), which, with the silver bowl it sup- 
ported, was presented to the temple at Delphi 
by Alyattes, king of Lydia (Hdt. i. 25; Paus. 
x. 16; Athen. p. 210). — 8. A sculptor of Argos 
who in collaboration with Dionysius executed 
statues dedicated by Smieythus at Olympia 
i Paus. v. 26). His date was about 470 B. c. 

Glaucus tr\avKOS). 1. A small river of 
Phrygia, falling into the Maeander near Eu- 
nienia. — 2 A small river of Lycia, on the I 
borders of Caria, flowing into the Sinus Glaucus 
(Gulf of Makrij. — 3. A river of Achaia. 

Glaucus Sinus. [Glaucus.] 

Glessaria (Amela/nd), an island off the coast 
of the Frisii, so called from ' glessuin ' or amber 
which was found there : its proper name was 
Austeravia iPlin. xxxvii. 42). 

Glisas (TKiaas : TAio-an-ios), an ancient town 
in Bocotiu, on Mt. Hypaton. It was in ruins in 
the time of Pausanias (//. ii. 504 ; Paus. ix. 19, 2.) 

GlycaB, Michael, a Byzantine historian, the 
author of a work entitled Annals (fit0\os 
XpoviKr,), containing the history of the world 
from the creation to the death of Alexis I. 
Comnenus, a. d. 1118. Edited by Bekker, Bonn. 
WM< ; Migne, Paris, 1866. 

Glycera | YKvictpa), ' the sweet one,' a favourite 
name of hetairae. The most celebrated he- 
tairae of this name are, 1. The daughter of 
Thalossis, and the mistress of Harpalus. — 2. 
Of Sicyon, and the mistress of Pausias. — 3. A 
favourite of Horace (Oil. i. 19, 30, iii. 19, 29). 

Glycerius, became emperor of the West a. I). 
473, after the death of Olybrius, by the assist- 
ance of Gundobald the Burgundian. But the 
Byzantine court did not acknowledge Glycerius, 
and proclaimed Julius Nepoa emperor, by whom 
Glycerius was dethroned 1474), and compelled 
to become a priest. He was appointed bishop 
of Salona in Dalmatia. 

Glycon (rAiwai/), a deity worshipped at 
Abonitichos under the form of a snake, and re- 
presented by the impostor Alexander as the in- 
carnation of Asclepiu* iLucian, Alex. 18). The 
name appears on coins and inscriptions. 

Glycon (T\{iK<av), an Athenian sculptor of the 
first century b. c. known to us by his magnifi- 
cent colossal marble statue of Heracles, com- 
monly called the ' Farnese Hercules.' It was 



found in the baths of Caracalla, and, after 
adorning the Farnese palace for some time, was 
removed to the royal museum at Naples. It 
represents the hero resting on his club. It is 
supposed (from a comparison with a fresco from 
Hereulaneum) that he is looking down at the 
infant Telephus suckled by a deer. [See cut 
under Hekacles.J 

Gnipho, M. Antomus, a Roman rhetorician, 
was born B. c. 114, in Gaul, but studied at Alex- 
andria. He afterwards established a school at 
Rome, which was attended by many distin- 
guished men, and among others by Cicero, when 
he was praetor (Suet. Grannn. 7). 

Gnosus, Gnossus. [Csosus.] 

Gobryas (TusBpiias), a noble Persian, one of 
the seven conspirators against Smerdis the 
Magian. He accompanied Darius into Scythia. 
He was doubly related to Darius by marriage : 
Darius married the daughter of Gobryas, and 
Gobryas married the sister of Darius. (Hdt. iii. 
70-78 ; Val. Max. iii. 2.) 

Golgi (ro\yol : rdA.7105 : Gorgus), a town in 
Cyprus, between Idalium and Treniithus, was 
a Sicyonian colony, and one of the chief seats 
of the worship of Aphrodite (Paus. viii. 5 ; 
Theocr. xy. 100 ; Catull. 86, 15). 

Gomphi (r6/j.<poi ; ro/j.(pevs ; Palaea Episcopi), 
a town in Hestiaeotis in Thessaly, was a strong 
fortress on the confines of Epirus, and com- 
manded the chief pass between Thessaly and 
Epirus ; it was taken and destroyed by Caesar 
(b. c. 48), but was afterwards rebuilt (Strab. 
p. 437 ; Caes. B. C. iii. 80). 

Gonni, Gonnus (T6vvoi, Tuvvos '■ Fovvios : 
Lycostomon), a strongly fortified town of the 
Perrhaebi in Thessaly, on the river Peneus and 
at the entrance of the vale of Tempe, was, from 
its position, of great military importance (Liv. 
xxxiii. 10, xlii. 54 ; Strab. p. 440) ; but it is not 
mentioned after the time of the wars between 
the Macedonians and Romans. 

Gordianus, M. Antonius, the name of three 
Roman emperors — father, son, and grandson. 
1. Surnamed Africanus, son of Metius Marullus 
and Ulpia Gordiana, possessed a princely for- 
tune, and was distinguished alike by moral and 




Gordianus I.. Romnn Emperor. A.D. 9B8. 
01n>., hoad of Gordlan I- laureate. IMF. M. ANT. GOT.IJI- 
ANYsi AKU. AVG. ; nr., VIIITVS AVGO., flguro ol 
ltoroan soldier. 

intellectual excellence. In his first consulship, 
a. v. 213, he was the colleague of Caracalla ; in 
his second, of Alexander Severus ; and soon 
afterwards was nominated proconsul of Africa. 
After he had governed Africa for several years 
with justice and integrity, a rebellion broke out 
in the province in consequence of the tyranny of 
the procurator of Maximums. The ring-leaders 
of the conspiracy compelled Gordian, who was 
now in his 80th year, to assume the imperial 
, title, A.n. 238. He entered on his new duties 
at Carthage in the month of February, asso- 
ciated his son with him in the empire, and des- 
patched letters to Iioine announcing his elev a- 
tion. Gordianus and his son were at once pro- 
claimed Augusti by the senate, and preparations 
were made in Italy to resist Maximums. But 



S68 



GORDIUM 



GORGO 



meantime a certain Capellianus, procurator of 
Nurmdia, refused to acknowledge the authority 
of the Gordiani and marched against them. 
The younger Gordianus was defeated by him, 
and slain in the battle ; and his aged father 
thereupon put an end to his own life, after 
reigning less than two months. — 2. Son of the 
preceding and of Fabia Orestilia, was bom 
A. D. 192, was associated with his father in the 
purple, and fell in battle, as recorded above. 




Gordianus II., Roman Emperor, A.D. 238. 
Obi'., head of Gordian II., laureate, IMP. M. ANT. GORDI- 
ANVS AJTR. AVG. ; rev., BOMAE AETEKNAE, Genius ol 
Rome. 

— 3. Grandson of the elder Gordianus, either 
by a daughter or by the younger Gordianus. 
The soldiers proclaimed him emperor in July, 
A. D. 238, after the murder of Balbinus and 
Pupienus, although he was a mere boy, pro- 
bably not more than twelve years old. He 




Gordianus III., Roman Emperor, a.d. 238-244. 
Obv.. head of Gordian III., laureate. IMP. GORDIANVS 
PIVS FEL. AVG. ; rev., SALVS AVGVSTI, figure at Salus. 

reigned six years, from 238 to 244. In 241 he 
married the daughter of Misitheus, and in the 
same year set out for the East to carry on the 
war against the Persians. With the assistance 
of Misitheus, he defeated the Persians in 242. 
Misitheus died in the following year ; and Phil- 
ippus, whom Gordian had taken into his con- 
fidence, excited discontent among the soldiers, 
who at length rose in open mutiny, and assassi- 
nated Gordian in Mesopotamia, 244. He was 
succeeded by Philippus. (Lives of the three 
Gordians in Script. Hist. Aug., ascribed to 
Capitolinus ; Herodian, vii. and viii.) 

Gordium (VopSiov, YopUou K&>,uj)),the ancient 
capital of Phrygia, the royal residence of the 
kings of the dynasty of Gordius, and the scene 
of Alexander's celebrated exploit of ' cutting the 
Gordian knot.' [Gordius.] It was situated in 
the W. of that part of Phrygia which was after- 
wards called Galatia, N. of Pessinus, on the N. 
bank of the Sangarius. Some have identified 
it with Yurme, and believe that the later town 
of Eudoxias was on the site of Gordium. The 
town of Gordiucome (TopUov Kiifxri) was 
further north in Bithynia and was called Julio- 
polis in the reign of Augustus. 

Gordius (TopSios), an ancient king of Phrygia, 
and father of Midas, was originally a peasant. 
Disturbances having broken out in Phrygia, an 
oracle declared that a waggon would bring them a 
king who should restore peace. When the people 
were deliberating, Gordius, with his wife and 
son, suddenly appeared in his waggon, and was 
acknowledged as king. He dedicated his 
waggon to Zeus, in the acropolis of Gordium. 
The pole was fastened to the yoke by a knot of 



bark; and an oracle declared that whosoever 
should untie the knot should reign over Asia. 
Alexander cut the knot with his sword, and 
applied the oracle to himself (Plut. Alex. 13 ; 
Curt. iii. 1, 15). 

Gordiutichos (FopStov relxos), town inCaria, 
near the borders of Phrygia (Liv. xxxviii. 13). 

Gordyaei. [Gordyene.] 

Gordyene or Corduene {TopSuriu^, KopSovnvri), 
a mountainous district in the S. of Armenia 
Major, between the Thospitis Palus (Lake Van ) 
and the Tigris. After the Mithridatic war, it 
was assigned by Pompey to Tigranes, with whom 
its possession had been disputed by the Parthian 
king Phraates. Trojan added it to the Roman 
empire ; and it formed afterwards a constant 
object of contention between the Romans and 
the Parthian and Persian kings, but was for the 
most part virtually independent. Its warlike 
inhabitants, called ropSuaioi or Cordueni, were 
no doubt the same people as the Carduchi of 
the earlier Greek geographers, and the Kurds 
of modern times (Strab. p. 747). 

Gorge (Topyv), daughter of Oeneus and 
Althea. She and her sister Deianira alone re- 
tained their original forms, when their other 
sisters were metamorphosed by Artemis into 
birds (Ov. Met. xiii. 543 ; Hyg. Fab. 97). 

Gorgias (ropylas). 1. Of Leontini, in Sicily, 
a celebrated rhetorician and orator, sophist and 
philosopher, was born about B. c. 480, and is said 
to have lived 105, or even 109 years. In B.C. 
427 he was sent by his fellow-citizens as am- 
bassador to Athens to ask for aid against Syra- 
cuse (Diod. xii. 53). He spent the remaining 
years of his vigorous old age in the towns of 
Greece Proper, especially at Athens and the 
Thessalian Larissa, enjoying honour every- 
where as an orator and teacher of rhetoric. It 
is probable that he to some extent influenced 
Thucydides; and Alcibiades, Alcidamas, Aes- 
chines and Antisthenes are called either pupils 
or imitators of Gorgias, and his oratory must 
have had great influence upon the rhetorician 
Isocrates. The high estimation in which he was 
held at Athens appears from the way in which 
he is introduced in the dialogue of Plato which 
bears his name. The eloquence of Gorgias was 
florid and marked by antitheses, alliterations, 
the symmetry of its parts, and similar artifices ; 
and his great fame is due to the fact that he 
first aimed at artistic prose, seeking to give it a 
rhythm. Two declamations have come down 
to us under the name of Gorgias, viz. the 
Apology of Palamedes, and the Encomiv/m on 
Helena, the genuineness of which is doubtful. 
Besides his orations, which wei'e mostly what 
the Greeks called Epideictic or speeches for 
display, such as his oration addressed to the 
assembled Greeks at Olympia, Gorgias also 
wrote loci communes, probably as rhetorical 
exercises; a work on dissimilar and homo- 
geneous words, and another on rhetoric. The 
works of Gorgias did not even contain the ele- 
ments of a scientific theory of oratory, any 
more than his oral instructions. He confines 
himself to teaching his pupils a variety of rhe- 
torical artifices, and made them learn by heart 
certain formulas relative to them. — 2. Of 
Athens, gave instruction in rhetoric to young 
M. Cicero, when he was at Athens (Cic. ad, Fam. 
xvi. 21). He wrote a rhetorical work, a Latin 
abridgment of which by Rutilius Lupus is still 
extant, under the title De Figvris Sententi- 
arum et Elncutionis (Quintil. ix. 2, 101). 

Gorgo and Gorgones (Topytli and T6pyoves). 
Homer mentions only one Gorgo, who appears 



GORGO 

in the Odyssey (xi. 633) as one of the frightful 
phantoms in Hades : in the Iliad the Aegis of 
Athene contains the head of Gorgo, the terror 
of her enemies. It is represented also on the 
shield of Agamemnon (U. v. 741, xi. 36). 
Hesiod mentions three Gorgones, Sthen.0 (the 
Strong), Euryale (the Far-springer), and 
Medusa (the Ruler), daughters of Phorcys 
and Ceto, whence the}' are sometimes called 
Phorcydes. Hesiod placed them in the far W. 
in the Ocean, in the neighbourhood of Night 
and the Hesperides ; but later traditions trans- 
ferred them to Libya 
(Hes. Th. 274 ; Hdt. ii. 
91; Pans. ii. 21,6). They 
were frightful beings ; 
instead of hair, their 
heads were covered 
with hissing serpents ; 
and they had wings, 
brazen claws, and enor- 
mous teeth (Hes. Scut. 
233; Pind. 01. xiii. 63, 
Pyth. x. 47 ; Aesch. 
Pr. 799 ; Eum. 46 ; 
Ov. Met. iv. 771). 
Medusa, who alone of the three was mortal, 
was, according to some legends, at first a beau- 
tiful maid (cf. Pind. Pyth. xii. 27), but her hair 
was changed into serpents by Athene, in con- 
sequence of her having become by Poseidon 
the mother of Chrysaor and Pegasus, in one 
of Athene's temples. Her head now became 
so fearful that everyone who looked at it 
was changed into stone. For the manner of 



GOTHI 



369 




Archaic head of the Gorgon 
Medusa on a coin of Eretria 




The Oorgon Medusa. (Marble head, at Munich. 

her death see Perseus. As she was already 
with child, from the drops of blood which fell 
from her severed head Pegasus was born. This 
blood had both a healing and a destructive 
power (Eur. Ion, 1003). The head was after- 
wards placed in the aegis of Athene. [See 
Diet, of Ant. art. Aegis.} The interpreta- 
tions of the myth are manifold and doubt- 
ful. The idea of a power that turned into 
stone may easily originate from rooks which 
have a human or animal shape ; but the rest of 
the myth is harder to explain. The old Euhe- 
merists made her either a princess whose army 
fought with Perseus, or represented the Gorgons 
as a tribe of wild women with hairy bodies 
(Paus. ii. 21, 5; Plin. vi. 200). Some of the 
nature school have imagined her to represent 
the sun or the moon ; but Roscher and other 
recent mythologists derive ull her attributes 
from thunderstorms and thunderclouds, rely- 
ing especially on the idea of flashing, yopyhv 
6/xua (cf. 11. viii. 849), and upon the snaky hair 
representing forked lightning. It may perhaps 
be a question whether part of the story may not 
have grown out of the emblems upon ancient 




(Florentine 



shields and out of Oriental masks, instead of the 
emblems and masks from the story. In art 
Gorgons were represented with wings when more 
than the mere mask was shown. In archaic 
art the head was 
hideous and mon- 
strous, with great 
teeth and lolling 
tongue. It is so 
represented in an 
ancient coin of 
Eretria in Euboea 
[see cut above] 
and in a metope 
of the temple of 
Selinus, where 
Perseus is cut- 
ting off the head 
of Medusa. About 
the middle of the 
fifth century B.C. 
the type was more 

human, but still The Gorgon Medusa, 
had the ugliness. 

Towards the year 400 B.C. the type became that 
of a beautiful face. 

Gortyri, Gortyna ir6prvv, rdprwa: Toprv- 
vios). 1. (Nr. Hagios Dekha, Ru., six miles 
from the foot of Mt. Ida), one of the most ancient 
cities in Crete, on the river Lethaeus, ninety 
stadia from its harbour Leben, and 130 stadia 
from its other harbour Matalia (II. ii. 646 ; 0/1. 
iii. 294; Strab. p. 478). It was the second city 
in Crete, being only inferior to Cnossus ; and on 
the decline of the latter place under the Romans, 
it became the metropolis of the island. — 2. Also 
Gortys (Nr. Atzikolo, Ru.), a town in Arcadia on 
the river Gortynius, a tributary of the Alpheus. 

Gortynia (toprvvia), a town in Emathia in 
Macedonia, north of Pella, on the river Axhis 
(Thuc. ii. 100; Ptol. iii. 13, 30). 

Gotarzes. [Absaces XX. XXL] 

Gothi, Gothones, Guttones, a powerful Ger- 
man people, who played an important part in 
the overthrow of the Roman empire. From 
Plin. xxxvii. 35 it seems that they were men- 
tioned by Pytheas. They originally dwelt on 
the Prussian coast of the Baltic at the mouth 
of the Vistula, where they are placed by Tacitus 
[Germ. 43) ; but they afterwards migrated S., 
and at the beginning of the third century, they 
appear on the Coasts of the Black Sea, where 
Caracalla encountered them on his march to 
the East (Spartian, Carac. 10). In the reign of 
the emperor Philippus (a. d. 214-249), they ob- 
tained possession of a great part of the Roman 
province of Dacia ; and in consequence of their 
settling in the countries formerly inhabited by 
the Getae and Scythians, they are frequently 
called both Getae and Scythians by later writers. 
From the time of Philippus the attacks of the 
Goths, who had united with the Carpi, against the 
Roman empire became more frequent and more 
destructive. In a. d. 272 the emperor Aurelian 
surrendered to them the whole of Dacia. It is 
about this time that we find them separated 
into two great divisions, tlie Ostrogoths or E. 
| Goths, and the Visigoths or W. Goths. The 
Ostrogoths settled in Moesia and Pannonin. 
while the Visigoths remained N.of the Danube. 
— The Visigoths under their king Alaric invaded 
Italy, and took and plundered Rome (410). A 
few years afterwards they settled permanenth 
in the SW. of Gaul, and established a kingdom 
of which Tolosa was the capital. From thence 
they invaded Spain, where they also founded a 
kingdom, which lasted for more than two cen- 

B B 



370 



GOTHINI 



GRACCHUS 



turies, till it was overthrown by the Arabs. — 
The Ostrogoths meantime had extended their 
dominions almost up to the gates of Constan- 
tinople ; and the emperor Zeno was glad to get 
rid of them by giving them permission to invade 
and conquer Italy. Under their king Theodorie 
the Great they obtained possession of the whole 
of Italy (493). Theodorie took the title of king 
of Italy, and an Ostrogothic dynasty reigned in 
the country, till it was destroyed by Narses, the 
general of Justinian, A. D. 553. — The Ostrogoths 
embraced Christianity at an early period ; and 
it was for their use that Ulphilas translated the 
Bible into Gothic, about the middle of the fourth 
century. 

GrOthini or Cotini (Kotico;, Dio Cass. lxxi. 
12), a Celtic people in the SE. of Germany, 
subject to the Quadi (Tac. Germ. 43). 

Gracchanus, M. Junius, assumed his cogno- 
men on account of his friendship with C. Grac- 
chus. He wrote a work, De Potestatibus, 
which gave an account of the Roman constitu- 
tion and magistracies from the time of the kings. 
It was addressed to T. Pomponius Atticus, the 
father of Cicero's friend (Cic. Legg. iii. 20, 
49 ; Plin. xxxiii. 36; Varr. L. L. vi. 33). This 
work, which appears to have been one of great 
value, is lost, but some parts of it are cited by 
Joannes Lydus (de Magistr. i. 24). 

Gracchus, Sempromus, plebeian. — 1. Tib., 
a distinguished general in the secondPunic war. 
In B.C. 216 he was magister equitum to the 
dictator, M. Junius Pera ; in 215 consul for the 
first time; and in 213 consul for the second 
time. In 212 he fell in battle against Mago, 
at Campi Veteres, in Lucania (Liv. xxv. 15). 
His body was sent to Hannibal, who honoured 
it with a magnificent burial. — 2. Tib., was tri- 
bune of the plebs in 187 ; and although per- 
sonally hostile to P. Scipio Africanus, he 
defended him against the attacks of the other 
tribunes, for which he received the thanks 
of the aristocratical party. Soon after this 
occurrence Gracchus was rewarded with the 
band of Cornelia, the youngest daughter of P. 
Scipio Africanus. In 181 he was praetor, and 
received Hispania Citerior as his province, 
where he carried on the war with great success 
against the Celtiberians (Liv. xl. 48). After 
defeating them in battle, he gained their con- 
fidence by his justice and kindness. He re- 
turned to Rome in 178 ; and was consul in 177, 
when he was sent against the Sardinians, who 
had revolted. He reduced them to complete sub- 
mission in 176, and returned to Rome in 175. 
He brought with him so large a number of 
captives, that they were sold for a mere trifle, 
which gave rise to the proverb Sardi venales 
(Liv. xli. 7 ; Aurel. Vict, de Vir. III. 57). In 
169 he was censor with C. Claudius Pulcher, 
and was consul a second time in 163. He had 
twelve children by Cornelia, all of whom died 
at an early age, except the two tribunes, Tibe- 
rius and Gaius, and a v daughter, Cornelia, who 
was married to P. Scipio Africanus the younger. 
(Cic. Brut. 27, 104.)— 3. llBi., elder son of No. 
2, lost his father at an early age. He was 
educated together with his brother Gaius by 
his illustrious mother, Cornelia, who made it 
the object of her life to render her sons worthy 
of their father and of her own ancestors. She 
was assisted in the education of her children 
by eminent Greeks, who exercised great influ- 
ence upon the minds of the two brothers, and 
among whom we have especial mention of 
Diophanes of Mytilene, Menelaus of Marathon, 
and Blossius of Cumae. Tiberius was nine 



years older than his brother Gaius ; and al- 
though they grew up under the same influence, 
and their characters resembled each other in 
the main outlines, yet they differed from each 
other in several important particulars. Tibe- 
rius was inferior to his brother in talent, but 
surpassed him in the amiable traits of hisgentle 
nature : the simplicity of his demeanour, and 
his calm dignity, won for him the hearts of 
the people. His eloquence, too, formed a 
strong contrast with the passionate and im- 
petuous harangues of Gains ; for it was tem- 
perate, graceful, persuasive, and, proceeding as 
it did from the fulness of his own heart, it found 
a ready entrance into the hearts of his hearers. 
Tiberius served in Africa under P. Scipio Afri- 
canus the younger (who had married his sister),, 
and was present at the destruction of Car- 
thage (146). In 137 he was quaestor, and in 
that capacity he accompanied the consul, Hos- 
tilius Mancinus, to Hispania Citerior, where he 
gained both the affection of the Roman soldiers 
and the esteem and confidence of the victori- 
ous enemy. The distressed condition of the 
Roman people had deeply excited the sympa- 
thies of Tiberius. As he travelled through 
Etruria on his journey to Spain, he observed 
with grief and indignation the deserted state 
of that fertile country ; thousands of foreign 
slaves in chains were employed in cultivating 
the land and tending the flocks upon the im- 
mense estates of the wealthy, while the poorer 
classes of Roman citizens, who were thus 
thrown out of employment, had scarcely their 
daily bread or a clod of earth to call their own. 
He resolved to use every effort to remedy this 
state of things by endeavouring to create an 
industrious middle class of agriculturists, and 
to put a check upon the unbounded avarice of 
the ruling party, whose covetousness, combined 
with the disasters of the second Punic war, had 
completely destroyed the middle class of small 
landowners. With this view, he offered him- 
self as a candidate for the tribuneship, and 
obtained it for the year 133. The agrarian law 
of Licinius, which enacted that no one should 
possess more than 500 jugera of public land, 
had never been repealed, but had for a long 
series of years been totally disregarded. The 
first measure, therefore, of Tiberius was to 
propose a bill to the people, renewing and 
enforcing the Licinian law, but with the modi- 
fication, that besides the 500 jugera allowed 
by that law, anyone might possess 250 jugera 
of the public land for each of his sons. This, 
clause, however, seems to have been limited to 
two : so that a father of two sons might occupy 
1,000 jugera of public land. The surplus was 
to be taken from them and distributed in small 
farms of 30 jugera among the poorer citizens, 
with permanent leases at a moderate rent. 
The business of measuring and distributing the 
land was to be entrusted to triumvirs, who were to 
be elected annually. This measure encountered 
the most vehement opposition from the senate 
and the aristocracy, and they got one of the 
tribunes, M. Octavius, to put his intercessio or 
veto upon the bill. When neither persuasions 
nor threats would induce Octavius to with- 
draw his opposition, the people, upon the pro- 
position of Tiberius (an unconstitutional 
measure), deposed Octavius from his office. The 
law was then passed, and the triumvirs 
appointed to carry it into execution were Tib. 
Gracchus, App. Claudius, his father-in-law, 
and his brother C. Gracchus, who was then 
little more than twenty years old, and was 



GEACCHUS 



GEAEAE 



371 



serving in the camp of P. Scipio at Numantia. I year, before the consuls were elected, the 
About this time Attalus died, bequeathing his senate should determine the two provinces 
kingdom and his property to the Roman I which the consuls should have. Moreover, by 
people. Gracchus thereupon proposed that I enacting that the taxes of Asia should be put 
this property should be distributed among the , up for auction at Eome, he threw both the 
people, to enable the poor who were to receive farming of the taxes and the judicial trial for 
lands to purchase the necessary implements, extortionate taxation into the hands of the 
cattle, and the like. When the time came for equites. This plan, though it secured him 



support, was certain to cause corruption and 
extortion in the system of provincial tax-gather- 
ing. — Gaius was elected tiibune again for the 
following year, 122. The senate, finding it im- 



the election of the tribunes for the following 
year, Tiberius again offered himself as a can- 
didate. The senate declared that it was illegal 
for anyone to hold this office for two consecu- 
tive years ; but Tiberius paid no attention to possible to resist the measures of Gaius, 
the objection. While the tribes were voting, resolved if possible to destroy his influence 
a band of senators, headed by P. Scipio Xasica, . with the people. For this purpose they per- 
rushed from the senate house into the forum ! suaded M. Livius Drusus, one of the colleagues 
and attacked the people. Tiberius was killed of Gaius, to propose measures still more popu- 
as he was attempting to escape. He was pro- )ar than those of Gaius. The people allowed 
bably about thirty-five years of age at the time themselves to be duped by the agent of the 
of Ins death. (Plut. Tib. Gracch.; Appian, senate, and the popularity of Gaius gradually 
B. C. i. 9-17 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 2 ; index to Cicero), waned. During his absence in Africa, whither 
— There can be no doubt that the motives of he had gone as one of the triumvirs to esta- 
Tiberius were pure, and that he came forward I blish a colony at Carthage, in accordance with 
from a genuine desire to remedy the abuses of one of his own laws, his party had been con- 
the land occupation and to ameliorate the con- siderably weakened by the influence of Drusus 
dition of the poorer citizens. Unfortunately and the aristocracy, and many of his friends 
he adopted a revolutionary method in illegally j had deserted his cause. He failed in obtaining 
deposing hia colleague, and by his subsequent i the tribuneship for the following year (121) ; 
methods for gaining the support of the popu- ' and when his year of office expired, his enemies 
lace against the senate gave some colour for began to repeal several of his enactments, 
the undoubtedly false accusation that he was j Gaius appeared in the forum to oppose these 
seeking power for himself, which led some even proceedings. Antullius, one of the attendants 
of the more moderate men to approve of his ] of the consul Opimius, was slain by the friends 
death. [See also Diet, of Antiq. art. Agrariae of Gaius. Opimius gladly availed himself of this 
Leges.j— -4. C, brother of No. 3, was in Spain j pretext to persuade the senate to confer upon 
at the time of his brother's murder, as has been I him unlimited power to act as he thought best 
already stated. He returned to Eome in the ! for the good of the republic. Fulvius Flaccus, 



following year (132), but kept aloof from public 
affairs for some years. In 126 he was quaestor, 
and went to Sardinia, under the consul L. 
Aurelius Orestes, and there gained the appro- 
bation of his superiors and the attachment of 
the soldiers. The senate attempted to keep 
him in Sardinia, dreading his popularity in 
Eome: but after he had remained there two 
years, he left the province without leave, and 
returned to the city in 124. Urged on by the 
popular wish, and by the desire of avenging 
the cause of his murdered brother, he became 
a candidate for the tribuneship of the plebs, 
and was elected for the year 123. His reforms 
were far more extensive than his brother's, in 
fact they amounted to revolution, and such was 
his influence with the people that he carried 
all he proposed ; and the senate were deprived 
of some of their most important privileges. 
His first measure was to secure the right of 
being elected tribune for two or more years 
in succession. Having gained this point, he 
proceeded to win over the populace by enacting 
that all citizens who applied should receive at 
a low price five modii of com — the beginning 
of the pernicious system of doles which more 
than anything else demoralised the proletariate 
of Rome. He then renewed his brother's 
agrarian law, and also established colonies at 
Tarentum and Capua. He next passed laws for 



and the other friends of Gaius, called upon him 
to repel force by force : but he refused to arm, 
and while his friends fought in his defence, he 
fled to the grove of the Furies, where he fell by 
the hand of his slave, whom he had commanded 
to put him to death. The bodies of the slain, 
whose number is said to have amounted to 3000, 
were thrown into the Tiber, their property was 
confiscated, and their houses demolished. All 
the other friends of Gracchus who fell into the 
hands of their enemies were thrown into prison 
and there strangled. — It is impossible to allow 
to C. Gracchus that freedom from personal 
motives — of ambition as well as of revenge — 
which ennobled his brother. That he also was 
in many points reforming abuses is undeniable ; 
but his methods were revolutionary and vio- 
lent, and were in some degree the cause of a 
century of wars which more judicious and 
gradual reform might possibly have avoided. 
Two of his measures, the gifts of corn, and the 
baits offered to the equites were calculated to 
work great evil in the state. In ability, how- 
ever, he was his brother's superior, and his 
death by what was unjustifiable violence haB 
transferred much of the blame to his oppo- 
nents. (Plut. C. Gracch. ; Appian, B. C. i. 21- 
20 ; index to Cicero.) 
Gradivus. i Maks.] 

Graeae iTpa7o<) — that is, ' the old women ' — 



the benefit of the military levies, enacting that daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, were three in 
the soldiers should be equipped at the expense number, Pephrcdo, Enyo, and JJitw, and were 
of the republic, and thut no person under the also called Phorcj/drs. They had grey hair 
age of seventeen should be drafted for the army, from their birth ; and had only one tooth and 
In order to weaken the power of the senate, one eye in common, which they borrowed from 
and to set them at enmity with the monied each other when they wanted them. They 
commercial class, he enacted that the judices protected their sisters, the Gorgons, and dwelt 
in the judicia publico, who had hitherto been outside the light of sun and moon beyond des- 
elected from the senate, should in future be tern Libya. Aeschylus (who giveB them tho 
chosen from the equites, and that in every bodies of swans) makes them one of tho stages 

U u 9 



372 



GRAECIA 



GRAIOCELI 



in the wanderings of Io, and they appear in the 
the story of Perseus. [Pebseus.] Roscher and 
other recent rnythologists maintain that the 
story, like that of the G-orgons, arose from 
thunderclouds : a tooth is said to represent 
lightning in Aryan mythology, and the pass- 
ing of the eye and the tooth to signify the 
lightning flashing from cloud to cloud. It must 
be confessed that this does not seem an obvious 
or natural idea to connect with a thunderstorm. 
It may perhaps be enough to regard them as 
personifying old age. The conception is more 
like Norse than Greek mythology, and may 
possibly have been passed on to Greece from a 
northern people. 

Graecia or Hellas (7) 'EAAas), a country in 
Europe, the inhabitants of which were called 
Graeci or Hellenes ("EW-nves). Among the 
Greeks Hellas was used in general to signify 
the abode of the Hellenes, wherever they might 
happen to be settled. Thus the Greek colo- 
nies of Cyrene in Africa, of Syracuse in Sicily, 
of Tarentum in Italy, and of Smyrna in Asia, 
are said to be in Hellas ; but before the western 
colonies were founded, Delos was about the 
centre of the Hellenic world. Latin geographers 
limited the name Hellas to Middle Greece, ex- 
cluding the Peloponnessus and all that lies 
north of the Malian Gulf. Eastern nations 
called the Hellenes generally ' Ionians ' ; western 
nations knew them as ' Greeks ' (see below). In 
the most ancient times Hellas was a small dis- 
trict of Phthiotis in Thessaly, in which was 
situated a town of the same name (II. ii. 683 ; 
Thuc. i. 3 ; Strab. 431). As the inhabitants of 
this district, the Hellenes, gradually spread 
over the surrounding country, their name was 
adopted by other tribes, who became assimilated 
in language, manners, and customs to the 
original Hellenes ; till at length the whole of 
the N. of Greece from the Ceraunian and Cam- 
bunian mountains to the Corinthian isthmus 
was designated by the name of Hellas.* In 
later times even Macedonia, and the S. part of 
Ulyria were sometimes reckoned part of Hellas. 
The Eomans called the land of the Hellenes 
Graecia, whence we have derived the name of 
Greece. They probably gave this name to the 
country from their first becoming acquainted 
with the tribe of the Graeci, who were said to be 
descended from Graecus, a son of Thessalus, 
and who appear at an early period to have dwelt 
on the "W. coast of Epirus (cf . Aristot. Meteor. 
i. 4). — Hellas, or Greece proper, including 
Peloponnesus, lies between the 36th and 46th 
degrees of N. latitude, and between the 21st and 
26th degrees of E. longitude. Its greatest 
length from Mt. Olympus to Cape Taenarus is 
about 250 English miles : its greatest breadth 
from the W. coast of Acarnania to Marathon 
in Attica is about 180 miles. Its area is some- 
what less than that of Portugal ; yet so deeply 
is the land indented by arms of the sea that 
Greece has as many miles of sea coast as Spain 
and Portugal together, and no spot even in 
Thessaly or Arcadia is more than forty miles 
from the sea. The rivers of Greece have the 
character of torrents, not one being navigable 
even for boats : few of them have any volume 
of water in the dry season of the year, the 
Achelous, which has the respectable course of 
100 miles, the Peneus and Alpheus. The other 
rivers of Greece, however renowned, carry down 

* Epirus is, for the sake of convenience, usually in- 
cluded in Hellas by modern geographers, but was 
excluded by the Greeks themselves, as the Epirots were 
not regarded as genuine Hellenes. 



little water in the summer, and many are 
at that time dried up altogether. On the N. 
it was separated by the Cambunian and Cerau- 
nian mountains from Macedonia and Illyria ; 
and on the other three sides it is bounded by 
the sea : namely, by the Ionian sea on the W., 
and by the Aegaean on the E. and S. It is 
one of the most mountainous countries of Eu- 
rope, and possesses few extensive plains (those 
of Thessaly and Boeotia alone are really large) , 
and few continuous valleys. The inhabitants 
were thus separated from one another by bar- 
riers which it was not easy to surmount, and 
were naturally led to form separate political 
communities ; while the numerous inlets of sea, 
mentioned above, led to maritime enterprise in 
most of these small states. Bonds of union for 
all were found in their national games, which 
were the great festivals of their common 
religion, and in their common Amphictyonic 
council. At a later time the N. of Greece was 
generally divided into ten districts : Epieus, 
Thessalia, Acabnania, Aetolia, Dobis, Lo- 
cbis, Phocis, Boeotia, Attica and Megabis. 
The S. of Greece or Peloponnesus was usually 
divided into ten districts likewise : Coeinthia, 
Sicyonia, Phliasia, Achaia, Elis, Messenia, 
Laoonica, Cynueia, Abgolis and Abcadia." An 
account of the geography, early inhabitants, and 
history of each of these districts is given in sepa- 
rate articles. Of the earliest inhabitants we know 
very little. The Carians and Leleges were both 
regarded as barbarous people, and may have 
been of altogether alien stock. On the other hand, 
the term ' Pelasgian ' seems to have included 
every prehistoric people of the lands after- 
wards Hellenic, yet the Pelasgi may have been 
merely an earlier immigration of the same race. 
[Cabes ; Leleges ; Pelasgi.] The numerous 
Phoenician trading ports gave at any rate a large 
Semitic element alike of blood and of civilisa- 
tion. [Cadmus.] In Crete especially all those 
nationalities left their traces. To Homer the 
Greeks were Achaeans or Argives or Danai ; 
but the relationship of the Achaeans to the 
Pelasgi, or whether they were really distinct, 
remains an open question, as does also the 
origin of the dynasty which ruled in the Ho- 
meric Argos. [Achaei ; Pelops.] 

Graecia Magna or G. Major (7; ^yaKt] 
'EAAas), a name given to the districts in the S. 
of Italy inhabited by the Greeks. This name 
was never used simply to indicate the S. of 
Italy ; it was always confined to the Greek cities 
and their territories, and did not include the 
surrounding districts, inhabited by the Italian 
tribes. It appears to have been applied chiefly 
to the cities on the Tarentine gulf, Tarentum, 
Sybaris, Croton, Caulonia, Siris (Heraclea), 
Metapontum, Locri, and Rhegium ; but it also 
included the Greek cities on the W. coast, such 
as Cumae and Neapolis. Strabo extends the 
appellation even to the Greek cities of Sicily. 
The name of the country before the Greek 
colonisation is said to have been Oenoteia ; 
the first writer who used the term t) /j.eyd\ri 
'EAAas- was Polybius (ii. 39 ; cf. Strab. p. 253). 
Cicero speaks of Magna Graecia (de Or. iS. 34, 
&c). ' Graecia Major ' is also found in Livy and 
Ovid (Liv. xxxi. 7 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 64). 

Graioceli (Caes. B. G. i. 10), a Gallic people 
of the Cottian Alps, occupying the country be- 
tween the Ceutrones (who lived in Tarentaise, 
or upper valley of the Isaj:a), and the Caturiges 
(who lived in the upper valley of the Durance). 
West of them were the Vocontii (who lived about 
Grenoble). It is therefore plain that the 



GRAMPIU3 



GRUDII 



378 



country of the Graioceli was the Maurienne, or 
valley of the Are, on the French side of Mt. Cenis, 
which pass (or rather the little Mt. CenisJ was 
crossed by Caesar as the shortest way to Further 
Gaul. The name lingered in the corrupt form 
' Garoeelia ' for the Maurienne and ' S. Joannes 
Garocellius' for St. Jean de Maurienne. 

Gramplus Hons. [Geaupius.] 

GraniCUS (TpaviKos : Koja-Chai), a river of 
Mysia Minor, rising in M. Cotylus, the X. sum- 
mit of Ida, and falling into the Propontis (Sea 
of Marmara) : memorable as the scene of the 
first of the three great victories by which Alex- 
ander the Great overthrew the Persian empire 
(B.C. 334), and, in a less degree, for a victory 
gained upon its banks by Lucullus over Mith- 
ridates, 73 (H. xii. 21 ; Strab. p. 587 ; Arrian, 
An. 1, 13 ; Plut. Alex. 24, Lucull. 11). 

Granis (Tpavis : Khisht), a river of Persis, with 
a royal palace on its banks. It fell into the 
Persian Gulf near Taoce. (Arrian, Ind. 39.) 

Granius, Q., a clerk employed by the auc- 
tioneers at Rome to collect the money at sales, 
lived about B.C. 110. He was a friend of Luci- 
lius, and was celebrated for his wit. (Cic. de 
Or. 60, 244, Brut. 43, 160, ad Att. vi. 3.) 

Granius Licinianus, a historian, probably of 
the 2nd century a.d. (Macrob. i. 16, 30 ; Solin. 
Polyb. ii. 12). Wrote a short history of the 
Roman republic in about forty books : parts of 
books 26, 28, and 36 are extant, relating to 
events 163-78 B.C. He pays minute attention 
to omens and prodigies. He alludes (p. 8) to the 
completion of the Olympieum at Athens : which 
makes his date at least as late as Hadrian's 
reign. Ed. by Perz, Lips. 1858. 

Granua (Ypai/ova : Groan), a river in the land 
of the Quadi and the SE. of Germany, and a 
tributary of the Danube, on the banks of which 
M. Aurelius wrote the 1st book of his Medita- 
tions (Antonin. Comment, i. 17). 

Gratiae. [Charites.] 

Gratianus. 1. Emperor of the Western Em- 
pire, a.d. 367-383, son of Valentinian I., was 
raised by his father to the rank of Augustus in 
367, when he was only eight years old. On the 
death of Valentinian in 375, Gratian did not 
succeed to the sole sovereignty ; as Valentinian 
II., the half-brother of Augustus, was proclaimed 
Augustus by the troops. He was educated by 
Ausonius, whom he rewarded in 379 with the 
consulship. By the death of his uncle, Valens 
(378), the Eastern empire devolved upon him ; 
but the danger to which the East was exposed 
from the Goths led Gratian to send for Theo- 
dosius, and appoint him emperor of the East 
(879). Gratian was fond of quiet and repose, 




OratlanuB. P.cmf.n Emperor. A.D. 3*;7-8H8. 
Obr., head of Oratlanun. D. N. GP.ATI ANV9 AVQ. ; 
ret.. Genius of Home holding Victory. V 111)8 ItOMA. 

and was greatly under the influence of ecclesi- 
astics, especially of Ambrose of Milan. He 
became unpopular with the army. Maximus 
was declared emperor in Britain, and crossed 
over to Gaul, where, in the neighbourhood of 
Paris, h« defeated Gratian, who was overtaken 
and slain in his flight after the battle. (Aurel. 
Vict. Spit. 45-48; Zos. vi. 12-80; Zonar. xiii. 



' 17 ; Auson. Gratiarum Actio.) — 2. A usurper, 
who assumed the purple in Britain, and was 
murdered by his troops about four months after- 
wards (407) (Oros. vii. 40). He was succeeded 
by Constantine. [Coxstantinl'S, No. 3.] 

Gratianopolis. [Cl'laro.] 

Gratiarum Collis (XapiTaiv \6<pos, Hdt. iv. 
175 : Hills of Tarhouyiah), a range of wooded 
hills running parallel to the coast of X. Africa 
between the Syrtes, and containing the source 
of the Cinyps and other small rivers. 

Gratidianus. [Gbatldius.] 

Gratidius. 1. M., of Arpinum, great-uncle of 
J Cicero. He proposed a lex tabellariaior Arpi- 
num in 115, and was opposed by Cicero's grand- 
father, who had married his sister, Gratidia. 
He was killed in the war of Antonius against the 
pirates, B.C. 103. (Cic. Legg. iii. 16, 36, Brut. 45. 
168.) — 2. His son, M. Marius Gratidianus, was 
adopted by the brother of C. Marius, and was 
proscribed by Sulla and murdered by Catiline. 
He had been praetor in 86 and had won popular 
favour by an edict about the coinage. (Cic. Legg. 
I.e., Brut. I.e., de Off. iii. 16, 67 ; Plin. xxxiii. 
132.) — 3. M.. legate of Q. Cicero in Asia 61-59 : 
perhaps a grandson of No. 1 (Cic. Flacc. 21, 49). 

Grattius or Gratius (to whom the cognomen 
Faliscus is also given, but with no good autho- 
rity), a contemporary of Ovid (Pont. iv. 16, 34), 
and the author of an uninteresting didactic 
poem on Hunting (Cynegetica). Edited in 
Poet. hat. Min. by Biihrens, Lips. 1879. 

Gratus, Valerius, procurator of Judaea from 
a.d. 15 to 27, and the immediate predecessor of 
Pontius Pilate (Jos. Ant. xviii. 6). 

Graupius Mons, in Caledonia (Grampian 
Hills). [There is no doubt that Graupius, not 
Grampius, is the form known to the Romans: 
I though whether Grampian is a corruption of 
Graupian or preserves the true original name it 
is impossible to say.] This is a general term 
for the ranges separating the highlands of 
i Perthshire from the lowlands, and extending to 
Aberdeenshire. Somewhere at the foot of the 
Grampians Agricola, having crossed the Forth, 
fought with Galgacus (Tac. Agr. 29). The site 
may possibly be, as some maintain, near Comrie 
in Perthshire, in the valley of the Earn. Here 
there are traces of a Roman camp at Dalginross, 
which claims to preserve the name of Galgacus. 

Graviscae, an ancient city of Etruria, sub- 
ject to Tarquinii, was colonised by the Romans 
B. c. 188, and received new colonists under 
Augustus. It was situated in the Maremma, 
and its air was unhealthy (intempestae Gra- 
viscae, Virg. Aen. x. 184) ; whence the ancients 
ridiculously derived its name from aer gravis. 
Its ruins are on the right bank of the river 
Marta, about two miles from the sea, where are 
the remains of a magnificent arch. (Liv. zL 
29; Veil. Pat. i. 15; Strab. p. 225.) 

Gregoras, Nicephorus. a Byzantine histo- 
rian, about A.D. 1295-1859. His work is in 
thirty-eight books, of which only twenty-four 
have been printed. It begins with the capture 
of Constantinople by the Latins in 1 204, and goes 
down to 1859 ; the twenty-four printed books 
contain the period from 1204 to 1851. Edited 
by Schopen, Bonn, 1829. 

Gregorius (Tpny6ptos). 1. Rumamed Nazi- 
anzenus, and usually called Gregory Nazian- 
zen, bishop of Constantinople a. d. 880-890. — 2. 
Nyssenus, bishop of Nyssa about 872-891.— 3. 
Thaumaturgus, bishop of Neocoesarea about 
a.d. 240. [See Did. of Christian Biography.} 

Gradli, a people in Gallia Belgica, subject to 
the Nervii, N. of the Scheldt (Caes. B. G. v. 39). 



374 



GRUMENTUM 



HADES 



Grumentum (Grumentlnus : Saponara), a 
town in the interior of Lucania on the road from 
Beneventum to Heraclea, mentioned in the 2nd 
Punic war (Liv. xxiii. 37, xxvii. 41 ; Strab. p. 254). 

Grumum (Grumo), a town of Apulia, fourteen 
miles SW. of Barium (Bari). 

Gryllus (TpuAAos), elder son of Xenophon, fell 
at the battle of Mantinea, B. c. 362, after he had, 
according to some accounts, given Epaminondas 
his mortal wound (Paus. viii. 9, 5, x. 8, 11). 

Grynia or -ium (Fpvyeta, Tpvpiov : Porto 
Glymi), a fortified city on the coast of the Sinus 
Elaiticus, in the S. of Mysia, between Elaea and 
Myrina, 70 stadia from the former and 40 from 
the latter; celebrated for its temple and 
oracle of Apollo, who is hence called Grynaeus 
Apollo (Virg. Aen. iv. 345). It possessed also a 
good harbour. Parmenion, the general of Alex- 
ander, destroyed the city (Hdt. i. 149 ; Strab. p. 
622 ; Diod. xvii. 7). 

Gryps or Gryphus (I>u<|/), a griffin, a fabulous 
animal, dwelling in the Rhipaean mountains, be- 
tween the Hyperboreans and the one-eyed Ari- 
maspians, and guarding the gold of the north. 
The Arimaspians mounted on horseback, and 
attempted to steal the gold, and hence arose the 
hostility between the horse and griffin. (Hdt. 

iii. 116, iv. 13, 27 ; Paus. i. 24, 6, viii. 2, 3 ; Ael. 
H. A. iv. 27 ; Plin. vii. 10.) Hesiod seems to 
have been the first Greek who mentions griffins 
(Schol. ad Aesch. Pr. 803), and next Aristeas. 
The idea of the griffin came from the East : the 
figure is found in sculptures of Persia, Phoe- 
nicia, and Egypt, from which country it passed 
probably to Mycenae, where a griffin dagger has 
been found. It is a common figure on vases. 
The griffin was among the attributes of Apollo. 

Gugerni or Guberni, a people of Germany, 
probably of the same race as the Sigambri, 
crossed the Rhine, and settled on its left bank, 
between the Ubii and Batavi (Tac. Hist. iv. 
28, v. 16; Plin. iv. 106). 

Gulussa, a Numidian, second son of Masi- 
nissa, and brother to Micipsa and Mastanabal. 
On the death of Masinissa, in b. c. 149, he suc- 
ceeded along with his brothers to the dominions 
of their father. (Liv. xlii. 23 ; Pol. xxxix. 1 ; 
Sail. Jug. 5, 35.) He left a son, named Massiva. 

Guntia (Gunzberg), a town in Vindelicia, be- 
tween Campodunum and Augusta Vindelicorum 
[Augsburg). 

Guraeus (Tovpouos, Tappo'ias), a river of India, 
flowing through the country of the Guraei (in 
the NW. of the Punjab) into the Cophen. 

Gurulis (Cuglieri), a town in the west of 
Sardinia, a few miles inland (Ptol. iii. 3, 7). 

Guttones. [Gothi.] 

Gyarus or Gyara (^ Tvapos, ra Tvupa : 
Tvapevs : Chiura or Jura), one of the Cyclades, 
a small island, twelve miles in circumference, 
SW. of Andros, poor and unproductive, and in- 
habited only by fishermen (Strab. p. 485 ; Plin. 

iv. 69, viii. 82). Under the emperors it was a 
place of banishment (Aude aliquid brevibus 
Gyaris et carcere dignum, Juv. i. 73). 

Gyes or Gyges (rv-qs, rtjyjjs), son of Uranus 
(Heaven) and Ge (Earth), a hundred-handed 
giant, who made war upon the gods (Ov. Fast. 
iv. 593 ; Hor. Od. ii. 17, 14 ; Gigantes). 

Gygaeus Lacus (t) Tvyalri Ai/xv-q : Lake of 
Marmora), a small lake in Lydia, between the 
rivers Hermus and Hyllus, N. of Sardis, the 
necropolis of which city was on its banks. It 
was afterwards called Coloe (II. xx. 391 ; Hdt. 
i. 93^ Strab. p. 626). 

Gyges (VvyTjs), the first king of Lydia of the 
dynasty of the Mermnadae, dethroned Candau- 



les, and succeeded to the kingdom, as related 
under Candaules. He reigned b. o. 716-678. 
He sent magnificent presents to Delphi, and 
carried on various wars with the cities of Asia 
Minor, such as Miletus, Smyrna, Colophon, and 
Magnesia. ' The riches of Gyges ' became a 
proverb (Hdt. i. 7-14; Paus. iv. 21, 5). 

Gylippus (TvAtinros), a Spartan, son of Clean- 
dridas, was sent as the Spartan commander to 
Syracuse, to oppose the Athenians, B. c. 414. 
Under his command the Syracusans annihilated 
the great Athenian armament, and took Demo- 
sthenes and Nicias prisoners, 413. (Thuc. vi. 
93-vii. 86, viii. 13.) In 404 he was commissioned 
by Lysander, after the capture of Athens, to 
carry home the treasure ; but by opening the 
seams of the sacks underneath, he abstracted a 
considerable portion. The theft was discovered, 
and Gylippus went into exile. (Plut. Lys. 16, 
Nic. 28 ; Diod. xiii. 106 ; Athen. p. 234.) 

Gymnesiae. [Baleares.] 

Gymnosophistae (ru/xvo<To<ptffra[), a sect of 
Indian ascetic philosophers, who went about 
naked (Curt._viii. 9, 33; Plut. Alex. 64). 

Gynaecopolis (TuvaiKoiroAis or TwaiKuv 
ir6\is), a city in the Delta of Egypt, on the W. 
bank of the Canopic branch of the Nile, between 
Hermopolis and Momemphis. 

Gyndes (TvvStis), a river of Assyria, rising in 
the country of the Matieni (in Kurdistan), and 
flowing into the Tigris, celebrated through the 
story that Cyrus the Great drew off its waters 
by 360 channels (Hdt. i. 189). 

Gyrton, Gyrtona (Tuprwv, Tvprdvri : rvp- 
t&vios ■ nr. Tatari, Ru.), an ancient town in 
Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, on the Peneus (II. ii. 
738; Thuc. ii. 22 ; Strab. p. 439). 

Gytheum, GytMum (rb ridewv, Tvdiov. 
ru6ed.T7]s : Palaeopolis, nr. Marathonisi), an 
ancient town on the coast of Laconia, founded 
by the Achaeans, lay near the head of the 
Laconian bay, SW. of the mouth of the river 
Eurotas. It served as the harbour of Sparta, 
and was important from a military point of view. 
In the Persian war the Lacedaemonian fleet 
was stationed at Gytheum, and the Athenians 
under Tolmides burnt the Lacedaemonian 
arsenal, B. c. 455 (Thuc. i. 102). After the 
battle of Leuctra (370) it was taken by Epami- 
nondas (Xen. Sell. vi. 5, 32). In 195 it was 
taken by Flamininus, and made independent of 
Nabis, tyrant of Sparta; whereupon it joined 
the Achaean League (Liv. xxxiv. 29 ; Strab. p. 
363 ; Paus. iii. 21, 8). 

Gyzantes (rv(avres), a people in the W. part 
of Libya (N. Africa), whose country was rich in 
honey and wax. Probably dwelt in Byzacium. 



H. 

Hades or Pluto ("AiSijs, TLKovtuv, or poeti- 
cally A'/'Stjs, 'AtSaivevs, TlAovrevs), the God of 
the Nether World. His name is from a-lSe'ii 
(the dark, unseen god) : a less probable sugges- 
tion is ' the god of the earth or underworld ' 
from ot7a. Hades was son of Cronus and Rhea, 
and brother of Zeus and Poseidon (II. xv. 187)- 
Hesiod (Th. 453) adds two other sisters, Hestia 
and Demeter. His wife was Persephone or 
Proserpina, the daughter of Demeter, whom he 
carried off from the upper world, as is related 
elsewhere. [Demeter ; Persephone.] In the 
division of the world among the three brothers 
Hades obtained the Nether World, the abode 
of the shades, over which he ruled. Hence he 
is called the infernal Zeus (Zei/s Karax^ipios or 



HADES 



375 



xBivios), or the king of the shades (ava£ ivepwyj. I the surnames which described him personally, 
(17. ix. 457, xv. 191 ; Aesch. Pr. 627 ; Pans. ii. 1 or his realm, such as nohvheyfxwv, he was known 
24,' 4.) He possessed a helmet (like the ' cap of as Clymenus ' the Illustrious ' (perhaps to propi- 
da'rkness ' in Northern myths) which rendered 1 tiate him) at Hermione (Paus. ii. 35, 5), and in the 
the wearer invisible, and later traditions stated ! Eleusinian mysteries as Eubuleus, i.e. the god 
that this helmet was given him as a present by j who counsels well for mankind in giving them 
the Cyclopes after their delivery from Tartarus, rest from their labours (Comut. N. D. 35). The 
indent story mentions both gods and men who | name Pluto (Vl^ovrwv) murks a new departure 



were honoured bv Hades with the temporary 
use of this helmet. I (27. v. 845 ; Hes. Scut. 22 ; 
Aristoph. Ach. 390 ; Apollod. i. 6, 2.) His cha- 
racter is described as fierce and inexorable, 
whence of all the gods he was most hated by 
mortals. He kept the gates of the lower world 



in his attributes. As Hades he was the severe 
and sterile god, giving no fruits and father of 
no children (that lie was father of the Furies is 
a late tradition cf. Servius, ad Aen. i. 86). But, 
perhaps from the influence of the Eleusinian 
mysteries, the god of the underworld came to 



closed (and is therefore called Uv\apTT)s), that j be regarded as the god of the earth and all that 
no shades might be able to escape or return to it gives (an old and primitive idea of course, but 
the region of light (7/. viii. 367 ; Paus. v. 20 1). I new as applied to Hades). Therefore wealth 

and fruits were given bj- 
him, and he was wor- 
shipped as U.K0VTWV (care- 
fully to be distinguished 
from the personified riches 
UAovtos, or Plutus). The 
name is first traceable 
in the Attic writers early 
in the fifth cent. B. c 
and eventually prevailed, 
though not to the entire 
exclusion of the name 
"Ai8?;s (cf. Plat. Crat. p. 
403). In art the represen- 
tations of Hades (not fre- 
quent) have the same- 
character as those of Zeus, 
but are distinguished by 
the sterner countenance, 
the shaggy hair (some- 
times with a wolfskin cap) 
and beard, and attributes 
such as the cock, the wolf, 
and the pomegranate, or 
Cerberus at his side. As 
Pluto or "AiSrjs-YlKovroii' 
the god has a more gra- 
cious expression, and the 
attributes also vary : most 
frequently he has a cornu- 
copia and carries a sceptre 
or a two-pronged fork, 
which some take for an 
agricultural implement, 
and others believe to be a 
late and spurious addition. 
The figures of Serapis or 
Zeus-Serapis have often 
been confused with those 
of Hades-Pluto, because 
Hades and Persephone Mated on a throne and ..n-r.ni I apparently in earnest Serapis is represented with 
Conversation. Above the Hod is the inscription EITA. H.ul.M, and above the „ .|>i. f .o i.^.wl^.i Amt 
goddess PHKHSIPNAI, I...-. Por»e. D honc. From an Etruscan tomb at Orvleto. a ull( e-licaoeu aog uesiae 
(Dennis, Etmrta, U. W.) him. His distinguishing 

murk is the mud ins upon 

When mortals invoked him, they struck the his head. rSr.iiAPis.] — The kingdom of Hades, 
earth with their hands; the sacrifices which j i.e. the underworld. The Homeric Hades is a dark 
were offered to him and Persephone consisted i sunless abode within the earth, the entrance to 
of black sheep; and the person who offered the which lies in a grove of black poplars beyond 
sacrifice had to turn away his face (II. ix. 567; the stream of Ocean (7/. xx. 61 ; Od. X. 608). 
Od. x. 527). The ensign of his power was a [ Here are the asphodel meadows, a dull and 
staff, with which, like Hermes, he drove the cheerless place (Od. xi. 48!)), even if Orion 
shades into the lower world. There he sat upon can still pursue his occupation of hunting [Oil. 
a throne with his consort Persephone, as grim ] xi. 689, 578, xxiv. 13). Beyond this was Erelm -. 
in appearance (in this period of the myth) as j the place of darkness and the abode of Hades 
himself (II. ix. 457; Pind. 01. ix. 85). He ap- and Persephone, to which Odysseus did not pene- 
pears seldom in story, since he rarely left his trate. There is a general idea of vastness and 
nether realm. The exceptions were, when he of gloom or twilight witli unsubstantial inarti- 
carried off Persephone, and when he went to culate ghosts, who twitter like bats. Hitting 
Olympus to be cured by Paeon of the wound about among whom appear more distinctly the 
dealt to him by Heracles (II. v. 895). Besides figures of the heroes. The dead in Od. xi. arc 




376 



HADES 



HADRIANUS 



unsubstantial images of the living persons 
■vithout flesh or bones or recollection ; yet con- 
piousness and memory can be recalled when 
they drink the blood. But even in Homer be- 
sides this unreal, impersonal existence there 
are traces of a belief in conscious life, as in the 
twenty- fourth book of the Odyssey. The descrip- 
jions of Minos, Orion and Heracles resuming 



The art representations of the underworld are 
frequent in vase paintings ; the punishments of 
Sisyphus &c. date back as far as black-figure 
vases of the seventh century B.C. It is probable 
that such paintings, especially those of Poly- 
gnotus in the Lesche at Delphi (Paus. x. 19), 
did not merely follow the popular idea but in 
some measure formed it. 




Hermes presenting a Soul to Hades and Persephone. (Plct. Ant. Sepulcri Nasonum, tab. 8.) 



their old life, and the punishment of Tantalus 
and Sisyphus would also imply a conscious life ; 
but there are reasons for considering the whole 
passage in Od. xi. 565-627 a later introduction ; 
and such probably is the 24th book also. In 
post-Homeric authors rocky hollows or caves 
are regarded as entrances to Hades : e.g. those 
at Colonus, the Italian Cumae, Hermione and 
Taenarus, and the approach is cut off by streams 
flowing underground [Styx, Cocytus, Ache- 
ron] ; over these the buried dead are ferried by 
Charon, and on the opposite shore /Cerberus 
keeps guard. The underworld is regarded now 
(which it probably was not to Homer) as a place 
where the life of the upper world and its amuse- 
ments can be repeated. It is also a place of 
retribution [see Tantalus, Sisyphus, Ion, 
DanaidesJ. The dead are judged, the Asiatics 
by Rhadamanthus, the Europeans by Aeacus, 
Minos being the referee for doubtful cases (Plat. 
Qorg. p. 524). Triptolemus also in the Eleusi- 
nian account acts as a judge. This difference 
of state led to the separation of Tartarus (in 
Homer only the prison of Titans) from the rest 
of Hades by the blazing Pyriphlegethon which 
flows between (cf. Plat. Bep. x. p. 616 a; Verg. 
Aen. vi. 548). In the asphodel meadows were 
those who deserved neither great bliss nor 
punishment : the places of reward were separate 
altogether. [Elysium, Fortunatorum In- 
SULAE.] In Virgil, however (Aen. vi.), Elysium 
is placed in Hades. Although a more hopeful 
conception of the future life was introduced 
with the Eleusinian religion and by the philo- 
sophers, and the underworld was not like that 
of Homer, to which Achilles would prefer the 
life of a serf, yet very few Greeks looked for- 
ward to it as a gain in comparison with life in 
the upper world. The Roman OrCUS was in the 
main borrowed, through poets and works of art, 
from the Greek idea, but with certain survivals 
of Italian belief [see Lares, Manes, Lemures]. 



Hadranum. [Adranum.] 
Hadrla. [Adria.] 

Hadriani or Adriani, near the river Rhyn- 
dacus, on the ^frontiers of Mysia and Bithynia. 

Hadrianopolis. 1. ('ASpiav6iro\is: 'ASpiavo- 
7roAiT7)s : Adrianople), a town in Thrace, on the 
right bank of the Hebrus, in an extensive plain, 
founded by the emperor Hadrian. It was 
strongly fortified ; possessed an extensive com- 
merce ; and in the middle ages was the most 
important town in the country after Constan- 
tinople. (Amm. Marc. xiv. 11 ; Eutrop. vi. 8.) — 
2. A town in Bithynia. — 3. A town of Phrygia. 

Hadrianothera or -ae (' ASptauovSiipa), a city 
in Mysia, on the road between Pergamus and 
Miletopolis, founded by the emperor Hadrian. 
(Dio Cass. lxix. 10 ; Vit. Hadr. 20). 

Hadrianus, P. Aellus, usually called Ha- 
drian, Roman emperor, A.D. 117-138, was born 
at Rome, A.D. 76. His family belonged, like 
that of Trajan, to Italica, in Spain. He lost 
his father at the age of ten, and was brought 
up by his kinsman Ulpius Trajanus (afterwards 
emperor) and by Caelius Attianus. From an 
early age he studied with zeal the Greek 
language and literature. At the age of fifteen 
he went to Spain, where he entered upon his 
military career : and he subsequently served 
as military tribune in Eower Moesia. After 
the elevation of Trajan to the throne (98), he 
married Julia Sabina, a grand-daughter of Tra- 
jan's sister Marciana. This marriage was 
brought about through the influence of Plotina, 
the wife of Trajan ; and from this time Ha- 
drian rose rapidly in the emperor's favour. He 
was raised successively to the quaestorship (101), 
praetorship (107), and consulship (109). He ac- 
companied Trajan in most of his expeditions, and 
distinguished himself in the second war against 
the Dacians, 104-106 ; was made governor of 
Pannonia in 108 ; and subsequently fought 
under Trajan against the Parthians. When 



HADRIANUS 

Trajan's serious illness obliged him to leave 
the East, he placed Hadrian at the head of the 
army. Trajan died at Cilicia on his journey to 
Rome (117). Before his death, as was alleged, 
probably influenced by Plotina, he appointed 
Hadrian as his successor. Hadrian was pro- 
claimed emperor by the legions in Syria, and 
the senate ratified the election. Hadrian's first 
care was to make peace with the Parthians, 
which he obtained by relinquishing the con- 
quests of Trajan east of the Euphrates. He 
returned to Rome in 118, but almost imme- 
diately afterwards set out for Moesia, in conse- 
quence of the invasion of this province by the 
Sarmatians. After making peace with the 
Sarmatians, and suppressing a formidable con- 
spiracy which had been formed against his 
life by some of the most distinguished Roman 
nobles, all of whom he put to death, he re- 
turned to Rome in the course of the same 
year. He sought to obtain the goodwill of the 
senate by gladiatorial exhibitions and liberal 
largesses, and he also cancelled all arrears of 
-taxes due to the state for the last fifteen years. 
The remainder of Hadrian's reign was disturbed 
by few wars. He spent the greater part of his 
reign in travelling through the various pro- 
vinces of the empire, in o-der that he might 
inspect personally the state of affairs in the 
provinces, and apply the necessary remedies 
wherever mismanagement was discovered. He 
began these travels in 119, visiting first 
Gaul, Germany, and Britain, in the latter of 
which countries he caused a wall to be built 
;rom the Solway to the mouth of the river Tyne. 
Britannia.] He afterwards visited Spain, 
Africa, and the East, and took up his residence 
at Athens for three years (123-126). Athens was 
liis favourite city, and he conferred upon its in- 
habitants many privileges. The most important 
war during his reign was that against the Jews, 
which broke out in 131. The Jews had revolted 
in consequence of the establishment of a colony 
under the name of Aelia Capitolina on the site 
of Jerusalem, and of their having been forbid- 
den to practise the rite of circumcision. The 
war was carried on by the Jews as a national 
struggle with the most desperate fury, and was 
not brought to an end till 130, after the country 
liad been nearly reduced to a wilderness. 
During the last few years of Hadrian's life, his 
health failed. He became suspicious and cruel, 
and put to death several persons of distinction. 
As he had no children, he adopted L. Aelius 
Verus, and gave him the title of Caesar in 13G. 
Verus died on the 1st of January, 138, where- 
upon Hadrian adopted Antoninus, afterwards 
surnamed Pius, and conferred upon him like- 
wise the title of Caesar. In July in the same 
year, Hadrian himself died, in his G2nd year, 
and was succeeded by Antoninus. — The reign of 
Hadrian may be regarded as one of the hap- 
piest periods in Roman history. His policy 
was to preserve peace with foreign nations, and 
not to extend the boundaries of the empire, but 
to secure the old provinces, and promote their 
welfare. He paid particular attention to the 
administration of justice in the provinces as well 
as in Italy. His reign forms an epoch in the 
history of Roman jurisprudence. It was at 
Hadrian's command that the jurist Salvius 
Julianus drew up the rdictum pcrpetuum, 
which formed a fixed code of laws. Some of 
the laws promulgated by Hadrian are of a 
truly humane character, and aimed at im- 
proving the public morality of the time. The 
various cities which he visited received marks 



HAEUUS 



377 




Hadrianus, Roman Emperor, 
a I >. 117138. 



of his favour or liberality ; in many places he 
built aqueducts, and in others harbours or 
other public buildings, either for use or orna- 
ment. But what has rendered his name more 
illustrious than anything else are the numerous 
and magnificent architectural works which he 
planned and com- 
menced during his 
travels, especially 
at Athens, in the 
S. part of which 
he built an entirely 
new city, ' Novae 
Athenae.' We can- 
not here enter into 
an account of the 
numerous build- 
ings he erected ; it 
is sufficient to di- 
rect attention to 
his villa at Tibur, 
which has been a 
real mine of trea- 
sures of art, and his mausoleum at Rome, 
which forms the groundwork of the present 
Castle of St. Angelo. Hadrian was a patron of 
learning and literature, as well as of the arts, 
and he cultivated the society of poets, scholars, 
rhetoricians, and philosophers. He founded at 
Rome a scientific institution under the name of 
Athenaeum, which continued to flourish for a 
long time after him. He was himself an author, 
and wrote numerous works both in prose and in 
verse, all of which are lost, with the exception 
of a few epigrams in the Greek and Latin Antho- 
logies, which lack evidence of their authorship. 
The well known address to his soul — 

Animula vagula blandula, 
Hospes comesque corporis, 
Quae nunc abibis iu loca 
Pallidnla, rigida, nulula — 
Ncc ut soles dabis jocos ? 

is attributed to him by his biographer. (Life 
of Hadrian in Script. Hilt. Aug.; Dio Cass 
lxix. ; Aurel. Vict. Ep. 14 ; Zonar. xi. 23.) 
Hadrianus, the rhetorician, [Adrianus.] 
Hadrumetum or Adrumetum ('ASpv/xr) : 
Hammeim), a nourishing city founded by the 
Phoenicians in N. Africa, on the E. coast of 
Bycazena, of which district it was the capital 
under the Romans. It had not sided with 
Carthage and was left a free city after the third 
Punic war. Trajan made it a colony; and it 
was afterwards called Justinianopolis. (Strab. p. 
834; Sail. Jnrj. 19; Plin. v. 25; Pol. xv. 5; 
Procop. B. V'. i. 17, ii. 23.) 

Haemon [K'ijxuv). 1. Son of Pelasgus and 
father of Thessalus, from whom the ancient 
name of Thessaly. Haemonia or Aemonia. was 
believed to be derived. The Roman poets 
frequently use the adjective Haemonius as 
equivalent to Thessaliau. (Strab. p. 443 ; 
Dionya. i. 17; Plin. iv. 28.) — 2. Son of Lycaon, 
and the reputed founder of Haemonia in 
Arcadia (Paus. vii. 44). — 3. Son of Creon of 
Thebes, was destroyed, according to some 
accounts, by the sphinx (Apollod. iii. 5, 8). 
Hut, according to other traditions, he was in 
love with Antigone, and killed himself on 
hearing that she was condemned by his father 
to be entombed alive. [Antioone.j 
Haemonia (Aiftocia). Haemon, No. 1.] 
Haemus (Afytos), son of Boreas and Orithyia 
(wife of Rhodope), and father of Hcbrus. As ho 
and his wife presumed to assume the names o\ 
Zeus and Hera, both were metamorphosed inti 
mountains. (Ov. Met. vi. 87.) 



378 



HABMUS 



Haemus (6 AI/jlos, rb Aifiov : Balkan), a lofty 
range of mountains, separating Thrace and 
Moesia, extended from M. Scomius, or, accord- 
ing to Herodotus, from M. Rhodope on the W. 
to the Black Sea on the E. The highest point 
of the range is about 8000 feet above the sea. 
There are several passes over them ; but the 
one most used in antiquity was in the W. part 
of the range, called ' Succi ' or ' Succorum 
angustiae,' also ' Porta Trajani ' (Sulu Der- 
bend), between Philippopolis and Serdica 
(Sophia). The later province of ' Haemi- 
montus ' in Thrace derived its name from this 
mountain. (Hdt. iv. 49 ; Strab. p. 313 ; Amm. 
Marc. xxi. 10, xxvii. 4.) 

Hagno ('Ayv£), the nymph of a spring on Mt. 
Lycaeus in Arcadia. The local legend makes 
this the birthplace of Zeus, who was brought up 
by the nymph. In times of drought the priest 
of Zeus Lycaeus conjured rain by dipping an 
oak bough into the spring of Hagno. (Paus. viii. 
31,2; 32,2; 47,2.) 

Hagnon ("Ayvwv), an Athenian who founded 
the colony of Amphtpolis, b.c. 437 (Thuc. iv. 
102 ; Diod. xii. 32). 

HaglluS (Ayvovs, -ovvtos : 'Ayvovaios : near 
Markopulo), a demus in Attica, W. of Paeania, 
belonging to the tribe Acamantis. 

Halae (' AKai," A\ai, 'AKai: 'AXcutis). 1. H. 
Araph.en.ldes ('Apatpnv'iS^s), a demus in Attica, 
belonging to the tribe Aegeis, was situated on 
the E. coast of Attica, and served as the harbour 
of Brauron : it possessed a temple of Artemis 
(Strab. pp. 339, 446).— 2. H. Aexonldes (A(£a>- 
vloes), a demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe 
Cecropis, situated on the W. coast (Strab. p. 
398). — 3. A town, formerly of the Opuntii Locri, 
afterwards of Boeotia, situated on the Opuntian 
gulf (Strab. p. 405). 

Hales ("AA.77S). 1. A river of Ionia in Asia 
Minor, near Colophon, celebrated for the cold- 
ness of its water (Liv. xxxvii. 36). — 2. A river in 
the island of Cos. 

Halesa ("A\aicra : Haleslnus : Torre di Pitti- 
neo), a town on the N. coast of Sicily, on the 
river Halesus (Pittineo), was founded by the 
G-reek mercenaries of Archonides, a chief of the 
Siculi, and was originally called Archonidion. 
It was in later times a municipium, exempt 
from taxes. (Strab. pp. 266, 272 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 
73 ; Diod. xiv. 16.) 

Halesus, a chief of the Auruncans and 
Oscans, the son of a soothsayer, and an ally of 
Turnus, was slain by Evander. He came to 
Italy from Argos in Greece, whence he is called 
Agamemnonius, Atrides, or Argolicus. He is 
said to have founded the town of Falerii. (Ov. 
Am. iii. 13, 31 Fast. iv. 73 ; Serv. ad Aen. vii. 
723 ; Plin. iii. 51.) 
Halex. [Alex.] 

Haliacmon ('AKia.icfj.aiv : Vistriza), an impor- 
tant river in Macedonia, rises in the Tymphaean 
mountains, forms the boundary between Eor- 
daea and Pieria, and falls into the Thermaic 
gulf in Bottiaeis (Hdt. vii. 127; Strab. p. 
330). Caesar (B. C. iii. 36) incorrectly makes 
it the boundary between Macedonia and Thes- 
saly. 

Haliartus ('AA'tapros : 'AKidprios : Mazi), an 
ancient town in Boeotia on the S. of the lake 
Copais. It was destroyed by Xerxes in his in- 
vasion of Greece (b.c. 480), but was rebuilt, and 
appears as an important place in the Pelopon- 
nesian war. Under its walls Lysander lost his 
life (395). It was destroyed by the Romans 
(171), because it supported Perseus, king of 
Macedonia, and its territory was given to the 



HALICTAE 

Athenians. ( II. ii. 503 ; Hymn, in Apoll. 243 ; 
Strab. j). 411; Paus.ix. 32, 5.) 

Halias ('A\ids : 'AMeis), a district on the 
coast of Argolis between Asine and Hermione, 
so called because fishing was the chief occu- 
pation of its inhabitants. Their town was 
called Haliae ('AMai) or Halies ('AXiets) Strab. 
p. 373.) 

Halicarnassus ('A\iKapvacTcr6s, Ion. 'A\i- 
Kapvr)ffff6s : 'AhiKapvacrcrtvs, Halicarnassensis, 
Halicarnassius : Budrum, Ru.), a celebrated 
city of Asia Minor, stood in the SW. part of 
Caria, on the N. coast of the Sinus Ceramicus, 
opposite to the island of Cos. It was said to 
have been founded by Dorians from Troezen, 
and was at first called Zephyra. It was one of 
the six cities that originally formed the Dorian 
Hexapolis, but it was early excluded from the 
confederacy, as a punishment for the violation, 
by one of its citizens, of a law connected with 
the common worship of the Triopian Apollo. 
(Hdt. i. 144.) With the rest of the coast of 
Asia Minor, it fell under the dominion of the 
Persians, at an early period of whose rule Lyg- 
damis made himself tyrant of the city, and 
founded a dynasty which lasted for some gene- 
rations. His daughter Artemisia assisted 
Xerxes in his expedition against Greece [Arte- 
misia, No. 1]. Her grandson Lygdamis was 
overthrown by a revolution, in which Herodotus 
is said to have taken part [Herodotus]. In 
the Peloponnesian war, we find Halicarnassus, 
with the other Dorian cities of Caria, on the 
side of the Athenians ; but we do not know 
what was its form of government, until the re- 
establishment, by Hbcatomnus, of a dynasty 
ruling over all Caria, with its capital first at 
Mylasa, and afterwards at Halicarnassus, and 
virtually independent of Persia : before B.C. 380. 
It seems not unlikely that both this and the 
older dynasty of tyrants of Halicarnassus, were 
a race of native Carian princes, whose as- 
cendency at Halicarnassus may be accounted 
for by the prevalence of the Carian element in 
its population at an early period. Hecatomnus 
left three sons and two daughters, who all suc- 
ceeded to his throne in the following order : 
Mausolus, Artemisia, Idrieus, Ada, Pixodarus, 
and Ada again. In b.c. 334, Alexander took 
the city, after an obstinate defence by the 
Persian general Memnon, and destroyed it 
(Arrian, An. i. 23). From this blow it never re- 
covered, although it continued to be celebrated 
for the Mausoleum, a magnificent edifice which 
Artemisia II. built as a tomb for Mausolus, and 
which was adorned with the works of the most 
eminent Greek sculptors of the age. Frag- 
ments of these sculptures, which were dis- 
covered built into the walls of the citadel of 
Budrum, are now in the British Museum [Did. 
of Antiq. art. Mausoleum~]. With the rest of 
Caria, Halicarnassus was assigned by the Ro- 
mans, after their victory over Antiochus the 
Great, to the government of Rhodes, and was 
afterwards united to the province of Asia. The 
city was very strongly fortified, and had a fine 
harbour, which was protected by the island of 
Arconnesus : its citadel was called Salmacis 
(2a\/j.aKis) from the name of a spring which 
rose from the hill on which it stood. Hali- 
carnassus was the birthplace of the historians 
Herodotus and Dionysius. (Hdt. i. 144, iii. 
14, vii. 99 ; Strab. pp. 653, 656 ; Cic. ad Q. Fr. 
i. 1 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 55.) 

Halicyae ('AKikvcu : Halicyensis), a town in 
j the NW. of Sicily, between Entella and Lily- 
baeum, was long in the possession of the 



HALIMUS 

Carthaginians, and in Cicero's time was a muni- 
cipium (Diod. xiv. 48 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 7, 40). 

Halunus ('A\i/aovs, -oOptoi : ' AKtyjovaio?), a 
demus of Attica, belonging to the tribe Leontis, 
on the W. coast, a little S. of Athens. 

Halirrhothius ('AKtppodios), son of Poseidon 
and Euryte, attempted to violate Alcippe, 
daughter of Ares and Agranlos, but was slain 
by Ares. Ares was brought to trial by Poseidon 
for this murder, on the hill at Athens, which 
was hence called Areiopagus, or the Hill of Ares. 
(Apollod. iii. 14, 2 ; Paus. i. 21, 7, 28, 5.) An- 
other story makes Halirrhothius fall by his own 
axe when he was trying to cut the sacred olive 
of Athene (Serv. ad Qeurg. i. 18). 

Haliusa I 'AMovca : ? Karavi), an island in the 
Argolic gulf (Paus. ii. 34, 8). 

Halizones ('AA.i'fo»'«, and -oi), a people of 
Bithynia, with a capital city Alybe {'AXvfiri), 
mentioned by Homer as allies of the Trojans 
(II. ii. 856, v. 39 ; Strab. pp. 549, 677,1. 

Halmydessus. [Salmydessus.] 

Halmyris ('AA/xup£s, sc. Xi/xt/v), a bay of the 
Black Sea formed by the S. mouth of the Da- 
nube, with a town of the same name (Plin. iv. 79). 

Haldnesus ('A\6vr\(ros, ' A\6vvt](Tos : 'AXovr r 
(Tios, ' AKovtiff'irrjt : Kliiliodromia),a.n island of 
the Aegaean sea, off the coast of Thessaly, and 
E. of Sciathos and Peparethos, with a town of 
the same name upon it. The possession of this 
island occasioned great disputes between Philip 
and the Athenians : there is a speech on this 
subject among the extant orations of Demo- 
sthenes, but it was probably written by Heges- 
ippus, who was head of the embassy sent to 
demand restitution of the island. (Strab. p. 
436 ; Ptol. iii. 13, 47 ; Dem. de Cor. p. 248, § 69; 
Aeschin. Ctes. 80.) 

Halosydne CAKoirvSvri), ' the Sea-born,' a 
surname of Ampliitrite and Thetis {Od. iv. 404 ; 
II. xx. 207). 

Haluntium. [Aluntium.] 

Halus. [Alus.] 

Halycus ("AXwcor : Platani), a river in the 
S. of Sicily, which flows into the sea near Hera- 
clea (Diod. xv. 17, xvi. 82). 

Halys \"A\us : Kizil-Irmak, i.e. the Red 
River), the greatest river of Asia Minor, rises 
in that part of the Anti- Taurus range called 
the Paryadres, on the borders of Armenia Minor 
and Pontus, and after flowing W. by S. through 
Cappadocia, turns to the N. and flows through 
Galatia to the borders of Paphlagonia, where it 
takes a NE. direction, dividing Paphlagonia 
from Pontus, and at last falls into the Euxine 
(Black Sea ) between Sinope and Amisus. In ' 
early times it was a most important boundary, 
ethnographical as well as political. It divided 
the Indo-European races which peopled the W. 
part of Asia Minor from the Semitic (Syro- 
Arabian) races of the rest of SW. Asia; and it 
separated the Lydian empire from the Medo- 
Persian, until, by marching over it to meet 
Cyrus, Croesus began the contest which ended 
in the overthrow of the Lvdian empire. (Hdt. 
i. 68, 72, 75 ; Strab. pp. 534, 544, 546.) 

Hamadryadee. Nymphae.] 

Hamae, a town in Campania, between Capua 
and Cumae (Liv. xxiii. 85). 

Haniaxitus i'A,ua{iT<is), a small town on tin- 
coast of the Troad, near the promontory Lectnni ; 
said to have been the first settlement of theTcti- 
crian immigrants from Crete. The surround- 
ing district was called 'A/uai'Ti'a. Lysimachus , 
removed the inhabitants to Alexandria Troas. 
Near Hamaxitus was a temple of Apollo 
Smintheus, regarding which Strabo tells a story 



HAMILCAR 



379 



that the colonists had been told to settle where 
their enemies issued from the earth, and that 
at this spot their leathern shields were devoured 
by an army of field mice (Strab. p. 604 ; cf . Ael. 
H. A. xii. 5). For the various explanations oi 
Apollo Smintheus, see p. 89. Some support for 
the belief that the myth refers, not to a totem, 
but to a real plague of mice or voles may be 
derived from Aristot. R. A. vi. 37, p. 580 B. 

Hamax6bii('A,uafd#ioi),a people in European 
Sarmatia, in the neighbourhood of the Palus 
Maeotis, were a nomad race, as their name 
signifies (Ptol. iii. 5, 19). 

Hamilcar ('A/j.i\Kas). 1. Son of Hanno, or 
Mago, commander of the great Carthaginian 
expedition to Sicily, B.C. 480, which was de- 
feated and almost destroyed by Gelo at 
Himera. [Gelo.] Hamilcar fell in the battle 
(Hdt. vii. 156). — 2. Surnamed Rhodanus, was 
sent by the Carthaginians to Alexander after 
the fall of Tyre, B.C. 332. On his return home 
he was put to death by the Carthaginians for 
having betrayed their interests (Justin, xxi. 
6). — 3. Carthaginian governor in Sicily at the 
time that Agathocles was rising into power. At 
first he supported the party at Syracuse which 
had driven Agathocles into exile, but he after- 
wards espoused the cause of Agathocles, who 
was thus enabled to make himself master of 
Syracuse, 317 (J ustin. xxii. 2 ; Diod. xix. 5, 71). — 
4. Son of Gisco, succeeded the preceding as 
Carthaginian commander in Sicily, 311. He 
carried on war against Agatluocles. whom he 
defeated with great slaughter, and then obtained 
possession of the greater part of Sicily ; but he 
was taken prisoner while besieging Syracuse, 
and was put to death by Agathocles (Diod. xx. 
29; Justin, xxii. 7). — 5. A Carthaginian general 
in the first Punic war, must be carefully dis- 
tinguished from the great Hamilcar Barca [No. 
6]. In the third year of the war (262) he suc- 
ceeded Hanno in the command in Sicily, and 
carried on the operations by land with success. 
He made himself master of Enna and Cama- 
rina, and fortified Drepanum. In 257 he com- 
manded the Carthaginian fleet on the N. coast 
of Sicily, and fought a naval action with the 
Roman consul C. Atilius Regulus. In the fol- 
lowing year (256), he and Hanno commanded 
the great Carthaginian fleet which was de- 
feated by the two consuls M. Atilius Regulus 
and L. Manlius Vulso, off Ecnomus, on the S. 
coast of Sicily. He was afterwards one of the 
commanders of the land forces in Africa opposed 
to Regulus (Diod. xxiii. 9 ; Pol. i. 24-80).— 
6. Surnamed Barca, an epithet supposed to be 
related to the Hebrew Barak, and to signify 
• lightning.' It was merely a personal appella- 
tion, and is not to be regarded as a family name, 
though from the great distinction that he ob- 
tained, we often find the name of Barcine ap- 
plied either to his family or to his party in the 
state. He was appointed to the Command of the 
Carthaginian forces in Sicily, in the eighteenth 
year of the first Punic war, 247. At this time 
the Romans were masters of the whole of Sicily, 
with the exception of Drepaimm and Lily- 
baeum, both of which were blockaded by them 
on the land side. Hamilcar established himself 
with his whole army on a mountain named 
II. n (Monte Peltegrino). in the midst of the 
enemy*! country, and in the immediate neigh 
bourhood of Panormus, one of their most im- 
portant cities. Here he succeeded in maintaining 
his ground, to the astonishment alike of fri'-nd-. 
and foes, for nearly three years. In 211 he 

abruptly quitted Eferote, and took up ■ still 



880 



HANNIBAL 



stronger position on Mt. Eryx, after seizing the 
town of that name. Here he also maintained 
himself in spite of all the efforts of the Romans 
to dislodge him. After the great naval defeat 
of the Carthaginians by Lutatius Catulus (241), 
Hamilcar, who was still at Eryx, was entrusted 
by the Carthaginian government with the con- 
clusion of the peace with the Romans. (Pol. i. 
56-66 ; Zonar. viii. 16 ; Nep. Hamilc. 1.) — On 
his return home, he had to carry on war in 
Africa with the Carthaginian mercenaries, whom 
he succeeded in subduing after an arduous 
struggle of three years (240-238) (Pol. i. 86-88). 
Hamilcar now formed the project of establish- 
ing in Spain a new empire, which should not 
only be a source of strength and wealth to 
Carthage, but should be the point from whence 
he might at a subsequent period renew hostili- 
ties against Rome. He crossed over into Spain 
soon after the termination of the war with the 
mercenaries ; but we know nothing of his ope- 
rations in the country, save that he obtained 
possession of a consfderable portion of Spain, 
partly by force of arms, and partly by negotia- 
tion (App. Hisp. 4 ; Pol. iii. 9). After remain- 
ing in Spain nearly nine years, he fell in battle 
(228) against the Vettones (Nep. Hamilc. 3; 
Strab. p. 139 ; Liv. xxiv. 41). He was succeeded 
in the command by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal. 
Cato the elder bore testimony to his work in 
Spain when he exclaimed that there had been 
no king worthy to rank with Hamilcar. He 
left three sons, the celebrated Hannibal, Has- 
drubal, and Mago. — 7. Son of Cisco, Cartha- 
ginian governor of Melite (Malta), which sur- 
rendered to the Romans, 218 (Liv. xxi. 51).— 
8. Son of Bomilcar, one of the generals in Spain, 
215, with Hasdrubal and Mago, the two sons of 
Barca. The three generals were defeated by 
the two Scipios, while besieging Illiturgi. (Liv. 
xxii. 49.) — 9. A Carthaginian, who excited a 
general revolt of the Gauls in Upper Italy, 
about 200, and took the Roman colony of Pla- 
centia. On the defeat of the Gauls by the 
consul Cethegus in 197, he was taken prisoner. 
(Liv. xxiii. 33.) 

Hannibal ('Avvifias). 1. Son of Gisco, and 
grandson of Hamilcab, [No. 1]. In 409 he was 
sent to Sicily, at the head of a Carthaginian 
army to assist the Segestans against the Seli- 
nuntines. He took Selinus, and subsequently 
Himera also. In 406 he again commanded a 
Carthaginian army in Sicily along with Himilco, 
but died of a pestilence while besieging Agri- 
gentum. (Diod. xiii. 43-86 ; Xen. Hell. i. 1, 37.) 
— 2. Son of Gisco, was the Carthaginian com- 
mander at Agrigentum, when it was besieged by 
the Romans, 262. After standing a siege of seven 
months, he broke through the enemy's lines, 
leaving the town to its fate. After this he 
carried on the contest by sea, and for the next 
year or two ravaged the coast of Italy ; but in 
260 he was defeated by the consul Duilius. In 
259 he was sent to the defence of Sardinia. 
Here he was again unfortunate, and was seized 
by his own mutinous troops, and put to death 
(Pol. i. 17-24; Zonar. viii. 10).— 3. Son of Ha- 
milcar (perhaps Hamilcar, No. 5), succeeded in 
carrying succours of men and provisions to 
Lilybaeum, when it was besieged by the Romans, 
250 (Pol. i. 44). — 4. A general in the war of the 
Carthaginians against the mercenaries (240- 
238), was taken prisoner by the insurgents, and 
crucified (Pol. i. 82). — 5. Son of Hamilar Barca, 
and one of the most illustrious generals of anti- 
quity, was born B. c. 247. He was only nine 
years old when his father took him with him into 



Spain, and it was on this occasion that Hamilcar 
made him swear upon the altar eternal hostility 
to Rome. (Nep. Harm. 2 ; Pol. iii. 11 ; Liv. xxi. 
1 ; Appian, Hisp. 9 ; Val. Max. ix. 3, 3.) Child 
as he then was, Hannibal never forgot his vow, 
and his whole life was one continual struggle 
against the power and domination of Rome. 
He was early trained in arms under the eye of 
his father, and was present with him in the 
battle in which Hamilcar perished (228). 
Though only eighteen years old at this time, he 
had already displayed so much courage and 
capacity for war, that he was entrusted by 
Hasdrubal (the son-in-law and successor of 
Hamilcar) with the chief command of most of 
the military enterprises planned by that general. 
He secured to himself the devoted attachment 
of the army under his command ; and, accord- 
ingly, on the assassination of Hasdrubal (220), 
the soldiers unanimously proclaimed their 
youthful leader commander-in-chief, and the 
government at Carthage ratified the choice. 
Hannibal was at this time in the twenty-sixth 
year of his age. There can be no doubt that he 
already looked forward to the invasion and con- 
quest of Italy as the goal of his ambition ; but 
it was necessary for him first to complete the 
work which had been so ably begun by his two 
predecessors, and to establish the Carthaginian 
power as firmly as possible in Spain. In two 
campaigns he subdued all the country S. of the 
Iberus, with the exception of the wealthy town 
of Saguntum. In the spring of 219 he proceeded 
to lay siege to Saguntum, which he took after a 
desperate resistance, which lasted nearly eight 
months (Pol. iii. 17 ; Liv. xxi. 6). Saguntum 
lay S. of the Iberus, and was therefore not in- 
cluded under the protection of the treaty which 
had been made between Hasdrubal and the 
Romans ; but as it had concluded an alliance 
with the Romans, the latter regarded its attack 
as a violation of the treaty between the two 
nations. On the fall of Saguntum, the Romanu 
demanded the surrender of Hannibal ; and when 
this demand was refused, war was declared, and 
thus began the long and arduous struggle called 
the second Punic war. In the spring of 218 
Hannibal quitted his winter-quarters at New 
Carthage and began his march to Italy with 
50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry. He crossed 
the Pyrenees, and marched along the S. coast of 
Gaul. The Romans sent the consul P. Scipio 
to oppose him in Gaul ; but when Scipio arrived 
in Gaul, he found that Hannibal had already 
reached the Rhone, and that it was impossible 
to overtake him. After Hannibal had crossed 
the Rhone, he continued his march up the left 
bank of the river as far as its confluence with 
the Isere. Here he struck away to the right 
and began his passage across the Alps. He 
probably crossed the Alps either by the pass 
of Mont Genevre or that of the Col de l'Argen- 
tiere [see Alpes, p. 55].* His army suffered 



* It is impossible here to give in detail the reasons 
for adopting this view. They are in the main those 
set forth by Mr. Freshfield (Alp. Journ. xi. 274, where, 
however, the Argentiere is preferred), and followed by 
Arnold, Second Punic War, ed. 1886. It will suffice to 
state here (1) that the Little St. Bernard cannot be 
reconciled with Polybius : the W. side does not really 
agree with his narrative, and the long and broken 
valley of Aosta could not possibly be traversed in the 
two days and a half which he gives from the summit 
to the plains of the Po ; (2) that the two passes men- 
tioned above (which coincide for a great part of the 
route) suit the narrative of Polybius better than the 
Mont Cenis, and are the only passes that agree with 
the narrative both of Polybius and of Livy ; and they 



HANNIBAL 



381 



much from the attacks of the Gaulish moun- 
taineers and from the natural difficulties of the 
road, which were enhanced by the lateness of 
the season (the beginning of October, at which 
time the snows had already commenced in the 
Alps). (Pol. iii. 40-56 ; Liv. xxi. 21-37 ; Strab. 
p. 209 ; Varro, ap. Serv. ad Aen. x. 13.) So 
heavy were his losses, that when he at length 
emerged into the plains of the Po, he had with 
him no more than 20,000 foot and 6000 horse. 
Here he halted under the skirts of the Alps 
(uir' avrrju T7)c iraptipeiav rwv 'AAire'coj'), and then 
proceeded to attack the Taurini, who dwelt near 
(irpos r§ irapwpe'ia), and, being at enmity with his 
friends the Insubres, who dwelt further down 
the Po, would not accept his overtures. He 
stormed their chief place (probably at, or near, 
Turin), and by that time found it necessary to 
meet the Roman legions. During Hannibal's 
march over the Alps, P. Scipio had sent on his 
own army into Spain ; under the command of 
his brother Cneius, and had himself returned to 
Italy. He forthwith hastened into Cisalpine 
Gaul, took the command of the praetor's army, 
which he found there, and led it against Hanni- 
bal. In the first action, which took place near 
the Ticinus, the cavalry and light-armed troops 
of the two armies were alone engaged ; the 
Romans were completely routed, and Scipio 
himself severely wounded. Scipio then crossed 
the Po and withdrew to the hills on the left 
bank of the Trebia, where he was soon after 
joined by the other consul, Ti. Sempronius 
Longus. Here a second and more decisive 
battle was fought. The Romans were com- 
pletely defeated, with heavy loss, and the re- 
mains of their army took refuge within the walls 
of Placentia. This battle was fought towards 
the end of 218. Hannibal was now joined by 
all the Gaulish tribes, and he was able to take 
up his winter-quarters in security. Early in 
217 he descended by the valley of the Macra 
into the marshes on the banks of the Arno. In 
struggling through these marshes great num- 
bers of his horses and beasts of burden perished, 
and he himself lost the sight of one eye by a 
violent attack of ophthalmia. The consul Pla- 
minius hastened to meet him, and a battle was 
fought on the lake Trasimeniis, in which the 
Roman army was destroyed ; thousands fell by 
the sword, among whom was the consul himself ; 
thousands more perished in the lake, and no less 
than 15,000 prisoners fell into the hands of 
Hannibal. Hannibal now marched through the 
Apennines into Picenum, and thence into 
Apulia, where he spent a great part of the 
summer. The Romans had collected a fresh 
army, and placed it under the command of the 
dictator Fabius Maximus, who had prudently 
avoided a general action, and only attempted 
to harass and annoy the Carthaginian army. 
Meanwhile the Romans had made great prepa- 
rations for the campaign of the following year 
(21G). The two new consuls, L. Aemilius Paulus 
and C. Terentius Varro, marched into Apulia, 
at the head of an army of little less than 1)0,000 
men. To this mighty host Hannibal gave battle 



are not contrudictcil by Varro. The Mont Gencvrc 
seems somewhat preferable to the Argentiere, which 
brings Hannibal too far S. of Turin and the Po. As 
far as the natural feature* of the four competing 
passes are concerned there is little to choose between 
them. Any attempt to make 1'i.lvbiuH's distances cor- 
respond with measured miles will of course be rejected 
by all who understand tin- mudition* of inmnit.iln 
routes. Polybius takes account of days, and allows 
un average diatuncc for each march. 



in the plains on the right bank of the Aufidus, 
just below the town of Cannae. The Roman 
army was again annihilated : between 40,000 

I and 50,000 men are said to have fallen in the 
field, among whom was the consul Aemilius 
Paulus, both the consuls of the preceding year, 
above eighty senators, and a multitude of the 
wealthy knights who composed the Roman 
cavalry. The other consul, Varro, escaped with 
a few horsemen to Venusia, and a small band of 
resolute men forced their way from the Roman 
camp to Canusium ; all the rest were killed, 
dispersed, or taken prisoners. (Pol. iii. 60-117 ; 
Liv. xxi. 39-50 ; Appian, Annib. 5-25 ; Zonar. ix. 
1.) This victory was followed by the revolt 
from Rome of most of the nations in the S. of 
Italy. Hannibal established his army in winter- 
quarters in Capua, which had espoused his side. 
Capua was celebrated for its wealth and luxury, 
and the enervating effect which these produced 

j upon the army of Hannibal became a favourite 

! theme of rhetorical exaggeration in later ages. 
The futility of such declamations is sufficiently 
shown by the simple fact that the superiority of 
that army in the field remained as decided as 
ever. Still it may be truly said that the winter 
spent at Capua, 216-215, was in great measure 
the turning point of Hannibal's fortune, and 
from this time the war assumed an altered cha- 
racter. The experiment of what he could effect 

i with his single army had now been fully tried, 
and, notwithstanding all his victories, it had 
decidedly failed ; for Rome was still unsubdued, 
and still provided with the means of maintain- 
ing a protracted contest. The Carthaginians 
were fatally hampered by their inability to take 
fortified towns. From this time the Romans 
in great measure changed their plan of opera- 
tions, and, instead of opposing to Hannibal one 

: great army in the field, they hemmed in his 
movements on all sides, and kept up an army 

' in every province of Italy, to thwart the opera- 
tions of his lieutenants, and check the rising 
disposition to revolt. It is impossible here to 

; follow the complicated movements of the sub- 
sequent campaigns, during which Hannibal 
himself frequently traversed Italy in all direc- 
tions. In 215 Hannibal entered into negotia- 
tions with Philip, king of Macedonia, and 
Hieronymus of Syracuse, and thus sowed the 
seeds of two fresh wars. From 214 to 212 the 
Romans were busily engaged with the siege of 
Syracuse, which was at length taken by Mar- 
cellus in the latter of these years. In 212 
Hannibal obtained possession of Taientum ; 
but in the following year he lost the important 
city of Capua, which was recovered by the 
Romans after a long siege. In 209 the Romans 

I also recovered Tarentum. Hannibal's forces 
gradually became more and more weakened ; 

! and his only object now was to maintain his 
ground in the S. until his brother Hasdrubal 
should appear in the N. of Italy, an event to 
which he had long looked forward with anxious 
expectation. In 207 Hasdrubal at length crossed 

. the Alps, and descended into Italy ; but he was 
defeated and slain on the Metaurus, near Sena 
Gallica. [Hamdrubaj,, No. 3.] The defeat and 
death of Hasdrubal was decisive of the fafco of 
the war in Italy. From this time Hannibal 
abandoned all thoughts of offensive operations, 
and collected together his forces within the 
peninsula of Bruttium. In the fastnesses of 
' that wild and mountainous region he maintained 
his ground for nearly four years (207-208). He 
crossed over to Africa towards the end of 203 
in order to oppose P. Scipio. In the following 



382 HANNIBALLIANUS 



HANNO 



year (202) the decisive battle was fought near 
Zama. Hannibal was completely defeated with 
great loss. All hopes of resistance were now 
at an end, and he was one of the first to urge 
the necessity of an immediate peace. The 
treaty between Rome and Carthage was not 
finally concluded until the next year (201). 
(Pol. vii. 1-4, viii., ix., xi., xiv. 1-10, xv. 1-19 ; 
Liv. xxiii.-xxx. ; Appian, Annib. 28 ff.) By this 
treaty Hannibal saw the object of his whole life 
frustrated, and Carthage effectually humbled 
before her imperious rival. But his enmity to 
Rome was unabated ; and though now more than 
forty-five years old, he set himself to work to pre- 
pare the means for renewing the contest at no 
distant period. He introduced the most bene- 
ficial reforms into the state, and restored the 
ruined finances ; but having provoked the enmity 
of a powerful party at Carthage, they denounced 
him to the Romans as urging on Antiochus III., 
king of Syria, to take up arms against Rome. 
Hannibal was obliged to flee from Carthage, 
and took refuge at the court of Antiochus, who 
was at this time (193) on the eve of war with 
Rome. Hannibal in vain urged the necessity 
of carrying the war at once into Italy, instead 
of awaiting the Romans in Greece. On the de- 
feat of Antiochus (190), the surrender of Han- 
nibal was one of the conditions of the peace 
granted to the king (Pol. xxi. 14, xxii. 26). 
Hannibal, however, foresaw his danger, and 
took refuge at the court of Prusias, king of 
Bithynia. Here he found for some years a se- 
cure asylum ; but the Romans could not be at 
ease so long as he lived ; and T. Quintius Fla- 
minius was at length despatched to the court of 
Prusias to demand the surrender of the fugitive. 
The Bithynian king was unable to resist ; and 
Hannibal, perceiving that fighting was impos- 
sible, took poison, to avoid falling into the hands 
of his enemies, about the year 183. (Liv. 
xxxix. 51 ; Nep. Hann. 12 ; Justin, xxxii. 4, 8 ; 
Zonar. ix. 21). — Of Hannibal's abilities as a 
general it is unnecessary to speak : all the 
great masters of the art of war, from Scipio to 
the emperor Napoleon, have concurred in their 
homage to his genius. But in comparing Han- 
nibal with any other of the great leaders of 
antiquity, we must ever bear in mind the pecu- 
liar circumstances in which he was placed. 
Feebly and grudgingly supported by the govern- 
ment at home, he stood alone, at the head of an 
army composed of mercenaries of many nations. 
Yet not only did he retain the attachment of 
these men, unshaken by any change of fortune, 
for a period of more than fifteen years, but he 
trained up army after army ; and long after the 
veterans that had followed him over the Alps 
had dwindled to an inconsiderable remnant, his 
new levies were still as invincible as their pre- 
decessors. 

Hannibalis Castra, a port of Bruttium in the 
gulf of Scyllacium : it was perhaps near the 
Inouth of the river Corace (Plin. iii. 95). 

Hanniballianus. 1. Son of Constantius 
Chlorus and his second wife Theodora, and half- 
brother of Constantine the Great. He was put 
to death in 337 on the death of Constantine. 
(Zonar. xii. 33 ; Zos. ii. 39.)— 2. Son of the elder, 
brother of the younger, Delmatius, was also put 
to death on the death of Constantine (Amm. 
Marc. xiv. 1). 

Hanno ("Avvcov), one of the most common 
names at Carthage. Only the most important 
persons of the name can be mentioned. — 1. One 
of the Carthaginian generals who fought against 
Agathocles in Africa, b. c. 310 (Diod. xx. 10). 



— 2. Commander of the Carthaginian garrison 
at Messana, at the beginning of the first Punic 
war, 264. In consequence of his surrendering 
the citadel of this city to the Romans, he was 
crucified on his return home. (Pol. i. 11 ; Zonar. 
viii. 8.) — 3. Son of Hannibal, was sent to Sicily 
by the Carthaginians with a large force after the 
surrender of Messana to the Romans by another 
Hanno, 264. He carried on the war against the 
Roman consul Ap. Claudius. In 262 he again 
commanded in Sicily, but failed in relieving Agri- 
gentum, where Hannibal was besieged by the 
Romans. [Hannibal, No. 2.] In 256 he com- 
manded the Carthaginian fleet, along with Ha- 
milcar, at the great battle of Ecnomus. (Pol. 
i. 18-27.) — 4. Commander of the Carthaginian 
fleet which was defeated by Lutatius Catulus off 
the Aegates, 241. On his return home, he was 
crucified. (Zonar. viii. 17.) — 5. Surnamed the 
Great, apparently for his successes in Africa. 
We do not, however, know against what nations 
of Africa his arms were directed, nor what was 
the occasion of the war. He was one of the 
commanders in the war against the mercenaries 
in Africa after the end of the first Punic war 
(240-238). From this time forward he appears 
to have taken no active part in any of the foreign 
wars or enterprises of Carthage. But his in- 
fluence in her councils at home was great ; he 
was the leader of the aristocratic party, and, as 
such, the chief adversary of Hamilcar Barca 
and his family. On all occasions, from the 
landing of Barca in Spain till the return of 
Hannibal from Italy, a period of above thirty- 
five years, Hanno is represented as thwarting 
the measures of that able and powerful family, 
and taking the lead in opposition to the war with 
Rome, the great object to which all their efforts 
were directed. He survived the battle of Zama, 
202. (Appian, Hisp. 4, Pun. 34, 39 ; Pol. i. 73-78 ; 
Liv. xxi. 3, 10, 11, xxiii. 12, 13 ; Zonar. viii. 22.) 
— 6. A Carthaginian officer left in Spain by Han- 
nibal when that general crossed the Pyrenees, 
218. He was shortly afterwards defeated by Cn. 
Scipio, and taken prisoner (Pol. iii. 35, 76). — 7. 
Son of Bomilcar, one of the most distinguished 
of Hannibal's officers. He commanded the right 
wing at the battle of Cannae (216), and is fre- 
quently mentioned during the succeeding years 
of the war. In 203 he took the command of 
the Carthaginian forces in Africa, which he held 
till the arrival of Hannibal. (Pol. iii. 42, 114 ; 
Liv. xxv. 13.) — 8. A Carthaginian general, who 
carried on the war in Sicily after the fall of 
Syracuse, 211. He left Sicily in the following 
year, when Agrigentum was betrayed to the 
Romans. (Liv. xxv. 40, xxvi. 40.) — 9. The last 
commander of the Carthaginian garrison at 
Capua, when it was besieged by the Romans 
(212-211) (Liv. xxv. 15, xxvi. 12).— 10. A Car- 
thaginian navigator, under whose name we 
possess a Periplus (irepiTrAous), which was ori- 
ginally written in the Punic language, and after- 
wards translated into Greek. The author had 
held the office of suffes, or supreme magistrate 
at Carthage, and he is said by Pliny to have 
undertaken the voyage when Carthage was in a 
most flourishing condition. Hence it had been 
conjectured that he was the same as the Hanno, 
the father or son of Hamilcar, who was killed 
at Himera, b. c. 480 ; but this is quite uncertain. 
In the Periplus itself Hanno says that he was 
sent out by his countrymen to undertake a 
voyage beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and to 
found Libyphoenician towns, and that he sailed 
with a body of colonists to the number of 30,000. 
On his return from his voyage, he dedicated an 



HAEMA 

account of it, inscribed on a tablet, in the temple 
of Cronos. It is therefore presumed that our 
Periplus is a Greek version of that Punic tablet. 
Edited by Falconer, Lond. 1797, with an English 
translation ; by K. Miiller, 1855. 

Harma (rb "Apfm: 'Ap/xarevs). 1. A small 
place in Boeotia near Tanagra, said to have been 
so called from the harma or chariot of 
Adrastus, which broke down here, or from the 
chariot of Amphiaraus, who was here swallowed 
up by the earth along with his chariot (II. ii. 
499 ; Strab. p. 404 ; Pans. ix. 19, 4).— 2. A small 
place in Attica, near Phyle. 

Harmatus (ApfwTovs), a city and promontory 
on the coast of Aeolis in Asia Minor, on the 
Sinus ElaTticus (Thuc. viii. 101). 

Harmodius and Aristogiton ('ApuoStos, 
'Apicrroyetruv), Athenians, belonging to the 
ancient tribe of the Gephyraei, which according 
to some had come to Attica from Eretria, ac- 
cording to others from Boeotia, and of Phoeni- 
cian descent (Hdt. v. 57 ; Strab. p. 404J. They 
were the murderers of Hipparchus, brother of 
the tyrant Hippias, in B.C. 514. Aristogiton 
was strongly attached to the young and beauti- 
ful Harmodius. Hipparchus, as a disappointed 
rival, resolved to avenge the slight by putting 
upon him a public insult. Accordingly, he took 
care that the sister of Harmodius should be 
summoned to bear one of the sacred baskets in 
a religious procession, and when she presented 
herself for the purpose, he caused her to be 
dismissed as unworthy of the honour. This 
insult determined the two friends to slay 
both Hipparchus and his brother Hippias as 
well. They communicated their plot to a few 
friends : and selected for their enterprise the ] 
day of the festival of the great Panathenaea, 
the only day on which they could appear in 
arms without exciting suspicion. (Aristotle, 
'AO. toA. 18 denies that the people carried arm6 
at the festival.) When the appointed time i 
arrived the two chief conspirators observed one 
of their accomplices in conversation with 
Hippias. Believing, therefore, that they were j 
betrayed, they slew Hipparchus. Harmodius ' 
was immediately cut down by the guards. | 
Aristogiton at first escaped, but was afterwards 
taken, and was put to the torture ; but lie died 
without revealing any of the names of the con- 
spirators. Four years after this Hippias was 
expelled, and thenceforth Harmodius and 
Aristogiton obtained among the Athenians of 
all succeeding generations the character of pa- 
triots, deliverers, and martyrs — names often 
abused indeed, but seldom more grossly than in 
the present case. Their deed of private ven- 
geance formed a favourite subject of drinking 
songs. To be born of their blood was esteemed 
among the highest of honours, and their 
descendants enjoyed an immunity from public 
burdens, and entertainment in the Prytaneum. 
(Hdt. v. 55, vi. 109, 128; Thuc. i. 20, yi. 54: 
Plat. Symp. p. 182 ; Aristot. Pol. v. 10, Iihct. 
ii. 24, 'A9. woA. 18, 58; Athen. p. 095; 
Aristoph. Ach. 912, Vesp. 1225 ; Iaae. Die. 
Her. § 47.) Their statues, made of bronze 
by Antenor, were set up in the Agora. When 
Xerxes took the city, he carried these Htatues 
away, and new ones, the work of Ckitiak, were 
erected in 477. The original statues were 
afterwards sent back to Athens by Alexander 
the Great. It is a reasonable belief that the 
bronze statues at Naples are a copy of this 
group ; for the attitudes are much tho same as 
on a coin, a relief and a vase of Athens which 
are presumed to have this common origin. v 



HARPALYCE 



383 



Harmonia (' Apjjx>vla), daughter of Ares and 
Aphrodite, or, according to others, of Zeus and 
Electra, the daughter of Atlas, in Samothrace. 
When Athene assigned to Cadmus the govern- 
ment of Thebes, Zeus gave him Harmonia for 
his wife, and all the gods of Olympus were 
present at the marriage. On the wedding-day 
Cadmus received a present of a necklace, which 
afterwards became fatal to all who possessed it. 
(Apollod. iii. 4, 2 ; Hes. Th. 934 ; Diod. iv. 48 ; 
Pind. Pyth. iii. 167.) Harmonia accompanied 
Cadmus when he was obliged to quit Thebes, 
and shared his fate. [Cadmus.] Polynices, who 
inherited the fatal necklace, gave it to Eriphyle, 
that she might persuade her husband, 
Amphiaraus, to undertake the expedition 
against Thebes. Through Alcmaeon. the son 
of Eriphyle, the necklace came into the hands 
of Arsinoe, next into those of the sons of 
Phegeus, Pronous and Agenor, and lastly into 
those of the sons of Alcmaeon, Amphoterus and 
Acarnan, who dedicated it in the temple of 
Athene Pronoia at Delphi. (Apollod. iii. 7, 5 ; 
Athen. p. 232.) 

Harpagia, or -lum I ' Apirayeia, or -iyiov), a 
small town in Mysia, between Cyzicus and 
Priapus, the scene of the rape of Ganymedes, 
according to some legends (Strab. p. 587). 

Harpagus (° Apjra-yos). 1. A noble Median, 
whose preservation of the infant Cyrus, with the 
events consequent upon it, are related under Cy- 
rus. He became one of the generals of Cyrus, 
and conquered the Greek cities of Asia Minor. 
(Hdt. i. 162-177.) — 2. A Persian general, under 
Darius E, took Histiaeus prisoner (Hdt. i. 28). 

Harpalus ("ApiraAos). 1. A Macedonian of 
noble birth, accompanied Alexander the Great 
to Asia, as superintendent of the treasury. 
After the conquest of Darius, he was left by 
Alexander in charge of the royal treasury, and 
of the satrapy of Babylon. Here, during 
Alexander's absence in India, he gave himself 
up to luxury and squandered the treasures en- 
trusted to him. (Arrian, Anab. iii. 19; Plut. 
Alex. 35; Diod. xvii. 108.) When he heard 
that Alexander was returning from India, he 
fled from Babylon with about 5000 talents and a 
body of 6000 mercenaries, and crossed over to 
Greece, B.C. 324. He took refuge at Athens, 
where he employed his treasures to gain over 
the orators and induce the people to support 
him against Alexander and his vicegerent, Anti- 
pater. Among those whom he thus corrupted 
are said to have been Demades, Charicles, the 
son-in-law of Phocion, and even Demosthenes 
himself. [Demosthenes.] But he failed in his 
object, for, Antipater having demanded his 
surrender, it was resolved to place him in con- 
finement until the Macedonians should send for 
him. He succeeded in making his escape from 
prison, and fled to Crete, where he was 
assassinated soon after his arrival by Thim- 
bron, one of his own officers. (Plut. Dem. 25 ; 
Phoc. 21; Pans. ii. 83, 4.)— 2. A Greek 
astronomer, introduced some improvements 
into the cycle of CleosTRATUS. Harpalus lived 
before Metok. 

Harpalyce CApiroAuxT)). 1. Daughter of Har- 
palycus, king in Thrace. As she lost her 
mother in infancy, she was brought up by her 
father with the milk of cows and mares, and 
»iu trained in all manly exercises. After the 
death of her father, she lived in the forests as 
a robber, being so swift in running that horses 
were unable to overtake her. At length she 
was caught in a snare by shepherds, who killed 
her. (Hyg. Fab. 193; Serv. ad Aen. i. 821.) 



384 



HAEPASA 



HASDEUBAL 



The story seems to be of Northern origin ; and 
analogies are traced to the Corn-wolf and 
Wehr-wolf of popular legends in Germany and 
elsewhere. — 2, Daughter of Clymenus aad 
Epieaste, was seduced by her own father. To 
revenge herself she slew her younger brother, 
and served him up as food before her father. 
The gods changed her into a bird. 

Harpasa ("Apiraaa : Arepas), a city of Caria, 
on the river Harpasus. 

Harpasus ("Apiracros). 1. (Arpa-Su), a river 
of Caria, flowing N. into the Maeander, into 
"which it falls opposite to Nysa. — 2. (Harpa-Su), 
a river of Armenia Major, flowing S. into the 
Araxes. Xenophon, who crossed it with the 
10,000 Greeks, states its width as 400 feet. 

Harplna or Harpinna ("Apmva, "Aprnvva), 
a town in Elis Pisatis, near Olympia, said to 
have been called after a daughter of Asopus 
(Strab. p. 356 ; Paus. vi. 20, 8). 

Harpocrates. [Hoaus.] 

Harpocration, Valerius, a Greek gramma- 
rian of Alexandria, probably of 2nd cent. A.D., 
the author of an extant dictionary to the works 
of the ten Attic orators, entitled Tlepl tSiv 
A.efetoi' rwv Se/co $7)T6pa)v, or Ae^iicbv r&v 8e/ca 
fcriTSpoiv. It contains not only explanations of 
legal and political terms, but also accounts of 
persons and things mentioned in the Attic 
orators, and is a work of great value. Editions 
by Bekker, Berlin, 1833 f Dindorf, Oxon. 1853. 

Harpyiae ("Apirviai), the Harpies — that is, the 
Bobbers or Spoilers — are in Homer nothing but 
personified storm winds, who are said to oarry 
off anyone who had suddenly disappeared from 
the earth. Thus they carried off the daughters 
of king Pandareus, and gave them as servants 
to the Erinyes. (Od. i. 241, xiv. 371, xx. 66 ; 
H. xvi. 149.) — Hesiod describes them as daugh- 
ters of Thaumas by the Ocean id Eleatra, fair- 




A Harpy. (British Museum. From a tomb at Xanthus.) 

locked and winged maidens, who surpassed 
winds and birds in the rapidity of their flight. 
(Hes. Th. 265; Apollod. i. 2, 6; Hyg. Fab. 
14.) In Val. Place. Arg. iv. 428 their father is 
Typhon. But even in Aeschylus they appear 
as ugly creatures with wings ; and later writers 
represent them as most disgusting monsters, 
being birds with the heads of maidens, with 
long claws and with faces pale with hunger 
(Verg. Aen. iii. 209, vi. 289). They were sent 
by the gods to torment the blind Phineus, and 



whenever a meal was placed before him, they 
darted down from the air and carried it off. 
Phineus was delivered from them by Zetes and 
Calais, sons of Boreas, and two of the Argo- 
nauts. [See p. 106.] Hesiod mentions two 
Harpies, Ocypete and Aello : later writers, 
three ; but their names are not the same in all 
accounts. Besides the two already mentioned, 
we find Nicothoe" and Celaeno. Virgil places 
them in the islands called Strophades, in the 
Ionian sea [Aen. iii. 210), where they took up 
their abode after they had been driven away 
from Phineus. — In the famous Harpy monu- 
ment from Xanthus, now in the British Museum, 
the Harpies are represented in the act of 
carrying off the daughters of Pandareus. 

Harudes, a people in the army of Ariovistus 
(B.C. 58), supposed to be the same as the 
CharMes mentioned by Ptolemy, and placed 
by him in the Chersonesus Cimbrica (Caes. 
B. G. i. 31, 37, 51 ; Ptol. ii. 11, 12). 

Hasdrubal ('AoSpovffas), a Carthaginian 
name. 1. Son of Hanno, a Carthaginian gene- 
ral in the first Punic war. He was one of the 
two generals defeated by Eegulus B.C. 256. In 
254 he was sent into Sicily, with a large army, 
and remained in the island four years. In 
250, he was totally defeated by Metellus, and 
was put to death on his return to Carthage. 
(Pol. i. 30-40 ; Zonar. viii. 14.)— 2. A Cartha- 
ginian, son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca, on whose 
death in 229, he succeeded to the command in 
Spain. He ably carried out the plans of his father- 
in-law forextending the Carthaginian dominions 
in Spain, and entrusted the conduct of most of 
his military enterprises to the young Hannibal. 
He founded New Carthage, and concluded with 
the Eomans the celebrated treaty which fixed 
the Iberus as the boundary between the Car- 
thaginian and Eoman dominions. He was 
assassinated by a slave, whose master he had 
put to death (221), and was succeeded in the 
command by Hannibal (Pol. ii. 1, 13, 36 ; Ap- 
pian, Hisp. 4-8). — 3. Son of Hamilcar Barca, 
and brother of Hannibal, a man of great military 
ability and untiring energy. When Hannibal set 
out for Italy (218), Hasdrubal was left in the 
command of Spain, and there fought for some 
years against the two Scipias. His scheme of 
joining Hannibal directly after Cannae was 
frustrated by the victory of the two Scipios on 
the Ebro (Liv. xxiii. 26), and even after his re- 
inforcement by Mago he was kept in check by 
the Eoman successes ; but at length in the 
autumn of 208 he crossed the Pyrenees, and in 
the following year the Alps by the pass of the 
Little Mt. Cenis (Varro, ap. Serv. ad Aen. 
x. 13; cf. p. 56), and marched into Italy, in 
order to assist Hannibal ; but he was defeated 
on the Metaurus, by the consuls C. Claudius 
Nero and M. Livius Salinator, his army was 
destroyed, and he himself fell in the battle. 
His head was cut off and thrown into Hanni- 
bal's camp. (Liv. xxvii. 1-51 ; Pol. x. 34-xi. 3.) 
— 4. One of Hannibal's chief officers, com- 
manded the left wing of the Carthaginian army 
at the battle of Cannae (216) (Pol. iii. 102).— 5. 
Surnamed the Bald (Calvus), commander of the 
Carthaginian expedition to Sardinia in the second 
Punic war, 215. He was defeated by the Eoman 
praetor, T. Manlius, taken prisoner, and carried 
to Eome. (Liv. xxiii. 32-41 ; Zonar. ix. 4.) — 6. 
Son of Gisco, one of the Carthaginian generals in 
Spain during the second Punic war. He fought 
in Spain from 214 to 206. After he and Mago 
had been defeated by Scipio in the latter of 
these years, he crossed over to Africa, where 



HATERIUS 



HECATAEUS 



385 



lie succeeded in obtaining the alliance of 
Syphax by giving him bis daughter Sophonisba 
in marriage. In conjunction with Syphax, Has- 
drubal carried on war against Masinissa, but 
be was defeated by Scipio, who landed in Africa 
in 204. He was condemned to death for his ill 
success by the Carthaginian government, but 
he still continued in arras against the Romans. 
On the arrival of Hannibal from Italy his sen- 
tence was reversed ; but the popular feeling 
against him had not subsided, and in order to 
escape death from his enemies, he put an end 
to his life by poison. (Liv. xxviii. 1-18, xxx. 
3-8 ; Pol. xi. 20 ; Appian, Pun. 10-38.)— 7. Com- 
mander of the Carthaginian fleet in Africa in 
203, must be distinguished from the preceding 
(Liv. xxx. 24 ; Appian, Pun. 34). — 8. Surnamed 
the Kid (Haedus), one of the leaders of the 
party at Carthage favourable to peace towards 
the end of the second Punic war (Liv. xxx. 42). 
— 9. General of the Carthaginians in the third 
Punic war. When the city was taken he sur- 
rendered to Scipio, who spared his life. After 
adorning Scipio's triumph, he spent the rest ef 
his life in Italy. (Appian, Pun. 70-131 ; Pol. 
xxxix. ; Zonar. ix. 29.) 

Haterius, Q., a senator and rhetorician in 
the age of Augustus and Tiberius, died a.d. 26, 
in the 89th year of his age (Tac. Ann. ii. 33, 
iv. 61 ; Suet. Tib. 29). 

Hebe ("H£tj), the goddess of youth, was a 
daughter of Zeus and Hera (Hes. Th. 922, 952). 
She filled the cups of the gods with nectar (II. 
iv. 2 ; Athen. p. 425), and she was the attendant 




Hebe. (From a bas-relief at Rome.) 



of Hera, whose horses she harnessed (17. v. 
722). She married Heracles after he was re- 
ceived among the gods, and bore to him two 
sons, Alexiares and Anticetus (Od. xi. 605 ; 
Hes. Th. 900 ; Pind. Nem. i. 71 ; Eur. Or. 
1686 ; Propert. i. 18, 23 ; Mart. ix. 66, 18). 
At Phlius she was worshipped originally as 
Ganymeda (Paus. ii. 18, 8), and at Sicyon 
as Dia, i.e. the daughter of Zeus and Dione. 
There is some probability in the theory that 
Hebe was an older goddess of youth and 
growth and the spring of the year among the 
Greeks than Aphrodite, to whom subsequently 
some of her functions were transferred [see p. 
80, a]. Hence she is naturally represented as 
in the train of Venus (Hor. Od. i. 80, 8). The 
Romans identified with her their goddess 
Juventas. who was probably an old Italian 
personification of youth &c, but received the 
Greek character and attributes, being honoured 
in the lectisternium (Liv. xxi. C2 ; cf. Cic. N. 
D i. 40, 112 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 65). She was wor- 



shipped on the Capitol in the time of Tarqui- 
nius Superbus, and had a temple of her own in 
191 B.C. (Liv. v. 54, xxxvi. 36 ; Dionys. iii. 69). 
The Latin poets, however, commonly retained 
the Greek name Hebe in relating her story. At 
Rome there were several temples of Juventas. 
She is even said to have had a chapel on the 
Capitol before the temple of Jupiter was built. 

Hebromagus. [Eburomagus.] 

Hebron ('E&p<iv, Xt&pav 'EBpavios : El- 
Khalil), a city in the S. of Judaea, and the first 
capital of the kingdom of David. It was burnt 
by the Romans (Jos. B. J. iv. 9, 9). 

Hebrus ("EBpos . Maritza), the principal 
river in Thrace, rises in the mountains of Sco- 
mius and Rhodope, flows first SE. and then 
SW., becomes navigable for smaller vessels at 
Philippopolis, and for larger ones at Hadriano- 
polis, and falls into the Aegaean sea near Aenos, 
after forming by another branch an estuary 
called Stentoris Lacus.— The Hebrus was cele- 
brated in Greek legends. On its banks Orpheus 
was torn to pieces by the Thracian women ; and 
it is frequently mentioned in connexion with 
Dionysus. (Hdt. iv. 90, vii. 58; Thuc. ii. 96; 
Strab. pp. 322, 329, 590 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 524.) 

Hecaerge CF.Ka.4pyn). 1. Daughter of Boreas, 
and one of the Hyperborean maidens who were 
believed to have introduced the worship of 
Artemis in Delos (Hdt. iv. 35 ; Paus. v. 7, 4). 
— 2. A surname of Artemis, signifying the 
goddess who shoots from afar. 

Hecale ('EkoA.7;), a poor old woman, who hos- 
pitably received Theseus when he had gone 
out for the purpose of killing the Marathonian 
bull. She vowed to offer to Zeus a sacrifice for 
the safe return of the hero; but as she died 
before his return, Theseus ordained that the 
inhabitants of the Attic tetrapolis should offer a 
sacrifice to her and Zeus Hecalus, or Hecaleius 
(Plut. Thes. 14; Ov. Rem. Am. 747.) 

Hecataeus CEKarauos). 1. Of Miletus, one 
of the early Greek historians, or logographi 
(prose-narrators). He was the son of Hege- 
sander, and belonged to an ancient and illus- 
trious family. In B.C. 500 he endeavoured to 
dissuade his countrymen from revolting from 
the Persians ; and when this advice was dis- 
regarded, he gave them some sensible counsel 
respecting the conduct of the war, which was 
also neglected. Before this, Hecataeus had 
visited Egypt and many other countries. He 
survived the Persian wars, and appears to 
have died about 476. (Hdt. ii. 143, v. 36, 124.1 
He wrote two works : — 1. riepi'oSos 777s, or 
TltptT)yri<Tis, divided into two parts, one of 
which contained a description of Europe, and 
the other of Asia, Egypt, and Libya. Botli 
parts were subdivided into smaller sections, 
which are sometimes quoted under their re- 
spective names, such as Hellespontus, &c. — 
2. r(v(a\oyiai or 'Io-Top(ai, in four books, con- 
tained an account of the poetical fables and 
traditionsof the Greeks. His work on geography 
was the more important, as it embodied the 
results of his numerous travels. He also cor- 
1 rected and improved the map of the earth 
drawn up by Anaximander. Herodotus knew 
j the works of Hecataeus, and sometimes contro- 
verts his opinions (ii. 143, vi. 137). The frag 
ments of his works are collected by Klausen 
Hecataei Milesii Fragment a, Berlin, 1881, 
and by C. and Th. Miiller, Frag. Hist. Grar.c. 
I Paris, 1841. — 2. Of Abdera, a contemporary 
1 of Alexander the Great and Ptolemy the son 
1 of Lagus, appears to have accompanied the 
! former on his Asiatic expedition. He was 11 

CC 



386 



HECATE 



HECTOE 



pupil of the Sceptic Pyrrho, and is himself 
called a philosopher, critic, and grammarian. 
In the reign of the first Ptolemy he travelled 
up the Nile as far as Thebes. (Diog. Laert. ix. 
61.) He was the author of several works, of 
which the most important were : — 1. A History 
of Egypt. — 3. A work on the Hyperboreans. — 
3. A History of the Jews, frequently referred 
to by Josephus and other ancient writers. This 
work was declared spurious by Origen : modern 
critics are divided in their opinions. (Fragm. 
by C. Miiller, 1848.)— 3. Prince of Cardia in 
the reign of Alexander the Great, an adversary 
of Eumenes (Plut. Eum. 3). 

Hecate ('E«:aT?j), a goddess represented in 
Greek literature and art as deity of the moon 
and of night, of childbirth, and of the under- 
world and magic. Her-origin, whether Hellenic 
or not, is not clearly traced ; and, further, she 
has been confused or interchanged in tradition 
with other deities. She is not mentioned in 
Homer : in Hesiod she is daughter of the Titan 
Perses and Asteria (Hes. Th. 409; cf. Hymn. 
v. 25 ; Apollod. i. 2, 4 ; Cic. N. D. iii. 18, 45 ; 




Hecate. (CauBei, Museum Romanian, vol. i. tav. 21.) 



Ov. Met. vii. 74) ; but other accounts make her 
the daughter of Zeus (Ap. Eh. iii. 469, 1035). 
As goddess of the moon Hecate was called 
<t>a>o-<p6pos (Eur. Hel. 569), was represented as 
bearing torches (Aristoph. Ban. 1362), and it 
is possible that the triple character and form 
belonging to her was derived from the three 
phases of the new, full, and waning moon : 
others (Serv. ad Eel. viii. 75) assign as the 
cause her threefold aspect of birth-goddess 
(= Lueina), giver of strong life (= Diana), and 
goddess of death (Hecate). A third explanation 
is that she was worshipped in heaven (as the 
moon), on the earth (as Artemis), and in the 
underworld (as Hecate). Lastly, it is not 
impossible that the triple form was derived from 
her being placed at the fork of roads, looking 
each way [see below]. To Hecate, as to other 
moon-goddesses, belongs the guardianship of 
childbirth (Hes. Th. 450; Eur. Troad. 323): 
as moon-goddess also she had power over the 
sea and over fishermen (Hes. Th. 439, 443) ; and 
for the same reason (though this and the fol- 
lowing characteristics do not appear in the 



earliest literature) she was the goddess of night 
and darkness, and hence of the underworld and 
of the dead (Ap. Eh. iii. 467 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 
118, 247-257) : hence again she was the deity 
of ghosts and nightly apparitions, and the 
patroness of all necromancy and magic (Eur. 
Hel. 569 ; Theocr. ii. 10-15 ; Ov. Her. xii. 168, 
Met. xiv. 44). From the similarity of her func- 
tions she was often confounded with Artemis 
(Aesch. Suppl. 676; Eur. Phoen. 110), and 
sometimes with Aphrodite. Her worship was 
especially noticeable in Asia Minor (particularly 
at Stratonicea and Lagina in Caria), in Thrace 
(Strab. p. 472 ; Paus. ii. 30; whence some imagine 
a Thracian origin), and at Argos (Paus. ii. 22, 
7). At Aegina she had honour beyond other 
gods (Paus. ii. 30), and at Athens it was a custom 
to place 'EKareia — that is, shrines with figures 
of the goddess — before the doors (Aristoph. 
Vesp. 804, Lys. 64, Ban. 366 ; Hesych. s.v.). 
The peculiar offerings made to her were sacri- 
fices of puppies, especially black puppies (Paus. 
iii. 14, 9; Schol. ad Theocr. ii. 12), which 
probably denoted her connexion with the 
underworld. She was regarded as present par- 
ticularly at forked roads (eV rpi6Sois, ivoSta : 
Soph. Fr. 480 ; Ov. Fast. i. 141), perhaps be- 
cause of her triple form : but superstitions 
about cross roads are also common to many 
nations. Offerings were also set before her 
shrines at the doors and at the forked roads at 
each full moon, and were then eaten by the 
poor (Aristoph. Plut. 594 ; Dem. Con. p. 1269, 
§ 39 ; Plut. Symp. vii. 6). In art she is repre- 
sented with torches, as a moon-goddess ; with 
keys, as portress of Hades (Verg. Aen. vi. 
215). The oldest representations showed her 
with the natural female shape (Paus. ii. 30, 2) : 
afterwards the triple form appeared most fre- 
quently, though not universally. 

Hecatomnus ['Ekcit6[ivcos), king or dynast of 
Caria, in the reign of Artaxerxes III. He left 
three sons, Maussolus, Idrieus, and Pixodarus, 
all of whom, in their turn, succeeded him in 
the sovereignty ; and two daughters, Artemisia 
and Ada. (Diod. xv. 2 ; Strab. p. 659.) 

Hecatompylos ('EKaT6fnrv\os, i.e. having 100 
gates). 1. An epithet of Thebes in Egypt. 
[Thebae.] — 2. A city in the middle of Parthia, 
1260 stadia or 133 Roman miles from the Cas- 
piae Pylae ; enlarged by Seleucus ; and after- 
wards used by the Parthian kings as a royal 
residence (Strab. p. 514). 

Hecaton ('Ekcituv), a Stoic philosopher, a 
native of Ehodes, studied under Panaetius, and 
wrote numerous works, all of which are lost 
(Cic. de Off. iii ; 15, 63; Diog. Laert. vii. 87). 

Hecatohnesi ('EKaT6vvv(Toi : Mosko-nisi), a 
group of small islands, between Lesbos and the 
coast of Aeolis, on the S. side of the mouth of 
the Gulf of Adramyttium. The name, 100 
islands, was indefinite; the real number was 
reckoned by some at 20, by others at 40. Strabo 
derives the name, not from e/caToc, 100, but 
from "Ekcitos, a surname of Apollo. (Diod. xiii. 
77 ; Strab. p. 618.) 

Hector ("Ektcop), the chief hero of the Trojans 
in their war with the Greeks, was the eldest 
son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband of 
Andromache, and father of Scamandrius (II. 
ii. 817; Apollod. iii. 12, 5 ; Theocr. xv. 139). He 
fought with the bravest of the Greeks, and at 
length slew Patroclus, the friend of Achilles. 
The death of his friend roused Achilles to the 
fight. The other Trojans fled before him into 
the city. Hector alone remained without the 
walls, though his parents implored him to 



HECUBA 

return ; but when he saw Achilles, his heart 
failed him, and he took to flight. Thrice did 
he race round the city, pursued by the swift- 
footed Achilles, and then fell pierced by Achilles' 
spear. Achilles tied Hector's body to his 
chariot, and thus dragged him into the camp of 
the Greeks (II. xxii. 182-330) ; but later tradi- 
tions relate that he first dragged the body thrice 
around the walls of Ilium (Verg. Aen. i. 484). 
At the command of Zeus, Achilles surrendered 
the body to the prayers of Priam, who buried 
it at Troy with great pomp (II. xxiv. 718 fi.). 
Hector is one of the noblest conceptions of the 
poet of the Iliad. He is the great bulwark of 
Troy, and even Achilles trembles when he 
approaches him. He has a presentiment of the 
fall of his country, but he perseveres in his 
heroic resistance, preferring death to slavery 
and disgrace. Besides these virtues of a war- 
rior, he is distinguished also by his tender 
affection for his parents, his wife, and his son, 
and by a chivalrous compassion even for Helen. 
The lines which describe his parting with 
Andromache (II. vi. 406J, and the lament of 
Helen over his body (xxiv. 762) are among the 
most beautiful and pathetic in Homer. 

Hecuba ('Eko/37)), daughter of Dymas in Phry- 
gia, or of Cisseus, king of Thrace til. xvi. 
718). Her mother was variously named, Tele- 
clea, Evagore, Eunoe, Glaucippe, and Metope, 
which explains the conundrum of Tiberius,' Quae 
mater Hecubae ? ' (Suet. Tib. 70). She was the 
wife of Priam, king of Troy, to whom the bore 
Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, Cassandra, 
and many other children {II. xxiv. 4ii0; 
Theocr. xv. 139 ; Apollod. iii. 12, 5). The fifty 
children mentioned in Eur. Hec. 421, include 
her stepchildren. Her dream before the birth 
of Paris, that she had borne a firebrand, is 
noticed by many writers (Eur. Troad. 922 ; 
Tzetz. ad Lyc. 224 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 320, x. 704 ; 
Cic. Div. i. 21, 42). On the capture of Troy, 
she was carried away as a slave by the Greeks. 
According to the tragedy of Euripides which 
bears her name, she was carried by the Greeks 
to Chersonesus, and there saw her daughter 
Polyxena sacrificed. On the same day the 
waves of the sea washed on the coast the body 
of her last son, Polydorus, who had been mur- 
dered by Polymestor, king of the Thracian 
Chersonesus, to whose care he had been en- 
trusted by Priam. Hecuba thereupon killed 
the children of Polymestor, and put out the 
eyes of their father. (Eur. Hec; Ov. Met. xiii. 
431.) Agamemnon pardoned her the crime, 
and Polymestor prophesied that she should be 
metamorphosed into a she-dog, and should leap 
into the sea at a place called Cynossema. It 
was added that the inhabitants of Thrace en- 
deavoured to stone her, but that she was 
metamorphosed into a dog, and in this form 
howled through the country for a long time. 
(Eur. Hec. 1259; Tzetz. Lyc. 117G; Cic. Tusc. 
iii. 26, 63; Ov. Met. I.e.; Strab. p. 595). — Ac- 
cording to other accounts, she was given as a 
slave to Ulysses, and in despair leaped into 
the Hellespont ; or, being anxious to die, she 
uttered such invectives against the Greeks, 
that the warriors put her to death, and called 
the place where she was buried Crnosseina, 
with reference to her invectives. (Tzetz. ad 
Lyc. 815; Dictys, v. 16.) 

Hedylus ("HSuAos), son of Melicertu^. iva, » 
native of Samos or of Athens, and an epigram- 
matic poet. Eleven of his epigrams are in the 
Greek Anthology. He was a contemporary and 
' rival of Callimachus, and lived, therefore, about 



HEGESIPYLA 



387 



the middle of the 3rd century B. c. (Athen. 
pp. 297, 344.) 

Hedylius Moris ('H5uAeiop),arange of moun- 
tains in Boeotia, W. of the Cephissus. 

Hegemon ('Hy-qficvy), of Thasos, a poet of the 
Old Comedy at Athens, but more celebrated for 
his parodies, of which kind of poetry he was 
the inventor. He was nicknamed ^cucf), on 
account of his fondness for that kind of pulse. 
He lived in the time of the Peloponnesian war, 
and was a friend of Alcibiades ; his parody of 
the Gigantotnachiav/iLS the piece to which the 
Athenians were listening when the news was 
brought to them in the theatre of the destruc- 
tion of the expedition to Sicily. (Aristot. Poet. 
2 ; Athen. pp. 5, 108, 406, 698.) 

Hegemone (Hytfiovr)), the leader or ruler, is 
the name of one of the Athenian Charites or 
Graces. It was also a surname of Artemis at 
Sparta and in Arcadia. (Paus. viii. 37, 47.) 

Hegesander. 1. A companion of Xenophon in 
the retreat of the 10,000 (Xen. An. vi. 1).— 2. A 
native of Delphi and writer of i-notivrinara, 
often mentioned by Athenaeus. He probably 
lived in the 3rd century B. c. (Athen. p. 400). 

Hegesianax ('RyTja-idvai), an historian of 
Alexandria, is said to have been the real author 
of the work called Troica which went under 
the name of Cephalon or Cephalion (Athen. 
p. 293; Strab. p. 594). He appears to be the 
same as the Hegesianax sent by Antiochus the 
Great as one of his envoys to the Romans in 
B.C. 196 and 193 (Pol. xviii. 30, 33). 

Hegesias ('Hyrivias). 1. Of Magnesia, a 
rhetorician and historian, lived about B. c. 290, 
wrote the history of Alexander the Great. He 
was regarded by some as the founder of that 
degenerate style of composition which bore the 
name of the Asiatic. His own style was desti- 
tute of all vigour and dignity, and was marked 
chiefly by childish conceits and minute pretti- 
nesses. (Strab. p. 648 ; Cic. Orat. 67, 69 ; Gell. 
ix. 4.) — 2. Of Salamis, supposed by some to 
have been the author of the Cyprian poem 
which, on better authority, is ascribed to 
Stasinus (Athen. p. 682).— 3. A Cyrenaic 
philosopher, who lived at Alexandria in the time 
of the Ptolemies, perhaps about B. c. 260. He 
wrote a work containing such gloomy descrip- 
tions of human misery, that it drove many per- 
sons to commit suicide; hence he was surnamed 
Peisithanatos (U(KTi8a.yaros). He was, in con- 
sequence, forbidden to teach by Ptolemy. 
(Diog. Laert. ii. 86; Cic. Tusc. i. 34, 83.) 

Hegesias or Hegias t'Hyn<rias, 'Hyias), an 
Athenian sculptor early in the 5th century a/c. 
His chief works were the statues of Castoiyand 
Pollux, which were at Rome in Pliny's/time. 
(Plin. xxxiv. 78; Paus. viii. 42, 10; iucian, 
Khrt. I'raec. 9.) / 

Hegesinus (' ' Hyqaivovs), of Pergamum, the 
successor of Evander and the immediate pre- 
decessor of Carneades in the chair of the 
Academy, flourished about B. c. 185 (Diog. 
Lai'i t. iv. CO ; Cic. Ac. ii. 6, 16.) 

HegesippuB t'Hyycrnnros). 1. An Athenian 
orator, and a supporter of Demosthenes. He 
was probably the author of the oration on 
Halonesus, which has come down to us under 
the name of Demosthenes. (Dem. F. L. p. 864, 
j 82, Phil. iii. p. 129, § 85 ; Hesych. and Phot. B.v.) 
— 2. A poet of the New Comedy, about B.C. 
BOO: — 3. A Grcok historian of Mecyberna, wrote 
an account of the peninsula of Paileno (Dionys. 
i. .|!ti. 

Hegeaipylaf'HTTjirnriiATjl, daughter of Olorus, 
king of Thrace, and wife of Miltiades (Hdt. vi.89). 

c c 2 



888 



HEGIAS 



HELENUS 



Heglas. [Hegesias.] 

Helena ('EAeVrj). In Homer Helen is de- 
scribed as daughter of Zeus, half-sister of 
Castor and Polydeuces, and mother of one child, 
Hermione (II. hi. 237; Od. iv. 14, 227, 569, 
xi. 299), and of surpassing beauty. She was 
wife of Menelaus and was carried off to Troy 
by Paris [for details see Paeis], and thus be- 
came the cause of the Trojan war (II. iii. 165 ; 
cf. Aesch. Ag. G07). In the last year of the war 
she is led by Iris to the walls, where she names 
to Priam the Greek leaders ; the impression 
made by her beauty is particularly described 
(II. iii. 156). In her lament over Hector she 
contrasts his chivalrous kindness towards her 
with the taunts of the other Trojans (II. xxiv. 
761). The common tradition was that, after the 
death of Paris, she married Deiphobus ; and 
this is perhaps alluded to in Od. iv. 275. 
Near the end of the siege she recognised 
Odysseus when he entered Troy in disguise, 
but shielded him because she wished to return 
to Greece (Od. iv. 244). After the fall of Troy 
she returned with Menelaus to Sparta, but 
not until they had wandered for eight years, 
part of which was spent in Egypt (Od. iii. 300, 
312, iv. 125, 228). — In the post-Homeric stories 
there are many additions. Helen is by some 
accounts the daughter of Nemesis (probably 
as an allegory) ; and the egg from which she 
is born is merely entrusted to Leda. This 
version was as old as the Cyclic poets (Athen. 
p. 334 ; Apollod. iii. 10, 8). Euripides retains 
the account of the birth from Leda (Hel. 18). 
Again in some traditions Helen and the Dioscuri 
are born from one egg (Eur. Hel. 1644) ; in 
others there were two eggs (' gemino ovo,' Hor. 
A.P. 147), from one of which were born Helen 
and Boiydeuces as immortals and children of 
Zeus 'and Leda, from the other Castor and 
Clytemnestra, as mortal children of Tyndareus 
anci Leda (Tzetz. ad Lye. 88 ; Hyg. Fab. 77, 
80). In her childhood Helen was carried off to 
Athens by Theseus, and rescued by the Dioscuri 
[Aethba ; Dioscuri ; Theseus]. After this 
many princely suitors came to Sparta, and 
Tyndareus, by advice of Odysseus, gave her in 
marriage to Menelaus. The most important 
variation to the Trojan episode in her life was 
that she was taken to Egypt, and that her 
phantom went to Troy. This was said to have 
been adopted as a palinode or recantation by 
Stesichorus, who had spoken against the 
character of Helen and had been smitten with 
blindness (Plat. Phaedr. p. 243, Bep. p. 586 ; 
Hor. Epod. 17, 42 ; Paus. iii. 19, 13). Accord- 
ing to this story (which was known to the 
Egyptian priests), Paris and Helen were driven 
by contrary winds to Egypt. Here Helen and 
the treasures taken from Sparta were detained 
by King Proteus, and Paris went on to Troy 
(Hdt. ii. 112-120). Euripides in his Helena 
makes Helen still more guiltless, for she is 
taken by Hermes first to an island off Attica, 
and thence to Egypt, while Paris carried off 
her phantom from Sparta as the cause of war. 
In either account it is only her phantom that 
is present in Troy and is brought thence by 
Menelaus after the fall of the city. When 
Menelaus recovered the true Helen from 
Egypt, the phantom disappeared. Helen re- 
ceived divine honours in her temple at 
Therapnae (cf. Od. iv. 560 ; Eur. Or. 929), 
where also her grave was shown (Hdt. vi. 61 ; 
Paus. iii, 15, 3; 19, 9). A Bhodian legend 
spoke of her going to Rhodes after the death of 
Menelaus, and being hanged on a tree there in 



revenge by Polyxo, and therefore called 
SevSptTis (Paus. iii. 19, 10). This probably pre- 
serves some account of tree worship, which 
has been identified at some time with her 
name, and which appears also in the 'EAeVay 
(pvrbv at Sparta (Theocr. xviii. 48). Another 
story which Pausanias hears from the people 
of Croton and of Himera is that Helen, after 
her death, became the wife of Achilles, in the 
island of Leuce, in the Euxine (Paus. iii. 19, 
11). In her divine character Helen, like the 
Dioscuri, caused the appearance of light (the 
St. Elmo's Fire) about a ship ; but her single 
star was baneful, while the double star of her 
brothers brought safety (Plin. ii. 101). Euri- 
pides, on the contrary, describes her star as 
beneficial to sailors (Orest. 1629). 

Helena, Flavia Julia. 1. The mother of 
Constantine the Great. When her husband, 
Constantius, was raised to the dignity of 
Caesar by Diocletian, a. d. 292, he was com- 
pelled to repudiate his wife, to make way for 
I Theodora, the stepchild of Maximianus Her- 
1 culius. Subsequently, when her son succeeded 
to the purple, Helena was treated with marked 
distinction and received the title of Augusta. 
She died about 328. She was a Christian, 
and was said to have discovered at Jerusalem 
the sepulchre of our Lord, together with the 
wood of the true cross. [See Diet, of Christian 
Biography.^ — 2. Daughter of Constantine the 
Great and Fausta, married her cousin, Julian 
the Apostate, 355, and died 360 (Am Marc, 
xv. 8, xxi. 1). 

Helena ("EAevr)). 1. (Makronisi), a small 
and rocky island, between the S. of Attica and 
Ceos, formally called Cranae (Strab. p. 399 ; 
Paus. i. 35, 1). — 2. The later name of Illi- 
berris in Gaul. 

Helenus ("EKevos). 1. Son of Priam and 
Hecuba, was celebrated for his prophetic 
powers, and also fought against the Greeks in 
the Trojan war (II. vi. 76, vii. 44, xii. 94, 
xiii. 580). In Homer we have no further par- 
ticulars about him ; but in later traditions 
he is said to have deserted his countrymen 
and joined the Greeks. There are various 
accounts respecting this desertion of the 
Trojans. According to some he did it of his 
own accord ; according to others, he was en- 
snared by Odysseus, who was anxious to obtain 
his prophecy respecting the fall of Troy. 
(Tzetz. ad Bye. 905; Soph. Phil. 605, 1338; 
Ov. Met. xiii. 99, 723.) Others, again, relate 
that, on the death of Paris, Helenus and 
Deiphobus contended for the possession of 
Helena, and that Helenus, being conquered, 
fled to Mt. Ida, where he was taken prisoner 
by the Greeks (Serv. ad Aen. ii. 166). After 
the fall of Troy, he fell to the share of 
Pyrrhus. He foretold Pyrrhus the sufferings 
which awaited the Greeks who returned home 
by sea, and prevailed upon him to return by 
land to Epirus. After the death of Pyrrhus he 
received a portion of the country, and married 
Andromache, by whom he became the father 
of Cestrinus. When Aeneas in his wanderings 
arrived in Epirus, he was hospitably received 
by Helenus, who also foretold him the future 
events of his life. (Verg. Aen. iii. 245, 374; 
Ov. Met. xv. 438.)— 2. Son of Pyrrhus, king 
of Epirus, by Lanassa, daughter of Agathocles. 
He accompanied his father to Italy B. c. 280, 
and was with him when Pyrrhus perished at 
Argos, 272. He then fell into the hands of 
Antigonus Gonatas, who, however, sent him back 
in safety to Epirus. (Plut. Pyrrh. 33, 34.) 



HELIADAE 

Heliadae and Heliades ('HKiaSai and 
'HAioSesj, the sons and daughters of Helios 
(the Sun) (Diod. v. 56 ; Pind. 01. vii. 71). The 
name Heliades is given especially to Phaethusa, 1 
Lampetie and Phoebe, the daughters of Helios . 
and the nymph Clymene, and the sisters of 
Phaethon. They bewailed the death of their j 
brother Phaethon so bitterly on the banks of 
the Eridanus, that the gods in compassion 
changed them into poplar trees and their tears 
into amber. (Ov. Met. ii. 340 ; Ap. Rh. iv. 
004 ; Ebjdanus.) 

Helice ('E\i'«r)), daughter of Lycaon, was 
beloved by Zeus, but Hera, out of jealousy, 
metamorphosed her into a she-bear, whereupon 
Zeus placed her among the stars, under the 
name of the Great Bear. 

Helice CEKikt] : 'EAiKaJvios, "EKikcvs). 1. 
The ancient capital of Achaia, said to have 
been founded by Ion, possessed a celebrated 
temple of Poseidon, which was regarded as the j 
great sanctuary of the Achaean race. Helice ; 
was swallowed up by an earthquake together j 
with Bura, b.c. 373. The earth sank, and the | 
place on which the cities stood was ever after- 
wards covered by the sea. (II. ii. 575, viii. 203 ; 
Hdt. i. 145 ; Paus. vii. 1, 24 ; Diod. xv. 24 ; 
Strab. p. 384.) — 2. An ancient town in Thessaly, 
disappeared in early times. 

Helicon ('EKixdy), son of Acesas, a cele- 
brated artist. [Acesas.] 

Helicon ('E\ik(&i> : Helicon, Palaeo-Buni, 
Turk. Zagora), a celebrated range of moun- 
tains in Boeotia, between the lake Copais and 
the Corinthian gulf, was covered with snow the 
greater part of the year, and possessed many 
romantic ravines and lovely valleys. Helicon 
was sacred to Apollo and the Muses, the latter 
of whom are hence called 'EMkuvicu irapBtvot and 
'EKiKuvtafifS vviMpai by the Greek poets, and 
Heliconiades and Heliconid.es by the Roman 
poets. Here sprang the celebrated fountains 
of the Muses, Aganippe and Hippocrene. At 
the fountain of Hippocrene waB a grove sacred 
to the Muses, which was adorned with some of 
the finest works of art. (Strab. p. 409; Paus. 
ix. 25 ; Hes. Th. 1 ; Verg. Eel. x. 12.) 

Heliodorus ( HKt65wpos). 1. An Athenian, 
surnamed Periegetes (U(pir\yr\Ti)i), probably 
lived about B.C. 164, and wrote a description of 
the works of art in the Acropolis at Athens. 
ThiB work was one of the authorities for Pliny's 
account of the Greek artists. — 2. A rhetorician 
at Rome in the time of Augustus, whom Horace 
mentions as the companion of his journey to 
Brundisium {Sat. i. 5, 2, 3). — 3. A Stoic philo- 
sopher at Rome, who became a delator in the 
reign of Nero (Juv. Sat. i. 83). — 4. A rhetori- 
cian, and private secretary to the emperor 
Hadrian. — 5. Of Emesa in Syria, lived about 
the end of the fourth century of our era, and was 
bishop of Tricca in Thessaly. Before he was 
made bishop, he wrote a romance in ten books, 
entitled Aethiopica, because the scene of the 
beginning and the end of the story is laid in 
Aethiopia. This work hes come down to us, 
and is far superior to the other Greek romances. 
It relates the loves of Theagenes and Chariclea. 
Though deficient in those characteristics of 
modern fiction which appeal to the universal 
sympathies of our nature, the romance of Helio- 
dorus is interesting on account of the rapid 
succession of strange and not altogether im- 
probable adventures, the many and various 
characters introduced, and the beautiful scenes 
described. The language is simple and elegant. 
Editions are by Mitscherlich in his Scriptores 



HELIOS 



889 



Graeci Erotici, Argentorat. 1798, and by 
Bekker, Lips. 1855. — 6. Of Larissa, the author 
of a short work on optics, still extant, chiefly 
taken from EucKd's Optics : edited by Matani, 
Pistor.- 1758. 

Heliogabalus. [Elagabalus.] 

Heliopolis ("HXiov v6\is or 'HKioviroXts, i.e. 
the City of the Sun). 1. (Heb. Baalath: 
Baalbek, Ru.), a celebrated city of Syria, a chief 
seat of the worship of Baal, whom the Greeks 
identified sometimes with Helios, sometimes 
with Zeus. It was situated in the middle of 
Coele-Syria, at the "W. foot of Anti-Libanus, on 
a rising ground at the NE. extremity of a large 
plain watered by the river Leontes (Nahr-el- 
Kasimiyeh), near whose sources Heliopolis was 
built : the sources of the Orontes are not far N. 
of the city. The situation of Heliopolis neces- 
sarily made it a place of great commercial 
importance, as it was on the direct road from 
Egypt and the Red Sea and also from Tyre to 
Syria, Asia Minor, and Europe; and hence, 
probably, the wealth of the city, to which its 
magnificent ruins of temples and other build- 
ings still bear witness. It was made a Roman 
colony by the name of Colonia Julia Augusta 
Felix Heliopolitana, and colonised by veterans 
of the 5th and 8th legions, under Augustus 
(Strab. p. 753 ; Ptol. v. 15, 22). The worship of 
Jupiter Heliopolitanus was introduced into 
Italy, especially at Puteoli (C. I. L. x. 1578). 
— 2. Matarieh,B.VL. N.E.of Cairo), a celebrated 
city of Lower Egypt, capital of the Nomos 
Heliopolites, stood on the E. side of the 
Pelusiac branch of the Nile, a little below the 
apex of the Delta, and near the canal of Trajan, 
and was, in the earliest period of which we have 
any record, a chief seat of the Egyptian wor- 
ship of the Sun. Its civil name was An, in 
Hebrew On ; its sacred name Pe-Ra, i.e. the 
abode of the Sun. Here also was established 
the worship of Mnevis, a sacred bull similar to 
Apis. The priests of Heliopolis were renowned 
for their learning, and learned Greeks (Plato 
and Eudoxus are mentioned by Strabo) studied 
there up to the time when its fame was sup- 
planted by that of Alexandria. It suffered 
much during the invasion of Cambyses ; and 
by the time of Strabo it was entirely ruined. 
(Hdt. ii. 3, 7, 59 ; Strab. p. 805 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 
28.) 

Helios i"HAios or 'Ht'Aios), called Sol by the 
Romans, the god of the sun. He was the son 
of Hyperion and Thea, and a brother of Selene 
and Eos. (Od. xii. 176, 322; Hes. Th. 871.) 
From his father, he is frequently called 
Hyperionides, or Hyperion, a form of the 
patronymic. In the Homeric hymn on Helios, 
he is called a son of Hyperion and Eory- 
phaessa. Homer describes Helios as giving 
light both to gods and men : he rises in the E. 
from Oceanus, traverses the heaven, and 
descends in the evening into the darkness of 
the W. and Oceanus (II. vii. 422 ; Od. iii. 1, 
xi. 16, xii. 380). Later poets have marvellously 
embellished this simple notion. They tell of a 
most magnificent palace of HelioB in the E., 
containing a throne occupied by the god, and 
surrounded by personifications of the different 
divisions of time. They also assign him a 
second palace in the W., and describe his 
horses as feeding upon herbs growing in the 
Islands of the Blessed. (Ov. Met. ii. 1 ; Stat. 
Theb. iii. 407 ; Athen. p. 296.) The manner in 
which Helios during the night passes from the 
western into the eastern ocean is not mentioned 
either by Homer or by Hesiod, but later poets 



890 



HELIOS 



make him sail in a golden boat, the work of 
Hephaestus, round one-half of the earth, and 
thus arrive in the E. at the point from which 
he has to rise again (Athen. pp. 469, 470 ; 
Apollod. ii. 5, 10). Others represent him ag 
making his nightly voyage while slumbering in 
a golden bed (Mimn. Fr. 12; Athen. p. 470). 
The horses and chariot with which Helios 
traverses the heavens are not mentioned in the 
Hiad and Odyssey, but first occur in the 




Helios. (From the metope at Ilium : Schliemann, Troy and its Remains.) 

Homeric hymn on Helios ; and by later writers 
the four horses are named Pyrois, Eous, Aethon, 
and Phlegon, or Eous, Aethiops, Bronte and 
Sterope (Ov. Met. ii. 153 ; Hyg. Fab. 133).— 
Helios is described as the god who sees and 
hears everything, and was thus able to reveal 
to Hephaestus the faithlessness of Aphrodite, 
and to Demeter the abduction of her daughter 
(Od. viii. 271 ; Hymn, ad Cer. 75). — The island 
of Thrinacia (Sicily) was sacred to Helios, and 




Helios. (Coin of Rhodes, in the British Museum.) 

there he had flocks of sheep and oxen, which 
were tended by his daughters Phaethusa and 
Lampetie (Od. xii. 128). Later traditions 
ascribe to him flocks also in the island of 
ETythla ; and it may be remarked in general, 
that sacred flocks, especially of oxen, occur in 
most places where the worship of Helios was 
established. By Perse he was the father of 



HELLE 

Aeetes, Circe and Pasiphae, and by Clymene of 
Phaethon. Temples of Helios probably existed 
in Greece at a very early time, since the vow to 
build a temple to Helios is regarded as natural 
in Od. xii. 346 ; and in later times we find his 
worship established in various places, and 
especially in the island of Rhodes — which, as 
specially belonging to him, held annual games 
(r/Aieia or aAeia) in his honour (Pind. 01. vii. 
70 ; Diod. v. 56) — and on the Acrocorinthus 
(Paus. ii. 1,6; 5, 1). The sacri- 
fices offered to him consisted of 
white rams, boars, bulls, goats, 
lambs, especially white horses, 
and honey. — There had been an 
early interchange in the attri- 
butes and provinces of Apollo 
and Helios, both as regards the 
gift of light and prophetic know- 
ledge, but it was not until after 
the time of Euripides that Helios 
was identified with Apollo. The 
Boman poets, when speaking of 
the god of the sun (Sol), usually 
adopt the notions of the Greeks. 
The worship of Sol existed at 
Borne from an early period, Sol 
being an Italian deity whom the 
Bomans afterwards identified 
with Helios. This deity was 
honoured as 1 Sol indiges ' by a 
festival on the Quirinal on August 
8th. The Eastern sun-worship 
was widely spread in Italy after 
the 1st century A.D. [Elagaba- 
lus ; Mithras.] 

Helisson ('E\i<r<rav or 'EAi<r- 
(Tovs), a small town in Arcadia, on 
a river of same name, which falls 
into the Alpheus (Paus. viii. 3, 1). 
Hellanicus ('EAActi'i/cos). 1. Of Mytilene 
in Lesbos, the most eminent of the Greek 
logographers, or early Greek historians, was in 
all probability born about B.C. 490, and died 
some time after the beginning of the Pelopon- 
nesian war (Thuc. i. 97). We have no parti- 
culars of his life, but we may presume that he 
visited many of the countries of whose history 
he gave an account. He wrote a great number 
of genealogical, chronological and historical 
works, which are cited under the titles of 
Troica, Aeolica, Persica, &c. One of his most 
noted works was entitled 'Ie'pacu ttis "Upas : 
it contained a chronological list of the priest- 
esses of Hera at Argos, compiled from the 
records preserved in the temple of the goddeas 
of this place. This work was one of the earliest 
attempts to regulate chronology, and was made 
use of by Thucydides, Timaeus and others. 
The fragments of Hellanicus are collected by 
Sturz, Hellanici Lesbii Fragmenta, Lips. 
1826; and by C. and Th. Mttller, Fragm. 
Histor. Graec. Paris, 1841. — 2. A Greek gram- 
marian, a disciple of Agathocles, and appa- 
rently a contemporary of Aristarchus, wrote on 
the Homeric poems. 
Hellas, Hellenes. [Graecia.] 
Helle ("EAA.7)), daughter of Athamas and Ne- 
phele, and sister of Phrixus. When Phrixus 
was to be sacrificed [Phrixus], Nephele rescued 
her two children, who rode away through the 
air upon the ram with the golden fleece, the 
gift of Hermes ; but, between Sigeum and the 
Chersonesus, Helle fell into the sea, which was 
thence called the Sea of Helle (Hellespontus). 
Her tomb was shown near Pactya, on the 
Hellespont. fAesch. Pers. 70, 875; Hdt. vii. 



HELLEN 



HE L VII 



391 



57 ; Ap. Eh. i. 927 ; Ov. Met. xi. 195 ; Atha- | 

MAS.) 

Helleil ("EAA7)i/), son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, 
01 of Zeus and Dorippe, husband of Orseis, and 
father of Aeolus, Dorus, and Xuthus. He was 
king of Phthia in Thessaly, and was succeeded 
by his son Aeolus. He is the mythical ancestor 
of all the Hellenes ; from his two sons Aeolus 
and Dorus were descended the Aeolians and 
Dorians ; and from his two grandsons Achaeus 
and Ion, the sons of Xuthus, the Achaeans and 
Ionians. (Hdt. i. 56 ; Thuc. i. 3 ; Strab. p. 383.) 

Hellespontus C EWycnrovTos : Straits of the 
Dardanelles, or of Gallipoli, Turk. Stambul 
Denghiz), the long narrow strait connecting the 
Propontis {Sea of Marmara) with the Aegaean 
sea, through which the waters of the Black 
sea discharge themselves into the Mediter- 
ranean in a constant current. The length of 
the strait is about fifty miles, and the width 
varies from six miles at the upper end to two 
at the lower, and in some places it is only one 
mile wide, or even less. The narrowest part 
is between the ancient cities of Sestus and 
Abydus, where Xerxes made his bridge of boats, 
[Xerxes] and where the legend related that 
Leander swam across to visit Hero. [Leander.] 
The name of the Hellespont (i.e. the Sea of 
Helle) was derived from the story of Helle's 
being drowned in it [Helle]. The Hellespont 
was the boundary of Europe and Asia, dividing 
the Thraciau Chersonese in the former from 
the Troad and the territories of Abydus and 
Lampsacus in the latter. The district just 
mentioned, on the S. side of the Hellespont, 
was also called 'EAATjcmwros, its inhabitants 
'EAA7jerir<Wioi, and the cities on its coast 
'EA.A7j<r7r<$cTiCU irdKcis. (II. ii. 845 ; Od. xxiv. 82 ; 
Hdt. iv. 85 ; Strab. p. 591.)— 2. Under Diocle- 
tian, Hellespontus was the name of a consular 
province, composed of the Troad and the 
N.part of Mysia, with Cyzicus for its capital. 

Hellomenum ('EAAihie»w), a seaport town of 
the Acarnanians on the island Leucas. 

Hellopia. [Ellopia.J 

Hellotis ("EAA cutis), a surname of Athene at 
Corinth (SohoL a/1 Pind. 01. xiii. 56), and also 
of Europa among the Cretans. 

Helorus or Helorum (r) "EAcupos : 'EAccpiTTjs), 
a town on the E. coast of Sicily, S. of Syracuse, 
at the mouth of the river Helorus. There was 
a road from Helorus to Syracuse (65bs 'EKwp'ivrj, 
Thuc. vi. 70, vii. 80). 

Helos (rh "EAos : 'Ekuos, 'EAec£T7js). 1. A 
town in Laconia, on the coast, in a marshy 
situation, whence its name (f\os = marsh). The 
town was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. 
(Pol. v. 19; Paus. iii. 22, 8; Strab. p. 868.)— 
2. A town or district of Elis on the Alpheus 
(11. ii. 594 J Strab. p. 850). 

Helveconae, a pe »ple in Germany, between 
the Viadus and the Vistula, S. of the Rugii, and 
N. of the Burgundiones, reckoned by Tacitus 
among the Ligii (Germ. 48). 

Helvetii, a brave and powerful Celtic people, 
who dwelt between M. Jurassus (Jura), the 
Lacus Lemannus (Lake of Geneva), the Rhone, 
and the Rhine as far as the Lacus Brigantinus 
(Lake of Constance). They were thus bounded 
by the Sequani on the W., by the Nantuates 
and Lepontii in Cisalpine Gaul on the S., by 
the Rhaeti on the E., and by the German 
nations on the N. beyond the Rhine. Their 
country, called Aijer Helvetiorum (but never 
Helvetia), thus roiTesponded to the W. part of 
Switzerland. — The Helvetii are first mentioned 
in the war with the Cinibri. In B.C. 107 the 



Tigurini defeated and killed the Roman consul 
L. Cassius Longinus, on the lake of Geneva, 
while another division of the Helvetii accom- 
panied the Cimbri and Teutones in their inva- 
sion of Gaul. Subsequently the Helvetii invaded 
Italy along with the Cimbri ; and they returned 
home in safety, after the defeat of the Cimbri 
by Marius and Catulus in 101. They had once 
possessed the country further to the east, in- 
cluding the district about the Neckar after- 
wards called AgriDecujiates. (This had gained 
the name of ' the Helvetian desert,' because it 
was for a long period wasted by the struggles 
for its possession between Helvetians and Ger- 
mans.) From this county they were pressed 
by their foes westward, and accordingly about 
60 B.C. they resolved, upon the advice of Orge- 
torix, one of their chiefs, to migrate from their 
country with their wives and children, and seek 
a new home in the more fertile plains of Gaul. 
In 58 they endeavoured to carry their plan into 
execution, but they were defeated by Caesar, 
and driven back into their own territories. At 
this time the Civitas Helvetiorum was, after 
the Celtic fashion, divided into four pagi or 
cantons [Diet. ofAntiq. art. Pag us], comprising 
400 vici and twelve oppida, which they burned 
when they started westward (Caes. B. G. 1, 5). 
After their enforced return they rebuilt several 
vici, of which the most notable were Lousona 
{Lausanne). Eburodunum ( Yverdon), Mino- 
dunum (Moudon), Salodurum (Solothurn), 
Turicum (Zurich), Vitudurum (Winterthur), 
Aquae (Baden, near Ziirich), Vindonissa (Win- 
disch), with the chief town (Tac. Hist. i. 68) of 
all the civitas, Aventicum (Avaiiches), which 
Augustus made the residence of the tax col- 
lector for the Helvetian district. For military 
strength two Roman colonies were established, 
at Noviodunum (Nyon, on the lake of Geneva), 
which was called Colonia Julia Equestris, and 
Colonia Raurica (Augst, near Basle). The 
Helvetian civitas formed part of the province 
of Gallia Belgica until the reign of Tiberius. 
Like the rest of the ' Tres Galliae ' it was, by 
Caesar's policy, allowed to retain something of 
their old cantonal administration, not merely in 
their religious gatherings, but with rights of 
meeting in their councils to present their 
grievances, and even with som« military organi- 
sation, the native magistrates having power to 
call out a militia [Gallia]. When the provinces 
of Upper and Lower Germany were, under 
Tiberius, detached from Gallia Belgica, the 
Helvetii formed part of Germania Superior 
"Germania]. They were severely dealt with by 
the troops of Vitellius (a.d. 70), one of whose 
messengers they had arrested : many of their 
towns were burnt, and Aventicum narrowly 
escaped destruction. It was a mark of a further 
tendency to Romanise the district that Aventi- 
cum received Latin rights. When Gaul was 
subdivided into a greater number of provinces 
in the fourth century a.d., the country of the 
Helvetii formed, with that of the Sequani and 
the Rauraci, the province of Maxima Srijua- 
riorum, with the chief town Visontio (Besancon). 
The chief original authorities for the affairs of 
the Helvetii under the Romans may be found 
in the volume of inscriptions (C. I. Helvet.). 
Helvia, mother of the philosopher Seneca. 
Helvldlua Priscus. [Pbisci 
Helvii, a people in Gaul, between the Rhone 
and Mt. Cebenna, which separated them from 
the Arverni, were for a long time subject to 
Mussilia, but afterwards belonged to the pro- 
vince of Gallia Narbonensis. Their country 



392 



HELVIUS 



HEPHAESTUS 



produced good wine. (Caes. B. G. vii. 7, 78 ; 
Plin. xiv. 43.) 

Helvius. 1. Blasio. [Blasio.] — 2. Cinna. 
[Cinna.]— 3. Mancia. [Mancia.]— 4. Pertinax. 
[Peettnax.] 

Hemeresia ('H/j.epritr'ia), the soothing goddess, 
a surname of Artemis, under which she was 
worshipped at the fountain Lusi (Aovaoi), in 
Arcadia (Paus. viii. 18, 3). 

Hemeroscopion. [Dianium, No. 2.] 

Hemina, Cassius. [Cassixis, No. 14.] 

Heneti ('Everoi), an ancient people in Paphla- 
gonia, dwelling on the river Parthenius, fought 
on the side of Priam against the Greeks, but 
had disappeared before the historical times. 
They were regarded by many ancient writers as 
the ancestors of the Veneti in Italy. [Veneti.] 

Henlochi ('Hfi'oxoi), a people in Colchis, 
N. of the Phasis, notorious as pirates (Strab. 
p. 496.) 

Henna. [Enna.] 

Hephaestia ("Hcpai<Triaj. 1- ("HQaiarievs), a 
town in the NW. of the island of Lemnos. — 
2. ('HcpaiariSris, -TeiS-qs), a demus in Attica, be- 
longing to the tribe Acamantis. 

Hephaestiades Insiilae. [Aeoliae.] 

Hephaestion ('H^aio-TiW). 1. Son of Amyn- 
tor, a Macedonian of Pella, celebrated as the 
friend of Alexander the Great, with whom he had 
been brought up. Alexander called Hephaes- 
tion his own private friend, but Craterus the 
friend of the king. Hephaestion accompanied 
Alexander to Asia, and was employed by the 
king in many important commands. He died at 
Ecbatana, after an illness of only seven days, 
B.C. 325. Alexander's grief for his loss was 
passionate and violent. A general mourning 
was ordered throughout the empire, and a 
funeral pile and monument erected to him at 
Babylon, at a cost, it is said, of 10,000 talents 
[authorities under Alexandeb]. — 2. A Greek 
grammarian, who instructed the emperor Verus 
in Greek, and whose date is therefore about 
a.d. 150. He was perhaps the author of a 
Manual on Metres ('EyxeipiSiov wept fxerpav), 
which has come down to us under the name of 
Hephaestion. This work is a tolerably complete 
manual of Greek metres, and forms the basis of 
all our knowledge on that subject. Edited by 
Gaisford, Oxon. 1810, and by Westphal, 1866, 
in Scriptores Metrici Graeci. 

Hephaestus ("H<p ata-ros), called Vulcanus by 
the Romans, the god of fire. He was, according 
to Homer, the son of Zeus and Hera (II. i. 572, 
xiv. 338 ; Od. viii. 312). Later traditions state 
that he had no father, and that Hera gave birth 
to him independent of Zeus, as she was jealous 
of Zeus having given birth to Athene inde- 
pendent of her (Hes. Th. 927 ; Apollod. i. 3, 5). 
He was born lame and weak, and was in conse- 
quence so much disliked by his mother, that 
she threw him down from Olympus. Thetis and 
Eurynome received him, and he dwelt with 
them for nine years in a grotto, beneath Oceanus, 
making for them beautiful works of art (II. xviii. 
394-409). He afterwards returned to Olympus, 
and he appears in Homer as the great artist of 
the gods of Olympus. As to this return a post- 
Homeric story tells us that out of revenge for 
his downfall he sent to his mother Hera a 
golden throne with invisible fetters. When she 
sat thereon she was fast bound, and, as the only 
means of her release, the gods wished to bring 
back Hephaestus. Ares tried his strength, but 
was repulsed; Dionysus succeeded by making 
him drunk. (Paus. i. 20, 3 ; Sappho, JV.66; Plat. 
Rep. p. 378.) This scene is depicted in vase 



paintings as early as the Francois Vase, i.e. in 
the sixth century B.C. La Homer there is no 
allusion to the revenge, and although he had 
been cruelly treated by his mother, he always 
showed her respect and kindness ; and on one 
occasion took her part when she was quarrelling 
with Zeus, which so much enraged the father of 
the gods, that he seized Hephaestus by the leg, 
and hurled him down from heaven. Hephaestus 
was a whole day falling, but in the evening he 
alighted in the island of Lemnos, where he was 
kindly received by the Sintians (II. i. 590 ; 
Apollod. i. 3, 5). He again returned to Olympus, 
where Hesiod describes his creation of Pandora 
(Th. 570 ; Op. 80). In Horner he is mocked by 
the gods for his ungainly walk (II. xviii. 410), 
but he revenged himself upon Ares (Od. viii. 
275). His lameness, which belongs to all tra- 
ditions, is accounted for in mythology by one 
or other of his two falls from heaven. Some 
modern writers explain it as suggested by the 
flickering either of fire or of lightning; others, 
not without probability, believe the idea to have 
originated from the fact that blacksmiths were 
commonly lame men, because this trade was 
one for which a strong man who happened to 
be lame was as well suited as anyone else. 
The palace of Hephaestus in Olympus was im- 
perishable, and shining like stars. It contained 
his workshop, with the anvil and twenty bellows, 
which worked spontaneously at his bidding 
(II. xviii. 370). It was there that he made all 
his beautiful and marvellous works, both for 
gods and men. The ancient poets abound in 
descriptions of exquisite pieces of work which 
had been manufactured by the god. All the 
palaces in Olympus were his workmanship. He 
made the armour of Achilles ; the fatal neck- 
lace of Harmonia ; the fire-breathing bulls of 
Aee'tes, king of Colchis, &c. In the Hiad the 
wife of Hephaestus is Charis, in Hesiod Aglaia, 
the youngest of the Charites ; but in the 
Odyssey, as well as in later accounts, Aphro- 
dite (who proved faithless to him, Od. viii. 295) 
appears as his wife. The union of Hephaestus 
with Charis probably signifies the grace of 
artistic work, though some prefer to connect it 
with a myth of spring-time ; the marriage with 
Aphrodite would also bear either of these 
meanings, and moreover there is some ground 
for the supposition that Aphrodite in Greek 
mythology took to herself some of the attributes 
and functions of an older Greek deity Charis 
[see Aphbodite, p. 86]. Among the later myths 
connected with Hephaestus is that which makes 
him assist at the birth of Athene from the head 
of Zeus (the aid of Hephaestus is not mentioned 
in Hesiod, but appears in Pind. Ol. vii. 3 ; 
Apollod. i. 3, 6, and on vases) ; and also the 
story of the birth of Erichthonius, which is re- 
lated by no writer earlier than Apollodorus (iii. 
14, 6), and probably arose out of the desire to 
connect the earth-born king with Athene and 
Hephaestus, the patrons of art at Athens : for 
Hephaestus, like Athene, gave skill to mortal 
artists, and, conjointly with her, he was believed 
to have taught men the arts which embellish 
and adorn life. Hence at Athens they had 
temples and festivals in common. Hence also 
both were worshipped in the torch-races ; and 
with them was associated in those festivals Pro- 
metheus [Diet, of Ant. art. Lampadedromia]. 
This latter fact is not hard to explain, for Pro- 
metheus was in many respects a counterpart of 
Hephaestus : both were connected with the gift 
of fire, though in myth the one appears as the 
fire-god, the other only as the purveyor of fire ; 



HEPTANOMIS 

both were patrons of the arts, and in the story 1 
of Pandora were again brought into connexion. 
As to the origin of the Hephaestus myth, it has 
doubtless grown out of various natural aspects 
of fire : primarily perhaps, as many modern 
writers on mythology now hold, from lightning, I 
the thunder being the hammering of the | 
Olympian smithy ; and it is likely enough that j 
the lightning falling to earth suggested the falls 
of Hephaestus from heaven (Serv. ad Aen. viii. 
414) ; but the observation of volcanoes also 
supplied parts of the myth. It seems now to be \ 
doubted whether Lemnos was really a volcanic 
island, and some physicists hold that the fire 
which the ancients saw issuing from it, and of 
course connected with Hephaestus, was gaseous 
and not volcanic. But in the sojourn with 
Thetis beneath the sea there is a clear indica- 
tion of a myth from volcanoes, and it is 
questionable whether it is right to make his 
location in volcanoes merely a late develop- 
ment of the myth. At any rate, the active 
volcanoes of Sicily and the Lipari islands be- 
came fabled as his workshops in the fifth 
century B.C. ; and in them he worked metals 
and forged thunderbolts with his attendant 
Cyclopes. (Aesch. Pr. 366 ; Calhm. Hymn, ad 
Diem. 46 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 416 ; Strab. p. 275.) 

As regards his con- 
nexion in myth with 
Dionysus, it maybe 
observed that all 
good wine countries 
have volcanic soil. 
During the best pe- 
riod of Grecian art, 
he was represented 
as a vigorous man 
with a beard, and is 
characterised by his 
hammer or some 
other instrument, his 
oval cap, and the 
chiton, which leaves 
the right shoulder 
and arm uncovered. 
One leg is sometimes 
shortened to denote 
his lameness. As 
regards the dwarfish figures mentioned in Hdt. 
iii. 87, as being at Memphis, it may be noted 
that they were really images of the Egyptian 
Ptah. — The Roman Vulcanus was an old Italian 
divinity. JVulcanus.] 
Heptanomis. [Aegyptus.] 
Hera ("Hpct or "Hp?;), called Juno by the Ro- 
mans. The Greek Hera was a daughter of 
Cronos and Rhea, and sister and wife of Zeus 
(II. v. 721, xiv. 194. xvi. 482; Hes. Th. 454). 
According to Homer she was brought up by 
Oeeanus and Tethys, and afterwards became 
the wife of Zeus without the knowledge of 
her parents (//. xiv. 202, 296). This account 
is variously modified in other traditions. Be- 
ing a daughter of Cronos, she, like his other 
children, was swallowed by her father, but 
afterwards released ; and according to an Ar- 
cadian tradition she was brought up by Te- 
memiH, the son of Pelasgus. The Argives, on 
the other hand, related that she had been 
brought up by Euboea, Prosymnu, and Acraea, 
the three daughters of the river Asterion (II. 
xiv. 346 ; Paus. ii. 17, 86, vii. 4, 7 ; Ap. Rh. i. 
187 ; Strab. p. 417 ; Diod. v. 72). Several parts 
of Greece claimed the honour of being her 
birthplace, and more especially Argos and 
Samos, which were the principal seats of her 



HERA 



898 




Hephaestus. (From an altar 
in the Vatican.) 



worship. Several places in Greece also claimed 
to have been the scene of the marriage with 
Zeus, such as Euboea, Samos, Cnossus in 
Crete, and Mount Thornax, in the S. of Argolis. 
Her marriage, called the Sacred Marriage 
(hpbs ya.fj.os), was represented in many places 
where she was worshipped. At her nuptials 
all the gods honoured her with presents; 
and Ge presented to her a tree with golden 
apples, which was watched by the Hes- 
perides, at the foot of the Hyperborean 
Atlas. (Paus. ii. 7, 1, viii. 22, 2 ; Apollod. 
i. 1, 5.) — In the Iliad Hera is treated by 
the Olympian gods with the same reverence as 
her husband. Zeus himself listens to her 
counsels, and communicates his secrets to her. 
She is, notwithstanding, far inferior to him in 
power, and must obey him unconditionally. She 
is not, like Zeus, the ruler of gods and men, 
but simply the wife of the supreme god. Yet 
she has a reflected greatness and power from 
Zeus. Iris is her messenger as well as servant 
of Zeus, and even Athene is sent by her to 
Achilles. She can set in motion the thunder, 
and the sun himself obeys her order to close 
the day. (II. i. 55, ii. 156, xi. 45, xviii. 106, 240.) 
Her character, as described by Homer, is 




The Farnese Hera. (From the marble head in the 
Naples Museum.) 

marked by jealousy and by a quarrelsome 
disposition. Hence arise frequent disputes 
between Hera and Zeus ; and on one occasion 
Hera plotted with Poseidon and Athene to put 
Zeus into chains. Zeus, in such cases, net 
only threatens, but even strikes her. Once he 
hung her up in the clouds, with her hands 
chained, and with two anvils suspended from 
her feet ; and on another occasion, when He- 
phaestus attempted to help her, Zeus hurled 
him down from OlympuB. — By Zeus she was 
the mother of Ares, Hebe, and Hephaestus. — 
As Hera was the type of a married goddess 
among the Olympians, so she is the goddess 
of marriage and of the birth of children. [For 
the reason of this, see below.] Several epi- 

I thets and surnames, such aa Ei'Aeifuia, To- 

: nnKia, Zvyla, TtKtla, &c, contain alluaions to 
this character of the goddess, and the Ilithyiae 
are described as her daughters (II. xi. 270). — 
Owing to the judgment of Paris [Paris 1, she 

| was hostile to the Trojans, and in the Trojan 
war she accordingly sided with the Greeks. 

I She persecuted all the children of Zeus by 
mortal mothers, and hence appears as the 

I enemy of Dionysus, Heracles, and others. In 
the Argonautic expedition she atthi»ted Jason. 



394 



HEBA 



HEEAGLEA 



It is impossible here to enumerate all the events 
of mythical story in which Hera acts a part ; 
and the reader must refer to the particular 
deities or heroes with whose story she is con- 
nected. — Hera was worshipped in many parts of 
Greece, but more especially at Argos (II. v. 
908; Hes. Th. 12), in the neighbourhood of 
which she had a splendid temple, on the road to 
Mycenae. Her great festival at Argos is de- 
scribed in the Diet, of Ant. art. Heraea. Next 
in importance may be regarded her worship at 
Samos (Hdt. iii. 60 ; Strab. p. 637) and at 
Sparta (II. iv. 51 ; Paus. iii. 13, 8) ; but it was 
widely spread over all Greece and the islands 
and in the western colonies, especially at 
Croton. The ancients gave several interpre- 
tations respecting the real significance of Hera. 
By some she was regarded as the goddess of 
the earth, and the itpbs yd/ios was interpreted 
as the union of earth and heaven. By others 
she was made the goddess of the air or of the 
clouds. But probably the truest view is that 
she was originally a moon-goddess, as was 




The Barberinl Hera. (From the Vatican. , 



also her Roman counterpart, Juno. Hence it 
was that in some places, as Naxos, she was 
identified with Dione, by which name that 
Power, who in the Homeric age was called 
Hera, seems to have been originally known. 
Her old position as moon-goddess explains her 
being worshipped, at the new moon, her rank as 
queen of heaven and wife of Zeus, her attribute 
of fiowiris, which, though not so used in Homer, 
probably points to an original representation 
with crescent horns ; above all it supplies the 
reason for Hera being one of the deities (all in 
some way connected with the moon) who presided 
over childbirth (as did Juno in Italy). This 
was because the moon was regarded as in- 
fluencing menstruation, and was therefore 
thought to be especially connected with the 
birth of children (Aristot. H. A. vii. 2, 1 ; Plut. 
Symp. iii. 10, 3; Varro, L. L. v. 59). That 
such was her function does not indeed appear 
in Homer, who does not represent her as inter- 
vening in childbirth, except adversely (II. xix. 



119, possibly a later addition to the Iliad) ; but 
it is indicated by her being called the mother of 
the Ilithyiae, as was stated above, and in some 
places she was herself worshipped as°Hpa Ei'Aei- 
8via (cf . Schol. ad Pind. 01. vi. 149). From this 
follows her position as the goddess of marriage 
[see above]. In the earliest art the representa- 
tions of Hera, after the mere shapeless blocks of 
wood or stone (Paus. vii. 22, 4 ; Arnob. vi. 2), were 
wooden £<Wa, of which the earliest was said to 
be that of Tiryns (Paus. ii. 17, 5) ; later, but 
i still archaic, representations showed her as the 
bride of Zeus, standing with a long veil, as may 
be seen on some Samian coins ; in other ar- 
chaic sculptures she was seated on a throne. In 
I her idealised form, from the great statue of 
! Polycletus at Argos onwards (Paus. ii. 17, 4), 
| the type of Hera's statues was probably such as 
| later works have preserved to us, that of a ma- 
: jestic woman with a beautiful forehead and large 
widely-opened eyes (the Homeric fiowms). Her 
\ head is often adorned with a diadem (stephanos), 
sometimes with a calathus, or with a veil; in 
her hand she carries a sceptre, which is some- 
times surmounted by the figure of a cuckoo (as 
in the statue of Polycletus). Sometimes her 
sacred bird, the peacock, is painted by her side. 

Heraclea ('HpaK/Veia : 'HpaicAee£T7js : Hera- 
cleensis : Policoro). I. In Europe. 1. H., in 
Lucania, on the river Siris, founded by the 
Tarentines (Diod. xii. 36; Strab. p. 264). During 
the independence of the Greek states in the S. 




Coin of Heraclea in Lucania, about 330 B.C. 
Obv., head of Pailas. with Scylla on her helmet ; rev., 
Heracles strangling lion, club and owl beneath. 



of Italy, congresses were held in this town 
under the presidency of the Tarentines. Pyrrhus 
here defeated the Bomans under Laevinus, B.C. 
280 ; and to gain over the Heracleots to their 
side the Bomans granted them a treaty on 
favourable terms in 278 (Cic. pro Arch. 4, 6, 
pro Balb. 8, 21). The Tabulae Heracleenses 
found in the last century give valuable informa- 
tion about the municipal law (Diet, of Ant. art. 
Lex Julia Municipalis). — 2. In Acarnania on 
the Ambracian gulf. — 3, In Pisatis Elis, in ruins 
in the time of Strabo. — i. The later name of 
Perinthus in Thrace. [Pebinthus.] — 5. H. 
Caccabaria (Cavalaire), in Gallia Narbonensis 
on the coast, a seaport of the Massilians. — 6. H. 
Lyncestis (AvyKr/cms), also called Pelagonia 
(Bitoglia or Bitolia), in Macedonia, on the Via 
Egnatia, W. of the Erigon, the capital of one 
of the four districts into which Macedonia was 
divided by the Bomans. — 7. H. Minoa (Mivuia : 
nr. Torre di Cape Bianco, Bu.), on the S. coast 
of Sicily, at the mouth of the river Halycus, 
between Agrigentum and Selinus. According 
to tradition it was founded by Minos, when 
he pursued Daedalus to Sicily, and it may 
have been an ancient colony of the Cretans. 
We know, however, that it was afterwards 
colonised by the inhabitants of Selinus, and that 
its original name was Minoa, which it continued 
to bear till about B.C. 500, when the town was 
taken by the Lacedaemonians under Euryleon, 



HERACLEOPOLIS 



HERACLES 



89F 



who changed its name into that of Heraclea ; I 
but it continued to bear its ancient appellation 
as a surname to distinguish it from other places j 
of the same name (Diod. iv. 23 ; Hdt. v. 46 ; j 
Pol. i. 25 ; Liv. xxiv. 35). It fell at an early 
period into the hands of the Carthaginians, and 
remained in their power till the conquest of 
Sicily by the Romans, who planted a colony 
there (Cic. Verr. ii. 50, 125).— 8. H. Sintica 
(SivTi/d)), in Macedonia, a town of the Sinti, on 
the left bank of the Strymon, founded by 
Amyntas, brother of Philip (Ptol. iii. 13, 30). 
—9. H. Trachinlae, in Thessaly. See Tkachis. 
— II. In Asia. 1. H. Pontlca f'H. t) TIovtikti, 
or TiovTov, or iv n<Wa> : Eregli), a city on the 
S. shore of the Pontus Euxinus, on the coast of 
Bithynia, in the territory of the Mariandyni, 
was situated 20 stadia N. of the river Lycus, j 
near the base of a peninsula called Acherusia, j 
and had a fine harbour. It was founded about 
B. c. 550, by colonists from Megara and from 
Tanagra in Boeotia (not, as Strabo says, from 
Miletus). (Pans. v. 26, 6; Just. xvi. 3; Strab. 
p. 546 ; Xen. An. vi. 2, 1.) After various politi- 
cal struggles, it settled down under a monarchi- 
cal form of government. It reached the height 
of its prosperity in the reign of Darius Codo- 
mannus, when it had an extensive commerce, 
and a territory reaching from the Parthenius to 
the Sangarius. It began to decline in conse- J 
quence of the rise of the kingdom of Bithynia 
and the foundation of Nicomedia, and the in- i 
vasion of Asia Minor by the Gauls ; and its 
ruin was completed in the Mithridatic war, 
when the city was taken and plundered, and 
partly destroyed, by the Romans under Cotta. 
It was the native city of Heracledes Posticus, 
and perhaps of the painter Zeuxis. — 2. H. ad 
Latmum I'H. Adr/iov, or ti {nrb Adr/xtf : Ru. near 
the Lake of Baffi), a town of Ionia, SE. of 
Miletus, at the foot of Mt. Latmus and upon 
the Sinus Latmicus ; formerly called Latmus. 
Near it was a cave, with the tomb of Endymion 
(Paus. v. 1, 4 ; Strab. p. 635). — There was another 
city of the same name in Caria, one in Lydia, 
two in Syria, one in Media, and one in India, 
none of which require special notice. 

Heracleopolis THpaicA.fou7roA.ij). 1. Parva 
(tj puKpa), also called Sethron, a city of Lower 
Egypt, in the Nomos Sethroites, 22 Roman 
miles W. of Pelusium. — 2. Magna (r; ficyaKri, 
also 7j &va), the capital of the fertile Nomos 
Heracleopolites or Heracleotes, in the Hepta- 
nomis, or Middle Egypt; a chief seat of the 
worship of the ichneumon (Ael. H. A. x. 47). 

Heracles i'HpaKKysj, in Latin writers Hercu- 
les, the most celebrated of all the heroes of anti- 
quity. For, as the various local legends exempli- 
fying heroic strength were by the Greek colonists 
adopted for their own Heracles, his name pre- 
vailed, not only in all the countries round the 
Mediterranean, but even in the most distant 
lands of the ancient world. The question of 
his origin will be more conveniently touched 
upon when the stories in Greek literature have 
been briefly told, in which a constant develop- 
ment from the accretion of local Greek myths, 
and still more from the influence of Phoenician 
and Egyptian religions, will be apparent. For I 
while in the earliest traditions Heracles was pro- 
bably a purely human hero, a conqueror of men 
and cities, he afterwards appears as the subduer of 
monstrous animals, and is connected in a variety 
of ways with astronomical phaenomena. f. 
Greek Legends. According to Homer (though 
it may be observed that he is not named in what 
are regarded as the older portions of the Iliad), 



Heracles was the son of Zeus by Alcmene of 
Thebes in Boeotia. His stepfather was Amphi- 
tryon. (II. v. 392, xiv. 250, 323, xviii. 118, xix. 
98 ; Od. xi. 266, 620, xxi. 25 ; cf. Hes. Th. 526, 
951, Sc. 35 ; Pind. Isthm. vii. 5 ; Apollod. ii. 
4, 7.) Amphitryon was the son of Alcaeus, the 
son of Perseus ; and Alcmene was a grand- 
daughter of Perseus. Hence Heracles belonged 
to the family of Perseus. Zeus visited Alcmene 
in the form of Amphitryon, while the latter was 
absent warring against the Taphians ; and he, 
pretending to be her husband, became by her 
the father of Heracles. [For details, see Alc- 
uene ; Amphitryon.] On the day on which 
Heracles was to be born, Zeus boasted of his 
becoming the father of a hero who was to rule 
over the race of Perseus. Hera prevailed upon 
him to swear that the descendant of Perseus 
born that day should be the ruler. Thereupon 
she hastened to Argos, and there caused the 
wife of Sthenelus to give birth to Eurystheus ; 
whereas, by keeping away the Ilithyiae, she 
delayed the birth of Heracles, and thus robbed 
him of the empire which Zeus had destined for 
him. Zeus was enraged at the imposition prac- 
tised upon him, but could not violate his oath. 
Alcmene brought into the world two boys, 
Heracles, the son of Zeus, and Iphicles, the son 
of Amphitryon, who was one night younger 
than Heracles. (II. xix, 95-132 ; Hes. Sc. 1-56.) 
In Homer and Hesiod we are only told that he 
grew strong in body and mind, that confiding 
in his own powers he defied even the immortal 
gods, and wounded Hera and Ares, and that 
under the protection of Zeus and Athene he 
escaped the dangers which Hera prepared for 
him. To these simple accounts various particu- 
lars are added in later writers. As he lay in his 
cradle, Hera sent two serpents to destroy him, 
but the infant hero strangled them with his own 
hands (Pind. JYe;». i. 33; Theocr. xxiv. 1; 
Apollod. ii. 4, 8). As he grew up, he was in- 
structed by Amphitryon in driving a chariot, 
by Autolycus in wrestling, by Eurytus in 
archery, by Castor in fighting with heavy 
armour, and by Linus in singing and playing 
the lyre. Linus was killed by his pupil with the 
lyre, because he had censured him ; and Am- 
phitryon, to prevent similar occurrences, sent 
him to feed his cattle. (Theocr. xxiv. 103-114; 
Apollod. ii. 4, 9 ; Diod. iii. 66.) In this manner 
he spent his life till his 18th year. To this 
period belongs the beautiful allegory introduced 
by Prodious as the ' Choice of Heracles.' He- 
racles, when he had reached the critical time of 
youth, went out into a solitary place and sat 
in doubt, which path of life he should follow. 
Here Virtue and Pleasure (whose name was also 
Vice) appeared to him in the guise of tall and 
beautiful women, but the one of modest beauty, 
the other of the reverse. Pleasure offered him a 
life of ease and enjoyment, Virtue a path of toil 
leading to glory ; and he chose the toilsome 
path of virtue. (Xen. Mem. ii. 1, 21 ; Cic. de 
Off. i. 32, 118.) His first great adventure hap- 
pened while he was still watching the oxen of 
his father. A huge lion, which haunted Mount 
Cithoeron, made great havoc among the flocks 
of Amphitryon and Thespiusfor Thestius), king 
of Thespiae (Apollod. ii. 4, 10; Diod. iv. 29; 
Allien, p. 0561. Heracles slew the lion, and 
henceforth wore its skin as bis ordinury gar- 
ment, and its mouth and head as his helmet. 
Others related that the lion-skin of Heracles 
was taken from the Nemean lion. On his re- 
turn to Thebes, he met the envoys of king 
Erginus of Orchomenos, who were going to fetch 



396 



HERACLES 



the annual tribute of 100 oxen which they had 
compelled the Thebans to pay. Heracles cut 
off the noses and ears of the envoys, and thus 
sent them back to Erginus. The latter there- 
upon marched against Thebes ; but Heracles 
defeated and killed Erginus, and compelled the 
Orchomenians to pay double the tribute which 
they had formerly received from the Thebans 
(Eur. H. F. 220 ; Apollod. ii. 4, 11 ; Diod. iv. 
10 ; Paus. ix. 37, 3). Creon rewarded Heracles 
with the hand of his daughter, Megara, by 
whom he became the father of several children. 
The gods made him presents of arms : Hermes 
gave him a sword, Apollo a bow and arrows, 
Hephaestus a golden coat of mail, and Athene 
a peplus. He cut for himself a club in the 
neighbourhood of Nemea — according to others, 
the club was of brass, and the gift of He- 
phaestus (Ap. Eh. i. 1196; Diod. iv. 14).— 
Soon afterwards Heracles was driven mad by 
Hera, and in this state he killed his own 
children by Megara and two of Iphicles. In 
his grief he sentenced himself to exile, and 
went to Thespius, who purified him (Apollod. 
ii. 4, 12, cf. Paus. ix. 11, 1). [The Attic legend, 
followed by Euripides in the Hercules Furens, 
places this madness later.] He then consulted 
the oracle of Delphi as to where he should 
settle. The Pythia first called him by the 
name of Heracles — for hitherto his name had 
been Alcldes or Alcaeus (from his grandfather, 
Alceus or Alcaeus, the father of Amphitryon) — 
and ordered him to live at Tiryns, and to serve 
Eurystheus for the space of twelve years, after 
which he should become immortal. Heracles 
accordingly went to Tiryns, and executed the 
twelve labours which Eurystheus ordered him 
to perform. — The number twelve is not found in 
the older writers, and the complete cycle is made 
up by later additions. It is probably of Phoeni- 
cian origin, and is borrowed from the twelve signs 
of the Zodiac in connexion with the worship of 
Melkart or of the sun-god Baal [see below]. 
In literature the whole twelve labours first 
appear in the Heraclea of Pisander, about 650 
B.C., and are similarly given by Euripides 
(H. F. 347 ff.), but Sophocles {Track. 1092 ft.) 
mentions only six. Ten appear on the so-called 
Theseum at Athens ; twelve were shown on the 
temple of Zeus at Olympia (of which fragments 
have been discovered) and on the Heracleum at 
Thebes (Paus. v. 10, 9, ix. 11, 4). The only one 




I. HeracleB and Nemean Lion. (From a Roman lamp.) 

of the twelve labours mentioned by Homer is 
his descent into the lower world to carry off 
Cerberus, but he speaks of them in the plural 
(II. v. 395, viii. 366, xv. 639 ; Od. xi. 623). "We also 



find in Homer his expedition to Troy, to fetch 
the horses which Laomedon had refused him ; 
and his war against the Pylians, when he 
destroyed the whole family of their king, Ne- 
leus, with the exception of Nestor (II. v. 638 ; 
Od. xxi. 14). Hesiod mentions several of the 
feats of Heracles distinctly, but knows nothing 
of their number twelve. They are ■ usually ar- 
ranged in the following order. — 1. The fight 
with the Nemean lion. The valley of Nemea, 
between Cleonas and Phlius, was inhabited by 
a monstrous lion, the offspring of Typhon and. 
Echidna. Eurystheus ordered Heracles to 
bring him the skin of this monster. After 
using in vain his club and arrows against the 
lion, he strangled the animal with his own 
hands. (Hes. Th. 327 ; Theocr. xxv. 251 ; Diod. 
iv. 11.) — 2. Fight against the Lemean hydra. 




H, Heracles and Hydra. (From a marble at Naples.) 



This monster, like the lion, was the offspring of 
Typhon and Echidna, and was brought up 
by Hera. It ravaged the country of Lernae 
near Argos, and dwelt in a swamp near the 
well of Amymone. It had nine heads, of which 
the middle one was immortal. Heracles struck 
off its heads with his club ; but in the place of 
the head he cut off, two new ones grew forth 
each time. A gigantic crab also came to the 
assistance of the hydra, and wounded Heracles. 
However, with the assistance of his faithful 
servant Iolaus, he burned away the heads of 
the hydra, and buried the ninth or immortal 




HI. Heracles and Arcadian Stag. (From a group at 
Naples.) 



one under a huge rock. Having thus con- 
quered the monster, he poisoned his arrows 
with its bile, whence the wounds inflicted by 
them became incurable. Eurystheus declared 



HERACLES 



397 



the victory unlawful, as Heracles had won it 
with the aid of Iolaus. (Hes. Th. 313; Eur. 
H. F. 419 ; Paus. ii. 36, 37 : Apollod. ii. 5, 2 ; 
Diod. iv. 11 ; Verg. Aen. viii. 300 ; Ov. Met. ix. 
70). — 3. Capture of the Arcadian stag (or 
hind). This animal had golden antlers and 
brazen feet. It had been dedicated to Artemis 
by the nymph Taygete, because the goddess 
had saved her from the pursuit of Zeus. 
Heracles was ordered to bring the animal alive 
to Mycenae. He pursued it in vain for a 
whole year ; at length he wounded it with an 
arrow, caught it, and carried it away on his 
shoulders. While in Arcadia, he was met by 
Artemis, who was angry with him for having 
outraged the animal sacred to her ; but he suc- 
ceeded in soothing her anger, and carried his 
prey to Mycenae. (Pind. 01. iii. 27 ; Eur. H. F. 
378 ; Diod. iv. 13 ; Ov. Met. is. 188 ; Verg. Aen. 
vi. 803.) — 4. Destruction of the Erymanthian 
boar. This animal, which Heracles was ordered 
to bring alive to Eurystheus, had descended 
from Mount Erymanthus into Psophis. Hera- 
cles chased him through the deep snow, and 
having thus worn him out, he caught him 
in a net, and carried him to Mycenae. Other 
traditions place the hunt of the Erymanthian 




IV. Heracles and Boar, with Eurystheus. (From a 
marble at Naples.) 



boar in Thessaly, and some even in Phrygia. 
When Heracles appeared carrying the huge 
beast on his shoulders, Eurystheus was seized 
with panic, and took refuge in a tub. (Eur. 
H.F. 368; Diod. iv. 12; Apollod. ii. 5, 4.) It 
must be observed that this and the subsequent 
labours of Heracles are connected with certain 
subordinate labours, called Parerga (Tidpepya). 
The first of these parerga is the fight of 
Heracles with the Centaurs. In his pursuit of 
the boar he came to the centaur Pholus, who 
had received from Dionysus a cask of excellent 
wine. Heracles opened it, contrary to the wish 
of his host, and the delicious fragrance attracted 
the other centaurs, who besieged the grotto of 
Pholus. Heracles drove them away ; they 
fled to the house of Chiron ; and Heracles, 
eager in his pursuit, wounded Chiron, his old 
friend, with one of his poisoned arrows; in con- 
sequence of which Chiron died. [Chiron.] 
Pholus likewise was wounded by one of the 
arrows, which by accident fell on his foot and 
killed him. This fight with the centaurs gave 
rise to the establishment of mysteries by which 



Demeter intended to purify the hero from the 
blood he had shed against his own will. (Eur. 
I 3. F. 364 ; Paus. viii. 24, 2 ; Diod. iv. 14 ; Ov. 
J Met. ix. 192.) — 5. Cleansing of the stables of 
I Augeas. Eurystheus imposed upon Heracles 
the task of cleansing in one day the stalls of 
Augeas, king of Elis. Augeas had a herd of 
3000 oxen, whose stalls had not been cleansed 
' for thirty years. Heracles, without mentioning 
I the command of Eurystheus, went to Augeas, 
1 and offered to cleanse his stalls in one day, if 
he would give him the tenth part of his cattle. 
Augeas agreed to the terms ; and Heracles 
after taking Phyleus, the son of Augeas, as his 
witness, led the rivers Alpheus and Peneus 
through the stalls, which were thus cleansed in 
! a single day. But Augeas, when he learned that 
Heracles had undertaken the work by the com- 
mand of Eurystheus. refused to give him the 
I reward. His son Phyleus then bore witness 
| against his father, who exiled him from Elis. 
' Eurystheus, however, declared the exploit null 
| and void, because Heracles had stipulated with 
j Augeas for a reward for performing it. (Theocr. 
xxv. 88; Apollod. ii. 5, 5 : Athen. p. 412 ; Paus. 
v. 1, 7.) At a later time Heracles invaded Elis, 
i and killed Augeay; and his sons. After this he 
is said to have founded the Olympic games 
(Pind. 01. xi. 27; Apollod. ii. 7, 2).— 6. De- 
struction of the Sty?nphalian birds. These 
birds had been brought up by Ares. They 
had brazen claws, wings, and beaks, used 
their feathers as arrows, and ate human flesh. 
They dwelt on a lake near Stymphalus in 
Arcadia, from which Heracles was ordered by 




VI. Heracles and the Stymphallan Birds. (From a gem 
at Florence.) 

Eurystheus to expel them. When Heracles 
undertook the task, Athene provided him with 
a brazen rattle, by the noise of which he 
startled the birds ; and, as they attempted to 
fly away, he killed some of them with his 
arrows. Others he only drove away ; and they 
appeared again in the island of Aretias, where 
they were found by the Argonauts. (Paus. viii. 
22, 4 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 6 ; Ap. Rh. ii. 1037.)— 7. 
Capture of the Cretan bull. According to 
some this was the bull which had carried 
Europa across the sea. According to others, 
the bull had been sent out of the sea by 
Poseidon, that Minos might offer it in sacrifice. 
But Minos was so charmed with the beauty of 
the animal, that he kept it, and sacrificed 
another in its stead. Poseidon punished 
Minos, by driving the bull mad, and causing it 
to commit great havoc in the island. Heracles 
was ordered by Eurystheus to catch the bull, 
and Minos willingly allowed him to do so. 
Heracles accomplished the task, and brought 
the animal home on hiB shoulders ; but 
he then set it free again. The bull now 



398 



HERACLES 



roamed through Greece, and at last came to 
Marathon, where we meet it again in the stories 
of Theseus. (Apollod. ii. 5, 7 ; Paus. v. 10, 9 ; 



VII. Heracles and Bull. (From a bas-relief in the 
Vatican.) 

Diod. iv. 13.) — 8. Capture of the mares of the 
Thracian Diomedes. This Diomedes, king of 
the Bistones in Thrace, fed his horses with 
human flesh. Eurystheus ordered Heracles to 
bring these animals to Mycenae. With a few 
companions, he seized the animals, and con- 
ducted them to the sea coast. But here he 
was overtaken by the Bistones. During the 
fight he entrusted the mares to his friend Ab- 
derus, who was devoured by them. Heracles 
defeated the Bistones, killed Diomedes, whose 
body he threw before the mares, built the town 
of Abdera in honour of his unfortunate friend, 
and then returned to Mycenae with the mares, 
which had become tame after eating the flesh 
of their master. The mares were afterwards 
set free, and were destroyed on Mt. Olympus by 




VIII. Heracles and Horses of Diomedes. (From trie 
Museo Borbonico.) 



wild beasts. (Eur. Ale. 483, 493; H. F. 380; 
Diod. iv. 15 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 8.) — 9. Seizure of 
the girdle of the queen of the Amazons. 
Hippolyte, the queen of the Amazons, possessed 
a girdle, which she had received from Ares. 
Admete, the daughter of Eurystheus, wished to 
obtain this girdle ; and Heracles was therefore 
sent to fetch it. He was accompanied by a 
number of volunteers, and after various adven- 
tures in Europe and Asia, lie at length reached 
the country of the Amazons. Hippolyte at 



first received him kindly, and promised him her 
girdle ; but Hera having excited the Amazons 
against him, a contest ensued, in which 
Heracles killed their queen. He then took 
her girdle, and carried it with him. In this 
expedition Heracles killed the two sons of 
Boreas, Calais and Zetes ; and he also begot 
three sons by Echidna, in the country of the 
Hyperboreans. On his way home he landed in 
Troas, where he rescued Hesione from the 
monster sent against her by Poseidon ; in 
return for which service her father Laomedon 
promised hirn the horses he had received from 
Zeus as a compensation for Ganymedes. But, 
as Laomedon did not keep his word, Heracles on 
leaving threatened to make war against Troy. 
He landed in Thrace, where he slew Sarpedon, 
and at length returned through Macedonia to 
Peloponnesus. (Eur. H. F. 413, Ion, 1143; 
Apollod. ii. 5, 9 ; Diod. iv. 16 ; cf. II. v. 649 ; 
Hdt. iv. 9.) — 10. Capture of the oxen of 
Geryones in Erythia. Geryones, the monster 
with three bodies, lived in the fabulous island 
of Erythia, so called because it lay under the 
red rays of the setting sun in the W. This 
island was originally placed off the coast of 
Epirus, but was afterwards identified either 
with Gades or the Balearic islands, and was at 




X. Heracles and Geryones. (Museo Borbonico.) 



all times believed to be in the distant W. The 
oxen of Geryones were guarded by the giant 
Eurytion and the two-headed dog Orthrus ; and 
Heracles was commanded by Eurystheus to 
fetch them. After traversing various countries, 
he reached at length the frontiers of Libya and 
Europe, where he erected two pillars (Calpe 
and Abyla) on the two sides of the straits of 
Gibraltar, which were hence called the pillars 
of Heracles. Being annoyed by the heat of the 
sun, Heracles shot at Helios, who so much 
admired his boldness, that he presented him 
with a golden cup or boat, in which he sailed to 
Erythia. He there slew Eurytion and his dog, 
as well as Geryones, and sailed with his booty 
to Tartessus, where he returned the golden cup 
(boat) to Helios. On his way home he passed 
through Gaul, Italy, Illyricum and Thrace, and 
met with numerous adventures, which are 
variously embellished by the poets. Blany 
attempts were made to deprive him of the 
oxen, but he at length brought them in safety 
to Eurystheus, who sacrificed them to Hera. 
(Hes. Th. 287 ; Pind. Nem. iii. 21 ; Hdt. iv. 8 ; 
Apollod. ii. 5, 10 ; Strab. p. 221 ; Diod. iv. 17.) 
These ten labours were performed by Heracles 
in the space of eight years and one month ; but 
as Eurystheus declared two of them to have been 
performed unlawfully, he commanded him to 
accomplish two more. — 11. Fetching the golden 




HERACLES 



399 



apples of the Besperides. This was particu- 
larly difficult, since Heracles did not know 
where to find them. They were the apples 
which Hera had received at her wedding from 
Ge, and which she had entrusted to the keep- 
ing of the Hesperides and the dragon Ladon, 
on Mt. Atlas, in the country of the Hyper- 
boreans. [For details see Hesperides.] After 
various adventures in Europe, Asia and Africa, 




XI. Heracles and the Hesperides. (From a basreliel at 
Rome.) 

in the course of which he delivered Prome- 
theus, and slew Antaeus, Busiris and Emathiou. 
Heracles at length arrived at Mt. Atlas. On 
the advice of Prometheus, he sent Atlas to fetch 
the apples, and in the meantime bore the 
weight of heaven for him. Atlas returned with 
the apples, but refused to take the burden of 
heaven on his shoulders again. Heracles, 
however, contrived by a stratagem to get the 
apples, and hastened away. On his return 
Eurystheus made him a present of the apples ; 
but Heracles dedicated them to Athene, who 
restored them to their former place. In tradi- 
tions Heracles killed the dragon Ladon, and 
gathered the apples himself. (Eur. H. F. 
394; Apollod. ii. 5, 11; Diod. iv. 26; Ap. Rh. 
iv. 1890; Hyg. Fab. 81.)— 12. Bringing Cer- 
berus from the lower world. This was the 




Heracles and Cerberus. 

Cauota.) 



MUlin, T <:.'.. iui dc 



most difficult of the twelve labours of Heracles. 
He descended into Hades, near Taenarum in 



Laconia, accompanied by Hermes and Athene. 
He delivered Theseus and Ascalaphus from their 
torments. He obtained permission from Pluto 
to carry Cerberus to the upper world, provided 
he could accomplish it without force of arms. 
Heracles succeeded in seizing the monster and 
carrying it to the upper world ; and after he 
had shown it to Eurystheus, he carried it back 
again to the lower world. (II. viii. 366 ; Od. 
xi. 623 ; Diod. iv. 25 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 12 ; Paus. ii. 
31, 2.) — Besides these twelve labours (aSKoi), 
Heracles performed several other feats (as irap- 
epya) without being commanded by Eurys- 
theus. Several of them were interwoven with 
the twelve labours and have been already 
described : those which had no connexion 
with the twelve labours are spoken of below. 
After Heracles had performed the twelve 
labours, he was released from the servitude 
of Eurystheus, and returned to Thebes. He 
there gave Megara in marriage to Iolaus ; 
and he wished to gain in marriage for him- 
self Iole, the daughter of Eurytus, king of 
Oechalia. Eurytus promised his daughter to 
the man who should conquer him and his sons 
in shooting with the bow. Heracles defeated 
them ; but Eurytus and his sons, with the 
exception of Iphitus, refused to give Iole to 
him, because he had murdered his own 
children. Soon afterwards the oxen of Eurytus 
were carried off, and it was suspected that 
Heracles was the offender. Iphitus again 
defended him, and requested his assistance in 
searching after the oxen. Heracles agreed ; 
but when the two had arrived at Tiryns, 
Heracles, in a fit of madness, threw his 
friend down from the wall, and killed him. 
Deiphobus of Amyclae purified him from this 
murder, but he was, nevertheless, attacked by 
a severe illness. Heracles then repaired to 
Delphi to obtain a remedy, but the Pythia re- 
fused to answer his questions. A struggle 
ensued between Heracles and Apollo, and the 
combatants were not separated till Zeus sent a 
flash of lightning between them. [Od. xxi. 22; 
Soph. Trach. 270 ; Paus. x. 13 ; Apollod. ii. 6, 
1 ; Diod. iv. 81.) In this combat Heracles 
attempted to carry off the tripod : a story which 
indicates that Heracles at one time shared with 
Apollo the attribute of the tripod as well as that 
of the bow, though the tripod passed entirely to 
Apollo. It may also denote a displacement of 
the worship of Heracles at Delphi by Apollo, to 
which Pausanias seems to allude. It was a 
favourite Bubject in vase paintings from an 
early period. The oracle now declared that he 
would be restored to health if he would serve 
three years for wages, and surrender his earn- 
ings to Eurytus, as an atonement for the murder 
of Iphitus. Thereupon he became a servant to 
Oinphale, queen of Lydia, and widow of Tmolue. 
Heracles is described as living effeminately 
during his residence with Ompliule : he span 
wool, it is said, and sometimes put on the gar- 
ments of a woman, while Omphale wore his 
lion-skin. (Diod. iv. 31 ; Apollod. ii. 6, 8 ; Ov. 
Fast. ii. 805, Her. ix. 53.) According to other 
accounts he nevertheless performed several 
great feats during hiB time. He made prisoners 
of the Cercopes, who had robbed him [Cerc- 
opes] ; he undertook an expedition to Colchis, 
which brought him into connexion with the 
Argonauts ; he took part in the Calydonian 
hunt, and met Theseus on his landing from 
Troezen on the Corinthian isthmus. An ex- 
pedition to India, which was mentioned in some 
traditions, may likewise be inserted in this 



400 



HEEACLES 



place. (Hat. vii. 193 ; Ant. Lib. 26 ; Apollod. 
i. 9, 16 ; Arrian, Ind. 8, 9.) — When the time of 
his servitude had expired, he sailed against 
Troy, took the city, and killed Laomedon, its 
king. (II. v. 641, xiv. 251, xx. 145 ; Eur. Troad. 
802.) On his return from Troy, a storm drove 
him on the island of Cos, where he was attacked 
by the Meropes ; but he defeated them and 
killed their king, Eurypylus. It was about this 
time that the gods sent for him in order to 
fight againt the Giants. (II. xiv. 255 ; Pind. 
Nem. iv. 40 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 1.) [Gigantes.]— 
Soon after his return to Argos, he marched 
against Augeas, as has been related above. 
He then proceeded against Pylos, which he 
took, and killed Periclymenus, a son of Neleus. 
He next advanced against Lacedaemon, to 
punish the sons of Hippocoon, for having 
assisted Neleus and slain Oenus, the son of 
Licymnius. He took Lacedaemon, and assigned 
the government of it to Tyndareus. (Paus. iii. 
15, 2 ; Diod. iv. 33.) On his return to Tegea, 
he became, by Auge, the father of Telephus 
[Auge] ; and he then proceeded to Calydon, 
where he obtained De'fanlra, the daughter of 
Oeneus, for his wife, after fighting with Ache- 
lous for her. [Deianira : Achelous.] After 
Heracles had been married to Deianira nearly 
three years, he accidentally killed, at a banquet 
in the house of Oeneus, the boy Eunomus. In 
accordance with the law Heracles went into 
exile, taking with him his wife Deianira. On 
their road they came to the river Evenus, 
across which the centaur Nessus carried tra- 
vellers for a small sum of money. Heracles 
himself forded the river, but gave Deianira to 
Nessus to carry across. Nessus attempted to 
outrage her : Heracles heard her cries, and shot 
an arrow into the heart of Nessus. The dying 
centaur called out to Deianira to take his blood 
with her, as it was a sure means of preserving 
the love of her husband. (Soph. Track. 555 ; 
Ov. Met. ix. 201.) He then conquered the 
Dryopes, and helped Aegimius, king of the 
Dorians, against the Lapithae. [Aegimius.] 
After this he took up his abode at Trachis, 
whence he marched against Eurytus of Oechalia. 
He took Oechalia, killed Eurytus and his sons, 
and carried off his daughter Iole as a prisoner. 
On his return home he landed at Cenaeum, a 
promontory of Euboea, erected an altar to 
Zeus, and sent his companion, Lichas, to Tra- 
chis, in order 1 to fetch him a white garment, 
which he intended to use during the sacrifice. 
Deianira, afraid lest Iole should supplant her in 
the affections of her husband, steeped the white 
garment in the blood of Nessus. This blood 
had been poisoned by the arrow with which 
Heracles had shot Nessus ; and accordingly as 
soon as the garment became warm on the body 
of Heracles, the poison penetrated into all his 
limbs, and caused him the most excruciating 
agony. He seized Lichas by his feet, and threw 
him into the sea. He wrenched off the gar- 
ment, but it stuck to his flesh, and with it he 
tore away whole pieces from his body. In this 
state he was conveyed to Trachis. Deianira, on 
seeing what she had unwittingly done, hanged 
herself. Heracles commanded Hyllus, his 
eldest son by Deianira, to marry Iole as soon 
as he should arrive at the age of manhood. He 
then ascended Mt. Oeta, raised a pile of wood, 
on which he placed himself, and ordered it 
to be set on fire. No one ventured to obey 
him, until at length Poeas the shepherd 
was prevailed upon to comply with the de- 
sire of the suffering hero. (Hdt. vii. 198 ; Soph. 



Trachiniae ; Diod. iv. 38 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 7 ; Ov. 
Met. ix. 155.) When the pile was burning, 
a cloud came down from heaven, and amid 
peals of thunder carried him to Olympus, where 
he was honoured with immortality, became 
reconciled to Hera, and married her daughter 
Hebe, by whom he became the father of 
Alexiares and Anicetus. (Od. xi. 603 ; Hes. Th. 
949 ; Pind. Nem. i. 70.) — Heracles, as a god, 
was introduced into Greece by the Phoenician 
traders and settlers, especially those at Thebes, 
Bhodes, and Thasos, and he represents partly 
the Babylonian sun-god Baal, who undergoes 
twelve labours as the sun passes through 
twelve signs of the zodiac ; partly the city-god 
Melkart of the Phoenicians (cf. Hdt. ii. 43). The 
Greeks in adopting the Eastern deity, altered 
the mythology relating to him by transforming 
him into a national hero who delivers the 
country from many monsters and from all sorts 
of difficulties. The stories of the land in pre- 
historic times being cleared from wild beasts were 
attached to the name of Heracles, and the works 
of drainage and road-making, executed by some 
ancient and forgotten inhabitants (in many 
cases probably by the Phoenicians), were ex- 
aggerated into the miraculous deeds ascribed to 
him. The legends about him were constantly 
increasing, because in new lands reached by the 
Greeks some local hero or divinity who repre- 
sented strength of body and mighty deeds was 
identified with Heracles, and his acts were 
added to the list. Moreover, the worship of the 
Phoenician Melkart had been carried by traders 
to many places in the West : from this cause also 
Heracles became the type of a mighty traveller. 
Especially his story became connected with 
deeds at Phoenician Gades (as in the tenth 
labour) ; and again, since he was worshipped 
in Lydia, it became necessary for him to serve 
the Lydian Omphale ; he even took her garb, 
as some think, because an Oriental deity as a 
female counterpart of the male god existed 
there. A theory has recently been put forward 
which deserves consideration, that Omphale was 
really the local deity of the Malian district, and 
also that the myth of Heracles taking a woman's 
dress was derived from a ritual mentioned by 
Plutarch at Cos, in which the priest was dressed 
as a woman. It has been suggested again, that 
as the Heraeum at Argos was a refuge for slaves, 
the stories of servitude to Hera arose from that 
fact. Heracles took to himself also many other 
characteristics of local divinities. Among them, 
he was in some places regarded as the god 
of the gifts of the earth (which explains his 
being sometimes represented with a cornu- 
copia) ; and perhaps from a kindred idea he 
appears as the god who finds and guards hot 
springs rising from the ground, being identified 
with local deities of springs. This is more 
probable than that it was, as some say, merely 
because athletes bathe frequently. — II. The 
Roman Hercules, though eventually identified 
with the Greek Heracles, and probably deriving 
his name from him, holds the place of a deity 
whose origin was distinctly Italian. This 
Italian deity among the Sabines was called 
Semo Sancus, and there is good reason for the 
belief that he was in reality the Genius Jovis : 
that is, he was the power who watched over 
men and gave them strength and victory, just 
as the Italian Juno watched over women 
[Genius]. Hence Hercules was the god who 
guarded the household (Hercules Domesticus) 
and also who guarded the state (H. Gustos) ; 
the giver of victory (H. Victor and Invictus) ; 



HERACLES 



401 



and especially he was the god who maintained 
righteous dealing and the sanctity of oaths ; 
and therefore was the god by whom oaths were 
taken = Dius Fidius [FrDros]. Again from 
the relations of Hercules and Juno to men and 
women respectively, and from the fact that 
obligations and compacts were under the pro- 
vince of Hercules, both these deities had to do 
with the Roman rite of marriage, and the bridal 
dress was fastened by the nodus Herculeus 
or Herculaneus. [Diet, of Ant. art. Matri- 
moniutn.] When the Italian deity was iden- 
tified with this Greek deity is not certain ; 
but it is probable that the Hercules whom 
Romulus is said to have worshipped — i.e. the 
original Hercules at Rome — was the purely 
Italian deity, and that the Greek Heracles was 
not adopted at any rate before the Tarquinian 
epoch, though Livy (i. 7) assigned an earlier 
date. The reasons for the identification were 
probably that both were deities who gave 
strength, and both were connected with stories 
of combat against powers of evil or of darkness: 
and, moreover, the Genius Jovis or Dius Fidius 
came to be regarded as the son of Jupiter, and 
so was taken to be Heracles the son of Zeus. 
With regard to the name there is more doubt, 
but it seems on the whole probable that j 
the name Hercules is an Italianised form of 
Heracles, and prevailed over the native name 
when the Greek legends and the Greek form of 
worship was established. Some, however, have 
held that the word is Latin and is connected 
with hercere or herciscere, denoting the god of 
enclosures or property : others connect it with 
Kerus = Genius ; but though the latter would 
agree with the fact that Hercules = Genius, yet 
it is difficult to regard the similarity of the 
Greek and Roman names as a mere accident. 
The Greek form of worship was at any rate in 
use when the lectisternium was first introduced, 
B.C. 399 (Liv. v. 13), for Hercules was one of the 
six deities then honoured, and there is little 
doubt of the Greek origin of the rite [Diet, of 
Ant. art. Lectisternium}. All the Greek stories 
of Heracles were also incorporated with the 
legends of the native deity; and so in the 
myth of Cacus Hercules is represented as on 
his return from the expedition which Heracles 
made against Geryon (Verg. Aen. viii. 190 ; Ov. 
Fast. i. 543). Yet this is clearly added, and 
the story was of Italian origin in which the god 
bore the name Garanus (Verr. Flacc. ap. Serv. 
ad Aen. viii. 203). This name (which appears 
as Recaranus in Aurel. Vict. Orig. 8), whether ] 
it be, as some think, of Celtic origin, or, as is 
not improbable, connected with the word 
Kerus = Genius, was a local name for the 
Italian Hercules, and the native legend makes 
him a country god or deified herdsman, who 
smote Cacus the robber of oxen. Cacus is by 
many supposed to represent the evil powers of 
the underworld, against whom Heracles or 
Garanus contended. [Cacus.] The frequent 
mention of Hercules as the god of gain and the 
protector of treasures (Hor. Sat. ii. 6,12; Pers. 
ii. 10), and his connexion on this account with 
Mercury in inscriptions, may be traced to his 
functions as god of the honsehold store, men- 
tioned above. It has often been supposed that 
the connexion with the Muses indicated by the 
title Hercules Musarum and Here. Musagetes 
is not of Greek origin, but this is probably 
erroneous, and it is likely that the attribute 
was borrowed from Heracles with the lyre, 
which is a favourite representation in Greek 
art, alluding probably to songs of victory be- 



longing to a 'HpaK\7)S KaWiviKos. Hercules 
was worshipped at Rome in the round temple 
of H. Victor in the Boarium and at the Ara 
Maxima near it, on which a tithe of the spoils 
taken in war was dedicated to him as god of 
victory. A peculiar point in the ritual of this 
temple was the exclusion of flies and dogs (Plin. 
xxxiv. 33 ; Solin. i. IOj. Whether this 'taboo' 
has the same origin as the Arcadian deity Myi- 
agrus and the Elean Myiacores, who delivered 
the people from plagues of flies (Paus. viii. 26, 
7 ; Plin. x. 75), is not very certain. It is remark- 
able with regard to the position of Hercules as 
god of victory that the Salii at Tibur were 
priests in the temple of Hercules Victor. For 
the priests of Hercules at Rome, see Pinaria 
Gens. — In art Heracles is represented with a 
powerful frame and small head, having a club 




Farnese Hercules. 



or a bow, and usually with a lion-skin, but it 
should be noted that this lion-skin does not 
appear on any representation earlier than the 
end of the sixth century B.C., which agrees 
with the theory that the epic of Pisander of 
Rhodes markB the time when there was a great 
development and increase in the myths of 
Heracles, partly from Phoenician and Egyptian 
influence. The lion-skin is sometimes drawn, 
like a cowl, over the head, especially on coins ; 
bat the favourite type of Heracles is that of a 
powerful bearded man, naked, but with the lion- 
skin hanging on his arm or worn like a chlamys. 
The beardless type is also common at various 
dates. The famous ' Farnese Hercules by 
Glycon, showing Heracles leaning on his club 
and (probably) looking down at Tulephus, is 
| with good reason thought to preserve the -Mi- 



402 



HEEAGLEUM 



tude and characteristics which were adopted 
and popularised by Lysippus. 

Heracleum ('Hpa/cAeiov), the name of several 
promontories and towns, of which none require 
special notice except : 1. A town in Macedonia 
at the mouth of the Apilas, near the frontiers 
of Thessaly. — 2. The harbour of Cnossus in 
Crete. — 3. A town on the coast of the Delta of 
Egypt, a little W. of Canopus ; from which the 
Canopic mouth of the Nile was often called also 
the Heracleotic mouth. — 4. A place near Gin- 
darus in the Syrian province of Cyrrhestice, 
where Ventidius, the legate of M.Antony, gained 
his great victory over the Parthians under Pa- 
corus, in b.c. 38 (Strab. p. 751). 

Heraclianus ('HpcwA.etaj'Os), one of the officers 
of Honorius, put Stilieho to death (a.d. 408), and 
received, as the reward, the government of 
Africa. In 413 he revolted against Honorius, 
and invaded Italy ; but his enterprise failed, 
and on his return to Africa he was put to death 
at Carthage. (Zos. v. 37, vi. 7-11.) 

Heraclidae ('Hpa/tAeTSai), the descendants of 
Heracles, who, in conjunction with the Dorians, 
conquered Peloponnesus. It had been the will 
of Zeus, so ran the legend, that Heracles should 
' rule over the country of the Perseids, at Mycenae 
and Tiryns. But, through Hera's cunning, 
Eurystheus had been put into the place of 
Heracles, who had become the servant of the 
former. After the death of Heracles, his claims 
devolved upon his sons and descendants. At 
the time of his death, Hyllus, the eldest of his 
four sons by Deianlra, was residing with his 
brothers at the court of Ceyx at Trachis. As 
Eurystheus demanded their surrender, and 
Ceyx was unable to protect them, they fled to 
various parts of Greece, until they were received 
as suppliants at Athens, at the altar of Eleos 
(Mercy). (Diod. iv. 57 ; Paus. i. 32, 5 ; Apollod. 
ii. 8, 1.) According to the Heraclidae of Euri- 
pides, the sons of Heracles were first staying at 
Argos, thence went to Trachis in Thessaly, and 
at length came to Athens. Demophon, the son 
of Theseus, received them, and they settled in 
the Attic tetrapolis. Eurystheus, to whom the 
Athenians refused to surrender the fugitives, 
now marched against the Athenians with a 
large army, but was defeated by the Athenians 
under Iolaus, Theseus, and Hyllus, and was 
slain with his sons. The battle itself was cele- 
brated in Attic story as the battle of the Sci- 
ronian rock, on the coast of the Saronic gulf, 
though Pindar places it in the neighbourhood 
of Thebes (Pyth. 137 ; cf. Hdt. ix. 137). After 
the battle, the Heraclidae entered Pelopon- 
nesus, and maintained themselves there for one 
year. This was their first invasion of Pelopon- 
nesus. But a plague, which spread over the 
whole peninsula, compelled them to return to 
Attica, where, for a time, they again settled in 
the Attic tetrapolis. Prom thence they pro- 
ceeded to Aegimius, king of the Dorians, whom 
Heracles had assisted in his war against the 
Lapithae, and who had promised to preserve a 
third of his territory for the children of Hera- 
cles. [Aegimius.] The Heraclidae were hospi- 
tably received by Aegimius, and Hyllus was 
adopted by the latter. After remaining in 
Doris three years, Hyllus, with a band of Do- 
rians, undertook an expedition against Atreus, 
who had married a daughter of Eurystheus, 
and had become king of Mycenae and Tiryns. 
Hyllus marched across the Corinthian isthmus, 
and first met Echemus of Tegea, who fought 
for the Pelopidae, the principal opponents of 
the Heraclidae. Hyllus fell in single combat 



HEBACLIDES 

with Echemus, and, according to an agreement 
which had been made before the battle, the 
Heraclidae were not to make any further at- 
tempt upon Peloponnesus for the next fifty 
years. Thus ended their second invasion. They 
now retired to Tricorythus, where they were 
allowed by the Athenians to take up their abode. 
During the period which followed (ten years 
after the death of Hyllus), the Trojan war took 
place; and thirty years after the Trojan war 
Cleodaeus, son of Hyllus, again invaded Pelo- 
ponnesus ; which was the third invasion. About 
twenty years later Aristomaehus, the son of 
Cleodaeus, undertook the fourth expedition ; 
but both heroes fell. Not quite thirty years 
after Aristomaehus (that is, about eighty years 
after the destruction of Troy), the Heraclidae 
prepared for their fifth and final attack. Te- 
menus, Cresphontes, and Aristodemus, the sons 
of Aristomaehus, upon the advice of an oracle, 
built a fleet on the Corinthian gulf ; but this 
fleet was destroyed, because Hippotes, one of 
the Heraclidae, had killed Carnus, an Acarna- 
nian soothsayer ; and Aristodemus was killed 
by a flash of lightning (Apollod. ii. 8, 2 ; Paus. 
iii. 1, 5). An oracle now ordered them to take 
a three-eyed man for their commander. He 
was found in the person of Oxylus, the son of 
Andraemon, an Aetolian, but descended from a 
family in Elis. The expedition now successfully 
sailed from Naupactus towards Bhium in Pelo- 
ponnesus. Oxylus, keeping the invaders away 
from Elis, led them through Arcadia. (Paus. iv. 
3, 4, viii. 5, 4.) The Heraclidae and Dorians 
conquered Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, who 
ruled over Argos, Mycenae, and Sparta. After 
this they became masters of the greater part of 
Peloponnesus, and then distributed by lot the 
newly acquired possessions. Temenus obtained 
Argos ; Procles and Eurystheus, the twin sons 
of Aristodemus, Lacedaemon ; and Cresphontes, 
Messenia. — Such are the traditions about the 
Heraclidae and their conquest of Peloponnesus. 
They are not purely mythical, but contain a 
genuine historical substance, notwithstanding 
the various contradictions in the accounts. 
They represent the conquest of the Achaean 
population by Dorian invaders, who had origi- 
nally been pressed southwards by the Thes- 
salians [Dobes], and then, finding their new 
settlements about the Spercheus too small, 
joined the Aetolians in invading the Pelopon- 
nesus. The Dorian account somewhat obscures 
the part in the conquest taken by the Aetolians, 
who obtained the land of the Epeans or Elis 
as their share ; and it also compresses into one 
generation a conquest which was probably slow 
and gradual. The length of the period spent in 
the conquest may perhaps be indicated by the 
time allowed in the legend between the attempt 
of Hyllus and the successful invasion. [See 
Diet, of Ant. art. Perioeci.] 

Heraclldes ('Hpa/cAei'8?)s)' 1. A Syracusan, 
eon of Lysimachus, one of the generals when 
Syracuse was attacked by the Athenians, b.c. 
415 (Thuc. vi. 103).— 2. A Syracusan, who held 
the chief command of the mercenary forces 
under the younger Dionysius. Being suspected 
by Dionysius, he fled from Syracuse, and after- 
wards took part with Dion in expelling Diony- 
sius from Syracuse. After the expulsion of the 
tyrant, a powerful party at Syracuse looked up 
to Heraclides as their leader, in consequence of 
which Dion caused him to be assassinated, 354. 
(Plut. Dion, 35-53 ; Diod. xvi. 16-20.)— 3. Son 
of Agathocles, accompanied his father to Africa, 
where he was put to death by the soldiers when 



HERACLITUS 



HERCULANEUM 403 



they were deserted by Agathocles, 307 (Diod. ' 
xx. 68). — 4. Of Tarentum, one of the chief 
counsellors of Philip V. king of Macedonia (Pol. 
xiii. 4). — 5. Of Byzantium, sent as ambassador 
by Antiochus the Great to the two Scipios, 190 
(Pol. xxi. 10). — 6. One of the three ambassadors 
sent by Antiochus Epiphanes to the Romans, 
169. Heraclides was banished by Demetrius 
Soter, the successor of Antiochus (162), and in j 
revenge gave his support to the imposture of 
Alexander Balas. (Pol. xxvii. 17, xxxiii. 14.) — 
7. Surnamed PontlCUS, because he was born at 
Heraclea in Pontus. He was a person of con- 
siderable wealth, and migrated to Athens, 
where he became a pupil of Plato. He studied 
also the Pythagorean system, and afterwards 
attended the instructions of Speusippus, and 
finally of Aristotle. He wrote a great number 
of works upon philosophy, mathematics, music, 
history, politics, grammar, and poetry ; but of 
these works only fragments remain (Diog. La'e'rt. 
v. 86). There is a small work of Heraclides, 
entitled irepl iroKneLwv, edited by Kbler, Halle, 
1804, and by Coraes, in his edition of Aelian, 
Paris, 1805. Another extant work, ' AKAriyopiai 
'Ofiriptxai, which also bears the name of Hera- 
clides, was certainly not written by this Hera- 
clides. — 8. A historian, who lived in the reign of 
Ptolemy Philopator (222-205), and wrote several 
works, quoted by the grammarians. — 9. A phy- 
sician of Tarentum, lived in the third or second 
century B.C., and wrote some works on Materia 
Medica, and a commentary on all the works in 
the Hippocratic Collection. — 10. A physician of 
Ery throe in Ionia, was a pupil of Chrysermus, 
and a contemporary of Strubo in the first cen- 
tury B.C. 

Heraclitus ('Hpa/cA.€iTos.) 1. Of Ephesus, a 
philosopher generally considered as belonging to 
the Ionian school, though he differed from their 
principles in many respects. In his youth he 
travelled extensively, and after his return to 
Ephesus the chief magistracy was offered him, 
which, however, he transferred to his brother, 
He appears afterwards to have become a com- 
plete recluse, rejecting even the kindnesses 
offered by Darius, and at last retreating to the 
mountains, where he lived on pot-herbs; but, 
after some time, he was compelled by the sick- 
ness consequent on such meagre diet to return 
to Ephesus, where he died at the age of 
sixty. He flourished about B.C. 513. — Hera- 
clitus wrote a work On Nature (irtpl <pv<re u>r), 
which contained his philosophical views. From 
the obscurity of his style, he gained the title of 
the Obscure (oKoreiv&s). (Cic. Fin. ii. 5, 15 ; 
Sen. Ep. xii. 7.) The leading ideas of the philo- 
sophy of Heraclitus were dualism and motion, 
while those of the EleaticB were unity and rest. 
Everything in his view was in a state of passage 
backwards and forwards between two condi- 
tions. Fire, which seemed to typify this constant 
motion, was in his philosophy the genesis of all 
things, kindling and extinguishing itself; and 
so far did he carry this that he regarded the 
sun as born anew and dying every day. The 
universal process of nature was a motion up- 
wards and downwards. Fire through air and 
water passed down to earth, and by the opposite 
process earth passed upwards through water 
and air to fire. The death of each became the 
life of the other, and, as fire was the highest 
element, so the conception of its dry and clear 
nature entered into his moral system. The soul 
or mind of man was an emanation from the 
divine fire ; and the clouded intellect of a 
dmnkajd was described by him us a ' wet soul.' 



He 6aid of vision that the eyes cannot see, but 
the mind sees through them, as through an 
open door. (Sext. adv. Math. vii. 130 ; cf. 
Lucret. iii. 359 ; Cic. Tusc. i. 20, 46.) The di- 
recting power of tins order or process of nature 
was apparently a soul of the world, the essence 
of the fire, which passed through everything, 
and back to itself. From this passage back- 
wards and forwards or upwards and downwards 
there results whatever harmony and order of 
nature there is, but it is a harmony arising from 
conflict, so that Heraclitus found fault with 
Homer for speaking of strife being banished 
from gods and men, objecting that then nature 
could not go on. To this theory refers the 
' quid velit et possit rerum concordia discors ' 
of Horace {Ep. i. 12, 19). The constant change 
and motion in the system, forcibly expressed by 
Heraclitus in the words that 'no man can twice 
enter the same river,' gained for Heraclitus and 
his school the name of ol piovres (Plat. Theaet. 
p. 181). Heraclitus was more fiercely and more 
unjustly attacked than any other philosopher by 
Lucretius, because the physics of the Stoics, to 
whom Lucretius was particularly opposed, were 
in part based on Heraclitean views (Lucr. i. 639). 
The tone of sadness in Heraclitus arising from 
his despair of absolute knowledge, and from a 
feeling of the changeable and fleeting character 
of human life, and also from the amount of evil 
in the world, gained for him the title of the 
' weeping philosopher.' (Juv. x. 30 ; Sen. de Ir. 
ii. 2, 5; Antli. Pal. ii. 148; cf. Democritus.) 
On the other hand, many of his utterances were 
cited with approval by early Christian writers, 
while other passages which seemed to regard 
the divine reason or \6yos were caught up by 
the Neo-Platonists. (Edition of the remains of 
Heraclitus by Bywater, Oxford, 1877.) 

Heraea ('Hpata: 'Hpaievs : nr. S. Joannes, 
Ru.), a town in Arcadia, on the right bank of 
the Alpheus, near the borders of Elis. Its terri- 
tory was called Heraeatis fHpaians). It was 
closely connected with Sparta in the fourth 
century ; but afterwards joined the Achaean 
League. (Paus. viii. 26, 1 ; Strab. p. 337 ; Xen. 
HeU. vi. 5, 22 ; Pol. ii. 54.) 

Heraei Montes (ra"Hpcua opt] : Monti Sori), 
a range of mountains in Sicily, running from the 
centre of the island SE., and ending in the pro- 
montory Pachynum (Diod. iv. 84). 
Heraeum. [Argos, p. 107, b.] 
Herbessus. [Ebbebbus.] 
Herblta ("Epkira : 'Ep/3iTaios, Herbitensis), a 
town in Sicily, N. of Agyrium, a powerful place 
under the tyrant Archonides, but afterwards 
declined (Diod. xii. 8 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 18, 32). 

Herculaneum, a town in Samnium, conquered 
by the consul Carvilius, B.C. 293 (Liv. x. 45), 
I must not be confounded with the more cele- 
brated town of this name mentioned below. 

Herculaneum, Herculanlum, Herculanum, 
Herculense Oppidum, Herculea Urbs ('Hpo- 
Kktiov), an ancient city in Campania, near the 
coast, between Neapolis and Pompeii, was ori- 
ginally founded by the Oscans, was next in the 
possession of the Tyrrhenians, and subsequently 
I was chiefly inhabited by Greeks, who appear to 
I have settled in the place from other cities of 
| Magna Graccia, and to hove given it its name. 

(Dionys. i. 44 ; Strab. p. 247 ; Ov. Met. xv. 711.) 
| It was taken by the Romans in the Social war 
I (B.C. 89, 88), and was colonised by them (Veil. 
Put. ii. IB). In a.d. 63 o great part of it was 
I destroyed by an earthquake ; and in 79 it was 
overwhelmed, along with Pompeii and Stabiar, 
| by the great eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. It was 

D D 2 



404 



HERCULES 



HERMARCHUS 



buried under showers of ashes and streams of 
lava from 70 to 100 feet under the present 
surface of the ground. On its site stand the 
modern Portici and part of the village of Be- 
sina : the Italian name of Ercolano does not 
indicate any modern place, but only the part of 
Herculaneum that has been disinterred. The 
ancient city was accidentally discovered by the 
sinking of a well in 1720, since which time the 
excavations have been carried on at different 
periods ; and many works of art have been dis- 
covered, which are deposited in the Royal Mu- 
seum at Portici. It has been found necessary 
to fill up again the excavations which were 
made, in order to render Portici and Resina 
secure, and therefore very little of the ancient 
city is to be seen. The buildings that have been 
discovered are a theatre capable of accommo- 
dating about 10,000 spectators, the remains of 
two temples, a large building, commonly desig- 
nated as a forum cioile, 228 feet long and 132 
broad, and some private houses, the walls of 
which were adorned with paintings, many of 
which, when discovered, were in a state of admi- 
rable preservation. There have been also found 
at Herculaneum many MSS., written on rolls of 
papyrus ; but the difficulty of unrolling and de- 
ciphering them was very great ; and the few 
which have been deciphered are of later Greek 
writers, among them some writings of Epicurus 
and Philodemus. 
, Hercules, the hero. [Heracles.] 

Hercules ('HpaKArjs), a son of Alexander the 
Great by Barsine, the widow of the Rhodian 
Memnon. In b. c. 310 he was brought forward 
by Polysperchon as a pretender to the Mace- 
donian throne ; but he was murdered by Poly- 
sperchon himself in the following year, when 
the latter became reconciled to Cassander. 
(Diod. x. 20, 28 ; Just. xv. 2.) 

Herculis Columnae. [Abyla ; Calpe.] 

Herculis Monoeci Portus. [Monoecus.] 

Herculis Portus. [Cosa.] 

Herculis PromontoriumfC. iSparfj'ue»to), the 
most southerly point of Italy, in Bruttium. 

Herculis Silva, a forest in Germany, sacred 
to Hercules, E. of the Visurgis. 

Hercynia Silva, Hercynius Saltus, Hercy- 
nium Jugum, an extensive range of mountains 
in Germany, covered with forests, is described 
by Caesar (B. G. vi. 24) as nine days' journey 
in breadth, and more than sixty days' journey 
in length, extending E. from the territories of 
the Helvetii, Nemetes, and Rauraci, parallel to 
the Danube, to the frontiers of the Dacians. 
Under this general name Caesar appears to have 
included all the mountains and forests in the S. 
and centre of Germany, the Black Forest, 
Odenwald, Thiiringer-Wald, the Harz, the 
Erzgebirge, the Biesengebirge, &c. As the 
Romans became better acquainted with Ger- 
many, the name was confined to narrower limits. 
Pliny and Tacitus use it to indicate the range 
of mountains between the Thiiringer-Wald and 
the Carpathian mountains (Plin. iv. 97 ; Tac. 
Germ. 28, 30). The name is still preserved in 
the modern Harz and Mrz. 

Herdonia (Herdoniensis : Ordona), a town 
in Apulia, was destroyed by Hannibal, who re- 
moved its inhabitants to Thurii and Metapon- 
tum ; it was rebuilt by the Romans (Strab. p. 
282; Liv. xxi. 21, xxvii. 1). 

Herdonius. 1. Turnus, of Aricia in Latium, 
endeavoured to rouse the Latins against Tar- 
quinius Superbus, and was in consequence 
falsely accused by Tarquinius, and put to death 
(Liv. i. 50 ; Dionys. iv. 45). — 2. Appius, a Sabine 



chieftain, who, in B. c. 460, with a band of out- 
laws and slaves, made himself master of the 
Capitol. On the fourth day from his entry the 
Capitol was retaken, and Herdonius was slain. 
(Liv. iii. 15-19 ; Dionys. x. 14.) 

Hereniria Gens, originally Samnite, and by 
the Samnite invasion established in Campania, 
became at a later period a plebeian house at 
Rome. The Herennii were a family of rank in 
Italy, and the hereditary patrons of the Marii. 
(Liv. ix. 3 ; Plut. Mar. 5.) 

Herennius. 1. Modestinus. [Modestinus.] 
— 2. Pontius. [Pontius.]— 3. Senecio. [Se- 
necio.] 

Herillus ("HpiAAos), of Carthage, a Stoic 
philosopher, was the disciple of Zeno of Cittium. 
He did not, however, confine himself to the 
opinions of his master, but held some doctrines 
directly opposed to them. He held that the 
chief good consisted in knowledge (e7ri<TT^yU7j), a 
notion often attacked by Cicero. (Cic. de Fin. 
ii. 11, 13, Tusc. v. 30 ; Diog. Laert. vii. 165.) 

Hermaeum, or, in Latin, Mercurii Promon- 
torium ('Ep/xaia aKpa). 1. {Cape Bon, Arab. 
Bas Addar), the headland which forms the E. 
extremity of the Sinus Carthaginiensis, and the 
extreme NE. point of the Carthaginian terri- 
tory (aft. the province of Africa) opposite to 
Lilybaeum, the space between the two being the 
shortest distance between Sicily and Africa 
(Strab. p. 832; Pol. i. 29; Liv. xxix. 27).— 2. 
{Bas el Ashan), a promontory on the coast of 
the Greater Syrtis, 50 stadia W. of Leptis. — 3. 
A headland of Lemnos (Aesch. Pr. 283 ; Soph. 
Phil. 1459). 

Hermagdras ('Ep/xaySpas). 1. Of Temnos, a 
distinguished Greek rhetorician of the time of. 
Cicero. He belonged to the Rhodian school of 
oratory, but is known chiefly as a teacher of 
rhetoric. He devoted particular attention to 
what is called invention — that is, the province 
of rhetoric which is occupied with discovering 
facts and probabilities such as will support the 
case — and made a peculiar division of the parts 
of an oration which differed from that adopted 
by other rhetoricians. (Quintil. iii. 1, 16 ; 6, 60 ; 
Cic. de Invent, i. 11, 16.) — 2. Surnamed Carion, 
a Greek rhetorician, taught rhetoric at Rome 
in the time of Augustus. He was a disciple of 
Theodoras of Gadara. (Quintil. iii. 1, 18.) 

Hermaniibis. [Anubis.] 

Hermaphroditus ('Epfia(pp68iTos), son of Her- 
mes and Aphrodite, and consequently great- 
grandson of Atlas, whence he is called Atlan- 
tiades or Atlantius (Ov.Met. iv. 368). He had 
inherited the beauty of both his parents, and 
was brought up by the nymphs of Mount Ida. 
In his fifteenth year he went to Caria. In the 
neighbourhood of Halicarnassus he lay down 
by the fountain of Salmacis. The nymph of the 
fountain fell in love with him, and tried in vain 
to win his affections. Once when he was bath- 
ing in the fountain, she embraced him, and 
prayed to the gods that she might be united 
with him for ever. The gods granted the re- 
quest, and the bodies of the youth and the 
nymph became united together, but retained 
the characteristics of each sex. Hermaphro- 
ditus, on becoming aware of the change, prayed 
that in future everyone who bathed in the well 
might be metamorphosed in the same manner 
(Ov. Met. iv. 285 ; cf. Diod. iv. 6). The myth 
represents an Oriental belief in masculine deities 
with a female counterpart (whence the bearded 
Aphrodite at Cyprus; Macrob. Sat. iii. 8). 

Hermarchus ("Epfj.apxos), of Mytilene, a rhe- 
torician, became afterwards a disciple of Epi- 



HERMES 



405 



curus, who left to him his garden, and appointed 
him his successor in his school, about B. c. 270. 
(Diog. Laert. x. 25.) 

Hermes ('Ep^js, "Zpnelas, Dor. 'Ep/xSs), called 
MercuriUB by the Romans. The Greek Hermes 
was a son of Zeus and Maia, the daughter of 
Atlas, and born in a cave of Mt. Cyllene in 
Arcadia, whence he is called Atlantiades or 
Ci/llenius (Od. viii. 335, xiv. 435, xxiv. 1 ; Hes. 
Th. 938 ; Hymn, in Merc. 1 ff . ; Ov. Met. i. 682, 
xiv. 291.) A few hours after his birth, he escaped 
from his cradle, went to Pieria, and carried off 
some of the oxen of Apollo (Hymn. 17). In the 
Iliad and Odyssey this tradition is not men- 
tioned, though Hermes is characterised as a 
cunning thief and deceiver (It. v. 390, xxiv. 24, 
395, 444, GSO). That he might not be discovered 
by the traces of his footsteps, he put on sandals, 
and drove the oxen to Pylos, where he killed 
two, and concealed the rest in a cave. Some 
travellers have fancied that they find the actual 
cave of the story in a stalactite cavern on the 
NE. slope of the Acropolis of Pylos (Xuvarino), 
which in the time of Pausanias was called 
Nestor's cattle-shed (Paus. iv. 36, 2). The 
skins of the slaughtered animals were nailed to 
a rock ; and part of their flesh was cooked and 
eaten, and the rest burnt (Hymn. I.e. ; Ant. 
Lib. 23; Diod. i. 16). Thereupon he returned 
to Cyllene, where he found a tortoise at the en- 
trance of his native cave. He took the animal's 
shell, drew strings across it, and thus invented 
the lyre, on which he immediately played. 




Hermes making a Lyre. rOstcrley. Dcnkm. alt. Kiuist, 
vol. 11. tav. ■£).) 

Apollo, by his prophetic power, had meantime 
discovered the thief, and went to Cyllene to 
charge Hermes with the crime before his mother, 
Maia. She showed to the god the child in its 
cradle; but Apollo carried the boy before Zeus, 
and demanded back his oxen. Zeus commanded 
him to comply with the demand of Apollo, but j 
Hermes denied that he had stolen the cattle. | 
As, however, he saw that his assertions were ! 
not believed, he conducted Apollo to Pylos, and 
restored to him his oxen ; but when Apollo 
heard the sounds of the lyre, he was so charmed 
that he allowed Hermes to keep the animals. ' 
Hermes now invented the syrinx, and after dis- 
closing his inventions to Apollo, the two gods 
concluded an intimate friendship with each 
other. Apollo presented his young friend with 
his own golden shepherd's staff, and taught him 
the art of prophesying by means of dice. Zeus 
made him his own herald, and likewise the 
herald of the gods of the lower world (llynni. 
514 ; cf. Hor. Od. i. 10, 6).— The principal fea- 
ture in the traditions about Hermes consists in 
his being the herald of the gods, and in this 
capacity he appears in the Homeric poems. As , 



the herald of the gods, he is the god of elo- 
quence, for the heralds are the public speakers 
in the assemblies and on other occasions. The 
gods especially employed him as messenger 
when eloquence was required to attain the de- 
sired object (It. i. 333, iv. 193, xi. 684, xxiv. 390 ; 
Od. i. 38). As heralds and messengers are 
usually men of prudence and circumspection, 
Hermes was also the god of prudence and skill 
in all the relations of social intercourse (It. xx. 
35). These qualities were combined with simi- 
lar ones, such as cunning, both in words and 
actions, and even fraud, perjury, and the in- 
clination to steal ; but acts of this kind were 
committed by Hermes always with a certain 
skill and gracefulness. — He was employed by 
the gods, and more especially by Zeus, on a 
variety of occasions which are recorded in an- 
cient story. Thus he led Priam to Achilles to 
fetch the body of Hector [II. xxiv. 182 ; Ov. 
Met. i. 670) ; tied Ixion to the wheel (Hyg. Fab. 
62 j ; conducted Hera, Aphrodite, and Athene to 
Paris (Paus. v. 19, 1); rescued Dionysus after 
his birth, from the flames, or received him from 
the hands of Zeus to carry him to Athamas 
(Apollod. iii. 4, 3; Ap. Eh. iv. 1137); and was 
ordered by Zeus to carry off Io, who was meta- 
morphosed into a cow, and guarded by Argus, 
whom he slew. [Abgds.] From this murder 
he is very commonly called 'Apytttpovrris. It ;s 
true that Homer, who uses the epithet, makt s 
no mention of the story ; but there is no diffi- 
culty in supposing that this local myth was 
known to him and hud become widely enough 
spread to furnish a surname. Roscher, how- 
ever, objecting to this view, believes that the 
epitliet = dp7-fl(TT7)s, and signifies the clearing 
or brightening effect of the wind, like the ' albus 
Notus ' [see below]. His ministry to Zeus was 
not confined to the offices of herald and mes- 
senger, but he was also his charioteer and cup- 
bearer. As dreams are sent by Zeus, Hermes 
conducts them to man, and hence he is also 
described as the god who had it in his power to 
send refreshing sleep or to take it away. An- 
other important function of Hermes was to 
conduct the shades of the dead from the 
upper into the lower world [see cut, p. 376J 
whence he is called \f>vxoTronn6s, veKpoTrofiirt'is, 
\J/u^a7or/Js, <fcc. — All these functions are held 
by several modem mythologists of great 
authority, especially by Roscher, to proceed 
from the original conception of the Wind trans- 
formed into a deity. It is argued that the 
wind is sent by Zeus, as Aibs oOpos; that 
Hermes is the son of Zeus as god of heaven 
and Maia as goddess of rain-clouds ; that he is 
born in the wind-cave of Cyllene ; that his 
winged feet have this meaning : that he is god 
of theft, because winds, like the Harpies, snatch 
away ; that especially in the theft of cattle he 
is the wind carrying off the clouds and hiding 
them behind the mountains ; that he is god of 
fruitfulness in herds &c, because the wind is 
' genitabilis * j the god of luck in allusion to the 
favourable (oCpiosJ breeze ; the god of gymna- 
siums because it is strong and swift; that he 
is conductor of souls because they are com- 
pared to breezes or air; and even that his 
discovery of the lyre and the pipe symbolises 
the whistling of the wind. There is force in a 
great deal of the argument ; but it is not con- 
vincing. Others, again, with somewhut similar 
reasons make him the rain-god. It is simpler 
to understand as the original idea of Hermes 
the Power which brings good fortune to men 
whatever their lino of life maybe. He is to the 



406 



HERMES 



Greeks the nearest equivalent (as regards his 
functions) to the Italian Genius ; but, with this 
difference, that he is regarded as a distinct 
Olympian deity. His functions are manifold, 
because each different class of men had its own 
requirements for his help. Arcadia was perhaps 
the oldest seat of his worship in Greece ; the 
most generally accepted place of his birth, and 
the country where the old ayaKfiara. Terpdyaiva 
were seen by Pausanias (Hymn, in Merc. 2 ; 
Pind. 01. vi. 80; Paus. viii. 17, 1). Since, 
therefore, Arcadia was pre-eminently the pas- 
toral country, it is natural that the deity of good 
fortune should there be connected especially 
with the prosperity and increase of flocks and 
herds. Whether herdsmen were gaining wealth 
by breeding stock or by skilful ' cattle-lifting,' 
this deity would be regarded as their helper, 
and in myth as the hero of successful enterprise 
in the same line. The like characteristics 
would belong to the deity who brought good 
luck in any other occupations and industries ; 
to all he was 'Ep,tti}s 'Epioueios and Soirrip edcav; 
in commercial enterprise he was ayopouos, 
ip.wo\a7os, T!aKiyK6.TTi]Kos, KepSijJos, Kepdtfitropos 
(Aristoph. Plut. 1155, &c.) ; and in general a 
lucky find was ascribed to his favour, and was 
called epfxalov or ipfxa'ia SSffis (Aesch. Mum. 
947), "Ep/aou KXiipos (Aristoph. Pax, 365, &c). 
It is clear that from this general idea of success 
in skilful work of any sort may naturally pro- 
ceed his aid in ready speech, his aid in inven- 
tions such as the lyre, the syrinx, writing, astro- 
nomy, and, and mathematics, which led to his 
identification with the Egyptian Thoth (Strab. 
p. 816 ; Cic. N. D. iii. 22, 56 ; Hor. Od. i. 10, 3 ; 
Ov. Fast. v. 668). Further, as god of good for- 
tune in commerce he was the leader of travellers, 
and indeed of any expeditions, whether for war 
or peace, and on this account received sacrifices 
as TjyrjTap and rjyefxovios. His position, which 
belongs to the oldest Greek literature and has 
to do with the greatest number of stories about 
him, as messenger of Zeus expresses simply the 
idea that wealth and good fortune are sent from 
Zeus (Od. vi. 188 ; cf. Hor. Od. i. 28, 27). This 
is well expressed in the Pompeian picture en- 
graved below, where Hermes the messenger is 




Hermes bringing wealth. From a wall-painting at 
Pompeii. (Mils. Borb. vi. 2.) 

starting forth with a bag of money in his hand. 
Hermes, then as the intermediary, becomes the 
envoy and itrjpu£ of Zeus. His other ancient 
function, conducting the souls to Hades (Od. 
xxiv. 1, 9 ; Hijmn. in Merc. 572, in Cer. 'All ; 
Hyg. Fab. 251 ; Hor. Od. i. 13, 17), whence he 




Terminal Hermes. 
(British Museum.) 



is called tyvxoTrojnros, x8<^"ios, &c, was probably 
attributed to him, because he watches over the 
fortunes of each mortal, like the Italian Genius, 
from his birth to the grave. As his image 
(epfiaiov) stands before each 
citizen's door to guard and 
increase his wealth, so at 
his death 'Epfiris guides his 
soul to Hades. His office 
of presiding over the gym- 
nasium was a later attri- 
bute ; it signified that he 
was the god who gave good 
luck in contests and also 
that beauty of youthful 
form of which he was him- 
self the ideal. Statues of 
Hermes consisting of a 
head placed on a quad- 
rangular pillar, and set up 
before houses, temples, 
gymnasia, &c. are preserved 
in large numbers. (See 
Diet, of Ant. art. Hermae.) 
As might be expected from 
the variety of his functions 
and the universal need of 
his help for all undertak- 
ings, he was worshipped in 
temples and shrines all 
over Greece and her co- 
lonies. Next to Arcadia 
those places most deserving 
mention were Athens — 
where the antiquity of his 
worship was attested by 
the ancient image in the 
temple of Athene Polias, and the Hermae of 
primitive shape before the doors of houses. 
(Paus. iv. 33, 4 ; Thuc. vi. 27) — and Tanagra, 
which claimed to be his birthplace (Paus. ix. 
20, 3), and where also, as a proof of his worship 
in the character of protector of the flocks, he 
had a statue by Calamis as KpLoc(>6pos, bearing 
a ram upon his shoulders, and a festival at 
which the handsomest 
youth of the city went 
round the walls carry- 
ing in like manner a 
lamb on his shoulders. 
As tutelary god, too, 
of the same place he 
was called irp6fiaxos 
(Paus. ix. 22, 2). His 
connexion with Elis is 
shown by the claim of 
the Elean Cyllene to 
be his birthplace, and 
also by his famous 
statue in the Heraeum 
at Olympia (Paus. v. 
17, vi. 26). There was 
also a specially ancient 
seat of his worship, 
which Herodotus calls 
Pelasgian, in Samo- 
thrace (Hdt. ii. 51). 
The fourth of the 
month (rerpds), tradi- Hermes Criophorus. (Terra- 
tionally his birthday, ^umT ^ Br ' tiSh 
was sacred to him ; the 

most ancient sacrifices mentioned belonged to> 
him as god of flocks, the lamb and the kid (Od. 
xix. 397). In art the principal attributes of 
Hermes are : 1. A petasus, or hat with a broad 
brim, which signified the traveller. From the 
latter part of the fifth cent. B.C., but not in 




HERMES 



HERMIONE 



407 



earlier art, this hat was sometimes, and in 
Roman art always, adorned with small wings. 
2. The staff (frdfjSos or o-K^irrpov), which he bore 
as a herald, and had received from Apollo. In 
late works of art the white ribbons which sur- 
rounded the herald's staff were changed into 
two serpents [Diet, of Ant. art. Caduceus]. 3. 
The sandals (ire5iA.o). They were beautiful and 
golden, and carried the god across land and sea 
with the rapidity of wind ; at the ankles of the 
god they were provided with wings, whence he 
is called im)voTrioi\os, or alipes. In the most 
primitive times he was represented by more or 
less rude blocks of stone or wood with the 
phallus and then by the Hcrmae, i.e. heads of 
the god placed on a quadrangular base [Diet, 
of Ant. art. Serines'] ; such were the Hermae 
of the Attic streets mentioned above, and they 
were probably to some extent copies of the an- 
cient %6avov in the temple of Athene Polias. 
On archaic vases he is easily distinguished, but 
he is a bearded man with none of the more 
youthful beauty of the familar later types. 
This is first traceable in the work of the fifth 
century, and was, no doubt, a characteristic of 
the famous statue by Calamis representing 
Hermes Criophorus of Tanagra [see above]. A 
good idea of the attitude of this statue (which 
appears also on coins of Tanagra) may probably 
be gained from the terracotta figure in the Bri- 
tish Museum, which is reasonably taken to be 
an imitation of the statue, but it is only a rude 
imitation. Of the youthful and idealised type 
handed down from Polycletus and above all 
from Praxiteles, and adopted as the Hermes of 
later Greek and Roman art, there are numerous 
examples, copies or imitations of the great sculp- 
tors, and among them is probably to be reckoned 
the so-called Antinous in the Vatican. Most 
famous and most beautiful of all is the original 
statue of Praxiteles, Hermes with the child 
Dionysus [see under Praxiteles]. The Hermes 




Hermes, as messenger, resting. (From a bronze statue 
at Naples, probably uftcr Lyalppus.) 

of Lysippus, from which the bronze figure from 
Herculuneum here shown was probably copied, 
has a further development in slimness and 
gracefulness of form. 

Hermes Trismegistus ( Epulis Tpirrfifytaros), 
the reputed author of a variety of works, some 
of which are still extant. The Greek god Hermes 
was identified with the Egyptian Thoth as early 
as the time of Plato. Tin- NYo-l'latonistx re. 
garded an Egyptian Hermes Bfl tin' source of all 



1 knowledge and thought, or the \6yos embodied, 
and hence called him Trismegistus. A vast num- 
ber of works on philosophy and religion, written 
by the Neo-Platonists, were ascribed to this 
Hermes ; from whom it was pretended that 
Pythagoras and Plato had derived all their 
knowledge. Most of these works were probably 
written in the fourth century of our era. The 
i most important of them is entitled Poemander 
(from Troiixriv, a shepherd, pastor), apparently 
in imitation of the Pastor of Hennas. This 
work is in the form of a dialogue. It treats of 
nature, the creation of the world, the deity, his 
nature and attributes, the human soul, know- 
ledge, Sec. (Ed. by Parthey, Berlin, 1854.) 

Hermeslanax ( i Epiirio~i.ava%), of Colophon, a 
, distinguished elegiac poet, lived in the time of 
Alexander the Great. His chief work was an 
I elegiac poem of love-stories in three books, 
addressed to his mistress, Leontium, whose 
name foimed the title of the poem. The frag- 
ments are edited bv Rigler and Axt, Colon. 
1828, and by Bailey," Lond. 1839. 

Hermias or Hermias ('Ep.uei'as or 'Ep/j-ias). 
1. Tyrant of Atarneus and Assos in Mysia, said 
to have been originally a slave, celebrated as 
the friend and patron of Aristotle. Aristotle 
remained with Hermias three years, from B.C. 
347 to 344, in the latter of which years Hermias 
was seized by Mentor, the Greek general of the 
Persian king, and sent as a captive to the 
Persian court, where he was put to death. 
Aristotle manned Pythias, the adopted daughter 
of Hermias, and celebrated the praises of his 
benefactor in an ode addressed to Virtue, 
which is still extant. (Strab. p. 610 ; Diog. 
Laert. v. 3). — 2. A Christian writer, who lived 
about a.d. 180, author of an extant work, en- 
titled Aia.avpiJ.bs rwv e£a> cpi\o(r6(l>aiv, in which 
Greek philosophers are held up to ridicule. 
Edited with Tatianus by Worth, Oxon. 1700. 

Herminla Gens, a patrician house at Rome, 
which appears in the first Etruscan war with 
the republic, B.C. 506, and vanishes from history 
in 448. T. Henninius was one of the three 
heroes who kept the Sublieian bridge against 
the whole force of Porsena (Liv. ii. 10). 

Henninius Mons (Sierra de la Estrrlla), 
the chief mountain in Lusitania, S. of the 
Durius, from 7000 to 8000 feet high, called in 
the middle ages Hermcno (Bell. Alex. 48). 

Hermione ("EppuSvT)), tin- daughter of Mene- 
lau3 and Helena (II. iii. 175 ; Od. iv. 4 ; Verg. 
Aen. iii. 328). She had been promised in 
marriage to Orestes before the Trojan war ; 
but Menelaus after his return home married 
her to Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus). Thereupon 
Orestes claimed Hermione for himself, but 
Neoptolemus refused to give her up. Orestes, 
in revenge, incited the Delphians against hiro, 
and Neoptolemus was slain. Hermione after- 
wards married Orestes, whom she had always 
loved, and bore him a son Tisamenus. The 
history of Hermione is related with various 
modifications. According to some, Menelaus 
betrothed her at Troy to Neptolemus; but in 
the meantime her grandfather, Tyndareus, 
promised her to Orestes, and actually gave her 
in marriage to him. Neoptolemus, on his 
return, took possession of her by force, but was 
slain soon after either at Delphi or in his own 
home at Phthia. (Pind. N&m. vii. 43; Eur. 
And. H'.)l ; Hyg. Fab. 128.) 

Hermione CEpniSvi) ! 'Epmovt is : Ka.stri), a, 
town of Argolis, but originally independent of 
Argon, was situated on a promontory on the E. 
coast, and on a bay of the sea, which derived 



408 



HEEMIONES 



HERMOTIMUS 



its name from the town (Hermionicus Sinus). 
Its territory was called Hermionis. It was 
originally inhabited by the Dryopes ; and, in 
consequence of its isolated position, it became a 
flourishing city at an early period. It contained 
several temples, and among them a celebrated 
one of Demeter Chthonia. At a later time it 
joined the Achaean League. {It. ii. 560 ; Hdt. 
viii. 43 ; Strab. p. 373 ; Paus. ii. 35 ; Pol. ii. 44.) 

Hermiones or Herminones (perhaps ' the 
warriors'), a name apparently given collectively 
to certain tribes in the interior of Germany, 
who were generally known as the Cherusci, &c. 
(Tac. Germ. 2; Mel. iii. 3). 

Hermippus ("EpfimTos). 1. An Athenian 
poet of the Old Comedy, vehemently attacked 
Pericles and Aspasia (Plut. Per. 32 ; Aristoph. 
Nub. 553). Fragments in Meineke, Fr. Com. 
Gr. — 2. Of Smyrna, a distinguished philoso- 
pher, was a disciple of Callimachus of Alex- 
andria, and flourished about B.o. 200. He 
wrote a biographical work (Bi'tu), which is 
frequently referred to by later writers. (Miiller, 
Fr. Hist. Gr.) — 3. Of Berytus, a grammarian, 
under Trajan and Hadrian. 

Hermisium, a town in the Tauric Cherso- 
nesus, on the Cimmerian Bosporus. 

Hermocrates ('Epfj.oKpa.rris), a Syracusan of 
rank, and an able statesman and orator, was 
chosen one of the Syracusan generals, B.C. 414, 
in order to oppose the Athenians (Thuc. iv. 
.58, 65; Pol. xii. 22). He afterwards served 
under Gylippus, when the latter took the com- 
mand of the Syracusan forces ; and after the 
destruction of the Athenian armament he 
attempted to save the lives of Nicias and 
Demosthenes (Thuc. vi. 72-vii. 73). He then 
employed all his influence to induce his 
countrymen to support with vigour the Lace- 
daemonians in the war in Greece itself. He 
was with two colleagues appointed to the com- 
mand of a small fleet, which the Syracusans 
sent to the assistance of the Lacedaemonians. 
(Thuc. viii. 26.) But during his absence from 
home, he was banished by the Syracusans 
(410). Having obtained support from the Per- 
sian satrap Pharnabazus, he returned to Sicily, 
and endeavoured to effect his restoration to his 
native city by force of arms, but was slain in an 
attack which he made upon Syracuse in 408. 
(Xen. Hell.J. 1, 27; Diod. xiii. 63, 75.) 

Hermodorus ('Ep/xdSupos). 1. Of Ephesus, 
a person of distinction, was expelled by his 
fellow-citizens, and is said to have gone to 
Rome, and to have explained to the decemvirs 
the Greek laws, and thu-s assisted them in 
drawing up the laws of the Twelve Tables, B.C. 
451 (Diog. Laert. ix. 2 ; Cic. Tusc. v. 36, 
105). — 2. A disciple of Plato, whose works he 
is said to have circulated, especially in Sicily. 
He wrote a work on Plato. — 3. Of Salamis, at 
the end of 2nd century B.C., the architect of the 
temple of Mars in the Flaminian Circus, and 
also of the navalia (Cic. cle Or. i. 14, 62). 

Hermogenes ('Epp.oy4vns). 1. A son of Hip- 
ponicus, and a brother of the wealthy Callias, is 
introduced by Plato as one of the speakers in 
his Cratylus, where he maintains that all the 
words of a language were formed by an agree- 
ment of men among themselves (Plat. Crat. 
p. 391, c; Xen. Mem. ii. 10, 3).— 2. A cele- 
brated Greek rhetorician, was a native of 
Tarsus, and lived in the reign of M. Aurelius, 
a.d. 161-180. He was appointed public teacher 
of rhetoric, and he began his career as a writer 
at the age of seventeen, but when he was twenty- 
five his mental powers gave way, and he never 



recovered their full use, although he lived to 
an advanced age. His works, five in number, 
which are still extant, were for a long time 
used in the rhetorical schools as manuals. 
They are : 1. Tixw) priropiKi) irepl ra>v araff^wv. 
2. riep! eupeVetus (De Inventione). 3. Uepl 
iSewv (De Formis Oratoriis). 4. Ilepl /uefloSou 
SeivdrriTos (De apto et solerti genere dicendi 
Methodus). 5. Tlpoyvij.vio-iia.Ta.. An abridg- 
ment of the latter work was made by Aphtho- 
nius, in consequence of which the original fell 
into oblivion. The works of Hermogenes are 
printed in Walz's Rhetor. Graec. — 3. An 
architect of Alabanda, in Caria, who invented 
what was called the pseudodipterus — that is, a 
form of a temple, in which the single row of 
columns stood at the same distance from the 
wall of the cella as the outer row in a dipteral 
temple (Vitr. iii. 2, 6). The great temple in 
the agora of Selinus is an example of this form. 

Hermogenes, M. Tigellius, an enemy of 
Horace, who, however, admits his merits as a 
singer (Sat. i. 3, 129 ; cf. 9, 25 ; 10, 18, 80, 90). 
He must be distinguished from the Sardinian 
Tigellius (whose adopted son some suppose 
him to have been), who is mentioned both 
by Cicero and Horace (Cic. ad Fam. vii. 
24, ad Att. xiii. 49, 51 ; Hor. Sat. i. 2, 3). 

Hermogenianus, the latest Roman jurist 
from whom there is an extract in the Digest, 
lived in the time of Constantine the Great. 

Hermolaus ('Epn6\aos), a Macedonian youth, 
and a page of Alexander the Great. During a 
hunting party iii Bactria, B.C. 327, he slew a 
wild boar, without waiting to allow Alexander 
the first blow, whereupon the king ordered him 
to be flogged. • Incensed at this indignity, 
Hermolaus formed a conspiracy against the 
king's life; but the plot was discovered, and 
Hermolaus and his accomplices were stoned to 
death by the Macedonians. (Arrian, Anab. iv. 
13 ; Curt. viii. 6 ; Plut. Alex. 55.) 

Hermonassa. 1. A town of the Sindi at the 
entrance of the Cimmerian Bosporus (Mel. i. 
19, 5). — 2. A town on the coast of Pontus, near 
Trapezus. 

Hermonthis ("Ep/j.avdis : Erment, Ru.), the 
chief city of the Nomos Hermonthites, in Upper 
Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, a little 
above Thebes (Strab. p. 817). 

Hermopolis ('Epfj.6iro\ts, "Ep/xov ir6\ts). 1. 
Parva (ri /xiKpd: Damanliour), a city of Lower 
Egypt, the capital of the Nomos of Alexandria, 
stood upon the canal which connected the 
Canopic branch of the Nile with the Lake 
Mareotis (Strab. p. 802 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 46).— 
2. Magna (rj jiteyaA.7] : nr. Eshmounein, Ru.), 
the capital of the Nomos Hermopolites, in the 
Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, and one of the 
oldest cities in the land, stood on the W. bank 
of the Nile, a little below the confines of Upper 
Egypt. At the boundary line itself was a 
military station, or custom house, called 'Epfio- 
ttoXitikt) 4>v\aitr], for collecting a toll on goods 
entering the Heptanomis. Hermopolis was a 
chief seat of the worship of Thoth, the Egyptian 
Hermes. (Ptol. v. 9, 11 ; Strab. p. 813.) 

Hermotimus ('Ep/j.6rifj.os). 1. A mathema- 
tician of Colophon, was one of the immediate 
predecessors of Euclid, and the discoverer of 
several geometrical propositions. — 2. Of Clazo- 
menae, an early Greek philosopher of uncertain 
date, belonged to the Ionic school. Some tra- 
ditions represent him as a mysterious person, 
gifted with supernatural power, by which his 
soul, apart from the body, wandered from place 
to place, bringing tidings of distant events in 



HER3ICNDURI 

incredibly short spaces of time. At length his 
enemies burned his body, in the absence of the 
soul, which put an end to his wanderings. 
(Plin. vii. 171 ; Lucian, Eiicom. Muse. 7 ; Arist. 
Metaph. i. 3.) 

Hermunduri, one of the most powerful na- 
tions of Germany, belonged to the Suevic race, 
dwelt between the Main and the Danube, and 
were bounded by the Sudeti mountains in the 
N., the Agri Decumates of the Romans in the 
W. and S., the Narisci on the E., the Cherusci 
on the NE., and the Catti on the NW. They 
were for a long time the allies of the Romans ; 
but along with the other German tribes they 
assisted the Marcomanni in the great war against 
the Romans in the reign of 31. Aurelius. After 
this time they are rarely mentioned as a sepa- 
rate people, but are included under the name 
of Suevi. (Tac. Germ. 41, Aim. ii. 03, xii. 29.) 

Hermus (rb "Ep/xos : "Epfieios), a demus in 
Attica, belonging to the tribe Acamantis, on 
the road from Athens to Eleusis. 

Hermus i"Ep/ios: Ghiediz-Ghai), a consider- 
able river of Asia Minor, rises in 3It. Dindymene 
(Morad-Dagh) in Phrygia ; flows through Ly- 
dia, watering the plain N. of Sardis, which was 
hence called "Epyuou ireSlov ; passes by 3Iag- 
nesia and Temnus ; and falls into the Gulf of 
Smyrna, between Smyrna and Phocaea. It 
formed the boundary between Aeolia and Ionia. 
Its tributaries were the Hyllus, Cogamus, Pacto- 
lus, and Phrygnus. (Strab. p. 554 ; Hdt. i. 80.) 

Hernici, a people in Latium, belonged to the 
Sabine race, and are said to have derived their 
name from the 3Iarsic (Sabine) word herna, 
' rock ' (Fest. s.v.). According to this etymo- 
logy their name would signify ' mountaineers.' 
They inhabited the mountains of the Apennines 
between the lake Fucinus and the river Trerus, 
and were bounded on the N. by the 3Iarsi and 
Aequi, and on the S. by the Volsci. Their 
chief town was Axagnia. They were a brave 
and warlike people, and long offered a formid- 
able resistance to the Romans. The Romans 
formed a league with them on equal terms in 
the third consulship of Sp. Cassius, li.c. 480. 
They were finally subdued by the Romans, 300. 
(Verg. Acn. vii. 084 ; Liv. ii. '22, vi. 17, vii. 15.) 

Hero. [Leaxder.] 

Heron ("Hp&ic). 1. The Elder, a celebrated 
mathematician, was a native of Alexandria, 
and lived in the reigns of the Ptolemies Phil- 
adelphus and Evergetes (B.C. 285-222). He is 
celebrated on account of his mechanical inven- 
tions, of which one of the best known is the 
common pneumatic experiment, called Heron's 
fountain, in which a jet of water is maintained 
by condensed air. We also find in his works a 
description of a strain engine, and of a double 
forcing pump used for a fire-engine. The fol- 
lowing works of Heron are extant, though not 
in a perfect form:— 1. \eipo0a\tarpas Kara- 
iTKtvr) nail tTvuntrp'ia, l)e Gon.itructione et Men- 
sura Manubalistae. 2. Bf Aoiroii'xa, on the 
manufacture of darts. :;. Uff u^ori/fo, or Sjiirit- 
alia, the most celebrated of his works. 4. rifpl 
avropMTOtrotriTiKwv, Dr. AutomatOTWm Fabriea 
IAbri duo. All these works arc published in 
the Mathcmatici Veteres, Paris, 1698; the 
military treatises by Riistow and Kiii.-hly, 1853. 
— 2. The Younger, a mathematician, is sup- 
posed to have lived under Henu lius (a.D. 610- 
041). The extant works assigned to him are : — 
1. Dr. Machinis brllicis. 2. Geodacsia, on 
practical geometry. ■>. Dr. Obsidionr rt jicllcnda. 
Published in the MathemaHci Vclcrcs. 

Herodas. [Heuoxdas.] 



HERODIAXUS 



409 



Herodes I. ('HpaiS7js),cominonly called Herod. 

, 1. Surnamed the Great, king of the Jews, was 
the second son of Antipater, and consequently 
of Idumaean origin. [Antipater, No. 3.] When 
his father was appointed by Caesar procurator 
of Judaea, in B.C. 47, Herod, though only 25 
years of age, obtained the government of Gali- 

| lee. In 46 he obtained the government of 
Coele-Syria. After the death of Caesar (44), 
Herod first supported Cassius; but upon the 
arrival of Antony in Syria, in 41, he exerted 
himself to secure his favour, and completely 
succeeded in his object. In 40 he went to Rome, 
and obtained from Antony and Octavian a 
decree of the senate, constituting him king of 
Judaea. He supported Antony in the Civil war 
against Octavian ; but after the battle of Actium 
(31) he was pardoned by Octavian. During the 

j remainder of his reign he cultivated the friend- 
ship of Augustus and Agrippa, and enjoyed 
the favour of both. He possessed a jealous 
temper and ungovernable passions. He put to 
death his wife 3Iariamne, whom he suspected 
without cause of adultery, and with whom he 

' was violently in love ; and at a later period he 
also put to death his two sons by Mariamne, 
Alexander and Aristobulus. His government, 
though cruel and tyrannical, was vigorous ; and 
he was both feared and respected by his subjects 
and the surrounding nations. Among other 
splendid public works, he partly rebuilt the 
temple of Jerusalem, and the city of Samaria, 
on which he bestowed the name of Sebaste; 
while he converted a small town on the sea- 
coast into a magnificent city, to which he gave 
the name of Caesarea. He died in the 37th 
year of his reign, and the 70th of his age, B.C. 
4.* — 2. Herodes Antipas, son of Herod the 
Great, by 3Ialthace, a Samaritan, obtained the 
tetrarchy of Galilee and Peraea, on his father's 
death, while the kingdom of Judaea devolved 
on his elder brother Archelaus. He married 
Herodias, the wife of his half-brother, Herod 
Philip. He had been previously married to a 
daughter of the Arabian prince Aretas, who 
invaded the dominions of Antipas, and defeated 
the army which was opposed to him. In A.I). 
38, through the intrigues of Herod Agrippa, who 
was high in the favour of the Roman emperor, 
Antipas was deprived of his dominions, and 
sent into exile at Lyons (39) ; he was subse- 
quently removed to Spain, where he died. — 
3. Herodes Agrippa. | Auwppa.] — 4. Brother 
of Herod Agrippa I., obtained the kingdom of 
Chalcis from Claudius at the request of Agrippa, 
41. After the death of Agrippa (44), Claudius 
bestowed upon him the superintendence of the 
temple at Jerusalem, together with the right of 
appointing the high priests. He died in 48, 
when his kingdom was bestowed by Claudius 

I upon his nephew, Herod Agrippa II. [For 

j further account of the Herods, see Dictionary 
oi llu liiblr, ail Ucrndi —5. Herodes Atti- 
cus, the? rhetorician. [Atticuk.] 

Herodianus i'Hpwhiai>6s). 1. A historian, 
who wrote in Greek a history of the Roman 

[ empire in eight books, from the death of 31. 
Aurelius to the beginning of the reign of Gordi- 
anus III. (a.d. 180-288). He himself informs 
us that the events of this period had occurred 
in his own lifetime; but beyond this we know 
nothing respecting his life. He appears to 
have had Thucydides before him as a model, 



a Tin- iUntli cif llcrod took place in the mini! year 
[ SI Che hlrtli of Christ, but tills in to be placed 4 years 
i before the ilute ill general use us the Christian era. 



410 



HEKODICUS 



HEKODOTUS 



both for style and for the general composition 
of his work, like him, introducing here and 
there speeches wholly or in part imaginary. In 
spite of occasional inaccuracies in chronology 
and geography, his narrative is in the main 
truthful and impartial. Edited by Irmisch, 
Lips. 1789-1805, 5 vols., and by Bekker, Lips. 
1855. — 2. Aelius Herodianus, one of the most 
celebrated grammarians of antiquity, was the 
son of Apollonius Dyscolus [Apollonius, No. 4], 
and was born at Alexandria. From that place 
he removed to Rome, where he gained the 
favour of the emperor M. Aurelius, to whom 
he dedicated his work on prosody, syntax, and 
etymology. The estimation in which he was 
held by subsequent grammarians was very 
great. Priscian styles him maximus auctor 
artis grammaticae. Remains of his work are 
edited by Lentz, Lips. 1867. 

Herodicus ('HpoSiKos). 1. Of Babylon, a 
grammarian, was one of the immediate succes- 
sors of Crates of Mallus, and an opponent of 
followers of Aristarchus, against whom he 
wrote an epigram, which is in the Greek Antho- 
logy. — 2. A celebrated physician of Selym- 
bria in Thrace, lived in the 5th century B. c, 
and was one of the tutors of Hippocrates. 

Herodorus ('HpSSwpos), of Heraclea, inPon- 
tus, about B. c. 510, wrote a work on Heracles 
(Plut. Thes. 26). 

Herodotus ('HpdSoros). 1. A Greek his- 
torian, and the father of history, was born at 
Halicarnassus, a Doric colony in Caria. He 
belonged to a noble family at Halicarnassus. 
He was the son of Lyxes and Dryo ; and the 
epic poet Panyasis was his uncle. Herodotus 
left his native city at an early age, in order to 
escape from the oppressive government of 
Lygdamis, the tyrant of Halicarnassus, who 
put to death Panyasis. He settled at Samos 
for some time, and there became acquainted 
with the Ionic dialect ; but he spent many years 
in his travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa, of 
which we shall speak presently. At a later 
time he returned to Halicarnassus, and took a 
prominent part in expelling Lygdamis from his 
native city. In the contentions which followed, 
Herodotus was exposed to the hostile attacks 
of one of the political parties, whereupon he 
again left Halicarnassus, and settled at Thurii, 
in Italy, where he died. Whether he accom- 
panied the first colonists to Thurii in 443, or 
followed them a few years afterwards, is a dis- 
puted point; though it appears probable from 
a passage in his work that he was at Athens at 
the beginning of the Peloponnesian war (431). 
It is also disputed where Herodotus wrote his 
history. Lucian relates that Herodotus read his 
work to the assembled Greeks at Olympia, and 
it was received with such universal applause, 
that the nine books of the work were in conse- 
quence honoured with the names of the nine 
Muses. The same writer adds that the young 
Thucydides was present at this recitation and 
was moved to tears. But this story, which 
rests upon the authority of Lucian alone, must 
be rejected. If Thucydides was a boy of fif- 
teen the recitation would have to be placed in 
B. c. 456, when Herodotus was barely thirty, 
and could not have completed his travels, far 
less have finished his history. Lucian, how- 
ever, may be right in his statement that 
Herodotus recited parts of his history at vari- 
ous times at Olympia, Athens, Corinth, Argos, 
and Sparta. At Athens he is said to have been 
presented with ten talents from the public 
treasury. Whenever and wherever he wrote 



the bulk of his work, there is no doubt that he 
added and revised while he was at Thurii ; 
and it appears that he was engaged upon it 
when he was seventy-seven years of age, since 
he mentions the revolt of the Medes against 
Darius Nothus, and the death of Amyrtaeus, 
events which belong to the years 409 and 408. 
Though the work of Herodotus was probably 
not written till he was advanced in years, yet 
he was collecting materials for it during a great 
part of his life. It was apparently with this 
view that he undertook his extensive travels 
through Greece and foreign countries ; and his 
work contains on almost every page the results 
of his personal observations and inquiries. 
There was scarcely a town of any importance 
in Greece Proper and on the coasts of Asia 
Minor with which he was not familiar ; and at 
many places, such as Samos, Athens, Corinth] 
and Thebes, he seems to have stayed some 
time. The sites of the great battles between 
the Greeks and barbarians, as Marathon, Ther- 
mopylae, Salamis, and Plataeae, were well 
known to him ; and Xerxes' line of march from 
the Hellespont to Athens he had probably him- 
self explored. He also visited most of the Greek 
islands, not only in the Aegaean, but even in 
the west of Greece, such as Zacynthus. In the 
North of Europe he visited Thrace and the 
Scythian tribes on the Black Sea. In Asia he 
travelled through Asia Minor and Syria, and 
visited the cities of Babylon, Ecbatana, and 
Susa. He spent some time in Egypt, and 
travelled as far south as Elephantine. He saw 
with his own eyes all the wonders of Egypt, 
and the accuracy of his observations and de- 
scriptions still excites the astonishment of 
travellers in that country. From Egypt he 
appears to have made excursions to the east 
into Arabia, and to the west into Libya, at 
least as far as Cyrene, which was well known 
to him. — The object of his work is to give an 
account of the struggles between the Greeks and 
Persians. He traces the enmity between Europe 
and Asia to the mythical times. He passes 
rapidly over the mythical ages to come to 
Croesus, king of Lydia, who was known to have 
committed acts of hostility against the Greeks. 
This induces him to give a full history of 
Croesus and of the kingdom of Lydia. The 
conquest of Lydia by the Persians under Cyrus 
then leads him to relate the rise of the Persian 
monarchy, and the subjugation of Asia Minor 
and Babylon. The nations which are mentioned 
in the course of his narrative are again dis- 
cussed more or less minutely. The history of 
Cambyses and his expedition into Egypt induce 
him to enter into the details of Egyptian his- 
tory. The expedition of Darius against the 
Scythians causes him to speak of Scythia and 
the North of Europe. In the meantime the 
revolt of the Ionians breaks out, which eventu- 
ally brings the contest between Persia and 
Greece to an end. An account of this insur- 
rection is followed by the history of the inva- 
sion of Greece by the Persians ; and the his- 
tory of the Persian war now runs in a regular 
channel until the taking of Sestos by the 
Greeks, B. c. 478, with which event his work 
concludes. It will be seen from the preceding 
sketch that the histoiy is full of digressions 
and episodes ; but those do not impair the unity 
of the work, for one thread, as it were, runs 
through the whole, and the episodes are only like 
branches of the same tree. The structure of 
the work thus bears a strong resemblance to 
a grand epic poem, describing the punishment 



HERONDAS 



HERULI 



411 



which followed the pride of the Persian king 
and his rejection of good advice. The whole 
work is pervaded by a deep religious sentiment. 
Herodotus shows the most profound reverence 
for everything which he conceives as divine, 
and rarely ventures to express an opinion on 
what he considers a sacred or religious mys- 
tery. — In order to form a fair judgment of the 
historical value of the work of Herodotus, we 
must distinguish between those parts in which 
he speaks from his own observations and those 
in which he merely repeats what he was told 
by priests and others. In the latter case he 
was undoubtedly often deceived; but whenever 
he speaks from his own observations, he is a 
real model of truthfulness and accuracy ; and 
the more the countries which he describes have 
been explored by modern travellers, the more 
firmly has his authority been established. 
Many things which used to be laughed at as 
impossible or paradoxical are found now to be 
strictly in accordance with truth. He writes in 
what it was called the A.e|is dpofitvr), or running 
style, from its absence of logical periods. The 
dialect in which he wrote is the Ionic, the dia- 
lect used by the earlier logographi, intermixed 
with Epic or poetical expressions, and some- 
times even with Attic and Doric forms. The 
excellencies of his style consist in its transpar- 
ent clearness and the lively flow of the narra- 
tive. He is rightly regarded as the earliest 
real historian, because he was the first who 
carefully collected materials, sifted as far as he 
was able their accuracy (for this is by no means 
neglected), and arranged them in a delightful 
form. His weakest point as a historian, in 
which Thueydides forms a complete contrast, 
was his tendency to overlook the real causes of 
events and to trace them to personal motives. 
— The best editions of Herodotus are by 
Schweighiiuser, Argentor. 1800 ; by Gaisford, 
Oxon. 1824 ; by Biihr, Lips. 1830 ; by Blakesley, 
London, 1854 ; by Woods, London, 1873 ; and 
by Abicht, Leipsic, 1877. — 2. A Greek phy- 
sician, who practised at Rome with great repu- 
tation, about .\. D. 100. He wrote some medical 
works, which are several times quoted by 
Galen. — 3. Also a Greek physician, a native 
either of Tarsus or Philadelphia, taught Sextus 
Empiricus. 

Herondas t'Hpuii/Sas), a writer of mimes in 
the choliambic metre. The name is now com- 
monly written Herodas ; but there is no suffici- 
ent reason for departing from the spelling 
'HpwvSas in Athenaeus p. 80; and it is more 
probable that Herondas (formed from Heron ; 
cf Epaminondas, Sec.) should be corrupted into 
Herodas and Herodes, than that Herodes and 
Herodas should be changed into Herondas. 
The date of Herondas was probably the 3rd 
century u. 0. If he was not, as seems likely, 
a native of Cos, he certainly lived there and 
belonged to that literary school of Cos which 
included Philetas and Theocritus. It has 
been suggested, rather fancifully, that he wTote 
after Catullus. If the very slight resemblances 
which have been traced are due to more than 
accident, Catullus is certainly the borrower. 
Herondas (as Crusius notices) places himself 
earlier than Calliinachus when lie speaks of 
himself (ix. 6) as the next writer of oholiambics 
after Hipponax. If he had lived after Calli- 
machus he could not have been ignorant of the 
choliambics of that poet. Till 181)0 only a few 
fragments of Herondas, quoted by other 
writers, were known. The papyrus in the Brit- 
ish Museum has given us seven of his mimes in a 



1 more or less complete form. They are written 
in the literary Ionic with some Doric of the 
writer's own country and considerable traces 
of Atticising by the copyists. The mimes give 
| vivid scenes of ordinary life in dialogue, and 
I were probably intended for acting. The scene 
of the second (perhaps of most) is laid in Cos. 
They have great value for the insight which 
1 they give into manners and customs. A like- 
' ness to the Adoniazusae of Theocritus is clearly 
seen in the sixth, but it is doubtful whether this 
' is due to direct imitation or to the fact of both 
writers belonging to the same school. It may 
be added that the greater genius of Theocritus 
appears in this branch, the 011I3- one in which 
they can be compared. Editions bv Kenyon 
(ed.princ), 1890; by Rutherford, 1891. 

Heroopolis or Hero ("Rpdiav tto\is, 'HpcZ: 
O. T. Raamses orRameses?), the capital of 
i the Nomos Herobpolites or Arsinoi'tes in Lower 
Egypt, stood on the border of the Desert east 
of the Delta, upon the west head of the Red 
Sea, which was called from it Sinus Heroiipo- 
liticus (ko\ttos 'Hpiowi', 'HpwcnroAi'TTjs or -itikos) 
(Strab. pp. 759, 767; Jos. Ant. ii. 7, 5). Its- 
site is NW. of Lake Timsah not far from 
Ismalia. In Strabo's time the Gulf of Suez 
extended forty miles N. of its present head. 

HeropMlus ('Hpo'<piA.os), one of the most 
celebrated physicians of antiquity, was born at 
Chalcedon in Bithynia, was a pupil of Prax- 
agoras, and lived at Alexandria, under the first 
Ptolemy, who reigned B. c. 323-285. Here he 
soon acquired a great reputation, and was one 
of the founders of the medical school in that 
city. He seems to have given his chief atten- 
tion to anatomy and physiology, which he 
studied not merely from the dissection of 
animals, but also from that of human bodies. 
He is even said to have carried his ardour in 
his anatomical pursuits so far as to dissect 
, criminals alive. He was the author of several 
medical and anatomical works, of which nothing 
but the titles and a few fragments remain. 
These have been published by Marx, De Hero- 
I phiti Vita, &c. Gotting. 1840. 

Herostratus ('HpoarpaTosi, an Ephesian, set 
fire to the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, on the 
same night that Alexander the Great was bom, 
l). c. 350. He was put to the torture, and con- 
fessed that he had fired the temple to immortal- 
ise himself. The Ephesians passed a decree 
condemning his name to oblivion ; but it has 
been, as might have been expected, handed 
down by history. (Strab. p. 040 ; Val. Max. 
viii. 14, 5 ; Gell. ii. 6.) 

Herse T'Epo-rjl, daughter of Ceerops and sister 
of Aglauros, was beloved by Hermes, by whom 
I she became the mother of Cephalus. Respect- 
ing her story, see Aglauhos. She was supposed 
to be honoured in the festival of the Arrephoria 
or Hersephoria [O. I. A. iii. 8, 8), in which 
maidens are thought to have tarried dew-laden 
branches : others have suggested that the 'ipaat 
were sucklings or young animals. In either 
case it is probable that fertility was symbolised, 
and that Herse in the myth grew out of the ritual. 

Hersilia, the wife of Romulus, was the only 
married woman carried off by the Romans in the 
rape of the Sabines. As Romulus after death 
became Quirinus, so Hersilia his wife became 
a goddess, Hora or Horta. (Plut. Horn. 14 ; 
Liv. i. 11 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 829.) Some writers, 
however, made Hersilia the wife of Hostus, 
grandfather of Tullus Hostilius (Dionys. iii. 
1; Plot Bom. 18 : Maerob. i. 6, 10). 

Heruli m Eruli, a powerful German race, are 



412 



HESIODUS 



HESPERIDES 



6aid by Jornandes to have come originally from 
Scandinavia, but they appear on the shores of 
the Black Sea in the reign of Gallienus (a.d. 
262), when in conjunction with the Goths, they 
invaded the Roman empire. They were con- 
quered by the Ostrogoths, and afterwards 
formed part of the great army of Attila, with 
which he invaded Gaul and Italy. After the 
death of Attila (458) a portion of the Heruli 
united with other German tribes ; and under 
the command of Odoacer, who is said to have 
been an Herulian, they destroyed the Western 
Empire, 470. Meantime the remainder of the 
nation formed a powerful kingdom on the 
banks of the Theiss and the Danube, which was 
eventually destroyed by the Longobardi or Lom- 
bards. Some of the Heruli were allowed by 
Anastasius to settle in Pannonia, and they 
served with distinction in the armies of Jus- 
tinian. (Jornand. de Beb. Get. 12, 43-50 ; Vit. 
Gallien. 13 ; Procop. B. G. ii. 11-22, iv. 26-31.) 

Hesiodus ('HtrioSos), one of the earliest Greek 
poets, of whose personal history we possess 
little authentic information. He is frequently 
mentioned along with Homer ; as Homer repre- 
sents the Ionic school of poetry in Asia Minor, 
so Hesiod represents the Boeotian school of 
poetry, which spread over Phocis and Euboea. 
The only points of resemblance between the 
two schools consist in their Epic form and their 
dialect. In other respects they entirely differ. 
The Homeric school takes for its subjects the 
restless activity of the heroic age, while the 
Hesiodic turns its attention to the quiet pur- 
suits of ordinary life, to the origin of the 
world, the gods and heroes. Hesiod lived 
about a century later than Homer, and is 
placed about B.C. 735. He must at any rate be 
distinctly earlier than the poets who wrote in 
the middle of the seventh century B.C. We 
learn from his own poem on Works and Days, 
that he was born in the village of Ascra in 
Boeotia, whither his father had emigrated from 
the Aeolian Cyme in Asia Minor. After the 
death of his father, he was involved in a dispute 
with his brother Perses about his small patri- 
mony, which was decided in favour of his 
brother, who had bribed the judges. He then 
emigrated to Orchomenos, where he spent the 
remainder of his life. This is all that can be 
said with certainty about the life of Hesiod. 
Tradition speaks of his being murdered at Oenoe 
in Locris, and buried at Naupactus, from which 
place his bones were afterwards moved to 
Orchomenos. Many of the stories related about 
him refer to his school of poetry, and not to the 
poet personally. In this light we may regard 
the tradition, that Hesiod had a poetical contest 
with Homer, which is said to have taken place 
at Chalcis during the funeral solemnities of 
king Amphidamus, or, according to others, at 
Aulis or Delos. The story of this contest gave 
rise to a composition still extant under the title 
of 'Ayiav 'Ofxypov iced 'H(n65ou, the work of a 
grammarian who lived towards the end of the first 
century of our era, in which the two poets are re- 
presented as engaged in the contest, and answer- 
ing one another. — The following are the works 
of Hesiod: l."Epyaor"Epya.Kair)tii.4pa.i, Opera et 
Dies, Works and Days. It is written in the most 
homely style, with scarcely any poetical imagery 
or ornament, and must be looked upon as the most 
ancient specimen of didactic poetry. It follows 
the precept which he declares himself to have 
received from the Muses, ' to speak true things ' 
( Th. 26). It is a realistic picture of the daily 
life and work in Boeotia, a picture, generally in 



gloomy colours, of the monotony of toil which 
the earth demands for its tillage, and the diffi- 
culty of getting justice in the world. The 
tendency to make might right he illustrates by 
the earliest fable in Greek literature, that of 
the Hawk and the Nightingale. The poet 
exhorts his brother to make gain by hard work 
instead of unjust dealing, and accordingly 
gives him rules for husbandry, its times and 
seasons, for navigation, and for domestic 
economy. Three episodes are included in it : 
viz. (1) the fable of Prometheus and Pan- 
dora (47-105) ; (2) on the ages of the world, 
which are designated by the names of metals 
(109-201) ; and (3) a description of winter 
(504-558). 2. Qeoyouia, a Theogony, gives an 
account of the origin of the world and the birth 
of the gods, explaining the whole order of nature 
in a series of genealogies, for every part of 
physical as well as moral nature there appears 
personified in the character of a distinct being. 
The whole concludes with an account of some 
of the most illustrious heroes. Though he gives 
many details not found in Homer, and often dif- 
ferent views, he is probably in most cases follow- 
ing legends and myths much older than Homer, 
and derived from ancient hymns and popular- 
stories. [Homebus.] 3. 'Hoicu or rio7ai /xeyaAai, 
also called Kard^oyoi yvvaiKuv, Catalogue of 
Women. This work is lost. It contained 
accounts of the women who had been beloved 
by the gods, and had thus become the mothers 
of the heroes in the various parts of Greece, 
from whom the ruling families derived their 
origin, but fifty-six lines of it have been prefixed 
to the 'AoTrls 'Hpa.K\4ovs, Shield of Hercules, 
which contains a description of the shield of 
Heracles, and is an imitation of the Homeric 
description of the shield of Achilles. It is not 
Hesiod's work, and belongs to a later period. — 
Editions of Hesiod by Paiey, 1861; Kb'chly, 
Lips. 1870 ; Plach, Berl. 1873 ; Lange, Lips. 1890. 

Hesione ('Haidi/rj), daughter of Laomedon, 
king of Troy, was chained by her father to a 
rock, in order to be devoured by a sea-monster, 
that he might thus appease the anger of Apollo 
and Poseidon. Heracles promised to save her, 
if Laomedon would give him the horses which 
he had received from Zeus as a compensation 
for Ganymedes. Heracles killed the monster, 
but Laomedon refused to keep his promise. 
Thereupon Heracles took Troy, killed Lao- 
medon, and gave Hesione to his friend and 
companion Telamon, by whom she became the 
mother of Teucer. Her brother, Priam, sent 
Antenor to claim her back, and the refusal on 
the part of the Greeks is mentioned as one of 
the causes of the Trojan war. (II. v. 649 ; 
Diod. iv. 42; Apollod. iii. 12, 7 ; Hyg. Fab. 89.) 

Hesperia ('EaTrepi'a), the Western land (from 
ecnrepos, vesper), the name given by the Greek 
poets to Italy, because it lay W. of Greece. In 
imitation of them, the Roman poets gave the 
name of Hesperia to Spain, which they called 
ultima Hesperia (Hor. Od. i. 36, 4) to distinguish 
it from Italy, which they occasionally called 
Hesperia Magna (Verg. Aen. i. 569). 

Hesperides ('Ea-rreplSes), the celebrated guar- 
dians of the golden apples which Ge (Earth) 
gave to Hera at her marriage with Zeus 
(Pherec. ap. Schol. ad Ap. Rh. iv. 1396 ; Athen. 
p. 83 ; Hyg. Astr. ii. 3). Their parentage is 
differently related. They are called the daugh- 
ters either of Night or Erebus (Hes. Th. 215), 
or of Phorcys and Ceto, or of Atlas and Hes- 
peris (whence their names Atlantides or Hes- 
perides; Diod. v. 27), or of Zeus and Themis 



HESPERIDUM 

(Pherec. I.e.). Some traditions mentioned three 
Hesperides, viz. Aegle, Arethusa, and Hes- 
peria ; others four, Aegle, Crytheia, Hestia, 
and Arethusa ; and others again seven. The 
poets describe them as possessing the power of 
sweet song (Eur. Hipp. 742). In the earliest 
legends, these nymphs are described as living 
on the river Oceanus, in the extreme West ; 
but the later attempts to fix the geographical 
position of their gardens led poets and geo- 
graphers to different parts of Libya, as the 
neighbourhood of Cyrene, Mount Atlas, or the 
islands on the W. coast of Libya (Hes. Th. 334, 
518 ; Eur. Hipp. 742 ; Plin. vi. 201 ; Mel. iii. 10). 
Apollodorus is alone in placing them among the 
Hyperboreans (ii. 5, 11). They were assisted in 
watching the golden apples by the dragon 
Ladon. It was one of the labours of Heracles 
to obtain possession of these apples. (See 
p. 399.) The golden apples, which seem to 
have been connected with the rays of the sun 
and to have betokened love and fruitfulness, 
appear, not only in the stories of the marriage of 
Hera, but also in the marriage of Peleus and in 
the race of Atalanta (Verg. Eel. vi. 61). 
Hesperidum Insulae. [Hesperiuji.] 
Hesperis. [Berenice, No. 5.] 
Hesperlum ('E<nripiov, 'Eanepov Kepas : C. 
Verde or C. Roxo), a headland on the W. coast 
of Africa, was one of the furthest points to 
which the knowledge of the ancients extended 
along that coast. Near it was a bay called 
Sinus Hesperius ; and a day's journey from it a 
group of islands called Hesperidum" Insulae, 
wrongly identified by some with the Fortunatae 
Insulae : they are either the Cape Verde islands, 
or, more probably, the Bissagos, at the mouth 
of the Rio Grande. 

Hesperus ("Ecnrepos), the evening star, is 
called by Hesiod (Th. 381, 987) a son of As- 
traeus and Eos. He was also regarded as the 
same as the morning star, whence both Homel- 
and Hesiod call him the bringer of light («a><r- 
<p6pos: II. xxii. 318, xxiii. 220). A later 
account makes him a son of Atlas, who was 
fond of astronomy, and who disappeared, after 
ascending Mount Atlas to observe the stars 
(Diod. iii. 00, iv. 27 ; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 879.) Hes- 
perus and Phosphorus among the Greeks, and 
Hesperus and Lucifer among the Romans, were 
from an early period recognised as names for 
the same star. (Hyg. Fab. 65, Astr. ii. 42; Cic. 
A r . D. ii. 20 ; Plin. ii. 86). In art they appear 
as beautiful youths with torches. 

Hestia ('EaTia, Ion. '\arti)), called Vesta by 
the Romans, the goddess of the hearth, or 
rather of the fire burning on the hearth, was a 
daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and, according to 
common tradition, was the first-born of Rhea, 
and consequently the first of the children 
swallowed by Cronus. She was a maiden 
divinity, and when Apollo and Poseidon sued 
for her hand, she swore by the head of Zeus 
to remain a virgin for ever. (Hes. Th. 454 ; 
Pind. Nem. ix. 1; Hymn, in Ven. 4, 22; Diod. 
v. 68.) It is not probable that Homer regarded 
her as a personal deity : in the Odyssey oaths 
are taken by the jVtitj (xiv. 159, xvii. 166, xx. 
231) ; but the words imply rather that she had 
no individual personality apart from the sacred 
fire. In post-Homeric religion she is regarded 
as one of the twelve Olympian deities. As the 
hearth was looked upon as the centre of do- 
mestic life, so Hestia was the goddess of domes- 
tic life and the giver of all domestic happiness : 
as such she was believed to dwell in the inner 
part of every house, and to have invented the 



HESYCHIUS 



413 



art of building houses. In this respect she 
often appears together with Henries, who was 
likewise a deus penetralis. Being the goddess 
of the sacred fire of the altar, Hestia had a 
share in the sacrifices offered to all the gods. 
Hence, when sacrifices were offered, she was 
invoked first, and the first part of the sacrifice 
was presented to her. (Hymn. 32, 5 ; Pind. 
Nem. xi. 5 ; Aristoph. Vesp. 842, and Schol. ; 
Plat. Cratyl. p. 401 ; Paus. v. 14, 5.) The hearth 
itself was the sacred asylum where suppliants 
implored the protection of the inhabitants of the 
house (Thuc. i. 136). The idea of this sanctity is 
derived in all probability from the care with 
which all primitive nations found it necessary 
to preserve the fire of the community. Just as 
in an uncivilised tribe the fire was studiously 
kept up in the chief's dwelling, so the state- 
hearth with its perpetual fire was maintained, 
no longer, indeed, as a necessity, but as a tra- 
ditional religious duty, in the prytaneum of 
most, probably of all, Greek states where the 
goddess had her especial sanctuary (Sa.Kajj.os), 
under the name of Pryiamitis {TlpvravlTis), with 
a statue and the sacred hearth. There, as at a. 
private hearth, Hestia pro- 
tected the suppliants. When 
a colony was sent out, the 
emigrants took the fire 
which was to burn on the 
hearth of their new home 
from that of the mother 
town. If ever the fire of 
her hearth became extinct, 
it was not allowed to be 
lighted again with ordinary 
. fire, but, as in the primitive 
I times, either by fire pro- 
duced by friction, or by 
burning glasses drawing 
fire from the sun. [Diet, 
of Antiq. art. Prytaneum.'] 
I The mystical speculations 
I of later times took their 
origin from the simple ideas 
of the ancients, and as- 
sumed a sacred hearth not 
' only in the centre of the 
earth, but even in that of the Giustlnianl 'Hestia.' 
universe, and confounded (Ftor S,*SS^ lon,a 
Hestia in various ways with 
other divinities, such as Cybele, Gaea, Demeter, 
Persephone, and Artemis. Pausanias mentions 
a temple of Hestia at Hermione (ii. 35, 1) ; but 
in general no separate temple was erected, 
since every prytaneum was a sanctuary of the 
goddess, and a portion of the sacrifices, to what- 
ever divinity they were offered, belonged toher. 
The worship of the Roman Vesta is spoken of 
under Vesta. No description remains of the 
statue of Hestia in the Athenian Prytaneum 
(Puus. i. 18, 8) ; nor of that which Tiberius 
transferred from Paros to Rome (Dio Cass. lv. 
9). The famous 'Giustiniani Hestia' in the 
Torlonia Museum is generally taken to repre- 
sent Hestia, but there are no certain indica- 
tions, and it might stand for other goddesses, 
such as Hera or Demeter. The left hand origi- 
nally held a sceptre, or, perhaps, if it is- Hestia, 
u torch. 

Hestiaeotis ('Ea-ncwns). 1. The NW. part 
of Thessaly [Thessalia]. — 2. Or Histiaea, a 
district in Euboea. [Euboea.] 

Hesychlus (Ho-vxtos). 1. An Alexandrine 
grammarian, under whose name a largo Greek 
dictionary has como down to us. Respecting 
his personal history nothing is known, but he 




414 



HETKICULUM 



HIEBO 



probably lived about a.d. 380. The work is 
based, as the writer himself tells us, upon the 
lexicon of Diogenianus. Hesychius was pro- 
bably a pagan : the Christian glosses and the 
references to Christian writers in the work are 
interpolations by a later hand. The work is one 
of great importance, not only on account of its 
explaining the words of the Greek language, 
but also from its containing much literary and 
archaeological information, derived from earlier 
grammarians and commentators, whose works 
are lost. The arrangement of the work, however, 
is very defective. Editions by Alberti, com- 
pleted after Alberti's death by Ruhnken, Lugd. 
Bat. 1746-1766, 2 vols. fol. ; and by Maur. 
Schmidt, Jen. 1868. — 2. Of Miletus, surnamed 
Illustris, from some office which he held, lived 
about a.d. 540, and wrote an Onomasticon, 
published by Orelli, Lips. 1820. 

Hetriculuia, a town of the Bruttii. 

Hiarbas. [Hiempsal.] 

Hibernia, also called Ierne, Iverna or Ju- 
verna ('Iepj/7;, 'Iepi/!s vriaos, 'Ioi/epfi'a) , the island 
of Ireland, appears to have derived its name 
from the inhabitants of its S. coast, called Ju- 
verni ('lovepvoi) by Ptolemy, but its original 
name was probably Bergion or Vergion. It 
was mentioned by Pytheas (Strab. p. 62) and by 
Aristotle (de Mund. 3), and is frequently spoken 
of by subsequent writers (Diod. v. 32 ; Strab. 
pp. 72, 115, 201 ; Caes. B. G. v. 13 ; Tac. Agr. 
24 ; Plin. iv. 102 ; Avien. Or. Mar. 109) ; but 
the Romans never made any attempt to conquer 
the island, though they obtained some knowledge 
of it from the commercial intercourse which was 
carried on between it and Britain. Ptolemy, 
who must have derived his information from the 
statements of the British merchants who visited 
its coasts, gives a list of its promontories, rivers, 
tribes and towns : among them are Eblana and 
Nagnatae, which may survive in Dublin and 
Connaught. 

Hicesia. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 

Hicetas ('iKeVas or 'I/ceT7)s). 1. A Syracusan, 
contemporary with the younger Dionysius and 
Timoleon. He was at first a friend of Dion, 
after whose death (b.c. 353) his wife Arete, and 
his sister Aristomache placed themselves under 
the care of Hicetas ; but he was persuaded not- 
withstanding to consent to their destruction. 
A few years later he became tyrant of Leontini. 
He carried on war against the younger Diony- 
sius, whom he defeated, and had made himself 
master of the whole city, except the island 
citadel, when Timoleon landed in Sicily, 344. 
Hicetas then opposed Timoleon and oalled in 
the aid of the Carthaginians, but he was de- 
feated and put to death by Timoleon, 339 or 
338. (Plut. Dion. 58, Timol. 1-83 ; Diod. xvi. 
65-82.) — 2. Tyrant of Syracuse, during the 
interval between the reign of Agathocles and 
that of Pyrrhus. He defeated Phintias, tyrant 
of Agrigentum, and was himself defeated by 
the Carthaginians. After a reign of nine years 
(288-279), he was expelled from Syracuse. (Diod. 
xxii. 2.) — 3. Of Syracuse, one of the earlier 
Pythagoreans (Cic. Acad. ii. 39). 

Hiempsal. 1. Son of Micipsa, king of Nu- 
midia, and grandson of Masinissa, was murdered 
by Jugurtha, soon after the death of Micipsa, 
B.C. 118 (Sail. Jug. 5).— 2. King of Numidia, 
grandson or great-grandson of Masinissa, and 
father of Juba, received the sovereignty of part 
of Numidia after the Jugurthine war. He was 
expelled from his kingdom by Cn. Domitius 
Ahenobarbus, the leader of the Marian party in 
Africa, who gave the throne to his supporter 



Hiarbas, but was restored by Pompey in 81, 
when Hiarbas was put to death. Hiempsal 
wrote some works in the Punic language, cited by 
Sallust. (Plut. .Mar. 40, Ponip. 12; Sail. Jug. 11.) 

Hiera. 1. [Aeoliae.]. — 2. [Aegates.] 

Hierapolis ('Updno\ts). 1. A city of Great 
Phrygia, near the Maeander, celebrated for its 
hot springs and its Plutonium (Strab. p. 629). — 
2. Formerly Bambyce (BafifSvicTi : Bambuch, or 
Membij), a city in the NE. of Syria, one of the 
chief seats of the worship of Astarte (Lucian, 
de Dea Syr. 1). 

Hlerapytna ('Upairvrva : Gerapetra), an 
ancient town on the SE. coast of Crete, tra- 
ditionally founded by the Corybantes. It stood 
at the narrowest part of the island due S. of 
Minoa. (Strab. pp. 440, 472, 475, 479.) 

Hierocles ('IepoKArjs). 1. A Greek rhetorician 
of Alabanda in Caria, lived about B.C. 100, and 
was distinguished, like his brother Menecles, by 
the Asiatic style of oratory (Cic. de Or. ii. 23 ; 
Strab. p. 661). — 2. Governor of Bithynia, and 
afterwards of Alexandria, is said to have been 
one of the chief instigators of the persecution 
of the Christians under Diocletian. — 3. A Neo- 
Platonist, who lived at Alexandria about the 
middle of the fifth century. He wrote, besides 
other works which have perished, a commentary 
on the golden verses of Pythagoras, in which 
he endeavours to give an intelligible account 
of the philosophy of Pythagoras. Edited by 
Needham, Cambridge, 1709 ; and by Warren, 
London, 1742. The extant work entitled 
'AcrTeia, a collection of ludicrous tales, is erro- 
neously ascribed to Hierocles the Neo-Plato- 
nist. The work is of no merit. — 4. A Greek 
grammarian, the author of an extant work, en- 
titled SiWkStj^os (that is, The Travelling Com- 
panion), intended as a handbook for travellers 
through the provinces of the Eastern empire. 
It was perhaps written at the beginning of the 
sixth century of our era. It contains a list of 
sixty-four eparchiae or provinces of the Eastern 
empire, and of 935 different towns, with brief 
descriptions. Edited by Wesseling, in Veterum 
Romano-rum Itineraria, Amsterdam, 1735, and 
by Parthey, Berl. 1866. 

Hiero ('Upaiv). 1. Tyrant of Syracuse (b.c. 
478-467), was son of Dinomenes and brother of 
Gelo, whom he succeeded in the sovereignty. 
In the early part of his reign he became involved 
in a war with Theron of Agrigentum, who had 
espoused the cause of his brother Polyzelus, 
with whom he had quarrelled. But Hiero after- 
wards concluded a peace with Theron, and be- 
came reconciled to his brother Polyzelus. After 
the death of Theron, in 472, he carried on war 
against his son Thrasydaeus, whom he defeated 
in a great battle, and expelled from Agrigentum. 
(Diod. xi. 38-49.) But by far the most im- 
portant event of his reign was the great victory 
which he obtained over the Etruscan fleet near 
Cumae (474), and which appears to have effectu- 
ally broken the naval power of that nation 
(Pind. Prjth. i. 137; Diod. xi. 51). A bronze 
helmet from the spoils was dedicated at Olympia 
with an inscription commemorating the victory 
(G. I. G. 29). It is now in the British Museum. 
Hiero died at Catana in the twelfth year of his 
reign, 467. His government was much more 
despotic than that of his brother Gelo. He 
maintained a large guard of mercenary troops, 
and employed numerous spies and informers. 
He was, however, a liberal and enlightened 
patron of men of letters ; and his court became 
the resort of the most distinguished poets and 
philosophers of the day. Aeschylus, Pindar, 



HIERONYMUS 



HTMERA 



415 



and Bacchylides took up their abode with him, 
and we find him associating in friendly inter- 
course with Xenophanes, Epicharmus, and Si- 
monides. (Paus. i. 2, 3 ; Athen. pp. 121, 656 ; 
Ael. V. S. iv. 15.) His intimacy with the latter 
was particularly celebrated, and lias been made 
by Xenophon the subject of an imaginary dia- 
logue, entitled 'lipoiv. His love of magnificence 
was especially displayed in the great contests 
of the Grecian games, and his victories at 
Olympia and Delphi have been immortalised 
by Pindar. — 2. King of Syracuse (b.c. 270-216), 
was the son of Hierocles, a noble Syracusan, 
descended from the great Gelo, but his mother 
was a female servant. When Pyrrhus left 
Sicily (275), Hiero, who had distinguished him- 
self in the wars of that monarch, was de- 
clared general by the Syracusan army. He 
strengthened his power by marrying the 
daughter of Leptines, at that time the most 
influential citizen at Syracuse ; and after his 
defeat of the Mamertines, he was saluted by his 
fellow-citizens with the title of king, 270. It 
was the great object of Hiero to expel the Ma- 
mertines from Sicily ; and accordingly when the 
Romans, in 264, interposed in favour of that 
people, Hiero concluded an alliance with the 
Carthaginians, and in conjunction with them, 
carried on war against the Romans. But 
having been defeated by the Romans, he con- 




Coin ol Hiero II.. King o( Syracuse. B.C. 270-21U. 
Civ., head of Hiero. diademed : rev.. Quadriga, with 

BA1IAEOI IEIQXOI. 



eluded a peace with them in the following year 
(263), in virtue of which he obtained possession 
of the whole SE. of Sicily, and the E. side of 
the island us fur as Tauromenium. (Pol. i. 8-16; • 
Zonar. viii 9; Oros. iv. 1.) From this time ; 
till his death, a period of about half a century, 
Hiero continued the friend and ally of the 
Romans, u policy of which his subjects as 
well as himself reaped the benefits in the en- 
joyment of a state of uninterrupted tranquillity 
and prosperity (Pol. i. 18, 62). Even the heavy 
losses which the Romans sustained in the first 
three years of the second Punic war did not 
shake his fidelity ; and after their great defeats, 
he sent them lurge supplies of corn and auxiliary- 
troops (Liv. xxi. 4!), xxii. 37, xxiii. 21). He died 
in 216 at the age of ninety-two (Luciun, Macrob. 
10; cf. Pol. vii. 8; Liv. xxiv. 4). His govern- 
ment wus mild and equitable. His careful ad- 
ministration of finances is attested by the laws 
regulating the tithes of corn and other agri- 
cultural produce, which, under the name of 
Leges Hieronicae, were retained by the Romans 
when they reduced Sicily to a province (Cic. 
Verr. ii, 18, iii. 8, 51). He adorned the city of 
Syracuse with many public works. His power 
and magnificence were celebrated by Theocritus 
in his 16th Idyll. Hiero had only one son, 
Gelo, who died shortly before his father. He 
was succeeded by his grandson, Hieronymus. 

Hieronymus. ('Upvw/ios). 1. Of Cardia, 
probably accompanied Alexander the Great to 



: Asia, and after the death of that monarch 
(b.c. 323) served under his countryman Eu- 
menes. In the last battle between Eumenes 
and Antigonus (316) Hieronymus fell into the 
hands of Antigonus, to whose service he hence- 

I forth attached himself (Diod. xix. 44). After 

i the death of Antigonus (301), Hieronymus 
continued to follow the fortunes of his son 

1 Demetrius, and was appointed by him governor 
of Boeotia, after his first conquest of Thebes, 
292 (Plut. Demetr. 39). He continued un- 
shaken in his attachment to Demetrius and to 
his son, Antigonus Gonatus, after him. He 
survived Pyrrhus, and died at the age of 104. 

j Hieronymus wrote a history of the events from 
the death of Alexander to that of Pyrrhus, if not 
later. This work has not come down to us, but 
it is frequently cited by later writers as one of 
the chief authorities for the history of Alex- 
ander's successors. We are told by Pausanias 
that Hieronymus displayed partiality to Anti- 
gonus and Demetrius, and in consequence 
treated Pyrrhus and Lysimachus with great 
injustice. (Paus. i. 9, 13.) — 2. King of Syracuse, 
succeeded his grandfather Hiero EL, B.C. 216, 
at fifteen years of age. He was persuaded by the 
Carthaginian party to renounce the alliance 
with the Romans, which his grandfather had 
maintained for so many years. He was assassi- 
nated after a short reign of only thirteen months. 




Coin of Hieronymus, King of Syracuse. B.C. 21G. 
Obc, head of HieronvmuB. diademed: r.-r., thunderbolt. 

With BAIIAEUI 1EPONYMOY. 



(Pol. vii. 2-7; Liv. xxiv. 4).— 3. Of Rhodes, 
was a disciple of Aristotle, and appears to have 
lived down to the time of Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus. He held the highest good to consist in 
freedom from pain and trouble, and denied 
that pleasure was to be sought for its own sake. 
(Cic. Or. 56, 190, Acad. ii. 42, 129, Fin. ii. 
6, 19 ; Diog. Lai : rt. iv. 41, 45.)— 4. Commonly 
known as Saint Jerome, one of the most cele- 
brated of the Christian Fathers, was born at 
Stridon, a town upon the confines of Dalmatia 
and Pannonia, about a.d. 340. For an account 
of his life and writings see Diet, of Christian 
Biography. 

Hierosolyma. (Jerusalem.] 

Hilarius. 1. Bishop of Poitiers, a.d. 850. 
—2. Bishop of Aries, a.d. 429. [See Diet, of 
Christian Biography.] 

Himera ('Wpaj. 1. (Fiume Salso), one of 
the principal rivers in the S. of Sicily, at one 
time the boundary between the territories of 
the Carthaginians and Syracusans, receives 
near Enna the water of a salt spring, and 
hence Ills salt water as f.ir as its mouth (Diod. 
xix. 109; Pol. vii. 4). — 2. A smaller river in 
the N. of Sicily, flows into the sea between the 
towns of Himera and Thermae (l'ind. Pt/th. i. 
158 ; Plin. iii. 90). — 3. A celebrated Greek city 
on the N. coast of Sicily, W. of the mouth 
of the river Himera [No. 2], was founded by 
the Chalcidians of Zancle, B.C. 648, and after- 
wards received Dorian settlers, so that tho 



416 



HIMEEIUS 



HIPPARCHUS 



inhabitants spoke a mixed dialect, partly Ionic 
(Chalcidian) and partly Doric (Thuc. vi. 5 ; 
Strab. p. 272; Diod. xiii. 62). About 560 
Himera, being threatened by its powerful 
neighbours, placed itself under the protection 
of Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, in whose 
power it appears to have remained till his 
death. At a later time (500) we find Himera 
governed by a tyrant, Terillus, who was expelled 
by Theron of Agrigentum. Terillus thereupon 
applied for assistance to the Carthaginians, 
who, anxious to extend their influence in Sicily, 
sent a powerful army into Sicily under the j 
command of Hamilcar. The Carthaginians I 
were defeated with great slaughter at Himera 
by the united forces of Theron and Gelo of 
Syracuse on the same day as the battle of 
Salamis was fought, 480. (Pind. Pyth. i. 152 ; 
Hdt. vii. 166 ; Diod. xi. 20.) Himera was now 
governed by Thrasydaeus, the son of Theron, 
in the name of his father ; but the inhabitants 
having attempted to revolt, Theron put to 
death or drove into exile a considerable part of 
the population, and repeopled the city with 
settlers from all quarters, but especially of J 
Dorian origin (Diod. xi. 48). After the death 
of Theron (472), Himera recovered its indepen- : 
deuce, and for the next sixty years was one of 
the most flourishing cities in Sicily. It assisted 
Syracuse against the Athenians in 415 (Thuc. 




Coin of Himera (about 4o0 B.C.) 
Obv., Nymph Himera sacrificing at altar : above her, a 
grain of corn ; behind her. Silenus bathing at a foun- 
tain ; rev., IMEPAION; chariot, with Nike crowning the 
charioteer. 



vi. 62). In 409 it was taken by Hannibal, the 
son of Gisgo, who, to revenge the great defeat 
which the Carthaginians had suffered before 
this town, levelled it to the ground and de- 
stroyed almost all the inhabitants (Diod. xiii. 
59; Xen. Sell. i. 1, 37). Himera was never 
rebuilt ; but on the opposite bank of the river 
Himera, the Carthaginians founded a new 
town, which, from a warm medicinal spring in 
its neighbourhood, was called Thermae (©ep^ai : 
Qepfxlrris, Thennitanus : Termini). Here the 
remains of the unfortunate inhabitants of 
Himera were allowed to settle. The Romans, 
who highly prized the warm springs of 
Thermae, permitted the town to retain its own 
constitution ; and Augustus made it a colony. 
(Cic. Verr. ii. 37, 46, 75.)— The poet Stesichorus 
was born at the ancient Himera, and the 
tyrant Agathocles at Thermae. 

Himerius ('l/ieptos), a Greek sophist, was 
born at Prusa in Bithynia, and studied at 
Athens. He was subsequently professor of 
rhetoric at Athens, where he gave instruction to 
Julian, afterwards emperor, and the Christian 
writers, Basil and Gregory Nazianzen. In 362 
the emperor Julian invited him to his court at 
Antioch, and made him his secretary. He 
returned to Athens in 368, and there passed 
the remainder of his life. There were extant 
in the time of Photius seventy-one orations 
by Himerius ; but of these only twenty-four 



have come down to us complete. Edited by 
Wernsdorf, Gottingen, 1790, and by Diibner, 
1849. 

HimilCO ('lfj.1 A/cow). 1. A Carthaginian, who 
conducted a voyage of discovery from Gades 
towards the N., along the W. shores of Europe, 
at the same time that Hanno undertook his 
voyage to the S. along the coast of Africa. 
[Hanno, No. 10.] Himilco represented that his 
further progress was prevented by the stagnant 
nature of the sea, loaded with sea weed, and by 
the absence of wind. His voyage is said to 
have lasted four months, but it is impossible to 
judge how far it was extended. Perhaps it was 
intentionally wrapt in obscurity by the com- 
mercial jealousy of the Carthaginians. (Plin. ii. 
169 ; Avien. Or. Mar. 117, 383, 412.)— 2. Son of 
Hanno, commanded, together with Hannibal, 
son of Gisco [Hannibal, No. 1], a Carthagi- 
nian army in Sicily, and laid siege to Agrigen- 
tum, B.C. 406. Hannibal died before Agrigen- 
tum of a pestilence which broke out in the 
camp ; and Himilco, now left sole general, 
succeeded in taking the place, after a siege of 
nearly eight months (Diod. xiii. 80-114.) At a 
later period he carried on war against Diony- 
sius of Syracuse. In 395 he defeated Dionysius, 
and laid siege to Syracuse ; but, while pressing 
the siege of the city, a pestilence carried off a 
great number of his men. In this weakened 
condition, Himilco was attacked and defeated 
by Dionysius, and was obliged to purchase his 
safety by an ignominious capitulation. Such 
was his grief and disappointment at this termi- 
nation to the campaign, that, on his return to 
Carthage, he put an end to his life by voluntary 
abstinence. (Diod. xiv. 41-76 ; Just. xix. 2.) — 3. 
The Carthaginian commander at Lilybaeum, 
which he defended with skill and bravery 
when it was attacked by the Romans, 250 (Pol. 
i. 41-53). — i. Commander of the Carthaginian 
forces in Sicily during a part of the second Punic 
war, 214-212 (Liv. xxiv. 27-39).— 5. Surnamed 
Phamaeas, commander of the Carthaginian 
cavalry in the third Punic war. He deserted to 
the Romans, by whom he was liberally re- 
warded. (Appian, Pun. 97-109.) 

Hippana (ra "Ivirava), a town in the N. of 
Sicily near Panormus (Pol. i. 24). 

HipparcMa ('Iir7rapx' a )i w ' le °f Crates the 
Cynic. [For details, see Grates, No. 3.] 

Hipparchus {"iTnrapxos). 1. Son of Pisis- 
tratus. [Pisistratidae.] — 2. A celebrated 
Greek astronomer, was a native of Nicaea in 
Bithynia, and flourished B.C. 162-145. He 
resided both at Rhodes and Alexandria. He 
was the true father of astronomy, but our 
knowledge of his greatness is derived from 
Ptolemy. He was the first who demonstrated 
the means of solving all triangles, rectilinear 
and spherical. He constructed a table of 
chords, of which he made the same sort of 
use as we make of our sines. He made more 
observations than his predecessors, and under- 
stood them better. He invented the plani- 
sphere, or the mode of representing the starry 
heavens upon a plane, and of producing the 
solution of problems of spherical astronomy. 
He is also the father of true geography, by his 
happy idea of marking the position of spots on 
the earth, as was done with the stars, by circles 
drawn from the pole perpendicularly to the 
equator : that is, by latitudes and longitudes. 
The catalogue which Hipparchus constructed 
of the stars is preserved in the Almagest of 
Ptolemy. Hipparchus wrote numerous works, 
which are all lost with the exception of his 



HIPPAEINUS 

commentary on the Phaenomena of Aratus. Ed. 
by Petavius, Paris, 1630. 

Hipparinus ('Imrapivos). 1. A Syracusan, 
father of Dion and Aristomache, supported the 
elder Dionysius, who married his daughter 
Aristomache (Ar. Pol. v. 6 ; Plut. Dion. 3).— 2. 
Son of Dion, and grandson of the preceding, 
threw himself from the roof of a house, and was 
killed on the spot, when his father attempted, 
by restraint, to cure him of the dissolute habits 
which he had acquired while under the power 
of Dionysius (Plut. Dion, 55 ; Ael. V. H. iii. 4). 
— 3. Son of the elder Dionysius by Aristomache, 
daughter of No. 1, succeeded Callippus in the 
tyranny of Syracuse, B. c. 352. He was assassi- 
nated, after reigning two years. (Diod. xvi. 36.) 

Hipparis ('lirirapis : Carnarina), a river in 
the S. of Sicily, which flows into the sea near 
Camarina. 

Hippasus {"liriracros), of Metapontum or Cro- 
ton, in Italy, one of the elder Pythagoreans, 
held the element of fire to be the cause of all 
things. In consequence of his making known 
the sphere, consisting of twelve pentagons, re- 
garded by the Pythagoreans as a secret, he is 
said to have perished in the sea as an impious 
man. (Diog. Laert. viii. 84 ; Iambi. Pijth. 18, 23.) 

Hipplas ('Iira-ias). 1. Son of Pisistratus. 
[Pisistbattdae.] — 2. The Sophist, was a native 
of Elis, and the contemporary of Socrates. His 
fellow-citizens availed themselves of his abilities 
in political matters, and sent him on a diploma- 
tic mission to Sparta. He travelled through 
Greece for the purpose of acquiring wealth and 
celebrity, by teaching and public speaking. His 
character as a sophist, his vanity and boastful 
arrogance, are described in the two dialogues 
of Plato, Hippias major and Hippias minor. 

Hippo (\iritwv), in Africa. 1. H. Eeglus 
(I. fSaaiMKos: nr. Bonah, Eu.), a city on the 
coast of Numidia, W. of the mouth of the Eu- 
bricatus (Strab. p. 832; Sail. Jug. 19), cele- 
brated as the bishopric of St. Augustine. — 2. 
H. Diarrhytus or Zaritus ('I. StdppvTos: 
Bizerta), a city on the N. coast of the Cartha- 
ginian territory (Zeugitana), W. of Utica, at the 
mouth of the Sinus Hipponensis (Plin. v. 23). 
— 3. A town of the Carpetani in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, S. of Toletum. 

Hippoeentauri. [Centauel] 

Hippocoon ClitiroKooiv), son of Oebalus and 
Batea. After his father's death, he expelled his 
brother, Tyndareus, in order to secure the king- 
dom ; but Heracles led Tyndareus back, and 
slew Hippocoon and his sons (Apollod. iii. 10, 4 ; 
Paus. iii. 1, 4). Ovid (Met. viii. 314) mentions 
the sons among the Calydonian hunters. 

Hippocrates ('Iiriro«paTT;sJ. 1. Fatherof Pi- 
sistratus, the tyrant of Athens (Hdt. i. 59, v. 65). 
— 2. An Athenian, son of Megacles, was brother 
of Clisthenes, the legislator, and grandfather, 
through hi* daughter, Agariste, of the illustrious 
Pericles (Hdt. vi. 131).— 3. An Athenian, son of 
Xanthippus and brother of Pericles. He had 
three sons, who, as well as their father, are 
alluded to by Aristophanes as men of a mean 
capacity and devoid of education (Ar. Nub. 1001, 
Therm. 273). — 4. An Athenian, son of Ariphron, 
commanded the Athenians, n. c. 424, when he 
was defeated and slain by the Boeotians at the 
battle of Delium (Thuc. iv. 89-101 ; Diod. xii. 
09). — 6. A Lacedaemonian, served under Min- 
darus on the Asiatic coast in 111), and after the 
defeat of Mindarus at Cyzicus, became com- 
mander of the fleet. He was the author of the 
well-known laconic despatch, " Our ships (to 
Ka\a) are lost ; Mindarus is gone ; the men are 



HIPPOCEATES 



417 



hungry; what to do we know not." (Xen. Hell. 
i. 1, 23.) — 6. A Sicilian, succeeded his brother 
Cleander as tyrant of Gela, 498. His reign 
was prosperous ; and he extended his power 
over several other cities of Sicily. He died in 
491, while besieging Hybla (Hdt. viii. 154). — 7. 
A Sicilian, brother of Epicydes. — 8. The most 
celebrated physician of antiquity. He was born 
in the island of Cos about B.C. 460. He belonged 
to the family of the Asclepiadae, and was the 
son of Heraclides, who was also a physician. 
His mother's name was Phaenarete, who was 
said to be descended from Heracles. He was 
instructed in medical science by his father and 
by Herodicus, and he is said to have been also 
a pupil of Gorgias of Leontini. He wrote, 
taught, and practised his profession at home ; 
travelled in different parts of the continent of 
Greece ; and died at Larissa in Thessaly, about 
357, at the age of 104. He had two sons, Thes- 
salus and Dracon, and a son-in-law, Polybus, 
all of whom followed the same profession, and 
who are supposed to have been the authors of 
some of the works in the Hippocratic collection. 
These are the only certain facts which we know 
respecting the life of Hippocrates ; but to these 
later writers have added a large collection of 
stories, many of which are clearly fabulous. 
Thus he is said to have stopped the plague at 
Athens by burning fires throughout the city, by 
suspending chaplets of flowers, and by the use of 
an antidote. It is also related that Artaxerxes 
Longimanus, king of Persia, invited Hippocrates 
to come to his assistance during a time of pesti- 
lence, but that Hippocrates refused his request, 
on the ground of his being the enemy of his 
country. — The writings which have come down 
to us under the name of Hippocrates were com- 
posed by several different persons, and are of 
very different merit. They are more than sixty 
in number, but of these only a few are certainly 
genuine. They are : — 1. UpoyvioariKSv, Prae- 
notiones or Prognosticon. 2. 'A<popt<Tfioi, Aph- 
orismi. 3. 'ETriSrju'twt' BijSAi'o, De Morbis Po- 
pularibus (or Epidemiorum). 4. nep! Aian-7js 
'0|eW, De Batione Vidua in Morbis Acutis, 
or De Diaeta Acutorum. 5. Ilepl 'Azpwv, 
'TSdruy, Tdwuv, De Aere, Aquis, et Locis. 6. 
rispl ruiv Iv KecpaA?) Tpafj-drcov, De Capitis Vul- 
neribus. Some of the other works were perhap* 
written by Hippocrates ; but the great majority 
of them were composed by his disciples and 
followers, many of whom bore the name of 
Hippocrates. The ancient physicians wrote 
numerous commentaries on the works in the 
Hippocratic collection. Of these the most 
valuable are the commentaries of Galen. — Hip- 
pocrates divided the causes of disease into two 
principal classes : the one comprehending the 
influence of seasons, climates, water, situation, 
&c, and the other the influence of food, exer- 
cise, &c. He considered that while heat and 
cold, moisture and dryness, succeeded one 
another throughout the year, the human body 
underwent certain analogous changes, which 
influenced the diseases of the period. He sup- 
posed that the four fluids or humours of the 
body (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) 
were the primary seat of disease ; that health 
was the result of the due combination (or crasis) 
of these, and that, when this crasis was dis- 
turbed, disease was the consequence ; that, in 
the course of a disorder that was proceeding 
favourably, these humours underwent a certain 
change in quality (or coction), which was the 
sign of returning health, us preparing the way 
for the expulsion of the morbid matter, or 

E E 



418 



HIPPOCRENE 



HIPPON 



crisis ; and that these crises had a tendency to 
occur at certain stated periods, which were 
hence called ' critical days.' — Hippocrates was 
evidently a person who not only had had great 
experience, but who also knew how to turn it to 
the best account ; and the number of moral re- 
flections and apophthegms that we meet with 
in his writings, some of which (as, for example, 
' Life is short, and Art is long ') have acquired 
a sort of proverbial notoriety, show him to have 
been a profound thinker. His works are written 
in the Ionic dialect, and the style is so concise 
as to be sometimes extremely obscure. — The 
best edition of his works is by Littre, Paris, 
1839 seq., with a French translation. 

Hippocrene ('liriroKpriiri, the ' Fountain of the 
Horse,' called by Persius Fons Caballinus), was 
a fountain in Mt. Helicon in Boeotia, sacred to 
the Muses, said to have been produced by the 
horse Pegasus striking the ground with his feet. 

Hippodamia ('XiriroSdfi(ia). 1. Daughter of 
Oenomaus, king of Pisa in Elis. For details 
see Oenomaus and Pelops. — 2. Wife of Piri- 
thous, at whose nuptials took place the cele- 
brated battle between the Centaurs and Lapi- 
thae. See Pieithous. — 3. See Bbiseis. 

Hippodamus ('lirir68a.fx.os), a distinguished 
Greek architect, a native of Miletus, and the son 
of Euryphon or Eurycobn. His fame rests on 
his construction, not of single buildings, but of 
whole cities. His first great work was the town 
of Piraeus, which he built under the auspices 
of Pericles. When the Athenians founded 
their colony of Thurii (b. c. 443), Hippodamus 
went out with the colonists, and was the archi- 
tect of the new city. Hence he is often called 
a Thurian. He afterwards built Rhodes, B.C. 407. 
(Ar. Pol. ii. 5 ; Strab. p. 654 ; Diod. xii. 10.) 

Hippolochus ('l7r7r(iAoxos), son of Bellero- 
phontes and Philonoe or Anticlea, and father of 
Glaucus, the Lycian prince. 

Hippolyte ('lTT7roAuTT)). 1. Daughter of Ares 
and Otrera, was queen of the Amazons, and sister 
of Antiope and Melanippe. She wore a girdle 
given to her by her father ; and when Heracles 
came to fetch this girdle, she was slain by him. 
[See p. 398.] According to another tradition, 
Hippolyte, with an army of Amazons, marched 
into Attica, to take vengeance on Theseus for 
having carried off Antiope ; but being conquered 
by Theseus, she fled to Megara, where she died 
of grief, and was buried (Paus. i. 41, 7 ; Plut. 
Thes. 27 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 9). In some accounts 
Hippolyte, and not Antiope, is said to have been 
married to Theseus (Schol. ad Eur. Hipp. 10 ; 
Athen. p. 557; Stat. Theb. xii. 534).— 2. Or 
Astydamia, wife of Acastus, fell in love with 
Peleus. [See Acastus.] 

Hippolytus ('lirir6kvTos). 1. Son of Theseus 
by Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons [see above], 
or her sister Antiope (Plut. Thes. 28 ; Isocr. 
Panath. 193; Diod. iv. 62; Paus. i. 2, 1). Ac- 
cording to the Attic story, which through the 
genius of Euripides has prevailed over the older 
Troezenian account, Theseus afterwards married 
Phaedra, who fell in love with Hippolytus, led 
thereto by Aphrodite, who was indignant be- 
cause Hippolytus preferred hunting to love. 
Phaedra, when her offers were rejected by her 
stepson, hanged herself, leaving a letter in 
which she accused him to his father of having 
attempted her dishonour. Theseus thereupon 
cursed his son, and begged his father (Aegeus 
or Poseidon) to destroy him. Accordingly, as 
Hippolytus was driving in his chariot along the 
sea-coast, Poseidon sent forth a bull from the 
water. The horses were frightened, upset the 



chariot, and dragged Hippolytus along the 
ground till he was dead. Troezen has a different 
local myth. Hippolytus has a temple and an 
image of great antiquity dedicated by Diomedes, 
who first sacrificed there. Every maiden before 
her marriage dedicates in this temple a lock of 
her hair. The story of his death is denied, but 
I he was placed in the stars as the Charioteer. 
They showed also a myrtle in the neighbouring 
temple of Aphrodite connected with the story 
of the love of Phaedra, whose tomb is hard by ; 
and a statue called Asclepius, which is said by 
the Troezenians to be really the image of Hip- 
polytus. (Paus. ii. 32 ; cf . Diod. iv. 62 ; Eur. Hipp. 
1424.) At Epidaurus there was a stele on which 
it was recorded that Hippolytus dedicated twenty 
horses to Asclepius, and also a tradition that 
he was restored to life by Asclepius, and went to 
Aricia in Italy, where he became king and made 
a grove for Artemis (Paus. ii. 27, 4). In this 
story the Latin poets make him take the name 
of Virbius and exclude horses from the grove 
(Verg. Aen. vii. 774 ; Ov. Met. xv. 544 ; Stat. 
Silv. iii. 1, 55; Ov. Fast. iii. 266; cf. Hor. Od. 
iv. 7, 25, who follows Euripides and denies the 
restoration to life). There is no great probability 
in the theory now held by many that Hippolytus 
and Phaedra have to do with the sun and moon. 
It is better to regard Hippolytus as an ancient 
local deity of Troezen who has been altered into 
a hero. He was probably originally, as a god at 
once of purity and of hunting, the male counter- 
part of Artemis, and the story of his death is 
partly a reminiscence of a struggle between his 
worship and that of Poseidon, and partly derived 
from some ritual involving the dedication or 
sacrifice of horses. Again, there may be a 
question whether his name was derived from the 
story or the story, to some extent, from his 
name. How the story of Phaedra came in is 
not so clear, but it has been suggested with some 
probability that it arose from his reputation for 
continence and purity of life. The mingling of 
his worship with that of Asclepius transformed 
him into a mortal hero raised from death by 
Asclepius ; and in Italy, because of his connexion 
with Artemis and with horses, he became iden- 
tified with the Italian deity Virbius, a sort of 
Tree-spirit worshipped in conjunction with 
Diana at Aricia. [Diana ; ViEBrus.] — 2. Of 
Rome, a Christian writer at the end of the 2nd 
and beginning of the 3rd centuries. [See Diet, 
of Christ. Biogr.] 

Hippomedon ('iirirotxeSwv), son of Aristo- 
machus, or, according to Sophocles, of Talaus, 
was one of the Seven against Thebes, where he 
was slain during the siege by Hyperbius or 
Ismarus (Aesch. Sept. 490 ; Soph. O. C. 1318 ; 
Apollod. iii. 6, 3). 

Hippomenes (liriroiiiviis). 1. Son of Mega- 
reus, and great-grandson of Poseidon, conquered 
Atalanta in the foot-race. For details see 
Atalanta, No. 2. — 2. A descendant of Codrus, 
the fourth of the decennial archons. Incensed 
at the barbarous punishment which he inflicted 
on his daughter, the Attic nobles deposed 
him, 722 B.C., and thenceforth the dignity no 
longer appertained exclusively to the descen- 
dants of Medon. (Heracl. Pol. i. ; Damasc. p. 42. > 

Hippon Cliriraiv), of Rhegium, a philosopher 
of uncertain date, belonging to the Ionian 
school. He was accused of Atheism, and s<^ 
got the surname of the Melian, as agreeing in 
sentiment with Diagoras. He held water and 
fire to be the principles of all things, the latter 
springing from the former, and developing it- 
self by generating the universe (Arist. Met. i. 3).. 



HIPPONAX 

Hipponax ('Iirjiwal), of Ephesus, son of 
Pytheus and Protis, was, after Archilochus and 
Simonides, the third of the Iambic poets of 
Greece. He flourished B.C. 546-520. He was 
distinguished for his love of liberty, and having 
been expelled from his native city by the 
tyrants, he took up his abode at Clazomenae, 
for which reason he is sometimes called a 
Clazomenian. In person, Hipponax was little, 
thin, and ugly, but very strong. The two 
brothers Bupalus and Athenis, who were sculp- 
tors of Chios, made statues of Hipponax, in 
which they caricatured his natural ugliness; 
and he in return directed all the power of his 
satirical poetry against them, and especially 
against Eupalus. The sculptors are said by 
some writers to have hanged themselves in 
despair. (Hor. Epod. vi. 14 ; Plin. xxxvi. 11 ; 
Strab. p. 642 ; Aelian, V. H. x. 6 ; Athen. p. 
552.) Hipponax was celebrated in antiquity 
for the severity of his satires. He severely 
chastised the effeminate luxury of his Ionian 
brethren; he did not spare his own parents; 
and he ventured even to ridicule the gods. — In 
his satires he introduced a spondee or a trochee 
in the last foot, instead of an iambus. This 
change made the verse irregular in its rhythm, 
and gave it a sort of halting movement, whence 
it was called the Choliambus (xtt>^i'aju/3os, lame 
iambic), or Iambus Scazon {ffKa^uv, limping). 
He also wTOte a parody on the Iliad. Frag- 
ments edited by Welcker, Gotting. 1817, and by 
Bergk, in the Poetae Lyrici Graeci. 

Hipponlcus. [Callias and Hjpponicus.] 

Hipponinm. [Vlbo.] 

Hipponous. [Bellerofhon.] 

Hippo tades ('liriTOTaSris), son of Hippotes: 
that is, Aeolus. [Aeolus, Xo. 2.] Hence the 
Aeoliae Insulae are called Hippotadae regnum. 
(Ov. Met. xiv. 86j. 

Hippotes flrofriff). 1. Father of Aeolus. 
[Aeolus, No. 2.] — 2. Son of Phylas by a 
daughter of Iolaus, great-grandson of Heracles, 
and father of Aletes. When the Heraclidae 
invaded Peloponnesus, Hippotes killed the 
seer C'arnus. The army in consequence began 
to suffer very severely, and Hippotes by the 
command of an oracle was banished for ten 
years. (Apollod. ii. 8, 3 ; Pans. iii. 13, 3 ; Diod. 
v. 9.) — -3. Son of Creon king of Corinth. 
[Jason.] 

Hippothoon Cliriro66uiv), an Attic hero, son of 
Poseidon and Alope, the daughter of Cercyon. 
He had a heroum at Athens ; and one of the 
Attic phvlae, or tribes, was called after him 
Hippothoontis. (Pans. i. 5, 38, 39.) 

Hippothous ('\wTr68oos). I. Son of Cercyon, 
and father of Aepytus, succeeded Agapenor as 
king in Arcadia (Paus. viii. 5, 45). — 2. Son of 
Lethus, grandson of Teutamus, and brother of 
Pylaeus, led a band of Pelasgians from Larissa 
to the assistance of the Trojans. He was slain 
by the Telamonian Ajax ii. 842, xvii. 288). 

Hirpini, a Samnite people, whose name is 
said to come from the Sabine word hirpus, 
'a wolf,' dwelt in the S. of Samnium, between 
Apulia, Lucunia and Campania. Their chief 
town was Aeculanlm. (Samnites.] 

Hirtius, A., belonged to a plebeian family 
which came probably from Ferentinum in the 
territory of the Hernici. He was the personal 
and political friend of Caesar the dictator. In 
B.C. 58 he was Caesar's legatus in Gaul, and 
during the Civil war his name constantly 
appears in Cicero's correspondence. He was 
one of the ten praetors nominated by Caesar for 
46, and during Caesar'B absence in Africa he 



HISPANIA 



419 



lived principally at his Tusculan estate, which 
was contiguous to Cicero's villa. Though 
politically opposed, they were on friendly 
terms, and Cicero gave Hirtius lessons in 
oratory. (Cic. ad Fam. vii. 33, ix. .6, xvi. 18; 
Suet. Ehet. 1.) In 44 Hirtius received Belgic 
Gaul for his province, but he governed it by 
deputy, and attended Caesar at Borne, who 
nominated him and Vibius Pansa consuls for 
I 43. After Caesar's assassination (44; Hirtius 
; first joined Antony, but. being disgusted by the 
; despotic arrogance of the latter, he retired to 
■ Puteoli, where he renewed his intercourse with 
\ Cicero. Later in the year he resided at his 
Tusculan villa, where he was attacked by a 
dangerous illness, from which he never per- 
fectly recovered. On the 1st of January, 43, 
Hirtius and Pansa entered on their consulship, 
according to Caesar's arrangement. The two 
consuls were sent with Octavian against 
Antony, who was besieging Dec. Brutus at 
Mutina. Pansa was defeated by Antony, and 
died of a wound which he had received in the 
battle. Hirtius retrieved this disaster by defeat- 
ing Antony, but he also fell on the 27th of 
April, in leading an assault on the besiegers' 
camp. (Appian, B. C. iii. 60-71 ; Dio Cass, 
xlvi. 36-89 ; Ov. Trist. iv. 10, 6 ; Tibull. iii. 5, 
18.) Octavian sent the bodies of the slain 
consuls to Bome, where they were received 
with extraordinary honours, and publicly buried 
in the Field of Mars (Veil. Pat. ii. 62). To 
Octavian their removal from the scene was so 
timely, that he was accused by many of 
murdering them (Dio Cass, xlvi." 39; Suet. 
Aug. 11 ; Tac. Ann. i. 10). Hirtius wrote the 
8th book of the Gallic War ; and the authorship 
of the Alexandrian, African, and Spanish was 
ascribed by some to Hirtius, by others to 
Oppius (Suet. Jul. 56). It is possible that 
Hirtius wrote the Alexandrian War; but the 
inferior style of the African and Spanish wars 
makes it tolerably certain that they were not 
his work, nor that of Oppius either. They 
seem also to be written by some one who took 
part in the campaigns, from which both Hirtius 
and Oppius were absent. 

Hirtuleius, a distinguished officer of Ser- 
torius in Spain. In B.C. 78 he was routed and 
slain near Italica in Baetica bv Metellus 
(Appian, B. C. i. 100). 

Hispalis, more rarely Hispal (Seville), a 
town of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica, 
founded by the Phoenicians, was situated on 
the left bank of the Baetis, and was in reality a 
seaport, for, although 500 stadia from the sea, 
the river is navigable for considerable vessels up 
to the town. Under the Romans Hispalis was 
the third town in the province, Corduba and 
Gades being the first two. It was patronised 
by Caesar, because Corduba had espoused 
the side of Pompey. He made it a Roman 
colony, under the name of Julia Romula or 
Homulcnsis, and a conventus juridicus or town 
of assize. Under the Goths and Vandals 
Hispalis was the chief town in the S. of Spain 
and under the Arabs was the capital of a sepa 
rate kingdom. (Strab. p. 141 ; Bell. AUx. 51 ; 
Dio Cass, xliii. 39.) 

Hispania or Iberia {'\<Tir<wia,'\&-qp'ia: Eh 
panus, Iberns : Spain), a peninsula in the SW. 
of Europe, is connected with the land only on 
the NE., where the Pyrenees form its boun- 
dary, and is surrounded on all other sides by 
the sea : on the E. and S. by the Mediterranean, 
on the W. by the Atlantic, and on the N. by the 
Cantabriun sea. Vague legends of Spain had 

I E 9 



420 



HISPANIA 



reached the Greeks, doubtless through Phoeni- 
cians at an early period, even as early as Hesiod 
(who mentions Erythea : Th. 290), and the 
lyric poets of the 7th century B.C. (Strab. p. 
148). Pindar mentions also the ' Pillars of 
Hercules ' ('Hpaicheos araKai : 01. iii. 44, 
Isthm. iii. 30) as the limits of the world. The 
country generally was first mentioned by 
Hecataeus (about B.C. 500) under the name of 
Iberia ; but this name originally indicated only 
the E. coast : the W. coast beyond the Pillars 
of Hercules was called Tartessis (Taprrjcriri's) ; 
and the interior of the country Celtica (tj 
KeATiKTj). Herodotus also speaks of Iberia, 
but his information does not extend much 
beyond the country about Gades (i. 163, iv. 8, 
152). At a later time the Greeks applied the 
name of Iberia, which is usually derived from 
the river Iberus, to the whole country. Con- 
siderably greater knowledge of the coast, 
though probably not of the interior, was 
possessed by Eratosthenes and Pytheas (Strab. 
pp. 64, 92), of whose writings Avienus, many 
centuries later, made use for his Ora Maritima 
(in which he used also earlier writers, such as 
Hecataeus). But neither Greeks nor Romans 
had any accurate knowledge of the country be- 
fore the second Punic war. The name Sispania, 
by which the Romans call the country, first 
occurs at the time of the Roman invasion. 
The origin of the name is quite uncertain, 
though some take it to be merely a corruption 
of the name Hesperia, or ' western land,' by 
which it was known to the Italians and Italian 
Greeks. It may be of a Basque or Iberian 
origin to which we have no clue. — Spain is a 
very mountainous country. The principal 
mountains are, in the NE. the Pyrenees 
[Pyrenaeus M.], and in the centre of the 
country the Idubeda, which runs parallel with 
the Pyrenees from the land of the Cantabri to 
the Mediterranean, and the Orospeda or 
Obtospeda, which begins in the centre of the 
Idubeda, runs SW. throughout Spain, and 
terminates at Calpe. The rivers of Spain are 
numerous. The six most important are the 
Iberus (Ebro), Baetis (Guadalquivir), and 
Anas (Guadiana), in the E. and S. ; and the 
Tagus, Durius (Douro), and Minius (Minho), 
in the W. Spain was considered by the an- 
cients very fertile, but more especially the S. 
part of the country, Baetica and Lusitania, 
which were also praised for their climate. The 
central and N. parts of the country were less 
productive, and the climate in these districts 
was cold in winter. In the S. there were numer- 
ous flocks of sheep, the wool of which was 
celebrated in foreign countries. The Spanish 
horses and asses were also much valued in 
antiquity ; and on the coast there was abun- 
dance of fish. The country produced a great 
quantity of corn, oil, wine, flax, figs, and other 
fruits. But the principal riches of the country 
consisted in mineral productions, of which the 
greatest quantity was found in Turdetania. 
Gold was found in abundance in various parts 
of the country ; still more important were the 
silver mines, of which the most celebrated were 
near Carthago Nova, Ilipa, Sisapon, and Cas- 
tulo. (Strab. p. 146 ; Plin. xxxiii. 66-160.) The 
precious stones, copper, lead, tin, and other 
metals, were also found in more or less abun- 
dance. [As to the probability that the Tin 
Islands were off the NW. coast of Spain, see 
Cassitebides Insulae.] The most ancient 
inhabitants of Spain were the Iberi, who were 
a distinct people, though their name was 



loosely used by Greeks and Romans to desig- 
nate all the mixed races of the peninsula. 
The Iberi dwelt on both sides of the Pyrenees, 
and were found in the S. of Gaul, as far as the 
Rhone. Of their origin and language no cer- 
tain account can be given ; but it is probable 
that the Basques of to-day are the remnants 
of this people, who once occupied the whole of 
Spain. They seem to have been akin to the 
Finnish, not to the Indo-Germanic stock. Celts 
afterwards crossed the Pyrenees, and became 
mingled with the Iberi, whence arose the 
mixed race of the Celtiberi, who dwelt chiefly 
in the high table-land in the centre of the 
country. [Celtibehi.] But besides this mixed 
race of the Celtiberi, there were also several 
tribes, both of Iberians and Celts, who were 
never united with one another. The unmixed 
Iberians, from whom the Basques are descended, 
dwelt chiefly in the Pyrenees and on the 
coasts, and their most distinguished tribes were 
the Astubes, Cantabri, Vaccaei, &c. The 
unmixed Celts dwelt chiefly on the river Anas, 
and in the NW. corner of the country or 
Gallaecia. Besides these inhabitants, there 
were Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements 
on the coasts, of which the most important 
were Gabes and Cabthago Nova; there were 
likewise Greek colonies, such as Emporiae and 
Saguntum ; and lastly the conquest of the coun- 
try by the Romans introduced many Romans, 
whose customs, civilisation, and language, gra- 
dually spread over the whole peninsula, and 
effaced the national characteristics of the ancient 
population. The spread of the Latin language 
in Spain seems to have been facilitated by the 
schools established by Sertorius, in which both 
the languages and literatures of Greece and 
Rome were taught. Under the empire some of 
the most distinguished Latin writers were na- 
tives of Spain, such as the two Senecas, Lucan, 
Martial, Quintilian, Silius Italicus, Pomponius 
Mela, Prudentius, and others. — The ancient 
inhabitants of Spain were a proud, brave, and 
warlike race ; easily excited and ready to take 
offence ; inveterate robbers ; moderate in the 
use of food and wine ; fond of song and of the 
dance ; lovers of their liberty, and ready at all 
times to sacrifice their lives rather than submit 
to a foreign master. The Cantabri and inhabi- 
tants of the mountains in the N. were the 
fiercest and most uncivilised of all the tribes ; 
the Vaccaei and the Turdetani were the most 
civilised ; and the latter people were not only 
acquainted with the alphabet, but possessed a 
literature which contained records of their his- 
tory, poems, and collections of laws composed 
in verse. — The history of Spain begins with 
the invasion of the country by the Carthagini- 
ans, B. c. 238 ; for up to that time hardly any- 
thing was known of Spain except the existence 
of two powerful commercial states in the W., 
Tartessus and Gabes. After the first Punic 
war Hamilcar, the father of Hannibal, formed 
the plan of conquering Spain, in order to obtain 
for the Carthaginians possessions which might 
indemnify them for the loss of Sicily and Sar- 
dinia. Under his command (239-228), and that 
of his son-in-law and successor, Hasdrubal 
(228-220), the Carthaginians conquered the 
greater part of the SE. of the peninsula as far 
as the Iberus ; and Hasdrubal founded the im- 
portant city of Carthago Nova. The successes 
of the Carthaginians excited the jealousy of 
the Romans ; and a treaty was made between 
the two nations about 228, by which the 
Carthaginians bound themselves not to cross 



HISPANIA 



HISTIAEUS 



421 



the Iberus. (Pol. ii. 13.) The town of Sagun- 
tum, although on the W. side of the river, was 
under the protection of the Romans ; and the 
capture of this town by Hannibal, in 219, was the 
immediate cause of the second Punic war. In 
the course of this war the Romans drove the 
Carthaginians out of the peninsula, and be- 
came masters of their possessions in the S. of 
the country. But many tribes in the centre 
of the country, which had been only nominally 
subject to Carthage, still retained their virtual 
independence; and the tribes in the N. and 
NW. of the country had been hitherto quite 
unknown both to the Carthaginians and to the 
Romans. There now arose a long and bloody 
struggle between the Romans and the various 
tribes in Spain, and it was nearly two centuries 
before the Romans succeeded in subduing 
entirely the whole of the peninsula. The 
Celtiberians were conquered by the elder Cato 
(195) and Tib. Gracchus, the father of the two 
tribunes (179). The Lusitanians, who long 
resisted the Romans under their brave leader 
Viriathus, were obliged to submit, about the 
year 137, to D. Brutus, who penetrated as far 
as Gallaecia; but it was not till Numantia was 
taken by Scipio Africanus the younger, in 133, 
that the Romans obtained the undisputed 
sovereignty over the various tribes in the 
centre of the country, and of the Lusitanians 
to the S. of the Tagus. A serious insurrection 
of the Celtiberians and Lusitanians was sub- 
dued by Didius and Crassus in 98-93. Julius 
Caesar, after his praetorsbip, subdued the 
Lusitanians N. of the Tagus (60). The Can- 
tabri, Astures, and other tribes in the moun- 
tains of the N., were finally subjugated by 
Augustus and his generals. The whole pen- 
insula was now subject to the Romans; and 
Augustus founded in it several colonies, and 
caused excellent roads to be made throughout 
the country. In Spain before the death of 
Augustus, there were nearly fifty communities 
with full citizenship, and about as many more 
with Latin rights ; and within the same period 
in all the E. and S. of Spain Roman dress 
and manners prevailed. That Spain, except 
the N. and NW. wa6 more completely Roman- 
ised in language and customs than any other 
province was due greatly to the influence of 
the numerous colonies and municipia, partly to 
its easy trade and commerce directly with Italy, 
and partly also that it did not preserve its old 
cantonal arrungement nor even its old religious 
meetings in the same way as did the Celts of 
Gaul. The towns of Corduba, Gades, Emerita, 
BilbiliB, Culagurris, and others fostered 
Latin literature and produced writers such 
as Qnintilian, Martial, Seneca, Lucan, Mela, 
and Columella. The Romans had as early as 
the end of the second Punic war reckoned 
Spain as a province, and from the year 206 two 
proconsuls were chosen for the command(Appian, 
Hisp. Sti) : but the organisation of two prov- 
inces, separated from one another by the Iberus, 
and called Hispania Citcrior and Hispania 
Ulterior, the former being to the E., and the 
latter to the W. of the river, dates from 197, 
.ifter which two praetors with proconsular 
power were annually appointed to administer 
them (Liv. xxviii. 2, xxxi. 27). The Saltus 
Castuloncnsis was regarded as the dividing line, 
and Carthago Nova became chief town of the 
Hither, Corduba of the Further, Spain. In 
< onsequence of there being two provinces, we 
frequently find the country called Hispaniac. 
Augustus made a new division of the country, 



and formed three provinces, Tarraconensis 
Baetica, and Lusitania, in B. c. 27 (App. Hisp. 
102 ; Bio Cass. liii. 12 ; Strab. p. 166 : the ex- 
pression ' utraque Hispania' in Mon. Aacyr. 
refers to the distinction between imperial and 
senatorial Spain). The province Tarracon- 
ensis, which derived its name from Tarraco, 
the capital of the province, was far the largest 
of the three, and comprehended the whole of 
the N., W., and centre of the peninsula. The 
province Baetica, which derived its name from 
the river Baetis, was separated from Lusitania 
on the N. and W. by the river Anas, and from 
Tarraconensis on the E. by a line drawn from 
the river Anas to the promontory Charidemus 
in the Mediterranean. The province Lusi- 
tania, which corresponded very nearly in ex- 
tent to the modern Portugal, was separated 
from Tarraconensis on the N. by the river 
Durius, from Baetica on the E. by the Anas, 
and from Tarraconensis on the E. by a line 
drawn from the Durius to the Anas, between 
the territories of the Vettones and Carpetani. 
Augustus made Baetica a senatorial province, 
but reserved the government of the two others 
for the Caesar ; so that the former was governed 

\ by a proconsul appointed by the senate, and 

■ the latter by imperial legati. In Baetica, 
Corduba was the seat of government ; in 

I Tarraconensis Tarraco ; and in Lusitania Au- 
gusta Emerita. Tiie NW. or most turbulent 
part of Tarraconensis (which included Gal- 

I laeeia, or Callaecial was permanently occupied 
by three legions, two in Asturia with their 

I head-quarters between Lancia and Asturica, 
and one in Cantabria. On the reorganisation 
of the empire by Constantine, Spain, together 
with Gaul and Britain, was under the general 
administration of the Praefectus Praetorio 

j Gaiiiae, one of whose three vicarii had the 
government of Spain, and usually resided at 
Hispalis. At the same time the country was 
divided into seven provinces : Baetica, Lusi- 
tania, Gallaecia, Tarraconensis, Carthagini- 
ensis, Baleares, and Mauretania Tingitana 
in Africa (which was then reckoned part of 
Spain, and witli its troops helped to protect 
the S. of Spain from the incursions of Moorish 
pirates). The capitals of these seven pro- 
vinces were respectively Hispalis, Augusta 
Emerita, Bracara, Caesaraugusta, Carthago 

l Nova, Palma, and Tingis. In a. d. 409 the 
Vandals and Suevi, together with other bar- 
barians, invaded Spain, and obtained posses- 
sion of the greater part of the country. In 
414 the Visigoths, as allies of the Roman em- 
pire, attacked the Vandals, and in the course 
of four years (414-418) compelled a great part 
of the peninsula to submit again to the 
Romans. In 429 the Vandals left Spain, and 

I crossed over into Africa under their king 
Genseric; after which time the Suevi estab- 
lished a powerful kingdom in the S. of the 
peninsula. Soon afterwards the Visigoths again 
invaded Spain, and after many years' struggle, 

j succeeded in conquering the whole peninsula, 

j which they kept for themselves, and continued 
the masters of the country for two centuries, 
till they were in their turn conquered by the 

i Arabs, \. D. 712. 

Hispellum (Hispellas, -atis: Hispellensis : 
Spello), a town in Umbria, and a Roman colony, 
with the name of Colonia Julia Hispellum 
(Strab. p. 227 ; Plin. iii. 113). 
Histiaea. ! 1 1 1 s n \ kotib.] 
Histiaeus I'laTiaios), tyrant of Miletus, was 
left with the other Ionian* to guard the bridge 



422 



HISTONIUM 



HOMERUS 



of boats over the Danube, when Darius in- 
vaded Scythia (b. c. 513). He opposed the 
proposal of Miltiades, the Athenian, to destroy 
the bridge, and leave the Persians to their fate, 
and was in consequence rewarded by Darius 
with the rule of Mytilene, and with a district 
in Thrace, where he built a town called Myr- 
cinus, apparently with a view of establishing 
an independent kingdom (Hdt. iv. 137-141, v. 
11). This excited the suspicions of Darius, 
who invited Histiaeus to Susa, where he treated 
him kindly, but prohibited him from return- 
ing (Hdt. v. 23). Tired of the restraint in 
which he was kept, he induced his kinsman 
Aristagoras to persuade the Ionians to revolt, 
hoping that a revolution in Ionia might lead to 
his release. A curious story is told of his method 
of communicating : that he shaved the head of 
a trusty slave, tattooed on it his message, and 
sent him to Aristagoras when the hair had 
grown (Hdt. v. 35). His design succeeded. 
Darius allowed Histiaeus to depart (496) on his 
engaging to reduce Ionia. The revolt, however, 
was nearly put down when Histiaeus reached 
the coast. Here Histiaeus threw off the mask, 
and after raising a small fleet carried on war 
against the Persians for two years, and obtained 
possession of Chios. In 494 he made a descent 
upon the Ionian coast, but was defeated and 
taken prisoner by Harpagus. Artaphernes, the 
satrap of Ionia, caused him to be put to death by 
impalement, and sent his head to the king. 
(Hdt. v. 105-107 ; vi. 1-30.) 

Histonrum (Histoniensis : Vasto d'Ammone), 
a town of the Frentani on the Adriatic coast 
(Plin. iii. 166). 

Homeridae ('Ofj.npt8ai), the name of a family 
or gens in Chios, which claimed descent from 
Homer (Strab. p. 645). Some modern writers 
have formed a theory that they were a hereditary 
guild of rhapsodists, and refer to Pindar, Nem. 
ii. 2. But there is no positive authority for the ! 
connexion of the Chian gens with any school 1 
of rhapsodists. The word 'OftripiSai. in Pindar \ 
and in Plato (Rep. p. 599, Ion, p. 530, Phaedr. 
p. 252) need not mean more than students of 
Homeric poetry, though it is by no means im- 
probable that rhapsodists may have been so 
called. 

Homeritae ('O/xripiTat), a people of Arabia 
Felix, who migrated from the interior to the S. 
part of the W. coast, and established themselves 
in the territory of the Sabaei (in El Yemen), 
where they founded a kingdom, which lasted 
more than five centuries, with an extensive 
commerce in frankincense (Plin. vi. 121 ; Ptol. 
vi. 7 ; Proeop. B. P. i. 19). 

Homerus ("0//7jpos). 1. The great epic poet 
of Greece. His poems formed the basis of 
Greek literature, and they were appealed to as 
the authority on morals and religion in a 
manner which justifies the assertion that they 
were the Bible of the Greek nation in pagan 
times. Every Greek who had received a liberal 
education was perfectly well acquainted with 
them from his childhood, and had learnt them 
by heart at school ; but nobody could state 
anything certain about their author. His date 
and birthplace were equally matters of dispute. 
Seven cities claimed Homer as their countryman, 

Smyrna, Rhodus, Colophon, Salaniis, Chios, Argos, 
Athenae. 

The author of the Hymn to Apollo spoke of 
himself as a blind old man of Chios, and as this 
hymn was ascribed to Homer it was taken as 
an argument for the blindness and the Chian 



origin of Homer himself. The claim of Colophon 
rests on the Margites. The other cities are 
mentioned in epigrams of uncertain date ; and 
tradition gives him a name Melesigenes, prob- 
ably from Meles, a river of old Smyrna. The 
traditions of his date are no less divergent, vary- 
ing between 1050 B.C., which seems to be the 
date assigned by Aristotle and Aristarchus, and 
850, which is the date given by Herodotus (ii. 53). 
The earliest mention of Homer is about B.C. 700 
by Callinus (as cited by Paus. ix. 9, 5), who 
ascribed to him the epic Thebais. Herodotus 
states that Clisthenes of Sicyon, about 580 B.C., 
was jealous of the fame which the Iliad gave 
to Argos (Hdt. v. 67). Homer is mentioned 
(with blame) by Xenophanes B.C. 510 (ap. Sext. 
Emp. adv. Math. ix. 193) : at about the same 
date Simonides of Cos (Fr. 85) makes the 
earliest quotation from the Iliad (vi. 148), and 
calls the author a Chian. The extant Lives of 
Homer (Westermann, Vitamin Script. Graec. 
Min.) are probably not earlier than the 2nd 
century A.D. They preserve, however, some 
local traditions and some epigrams on which the 
narratives seemed to be based. The common 
tradition related that he was the son of Maeon 
(hence called Maeonides), and that in his old 
age he was blind and poor. Homer was uni- 
versally regarded by the ancients as the author 
of the two great poems of the Iliad and Odyssey. 
Other poems were also attributed to Homer the 
genuineness of which was at all times disputed ; 
but the Hiad and Odyssey were ascribed to him 
by the concurrent voice of antiquity. It is true 
that a school of critics called oi Xaipi^ovres 
(Separaters), among whom were Xenon and 
Hellanicus, about the year 200 B.C., held that the 
Iliad and Odyssey were by different authors ; but 
they were opposed by Aristarchus and others, 
and apparently the theory died out, for Seneca 
discredits it (de Brev. Vit. 13), and Suidas, about 
1100 a.d., speaks of Homer as ' undisputed ' 
author of both epics. Such continued to be 
the prevalent belief of modern times. The 
first note of dissent was the surmise of the 
Neapolitan Vico, a.d. 1730, that there were 
several authors of the Homeric poems, of whom 
the earliest wrote the Iliad in N. Greece, and 
the second wrote the Odyssey in SW. Greece. 
But this theory was not supported by argument, 
and the great change in opinion came in 1795, 
when F. A. Wolf wrote his famous Prolegomena, 
in which he endeavoured to show that the Iliad 
and Odyssey were not two complete poems, but 
small, separate, independent epic songs, cele- 
brating single exploits of the heroes, and that 
these lays were for the first time written down 
and united, as the Hiad and Odyssey, by Pisis- 
tratus, the tyrant of Athens, and were afterwards 
still further altered and brought into harmony 
by revisers (SiaffKtvcMTTai) and critics. The argu- 
ments for this conclusion were chiefly the sup- 
posed impossibility of so long a poem as either 
of the epics being composed or handed down 
without writing, and the fact (as it was alleged) 
that writing was unknown to the Greeks in the 
tenth century B.C. In reply to this it is urged 
with much force that such feats of memory are 
not uncommon : e.g. the German poem Parzival, 
which was composed in the thirteenth century 
by an author unable to write, is longer than the 
Iliad ; moreover Xenophon (Symp. 3, 5) speaks 
as though it was considered quite possible to 
commit the whole Iliad and Odyssey to memory. 
Add to which, though Greek inscriptions on stone 
do not take us back beyond the seventh century 
B.C., it is a disputed point whether writing on 



HOMEEUS 



423 



other materials may not have been much earlier 
among the Greeks, as it was certainly among 
the Phoenicians. As to the evidence of the 
collection by Pisistratus, it should not be for- 
gotten that we have no authorities for this 
earlier than the first century B.C. (Cic. de Or. 
iii. 34, 137 ; Paus. vii. 26), and it is certainly 
strange that if the story is true it is not alluded 
to in Aristotle. It is a much more probable 
conception that the Iliad, so far from being a 
mere agglomeration of original short lays or 
ballads pieced together by comparatively in- 
significant men of the sixth century, was a 
great epic based, no doubt, upon popular 
legends and ballads, but still in its original 
form a complete poem. Hence it is now com- 
monly held that the Iliad as we have it is greatly 
expanded from the epic of the original Homer 
by the insertion at various dates of episodes : 
which accounts for inconsistencies and discrep- 



the greatest authority, though more or less 
divergent opinions, especially from those of Mr. 
Jebb, Mr. Leaf, Mr. Monro and Mr. Lang. The 
great period of the Achaean power in Greece, and 
particularly at Mycenae, seems to have been the 
thirteenth and twelfth cent. B.C.; and this power 
seems to have fallen tlvrough the Dorian attacks 
about 1000 B.C. It was succeeded by a time of 
inferior civilisation (as may be gathered from 
the discoveries by the spade among other evi- 
dences : e.g. from a comparison of the pottery 
at Mycenae and the oldest pottery at Olympia, 
which is post-Dorian). It is a reasonable con- 
clusion (though some dispute it) that the author 
of the primary Iliad was pre-Dorian : first be- 
cause he shows no knowledge of the Dorian 
invasion nor of the Ionians in Asia (where 
Miletus is still held by barbarous Carians) ; and 
secondly, because the picture of civilisation in 
the Iliad is higher than anything which seems 




GIK.OYMEWH XPONOIIAIAZ OAYIICIA OMHPOI MYGOZ 



Apotheosis of Homer. (Part of the relief now in the British Museum ascribed to Archelaus.) 



ancies. Homer, who came at the end rather 
than the beginning of a poetical period, wrote 
a primary ' Achilleid ' or ' Wrath,' finished and 
perfect in itself, and the interpolations were 
due to the rhapsodists who recited it, the 
piecing together of interpolations and original 
to the school of followers called Homeridae 
who were established in Chios. This was the 
view to some extent put forward by Nitsch 
and developed with great force and acutenesa 
of criticism by Grote. Since his time many 
other considerations have come in from re- 
searches into the history of language and of art. 
For those who assume the theory to be correct 
in its main outline, there are various points to 
be discussed : the date and country of the pri- 
mary epic : whether the precise portions of the 
Iliad belonging to it were correctly assigned by 
Grote ; the manner in which it was altered, 
translated, or redacted into its present shape 
and dialect. These again are opposed by the 
more conservative view which believes in a 
much greater unity of composition. It is only 
possible here to sketch some general conclusions 
which may be gathered from the works of those 
who have recently discussed the subject with 



to have followed that conquest until a consider- 
able period had elapsed. The manner of life 
also and the geographical descriptions of the 
Iliad would better suit the age before than after 
the commercial activity of the Ionians was 
beginning. The primary Iliad is therefore as- 
cribed to the eleventh century B.C., somewhat 
later than the remains found at Mycenae, which 
most experts date about 1150 and consider to 
belong to a civilisation slightly less advanced 
than that of the poems. The Iliad itself is a 
court poem dealing with the greatness of 
princes, not, like the chief poem of Hesiod, with 
the condition of the common people, who, indeed, 
are disparaged and contemned. All this will 
convey the impression — not, of course, the cer- 
tainty — that it was composed to be sung in the 
palaces of Achaean princes and wealthy Achaean 
nobles. There is probability in the view that 
it was composed originally in Thessaly, whose 
hero, Achilles, it specially glorifies; and this 
would help to account for the fact that the dross 
in the Iliad is quite different from the Oriental 
type belonging to Mycenae, and for the mention 
of iron (which is totally absent in the remains 
from Mycenae) as being to some extent used. 



424 



HOMEEUS 



Homer's description of fortresses and houses 
would suggest some acquaintance with Mycenae ; 
but possibly the poet describes the actual life of 
Thessaly rather than of Mycenae. This great 
epic of the Achaeans was then carried by the 
emigrants to Asia Minor ; but it is conceived 
by those who maintain a greatly divided author- 
ship that later bards introduced episodes to 
glorify the heroes of families by whom they 
were patronised, or sometimes to honour a 
deity at whose festival they were reciting. Yet 
each poet who expanded the primary Iliad by 
any such episode added it to the epic under the 
original name, and it becomes difficult, or rather 
impossible, to judge exactly where the junction 
was made. In Mr. Leaf's scheme the primary 
Iliad recounted the quarrel of Agamemnon and 
Achilles, and the promise of Zeus, in book i. 
and part of ii. ; the consequent rout of the 
Greeks (xi.); the exploits and death of Patroclus 
(xvi.) and the death of Hector (xxii.), with cer- 
tain large portions of the intermediate books, 
especially of xvii.-xxi., which formed the con- 
necting links. If this structure of the primary 
Iliad is conjectural, the determination how and 
when the additions were made is even more so ; 
but there is much ingenuity in the arguments 
for supposing a second and third stratum. The 
second consisted of episodes introduced to 
glorify old Achaean families, whose heroes had 
been unnoticed in the primary Iliad — the 
prowess of Menelaus (iii. and iv.), of Diomede 
(v. and vi.), of Ajax (vii.), and of Idomeneus 
(xiii.). But, though later than the oldest part, 
they must from their nature have still been 
before the Dorian, and therefore little after the 
oldest — indeed it is not absolutely incompatible 
with the theory to imagine that they were a later 
addition by Homer himself, the author of the 
primary Iliad. These first two strata the 
Homeric school took with them across the sea 
to Asia Minor. The third stratum was probably 
added after the Dorian conquest, when there 
were no Achaean families to glorify ; and such 
additions were made as the embassy to Achilles 
(ix.), which is therefore unknown to the Achilles 
of books xi. and xix. ; the capture of the wall 
(xii.), which does not seem to have been built at 
all in the older books ; the shield of Achilles 
(perhaps to glorify Hephaestus at some festi- 
val ?) ; the funeral of Patroclus and the ransom 
of Hector ; the catalogue of ships and book viii., 
which connects ix. It should be noticed that 
linguistically books ix., x., xxiii. and xxiv. are 
regarded as later than most of the Iliad, and in 
this respect as agreeing more nearly with the 
Odyssey. According to the view here given, the 
third stratum belongs to the period between 
1000 and 800 B.C. — It will easily be seen by 
examination of the above scheme that many of 
the most famous and beautiful passages of the 
Iliad are thus attributed to interpolators ; and, 
besides this objection from sentiment and taste, 
it must be confessed that there are grave diffi- 
culties in accounting for the acceptance of all 
these interpolations, and also in explaining 
why writers capable of such work did not, like 
the inferior authors of Cyclic poems, write epics 
under their own name. Moreover, there are 
numerous lines in the ' Wrath ' which allude to 
the supposed interpolations ; and all these must 
be arbitrarily rejected. On the other hand, 
attempts which have been made to account for 
the alleged inconsistencies are not altogether 
unsuccessful. In point of fact the linguistic 
objections urged against some of the books are 
of small weight. In the ninth book they are 



slight and uncertain ; and, as it is by no means 
necessary to hold that the expression in xi. 609 
contradicts the embassy in book ix., we are 
probably not obliged to regard that magnificent 
book as no part of the original poem. In truth, 
the tenth book and the catalogue of ships in 
book ii. are the only portions which from con- 
siderations of language and of style may with 
tolerable certainty be set down as later addi- 
tions ; and their introduction can be imagined 
without grave difficulty. As regards the other, 
and more important, rejected portions, it is 
quite permissible to consider the question at 
least an open one. The question of the dialect is 
no less controverted. The view which has been 
put forward by the German philologist Dr. 
Fick, and which finds considerable support, is 
that, to account for the Aeolic forms in the 
older portions (which are retained when the 
metre makes the change impossible, but are 
altered elsewhere to Ionic) we must believe the 
epic to have existed first in an Aeolic dialect 
( = Achaean), in which form they were originally 
sung in the palaces of Achaean princes, and, 
having been brought to Asia Minor, were even- 
tually converted into the Ionian dialect, the 
latest insertions being made in Ionic. One 
difficulty in this theory, especially if we take so 
late a date as was proposed (about 530) for the 
version, is that no early Greek writer knows 
anything of the Aeolian version — indeed, 
Simonides quotes in Ionic from vi. 148, which 
is not considered to be one of the later portions. 
In truth we are scarcely in a position to state 
what was Achaean or Aeolic, or the oldest form 
of Ionic, in the centuries 1000-600 B.C. The 
knowledge of this may come, but it is not yet 
clear enough for confident speaking. It is 
easier to imagine the poems — handed down as 
they were orally — gradually, without any single 
work of transcription, taking a form which we 
call old Ionic, but which may possibly be by no 
means the oldest Ionic ; and in such a process 
naturally the archaic forms, whether Achaean, 
Aeolic or Ionic, which affected the metre, would 
be most readily preserved and would result in 
the apparently mixed dialect of Homer. — The 
historical bearing of the Iliad will be noticed 
under the article Troja. It need only be said 
here that there is no reason to doubt that the 
conflict between the Achaeans and Trojans was 
a real event of the period when the Achaeans 
were powerful enough to collect their forces for 
a war on the other side of the Aegaean. If those 
are right who see in the Egyptian inscriptions a 
proof that the Achaeans of Greece were allies of 
the Libyans against Egypt in the reign of 
Eamses III., the Achaeans were probably able 
to achieve this at any time between 1300 and 
1100 B.C. But whenever the war took place it 
is clear that the epic was written at some dis- 
tance of time, that the two nations were really 
distinct in dress, language and civilisation, and 
that, although the poet knew much of the 
topography from tradition, yet it was poeticised. 
Some authorities on archaeology, notably Pro- 
fessor Gardner, believe that the Iliad was com- 
posed long after the fall of the Achaean power 
from the mere traditions which the emigrants 
carried with them into Asia Minor ; and it is 
possible that further discoveries may strengthen 
this position, though at present the strongest 
arguments lead the other way. But, more than 
this, the study of language and dialects is pro- 
gressive, and its conclusions by no means final .; 
and so is the study of ancient art, in which 
fresh discoveries by the spade are year by year 



HOMERUS 



HONOR 



425 



being achieved. It is therefore both unwise 
and unprofitable to put forward dogmatically 
any reply to the question. It is possible, as 
was hinted above, that fuller knowledge of 
language and archaeology may even remove 
the most important obstacles to a belief in a 
much greater unity of the Iliad, and the opinion, 
which has quite recently been urged with con- 
siderable force by Mr. Lang, may be materially 
strengthened, that the Iliad was composed prac- 
tically as a whole by its original author Homer. 
The explanation suggested by Mr. Jevons may 
be the true one, that it was for centuries re- 
cited in parts, suitable to the occasion, by the 
rhapsodists (i.e. the minstrels who recited at 
banquets and great religious festivals) ; and that 
this accounts for discrepancies and for many 
obviously late detached passages, inasmuch as 
a rhapsodist might often insert some lines of 
prelude to his extract, which might be haDded 
on as an interpolation, or he might, with a 
similar result, introduce some lines in honour 
of a particular deity or locality, which, for 
reasons now impossible to trace, met with 
general acceptance. — The Odyssey is more 
generally acknowledged as a complete poem by 
one hand. It may possibly, though not certainly, 
be right to separate the episode of Telemachus 
(ii.-iv.) ; and there is good reason to think that 
the twenty-fourth book and the latter part of 
the eleventh are late additions. Moreover, 
being also handed down by oral recitation, there 
are interpolations here and there ; but in the 
main it is probably composed by one author, 
and based upon legends and lays regarding the 
Return of Odysseus. That it is later than the 
main part of the Iliad is the opinion of most 
critics, and is probably right. Making all 
allowance for the fact that one poem describes 
war, the other, chiefly, domestic life, there 
remain differences of style and of language in 
its forms and its syntax, and of mythology 
which seem to imply a later date, and it is very 
likely correct to assign the composition of the 
Odyssey to a period early in the ninth cen- 
tury B.C. It must be admitted, however, that 
this view increases the difficulty of accounting 
for a complete poem by another poet of the 
greatest genius being ascribed to Homer. The 
only explanation that can be given (not a very 
satisfactory one) is that the influence of the 
Iliad and the Homeric school tended to include 
under that name this second great epic com- 
posed on the coast or islands of Ionia at the 
time when the Iliad itself received some large 
episodic additions, possibly by the author of the 
Odyssey. — The ' Homeric ' Hymns were doubt- 
less of still later date and of uncertain author- 
ship, probably composed by rhapsodists of the 
Homeric school, who prefaced the recitation of 
their epic (such as a portion of the Iliad or 
Odyssey) by a hymn or address to the god of 
the festival or the locality. Of these the five 
longer are to the Delian and Pythian Apollo, 
to Hermes, Aphrodite and Demeter, and there 
are twenty-nine shorter. The dates of their 
composition probably range between 700 and 
.100 B.C. Many of them have great beauty 
and poetic merit, and they are of the greatest 
value also for the study of mythology. In myth 
they agree more with Hesiod than with Homer, 
though in all likelihood they follow traditions 
older than Homer. The truth probably is that 
Homer rejected parts of the ruder and more 
savage myth, which reappears in Hesiod ; and 
this is one mark of a higher civilisation to some 
degree retrograding. — Two humorous poems 



I were also included under the name of Homer : 
j (1) the Margites or ' Booby,' of which few frag- 
ments remain : Aristotle believed it to be by 
Homer (which the Alexandrian critics altogether 
denied), and considered it the beginning of 
< Comedy: (2)the Batrachomyomachia or'Battle 
of Frogs and Mice,' a parody on Homer, by some 
ascribed to Pigres, brother of Artemisia ; but 
probably two centuries later. — The most useful 
editions of the Iliad are by Monro, Oxford, 
1878 ; Leaf, Camb. 1883 ; Ameis, Lips. 1878 ; 
others by Paley, Camb. 1873 ; La Roche, Lips. 
| 1876 ; Heyne, 1831 : transl. by Leaf, Camb. 

1890 : of the Odyssey by Merry, Oxf. 1871 ; 
j Amies, Lips. 1877 ; Pierron, Paris, 1875 : transl. 
by Butcher and Lang, 1879 : of the Homeric 
Hymns by Baumeister, 1860 and 1877; by 
j Pierron, 1875. The Batrachomyomachia is 
I printed with the Hymns. — We must add a few 
words on the ancient editions of the Iliad and 
I Odyssey. From the time of Pisistratus to the 
j establishment of the Alexandrine school, we 
' read of two new editions (Siopduaets) of the text, 
one made by the poet Antimachus, and the 
other by Aristotle, which Alexander the Great 
used to carry about with him in a splendid case 
(vdp6-q£) on all his expeditions. But it was not 
! till the foundation of the Alexandrine school, 
that the Greeks possessed a really critical 
edition of Homer. Zenodotus was the first who 
directed his attention to the study and criticism 
of Homer. He was followed by Aristophanes 
and Aristarchus ; and the edition of Homer 
by the latter has been the basis of the text 
to the present day. Aristarchus was the 
prince of grammarians, and did more for the 
text and interpretation of Homer than any 
other critic. He was opposed to Crates of 
Mallus, the founder of the Pergamene school 
of grammar. [Aiustarchus ; Crates.] In the 
time of Augustus the great compiler, Didymus, 
wrote comprehensive commentaries on Homer, 
copying mostly the works of preceding Alexan- 
drine grammarians, which had swollen to an 
enormous extent. Under Tiberius, Apollonius 
Sophista lived, whose Lexicon Homericum is 
very valuable (ed. Bekker, 1833). The most 
valuable scholia on the Iliad are those which 
were published by Villoison from a MS. of the 
tenth century in the library of St. Mark at 
Venice, 1788, fol. These scholia were reprinted 
with additions, edited by I. Bekker, Berlin, 
1825, 2 vols. -Ho. The most valuable scholia to 
the Odyssey are those published by Butt- 
mann, Berl. 1821. The extensive commentary 
of Eustathius contains much valuable infor- 
mation from sources which are now lost. 
[Eustathius, No. 3.] — 2. A grammarian and 
tragic poet of Byzantium, in the time of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus (about B.C. 280), was the 
son of the grammarian Andromachus and the 
poetess Myro. He was one of the seven poets 
who formed the tragic Pleiad. 

Homole CO/idAy). 1. A lofty mountain in 
i Thessaly, near Tempe, with a sanctuary of Pan. 
— 2. Or Homollum ('OfiA\tov : 'OnoXuvs : La- 
mina), a town in Magnesia in Thessaly, at the 
foot of Mt. Ossa, near the Peneus. 
Honor or Honos, the personification of honour 

at Rome. Marcellus had vowed a temple, which 
was to belong to Honos and Virtus in common ; 
but as the jmntiffs refused to consecrate one 
temple to two divinities, he built two temples, 
near Porta Capcna, one of Honos — which was a 
restoration of an earlier temple dedicated by 
Fab. Max. Verrucosus after the Ligurian war 
(Cic. N. D. ii. 23, 61)— and the other of Virtus : 



426 



HONORIA 



HOEAE 



close together, B.C. 205. (Liv. xxvii. 25, xxix. 
11 ; Val. Max. i. 1, 8 : Plut. Marc. 28.) This 
temple of Hoiios was the starting-point for the 
Transvectio Equitum. C. Marius also built 
a temple to Honos, after his victory over the 
Cimbri and Teutones. There was also an altar 
of Honos outside the Colline gate, which was 
more ancient than either of the temples. Honos 
is represented on coins as a male figure in 
armour, and standing on a globe, or with the 
cornucopia in his left and a spear in his right 




Honos et Virtus. (Coin of Galba, British Museum.) 

hand, and frequently combined on coins with a 
female figure of Virtus. 
Honorla. [G-bata.] 

Honorrus, Flavius, Roman emperor of the 
West, a.d. 395-423, was the second son of Theo- 
dosius the Great, and was born 384. On the 
death of Theodosius, in 395, Honorius suc- 
ceeded to the sovereignty of the West, which 
he had received from his father in the preceding 
year ; while his elder brother Arcadius obtained 
possession of the East. During the minority of 
Honorius, the government was in the hands of \ 



life at Ravenna until his death, in 423. (Zos. 
v. 58 ; Oros. vii. 36-43 ; Procop. B. V. i. 1-3.) 

Horae ( T npai)> originally the goddesses of the 
order of nature and of the seasons, in especial 
the rain-giving goddesses, but in later times 
also the goddesses of order in general and of 
justice. In the Iliad we have clear evidence of 
the belief that they are the Olympian divinities 
of the weather : therefore they open or shut the 
doors of heaven, which are a cloud — that is, they 
give or withhold rain, the source of fruitful 
seasons ; but this has been materialised into 
a door opening for the passage of the gods. 
(II. v. 750, viii. 393; cf. Paus. v. 11, 7; Ov. 




Horae (Seasons). (From a coin of Com modus.) 

Fast. i. 125.) Hence they bring wealth or 
gifts generally (II. xxi. 450). In the Odyssey, 
on the other hand, they are mentioned only 
with the more abstract, impersonal, idea of the 
changing seasons. As the weather is regulated 
according to the seasons, they are further de- 
scribed as the goddesses of the seasons. The 
course of the seasons is symbolically described 
as the dance of the Horae. Carpo and Auxo 
were worshipped from very early times. The 
Hora of spring accompanied Persephone every 
year on her ascent from the lower world ; and 




Horae (Seasons). (From a bas-relief at Rome.) 



the able and energetic Stilicho, whose daughter 
Maria the young emperor married. Stilicho 
for a time defended Italy against the attacks of 
the Visigoths under Alaric (402, 403), and the 
ravages of other barbarians under Radagaisus ; 
but after Honorius had put to death Stilicho, 
on a charge of treason (408), Alaric again 
invaded Italy, and took and plundered Rome 
(410). Honorius meantime lived an inglorious 



the expression of ' The chamber of the Horae 
opens ' is equivalent to ' The spring is coming ' 
(Pind. Fr. 45). The attributes of spring — 
flowers, fragrance, and graceful freshness — are 
accordingly transferred to the Horae. Thus 
they adorned Aphrodite as she rose from the 
sea, and made a garland of flowers for Pandora. 
Hence they bear a resemblance to and are 
scarcely distinguished from the Charites (cf. 



HORATIA 

Pans. ix. 35, 1). The Horae were probably 
always three in number, and at Athens bore the 
names of Thallo, Carpo, and Auxo (though 
Pausanias takes the last to be only one of the 
Charites). It might be thought that this 
number meant the old Greek threefold division 
of the year, spring, summer, and winter ; but 
this was not the original conception of the 
Horae, and the number three probably belongs 
to them as a customary number for deities, as 
in the case of the Fates and the Graces. Even 
in early times ethical notions were attached to 
the Horae ; and the influence which these god- 
desses originally exercised on nature was subse- 
quently transferred to human life in particular. 
Hesiod describes them as giving to a state good j 
laws, justice, and peace ; he calls them the j 
daughters of Zens and Themis, and gives them j 
the significant names of Eunomia, Dike, and 
Irene (Th. 901 j cf. Pind. 01. iv. 1). It is prob- 
able that this idea arose from the conception 
of a regular and orderly arrangement of the 
times for rain and sunshine fixed by the gods : 
not, indeed, of the four seasons, for that distri- 
bution does not appear in art or literature before 
the fourth century B.C. (cf. Athen. p. 198), but 
of the right and just time for each event. As 
beings through whom came wealth to the earth 
they were naturally connected with the Fates, 
which in mythology is expressed by their being 
sisters of the Fates ; and it is either for this 
reason that they sometimes appear as helpers 
at birth (Pind. Pyth. ix. 62) and marriage, or 
•merely because they express timeliness and 
ripeness. At Athens and at Olympia they had 
altars ; and it was customary to group them by 
the statues or thrones of Zeus, Hera, or Athene, 
and in conjunction with the Moirae or Charites 
(Paus. v. 17, 1, vii. 5, 4). In works of art the 
Horae were represented as blooming maidens, 
carrying the different products of the seasons. 

Horatla Gens, one of the most ancient pa- 
trician gentes at Rome. Three brothers of this 
race fought with the Curiatii, three brothers 
from Alba, to determine whether Rome or Alba 
was to exercise the supremacy. The battle was 
long undecided. Two of the Horatii fell ; but 
the three Curiatii, though alive, were severely 
wounded. Seeing this, the surviving Horatius, 
who was still unhurt, pretended to fly, and 
vanquished his wounded opponents by en- 
countering them severally. He returned in 
triumph, bearing his threefold spoils. As he 
approached the Capene gate his sister Horatia 
met him, and recognised on his shoulders the 
mantle of one of the Curiatii, her betrothed 
lover. Her grief drew on her the wrath of Ho- 
ratius, who stabbed her, exclaiming ' So perish 
every Roman woman who bewails a foe ! ' For 
this murder he was adjudged by the duoviri 
to be scourged, and hanged on the accursed 
tree. Horatius appealed to his peers, the 
burghers, who acquitted Horatius. but pre- 
scribed a form of punishment. With veiled 
head, led by his father, Horatius passed under 
a yoke or gibbet — tigillum soronum, ' sister's 
gibbet.' (Liv. i. 26 ; cf. Diet, of Ant. art. 
Percluellionis Duoviri.) 

Horatius Codes. [Coci.f.s.] 

Q. Horatius Flaccus, the poet, was born 
December 8th, H.c. 65, at Venusia in Apulia 
(0(1. iii. 21, 1, Epod. xiii. 6; Ep. i. 20, 27). 
His father was a libertinus or freedman, who 
had probably been a public slave of Vonusia, 
and adopted the name Horatius because that 
town was assigned to the Horatian tribe. He 
had received his manumission before the birth 



HORATIUS 



427 



of the poet, who was of free birth, but who did 
not altogether escape the taint which adhered 
to persons even of remote servile origin (Sat. i. 
6, 46). His father's occupation was that of col- 
lector (eoactor) of the payments at sales by 
auction (Sat. i. 6, 86 ; Suet. Vii. Horat.). With 
the profits of his office he had purchased a 
small farm in the neighbourhood of Venusia, 
where Horace was bom (Sat. ii. 1, 34). The 
father, either in his care for his only son, or 
discerning some sign in the boy of a literary 
taste (such as may perhaps be hinted at by the 
partly fanciful adventure in Od. iii. 4, 5), deter- 
mined to devote his whole time and fortune to 
the education of the future poet. Though by 
no means rich, he declined to send the young 
Horace to the common school, kept in Venusia 
by one Flavius, to which the children of the 
provincial magnates resorted, and, probably 
about his twelfth year, carried him to Rome, to 
receive the usual education of a knight's or 
senator's son (Sat. i. 6, 71-82). The school 
selected was that of Orbilius, whom Horace 
mentions only as being a severe flogger (Ep. ii. 
1, 71), but whom from other sources we know 
to have been also a teacher of great ability 
(Suet. Gr. 9 ; Macrob. Sat. ii. 6, 3). It is likely 
that to him in some degree Horace owed his 
clearness of style, and his inclination towards 
satire. Among his school books he mentions 
(without grateful recollection) Livius Andro- 
nicus (Ep. ii. 1, 70), probably his Latin trans- 
lation of the Odyssey ; and he was taught also 
something of the Iliad, probably in the original 
Greek (Ep. ii. 2, 41). Of his father's zealous 
care to preserve him from the dangers and 
temptations of the city he speaks with gratitude. 
In his eighteenth year Horace, following an 
ordinary course of the richer and better edu- 
cated Romans of the day, proceeded to Athens, 
in order to continue his studies at that seat of 
learning (Ep. ii. 2, 43). He seems chiefly to 
have attached himself to the opinions which he 
heard in the Academus, though later in life he 
inclined to those of Epicurus. It has been re- 
marked as an important result from his studying 
Greek literature at Athens instead of under 
Greek teachers at Rome, that he escaped the 
Alexandrian influence which considerably 
affected some other poets of his day. When 
Brutus came to Athens after the death of 
Caesar, Horace joined his army, and received 
at once the rank of a military tribune, and the 
command of a legion (Sat. i. 0, 18). It is pos- 
sible that this curious selection of so young and 
inexperienced a man may have been due to a 
literary friendship between Horace and Brutus 
(cf. Ep. i. 20, 18), who first placed him on his 
staff and then gave him a command. The rela- 
tions of Catullus with Memmius, and Floras 
with Tiberius are cited as parallel. He was 
present at the battle of Philippi, shared in the 
flight of his side, and adopts for his own case 
the words of Archilochus and Alcaeus who de- 
clare that they flung away their arms (Od. ii. 
7, 9 ; Ep. ii. 2, 46-50). There is no reason to 
suppose that his courage was less than that of 
the rest of the fugitive army. He now resolved 
to devote himself to more peaceful pursuits, and 
having obtained his pardon, he ventured at 
1 once to return to Rome. He had lost all his 
hopes in life ; his paternal estate had been 
swept away in the general forfeiture; but lie 
was enabled to obtain sufficient money to pur- 
chase a clerkship in the quaestor's office ; 
and on the profits of that pliico ho managed to 
li\e with the utmost frugality (Ep. ii. 2, 50; 



428 



HORATIUS 



Suet. Vit.). In these circumstances poverty, 
as he himself tells us, stimulated him to write, 
as a means of gaining notice and patronage 
(Ep. ii. 2, 40, 51). In course of time some of his 
poems attracted the notice of Varius and Virgil, 
who introduced him to Maecenas (b.c. 39). 
Horace soon became the friend of Maecenas, 
and this friendship quickly ripened into inti- 
macy (Sat. i. 6, 54). In a year or two after the 
commencement of their friendship (37), Horace 
accompanied his patron on that journey to 
Brundusium so brilliantly described in the 
fifth Satire of the first book. The influence 
of Maecenas gradually reconciled Horace to 
the imperial rule ; and it is reasonable to 
believe that the difference of feeling in politics 
which is traceable between poems such as the 
16th Epode, which despaired of Rome and 
advised emigration, and the Odes of the 3rd 
and 4th books, which lauded the rule of Augus- 
tus, was caused by this gradual change in his 
convictions, not by a mere desire to court the 
powerful. About the year 33 Maecenas be- 
stowed upon the poet a Sabine farm, sufficient 
to maintain him in ease, comfort, and even in 
content (satis beatus unicis Sabinis), during 
the rest of his life. The situation of this 
Sabine farm was in the valley of Ustica, within 
view of the mountain Lucretilis, and near the 
Digentia, about fifteen miles from Tibur (Tivoli). 
Just after passing Vicovaro, the Varia which 
Horace mentions as a town near his farm (Ep. 
i. 14, 3), on the road from Tivoli to Subiaco, the 
valley is reached down which the Digentia 
flowed to join the Anio. This valley runs up 
due north to its head, which is formed by a semi- 
circle of hills rising to a height of 3000 or 4000 
feet. It is possible, as some think, that the 
village of Cantalupo Bardello, high up on the 
E. slope, is the ' Mandela, rugosus frigore 
pagus ' of Ep. i. 18, 105. There is a difference 
of opinion about the actual site of the villa. It 
has been common to place it on a plateau 
about a mile up the valley on the W. side, con- 
siderably above the village of Rocca Giovine, near 
which have been found the remains of the old 
temple of Vacuna (Ep. i. 10, 49) and an inscrip- 
tion. But this stands much too high above the 
stream to suit the description of his farm as 
having sunny meadows which must be guarded 
by embankments from the stream (Ep. i. 14, 
29). It is probable that the true site is a spot 
higher up the same side of the valley, but near 
the river, where a small brook joins it which 
may be the water from Bandusia. There are 
the remains of a tessellated pavement, which, 
if of later date than Augustus, may mark addi- 
tions to the old villa or one built on the same 
ground. The ' angulus iste ' is then taken to 
be the nook at the upper end of the valley (see 
Epistles 14, 16, 18 of the first book, and cf. Od. 
i. 17, ii. 18, 14, iii. 1, 48). We trace in his 
writings the delight which this Sabine home and 
its country beauty gave to him, and the health- 
ful effect of its quiet life, from which he was 
yet able to retain his hold on the society of 
Rome. He spent also much time at Tibur, and 
some at Praeneste and at Baiae. He continued 
to live on the most intimate terms with 
Maecenas ; and this intimate friendship natu- 
rally introduced Horace to the notice of the 
other great men of his period. (For his chief 
friends see Sat. i. 10, 81-86.) At what time he 
first gained the favour of the emperor is not 
quite clear ; but his conversion to approval of 
the policy of Augustus appears in odes written 
not long after Actium. After the death of 



Virgil, in 19, Horace stood first of living poets, 
and was appointed by Augustus to compose the 
ode for the Secular games (Carmen saeculare) 
in 17. His relations with Augustus and the 
imperial family were certainly closer from this 
date onward, but it is an entire mistake to sup- 
pose that he was unfaithful to Maecenas, who 
was now out of favour. On the contrary, he 
refused the offered post of private secretary to 
Augustus in order not to be withdrawn from 
Maecenas ; and of their undiminished friend- 
ship we have proof enough in such lines as 
Od. iv. 11 (which was written not earlier than 
B.C. 15), and in the last commendation ad- 
dressed by Maecenas to Augustus : ' Horati 
Flacci ut mei esto memor ' (Suet. Vit.). Horace 
died on November 17th, B.C. 8, aged nearly 57. 
His death was so sudden that he had not time 
to make his will ; but he left the administra- 
tion of his affairs to Augustus, whom he insti- 
tuted as his heir. He was buried on the slope 
of the Esquiline Hill, close to his friend and 
patron, Maecenas, who had died before him in 
the same year. — Horace has described his own 
person. He was of short stature, with dark eyes 
and dark hair, but early tinged with grey. In 
his youth he was tolerably robust, bat in more 
advanced life his health was not always good, 
and he seems to have inclined to be a valetudi- 
narian. His habits, even after he became 
richer, were generally frugal and abstemious ; 
though on occasions, both in youth and 
maturer age, he liked choice wine, and in the 
society of friends scrupled not to enjoy the 
luxuries of his time. — The philosophy of 
Horace was that of a man of the world. He 
playfully alludes to his Epicureanism, but it 
was practical rather than speculative Epicurean- 
ism. His calm judgment and self-command 
followed the precepts of Aristippus, and secured 
contentment by limiting his desires, so that 
although he studied how to enjoy life he was 
never a slave to his pleasures. His mind, 
indeed, was not in the least speculative. 
Common life wisdom was his study, and to this 
he brought a quickness of observation and a 
sterling common sense which have made his 
works the delight of practical men. — In litera- 
ture Horace was many-sided. In his Satires 
and Epistles he is to be compared with brilliant 
prose-writers of essays on morals and manners, 
in the Epistles to Augustus and to Florus, 
and still more in the Ars Poetica, he is a literary 
critic ; in the Odes and Epodes he is a lyric poet ; 
and each department has to be considered by 
itself. His earliest written work was probably 
in the direction of lampoons in which he 
imitated Hipponax and Archilochus, and it is 
possible that some of the Epodes, though pub- 
lished later, may date from this time. His first 
publication was the first book of Satires, which 
probably appeared about B.C. 35 (Sat. i. 10, 44 
alludes to the Eclogues of Virgil, which appeared 
in 36). Some of the Satires, however, had been 
written much earlier : the 7th may date from his 
service with Brutus in 42, and it is not unlikely 
that the 2nd was written soon after his return 
to Rome, when he was more inclined to follow 
the style of Lucilius. The 2nd book of the 
Satires was written after he obtained his Sabine 
farm, and probably appeared in 30 : the allu- 
sion to the Parthians prevents an earlier date. 
In the Satires there is none of the lofty moral 
indignation or vehemence of invective which 
characterises Juvenal. Horace followed the 
plan of Satura which belonged to Lucilius, 
making it a semi-dramatic conversation with 



HOEATIUS 



HORTENSIUS 



429 



the age on its manners and foibles ; but he is 
much smoother and his wit more polished than 
that of Lucilius. As a moralist he points to 
the folly rather than the wickedness of vice : 
nothing can surpass the keenness of his observa- 
tion, his ease of expression or his lucid common 
sense ; so it is no wonder that his writings have 
become a storehouse of wise and witty sentences 
on the affairs of life : the line of Persius 
'admissus circum praecordia ludit ' expresses 
the truth that his light and playful touch of 
satire makes its way to the hearts of successive 
generations of readers. The dramatic element 
of the dialogue appears more in the second 
book of Satires than the first, and there is less 
reference to personal experiences. The Epodes 
appeared about the same time as the second 
book of Satires. Like the two books of Satires 
they embrace all the first period of his literary 
life, from the earlier and bitterer times down to 
the battle of Actium, when he was beginning to 
see the great ideal of strong and peaceful 
government, which he does not fully realise 
till the next period. Epod. 7 and 16 belong 
to the time soon after Philippi, and show that 
he then despaired of peace and security at 
Rome ; but the 1st is written after his friend- 
ship with Maecenas has begun, and probably 
just before Actium, and the yth is clearly after 
the victory. In the virulence of lampoon 
which marks some Epodes he is probably 
following Hipponax and Archilochus : in metre 
he often follows the long and short iambics 
used by Archilochus which (from the name 
iiriphos for the short line) have given the name 
to the book. It is in reference to this metre 
that he says 'Pariosego primus iambos ostendi 
Latio ' ; for Catullus had already used iambics. 
In the Epistles, which came after the first 
three books of Odes, Horace again appears as 
the moralist writing conversational essays, in a 
perfect form for their purpose, on manners and 
society, and points of literary criticism. They 
are written at a time when he surveyed Roman 
life from a higher and more secure position. It 
is probable that the first book of Epistles 
appeared about 20, and the second later than 
19. In Ep. ii. 1, 247 there is an allusion to the 
Aeneid, which was not published till after 
Virgil's death. The date of Horace's chief 
work of literary criticism, the Ars Poe'tica, is 
much disputed. In subject it hangs together 
rather with the 2nd book of the Epistles which 
is also the work of the critic rather than the 
moralist. According to Porphyrion, in the 
criticism of the Greek drama he is following the 
Alexandrian critic, Neoptolemus. It has com- 
monly, and partly on the authority of Porphy- 
rion, been considered his latest work, written 
between 12 and 8 B.C., nor have any strong 
arguments been adduced for a date much 
earlier than this. Tarpa, who is mentioned in 
v. 887 might still have been a recognised critic 
at the age of 75 (and in truth his age is only a 
matter of conjecture) ; and, as regards Virgil and 
Quintilius Varus (vv. 55 and 488) the language 
used by no means implies necessarily that 
Virgil was living, and rather implies that Varus 
was dead. On the whole, there is no evidence 
against its being posterior to the 2nd Epistle 
and the 4th book of Odes. The composition of 
the first three books of the Odes extends over 
a long period of years, perhaps from B.C. 31-23, 
certainly from 29. It is argued with much 
probability that Od. i. 2 and 14 refer to the 
civil troubles of B.C. 83, and i. 26 to B.C. 82. 
At any rate there is no doubt that i. 37 was 



written soon after Actium and ii. 2 refers to 
B.C. 30. All other historical allusions in these 
three books are included in the years which 
precede 23. On the other hand, Od. i. 12 
cannot have been written after the death of 
Marcellus, B.C. 23. The conclusion therefore is, 
that thede books were published together in 
23. There was then an interval, perhaps of less 
literary stress in Horace's secured position, and 
maturer age, but occupied by his work at the 
Epistles. He was called upon, by a position 
analogous to that of Poet Laureate, to write the 
Carmen saeculare in 17, and then to continue 
his lyrical work mainly on great patriotic themes 
written by desire of Augustus. The dates in this 
book of the Odes range between iv. 6 of B.C. 17 
and iv. 5 of B.C. 13. The book was probably 
published in 13, when Horace was 52 (cf. iv. 1, 
6). The Odes give Horace Ins claim to the 
rank of a great lyrical poet both in lighter and 
in more serious vein. Of the charm of his 
writing, whether on Anacreontic themes or on 
those loftier subjects which the passage of the 
empire from perils to security called forth, there 
are hardly two opinions. It must be admitted 
that he has not the fire or inspiration of Catul- 
j lus — the difference appears alike in his expres- 
sions of affection and in his invective — but for 
exquisite finish and for mastery of metre his 
lyrics are unsurpassed in Latin literature. It 
may be added that he is not easily compared 
with Catullus, because he reserves his deeper 
feeling for odes on matters of the state. It has 
been well said that ' Horace's tone in love- 
poems is rather that of persiflage than of 
ardent passion,' such as was that of Catullus. 
Those whom he professes to address are imagin- 
ary heroines, partly borrowed from Greek poets, 
partly from ' society ' stories of the da} - . His 
personal feeling (though even there expressed 
in less burning words than Catullus uses) is 
more forcibly and sincerely shown in odes to 
his friends such as Virgil, Lamia, Fuscus, 
Septimius, and Maecenas, and, it may be added, 
in those which speak of his country home. — For 
the position which Horace took already in the 
first century a.d. as a classic both in literary 
circles and in schools references may be made 
to Juv. vii. 26; Pers. v. 45; Quintil. i. 12, 40, 
ii. 17, 17, ix. 3, 18; Auson. Id. iv. 55.— The 
most useful editions of Horace are by Wickham, 
1875-1888 ; Palmer, 1885 ; Orelli, 1852, 1868, 
1885; Keller and Holder, Lips. 1870: Dillen- 
burger, Bonn, 1881. 

Hordeonius Flaccus. [Fxaccus.] 

Hormisdas. [Sassanidae.] 

Horta or Hortanum (Hortanus ; Orte), a 
town in Etruria, at the junction of the Nar and 
the Tiber, so called from the Etruscan goddess 
whose temple at Rome always remained open, 
Horta lor Hurta), a goddess apparently of good 
fortune (Plut. Q. R. 46). 

HortensiU8. 1. Q., the orator, was born in 
B.C. 114, eight years before Cicero. At the 
early age of nineteen he spoke with great 
applause in the forum, and at once rose to 
eminence as an advocate. He served two 
campaigns in the Social war (90, 89). In the 
Civil wars he joined Sulla, and was afterwards B 
constant supporter of the aristocratical party. 
His chief professional labours were in defending 
men of this party when accused of ma] 
adminstration and extortion in their provinces, 
or of bribery and the like in canvassing for 
public honours. He had no rival in the 
forum, till he encountered Cicero, and he long 
exercised an undisputed away over the courts 



HOETENSIUS 



of justice. In 81 he was quaestor; n 75 
aedile ; in 72 praetor ; and in 69 consul with 
Q. Caecilius Metellus. — It was in the year 
before his consulship that the prosecution of 
Verres commenced. Hortensius was the advo- 
cate of Verres, and attempted to put off the 
trial till the next year, when he would be able 
to exercise all the consular authority in favour 
of his client. But Cicero, who accused Verres, 
baffled all the schemes of Hortensius, and this 
contest left Cicero in the first place as an advo- 
cate and orator. After his consulship, Hortensius 
took a leading part in supporting the optimates 
against the rising power of Pompey. He spoke 
against the Gabinian law, which invested 
Pompey with absolute power on the Mediter- 
ranean, in order to put down the pirates of 
Cilicia (67) ; and the Manilian, by which the 
conduct of the war against Mithridates was 
transferred from Lucullus to Pompey (66). 
Cicero in his consulship (63) deserted the 
popular party, with whom he had hitherto 
acted, and became one of the supporters of the 
optimates. Thus Hortensius no longer appears 
as his rival. We first find them pleading 



HOSTILIA 

ordered C. Antonius, who had been taken 
prisoner, to be put to death. After the battle 
of Philippi, he was executed on the grave of his 
victim. 

Horus ( T npos), the Egyptian god of light, 
whose worship was also established in Greece, 
and afterwards as Harpocrates at Koine. He 
was the son of Osiris and Isis (but according 
to another view, of Re), and was regarded as 
waging war against the powers of darkness in 
the form of crocodiles and serpents. It is easy 
to see how this led to his identification with 




I QVIOTWHOKTCNSN? 

Bust of Hortensius. 



together for C. Rabirius, for L. Muraena, and 
for P. Sulla. After the coalition of Pompey 
with Caesar and Crassus in 60, Hortensius 
drew back from public life, and confined him- 
self to his advocate's duties. He died in 50. 
(Cic. adAtt. vi. 6.) The style of Hortensius was 
florid ; his memory so ready and retentive, that 
he is said to have been able to come out of a 
sale-room and repeat the auction-list backwards 
(CicBr^. 95, 96; Sen. Praef.in Contr. 1). He 
possessed immense wealth, and had several 
villas, the most splendid of which was the one 
near Laurentum. He was the first person at 
Rome who brought peacocks to table (Varr. B. 
B. iii. 13, 17; Plin. xiv. 96).— 2. Q., surnamed 
Hortalus, son of the preceding, by Lutatia, 
the daughter of Catulus. In youth he lived a 
low and profligate life, and appears to have 
been at last cast off by his father. On the 
breaking out of the Civil war in 49, he joined 
Caesar, and fought on his side in Italy and 
Greece (Plut. Caes. 32 ; Suet. Jul. 31). In 44 
he held the province of Macedonia, and Brutus 
was to succeed him. After Caesar's assassina- 
tion, M. Antony gave the province to his 
brother Caius. Brutus, however, had already 
taken possession, with the assistance of Horten- 
sius. When the proscription tcck place, Hor- 
tensius was in the list ; and in revenge he 




Horus. (Wilkinson.) 



Apollo (Hdt. ii. 144). As avenger of the death 
of his father Osiris he overcame the evil deity 
Typhon. Horus was in the prevailing myth 
regarded as the youthful sun, born afresh every 
morning, and in this guise was called Harpe- 
chrat, or ' the child- Horus,' which the Greeks 
represented by Harpocrates. The conventional 
statues of this child-Horus were represented in 
a sitting posture with his finger in his mouth, 
which was a symbol of childhood. From a 
misapprehension of this attitude in the Egypt- 
ian statues the Greeks and Romans regarded 
Harpocrates as the god of Silence (Ov. Met. 
ix. 691 ; Varr. L.L.v.57; Plut. Is. 68). Under 
the empire his worship in this character came in 
with that of other Egyptian deities. In art 
he was represented most commonly as a naked 
boy with his finger on his lips and with a lotus 
flower on his head. His image was also placed 
as an amulet on signet rings (Plin. xxxiii. 41). 
But he was represented also on bronzes and re- 
liefs as an armed and mounted warrior (but 
often with the head of a hawk) driving his spear 
through a crocodile or dragon. It is surmised, 
not without probability, that some part of the 
legends of St. George was drawn from these 
sculptures. 

Hostilia (Ostiglia), a small town in Gallia 
Cisalpina, on the Po, and on the road from 



HOSTILIUS 



HYADES 



431 



Mutina to Yerona ; the birthplace of Cornelius 
Nepos. 

Hostilius Mancmus. [Maxcixus.] 
Hostilius Tullus. [Tullus HosTiLrns.] 
Hostlus, the author of a poem on the Istrian 
war, probably the war of 1'25 B.C., not that of 
178, of which Ennius had already written. He 
is quoted by Macrob. vi. 3, 5 ; Serv. ad Aen. xii. 
121. He lived early in the 1st century B.C., and 
is probably the ' doctus avus ' of Propert. iv. 20, 
8 (Cynthia being really Hostia). 

Hunneric, king of the Yandals in Africa, a.d. 
477—484, was the son of Genseric, whom he 
succeeded. His reign was chiefly marked by 
his savage persecution of the Catholics. 

Hunni (OSi'voi), an Asiatic race, who dwelt 
for some centuries in the plains of Tartary, and 
were formidable to the Chinese empire long 
before they were known to the Romans. It 
was to repel the inroads of the Huns that the 
Chinese built their celebrated wall, 1500 miles 
in length. A portion of the nation afterwards 
migrated W., conquered the Alani, a warlike 
race between the Volga and the Tanais, and 
then crossed into Europe about a.d. 375. A 
curious story is told by Olympiodorus (Fr. 27) 
that Constantine, hearing of buried treasure in 
Thrace, had ordered it to be dug up. It con- 
sisted of three silver images which had been 
buried by the people of the country : one to 
keep out the Goths, the Becond the Huns, and 
the third the Sarmatians ; and accordingly after 
their removal Thrace and Illyria were overrun 
by Goths, Huns and Sarmatians. The appear- 
ance of these new barbarians excited the great- 
est terror, both among the Romans and the 
Germans. They are described by Greek and 
Roman historians as having broad shoulders, 
flat noses, and small black eyes deeply buried 
in their heads ; and as savage in manners and 
habits. They destroyed the powerful monarchy 
of the Ostrogoths, who were obliged to retire 
before them, and were allowed by Valens 
to settle in Thrace, a.d. 376. The Huns now 
frequently ravaged the Roman dominions. 
They were joined by many other barbarian 
nations, and under their king Attila (a.d. 434- 
453), they devastated the fairest portions of 
the empire, both in the E. and the W. [Attila.] 
On the death of Attila, the various nations 
which composed his army, dispersed, and his 
sons were unable to resist the arms of the 
Ostrogoths. In a few years after the death of 
Attila, the empire of the Huns was completely 
destroyed. The remains of the nation became 
incorporated with other barbarians, and never 
appear again as a separate people. (Amni. 
Marc. xxxi. ; Prise. Attil.) 

Hyacinth ides ('Tcucii'0i'5fs), daughters of a 
Lacedaemonian named Hyacinthus, who is said 
to have gone to Athens and to have sacrificed 
th-'m for the purpose of delivering the city 
from a famine and plague under which it was 
suffering during the war with Minos. They 
wore named 'Avflrjis, Aiykr)U and Auroia 
(Apollod. iii. 15, 5; Hyg. Fab. 288). Some 
traditions make them the daughters of Erech- 
theus, and relate that they received (heir name 
from the village of Hyacinthus, where they were 
sacrificed at the time when Athens was attacked 
by the Eleusinians and Thracians, or Thebans. 
(Suid. s.v. itapOivoi ; [Demosth.J Epitaph, p. 
1807). It is difficult when comparing the story 
of Hyacinthus at Amyclae to resist the con- 
clusion that we may have hero a reminiscence 
of an old sacrifice of maidens at Athens for a 
festival of a deity of the spring which was ex- 



plained in this way when the worship of the 
deity akin to the Amyclaean Hyacinthus had 
died out at Athens. 

Hyacinthus {'taKivQos), son of the Spartan 
king Amyclae and Diomede, or of Oebalus 
(Paus. iii. 1, 3 ; Apollod. iii. 10, 3 ; Ov. Met. x. 
196 ; Hyg. Fab. 271 ; Serv. ad Aen. xi. 68). He 
was a youth of extraordinary beauty, and was 
beloved by Apollo, and as he was once playing 
at quoits with the god, the wind turned the 
quoit so that it struck the boy and slew him. 
Such was the original story at Amyclae 
(Apollod. i. 3, 3, iii. 10, 3 ; Eur. Hel. 1469 ; 
Paus. iii. 19, 5) ; but from the mention of the 
wind grew up a later story that Zephj-rus also 
loved Hyacinthus and slew him from jealousy 
because Apollo was preferred (Palaeph. 47 ; 
Lucian, Dial. Deer. 14 ; Philostr. Imag. i. 24). 
A third story, apparently Orphic, makes Hya- 
cinthus beloved by Thamyris. From the blood 
of Hyacinthus there sprang the flower of the 
same name, on the leaves of which appeared 
the exclamation of woe AI, AI, or the letter T, 
being the initial of 'T&Kivdos. [That the Greek 
hyacinth was not ours is clear enough : prob- 
ably it was an iris : for a similar flower-legend, 
see Ajax.] Hyacinthus was worshipped at 
Amyclae as a hero, and a great festival, Hya- 
cinthia, was celebrated in his honour. It was a 
festival older than the Dorians, and adopted by 
them. [For an account of the rites, see Diet, 
of Ant. art. Hyacitithia.] The myth seems to 
mean the effect of the hot summer sun in 
withering the spring flowers, the quoit being 
the sun's disk. It may be noticed that the 
Apollo of the original story cannot be the 
Dorian god, and the theory deserves considera- 
tion, that tins Apollo and Hyac inthus are both 
sun-deities — Hyacinthus the younger or weaker 
sun of spring which fosters the spring vege- 
tation (cf. the Egyptian child-Horus), and 
Apollo the strong summer sun. It is possible, 
again, that the story may have been developed 
when the religion of the Dorian Apollo over- 
powered that of an earlier Amyclaean Hya- 
cinthus, god of the sun in spring. 

Hyades ('TdSes) — that is, the Rainy — the 
name of nymphs, whose parentage, number and 
names are described in various ways by the 
ancients. Their parents were Atlas and Aethra, 
or Atlas and Pleione, or Hyas and Boeotia : 
others call their father Ocoanus, Melisseus, 
Cadmilus, or Erechtheus. Their number differs 
I in various legends; but their most common 
I number is seven, as they appear in the con- 
stellation which bears their name, viz. Am- 
brosia, Eudura, Pedile, Coronis, Polyxo, 
Phyto, and Thijene or Dione (Ov. Fast. v. 
! 160; Hyg. Fab. 182, 192; Ast. ii. 21). They 
were entrusted by Zeus witli the care of his 
infant son Dionysus, and were afterwards 
1 placed by Zeus among the stars. The story 
which made them the daughters of Atlas re- 
lates that their number was twelve or fifteen, 
and that at first five of them were placed 
among the stars as Hyades, and the seven (or 
ten) others afterwards under the name of 
, Pleiades, to reward them for the sisterly love 
[ they had evinced after the death of thi ir 
t brother Hyas, who had been killed in Libya by 
a wild beast. Their name, HyadeB, was derived 
by some from Hyes, a mystic surname of 
Dionysus (Suid. s.v.). The Romans, who do- 
rived it from us, a pig, translated the name by 
Suculae (Cic. N. D. ii. 43, 111 j Plin. ii. 106). 
The most natural derivation is from vtiv, to 
rain, as the constellation of the Hyades, when 



432 



HYAMPEA 



HYGIEA 



rising simultaneously with the sun, announced 
rainy weather. (II. xviii. 486, and Schol. ; Verg. 
Aen. i. 743 ; Hor. Od. i. 3, 14.) 

Hyampea. [Pabnassus.] 

Hyampolis ('Yd/unro\ts : 'taixiroK'n^s), a town 
in Phocis, E of the Cephissus, near Cleonae, 
was founded by the Hyantes, when they were 
driven out of Boeotia by the Cadmeans ; was 
destroyed by Xerxes ; afterwards rebuilt ; and 
again destroyed by Philip and the Amphictyons 
(II. |i. 521; Paus. ix. 35, 5; Strab. p. 424). 
Cleonae, from its vicinity to Hyampolis, is called 
by Xenophon (Hell. vi. 4, § 27) 'TafuroKiTaiv rh 
irpodtTTetov. 

Hyantes ("Yavres), the ancient inhabitants 
of Boeotia, from which country they were ex- 
pelled by the Cadmeans. Part of the Hyantes 
emigrated to Phocis [Hyampolis], and part to 
Aetolia. The poets use the adjective Hyantius 
as equivalent to Boeotian. (Strab. pp. 321, 401, 
464 ; Ov. Met. iii. 147.) 

Hyas ("Toj).— 1. The name of the father 
and the brother of the Hyades. — 2. (Sometimes 
confused with No. 1), the eponymous hero of 
the Boeotian Hyantes. He was married to 
Boeotia. (Paus. ix. 5, 1 ; Plin. iv. 26.) 

Hybla ("X0\ri : 'r&Kaios, Hyblensis), three 
towns in Sicily, named after a Sicilian goddess 
Hybla. 1. Major (r) /j.d(uy or fieydXn) , on the S. 
slope of Mt. Aetna and on the river Symaethus, 
was originally a town of the Siculi. It was called 
Hybla Gereatis or Galeatis (Thuc. vi. 62 ; Paus. 
v. 23 ; Steph. Byz. s. v.). It is probably the 
Hybla famous for honey (Verg. Eel. i. 37 ; Ov. 
Trist. v. 13, 22), though Strabo (p. 267) seems 
to make that a characteristic of Megara. — 2, 




Coin of Hybla Major (about 210 B.C.). 
Obv., head of goddess Hybla, crowned with the modius ; 
rev., Dionysus and panther, with legend YBAA2 metaaas. 



Minor (t) fxiKpd), afterwards called Megara. 
[Megaea.] — 3. Heraea, in the S. of the island, 
on the road from Syracuse to Agrigentum. — 
The above seems the true distinction between 
the first two towns, but it is not unquestioned, 
partly owing to the confused description in 
Pausanias and Stephanus. 

Hybreas ('r,8p6as), of Mylasa in Caria, a cele- 
brated orator, contemporary with the triumvir 
Antonius (Strab. pp. 630, 659 ; Plut. Ant. 24). 

Hyecara (to. "TKKapa : 'Tmapevs : Muro di 
Oarini), a town of the Sicani on the N. coast of 
Sicily, W. of Panormus, said to have derived its 
name from the sea fish vnai. It was taken by 
the Athenians, and plundered, and its inha- 
bitants sold as slaves, B. c. 415. Among the 
captives was the beautiful Timandra, mistress 
of Alcibiades and mother of Lais. (Thuc. vi. 
62 ; Diod. xiii. 6 ; Plut. Ale. 39 ; Paus. ii. 2, 5.) 

Hydarnes ('YSdpyris), one of the seven Per- 
sians who conspired against the Magi in B. c. 521 
(Hdt. iii. 70). 

Hydaspes ('YSdo-rrris : Jelum), the northern- 
most of the five great tributaries of the Indus, 
which, with the Indus itself, water the great 
plain of N. India, now called the Punjab, i.e. 
five rivers. The Hydaspes falls into the Acesines 
(Chenab), which also receives, from the S., first 



the Hydraotes (Bavee), and then the Hyphasis 
(Beeas, and lower down, Gharra), which has 
previously received, on the S. side, the Hesidrus 
or Zaradrus (Sutlej or Hesudru) ; and the 
Acesines itself falls into the Indus. These five 
rivers all rise on the SW. side of the Emodi M. 
(Himalaya), except the Sutlej, which, like the 
Indus, rises on the NE. side of the range. 
They became known to the Greeks by Alexan- 
der's campaign in India : his victory over Porus 
(b. c. 327) was gained on the left side of the 
Hydaspes, near, or perhaps upon, the scene of 
the battle of Chillianwallah ; and the Hyphasis 
formed the limit of his progress. (Strab. p. 
686 ; Plin. vi. 71 ; Arrian, An. v. 19 ; Curt. ix. 4.) 
The epithet ' fabulosus ' which Horace applies 
to the Hydaspes (Od. i. 22, 7) refers to the mar- 
vellous stories current about it as the river of a 
practically unknown land ; and the ' Medus 
Hydaspes ' of Virgil (Georg. iv. 211) is merely 
an example of the vagueness with which the 
Roman writers, especially the poets, refer to the 
countries beyond the E. limit of the empire. 

Hydra. [Hebacles,p. 396.] 

Hydraotes or Hyarotis ('YSpawrris, 'Ydpwrts : 
Bavee), a river of India, falling into the Ace- 
sines. [Hydaspes.] 

Hydrea ('YSpea: 'YSpedrris : Hydra), & small 
island in the gulf of Hermione off Argolis (Hdt. 
iii. 59 ; Paus. ii. 39, 4), of no importance in 
antiquity, but the inhabitants of which in 
modem times played a distinguished part in the 
war of Greek independence, and are some of the 
best sailors in Greece. 

Hydruntum or Hydrtis ('YSpovs : Hydruntl- 
nus : Otranto), one of the most ancient towns 
of Calabria, situated on the SE. coast, with a 
good harbour, near a mountain Hydrus, in 
later times a municipium. Persons frequently 
crossed over to Epirus from this port. (Plin. iii. 
100 ; Cic. ad Att. xv. 21, xvi. 6 ; Strab. p. 281.) 

Hyettus ('YtittSs : 'T^ttios), a small town 
in Boeotia on the lake Copais, and near the 
frontiers of Locris (Paus. ix. 24, 3). 

Hygiea ('Yyieia), also called Hygea or Hygia, 
the goddess of health, and a daughter of Ascle- 
pius. [As his wife she only appears in very late 
Orphic hymns.] She was worshipped particu- 
larly at Athens, where representations in relief 
and votive tablets have been found in the As- 
clepieum, and not only as the daughter of Ascle- 
pius but as Athene Hygiea, to whom a statue 
and an altar were set up by Pericles [see p. 13, a]. 
On this various theories have been mooted : (1) 
that her worship originated at Athens either as 
an offshoot from that of Athene or from a con- 
ception of the poets, (2) that it came to Athens 
with the worship of Asclepius from Epidaurus ; 
(3) that she took the place of Alcippe, a nymph 
of the spring in the Asclepieum. These are 
matters of conjecture, and the question of origin 
may be settled some day by the discovery of 
inscriptions. It is true that no pre-Roman in- 
scriptions about Hygiea have yet been found at 
Epidaurus ; but Pausanias (ii. 11, 6) mentions 
a very old temple of Asclepius at Titane near 
Sicyon where Hygiea was worshipped equally 
with her father. It seems likely that her wor- 
ship was united with that of Asclepius to ex- 
press the abstract idea of his healing power as 
distinct from his old oracular character [Ascle- 
pius]. It is on the whole more likely to have 
originated in the Peloponnesus than at Athens ; 
but the worship of Athene Hygiea was merely 
the addition of the function of healing to the 
other qualities of Athene the protectress, and 
was quite distinct from the worship of Hygiea 



HYGINUS 

the daughter of Asclepius. At Rome her proper 
name as introduced from Greece wasValetudo, 
but she was gradually identified with the genuine 
Italian deity Salus. In art Hygiea was repre- 
sented as a maiden clad either in the Doric or 
Ionic chiton feeding a snake from a saucer. In 
the Vatican group she stands by the seated 
Asclepius with one hand on his shoulder ; with 
the other she offers the saucer to the snake 
which is twined about her father's staff. 

Hyginus. 1. C. Julius, a Roman gramma- 
rian, was a native of Spain, and lived at Rome 
in the time of Augustus, whose freedman he 
was, and who made him librarian of the Pala- 
tine library (Suet. Gr. 20). He wrote several 
works, all of which have perished, unless he is 
the author of the works described under No. 3. 
— 2. Hyginus Gromaticus, so called from 
gruma, an instrument used by the Agrimen- 
sores. He lived in the time of Trajan, and 
wrote works on land-surveying. The work 2>j 
Limitibus constituendis is by some attributed 
to him, by some to a later Hyginus. (Ed. bv 
Hultsch, 1866 ; Lachmann, 1848.) The work on 
castrametation (De Munitionbus Castrorum) 
is assigned to him without due reason, and 
seems to be by a later writer. It is valuable 
for its subject. (Ed. by Domaszewski, Lips. 
1887; Lange, Gott, 1848.) — 3. Hyginus, the 
author of two extant works: 1. Fabularum 
Liber, a series of short mythological legends, 
with an introductory genealogy of divinities. 
2. Poeticon Astronomicon Libri IV, which 
gives an account of the constellations and the 
myths about them. Both works, and especially 
the former, have considerable value for the study 
of Greek mythology, since the author has made 
use of many works, particularly of the Greek 
tragedians, which have been lost. It is a doubt- 
ful question whether the original author of these 
works was C. Julius Hyginus or not. It is the 
opinion of most critics that he was a writer of 
a later period, perhaps of the second cent. a. d. 
There is no doubt that the Latinity is of a later 
period, but the books which we have are only 
an abridgment of the original works, and the 
language may be much altered. The statement 
of Suetonius that Julius Hyginus was learned 
in Alexandrian literature would agree with the 
researches in these two works, and the fact of 
his being a friend of Ovid might account for 
certain resemblances in the statements of the 
Fabulae and the Metamorphoses. Both works 
of Hyginus are included in the Mythographi 
Latini of Muncker, Amst. 1681, and of Van 
Staveren, Lugd. Bat. 1742. They are edited by 
Bunte, Lips. 1857 ; and the Fab. separately by 
M. Schmidt, Jen. 1872. 

Hylaea ('TA(u't|), a district in Scythia, covered 
with wood, is the peninsula adjacent to Taurica 
on the NW., between the rivers Borysthenes 
and Hypacyris (Hdt. iv. 9, 18, 76). 

Hylaeus ('TKcuos)— that is, the Woodman — 
the name of an Arcadian centaur, who was slain 
by Atalante, when he pursued her. According to 
some legends, Hylaeus fell in the fight against 
the Lapithae, and others again said that he was 
one of the centaurs slain by Heracles. (Apollod. 
iii. 9, 2 ; Verg. Georg. ii. 457 ; Aen. viii. 294 ; 
Propert. i. 1, 18.) 

Hylas ("TAoj), in the Alexandrian poets, was 
the son of Theodamas, king of the Dryopes, 
by the nymph Menodice. He was beloved by 
Heracles, whom he accompanied in the expedi- 
tion of the Argonauts. On the coast of Mysia, 
Hylas went on shore to draw water from a 
fountain ; but his beauty excited the love of the 



HYMEN 



433 



Naiads, who drew him down into the water, and 
he was never seen again. Heracles endeavoured 
in vain to find him ; and when he shouted out 
to the youth, the voice of Hylas was heard from 
the bottom of the well only like a faint echo, 
whence some say that he was actually meta- 
morphosed into an echo (Verg. Eel. vi. 481. 
Hence arose the proverb "YAap Kpavya&iv (Suid.) 
for 'wasted labour' (cf. Aristoph. Plut. 11271. 
"While Heracles was engaged in seeking his 
favourite, the Argonauts sailed away, leaving 
him and his companion, Polyphemus, behind 
(Ap. Rh. i. 1207 ; Val. Flacc. iii. 481 ; Hyg. Fab. 
14, 271 ; Theocr. xiii. ; Propert. i. 20). The cry 
for Hylas was very much older than these 
stories of the Alexandrian poets. It is the 
1 Mysian cry ' of Aesch. Pers. 1054. At what 
period Hylas and Heracles were connected 
in mythology it is impossible to say, but it is a 
reasonable suggestion that the myth of Hylas 
grow out of the ritual of a Mysian harvest fes- 
tival in which the figure of a boy was cast into 
the stream or fountain with cries upon a harvest 
deity Hylas (cf. Strab. p. 564). Others imagine 
him to have been the deity of the spring called 
upon in summer to give more water. 

Hyle ("TA7/, also T T\ai), a small town in 
Boeotia, on the lake Hylice, which was called 
after this town, and into which the Ismenus flows 
(17. ii. 500, v. 708, vii. 221; Strab. p. 407). 

Hyllas, a river in Bruttium, separating the 
territories of Sybaris and Croton (Thuc. vii. 35). 

Hylice (ft 'TAi/o; \ipvt)), a lake in Boeotia, 
S. of the lake Copais. [See Hyle.] 

Hylicus ("TAikos, "TAAiKos), a small river in 
Argolis, near Troezen. 

Hyllus CTAAos), son of Hercules by Deianlra. 
For details see Heraclidae. 

Hyllus ("TAAor : Kumtschai), a river of 
Lvdia, falling into the Hermus on its N. side 
(ft. xx. 392; Hdt. i. 80; Strab. p. 626). 

Hymen or Hymenaeus i't^v or 'Tpevcuos), 
the god of marriage, was conceived as a hand- 
some youth, and invoked in the hymeneal or 
bridal song (Sapph. Fr. 91, 107, 108; Eur. 
Troad. 310). The names originally designated 
the bridal song itself, which was subsequently 
personified, whence as a deity he becomes the 
son of deities connected with music, and also 
gathers to himself local stories of mortals 
arising from some marriage custom. He is 
described as the son of Apollo and a Muse, 
either Calliope, Urania, or Terpsichore. Others 
describe him only as the favourite of Apollo 
or Thamyris, and call him a son of Magnes and 
Calliope, or of Dionysus and Aphrodite. This 
last genealogy points to his being regarded as 
the god of fruitfulness (Pind. Fr. 189; Schol. 
ad Pind. iv. 813 ; Catull. 61, 2 ; Serv. ad Aen. 
iv. 127). The Attic legends described him as a 
youth of such delicate beauty, that he might In- 
taken for a girl. He fell in love with a maiden, 
who refused to listen to him ; but in the disguise 
of a girl he followed her to Eleusis to the festival 
of Demeter. The maidens, together with 
Hymenaeus, were carried off by robbers into a. 
distant and desolate country. On their land- 
ing, the robbers lay down to sleep, and were 
killed by Hymenaeus, who now returned to 
Athens, requesting the citizens to give him his 
beloved in marriage, if In- p-ston-d t<> them tin- 
maidens who had been carried off by the 
robbers. His request was granted, and his 
j marriage was extremely happy. For this 
reason he was invoked in the hymeneal songs. 
According to others he was a youth who was 
killed by the fall of his house on his wedding- 

F F 



434 



HYMETTUS 



day, whence lie was afterwards invoked in 
bridal songs, in order to be propitiated (Serv. 
ad Aen. i. 655, ad Eel. viii. 30). Some related 
that at the wedding of Dionysus and Ariadne 
he sang the bridal hymn, but lost his voice. 
He is represented in works of art as a young 
man carrying a bridal torch. Most notable is a 
painting from Pompeii (Mus. Borb. xii. 17). 

Hymettus ('Tfirirros), a mountain in Attica, 
celebrated for its marble and more especially 
for its honey (Hor. Od. ii. 18, 3, Sat. ii. 2, 15). 
It is about three miles S. of Athens, and forms 
the commencement of the range of mountains 
which runs S. through Attica [p. 148]. It is 
now called Telovuni or Hymettos: the part of 
the mountain near the promontory Zoster, 
which was called in ancient times Anhydrus (6 
"Avvbpos, sc. 'TfiriTrbs), or the Dry Hymettus, is 
now called Mavrovuni. 

Hypacyris, Hypacaris, or Pacaris (Kanil- 
shak), a river in European Sarmatia, which 
flows through the country of the nomad Scy- 
thians, and falls into the Sinus Carcinites in 
the Euxine sea. 

Hypaea. [Stoechades.] 

Hypaepa ('Twaiwa : Dokboi), a city of Lydia, 
■on the S. slope of Mt. Tmolus, near the N. 
bank of the Cai'ster (Strab. p. 627 ; Paus. v. 
9,7, 5 ; Ov. Met. vi. 13). 

Hypana ('Tiravt) : to "tvava : 'T-n-avevs), a 
town in Triphylian Elis, belonging to the 
Pentapolis (Strab. p 343). 

Hypanis. 1. (Bug), a river in European 
Sarmatia, rises, according to Herodotus, in a 
lake, flows parallel to the Borysthenes, has at 
first sweet, then bitter water, and falls into the 
Euxine sea W. of the Borysthenes (Hdt. ii. 
102, iv. 17; Strab. p. 107; Ov. Pont. iv. 10, 
47). — 2. (Kuban), a river of the Sarmatian 
Caucasus, rising in the mountains of the 
Caucasus and flowing into the Palus Maeotis 
(Strab. p. 494). 

Hypata (to "tirara, r) 'Tirctrr; : 'tiraTcuos, 
'Twarevs : Neopatra, Turk. Batrajik), a town 
of the Aenianes in Thessaly, S. of the Sper- 
cheus, belonged in later times to the Aetolian 
league (Pol. xx. 9, 11, xxi. 2, 3). The inhabi- 
tants of this town were notorious for magic 
(Lucian, Asin. 1, Apul. Met. i. 104). 

Hypatla ('Tiron-ia), daughter of Theon, by 
whom she was instructed in philosophy and 
mathematics. She lectured in the Neoplatonic 
school of Plotinus at Alexandria. She ap- 
pears to have been modest as well as beautiful, 
but nevertheless to have been a victim to 
slander and falsehood. She was accused of 
influencing Orestes, prefect of Alexandria, 
against Cyril ; and (possibly at the instigation 
of the archbishop himself) a number of fana- 
tical monks seized her in the street, and 
dragged her into one of the churches, where 
they tore her to pieces, a.d. 415. 

Hypatodorus ('TiraTSSapos), a sculptor of 
Thebes, B.C. 372 (Paus. viii. 26, 5, x. 10, 3). 

Hyperbolus ('T7re'p/3oAos), an Athenian de- 
magogue in the Peloponnesian war, was of 
servile origin, and was frequently satirised by 
Aristophanes and the other comic poets 
(Aristoph. Aeh. 846, Eq. 1301, Vesp. 1007). In 
order to get rid either of Nicias or Alcibiades, 
Hyperbolus called for the exercise of the ostra- 
cism. But the parties endangered combined 
to defeat him, and the vote of exile fell on 
Hyperbolus himself: an application of that 
dignified punishment by which it was thought 
to have been so debased that the use of it was 
never recurred to. Some years afterwards he 



HYPERBOREI 

was murdered by the oligarchs at Samos, B.C. 
411. (Thuc. viii. 74, Plut. Arist. 7, Ale. 13). 

Hyperborei or-ei ('rirepQopeoi, 'Tirep/3<<p€ioi), 
a fabulous people, the earliest mention of whom 
seems to have been in the sacred legends con- 
nected with the worship of Apollo, both at Delos 
and at Delphi. They are not mentioned by 
Homer, but it does not follow that the legend 
was post-Homeric. Herodotus (iv. 32) notices 
them as spoken of in the Epigoni and by 
Hesiod. In the earliest Greek conception 
of the Hyperboreans, as embodied by the 
poets, they were a blessed people, living in 
a land of perpetual sunshine, which produced 
abundant fruits, on which the people lived, 
abstaining from animal food. In innocence 
and peace, free from disease and toil and care, 
ignorant of violence and war, they spent a long 
and happy life, in the due and cheerful obser- 
vance of the worship of Apollo, who visited their 
country soon after his birth, and spent a whole 
year among them, dancing and singing, before 
he returned to Delphi. The poets related 
further how the sun only rose once a year and 
set once a year, upon the Hyperboreans, whose 
year was thus divided, at the equinoxes, into a 
six months' day and a six months' night, and 
they were therefore said to sow in the morning, 
to reap at noon, to gather their fruits in the 
evening, and to store them up at night : how , 
too, their natural life lasted 1000 years, but if 
any of them was satiated with its unbroken 
enjoyment, he threw himself, crowned and 
anointed, from a sacred rock into the sea (Strab. 
p. 711 ; Plin. iv. 82). The Delian legends told 
of offerings sent to Apollo by the Hyberboreans, 
first by the hands of virgins named Arge and 
Opis (or Hecaerge), and then by Laodice and 
Hyperoche, escorted by five men called Per- 
pheree's ; and lastly, as their messengers did not 
return, they sent the offerings packed in wheat- 
straw, and the sacred package was forwarded 
from people to people till it reached Delos. 
Pausanias cites the old Delian hymns ascribed 
to Olen as saying that a shrine made of wax and 
feathers was sent by Apollo to the Hyperboreans, 
apparently to Delphi (Paus. x. 5). Hence it 
would seem that they were originally regarded 
as Delphians, and the Aeu/ca! icSpcu who were sup- 
posed to aid Delphi against the Gauls may have 
been the Hyperborean maidens Laodice and 
Hyperoche (Paus. i. 4, 4, x. 23, 1 ; Cic. Div. i. 37, 
81). The notion that they dwelt in the extreme 
north ' beyond the influence of the north wind,' 
may have arisen from the derivation of their 
name (now generally rejected) virep — )3opeas. 
Herodotus says that Aristeas placed them in a 
gold- producing country (Ural Mountains'?) 
near the Arimaspi (Hdt. iv. 13) ; but the older 
legends seem to connect them with the lands of 
the sun in the south-west or south-east (Pind. 
Pyth. x. 30 ; Aesch. Pr. 805), and when Pindar 
speaks of the sources of the Ister as their dwell- 
ing (01. iii. 14, viii. 47 ; Isthni. v. 22), he probably 
meant to express the extreme west ; but un- 
questionably they were eventually conceived as 
dwelling far in the north, and their name meant 
northerly, as when Virgil and Horace speak 
of the ' Hyperboreae orae ' and ' Hyperborei 
campi.' Some modern writers derive their name 
from virep — opos = ' beyond the mountains ' : 
others connect the word with <p4pw, as though 
for vTrGpcpepercu, so that the name meant ' the 
bringers of offerings to Apollo ' in its original, 
and 1 northern ' only in its later, use. 

Hyperborei Morites was originally the mythi- 
cal name of an imaginary range of mountains 



HYPERIDES 

in the X. of the earth [Hyperborei], and 
was afterwards applied by the geographers to 
various chains, as, for example, the Caucasus, 
the Rhipaei Montes, and others. 

Hyperide8 ('TTrepei'S-qs or 'YirepL$T]s), one of 
the ten Attic orators, was the son of Glaucippus, 
and belonged to the Attic demus of Collytus. 
He was a pupil of Isocrates, and a friend and 
fellow-pupil of Lycurgus. He is first mentioned 

B. C. 860, when he prosecuted Autocles for 
treason in a Thracian command. About B.C. 
358 he and his son equipped two triremes at 
their own expense in order to serve against 
Euboea. From the peace of 346 till 324 he aided 
Demosthenes in the patriotic struggle against 
Macedon. After the death of Alexander (323) 
Hyperides took an active part in organising 
that confederacy of the Greeks against Anti- 
pater which produced the Lamian war. Upon 
the defeat of the confederates at the battle of 
Crannon in the following year (322), Hyperides 
fled to Aegina, where he was slain by the 
emissaries of Antipater. His oratory, holding 
a middle place between that of Lysias and 
Demosthenes, combined vigour with grace and 
wit, and is remarkable also for its pathetic 
passages. Longinus (de Sublim. 34 J ranks him 
very high for all these qualities. Out of the 
77 orations attributed to Hyperides, until the 
middle of this century none were known to be 
extant, but in 1847 and succeeding years the 
greater part of the speech For Euxenippus 
and of the Funeral Oration on those who fell 
in the Lamian war, and (in 1892) most of the 
6peech Against Athenagoras, and parts of those 
Against Demosthenes and For Lycophron were 
recovered from papyri found in Egypt. Ed. 

C. Babington, 1853 ; Blass, Lips. 1869. 
Hyperion ('Twep'twi'), a Titan, son of Uranus 

and Ge, and married to his sister Thia, or 
Euryphaessa, by whom he became the father 
of Helios, Selene, and Eos. [Helios.] 

Hypermnestra ("tVep^Wjo-rpa). 1. Daughter 
of Thestius and Eurythemis, wife of Oicles, 
and mother of Amphiaraus. — 2. One of the 
daughters of Danaus and wife of Lynceus. 
[Danaus ; Lynceus.] 

Hyphasis or Hypasis or Hypanis ("r<pa<ris, 
"Tircuris, "KVawj : Beeas, and Oharra), a river 
of India. [Hydaspes.] 

Hypiua ("Tttioj), a river and mountain in 
Bithynia. 

Hypsaa ("T+aj), two rivers on the S. coast 
of Sicily, one between Selinus and Thermae 
Selinuntiae (now Belici) and the other near 
Agrigentum (now Fiume Drago). 

Hypseus ('T^(vs), son of Peneus and Creusa, 
was king of the Lapithae, and father of Cyrene 
(Find. Pyth. ix. 13 ; Paus. ix. 34, 5). 

Hypsicles fT«|<i/(A.»)s), of Alexandria, a Greek 
mathematician, usually said to have lived about 
a.d. 160, but ought not to be placed earlier than 
a.d. 550. His only extant work is entitled Tltpl 
ttjj r&y (uiSluv avcupopas, published with the 
Optics of Heliodorus at Paris, 1567. He is sup- 
posed to have added the 14th and 15th books to 
the Elements of Euclid. 

Hypsipyle CT^nriiKri), daughter of Thoas, 
king of Lemnos. When the Lemnian women 
killed all the men in the island, because they 
hod taken some female Thracian slaves to their 
beds, Hypsipyle saved her father. [Thoas.] 
She then became queen of Lemnos ; and when 
the Argonauts landed there shortly afterwards, 
she bore twin sons to Jason, Euneus and 
Nebrophonus, also called Deiphilus or Thoas. 
[Jason.J The Lemnian women subsequently 



HYRCANUS 



435 



discovered that Thoas was alive, whereupon 
they compelled Hypsipyle to quit the island. 
On her flight she was taken prisoner by pirates 
and sold to the Nemean king Lycurgus, who 
intrusted to her care his son Archemorus or 
Opheltes. [Archemorus.] 

Hypsus ('Tif/ovs, -ovvtos), a town in Arcadia, 
on a mountain of the same name. 

Hyrcanla CTpKavia : 'TpKavios, Hyrcanus : 

j Mazaiuleran), a province of the ancient Per- 
sian Empire, on the S. and SE. shores of the 
Caspian or Hyrcanian Sea, and separated by 
mountains on the W., S., and E., from iledia, 
Parthia, and Margiana. Its valleys were very 

I fertile ; and it flourished most under the Par- 
thians, whose kings often resided in it during 
the summer. (Strab. p. 508.) 
HyTcanum or -ium Mare. [Casptom Mare.] 
Hyrcanus i'tpnavos). 1. Joannes, prince 

j and high-priest of the Jews, was the son and 
successor of Simon Maccabaeus. Ha succeeded 
to his father's power B.C. 135. He was at first 
engaged in war with Antiochus VJJL. Sidetes, 
who invaded Judaea, and laid siege to Jerusalem. 
In 133 he concluded a peace with Antiochus, 
on the condition of paying an annual tribute. 
In 109 Hyrcanus took Samaria, and razed it 
to the ground. He died in 106. Although he 
did not assume the title of king, he may be 
regarded as the founder of the monarchy of 
Judaea, which continued in his family till the 
accession of Herod. (Jos. Ant. xiii. 7-9.) — 
2. High-priest and king of the Jews, was 
the eldest son of Alexander Jannaeus. On 
the death of Alexander (78) the royal autho- 
rity devolved upon Alexandra, his wife, who 
appointed Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood ; 
and upon her death in 69, Hyrcanus suc- 
ceeded to the sovereignty, but was attacked 
by his younger brother, Aristobulus, in the fol- 
lowing year (68), and, being driven from the 
throne, took refuge with Aretas, king of Arabia 
Petraea. That monarch assembled an army, 
with which he invaded Judaea. Aristobulus, 
however, gained over by bribes and promises 
Pompey's lieutenant, M. Scaurus, who now 
ordered Aretas and Hyrcanus to withdraw from 
Judaea (64). The next year Pompey himself 
arrived in Syria: he reversed the decision of 
Scaurus, carried away Aristobulus as a prisoner 
to Rome, and reinstated Hyrcanus in the high- 
priesthood, with the authority, though not the 
name, of royalty ; but Alexander, the son of 
Aristobulus, and subsequently Aristobulus him- 
self, escaped from Rome, and excited revolts, 
which were only quelled by the assistance of 
the Romans. The real government was now 
in the hands of Antipater, the father of Herod, 
who aided Caesar during the Alexandrian war 
(47), and was made procurator of Judaea. 
Antipater was poisoned by the contrivance of 
Hyrcanus (48) ; but Herod succeeded to his 
father's power. The Parthians, on their inva- 

' sion of Syria, carried away Hyrcanus as prisoner 
(40). He was treated with much liberality 
by the Parthian king, and allowed to live in 

! freedom at Babylon. Here he remained for 
some years; but having at length received an 
invitation from Herod, who had meanwhile 
established himself on the throne of Judaea, he 
returned to Jerusalem. Ho was treated with 

| respect by Herod till the battle of Actium; 

I when Herod, fearing lest Augustus might place 

| Hyrcanus on the throne, accused him of a 
treasonable correspondence with the king of 
Arabia, and put him to death (80). (Jos. Ant. 
xiv. 5-13, xv. 2, ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 26.) 

l I 2 



436 



HYEIA 



IAPETUS 



Hyria ('Ypla: 'Tpievs, 'Tpicmjs)- 1. A town 
in Boeotia, near Tanagra, was in the earliest 
times a place of importance, but afterwards 
sank into insignificance (Strab. pp. 404, 408). — 

2. A town in Apulia. [Ueia.] 

Hyrleus ('Tpievs), son of Poseidon and Al- 
cyone, king of Hyria in Boeotia, husband of 
Clonia, and father of Nycteus, Lycus, and Orion. 
Besptcting his treasures see Agamedes. 

Hyrmina ('Tpfxivr]), a town in Elis, mentioned 
by Homer, but of which all trace had dis- 
appeared in the time of Strabo (Strab. p. 341). 
Near it was the promontory Hyrmina or Hor- 
mina (£7. Chiarenza). 

Hyrmlne ^tpfuvri), daughter of Neleus, or 
Nycteus, wife of Phorbas, and mother of Actor. 

Hyrtacus ("TpraKos). 1. A Trojan, to whom 
Priam gave his first wife Arisba, when he 
married Hecuba. Homer makes him the father 
of Asius, hence called Hyrtacides (11. ii. 837). 
— 2, Father of Nisus (Verg. Aen. ix. 177). — 

3. Father of Hippocoon (Verg. Aen. v. 492). 
Hysiae (tatai). 1- ('tcndT-qs), a town in 

Argolis, S. of Argos, destroyed by the Spartans 
in the Peloponnesian war (Thuc. v. 83). — 2. 
(Yaievs), a town in Boeotia, E. of Plataeae, 
called by Herodotus (v. 74) a demus of Attica, 
but probably belonging to Plataeae. 

Hystaspes ('tardcrn-qs). 1. Son of Arsames, 
and father of Darius I., was a member of the 
Persian royal house of the Achaemenidae. 
He was satrap of Persis under Cambyses, and 
probably under Cyrus also. (Hdt. i. 209, iii. 70, 
iv. 83, vii. 224.) — 2. Son of Darius I. and 
Atossa (Hdt. vii. 64). 



I. 

Iacchus. [Dionysus, p. 296, a.] 

Iadera or Iader (Iadertinus : Old Zara), a 
town on the coast of Illyricum, with a good 
harbour, and a Boman colony under the name 
of ' Colonia Claudia Augusta Felix ' (Plin. iii. 
140; C.I. L. iii. 2909). 

Ialemus ('idx^fios), a similar personification 
to that of Linus, and hence called a son of 
Apollo and Calliope (and consequently brother 
of Hymenaeusand Orpheus). He was regarded 
as the inventor of the song Ialemus, which was 
a kind of dirge, and is only mentioned as sung 
on most melancholy occasions. (Pind. Fr. ; 
Schol. ad Eur. Or. 1391, ad Suppl. 281, ad Bhes. 
982). The dirges both of Linus and Ialemus 
seem to be the lamentation for death alike of 
vegetation and of early manhood, and the myths 
probably grew out of the rites which succeeded 
the harvest, when the plant life was dying away 
as winter drew near. 

Ialmenus flaA/ieeos), son of Ares and Asty- 
oche, and brother of Ascalaphus, was a native 
of the Boeotian Orchomenos. He was one of 
the Argonauts and a suitor of Helena. After 
the destruction of Troy, he wandered about 
with the Orcliomenians, and founded colonies 
in Colchis. (II. ii. 512, Apollod. iii. 10, 8 ; Paus. 
ix. 37 ; Strab. p. 416.) 

Ialysus ('idhwos: Philerimos), one of the 
three very ancient Dorian cities in the island of 
Rhodes, and one of the six original members of 
the Dorian Hexapolis [Doris], stood on the 
NW. coast of the island, about sixty stadia SW. 
of Rhodes. It is said to have derived its name 
from the mythical Ialysus, son of Cercaphus, 
and grandson of Helios. (Pind. 01. vii. 74 ; 
Diod. v. 57 ; Strab. p. 654. For its pottery, see 
Rhodus.) 



Iam.be ('lifx^ri), a Thracian woman, daughter 
of Pan and Echo, and a slave of Metanlra. 
When Demeter, in search of her daughter, 
arrived in Attica, and visited the house of 
Metanlra, Iambe cheered the mournful goddess 
by her jokes (Hymn, ad Dem. v. 195). The 
custom of jests and mockeries in the Eleusinian 
procession was said to commemorate this- 
(Diod. v. 4 ; Apollod. i. 5, 1). There can be 
little doubt that the converse was the order of 
events, and that the story of Iambe grew out of 
the practise of jeering in the procession, which 
was called lafj.pi(eiv. 

Iamblichus ('\d/j.fi\ixos). 1. A Syrian who 
lived in the time of the emperor Trajan, wrote 
a romance in the Greek language, entitled 
Babylonica. The work itself is lost, but an 
epitome of it is preserved by Photius. — 2. A 
celebrated Neo-Platonic philosopher, was born 
at Chalcis in Coele-Syria. He died in the 
reign of Constantine the Great, probably before 
a.d. 333. He was inferior in judgment and 
learning to the earlier Neo-Platonists, Plotinus 
and Porphyry ; and he introduced into his. 
system a great deal of Oriental mystery and 
magic, gaining for himself from his disciples the 
reputation of working miracles. Iamblichus 
wrote (among many other works which have 
perished) a treatise Ilepl Hv6ay6pov alpi&ews, 
on the philosophy of Pythagoras. It was in- 
tended as a preparation for the study of Plato, 
and consisted originally of ten books, of which 
four are extant. The first book contains an 
account of the life of Pythagoras, and though 
compiled without care, it is yet of value, as the 
other works from which it is taken are lost. 
Edited by Kuster, Amsterd. 1707, and by 
Kiessling, Lips. 1815 : the Life of Pythagoras, 
by Westermann, 1850. Two other works, Ta 
6eo\oyovfi(va ctpi0/A7)Ti/c7js, on mystic numbers 
(ed. by Ast, Lips. 1817), and Ilep} fivcrr^plaiv, 
on the mysteries of Egyptian and Chaldaean 
theology (ed. by Parthey, Berl. 1857), are 
wrongly attributed to him. — 3. A later philo- 
sopher of the same name, contemporary with 
the emperor Julian (Julian, iJp. 34, 40). 

Iamldae. [Iamus.] 

Iamnia ('Idpveia, 'lafivla : 'laftveirris : O. T. 
Jabneel, Jabneh: Ibneh or Gabneh), a con- 
siderable city of Palestine, between Diospolis. 
and Azotus, near the coast, with a good har- 
bour (Strab. p. 759). 

Iamus ("lap-os), son of Apollo and Evadne, 
received the art of prophecy from his father, and 
was regarded as the ancestor of the famous 
family of seers, the Iamidae at Olympia. The 
story says that, being deserted by his mother 
for a time, he was fed with honey by two snakes, 
and was called Iamus because he was found 
lying in a bed of violets. Apollo afterwards 
led him to Olympia and gave him prophetic 
power. (Pind. 01. vi. 28-70 ; Paus. vi, 2, 3. ) 

Iamra ('ldveipa), one of the Nereids. 

Ianthe ('idvBri). 1. Daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, and one of the playmates of Persephone 
(Paus. iv. 30, 3; Hes. Th. 349).— 2. Daughter 
of Telestes of Crete, beloved by Iphis. 

Iapetus ('laverSs), one of the Titans, son of 
Uranus and Ge, married Asia or Clymene, the 
daughter of his brother Oceanus, and became 
by her the father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epi- 
metheus, and Menoetius (Hes. Th. 507). In 
Homer (II. viii. 479) he is mentioned only 
as a Titan, imprisoned with Cronus in Tar- 
tarus. Being the father of Prometheus, he was 
grandfather of Deucalion, who was regarded by 
the Greeks as the progenitor of the human race, 



IAPYDES 



ICAE1A 



437 



■and Iapetus himself seems to have been 
looked upon as progenitor of the older race of 
mankind under Cronus. His descendants, Pro- 
metheus, Atlas, and others, are often designated 
by the patronymics lapetidae (-es), Iapetioni- 
dae (-es), and the feminine lapetionis. 

Iapydes ('lavvSes or 'ld-n-oSes), a warlike and 
barbarous people in the N. of Ulyricum, be- 
tween the rivers Arsia and Tedanius, were a 
mixed race, partly Ulyrian and partly Celtic, 
who tattooed their bodies (Strab. pp. 313-315). 
They were subdued by Augustus. Their coun- 
try was called Iapydla. 

Iapygia ('IaTrvyi'a : Id-nvyes), the name given 
by the Greeks to the S. of Apulia, from Taren- 
tum and Brundusium to the Prom. Iapygium 
(C. Leuca) ; though it is sometimes applied to 
-fche whole of Apulia. [Apulia.] The name is 
derived from the mythical Iapyx. 

Iapyx Cla7ri/|). 1. Son of Lycaon and brother 
of Daunius and Peucetius, who went as leaders 
of a colony to Italy (Ant. Lib. 31). According 
to othere, he was a Cretan, and a brother of 
Icadius, or a son of Daedalus and a Cretan 
woman, from whom the Cretans who migrated 
to Italy derived the name of Iapyges (Serv. ad 
Aen. iii. 332).— 2. The WNW. wind, blowing off 
the coast of Iapygia (Apulial, in the S. of Italy, 
and consequently favourable to persons crossing 
over to Greece. It was the same as the ap- 
■ye'o-rijs of the Greeks. 

Iarbas or Hiarbas. king of the Gaetulians, 
and son of Jupiter Amnion by a Libyan nymph, 
sued in vain for the hand of Dido in marriage 
(Verg. Aen. iv. 3G, 1% ; Ov. Her. viii. 123 ; Juv. 
v. 45 ; Just, xviii. 6). For details see Drno. 

Iardanes ('lapSdi/ris), a king of Lydia, and 
father of Omphale, who is hence called Iarda- 
nis (Apollod. ii. 6, 3). 

Iardanes or Iardanus Claptidv-ns, 'idpSavos). 
1. (Jardan), a river in Elis (Strab. p. 342 ; 
Paus. v. 5, 9). — 2. A river in the X. of Crete, 
which flowed near Cydonia (Paus. vi. 21, 6). 

I as ion or Iasius ('WiW, 'ld<rios), in Homer 
(Od. v. 125) is mentioned as a mortal who won 
the love of Demeter in a thrice-ploughed field 
(rpiiroKos). Homer alone adds that Zeus killed 
him with a thunderbolt. In Hesiod the scene 
of his union with Demeter is Crete, and the son 
born to them was Plutus (Th. 969J. It would 
seem that the original Iasion was a local Pelas- 
jric deity of Crete, and the myth signifies the 
adoption of agriculture by the people and the 
consequent wealth ; in respect of which De- 
meter became the chief deity in their rites and 
Iasion subordinate (cf. Ov. Met. ix. 422, Am. 
iii. 10, 25 ; Apollod. iii. 12, 1). He is represented 
as being the son of Zeus and Electra, the 
daughter of Atlas, in a different legend, which 
connects him with Samothrace, in which island 
Demeter, having met him ut the marriage of 
Harmonia, instructs him in the mysteries 
(Diod. v. 48). A third version gives an Italian 
origin to him and his brother, Dardanus,whoare 
sons of Electra and Corythus, the founder of 
Cortona (Verg. Aen. iii. 1G7 ; Serv. ad fee). 

Iasis, i.e. Atalante, the daughter of Iasius. 

Iaso ('Ieurw), i.e. Recovery, a daughter of 
Asclepius, or Amphiaraus, and sister of Hygiea, 
was worshipped as the goddess of recovery. 

lass. us •• Iassicus Sinus CIcutiko* k^Awoj : 
Gulf of Mandeliyeh), a large gulf on the W. 
coast of Caria, between the peninsula* of Mile- 
tus and Myndus ; named after the city of Iassus, 
and called Bargylieticus Sinus I BapyvKLirriKbs 
k6\itos) from another city, Bargylia. 

Iassus or IaSUB ('\aoaos, 'laaos : 'laotis : 



Asyn-Kalessi, Ru.), a city of Caria, on the 
Iassius Sinus, founded by Argives and colonised 
by Milesians (Thuc. viii. 28 ; Strab. p. 658). 

Iasus ("laaos). 1. An Arcadian, son of Lycur- 
gus and Cleophile or Euxynome, brother of 
Ancaeus, husband of Clymene, the daughter 
of Minyas, and father of Atalante (Apollod. iii. 
9, 2). He is likewise called Iasius. — 2. Father 
I of Amphion, and king of the Minyans. 

Iazyges ('Iafi/yes), a powerful Sarmatian 
people, who originally dwelt on the coast of the 
Pontus Euxinus and the Palus Maeotis, but in 
the reign of Claudius settled near the Quadi in 
Dacia, in the country bounded by the Danube, 
the Theiss, and the Sarmatian mountains. They 
are called from this migration Iazyges Metanas- 
tae ; but sometimes called Sarmatae Iazyges 
or simply Sarmatae. They were in alliance 
with the Quadi, with whom they frequently at- 
tacked the Roman dominions, especially Moesia 
and Pannonia. In the fifth century they were 
conquered by the Goths. (Strab. pp. 294, 300.) 

Iberia ('l&ripta : S. part of Georgia), a coun- 
try of Asia, in the centre of the isthmus between 
the Black and Caspian Seas, was surrounded on 
every side by mountains, through which there 
were only four passes. Sheltered by these 
mountains and watered by the Cyrus (Kour) and 
its upper tributaries, it was framed for fertility, 
and its inhabitants, Iberes {"lp-qpes) or Iberi, 
whom the ancients believed to be of the same 
family as the Assyrians and Medes, were an 
agricultural people, more civilised than their 
neighbours in Colchis and Albania. They were 
divided into four castes: (1) the nobles, from 
whom two kings were chosen ; (2; the priests, 
who were also the magistrates; (3j the soldiers 
and husbandmen ; (4) the slaves, who performed 
all public and mechanical work. The Romans 
first became acquainted with the country 
through the expedition of Pompey, in B.C. 65; 
and under Trajan it was subjected to Rome. 
In the fifth century it was conquered by the 
Persian king, Sapor. (Strab. pp. 499-501 ; Plin. 
vi. 29.) — No connexion can be traced between 
the Iberians of Asia and those of Spain. 

Iberia. [Hispania.] 

Iberus ("\^r\pos or "lf}rip : Ebroy, the principal 
river of the NE. of Spain, rises among the 
mountains of the Cantabri near Juliobriga, 
flows SE. through a great plain between the 
Pyrenees and the M. Idubeda, and falls into 
the Mediterranean, near Dertosa, after forming 
a Delta. 

Ibycus ("lfivKos), a Greek lyric poet, was a 
native of Rhegium, and spent the best part of 
his life at Samos, at the court of Polycrates, 
about B.C. 540. It is related that travelling 
through a desert place near Corinth, lie was 
murdered by robbers, but before he died he 
called upon a flock of cranes that happened to 
fly over him to avenge his death. Soon after- 
wards, when the jicople of Corinth were assem- 
bled in the theatre, the cranes appeared ; and 
one of the murderers, who happened to be 
present, cried out involuntarily, ' Behold the 

! avengers of ITbycus : 1 and thus were the authors 
of the crime detected. The phrase of at 'I&vkou 
•ytpavoi passed into a proverb. (Suid. s.ik; 
Antip. Sid. lip. 78; Plut. de Garrul. p. CIO.) 

( The poetry of Ibycus consisted partly of 
ohoxaJ odea or hymns on epic subjects, partly 
of love songs, and partook largely of the im- 
petuosity of his character (Cic. Tiisc. iv. 38, 

j 71). His remains are edited by Schneidewin, 
Gotting. 1833, and iii Bergk's Poet. Lyr. 

Icaria or Icarius ('iKapia, 'Ixdpios : 'iKapttvs), 



438 



ICAKIUS 



IDA 



a mountain and a de.nus in Attica, belonging 
to the tribe Aegeis. See foil. art. 

Icarius {'licapios), also called Icarus or Ica- 
rlon. 1. An Athenian, who lived in the reign 
of Pandion, and hospitably received Dionysus 
on his arrival in Attica. The god in return 
taught him the cultivation of the vine. Icarius 
made a present of some wine to peasants, who 
became intoxicated by it, and thinking that 
they were poisoned by Icarius, slew him, and 
threw his body into a well, or buried it under a 
tree. His daughter, Erigone, after a long 
search, found his grave, to which she was con- 
ducted by his faithful dog Maera. From grief 
she hanged herself on the tree under which he 
was buried. [In Et. Mag. Aletis is said to be 
another name for Erigone, given to her because 
of her wanderings. It has been suggested 
that this was a corruption of aAen-iys, and that 
the original was a propitiatory sacrifice of a 
maiden.] Zeus or Dionysus placed her and 
Icarius among the stars, making Erigone the 
Virgin, Icarius Bootes or Arcturus, and Maera 
Procyon or the Little Dog. Hence the latter is 
called Icarius canis. The god then punished 
the ungrateful Athenians with madness, in 
which condition the Athenian maidens hanged 
themselves as Erigone had done. The Athe- 
nians propitiated Icarius and Erigone by the 
institution of the festival of the Aeora. For 
the origin and meaning of the myth see p. 296, 
a; and cf. Diet, of Ant. art. Aeora, Oscilla. 
The connexion of the dog with the story is 
probably that the burning up of the vines in 
the hot season of the dog-star was to be averted 
by the rites. (Apollod. iii. 14, 7 ; Paus. i. 2, 4 ; 
Hyg. Fab. 130, Ast. ii. 4, 5 ; Ov. Met. vi. 126, 
x 451.) — 2. A Lacedaemonian, son of Perieres 
and Gorgophone, and brother of Tyndareus. 
Others called him grandson of Perieres, and 
son of Oebalus. When Icarius and Tyndareus 
were expelled from Lacedaemon by their half ' 
brother, Hippocoon, Icarius went to Acarnania, 
and there became the father of Penelope, and 
of several other children. He afterwards 
returned to Lacedaemon. Since there were 
many suitors for the hand of Penelope, he 
promised to give her to the hero who should 
conquer in a foot-race. Odysseus won the prize, 
and was betrothed to Penelope. Icarius tried 
to persuade his daughter to remain with him and 
not accompany Odysseus to Ithaca. Odysseus 
allowed her to do as she pleased, whereupon 
she covered her face with her veil to hide her 
blushes, and thus intimated that she would 
follow her husband. Icarius then desisted 
from further entreaties, and erected a statue of 
Modesty on the spot. (Paus. iii. 1, 4 ; Apollod. 
i. 9, 5, iii. 10, 3 ; Schol. ad Od. xv. 16.) 

Icarus ("I/capor), son of Daedalus. [Dae- 
dalus.] 

Icarus or Icarla Cl/capos, 'iKap'ia : Niharia), 
an island of the Aegaean sea, one of the 
Sporades, W. of Samos; called also Doliche 
{$oKixh, i.e. long island). Its common name, 
and that of the surrounding sea, Icarium 
Mare, were derived from the myth of Icabus. 
[Daedalus.] It was first colonised by the Mile- 
sians, but afterwards belonged to the Samians, 
who fed their herds on its rich pastures. (Strab. 
pp. 124, 766; Thuc. iii. 92; Hdt. vi. 95.) 

Iccius, a friend of Horace, who addressed to 
him an ode (Od. i. 29), and an epistle (Ep. 
i. 12). The ode was written in B.C. 25, when 
Iccius was preparing to join Aelius Gallus in 
his expedition $o Arabia. The epistle was 
composed about ten years afterwards, when 



Iccius had become Vipsanius Agrippa's steward 
in Sicily. In both poems Horace reprehends 
the inordinate desire for wealth. 

Iceni, called Simeni (Siyutvoi) by Ptolemy, 
a numerous and powerful people in Britain, 
who dwelt N. of the Trinobantes, in the modern 
counties of Suffolk and Norfolk. Their revolt 
from the Romans, under their heroic queen 
Boudicca or Boadicea, is celebrated in history. 
[Boudicca ; Britannia.] Their chief town was 
Venta Icenorum (Caister), about three miles 
from Norwich. 

Ichnae ("Ixeai : 'lxvaios). 1. A town in 
Bottiaea in Macedonia, near the mouth of the 
Axius. — 2. A town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, 
celebrated for its worship of Themis, who was 
hence surnamed Ichnaea (Strab. p. 435). 

Ichnae or Ischnae ('lxvai, *lax va ')> a Greek 
city in the N. of Mesopotamia, founded by the 
Macedonians, was the scene of the first battle 
between Crassus and the Parthians, in which 
the former gained the victory. [Crassus.] 

Ichthyophagi ('lx6vo<pdyoi, i.e. Fish-eaters), 
was a vague descriptive name given to various 
peoples on the coasts of Asia and Africa, of whom 
the ancients knew but little. Thus we find Ich- 
thyophagi : (1) in the extreme SE. of Asia, in 
the country of the Sinae : (2) on the coast of 
Gedrosia : (3) on the NE. coast of Arabia Felix : 
(4) in Africa, on the coast of the Bed Sea, above 
Egypt : (5) on the W. coast of Africa. 

Icilius. 1. Sp., was one of the three envoys 
sent by the plebeians, after their secession to 
the Sacred Mount, to treat with the senate, 
b.c. 494. He was thrice elected tribune of the 
plebs : namely, in 492, 481, and 471. (Liv. ii. 
58; Dionys. vii. 26, ix. 43.) — 2. L., a man of 
great energy and eloquence, was tribune of the 
plebs, 456, when he claimed for the tribunes 
the right of convoking the senate, and also 
carried the important law for the assignment of 
the Aventine (de Aventino publicando) to the 
plebs. In the following year (455), he was 
again elected tribune. He was one of the chief 
leaders in the outbreak against the decemvirs, 
449. Virginia had been betrothed to him, and 
to revenge her death Icilius hurried to the army 
which was carrying on the war against the 
Sabines, and prevailed upon them to desert the 
government. (Liv. iii. 44.) 

Iconium ('IkSviou : 'licovievs : Koniyeh), the 
capital of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor (Xen. An. 
i. 2, 19 ; Strab. p. 568 ; Cic. Fam. iii. 8, 5), was, 
when visited by St. Paul, a flourishing city, 
with a mixed population of Jews and Greeks. 
It was made a colony by Claudius, and there- 
fore sometimes bore the name of Claudia, and 
the inhabitants K\avSeiKovie7s : refounded by 
Hadrian, and therefore also called Col. Aelia 
Iconiensis ; in the middle ages one of the 
greatest cities of Asia Minor, and important in 
the history of the crusades. 

Ictinus ('IktIvos), a contemporary of Peri- 
cles, was the architect of two of the most cele- 
brated of the Greek temples — namely, the 
great temple of Athene, on the acropolis of 
Athens, called the Parthenon, and the temple 
of Apollo Epicurius, near Phigalia in Arcadia. 
Callicrates was associated with Ictinus in 
building the Parthenon. Ictinus also built 
part of the Hall of Initiation at Eleusis. [Eleu- 
sis ; Parthenon ; Phigalia.] 

Ida ClSij, Dor. v lSa). 1. (Ida, or Kas-Dagh), 
a mountain range of Mysia, in Asia Minor, 
which formed the S. boundary of the Troad ; 
extending from Lectum Pr. in* the SW. corner 
of the Troad, eastwards along the north side of 



IDAEA 

the Gulf of Adramyttium, and further east in 
the centre of Mysia. Its highest summits were 
Cotylus on the north, and Gargara on the 
south : the latter is about 5000 feet high, and 
is often capped with snow. Lower down, the 
slopes of the mountain are well- wooded ; and 
lower still, they form fertile fields and valleys. 
The sources of the Scamander and the Aese- 
pus, besides other rivers and numerous brooks, 
are on Ida. The mountain is celebrated in 
mythology as the scene of the rape of Gany- 
mede, whom Ovid (Fast. ii. 145), calls Idaeus 
puer, and of the judgment of Paris, who is 
called Idaeus judex by Ovid (Fast. vi. 44), 
and Idaeus pastor by Cicero (ad Att. i. 18). 
In Homer, too, its summit is the place from 
which the gods watch the battles in the plain 
of Troy (II. viii. 47). Ida was also an ancient 
seat of the worship of Cybele, who obtained 
from it the name of Idaea Mater (Strab. p. 
469). — 2. (Psilorati), a mountain in the centre 
of Crete, belonging to the mountain range 
which runs through the whole length of the 
island. Mt. Ida is 7674 feet above the level of 
the sea. (Strab. pp. 472, 604.) It was connected 
with the worship of Zeus, said to have been 
brought up in a cave in this mountain. [Zeus.] 

Idaea Mater. [Rhea.] 

Idaei Dactyli. [Dactyli.] 

Idalium ('iSaKiov), a town in Cyprus, sacred 
to Venus, who hence bore the surname IdaMa. 

Idas ("ISoj), son of Aphareus and Arene, the 
daughter of Oebalus, brother of Lynceus, hus- 
band of Marpessa, and father of Cleopatra or 
Alcyone. From the name of their father, Idas 
and Lynceus are called Apharetidae and 
Apharldae. (Ap. Rh. i. 485 ; Find. Nem. x. 
121.) Apollo was in love with Marpessa, the 
daughter of Evenus, but Idas carried her off 
in a winged chariot which Poseidon had given 
him. Evenus could not overtake Idas, but 
Apollo found him in Messene, and took the 
maiden from him. The lovers fought for her 
possession, but Zeus separated them, and left 
the decision with Marpessa, who chose Idas 
from fear lest Apollo should desert her if she 
grew old. (II. ix. 5;i4 ; Apollod. i. 7, 8.) The 
Apharetidae also took part in the Calydonian 
hunt, and in the expedition of the Argonauts. 
But the most celebrated part of their story is 
their battle with the Dioscuri, Castor and 
Pollux, which is related elsewhere [p. 298]. 

Idistavisus Campus, a plain in Germany near 
the Wescr, probably near the Porta Westphalica, 
between liinteln and Hausberge, memorable 
for the victory of Germanicus over the Cherusci, 
a.d. 1G (Tac. Ann. ii. 16). 

Idmon ClSfiwv), son of Apollo and Asteria, or 
Cyrene, was a soothsayer, and accompanied the 
Argonauts, although he knew beforehand that 
death awaited him. He was killed in the 
country of the Mariandynians by a boar or a 
serpent ; according to others, he died there of a 
disease.^ (Ap. Rh. i. 189, ii. 815; Hyg. Fab. 14.1 

Idomeneus 'lo, >»•:■< i 1. Son of the Cretan 
Deucalion, and grandson of Minos and Pasiphae, 
was king of Crete. He is sometimes called 
Lyctius or Cnossius, from the Cretan towns of 
Lyctus and Cnossus. (II. xiii. 807,446; Verg. 
Aen. iii. 401 ; Diod. v. 79.) He was one of the 
suitors of Helen ; and in conjunction with 
Meriones, the Bon of his half-brother Mollis, he 
led the Cretans in eighty ships against Troy. 
He was one of the bravest heroes in the Trojan 
war, and distinguished himself especially in 
the battle near the ships. (II. ii. 045, iii. 980, W. 
251, v. 13, \ ii. 165, xiii. 801, svi. 815.) Accord 



IGUVIUM 



439 



ing to Homer, Idomeneus returned home in 
j safety after the fall of Troy (Od. iii. 191). 
His tomb was preserved at Cnossus, where he 
was honoured in conjunction with Meriones 
(Diod. v. 79). Later traditions relate that once 
in a storm he vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon 
' whatever he should first meet on his landing, 
if the god would grant him a safe return. This 
was his own son, whom he accordingly sacri- 
ficed. As Crete was thereupon visited by a 
plague, the Cretans expelled Idomeneus. He 
went to Italy, where he settled in Calabria, and 
built a temple to Athene. From thence he is 
said to have migrated again to Colophon, on 
the coast of Asia. (Verg. Aen. iii. 121, 400, 531 ; 
Serv. ad loc.\ Strab. p. 480.) — 2. Of Lampsacus, 
a friend and disciple of Epicurus, flourished 
about B.C. 310-270. He wrote philosophical and 
historical works, all of which are lost. (Diog. 
Laert. x^23 ; Strab. p. 589 ; Athen. p. 532.) 

Idothea (E/SoOea), daughter of Proteus, taught 
Menelaus how he might secure her father, and 
compel him to show how he might reach home 
(Od. iv.). 

Idrleus or Hidneus ('ISpicvs, 'iSpievs), king 
of Caria, second son of Hecatomnus, succeeded 
to the throne on the death of Artemisia in B.C. 
351. He died in 344, leaving the kingdom to his 
sister Ada, whom he had married. (Diod. xvi. 
42, 69 ; Strab. p. 656.) 

Idubeda (Sierra de Oca and Lorenzo), a. 
range of mountains in Spain, forms the S. 
i boundary of the plain of the Ebro, and runs 
SE. to the Mediterranean. 

Idiimaea ('ISovfiala), is the Greek form of 
I the scriptural name Edom. but the terms are 
not precisely equivalent. In the O. T., and in 
the time before the Babylonish captivity of 
the Jews, Edom is the district of Mt. Seir — that 
is, the mountainous region extending N. and S. 
from the Dead Sea to the E. head of the Red 
Sea. The decline of the kingdom of Judaea 
enabled the Edomites to extend their power to 
the NW. as far as Hebron, while their original 
territory was taken possession of by the Na- 
bathaean Arabs. Thus the Idumaea of the 
later Jewish, and of the Roman, history is the 
S. part of Judaea, and a small portion of the 
N. of Arabia Petraea, extending NW. and SE. 
from the Mediterranean to the W. side of Mt. 
Seir. [For the rise of the Iduinaean dynasty 
in Judaea see Antii'atek, Hekodes.] The 
Roman poets use Idumaea and Judaea as equi- 
valent terms (Verg. Georg. iii. 12 ; Mart. ii. 2, 5). 

Idyia Cl5uia), daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, and wife of the Colchian king Aeetes. 

Ierne. (Hihkknia.] 

Ietae fiend : 'Urtuos: Jato),a. town in the 
interior of Sicily, on a mountain of the same 
name, S. of Hyccara. 

Igilgili iDjidjeli), a town of Mauretania on 
the Sinus Numidicus, and a colony under Au- 
gustus (Plin. v. 21). 

Iglllum (Qigho), a small island off the 
Etruscan coast, opposite Cosa (Caes. B.C. i. 34). 

Ignatius, bishop ol Antioch in a.d. 69. [Diet, 
of Christian Biography.] 

Iguvium llguvmus, Iguvinas, -atis : Gubbio 
or Wugubio), an important town in Umbria, on 
the S. slope of the Apennines. On a moun- 
tain in the neighbourhood of this town was a 
celebrated temple of Jupiter, in the ruins of 
which were discovered, a.d. 1441, seven brazen 
tables, covered with Umbrian inscriptions, still 
preserved at Gubbio. These tables, called the 
Kugubian Tables, contain more than 1000 l"m- 
brian words, and are of importance for a know- 



440 ILAIRA 

ledge of the ancient languages of Italy. Edi- 
tions by Huschke, 1859, and Breal, 1875. 

Xlaira or Hilaira ('IAaeipa), daughter of 
Leucippus and Philodice, and sister of Phoebe. 
The two sisters are frequently mentioned by 
the poets under the name of Leucippidae. 
Both were carried off by the Dioscuri, and 
Ilaira became the wife of Castor. (Paus. ii. 
22, 5, iii. 16, 1.) 

Ileracones, Ilercaonenses, or Illurgavon- 
enses, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis on 
the W. coast between the Iberus and M. Idubeda. 
Thjsir chief town was Dertosa. 

Ilerda (Lerida), a town of Illergetes in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, situated on a height above 
the river Sicoris (Segre), which was here crossed 
by a stone bridge. It was afterwards a Roman 
colony, but in the time of Ausonius had ceased 
to be a place of importance (Ep. xxv. 59.) Here 
Afranius and Petreius, the legates of Pompey, 
were defeated by Caesar (b.c. 49). (Caes. B. C. 
i. 41-45 ; Hor. Bp. i. 13, 20 ; Luean, iv. 144.) 

Ilergetes, a people in Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, between the Iberus and the Pyrenees. 

Ilia or Rhea Silvia. [Romulus.] 

Ilici or Illice (Elche), a town of the Con- 
testani on the E. coast of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, on the road from Carthago Nova to 
"Valentia, was a colonia immunis (Ptol. ii. 6, 62 ; 
Plin. iii. 19). 

Ilienses, an ancient people in Sardinia. 

Illonc ('IAidpi)), daughter of Priam and 
Hecuba, wife of Polymnestor or Polymestor, 
king of the Thracian Chersonesus, to whom she 
bore a son, Deipylus. At the beginning of the 
Trojan war her brother Polydorus was intrusted 
to her care, and she brought him up as her own 
son. For details see Polydorus. Iliona was 
the name of one of the tragedies of Pacuvius. 
(Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 61.) 

Ilioneus ('lAiovevs), a son of Niobe, whom 
Apollo would have liked to save, because he 
was praying ; but the arrow was no longer 
under the control of the god. [Niobe.] 

Ilipa (Pennaflor), a town in Hispania Baetica, 
on the right bank of the Baetis (Strab. p. 141). 

Ilissus ('IAioW;, more rarely EiAitrfrds), a 
small river in Attica, rises on the N. slope of 
Mt. Hymettus, flows on the E. and S. of Athens 
and joins the Cephissus. Except after heavy 
rain it is nearly dry, as its waters are drawn off 
to supply the city. 

Illthyia (EiAei'flt/ia), also called Elithyia, Ile- 
thyia, or Eleutho, was the impersonation of the 
pain or (in the plural) of the pains of child- 
birth, and therefore, in the development of the 
myth, was worshipped independently as the 
goddess who came to the assistance of women 
in labour. When she was kindly disposed, she 
furthered the birth ; but when she was angry, 
she protracted the labour. In II. xix. 119, the 
EtAeidviai appear to have no personality, but in 
II. xi. 271, they are called the daughters of Hera : 
in Hes. Th. 922, the daughters of Zeus and Hera 
(cf. Pind. Nem. vii. 2 ; Apollod. i. 3, 1). But as 
all moon-goddesses had influence over birth, so 
Ilifchyia is found in one myth connected, and 
at times identified, with Hera, in another with 
Artemis. Thus she is not always spoken of as 
the daughter of Hera, but is worshipped as 
Hera-Ilithyia and as Artemis-Ilithyia (cf. Juno- 
Lucina). For the same reason she was in some 
places identified with Aphrodite, who in one of 
her aspects was a moon-goddess; and this ex- 
plains the story (perhaps Lycian) in Olen's 
Delian hymn that she was the mother of Eros 
(Paus. i. 18, 5, ix. 27, 2). According to the 



ILLYRICUM 

Cretan legend Ihthyia was believed to have 
been born in a cave in the territory of Cnossus. 
From thence her worship spread over Delos 
and Attica. (Od. xix. 188; Strab. p. 476 ; Diod. 
v. 92.) According to a Delian tradition Ilithyia 
was not born in Crete, but had come to Delos 
from the Hyperboreans, for the purpose of as- 
sisting Leto (Paus. i. 18, 5). Her connexion 
with the Fates (Pind. 01. vi. 42, Nem. vii. 1) is 
due to the idea that the Fates also had control 
over the birth of a child [see also Horae], 
Ilium. [Troas.] 

Illiberis ('IAAtjSepi's). 1. (Tech), called Tichis 
or Techum by the Romans, a river in Gallia 
Narbonensis in the territory of the Sardones, 
rises in the Pyrenees and falls, after a short 
course, into the Mare Gallicum (Strab. p. 182). 
— 2. (Elne), a town of the Santones, on the 
above-mentioned river, at the foot of the 
Pyrenees, was originally a place of importance, 
but afterwards insignificant. It was restored by 
Constantine, who changed its name into Helena, 
whence the modern Elne. (Liv. xxi. 24.) 

Illiturgis or Illiturgi (Andujar), an im- 
portant town of the Turduli in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, situated on a steep rock near 
the Baetis, and on the road from Corduba to 
Castulo ; destroyed by Scipio B.C. 210, but re- 
built, and received the name of Forum Julium 
(Liv. xxviii. 19, xxxiv. 10 ; Plin. iii. 10). 

Illyricum. or Illyris, more rarely Illyrla [rb 
'lAAvptKov, 'IAAupi's, 'IAAupi'o), included, in its 
widest signification, all the land W. of Macedonia 
and E. of Italy and Rhaetia, extending S. as far 
as Epirus, and N. as far as the valleys of the 
Savus and Dravus, and the junction of these 
rivers with the Danube. The wide extent of 
country was inhabited by numerous Dlyrian 
tribes, all of whom were more or less barbarous. 
They were probably of the same origin as the 
Thracians, but some Celts were mingled with 
them. The country was divided into two parts : 
1, Illyris Barbara or Romana, the Roman 
province of Illyricum, extended along the 
Adriatic sea from Italy (Istria), from which 
it was separated by the Arsia, to the river Drilon, 
and was bounded on the E. by Macedonia and 
Moesia Superior, from which it was separated 
by the Drinus, and on the N. by Pannonia, 
from which it was separated by the Dravus. 
It thus comprehended a part of the modem 
Croatia, the whole of Dalmatia, almost the 
whole of Bosnia, and a part of Albania. It 
was divided in ancient times into three dis- 
tricts, according to the tribes by which it was 
inhabited : — Iapydia, the interior of the country 
on the N., from the Arsia to the Tedanius 
[Iapydes] ; Liburnia, along the coast from the 
Arsia to the Titius [Liburni] ; and Dalmatia, 
S. of Liburnia, along the coast from the Titius 
to the Drilon. [Dalmatia.] The Liburnians 
submitted at an early time to the Romans ; but 
it was not till after the conquest of the Dal- 
matians in the reign of Augustus, that the 
entire country was organised as a Roman pro- 
vince. From this time the Hlyrians, and es- 
pecially the Dalmatians, formed an important 
part of the Roman legions.— 2. Illyris Graeca, 
or Hlyria proper, also called Epirus Nova, 
extended from the Drilon along the Adriatic, to 
the Ceraunian mountains, which separated it 
from Epirus proper : it was bounded on the E. 
by Macedonia. It thus embraced the greater 
part of the modern Albania. It was a moun- 
tainous country, but possessed some fertile land 
on the coast. Its principal rivers were the Aous, 
Apsus, Genusus, and Panyasus. In the in- 



ILL'S 



INAROS 



441 



terior was an important lake, the Lychnitis. 
On the coast there were the Greek colonies of 
Epidamnus, afterwards Dyrrhachtum, and 
Apoiaonia. It was at these places that the 
celebrated Via Egnatia commenced, which ran 
through Macedonia to Byzantium. The country 
was inhabited by various tribes, Atixtanes, 
Taulanth, Pabthini, Dassabetae, (fee. In 
•early times they were troublesome and danger- 
ous neighbours to the Macedonian kings. They 
were subdued by Philip, the father of Alexander 
the Great, who defeated and slew in battle 
their king Bardylis, B.C. 359. After the death 
of Alexander the Great, most of the Ulyrian 
tribes recovered their independence. At a later 
time the injury which the Roman trade suffered 
from their piracies brought against them the 
arms of the republic. The forces of their queen 
Teuta were easily defeated by the Romans, and 
she was obliged to purchase peace by the sur- 
render of part of her dominions and the pay- 
ment of an annual tribute, 229. The second 
Illyrian war was finished by the Romans with 
the same ease. It was begun by Demetrius of 
Pharos, who was guardian of Pineus, the son 
of Agron, but he was conquered by the consul 
Aemilius Paulus, 219 (Pol. ii. 12, iii. 10-19). 
Pineus was succeeded by Pleuratus, who culti- 
vated friendly relations with the Romans. His 
son Gentius formed an alliance with Perseus, 
king of Macedonia, against Rome ; but he was 
conquered by the praetor L. Anicius, in the 
same year as Perseus, l(iH ; whereupon Illyria, 
as well as Macedonia, became subject to Rome. 
(Liv. xlv. 20.) — In the new division of the em- 
pire under Constantine, Illyricum formed one 
of the great provinces of the empire. It was 
divided into Illyricum Occidentale, which in- 
cluded Illyricum proper, Pannonia, and Nori- 
cum, and Illyricum Orientale, which compre- 
hended Dacia, Moesia, Macedonia, and Thrace. 

Uus ("lAoj). 1. Son of Dardanus by Batea. 
the daughter of Teucer. Dus died without 
issue, and left his kinglom to his brother, 
Erichthonius (Apollod. iii. 12, 2). — 2. Son of 
Tros and Callirhoe, grandson of Erichthonius, 
and great-grandson of Dardanus ; whence he is 
called Dardanides (II. xi. 872). He was the 
father of Laomedon and the grandfather of 
Priam. He was believed to be the founder of 
Troy (II. xx. 232, 236), regarding which Apollo- 
dorus tells that, when he had won a wrestling 
prize at the court of the king of Phrygia, the 
king gave him a cow, and the oracle having de- 
clared that where the cow lay down the city 
should be built, the site of Troy was thus deter- 
mined. When he asked for yet another sign, 
Zeus gave him the palladium, a statue of three 
cubits high, witli its feet close together, holding 
a spear in its right hand, and a distaff in its left, 
and promised that as long as it remained in 
Troy, the city should be safe. The tomb of 
Uus was shown in the neighbourhood of Troy 
(II. x. 415, xxiv. 319; Theocr. xvi. 75).— 3. Son 
of Mermerus, and grandson of Jason und Medea. 
He lived at Ephyra, between Elisand Olympia ; 
and when Odysseus came to fetch the poison for 
his arrows, Ilus refused it, from fear of the ven- 
geance of the gods (Od. i. 259 ; Strab. p. 888). 

Hva. [Aethalia.] 

Ilvates, a people in Liguria, S. of the Po, in 
Montferrat (Liv. xxx. 10, xxxi. 29). 

Imachara (Imacharensis : Trnina), a town 
in Sicily, in the Heraean mountains (Cic. Kerr, 
iii. 18, 42). 

Imaus Irb "Ifiaoy upos), the name of a great 
mountain range of Asia, is one of those terms 



' which the ancient geographers appear to have 
used indefinitely, for want of exact knowledge. 
In its most definite application, it appears to 
mean the W. part of the Himalaya, between 
the Paropamisus and the Emodi Montes ; but 
when it is applied to some great chain, extend- 
ing much further to the X. and dividing Scythia 
: into two parts, Scythia intra Imaum and Scythia 
extra Imaum, it must be understood to mean 
either the Mcntssour or Altai mountains, or else 
some imaginary range. (Strab. pp. 129, 689 ; 
Ptol. vi._14, 1.) 

Imbrasus Clp.l3pcuTos), a river in Samos, for- 
merly called Parthenius, flowing into the sea 
not far from the city of Samos. The celebrated 
temple of Hera ("Hpcuov) stood near it, and it 
gave the epithet of Imbrasia both to Hera and 
to Artemis. (Strab. p. 637.) 

Lnbros ("lfil3pos ."luBpios : Embro or Imbrus), 
an island in the N. of the Aegaean sea, near the 
Thracian Chersonesus, about 18 miles SE. of 
Samothrace, and about 22 NE. of Lemnos. It 
is about 25 miles in circumference, and is hilly, 
but contains many fertile valleys. (II. xiii. 33, 
xiv. 281, xxiv. 78 ; Plin. iv. 72.) Imbros, like 
Samothrace, was in ancient times one of thechii f 
seats of the worship of the Cabiri. There was a 
town of the same name on the E. of the island, 
of which there are still some ruins. 

Inachis ('IvaxisU a surname of Io, the 
daughter of Inachus. The goddess Isis is also 
called Inacliie, because she was identified with 
Io. — Inachides in the same way was used as a 
name of Epaphus, a grandson of Inachus, and 
also of Perseus, because he was born at Argos 
the city of Inachus. 

Inachus I'li/axos^sonof Oceanus and Tethy* 
(Aesch. Pr. 636 ; Dionys. i. 25), and father of 
Phoroneus and Aegialeus, to whom others add 

10, Argos Panoptes, and Phegeus or Pegeus 
(Apollod. ii. 1 ; Hyg. Fab. 143, 145 ; Ov. Met. i. 
583 ; Serv. ad Georg. iii. 153). He was the first 
king and the most ancient hero of Argos, whence 
the country is frequently called the land of 
Inachus ; and he is said to have given his name 
to the river Inachus (Paus. ii. 15, 4 ; Hor. Ud. 

11. 3, 2, iii. 19, lj. In the dispute for the posses- 
sion of Argos between Poseidon and Hera, 
Inachus decided in favour of Hera, and Poseidon 
therefore caused the river Inachus to be dry 
except in the rainy season. In this story Ina- 
chus is the river-god and his son Phoroneus is 
the founder of Argos (Paus. ii. 15, 4). Another 
story makes him gather the inhabitants of 
Argos in their plain after the cessation of the 
great flood of Deucalion (Schol. ad Eur. Orest. 
932). 

Inachus i'Xvaxos). 1. (Banitza), the chief 
river in Argolis, rises in the mountain Lyrceus 
on the borders of Arcadia, flows in a south- 
easterly direction, receives near Argos the 
Charadus, and falls into the Sinus Argolicus S. 
of Argos (Strab. pp. 271, 387). — 2. A river in 
Acarnania, which rises in Mt. Lacmon in the 
range of Pindus, and falls into the Achelous 
(Strab. p. 836). 
Inarlme. [Aenaria.] 

Inaros t'lvdpws, occasionally "\vapos), son of 
Psammitichus, a chief of some Libyan tribes to 
the W. of Egypt, commenced hostilities against 
the Persians, which ended in a revolt of the 
whole of Egypt, B. C. 401. In 400 Inaros called 
in the Athenians, who, with a fleet of 200 galleys, 
were then off Cyprus : the ships sailed up to 
Memphis, and, occupying two parts of the town, 
besieged the third. In the same year Inaros 
defeated the Persians in a great battle, in which 



442 



INDIA 



INDIGETES 



Achaemenes, the brother of the king Artaxerxes, 
was slain. But a new army, under a new com- 
mander, Megabyzus, was more successful. The 
Egyptians and their allies were defeated ; and 
Inaros was taken by treachery and crucified, 
455. (Thuc. i. 104, 110 ; Hdt. iii. 12, 15.) 

India (ri 'IvSia : 'lvS6s, Indus), was a name 
used by the Greeks and Romans to describe 
the whole of the SE. part of Asia, to the E., S., 
and SE. of the great ranges of mountains now 
called the Suleiman and Himalaya Moun- 
tains, including the two peninsulas of Hindus- 
tan, and of Burmah, Cochin-China, Siam, 
and Malacca, and also the islands of the Indian 
Archipelago. There is evidence that commer- 
cial intercourse was carried on from a very 
early time between the W. coast of Hindustan 
and the W. parts of Asia, by the way of the 
Persian Gulf, the Euphrates, and across the 
Syrian Desert to Phoenicia, and also by way of 
the Red Sea and Idumaea, both to Egypt and 
to Phoenicia; and so on from Phoenicia to Asia 
Minor and Europe. The direct acquaintance 
of the western nations with India dates from 
the reign of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who 
added to the Persian empire a part of its NW. 
regions, perhaps only as far as the Indus, cer- 
tainly not beyond the limits of the Punjab ; and 
the slight knowledge of the country thus ob- 
tained by the Persians was conveyed to the 
Greeks through the inquiries of travellers, es- 
pecially Herodotus, and afterwards by those 
Greeks who resided for some time in the Persian 
empire, such as Ctesias, who wrote a special 
work on India ('IvSiko), of which fragments only 
remain. The expedition of Alexandee into 
India first brought the Greeks into actual con- 
tact with the country ; but the conquests of 
Alexander only extended within Scinde, and 
the Punjab, as far as the river Hyphasis, down 
which he sailed into the Indus, and down the 
Indus to the sea. The Greek king of Syria, 
Seleucus Nicator, crossed the Hyphasis, and 
made war with the Prasii, a people dwelling on 
the banks of the upper Ganges, to whom he 
afterwards sent ambassadors, named Mega- 
sthenes and Daimachus, who lived for several 
years at Palibothra, the capital of the Prasii, 
and had thus opportunity of obtaining much 
information respecting the parts of India about 
the Ganges. (Strab. pp. 70, 724 ; Athen. p. 67.) 
Megasthenes composed a work on India, which 
appears to have been the chief source of all the 
accurate information contained in the works of 
later writers. After the death of Seleucus 
Nicator, b. c. 281, the direct intercourse of the 
western nations with India, except in the way 
of commerce, ceased almost entirely. Mean- 
while, the foundation of Alexandria had created 
an extensive commerce between India and the 
West, by way of the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, 
and Egypt, which made the Greeks better ac- 
quainted with the W. coast of the peninsula, 
and extended their knowledge further into the 
eastern seas ; but the information they thus 
obtained of the countries beyond Cape Comorin 
was extremely vague and scanty. Another 
channel of information, however, was opened, 
during this period, by the establishment of the 
Greek kingdom of Bactria, which included part 
of N. India. The later geographers made two 
great divisions of India, which are separated by 
the Ganges, and are called India intra Gangem 
(the peninsula of Hindustan), and India 
extra Gangem (the Burmese peninsula). They 
were acquainted with the division of the people 
of Hindustan into castes, of which they enu- 



merate seven. (For this and other customs, see 
Strab. pp. 699-717 ; Arrian, Ind. 3-16.) 

Indibilis and Mandonius, two brothers, and 
chiefs of the Spanish tribe of the Ilergetes 
during the second Punic war. For some years 
they were faithful allies of the Carthaginians ; 
but in consequence of the generous treatment 
which the wife of Mandonius and the daughters 
of Indibilis received from P. Scipio, the two 
brothers deserted the Carthaginian cause, and 
joined Scipio in 209 with all the forces of their 
nation. (Pol. ix. 11, x. 18-40; Liv. xxvi. 49, 

xxvii. 17.) But in 206 the illness and reported 
death of Scipio gave them hopes of shaking off 
the yoke of Rome, and they excited a general 
revolt among their own subjects and among 
Celtiberian tribes. They Were defeated by 
Scipio, and pardoned. (Pol. xi. 26-33 ; Liv. 

xxviii. 24-34.) But when Scipio left Spain in 
the next year (205), they again revolted. The 
Roman generals marched against them ; Indi- 
bilis was slain in battle, and Mandonius was 
taken soon afterwards and put to death (Liv. 

xxix. 1 ; Appian, Hisp. 38). 

Indicetae or Indigetes, a people in the NE. 
corner of Hispania Tarraconensis, close upon the 
Pyrenees. Their chief town was Empobium.. 
Indicus Oceanus. [Ebythbaeum Make.] 
Indigetes, Indigitamenta. In literature 
j the Dil Indigetes appear to be the genuine 
deities of Italy who are regarded as the national 
defenders (Verg. Georg. i. 498 ; Ov. Met. xv. 
861 ; Lucan, i. 556) : they are the older dii 
patrii opposed to the dii novensiles or deities 
of foreign origin and later introduction (Liv. 
viii. 9). Thus Claudian {Bell. Gild. 128) dis- 
tinguishes them from those gods ' quos Roma 
recepit, aut dedit ipsa ' — -that is, from those 
borrowed from abroad or lately created. Hence 
arose the practice of regarding the indigetes 
often as deified heroes of the country, who had 
once been kings (like Romulus-Quirinus) or 
warriors (Serv. ad Aen. xii. 794) : thus Aeneas 
on being identified with a local deity of the 
river Numicus, known as Jupiter Indiges (Liv. 
i. 2; Verg. Aen. xii. 794), was called Aeneas 
Indiges ; but the title must have been given 
him after the Greek influence had affected the 
Roman mythology. All these conceptions of 
the dii indigetes are connected with the common 
derivation from in or indu and gigno, which 
takes the word as = indigena (native to the 
country) and equivalent to 8eol or tfpcoes 
eyxupioi. But the original meaning is with 
more probability derived from indu — agere, and 
strictly meant those deities who had a special 
and limited part to play in the lives and actions 
of men : all those whose names, with the occa- 
sions for invoking them, were included in the 
priestly books called indigitamenta. (Some pre- 
fer to derive indigitamenta, and consequently 
also indiges, from a word indigere, connected 
with axare, meaning to invoke or pray to.) 
There is a difference of opinion as to precisely 
what Beings were included in these books. Varro 
(whose statements in the Antiquitates Serum 
Divinarum are mainly preserved by Tertullian 
and Augustine) distinguished dii certi as those 
who had fixed limited functions for particular 
occasions, and dii incerti as deities of general 
power not thus limited or defined; and some 
have thought that the deities included in the 
indigitamenta were merely the dii certi. But 
it is clear that many of the greater deities with 
manifold functions were included in the list of 
dii certi so far as a particular function was in 
question — e.g. Juno Lucina as goddess of child- 



INDIGETES 

birth ; and again some distinctly Greek deities j 
were included, as Apollo Medicus or Aescula- [ 
pius, in whom healing was the function defined ; j 
yet if these were true indigetes, how could the 
idea have arisen that they were dii patrii as 
opposed to novensiles ? Hence there is prob- 
ability in the most recent view, that the dii 
indigetes were originally those deities of ancient 
Italy watching over various operations of life, 
whose actions are fixed and expressed for each ' 
one by their names — i.e. they were personifica- 
tions of the action, occasion, or thing. Being 
thus deities ' quibus rerum exiguarum singulis 
singula distribuuntur ' (August. C. D. vi. 1), they j 
were sometimes called ' dii niinuti ' (cf. Plaut. 
Cist. ii. 1, 45). These deities expressed a super- , 
stition, which there is reason to believe is still 
more or less unconsciously retained, of attach- 
ing influence for luck to certain places, or even 
to certain articles of dress or equipment : with 
this difference, that it was a matter of religion 
in the Roman, and that each separate thing 
had its own personal deity to whom prayer for 
a prospereus action or use was made. A dif- 
ference may be noticed between the Greek and 
Roman religions, that the Greek tended to 
centralisation, to gathering a number of attri- 
butes and functions originally belonging to 
separate or local deities, and ascribing them to 
a single greater deity, whereas the Romans 
(as far as they preserved their own ritual) 
retained the converse system of imagining a 
separate deity for each function. In this way 
' nomina numinibus ex ofhciis constat imposita ; 
ut ab occatione deus Occator dicatur, a sarri- 
tione Sarritor, a stercoratione Sterculinius, a 
satione Sator 1 (Varro, ap. Serv. ad Georg. i. 
21). In matters referring to life a long line of 
deities is conceived for the needs of each 
stage from birth to death. Thus Parca (a 
pariundo) was the deity who made the birth 
propitious or otherwise, and the being born 
right and straight with no deformities depended 
on Antevorta and Porrima, Postvorta or Prosa 
(Varro, ap. Gell. xvi. 10, i) : another view took 
these as deities who regarded destiny with 
knowledge of future and of past (Ov. Fast. i. 
C83) ; Bumina watched the suckling of the 
child; Levana its uplifting or adoption by its 
father; Nundina its ninth or name-day; Ali- 
mona, Edusa, and Potina its nourishment; 
Abeona, Adeona, Iterdura its learning to 
walk and its guidance through life ; Cuba and 
Citnina its cradling; Fannus the power of 
speech; Mut units Tut mum the fruitful mar- 
riage; Picumnits and Pilttmnus the protection 
of the marriage and of the new-born children ; 
Viriplaca the agreement of husband and wife ; 
Nenia the funeral rites. Again, all the actions 
and businesses of life had their abstract deities 
whose names it would be unlucky to neglect, 
such as Agonius, who presided over business 
actions; Aescolanus, Argentinus, and Arculus, 
who had to do with copper and silver money 
and the money-box ; Vica Pota, the deity of 
success and victorious action, who had a sanc- 
tuary near the Velia (Liv. ii. 7; Plut. Publ. 10; 
Cic. Le.gg. ii. 11, 28). And for ugriculture each 
operation had its divinity — e.g. Hemonia and 
Segesta for sowing; Panda or Patella for 
opening the earth to the sprouting seed ; Stir- 
culinius for manuring ; messiu for harvesting. 
Lastly, there were a few added within historical 
times for special occasions, aa Aius Locutius, for 
the warning of invasion of the Gauls (Liv. v. 50; 
Gell. xvi. 17), and liediculus, for turning Hanni- 
bal back from Rome in 211 B.C. (1'lin. x. 198). 



INOU3 



443 



Indus or Sindus {'IvSos : Indus, Sind), a 
great river of India. The earliest mention in 
Greek literature is in Hecataeus (Fr. 144). 
Herodotus (iv. 44) has some knowledge of its 
character and of its position in the far East, 
which he derived from Scylax. It rises in the 
table land of Thibet, N. of the Himalaya 
mountains, flows nearly parallel to the great 
bend of that chain on its N. side, till it breaks 
through the chain a little E. of Attock, in the 
NW. corner of the Punjab, and then flows SW. 
through the great plain of the Punjab, into 
the Erythrueum Mare (Indian Ocean), which 
it enters by several mouths — two according to 
the earlier Greek writers, six according to the 
later. (Arrian, An. v. 6, Ind. 2 ; Ptol. vii. 1, 
28 ; Strab. p. 090.) Its chief tributaries are 
the Cophen (Cabul), which enters it from the 
NAY. at Attock, and the Acesines on the E. 
side. [Hyphasis.] 

Indus i'lvhos : Dollomon-Chai), a river of 
Asia Minor, rising in the SW. of Phrygia, and 
flowing through the district of Cibyratis and 
the SE. of Caria into the Mediterranean, oppo- 
site to Rhodes (Liv. xxxviii. 14 ; Plin. v. 108). 

Indutiomarus, or Induciomarus, one of 
the chiefs of the Treviri in Gaul. As he was 
opposed to the Romans, Caesar induced the 
leading men of the nation to side with Cinge- 
torix, the rival of Indutiomarus, B.C. 54. Indu- 
tiomarus took up arms against the Romans, 
but was defeated and slain by Labienus. (C'aes. 
B. G. v. 53-58.) 
Inessa. [Aetna, No. 2.] 
Inferi, the gods of the Nether World, in con- 
tradistinction from the Sttperi, or the gods of 
heaven. In Greek the Inferi are called ol 
xBovwi. [Chthonils.] Among the dii inferi 
were reckoned those who were supposed to 
control the lower world, as Dis Pater, Proser- 
pina, Libera ; or were connected with the dead, 
as Mania, Larunda, Avia Larvaruni; or with 
the earth and its fruits (of whom some were in 
other aspects Superi), as Tellus, Saturn us, 
Ceres. Hence the devotio or consecratio in- 
feris (or Dis Manibus et Telluri, &c.) meant 
that the living persons so devoted were given 
over to the power of the gods of the under- 
world (cf. Liv. viii. 9; Macrob. Sat. iii. 9, 10). 
But the word Inferi is also frequently used to 
designate the dead, in contradistinction from 
those living upon the earth; so that apud 
inferos is equivalent to ' in Hades,' or 1 in the 
lower world.' [See Larvae, Lemuuf.s, Manes, 
Oiicts, Hades, Elysium.] 

Inferum Mare, called also Tuscum or Tyr- 
rhenian, was the sea between the islands of 
Corsica and Sardinia and the west coast of 
Italy extending southwards to Sicily. It was 
so called in distinction to Sitpertini Marc — i.e. 
the Adriatic. 

Ingaevones, a name which some authorities 
gave to the tribes on the sea-coast of Germany 
(Tac. Germ. 2). 

Ingauni, a people in Liguria on the coast, 
whose chief town was Ai.im M Inoaunum. 

Ingenuus, one of the Thirty Tyrants, was 
governor of Pannonia when Valerian set out 
against the Persians, a.m. 258. He assumed 
the purple in his province, but was defeated 
and slain by Gallienus. (Trebell. Poll. Trig. 
Tgr.\ Zonar. xii. 21.) 

Ino {'lyiil, daughter of Cadmus and Hur- 
monia, and wife of Athamas. For details Me 
Athamas. 

Indus, a inline both of Melicertcs and of 
Palaemon, because they were the sons of Ino. 



444 



INSUBRES 



IOLAUS 



Insubres, a Gallic people, who crossed the 
Alps and settled in Gallia Transpadana in the 
N. of Italy. Their chief town was Mediolanum. 
Next to the Boii, they were the most powerful 
of the Gallic tribes in Cisalpine Gaul. They 
were conquered by the Romans, shortly before 
the commencement of the second Punic war, 
but friendly to Hannibal when he descended 
into Italy. (Pol. ii. 17 ; Liv. xxi. 25, 39, 45.) 

Intaph.ern.es ('ivTcupepvris), one of the seven 
conspirators against the Magi, B.C. 522. He was 
put to death by Darius. (Hdt. iii. 70-119.) 

Intemelii, a people in Liguria on the coast, 
whose chief town was Albium Intemelium. 

Interamna (Interamnas),the name of several 
towns in Italy, so called from their lying be- 
tween two streams. 1. (Terni), an ancient 
municipium in Umbria, situated on the Nar, 
and surrounded by a canal flowing into this 
river, whence its inhabitants were called Inter - 
amnates Nartes. It was the birthplace of the 
historian Tacitus, as well as of the emperor of 
the same name. (Plin. iii. 114.) — 2. A town in 
Latium on the Via Latina, and at the junction 
of the Casinus with the Liris, whence its in- 
habitants are called Interamnates Lirinates. 
It was made a Roman colony, B.C. 312, but 
subsequently sank into insignificance. (Liv. 
ix. 28 ; Plin. hi. 64.) 

Intercatia, a town of the Vaccaei in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, on the road from Asturica 
to Caesaraugusta. 

Intercisa or Petra Pertusa, a post-station 
in Umbria, so called because the Via Flaminia 
was here cut through the rocks by order of 
Vespasian. An ancient inscription on the spot 
still commemorates this work. (Vict. Cues. 9 ; 
Procop. B. G. ii. 11.) 

Internum Mare, the Mediterranean Sea, 
extended on the W. from the Straits of Her- 
cules to the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor on 
the E. In the NE. it was usually supposed to 
terminate at the Hellespont. From the Straits 
of Hercules to the furthest shores of Syria it 
is 2000 miles in length ; and, including the 
islands, it occupies an area of 734,000 square 
miles. (Strab. pp. 51-54.) It was called by the 
Romans Mare Internum or Intestinum ; by 
the Greeks ri ecrai OaKarra or 7] evrhs 6a.ka.TTa, 
or, more fully, r) ivTbs 'Hpa.Kh.elwv cttijAcDc 
8d\aTTa : and from its washing the coasts both 
of Greece and Italy, it was also called both 
by Greeks and Romans Our Sea (ri ^uerepa 
VaKaTTa, i) Kad' rj/xas SdkaTTa, Mare Nostrum). 
(Mel. i. 1, 4 ; Plin. iii. 8 ; Sail. Jug. 17 ; Plat. 
Phaed. p. 109 B ; Pol. iii. 39 ; Strab. p. 121 ; 
Arist. Met. ii. 1 ; Caes. B. G. v. 1.) The term 
Mare Mediterranean is not used by the best 
classical writers, and occurs first in Solinus. 
The ebb and flow of the tide are perceptible in 
only a few parts of the Mediterranean, such as 
in the Syrtes on the coast of Africa, in the 
Adriatic, &c. The different parts of the Medi- 
terranean are called by different names. See 
Mare Tyrrhenum or Infertjm, Adria or M. 
Adrtaticum or M. Superum, M. Sictjlum, 
M. Aegaeum, &c. 

Intibili, a town of Hispania Baetica, near 
Illiturgis (Liv. xxiii. 49). 

Iniii Castrum, a city of Latium (Verg. Aen. 
vi. 776), on the coast between Antium and 
Lavinium (Ov. Met. xv. 727 ; Sil. It. viii. 361). 

Inuus, an old Italian deity of the increase in 
flocks and herds, in reality merely another name 
of Paunus or Lupercus (Liv. i. 5 ; Serv. ad 
Aen. vi. 775 ; Macrob. i. 22). He was specially 
worshipped in old times at Castrum Inui. 



Inycum {"Ivvkov), a town in the S. of Sicily, 
near Selinus, on the Hypsas (Hdt. vi. 23 ; Paus. 
vi. 4, 6). 

Io ('Id), daughter of Inachus, the first king of 
Argos, or, according to others, of Iasus or Piren. 
Zeus loved Io, but on account of Hera's 
jealousy, he metamorphosed her into a white 
heifer (Apollod. ii. 1, 3 ; Hyg. Fab. 145). The 
goddess, who was aware of the change, obtained 
the heifer from Zeus, and placed her under the 
care of Argus Panoptes. According to the 
story which Aeschylus follows, it was Hera 
who changed Io into a cow ; and this also was 
implied by the representation on the throne of 
Apollo at Amyclae (Aesch. Suppl. 299 ; Paus. 
iii. 18, 13). Zeus sent Hermes to slay Argus 
and deliver Io. [Argus.] It is a disputed 
point whether this, act is signified by the 
epithet 'Apyei<p6vTris. [See Hermes, p. 405, b.] 
Hera then tormented Io with a gad-fly, and 
drove her in a state of frenzy from land to 
land over the whole earth, until at length she 
found rest on the banks of the Nile. Here she 
recovered her original form, and bore a son to 
Zeus, called Epaphus. [Epaphus.] The wan- 
derings of Io were celebrated in antiquity, and 
were extended with the increase of geographical 
knowledge. (Aesch. Pr. 700-815 ; Suppl. 540- 
565 ; Eur. I. T. 394 ; cf. Athen.p. 619; Lucian, 
Dcor. Dial. 3; Strab. p. 320.) The Bosporus 
is said to have derived its name from her 
swimming across it (Aesch. Pr. 732 ; Appian, 
Bell. Mithr. 101). An early attempt to ration- 
alise the story is given by Herodotus (i. 1) : that 
Io was a princess of Argos who was carried off 
to Egypt by Phoenicians. It has been 
common interpretation that this homed lo 
signifies the crescent moon and Argus the starry 
heaven. It is more likely that Io was originally 
Hera herself, or, rather, that she was a deity 
worshipped in certain places in the shape of a 
cow (whether by a totemistic custom or not), 
whose worship was superseded by that of Hera, 
and who accordingly was represented as a rival 
transformed by Hera. It is another question 
whether this cow-shaped deity was originally 
imagined from the Egyptian Isis, or whether a 
Greek Io was identified with Isis, and was there- 
fore represented as having gone to Egypt. At 
any rate it is likely that her wanderings were 
in part suggested by the Egyptian goddess, 
though in part they arose from local myths and 
alsb from an attempt to explain certain local 
names. [See also Isis.] In art representations 
three periods are distinguished : in the oldest 
she has the form of a cow (cf. Paus. i. 25 ; Verg. 
Aen. vii. 789). In the second period (possibly 
to suit the representation on the stage) she is a 
maiden with horns (Aesch. Pr. 588 ; cf. Hdt. 
ii. 41). The change appears on vases to begin 
after the Persian wars, and this form may have 
conduced to the identification with Isis. The 
third period in the decadence of art reverts to 
the cow-form. 

Iobates, king of Lycia. [Bellerophon.] 

Iol. [Caesarea, No. 4.] 

lolaenses.- [Iolaus.] 

Iolaus ('l6\aos), son of Iphicles and Autome- 
dusa. Iphicles was the half-brother of Hera- 
cles, and Iolaus was the faithful companion 
and charioteer of the hero (Hes. Sc. 74 ; Apollod. 
ii. 4, 11 ; Paus. viii. 14, 6). He helped Heracles 
to slay the Lernean Hydra. After Heracles 
had instituted the Olympic games, Iolaus won 
the victory with the horses of his master (Paus. 
v. 8, 1). Heracles sent him to Sardinia at the 
head of his sons whom he had by the daughters 



IOLCUS 



IONIA 



445 



of Thespius. He introduced civilisation among 
the inhabitants of that island, and was wor- 
shipped by them; and his descendants were 
the Iolaenses ('IoAaets). This story was prob- 
ably an attempt to explain the name of the 
native tribe so called in Sardinia, whom Strabo, 
p. 225, states to have been a Tyrrhenian people. 
(Paus. x. 17, 5; Diod. iv. 30, v. 15; Sardinia.) 
From Sardinia he went to Sicily, and then 
returned to Heracles shortly before the death 
of the latter. After the death of the hero, 
Iolaus was the first who offered sacrifices to him 
as a demigod. There are two stories of his aid 
to the children of Heracles after the death of 
their father. One makes him do battle for them 
in his natural life, and kill Eurystheus in battle 
(Paus. i. 44, 13; Strab. p. 377): the other (a 
Theban story) makes him return from the 
grave for these exploits ; and then, after his 
second death, he is buried in the grave of 
Amphitryon (Pind. Pyih. ix. 79). In Pausanias' 
account he dies in Sardinia, having apparently 
returned there after the victory over Eurys- 
theus, and is buried there (Paus. ix. 23, 1). 

Iolcus ('IwAkos, Ep. 'laaiKnos, Dor. 'IaA/coy : 
, ld\Ktos : Volo), an ancient town in Magnesia 
in Thessaly at the top of the Pagasaean gulf, 
seven stadia from the sea, at the foot of Mt. 
Pelion. It is said to have been founded by 
Cretheus, and to have been colonised by Min- 
yans from Orchomenus. It was celebrated in 
m3'thology as the residence of Pelias and Jason, 
and as the place from which the Argonauts 
sailed in quest of the golden fleece. [Abgo- 
nautax ; Jason.] The Thessalians offered it to 
Hippias when he was driven out from Athens 
(Hdt. v. 94). Its inhabitants were removed to 
the neighbouring town of Demetrias, which was 
founded by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and the old 
town went to ruin. (11. ii. 712 ; Od. xi. 25G ; 
Strab. pp. 414, 486, 438.) 

Iole ( IoAtj), daughter of Eurytus of Oechalia, 
was beloved by Heracles. For details see p. 
400. After the deatli of Heracles, she married 
his son Hyllus. 

Iollas or Iolaus I'luAAas or 'IoAaos). 1. Son 
of Antipater, and brother of Cassander, king of 
Macedonia. He was cup-bearer to Alexander at 
the period of his last illness. Those writers who 
adopt the idea of the king having been poisoned, 
represent Iollas as the person who actually 
administered the fatal draught. This accu- 
sation was undoubtedly false, and was originated 
six years later by Olympias as a pretext for 
oppressing the adherents of Antipater. She 
then caused the grave of Iollas to be desecrated. 
(Plut. Alex. 77; Diod. xix. 11; Arrian, An. vii. 
27 ; Curt. x. 10, 14 ; Just. xii. 14 ; Vitruv. viii. 
8, 10). — 2. Of Bithyniu, a writer on Materia 
Medica, flourished in the third century B.C. 

Ion C\wv). 1. The mythical ancestor of the 
Ionians, was the son of Xuthus and Creusa, the 
daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens (Hdt. 
vii. 94, viii. 44). When Xuthus had been driven 
from Athens he settled at Aegialus (the N. 
coast of Peloponnesus), and died there. One of 
his two sons, Achaeus, took possession of the 
ancestral home in .Thessaly, but Ion raised 
an army against Selinus, king of Aegialus. 
Sclinus came to terms by giving him his 
daughter in marriage and making him his 
heir. When the Eleusinians and Eumolpus 
were at war with Athens the Athenians asked 
aid from Ion, and made him their general. He 
won the victory for them, died in Attica, and 
was buried at Potamus, near Prasiue (Paus. i. 
31,3; Strab. p. 383). The four Attic tribes 



were called after the four sons of Ion, Geleon P 
Aegicores, Argades and Hoples (Hdt. v. 06). 
In Strabo's account he eventually becomes 
king of Athens ; but in Herodotus (viii. 44) he is 
only commander of their army. The Attic 
story, which through the Ion of Euripides has 
become the best known version, alters the 
genealogy in order to make Apollo Patrous the 
ancestor of the Ionians as well as their protector- 
Ion is therefore the son of Apollo, not of Xuthus. 
Apollo had visited Creusa in a cave below the 
Propylaea, at Athens, and when she gave birth 
to a son, she exposed him in the same cave. The 
god, however, had the child conveyed to Delphi, 
where he was educated by a priestess. Many 
years afterwards Xuthus and Creusa came to 
consult the oracle about the means of obtaining 
an heir. They received for answer that the 
first human being whom Xuthus met on leaving 
the temple should be his son. Xuthus met Ion, 
and acknowledged him as his son ; but Creusa, 
imagining him to be a son of her husband by a 
former mistress, caused a poisoned cup to l.e 
presented to the youth. However, her object 
was discovered, for as Ion, before drinking, 
poured out a libation to the gods, a pigeon 
which drank of it died on the spot. Creusa 
thereupon fled to the altar of the god. Ion 
dragged her away, and was on the point of 
killing her, when a priestess interfered, ex- 
plained the mystery, and showed that Ion was 
the son of Creusa. Mother and son thus be- 
came reconciled, but Xuthus was not let into the 
secret, and Ion was declared the heir of Xuthus 
and Creusa and the destined founder of the 
Ionic race. (Eur. Ion. This was probably the 
version followed also in the Creusa of Sopho- 
cles.) — 2. A poet of Chios, was son of Ortho- 
menes. He went to Athens when young, and 
there enjoyed the society of Aeschylus and 
Cimon. He began to produce tragedies on the 
Athenian stage in 452, and won the third prize 
in 428, when Euripides won the first and Iophon 
the second. He died before 418. (Aristoph. Pax, 
885). The number of his tragedies is variously 
stated at twelve, thirty, and forty. We have 
the titles and a few fragments of eleven. Ion 
also wrote elegies, dithyrambs, and a his- 
tory of Chios. (Strab. p. 645 ; Schol. ad Ar. 
Pax, 830; Plut. Cim. 5; Athen. pp. 3, 486.) 
— 3. Of Ephesus, a rhapsodist in the time of 
Socrates, from whom one of Plato's dalogues is 
named. 

Ionia ('luvLa:"lwyes) and Ionis (Rom. poet.j, 
a district on the W. coast of Asia Minor, so called 
from the Ionian Greeks who colonised it at a 
time earlier than any distinct historical records. 
At a still earlier time the Ionian branch of the 
Hellenic race was in possession of Attica (and 
apparently of Euboea). Some of the Ionians 
from Attica occupied the S. coast of the Co- 
rinthian gulf, but were afterwards driven back 
into Attica by the Achaeans. The mythical 
account of ' the great Ionic migration ' relates 
that in consequence of the disputes between 
the sons of Codrus, king of Athens, about the 
succession to his government, his younger sons. 
Neleus and Androclus, resolved to seek a new 
home beyond the Aegaean sea. Attica was at 
the time overpeopled, partly owing to the re- 
turn of those whom the Achaeans expelled from 
Achaea, and still more by the more recent ex- 
pulsion <if Iouiansfrom F^pidaurus, Troezen, and 
Phlius by the Dorian invaders. A large portion 
of this superfluous population went forth a» 
Athenian colonists, under the leadership of 
Androclus and Neleus, joined by emigrants of 



446 



IONIA 



IOPHON 



other tribes, Cadmeans, Euboeans, Phocians, 
and Pylians, and settled on that part of the W. 
shores of Asia Minor which formed the coast of 
Lydia and part of Caria, and also in the adjacent 
islands of Chios and Samos, and in the Cyclades. 
(Hdt. i. 142-146 ; Paus. vii. 2 ; Strab. p. 632.) 
It may safely be assumed that this migration 
and conquest was not the result of a single expe- 
dition, but extended over several years, and 
probably more than one generation. It is likely 
that the migrating Ionians drove out the Ca- 
rians from the Cyclades, before they went on to 
conquer the coast of Asia Minor. The great 
cities of Miletus and Ephesus were wrested 
by them from the Carians and the Leleges, and 
several towns were newly founded. The date of 
the migration, or successive migrations, cannot 
be accurately fixed. The movement probably 
took place soon after the Dorian invasion of the 
Peloponnesus, and may even have begun a little 
earlier. It may therefore be roughly dated at 
about 1000 B.C. The earliest authentic records 
show us the existence of twelve great cities on 
the above-named coast, all united into one con- 
federacy. The district they possessed formed a 
narrow strip of coast, extending between, and 
somewhat beyond, the mouths of the rivers 
Maeander, on the S., and Hermus, on the N. 
The names of the twelve cities, going from S. to 
N., were Miletus, Myus, Pbiene, Samos (city 
and island), Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, 
'Teos, Ebythbae, Chios (city and island),»CLA- 
zoiienae, and Phocaea ; the first three on the 
coast of Caria, the rest on that of Lydia : the 
.city of Smyrna, which lay within this district, 
but was of Aeolic origin, was afterwards (about 
b.c. 700) added to the Ionian confederacy. The 
common sanctuary of the league was the Panio- 
nium (imvuoviou), a sanctuary of Poseidon Heli- 
conius, on the N. side of the promontory of 
Mycale, opposite to Samos ; and here was held 
the great national assembly (iraviiyvpis) of the 
confederacy, called Panionia (iravucvta: see Diet. 
ofAntiq. s. v.). It is important to observe that 
the inhabitants of these cities were not exclu- 
sively of Ionian descent. The traditions of the 
original colonisation and the accounts of the 
historians agree in representing them as peopled 
by a great mixture, not only of Hellenic races, 
but also of these with the earlier inhabitants — 
such as Carians, Leleges, Lydians, Cretans, and 
Pelasgians — and with differences of dialect. 
The religious rites, also, which the Greeks of 
Ionia observed, in addition to their national 
worship of Poseidon, were borrowed in part from 
the native peoples ; such were the worship of 
Apollo Didymaeus at Branchidae near Miletus, 
i of Artemis at Ephesus, and of Apollo Clarius at 
Colophon. The central position of this district, 
its excellent harbours, and the fertility of its 
plains, watered by the Maeander, the Cayster, 
and the Hermus, combined with the energetic 
character of the Ionian race to confer prosperity 
upon these cities ; and it was not long before 
they began to send forth colonies to many places 
on the shores of the Mediterranean and the 
Euxine, and even to Greece itself. During the 
rise of the Lydian empire, the cities of Ionia 
preserved their independence until the reign of 
•Croesus, who subdued those on the mainland, 
but relinquished his design of attacking the 
islands. When Cyrus had overthrown Croesus, 
he sent his general Harpagus to complete the 
conquest of the Ionic Greeks, B.C. 545. Under 
the Persian rule, they retained their political 
organisation, subject to the government of the 
Persian satraps, and of tyrants who were set up 



] in single cities, but they were required to render 
j tribute and military service to the king. In B.C. 
500 they revolted from Darius Hystaspis, under 
the leadership of Histiaeus, the former tyrant 
of Miletus, and his brother-in-law Abistagobas, 
and supported by aid from the Athenians. The 
Ionian army advanced as far as Sardis, which 
, they took and burnt, but they were driven back 
to the coast, and defeated near Ephesus B.C. 
I 499. The reconquest of Ionia by the Persians 
j was completed by the taking of Miletus, in 496, 
and the Ionians were compelled to furnish ships, 
and to serve as soldiers, in the two expeditions 
against Greece. After the defeat of Xerxes, the 
Greeks carried the war to the coasts of Asia, 
and effected the liberation of Ionia by the 
victories of Mycale (479), and of the Eurymedon 
(469). In 387 the peace of Antalcidas restored 
Ionia to Persia ; and after the Macedonian con- 
quest, it formed part, successively, of the king- 
dom of Pergamum, and of the Roman province 
of Asia. For the history of the several cities, 
see the respective articles. In no country in- 
habited by the Hellenic race, except at Athens, 
were the refinements of civilisation, the arts, 
and literature, more highly cultivated than in 
Ionia. The restless energy and free spirit of 
the Ionic race, the riches gained by commerce, 
and the neighbourhood of the great seats of 
Asiatic civilisation, combined to advance with 
rapidity the intellectual progress and the social 
development of its people ; but while the leisure 
afforded by their wealth tended to produce 
among them schools of poets and of speculative 
philosophers, on the other hand the same 
growth of wealth combined with the more 
enervating climate, and perhaps also with the 
Oriental influences in their mixed blood and 
association, to make the Ionians of Asia Minor 
softer and more luxurious than their kinsfolk 
in Greece. Out of the long list of the authors 
and artists of Ionia, we may mention the poets 
Mimnermus of Colophon, and Anacreon of Teos ; 
the philosophers Thales of Miletus, and Anaxa- 
goras of Clazomenae ; the early annalists, Cad- 
mus, Dionysius, and Hecataeus, all of Miletus ; 
and, in the fine arts, besides being the home of 
that exquisitely beautiful order of architecture, 
the Ionic, and possessing many of the most 
magnificent temples in the world, Ionia was the 
native country of that school of painting which 
included Zeuxis, Apelles, and Parrhasius. Its 
history under the Romans belongs to that of 
the province of Asia. t 

Ionium Mare ('\6vios v6vtos, '\6vlov ireXayos- 
'lov'ii\ Qa.Xa.TTa, '\6vios irSpos), apart of the Medi- 
terranean Sea between Italy and Greece, was 
S. of the Adriatic, and began on the W. at 
Hydruntum in Calabria, and on the E. at Oricus 
in Epirus, or at the Ceraunian mountains. In 
more ancient times the Adriatic was called 
'\6vios /J.VX&S or '\6vlos k6Ktto% (Hdt. vi. 127, vii. 
20 ; Time. i. 24). But in its wider signification 
it is found in Polybius and Strabo (Strab. pp. 
123, 316; Pol. ii. 14). Its name, mythically 
derived by the ancients from the wanderings 
of Io (Aesch. Pr. 830), came from the Ionian 
colonies which settled in Cephallenia and other 
islands off the W. coasts of Greece. 

Iophon. ('IocficSi/), son of Sophocles, by Nico- 
strate, was a distinguished tragic poet. He 
brought out tragedies during the life of his 
father, and was still living in B.C. 405 (Ar. Bun. 
73). He won the second prize in 429, and was 
suspected by some of having received assistance 
from his father. For the story of his undutiful 
charge against his father, see Sophocles. 



IPHIAS 



IPHIGENIA 



447 



Iphias ('l<t>ias), i.e. Evadne, a daughter of 
Iphis, and wife of Capaneus. 

Iphicles, or Iphiclus l'i<ptK\ris, "IQikKos or 
'\<piK\evs). 1. Son of Amphitryon and Alcmene, 
was one night younger than his half-brother 
Heracles. He was first married to Automedusa, 
the daughter of Alcathous, by whom he became 
the father of Iolaus, and afterwards to the 
youngest daughter of Creon. He accompanied 
Heracles on several of his expeditions, and 
took part in the Calyd011ia.11 hunt lApollod. i. 
8, 2 ; Diod. iv. 48). He fell in battle* against 
the sons of Hippocoon, or, according to another 
account, was wounded in the battle against the 
Molionidae, and was carried to Pheneus, where 
he died (Apollod. ii. 7, 8). — 2. Son of Thestius 
by Laophonte or Dei'damia or Eurytheniis or 
Leucippe. He took part in the Calydonian 
hunt and the expedition of the Argonauts (Ap. 
Rh. i. 201). — 3. Son of Phylacus, and grandson 
of Deion and Clymene, or >ou of Cephalus and 
Clymene, the daughter of ilinyas. He was 
married to Diomedia or Astyoche, and was the 
father of Podarces and Protesilaus. He was one 
of the Argonauts, possessed large herds of oxen, 
which he gave to the seer Melampus, and was 
celebrated for his swiftness in running. {II. ii. 
705, xiii. 698 ; Paus. iv. 3ti, 2 ; Apollod. i. 9, 12.) 

Iphicrates C\<piKpiTt)s], the Athenian gene- 
ral, was the son of a shoemaker. He distin- 
guished himself at an early age by his gallantry 
in battle ; and in B. c. 394, when he was only 
25 years of age, lie was appointed by the Athe- 
nians to the command of the forces which they 
sent to the aid of the Boeotians after the battle 
of Coronea. In 393 he commanded the Athe- 
nian forces at Corinth, and at the same time 
introduced an important improvement in mili- 
tary tactics — the formation of a body of tar- 
geteers (ir« KraaTol) possessing, to a certain ex- 
tent, the advantages of heavy and light-armed 
forces. This he effected by substituting a small 
target for the heavy shield, adopting a longer 
sword and spear, and replacing the old coat of 
mail by a linen corslet. At the head of his 
targeteers he defeated and nearly destroyed a 
Spartan Mora in the following year (892), an 
exploit which was celebrated throughout Greece 
(Xen. Hell. iv. 5, 8 ; Diod. xiv. 91 ; Paus. iii. 10). 
In the same year he was succeeded in the com- 
mand at Corinth by Chabrias. In 889 he was 
sent to the Hellespont to oppose Anaxibius, who 
was defeated by him and slain in the following 



his daughter hi marriage. In 377 Iphicrates 
was sent by the Athenians, with the command 
of a mercenary force, to assist Pharnabazus in 
reducing Egypt to subjection ; but the expedi- 
tion failed through a misunderstanding between 
Iphicrates and Pharnabazus. In 373 Iphicrates 
was sent to Coreyra, in conjunction with Calli- 
stratus and Chabrias, in the command of an 
Athenian force, and he remained in the Ionian 
sea till the peace of 371 put an end to hostilities. 
(Xen. Hell. vi. 2 ; Diod. xv. 41-xvi. 57.) About 
367, he was sent against Amphipolis, and after 
carrying on the war against this place for three 
years, was superseded by Timotheus. Shortly 
afterwards, he assisted his father-in-law, Cotys, 
in his war against Athens for the possession of 
the Thracian Chersonesus. But his conduct in 
this matter was passed over by the Athenians. 
After the death of Chabrias (357), Iphicrates, 
Timotheus and Menestheus were joined with 
Chares as commanders in the Social war, and 
were prosecuted by their unscrupulous col- 
league, because they had refused to risk an 
engagement in a storm. Iphicrates was ac- 
quitted. From the period of his trial he seems 
to have lived quietly at Athens. He died before 
348. (Diod.xvi. 21 ; Rep. Itinerates.) Iphicrates 
has been commended for his combined prudence 
and energy as a general. The worst words, he 
said, that a commander could utter were, ' I 
should not have expected it' (Plut. Apopli. Ij)h. 
2; Polyaen. iii. 9). His services were highly 
valued by the Athenians, and were rewarded by 
them with almost unprecedented honours. 

Iphigenia {'l<piyevtta), according to the most 
common tradition, a daughter of Agamemnon 
and Clytaemnestra, but according to Stesichorus 
and others (Paus. ii. 22, 7), a daughter of 
Theseus and Helena, and brought up by Clytae- 
mnestra as a foster-child. In the earliest 
accounts of Agamemnon's daughters three are 
named : Iphianassa, Chrysothemis, and Laodice 
(77. ix. 145, 287). The Cyclic poets [Oypr. 3) 
added Iphigenia as a fourth (Soph. Kl. 157), but 
eventually she takes the place of Iphianassa, 
as Electra has displaced Laodice ; and the name 
Iphianassa is sometimes used as a synonym lor 
Iphigenia (Lueret. i. 86). Agamemnon had 
once killed a stag in the grove of Artemis; or 
he had boasted that the goddess herself could 
not aim better; or he had vowed in the year in 
which Iphigenia was bom to sacrifice the most 
beautiful production of that year, but had after- 




Iphltfcnlu ut Aullft. 'From the Modlcl Vote.) 

year. On the peace of Antalcidas, in 387. wards neglected to fulfil his vow. One of these 

Iphicrates went to Thrace to assist Seuthes, circumstances is suid to have been the cause of 

king of the Odrysae, but he soon afterwards the calm which detained the Greek fleet in 

formed an alliance with Cotys, who gave him Aulis, when the Greeks wanted to sail against 



448 



IPHIMEDIA 



Troy. The seer Calclias declared that the sacri- 
fice of Iphigenia was the only means of pro- 
pitiating Artemis. Agamemnon was obliged, to 
yield, and Iphigenia was brought to Chalcis 
under the pretext of being married to Achilles. 
When Iphigenia was on the point of being sacri- 
ficed, Artemis carried her in a cloud to the Tauric 
Chersonesus (the Crimea), where she became 
the priestess of the goddess, and a stag was sub- 
stituted for her by Artemis. (Cypria, ed. Kinkel, 
p. 19 ; Eur. I. A. 1540, I. T.1&.; Aesch. Ag. 
185 ; Pind. Pyth. xi. 28 ; Paus. ix. 19 ; Lucret. 
i. 85.) While Iphigenia was serving Arte- 
mis as priestess, her brother Orestes and his 
friend Pylades came to Tauri to carry off the 
image of the goddess at this place, which was 
believed to have fallen from heaven. As 
strangers they were to be sacrificed in the temple 
of Artemis' ; but Iphigenia recognised her 
brother, and fled with him and the statue of the 
goddess. (Eur. I. T. ; Hyg. Fab. 120-122; 
Naev. Iphig.) The story which Sophocles 
follows in his Chryses (Hyg. Fab. 120) makes 
Iphigenia and Orestes reach Sminthus, where 
they are overtaken by Thoas, and when Chryses, 
son of Agamemnon and priest of Apollo, is 
about to surrender them, he discovers their 
parentage and joins Orestes in killing Thoas. 
The image of the Tauric Artemis was, accord- 
ing to the Spartan legend, taken to Sparta 
(Paus. iii. 16, 6) ; according to the Attic legend, 
it was placed in the temple of Artemis at Brau- 
ron on the east coast of Attica, where Iphigenia | 
became the priestess (Eur. I. T. 1446 ; Strab. p. | 
399 ; Paus. i. 23, 9) ; according to the legend at : 
Laodicea . the original image was taken from 
Brauron by Xerxes, and placed at Laodicea. 
In other words there were wooden images of an 
Artemis worshipped in Tauric fashion at all 
these places, and each place claimed to possess 
the genuine image. [Artemis, p. 128.] Pau- 
sanias apparently considered that at Sparta to 
be the most ancient, since he inclines to believe 
it to be the actual statue brought by Iphigenia. 
The stories of the death of Iphigenia vary in like 
manner : in one, she died at Megara, and was 
honoured there with a shrine (Paus. i. 43, 1) ; in 
another, she died in Attica and was there buried ; 
according to some traditions Iphigenia never 
died, but was changed by Artemis into Hecate, 
or was endowed by the goddess with immortality 
and eternal youth, and under the name of Ori- 
lochia became the wife of Achilles in the island 
of Leuce (Ant. Lib. 27). — There can be little 
doubt that under these myths lies the fact that 
Iphigenia was Artemis herself : that is, Iphi- 
genia represents an ancient local deity wor- 
shipped in each of these places, Sparta, Brau- 
ron, and Megara, with human sacrifices and 
rites akin to those of the Tauric Artemis, and 
when Artemis took her place, she was trans- 
formed into the priestess of Artemis, and her 
connexion with these various places was ac- 
counted for by the stories of the wanderings of 
Agamemnon's daughter [see p. 128]. The cus- 
tom of dedicating to her the clothes of women 
who had died in childbirth (I. T. 1465) points 
to the same conclusion. She had originally 
been a goddess of childbirth, as Artemis was, 
perhaps as being, like Artemis also, a moon- 
goddess, or a goddess of natural fruitfulness. 

Iphimedia or Iphimede ('icpi^e'Sem, 'I<pifj.e8ri), 
daughter of Triops, and wife of Aloeus. Being 
in love with Poseidon, she often walked on the 
seashore, and collected its waters in her lap, 
whence she became, by Poseidon, the mother of 
the Aloidae, Otus and Ephialtes. While Iphi- 



IBENE 

media and her daughter, Pancratis, were cele- 
brating the orgies of Dionysus on Mount Drius,. 
they were carried off by Thracian pirates to 
Naxos or Strongyle ; but they were delivered, 
by the Aloidae. (Od. xi. 305 ; Pind. Pyth. iv. 
89; Apollod. i. 7, 4; Diod. v. 50.) 

Iphis ( s l<pis). 1. Son of Alector, and father 
of Eteoclus and Evadne, the wife of Capaneus, 
was king of Argos. He advised Polynices to 
give the celebrated necklace of Harmonia to 
Eriphyle, that she might persuade her husband 
Amphiaraus to take part in the expedition 
against Thebes. He lost his two children, and 
therefore left his kingdom to Sthenelus, son of 
Capaneus (Paus. ii. 18, 4). — 2. Son of Sthenelus, 
and brother of Eurystheus, was one of the 
Argonauts who fell in the battle with Aeetes. 
— 3. A youth in love with Anaxarete. [Anax- 
arete.] — 4. Daughter of Ligdus and Telethusa, 
of Phaestus in Crete. She was brought up as 
a boy, on the advice of Isis, because her father, 
before her birth, had ordered the child to 
be killed if it should be a girl. When Iphis 
had grown up, and was to be betrothed to 
Ianthe, she was metamorphosed by Isis into a 
youth (Ov. Met. ix. 666). 

IpMtus ("Icpnos]. 1. Son of Eurytus of 
Oechalia, one of the Argonauts, was afterwards 
killed by Heracles. (For details, see p. 399.) 
— 2. Son of Naubolus, and father of Schedius, 
Epistrophus, and Eurynome, in Phocis, likewise 
one of the Argonauts (II. ii. 518 ; Ap. Bh. i. 
207 ; Apollod. i. 9, 16). — 3. Son of Haemon, or 
Praxonides, or Iphitus, king of Elis, restored the 
Olympic games, and instituted the cessation of 
war during their celebration, B.C. 884 (Paus. v. i, 
5 ; 8, 5 ; 10, 10 ; 26, 2 ; viii. 26, 4 ; Plut. Lyc. 1). 

Ipnus Clirvos), a town of the Locri Ozolae 
(Thuc. iii. 101). 

Ipsus Clipos), a small town in Great Phrygia,. 
celebrated in history as the scene of the decisive 
battle which closed the great contest between 
the generals of Alexander for the succession to 
his empire, and in which Antigonus was defeated 
and slain, B. c. 301. [Antigonus.] The site of 
Ipsus was on the slopes of the modern Sultan 
Dagh ; the town of Julia, which took its place, 
was built a little below. It was on the main 
road from Iconium to the north and west, and 
was a little to the NE. of Synnada. 

Ira (Elpo, 'Ipa). 1. A mountain fortress in 
Messenia, memorable as the place where Ari- 
stomenes defended himself for eleven years 
against the Spartans. Its capture by the Spar- 
tans in B. c. 668 put an end to the second Mes- 
senian war (Paus. iv. 17, 20 ; Strab. p. 360). It 
is usually identified with the hill of Sagios 
Athanasios near Kahaletri. — 2, One of the 
seven cities which Agamemnon promised to 
Achilles (II. ix. 150). It can hardly be the same 
as No. 1, since it is described as near the sea- 
coast of Messenia. 

Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, 177 a. d. [Diet, 
of Christian Biography.'] 

Irene (Eip^Tj), called Pax by the Bomans, 
the goddess of Peace, was, according to Hesiod, 
a daughter of Zeus and Themis, and one of the 
Horae (Hes. Th. 902 ; Pind. 01. xiii. 6 ; Diod. 
v. 72; Bacchyl. Fr. 13; Horae). After the 
battle of Eurymedon, and also after the victory 
of Timotheus over the Lacedaemonians, altars 
were erected to her at Athens at the public ex- 
pense (Plut. Civi. 13 ; Isocr. irepl avriS. 109 ; 
Nep. Timoth. 2). Her statue at Athens carry- 
ing in its arms Plutus, the god of wealth, was 
the work of Cephisodotus, and another stood 
near that of Hestia in the Prytaneum (Paus. i. 



EKES 

8, 3, ix. 16, 1). A copy of it (called wrongly 
Leucothea) is now at Munich [CephisodotusJ. 
At Rome, where Peace was also worshipped as 
a goddess, she had a magnificent temple, which 
was built by the emperor Vespasian. Pax is 
represented on coins as a young woman, hold- 
ing in her left arm a cornucopia, and in her 
right hand an olive branch or the staff of Mer- 
cury. Sometimes she appears in the act of 
burning a pile of arms, or carrying corn-ears in 
her hand or upon her head. 

Iris Clpts), in mythology, is daughter of 
Thaumas (whence she is called Thaumantias) 
and of Electra, and sister of the Harpies 
(Hes. Th. 266, 780; Plat. Theaet. p. 155; 
Apollod. i. 2, 6; Verg. Aen. ix. 5). In the Iliad 
she appears as the messenger of the gods, es- 
pecially of Zeus and Hera (77. ii. 787, xv. 144, 
xviii. 166, xxiv. 78, 95). In the Odyssey, Hermes 
is the messenger of the gods, and Iris is never 
mentioned. It should be observed that in 
Homer the word Tpis is only twice used imper- 
sonally, either as the rainbow or merely as 
something curved f 17. xi. 26 ; xvii. 545). It 
seems probable that Iris was originally a goddess 
of rain, which was expressed in myth as the 
messenger sent by Zeus to men, and then was 
the path of this messenger, or actually the 
personification of the rainbow, for this brilliant 
phenomenon in the skies, which vanishes as 
quickly as it appears, was regarded as the swift 
messenger of the gods. Virgil represents the 
bow as the road on which Iris travels, which 
therefore appears whenever the goddess wants 
it, and vanishes when it is no longer needed 
(Serv. ad Aen. v. 610). In the earlier poets, 
Iris appears as a viigin goddess; but in the 
later, she is the wife of Zephyrus, and the 
mother of Eros. Iris is represented in works 



ISAURIA 



449 





In-,. (From an ancient 



of art dressed in a long and wide tunic, over 
which hangs a light upper garment, with 
wings attached to her shoulders, carrying the 
herald's staff in her left hand, and sometimes 
also holding a pitcher. 

Iris ("Ipis : Yeshil-Irmak), a considerable 
river of Asia Minor, rises on the N. side of the 
Anti-Taurus, in the S.of Pontus, and flows past 
Comana Pontica, to Amasia and Eupatoria 
(Megalopolis), where it receives the Lycus, and 
then flows N. into the Sinus Amisenus. Xeno- 
phon states its breadth at three plethra. (Strab. 
p. 556; Xen. An. v. 6, 3.) 

Irus Cpos). 1. Son of Actor and father of 
Eurydainus and Eurytion. He purified Peleus, 
when the latter had murdered his brother; but 
during the chase of the Calydonian boar, Peleus 
unintentionally killed Eurytion, the son of Irus. 
IVltus endeavoured to soothe him by offering 
him his flocks ; but Irus would not accept thyfn, 



and, at the command of an oracle, Peleus allowed 
them to run wherever they pleased. A wolf 
devoured the sheep, but was thereupon changed 
into a stone, which was shown, in later times, 
on the frontier between Locris and Phocis. 
(Ant. Lib. 38; Tzetz. ad Lye. 175.)— 2. The 
well-known beggar of Ithaca. His real name 
was Arnaeus, but he was called L'us, in allusion 
to Iris, because he was the messenger of the 
suitors. He was slain by Odysseus. (Ocl. xviii. 
5, 239.) 

Is i "Is : Sit), a city in the S. of Mesopotamia, 
eight days' journey from Babylon, on the W. 
bank of the Euphrates, and upon a little river 
of the same name. In its neighbourhood were 
the springs of asphaltus, from which was ob- 
tained the bitumen that was used in the walls 
of Babylon (Hdt. i. 179). 

Isaeus Claaios). 1. One of the ten Attic 
orators, was born at Chalcis, and came to Athens 
at an early age. He was instructed in oratory 
by Lysias and Isocrates. He was afterwards 
engaged in writing judicial orations for others, 
and established a rhetorical school at Athens, 
in which Demosthenes is said to have been his 
pupil. It is further said that Isaeus composed 
for Demosthenes the speeches against his 
guardians, or at least assisted him in the com- 
position. We have no particulars of his life. 
He lived between B.C. 420 and 348. Isaeus is 
said to have written sixty-four orations, but of 
these only eleven are extant. They all relate 
to questions of inheritance, and afford consider- 
able information respecting this branch of the 
Attic law. Isaeus was the first great master of 
forensic argument. His style is clear and con- 
cise, and at the same time vigorous and powerful, 
and is intermediate between what is called the 
plain style of Lysias and the full development 
of oratory in Demosthenes (Plut. Vit. X. Or. 
p. 839 ; Dionys. Isaeus). His orations are con- 
tained in the collections of the Greek Orators. 
TDemosthenes.] Separate editions by Schu- 
mann, 1831 ; Scheibe, 1874. — 2. A sophist, a 
native of Assyria, taught at Rome in the time 
of the younger Pliny (Plin. Ep. ii. 3 ; Juv. iii. 
74 ; Philostr. Soph. i. 20). 

Isagoras Cla-a.y6pa.sl, the leader of the olig- 
archical party at Athens, in opposition to Clis- 
thenes, B.C. 510. He was expelled from Athens 
by the popular party, although supported by 
Cleomenes and the Spartans. (Hdt. v. 66-75 ; 
Paus. iii. 4 ; Arist. 'Ad. iroA. 20 ; Ci.isthenes.) 

Isander ("irravopos), son of Bellerophon, killed 
by Ares in the fight with the Soiymi (17. vi. 
197 ; Strab. pp. 573, 630). 

Isara (Isire), a river in Gallia Narbonensis, 
descends from the Col d'lsiran in the Graian 
Alps, is approached by the route from the Little 
St. Bernard at Uoury 8. Maurice a little above 
Axima (Aisne), passes Culuro {Grenoble) and 
joins the Rhone at Valentia (Valence), at which 
point Hannibal left the ' island ' B.C. 218, and 
Fabius Aemilianus defeated the Allobroges and 
Arverni, B.C. 121. It was the river valley which 
Hannibal followed till lie reached the junction 
with the IMir. (Pol. iii. 49; Liv. xxi. 31.) 

Isaurla (7; '\<ravpta, rj '\aavpiKr)), a district of 
Asia Minor, on the N. Bide of the Taurus, be- 
tween Pisidia and Cilicia, of which the ancients 
knew little beyond the fact that its inhabitants, 
the Isauri ("laaupoi) were daring robbers, whoso 
incursions received only a temporary check from 
the victory over them which gained for },. Si r 
villus the surname of Isauricus (B.C. 75). Their 
chief city was called iRaura. (Strab. p. 5C8 ; 
Diod. xviii. 22 ; Dio Cass. xlv. 16.) 

G G 



450 



ISCA 



ISIS 



Isca. 1. (Exeter), the capital of the Damnonii 
or Dumnonii in the SW. of Britain. — 2. (Caer 
Leon), at the mouth of the Usk), a town of the 
Silures in Britain, and the head-quarters of the 
Legio II. The word Leon is a corruption of 
the word Legio : Caer is the old Celtic name. 

Ischys. [Asclepius.] 

Isidorus ('WiSapos). 1. Of Aegae, a Greek 
poet of uncertain date, five of whose epigrams are 
contained in the Greek Anthology. — 2. Of Cha- 
rax, a geographical writer, who probably lived 
under the early Roman emperors. His work, 
'SraB/xol TlapBiKol, is printed in the edition of the 
minor geographers, by Hudson, Oxon. 1703. — 
3, Of Gaza, a Neo-Platonic philosopher, the friend 
of Proclus and Marinus, whom he succeeded as 
chief of the school. — 4. Bishop of Hispalis, 
(Seville) in Spain, from a.d. 600 to 636, one of 
the most learned men of his age. A great 
number of his works is still extant, but the 
most important of them is his Originum s. 
Etijmologiarum Libri XX, an Encyclopae- 
dia of Arts and Sciences, treating of all sub- 
jects in literature, science and religion, and, from 
its acquaintance with earlier writers, of great 
value for the study of Roman archaeology. 
His De Natiira, Berum, on natural history, was 
also much used in the middle ages ; it is edited 
by Becker, Berl. 1857 ; the Origines is edited 
by Otto in the Corpus Grammaticorum Vete- 
rtim, Lindemann, Lips. 1833. A complete col- 
lection of the works was published by Arevali, 
Rom. 1797, and by Migne, Paris, 1850.— 5. Of 
Miletus, the elder and younger, eminent archi- 
tects in the reign of Justinian. 

Isigonus ('laiyovos), a Greek writer, of un- 
certain date, but who lived before the time of 
Pliny, wrote a work entitled "Amorce, a few 
fragments of which are extant. Published in 
Westermann's Paradoxograplii, 1839. 

Isionda or Isinda ('ItriivSa : 'lcrtovSevs, Ision- 
densis), a city of Pisidia in Asia Minor, on the 
road between Cibyra and Termessus, a little to 
the NW. of which it lies (Liv. xxxviii. 15). Its 
ruins are at Istanoz. 

Isis Clcris), one of the great deities of the 
Egyptians in their later mythology, and espe- 
cially important among the Oriental religions 
which spread over Greece and Italy after the 
age of Alexander. The worship of Isis did not 
belong to the earlier dynasties, but grew up out 
of myths. Isis was one of the local divinities, 
and when the custom arose of expressing deities 
in animal form, she was represented in the 
cow-shape (Hdt. ii. 41), which the agricultural 
people took as their typical representation of 
beneficence, whether it is to be understood, as 
some think, as signifying the productive powers 
of nature, or merely as the form in which they 
chose to worship a goddess of heaven. In the 
myths at any rate Isis is a goddess of the sky, 
and the daughter of the earth-god Queb and 
Nut, whom the Greeks identified with Cronos 
and Rhea, sister and wife of Osiris and mother 
of Horus ; sister also of Nephthys and of the 
evil power of darkness, Set ( = Typhon). Much 
of the myth represents a struggle between 
light and darkness, civilisation and barbarism, 
which was partially caught up by the Greeks. 
When Osiris had been killed by Set, he was 
mourned over by Isis and her sister Nephthys 
in dirges, which are the "IoiSes /ueA?} of Plato 
(Legg. p. 657 b). The protection which Isis 
gave for a time to her brother Set against her 
son the avenging Horus, led to a quarrel, the 
head of Isis was cut off, but replaced by magic 
as a cow's head, which appears in Plut. Is. 19 



as the "l<ri5os awoKe<pa\icrfj.6s, and also in his 
story of Hermes placing upon her a cow's head. 
The religion of Isis and Osiris increased in 
Egypt as the power of Thebes diminished, and 
the worship of Ammon took a less prominent 
place. Busiris was the centre of her worship. 
Isis came to be regarded as the great nature- 
goddess, the deity of motherhood and of all 
natural production, and as the goddess of magic, 
to which belonged the myths of her healing 
Osiris from his wounds. She was also, in rela- 
tion to the mysteries of the death of Osiris, the 
goddess of the underworld. It is to these vary- 
ing forms of her story that the bewildering 
identification of Isis with so many different 
Greek deities is due. The worship of Isis, espe- 
cially after the age of Alexander, spread widely 
over Western Asia and Southern Europe, in 
Syria (where it had a footing earlier), Asia 
Minor, the islands of the Aegaean, particularly 




Isis suckling Horus. (Wilkinson.) 



Cyprus and Rhodes, in Greece, particularly at 
Athens, Corinth, Cenchreae, and Hermione 
(Paus. i. 41, ii. 2, 32, 34), in Sicily and Italy, 
where it was especially notable at Puteoli, 
and, as the remains have proved, at Pompeii, 
Herculaneum, and Stabiae. At Rome it took a 
strong hold. At its first introduction after the 
second Punic war it was opposed on several 
occasions by the senate. In B.C. 50 Aemilius 
Paulus himself aided in the destruction of her 
shrines (Val. Max. i. 3, 4) ; but in 43 the tri- 
umvirs built the first temple for her public 
worship, probably in the Campus Martius (Dio 
Cass, xlvii. 15 ; cf. Lucan, viii. 831). Under the 
empire the religion spread wherever the Roman 
armies went, and abundant traces are found in 
Gaul, Germany, and Britain. To the better 
natures, by rules of abstinence and purifica- 
tion and by the glimpses which the mysteries 
seemed to give of a future world, it appeared to 
lead to higher things : the multitude was at- 
tracted by the processions of priests in linen 
robes with the sistrum in their hands, and by 
the novelty of the Oriental rites. Besides the 



ISIS 

mysteries there were the public festivals in No- 
vember and March : the former being, like the 
Megalensia. a mixture of grief for the death of 
Osiris and joy at the restoration ; the latter, 
called Isidis navigium, representing her as 
opening the season of navigation in her cha- 
racter of a goddess of the sea, when the proces- 
sion of priests went down to the shore and 
launched their sacred ship (Apul. Met. xi. 6). 
From the various aspects of Isis as goddess of 
the sky, of fruitfulness, and of the underworld, 
there followed her identification witli many dif- 
ferent deities : with Selene, as though a moon- 
goddess, and with Io (Hdt. ii. 61 ; Ov. Met. ix. 
(187; Io). Frequently she was confused with 
Demeter, partly as goddess of the earth and its 
fruits, partly as celebrated in the mysteries ; 
and hence she is represented with many attri- 
butes of Demeter, carrying a torch and ears of 
corn, or a cornucopia. Her connexion with the 
sea,as T I(ns ireA.071'11 
(Paus. ii. 4, 6), was 
probably of a com- 
paratively early 
date in Egypt, and 
was perhaps de- 
rived from the 
Phoenician Ater- 
gates [Aphrodite, 
p. 85, a] ; hence she 
is said to have in- 
vented sailing ships 
in order to seek 
Harpocrates, and 
the Romans painted 
votive pictures for 
her as their pro- 
tectress from ship- 
wreck (Hyg. Fab. 
27 ; Tibull. i. 8, 27 ; 
Juv. jrii. 28; Stat. 
Silv. iii. 2, 101). 
Both this attribute 
and her character- 
istic as nature-god- 
dess may account 
for her frequent 
identification with 
Aphrodite, whose 
form she sometimes 
assumes in sculp- 
ture, but distin- 
guished by the lotus 
flower on her head, 
with Harpocrates 
■tatuo In the Vatican.) In llle P ulhe '« £-ros, 
marked by the posi- 
tion of his finger on his lips. As Queen of Heaven 
she is often represented in the form of Hera with 
the Juno head and dress and adiademlike Hera's 
(the 'regale decus' of Ov. Met. ix. (iH9), and 
even the peacock of Hera, but distinguished by 
the sistrum or the lotuB. As goddess of magic 
healing she was adopted into the worship of J 
Asclepius, and in the temple of imperial times 
at Epidaurus, Isis, Serapis and Horus were 
worshipped as Hygiea, Apollo and Asclepius 
(Paus. ii. 27, 6). This connexion was probably 
made closer by the fact that as goddess of the 
underworld the Egyptians made the snake an 
attribute of Isis, and this was confused with the 
snake of Asclepius. Isis-Hygiea appears often [ 
on amulets and in votive inscriptions. Lastly, ' 
as Fortuna-Isis she has the rudder, but the 
Egyptian head-dress. It was not unnatural 
that with all these varieties of worship she 
should, us a ttoKvuvu/jlos or universal deity, be | 



ISOCRATES 



451 




worshipped also as Isis-Panthea (Apul. xi. 5, 
22 ; cf. Fortuna-Panthea, p. 34(5). In all these 
confusions of form with true Greek deities her 
character as Isis is marked by the sistrum or 
by the characteristic head-dress, the lotus 
flower, the crescent horns, the moon-disc, and 
the upright feathers. 

Ismarus ("la-fj.apos : 'la/xaptos), a town in 
Thrace, near Maronea, situated on a mountain 
of the same name, which produced excellent 
wine (Strab. p. 331 ; Verg. Eel. vi. 30, Georg. 
ii. 37). It is mentioned in the Odyssey as a 
town of the Cicones (ix. 40, 198). Near it was 
the lake Ismaris ['lafiapis). The poets use the 
adjective Ismarius as equivalent to Thracian. 
j Ovid calls Tereus, king of Thrace, Ismarius 
' tgrannus (Am. ii. 6, 7), and Polymnestor, king 
of Thrace, Ismarius rex (Met. xiii. 530). 

Ismene ^laphvri). 1. Daughter of Asopus, 
wife of Argus, and mother of Iasus (Apollod. 
ii. 1, 3). — 2. Daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta, 
and sister of Axtigoxe. 

Ismenus I'la/xrivos), a small river in Boeotia, 
which rises in Mount Cithaeron, flows through 
Thebes, and falls into the lake Hylica. The 
brook Dirce, celebrated in Theban story, flowed 
into the Ismenus. (Hdt. 1, 52 ; Paus. iv. 27, 6.) 
From this river Apollo was called Ismenius. 
His temple, the Ismcnium, at which the festival 
of the Daphnephoria was celebrated, was 
situated outside the city. The river is said to 
• have been originally called Ladon, and to have 
derived its subsequent name from Ismenus, a 
son of Asopus and Metope. (Apollod. iii. 12, 
6 ; Diod. iv. 72.) According to other traditions, 
1 Ismenus was a son of Amphion and Niobe,who 
when struck by the arrow of Apollo leaped into 
a river near Thebes, which was hence called 
Ismenus (Paus. ix. 10, 5). 

Isocrates ['IffOKpdrTjs), one of the tun Attic 
orators, was the son of Theodoras, and was 
born at Athens B.C. 436. Theodoras was a man 
of wealth, and educated his son with the 
greatest care. Among his teachers were Tisias, 
Gorgias, Prodicus, and also Socrates. Since 
Isocrates was naturally timid, and of a weakly 
I constitution, he did not come forward as a pub- 
lic speaker himself, but devoted himself to 
giving instruction in oratory, and writing ora- 
tions for others. He first taught rhetoric in 
Chios, and afterwards at Athens. At the latter 
place he met with great success, and gradually 
acquired a large fortune by his profession. He 
had 100 pupils, every one of whom paid him 
1000 drachmae. He also derived a large 
income from the orations which he wrote for 
others. Although Isocrates took no part in 
public affairs, he sought to influence public 
feeling by his orations, which I apart from the 
forensic speeches) were intended to be read, not 
to be spoken. He was an ardent lover of liis 
country, and had brought himself to regard the 
leadership of some strong power as the only 
chance of union in Greece; hence, as Dante 
hoped in Henry VII. as the saviour of Italy, for 
much the same reason Isocrates turned to 
Philip of Macedon, whom he urged to put him- 
self at the head of a full and united Greece, 
and to liberate the Greeks of Asia Minor from 
the Persian rule ; and, accordingly, when the 
battle of Chaeronca had destroyed the lust 
hopes of freedom, he put an end to his life, B.C. 
338, at the age of 98.— The school of IsocrateB 
exercised the greatest influence, not only upon 
the development of public oratory at Athens, 
but upon the style of writers in his own ami 
in other countries. The language of Isocrates 

a a 9 



452 



ISSA 



ITALIA 



forms a great contrast with the natural simpli- 
city of Lysias. Among his characteristics are 
the avoidance of declamatory language and the 
frequent use of figures ; but the chief point to 
observe is that Isocrates more than any other 
Greek writer studied the rhythm of prose, 
careful in his choice of words, and aiming at 
smoothness in long and finished periods. 
Especially he avoided hiatus. The style of 
Cicero was in great measure modelled upon that 
of Isocrates ; and, through Cicero, Isocrates 
has had much to do with, the training of the 
greatest masters of English prose ; notably 
with that of Milton. The carefully-rounded 
periods, and the frequent application of figura- 
tive expressions, are features which remind us 
of the sophists. The immense care he bestowed 
upon the composition of his orations may be 




Bust of Isocrates. (Villa Albani.) 



inferred from the statement that he was engaged 
for ten years upon his Panegyric oration alone. 
There were in antiquity sixty orations which 
went under the name of Isocrates, but they 
were not all recognised as genuine. Only 21 
have come down to us. Of these six were 
written for the courts; the others are chiefly 
political discourses, intended to be read by a 
large public. The most celebrated is his Pane- 
gyric oration, in which he shows what services 
Athens had rendered to Greece in every period 
of her history, and contends that she, and not 
Sparta, deserves the supremacy in Greece. The 
Areiopagiticus (355 B.C.) argues for a restora- 
tion of the influence of the Areiopagus. The 
orations are printed in the collections of the 
Greek orators. [Demosthenes.] The text is 
separately edited by Blass, 1878; the Pane- 
gyricus by Sandys, 1868 ; the Panegyricus and 
Areiopagiticus by Rauchenstein, 1874 ; the Ad 
Philippwm, by Benseler, 1854. 

Issa (*l<r<Ta), daughter of Macareus of Les- 
bos, and beloved by Apollo. The Lesbian town 
of Issa is said to have received its name from 
her. (Strab. p. 60 ; Ov. Met. vi. 124.) 

Issa (Issaeus : Lissa), a small island in the 
Adriatic sea, with a town of the same name, off 
the coast of Dalmatia, was colonised at an early 
period by the Greeks. It was inhabited by a 
hardy race of sailors, whose barks (lembi Issaei) 
were much prized. The Issaei placed them- 
selves under the protection of the Romans 
when they were attacked by the Illyrian queen, 
Teuta, B.C. 229 ; and their town is spoken of as 
a place of importance in Caesar's time. (Ptol. 
ii. 16, 14 ; Strab. p. 315 ; Liv. xxxi. 45, xlv. 8.) 



Issedones ('I<totj8<Ws), a Scythian tribe, in 
Scythia extra Imaum, the most remote people 
in Central Asia with whom the Greeks of the 
time of Herodotus had any intercourse. Their 
country was in Great Tartary, near the 
Massagetae, whom they resembled in their 
manners. They are represented as extending 
as far as the borders of Serica. (Hdt. iv. 26 ; 
Mel. ii. 1, 13.) 

Issicus Smus (6 'laatKbs kSKttos : Gulf of 
Iskenderoon), the deep gulf at the NE. corner 
of the Mediterranean, between Cilicia and Syria, 
named after the town of Issus. The width is 
about eight miles. The coast is much altered 
since ancient times. 

Issorla ('ltraaipia), a surname of Artemis, de- 
rived from Mt. issorion, in Laconia, on which 
she had a sanctuary. [Aktemis.] 

Issus ('Itraos, also 'laaoi, Xen. : 'lacraios) , a 
city in the SE. extremity of Cilicia, near the 
head of the Issicus Sinus, and at the N. foot of 
the pass of M. Amanus called the Syrian Gates ; 
memorable for the great battle in which Alex- 
ander defeated Darius Codomannus (b.c. 333), 
which was fought in a narrow valley near the 
town. [Alexander.] Its importance was much 
diminished by the foundation of Alexandria ad 
Issum, a little to the south. (Xen. An. i. 4, 4 ; 
Arrian, Anab. ii. 7 ; Strab. p. 676 ; Ptol. v. 8, 7.) 

Ister. [Danubius.] 

Ister, a Greek historian, was at first a slave 
of Callimachus, and afterwards his friend, and 
consequently lived in the reign of Ptolemy 
Euergetes (B.C. 247-222). He wrote a large 
number of works, the most important of which 
was an Atthis, or history of Attica. Fragments 
are published by Muller, Fragm. Sistor. Graec. 

Istria or Histrla, a peninsula at the N. ex- 
tremity of the Adriatic, between the Sinus Ter- 
gestinus on the W. and the Sinus Flanaticus on 
the E. It was separated from Venetia on the 
NW. by the river Timavus, and from Illyricum 
on the E. by the river Arsia. Its inhabitants, 
the Istri or Histri, were a warlike Illyrian 
race, who carried on several wars with the 
Romans, till their final subjugation by the 
consul C. Claudius Pulcher, B.C. 177. Their 
chief towns were Tebgeste and Pola. Istria 
was originally reckoned part of Illyricum, but 
from the time of Augustus it formed one of the 
divisions of Upper Italy. (Strab. pp. 57, 215 
Liv. x. 2, xli. 1-13.) 

Istropolis, Istros or Istria ('lo-Tp6iro\is,"l<T- 
rpos, 'Iffrpiri, Hdt. ii. 33 : Istere), a town in 
Lower Moesia, not far from the mouth of the 
Danube, and at a little distance from the coast, 
was a colony from Miletus. 

Italia ('iTaAia), signified, from the time of 
Augustus, the country which we call Italy. It. 
was bounded on the W. by the Mare Ligusticum 
and Mare Tyrrhenum, Tuscum or Inferum ; on 
the S. by the Mare Siculum or Ausonium ; on the 
E. by the Mare Adriaticum or Superum ; and 
on the N. by the Alps, which sweep round it in 
a semicircle, the river Varus (Var, Vara) sepa- 
rating it on the NW. from Transalpine Gaul, 
and the river Arsia (Arsa) on the NE. from 
Illyricum. The name Italia, however, was 
originally used to indicate a much more limited 
extent of country. Till a comparatively late 
period, the mountain boundary of Italy was f 
not the Alps, but the Apennines ; for the country 
on the east coast N. of Sena Gallica was not 
reckoned in Italy till the second century B.C., 
and the plain of the Po only in the first century 
B.C. In the earliest times the application of 
. the name was much more restricted even than 



ITALIA 



•153 



this, and applied only to the SW. point of the 
peninsula — the districts, that is, afterwards 
known as Bruttii and Lucania (Thuc. i. 12 ; 
Arist. Pol. iv. 10, 3 = p. 13291. Modern etymo- 
logists are in favour of the old derivation (Var 
B.R. ii. 5 ; Gell. xi. 1 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 5331 of 
Italia from lra\6s = vital an. It seems to be 
confirmed by the inscription Viteliu found on 
Oscan coins. It would imply that the Italians 
were first famed as herdsmen of cattle on the 
Lucanian plains. [Italus.] After the Romans 
had conquered Tarentum and the S. part of the 
peninsula, about B.C. 272, the name Italia sig- 
nified the whole country subject to them, 
from the Sicilian straits as far N. as the Arnus 
on the W. coast, and Sena Gallica on the E. ; 
for the river Aesis formed its northern boundary, 
and the district of Ariminum was still ' ager 
Gallicus ' until the first century B.C., when the 
province of Gallia Cisalpina (as Julius Caesar 
received it in 59 B.C.) ended at the Rubico ; and 
on the E. side the country X. of the Arnus was 
still called Liguria. Augustus was the first who 
extended the name of Italia, so as to compre- 
hend the whole of the basin of the Po and the 
S. part of the Alps, from the Maritime Alps to 
Pola in Istria, both inclusive. In the later 
times of the empire, when Maximum had trans- 
ferred the imperial residence to Milan, the 
name Italia was again used in a narrower com- 
pass. As it had originally signified only the S. 
of the country, so now it was restricted to the 
N., comprising the five provinces of Aemilia, 
Liguria, Flaminia, Venetia, and Istria. Though, 
however, the above limitations applied in re- 
gard to history and government, the name Italia 
was applied by Greek writers to the whole 
peninsula considerably earlier, and probably 
from the time when Cisalpine Gaul was brought 
under the Roman power, and accordingly Poly- 
bius eo uses it in the second century B.C. — 
Besides Italia, the country was called by various 
other names, especially by the poets. These 
were Hesperia. a name 'which the Greeks gave 
to it because it lay to the W. of Greece, or 
Hesperia Magna, to distinguish it from Spain 
[Hlspehia] ; Saturnia, because Saturn was said 
to have once reigned in Latium ; and Ausonia, 
from the Ausonian race. The name Oenotria 
is probably merely ' the wine country,' and was 
applied to the southern part by early Greek 
voyagers. From this some have deduced that 
the vine was cultivated in Italy before the 
Greek colonies were founded there ; but as 
oii/wrpas strictly means a vine-prop, it may de- 
note that the Greeks found here the vine grown 
on props instead of trailing. The Italian pen- 
insula contained a great number of different 
races, who had migrated into the country at a ' 
very early period. In central and south Italy 
three primitive stocks may be distinguished : 
ytaJStntscan, which is described under Etkuhia, 
the Iapiji/ian, and what is usually called the 
Italian btock. The Iapygian race occupied the 
SE. part, tin: country of the Messapians, Peu- 
cetians, and Daunians {see Apulia, p. 94]. ; 
The 'Italian' stock ii divided into two main 
branches: (a) the Latin branch, and (&) the 
Umbro-Sabellian, t<> which, according to their 
dialects, the Umbri, Massi, Volsci, and Samnites 
(» Osci) are assigned. The history of the mi- 
grations and settlements of these branches, so 
far as it can be conjectured, seemH to be as 
follows. Both together separated from a stock 
which included Greeks and Italians alike, and 
win ii 1 1 !<• v nho si' i hi i ii led it is probable Hint the 
Latin branch (who are the same as the Opici in 



Thuc. vi. 3; Ar. Pol. iv. 10) came south ward 
first and occupied the richer country of Lr.tium, 
Campania, and Lucania : possibly also the 
eastern part of Sicily [Siciliaj : the Ausones, or 
Aurunci, whosettled in Campania were probably 
a Latin tribe, but they were early Hellenised by 
Greek immigrants and conquered by Samnites, 
and therefore disappeared from history, leaving 
the name Ausonia as a common poetical name 
for Italy [cf. Campania]. The Umbro-Sabellian 
branch seems to have followed afterwards along 
the mountain ridges, and settled in the more 
hilly districts ; but this branch again divided, 
the Umbri taking to the E. side of the Apen- 
nines and being eventually, by the encroach- 
ments of the Etruscans, penned up in the 
narrow district called Umbbia. On the other 
hand, the Sabellian tribes who split off moved 
further southward ; the Sabines, nearer to the 
Latin settlements, and probably at that time 
differing but little in dialect, were early amal- 
gamated with the Latins ; the Samnites to the 
larger district further south [Samnium], where 
they long remained independent, and spread 
into Campania; the smaller offshoots which 
followed occupied the districts between Umbria 
and Samnium [see Maksi ; Pickntes; Pae- 
ligniJ. Li the above distribution the name 
1 Italian ' has been taken for convenience to 
denote the common source of the Latin and 
Umbro-Sabellian stocks; but it must not be 
forgotten that, as was said before, the name 
Itali is only applied in the earliest literature 
to those who dwelt in the extreme SW., and 
was not used as a common national term until 
the combined allies called their temporary 
capital Italica, in the year 90 B.C. The in- 
habitants of the northern part of Italy are 
described separately under Gallia Cisalpina, 
Ligukia (possibly containing the remains of the 
most primitive race of the peninsula), and 
Venetli. For the Greek colonisation of 
Southern Italy see p. 372. At the time of 
Augustus the following were the chief divisions 
of Italy, an account of which is also given in 
separate articles : I. Upper Italy, which ex- 
tended from the Alps to the rivers Macra on 
the W. and Rubico on the E. It comprehended : 
1. Ligukia. 2. Gallia Cisalpina. 3. Venetia, 
including Ca/rnia. -I.Istiua. II. Central Italy, 
sometimes called Italia Propria (a term not 
used by the ancients), to distinguish it from 
Gallia Cisalpina or Upper Italy, and Magna 
Graecia or Lower Italy, extended from the rivers 
Macra on the W. and Rubico on the E., to the 
rivers Silarus on the W. and Frento on the E. 
It comprehended : 1. Etkuhia. 2. Umbria. 
3. Picenum. 1. Samnium, including the country 
of the Sabini,Vestini, Marrucini, Marsi, l'aeligni, 
&c. 5. Latium. 0. Campania. III. Lower 
Italy or Magna Graecia p. 8721 included the 
remaining part of the peninsula S. of the rivers 
Silarus and Frento. It comprehended: 1. 
Apulia, including Calabria. 2. Lucania. 3. 
Bhuttium. — Augustus divided Italy into the 
following 11 Regiones: 1. Latium and Cam- 
pania. 2. The land of the Hirpini, Apulia, and 
Calabria. 8. Lucania and Bruttinm. i. The 
land of the FrentCBL Manmcini, Poeligtii, Marsi, 
Vestini, and Sabini, together with Samnium. 
5. Picenum. 0. Umbria and the district of 
Ariminum, in what was formerly called Galliu 
Cisalpina. 7. Etruria. 8. (called Aemilia, 
aft<T the road of that name) Gallia Cispadana. 
9. Liguria. 10. The E. part of Gallia Trans- 
padana, Venetia, Cauda, and Istria. 11. The 
W. part of Gallia Transpaduna. Rome herself 



454 



ITALIA 



ITHACA 



stood apart as a 12th division. This distribution 
seems at first to have been mainly geographi- 
cal for the convenience of census and for fiscal 
regulations. The regions were grouped in the 
time of Aurelius under juridici for the purposes 
of justice, but how many were thus combined 
is uncertain. Under Diocletian twelve provinces 
were formed, the last three being the three 
larger islands, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily, 
each province under a praeses or a consularis, 
and so arranged that of the Augustan regions 
1 to 7 were, together with the three islands, 
under the Vicarius Urbis ; regions 8 to 11, 
together with Rhaetia and Alpes Cottiae, were 
under the Vicarius Italiae. — The leading fea- 
tures of the physical geography of Italy may 
be sketched as follows. The peninsula is 
formed by the chain of the Apennines breaking 
off from the Western Alps and taking a direc- 
tion, first, mainly E., till it nears the Adriatic, 
and then mainly S. and SB. The first direction, 
extending across from Genoa almost to the 
Adriatic coast at Sena Galliea, formed a natural 
boundary between Gallia Cisalpina and the 
lands to the south. From that point the 
Apennines in their southward course form the 
backbone of Italy, but the range is at first 
much nearer to the Eastern side ; and about 
half way down they broaden out into a moun- 
tainous district some 50 miles across, which 
formed the old settlements of the Sabellian 
tribes mentioned above. Some distance S. of 
this the great mass of Mte Matese, extending 
westwards, forms the hill country of Samnium ; 
and from thai point the chain, after throwing 
out a spur to the eastwards which terminates in 
M. Garganus, bends more and more to the 
western coast and runs down to the toe of Italy 
through Bruttium. It will at once be seen, as 
a result of this conformation, that in Central 
Italy the fertile and populous plains (Etruria, 
Latium, and Campania) lie entirely on the 
western side ; while in the southern, but much 
smaller, portion they are almost entirely on the 
E. side (Apulia and most of Lucania). For the 
same reason the rivers on the Adriatic coast 
are short and unimportant torrents running 
straight down from the mountains, while those 
on the W. side have a winding and fertilising 
course over a large extent of country. More- 
over, the action of these rivers, combined with 
the volcanic activity on that side at an early 
period, has produced a number of bays and 
excellent harbours, in strong contrast to the 
Adriatic coast-line, and affording an additional 
reason for the prosperity of the western states. 
The historical result cannot be better described 
than in the words of the great historian of 
Rome : — ' While the Grecian peninsula turns 
towards the east, the Italian turns towards the 
west. As the coasts of Epirus and Acarnania 
had but a subordinate importance in the case 
of Hellas, so had the Apulian and Messapian 
coasts in that of Italy ; and, while the regions 
on which the historical development of Greece 
has been mainly dependent — Attica and Ma- 
cedonia — look to the east, Etruria, Latium, and 
Campania look to the west. In this way the two 
peninsulas, such close neighbours and almost 
sisters, stand, as it were, averted from each other.' 
Had it not been that Rome, owing to this cause, 
directed her first efforts westwards to Spain, 
and gathered strength there before she met the 
Macedonian power in Alexander's later succes- 
sors, the history of the world might have been 
different ; and the same cause at a later time 
tended to the complete separation between the 



eastern and western empires. Two other points 
may be noticed in which the differences in 
geography of Italy and Greece produce corre- 
sponding differences in their history — (1) that 
the Italian coast is, on the whole, even on the 
western side, very much less broken up by 
inlets of sea than the Grecian, and has few 
islands, and therefore her people were not so 
naturally a sea-going people, and her colonies 
were rather military stations than true colonies ; 
(2) that the great backbone of the Apennines 
makes for the most part large divisions : Italy 
is not, like Greece, cut up into an infinite num- 
ber of small valleys, and therefore had not the 
immense number of small states, each jealously 
preserving its own independence, and more 
easily protected from its neighbours. — More 
details respecting the physical features of the 
different parts of Italy are given in the articles 
on the provinces into which it is divided. 

Italica. 1. (Santiponce), a municipium in 
Hispania Baetica, on the W. bank of the Baetis, 
NW. of Hispalis, was founded by Scipio Afri- 
canus in the second Punic war, who settled 
here some of his veterans. It was the birth- 
place of the emperors Trajan and Hadrian 
(Strab. p. 141 ; Ptol. ii. 4, 13).— 2. The name 
given to Corfinium by the Italian Socii during 
their war with Rome. [Coefinium.] 

Italicus, Silius. [Silius.] 

Italus, a mythical king who was said to have 
reigned over Sicels in the south of Italy (Thuc. 
vi. 2). Servius (who gives a number of ety- 
mologies for Italia) speaks of him as king of 
Sicily (ad Aen. i. 533). He reigned over the 
land to which he gave his name, between the 
gulfs Scyllacinus and Napetinus, and turned 
his people from herdsmen into agriculturists. 
(Antioch. Syr. ap. Dionys. i. 12, 35,73; Arist. 
Pol. iv. 10, 3 = p. 1329.) This probably points to 
the adoption of vine-cultivation, which caused 
the Greeks to call his land sometimes Oenotria. 
His sons were Sicelus and Auson, and his wife 
was Leucania. (Dionys. i. 22 ; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 
702 ; Plut. Bom. 2.) There seems to be truth 
in the connexion of races and countries to 
which these traditions point. [See Italia and 
Sicilta.] 

Harms ("lravos), a town on the E. coast of 
Crete, near a promontory of the same name, 
founded by the Phoenicians (Ptol. iii. 17, 4). 

Ithaca | ldtxKri : l8aK'r)<rios : Thialci), a small 
island in the Ionian Sea, celebrated as the birth- 
place of Odysseus, lies off the coast of Epirus, 
and is separated from Cephalonia by a channel 
about three or four miles wide. The island is 
about twelve miles long, and four in its greatest 
breadth. It is divided into two parts, which 
are connected by a narrow isthmus, not more 
than half a mile across. In each of these parts 
there is a mountain-ridge of considerable height : 
the one in the N. called Neritum (Niipirop, now 
Aiioi), and the one in the S. Ne'ium (N-r/ioj/, now 
Haghios Stephanos). The city of Ithaca, the 
residence of Odysseus, is considered by many to 
have been situated on a precipitous, conical 
hill, now called Aeto, or ' eagle's cliff,' occupy- 
ing the whole breadth of the isthmus mentioned 
above. The acropolis, or castle of Odysseus, 
crowned the bleak summit of the mountain. 
Hence Cicero (de Orat. i. 44) describes it, in 
asperrimis saxulis tanquam nidulus affixa. 
It is at the foot of Mt. Neium, and is hence 
described by Telemachus as ' Under-Nei'um ' 
('Wa.K7]s 'Twovrjiov, Od. iii. 81). Ancient, or 
Cyclopean, walls are in many places trace- 
able. Others think that the above site is too 



ITHOME 

far from the sea, and that a small place still 
called Polis marks the true site. This is near 
Stavros on the N W. of the island ; it has an 
available harbour near, and there is the small 
island Daskalio about six miles from Polis 
which would answer to the island Asteris, where 
the suitors lay in wait for Telemachus between 
Ithaca and Cephallenia (0(7. iv. 845). There 
seems no reason to doubt that the writer of the 
Odyssey had knowledge of the local features of 
the island, and inlets suiting the description 
of the harbour of Phorcys are pointed out both 
in the bay of Vathy and that of Dexia : there 
is a stalactite cave which claims to be the grotto 
of the nymphs, equidistant from both these 
bays (Od. xiii. 96). 

Ithome ('IBwiulti : '16a/j.r)Trts,'l6u)ixaios). 1. A 
strong fortress in Messenia, situated on. a 
mountain of the same name, 2G30 feet high, 
which afterwards formed the citadel of the town 
of Messene. On the summit of the mountain 
stood the ancient temple of Zeus, who was 
hence surnamed Ithometas ('I0o/ir)T7js, Dor. 
'Idofidras). Ithome was taken by the Spartans, 
b.c. 723, at the end of the last Messenian war, 
after an heroic defence by Aristodemus, and 
again in 455, at the end of the third Messenian 
war. There are remains of ancient walls which 



ITY3 



455 



Iton. [Itoxia.] 

Itonia. ItOllIas, or Itonis ('lruy'ia. 'Irajpias, 
or 'Iroivis), a surname of Athene, derived from 
the town of Iton, in the S. of Phthiotis in Thes- 
saly. The goddess there had a celebrated sanc- 
tuary and festivals, and hence the battle-cry of 
the Thessalians was 'ABrjva 'Waii/la (Paus. x. 1, 
10 ; Strab. pp. 411, 435). She had also a temple 
between Pherae and Larissa (Paus. i. 13, 2). 
From Iton her worship spread into Boeotia and 
the country about Lake Copais, where the Pam- 
boeotia was celebrated, in the neighbourhood of 
a temple and grove of Athene, not far from 
Coronea (Paus. iii. 9, 13, ix. 34, 1). It is from 
this place that she is called by Catullus 
'incola Itoni ' (lxiv. 228; cf. Stat. Theb. ii. 
721). 

Itucci {'Itvkkt], App.), a town in Hispania 
Baetica, in the district of Hispalis, and a Roman 
colony called Virtus Julia iPlin. iii. 25). 

Ituna I Sol/way Frith), an aestuary in Britain, 
between England and Scotland. 

Ituraea, Ityraea Clrovpaia : 'iTovpaioi, Itu- 
raei, Ityraei : El-Teidur), a district on the NE. 
borders of Palestine, bounded on the N. by the 
plain of Damascus, on theAV. by the mountain- 
chain (Jebel-Heish) which forms theE. margin 
of the valley of the Jordan, on the SW. and S. 




Stadium ot Mcsftcnc. 



may belong to the fortress built in the third 
Messenian war. (Thuc. i. 103; Paus. iii. 11, 8 ; 
iv. 9, 1 ; Strab. p. 3111.1 — 2. A mountain fortress 
in Pelasgiotis, in Tlieasaly, near Metropolis, 
also called Thome (II. ii. 729 ; Strab. p. 437). 

ItluB Portus, ahurbourof the Uorini, on the 
N. coast of Gaul, from which Caesar set sail for 
Britain. The position of this harbour has been 
much disputed. It used to be identified with 
Gesoriacum, or Boulogne, but is now generally 
admitted to be the harbour of Wissant, about 
twelve miles W. of Calais, sheltered from the 
SW. gales by Itium Pr. (Cape Grisnez). The 
point in Britain to which the passage from ItiUB 
Portus led is more doubtful. The old idea 
that it was Deal has been abandoned as impos- 
sible since the set of the tides has been better 
understood. The most probable view is that 
the landing was at Homnry, but Pevemtry, 
which some prefer, is not impossible. (Cues. 
B. G. iv. 21, v. 2 ; Strab. p. 1U9.) 



by Gaulanitis, and on the E. by Auranitis and 
Trachonitis. It occupied a part of the elevated 
plain into which Mt. Hermon sinks down on 
the SE., and was inhabited by an Arabian 
people of warlike and predatory habits. I'om- 
pey reduced them to order, and many of 
their warriors entered the Roman army, in 
which they became celebrated as archers (verg. 
Georg. ii. 448 ; Lucan, vii. 280, 514). They 
were not, however, reduced to complete subjec- 
tion to Rome until after the civil wars. Augus- 
tus gave Ituraea, which had been hitherto ruled 
by ltfl native princes, to the family of Herod. 
It wus governed by Herod Philip us tetrureli, 
and at bis death, A.n. 34, it was united to the 
Human province of Syria (Jos. Ant. xviii. 4, 15), 
from which it was again separated, and assigned 
to Soaenius, the prince of Kinesu. In v. I). 50, it 
was finally reunited by Claudius to the Roman 
province of Syria (Tac. Ann. xii. 28). 
Itys. [Tkueus.J 



456 



IULIS 



JANUS 

Ixionides, i.e. Pirithous, the son of Ixion. — 
The Centaurs are also called Ixionidae. 

IxiUS Cl£«>s), a surname of Apollo, derived 
from a district of the island of Rhodes which 
was called Ixiae or Ixia (Steph. Byz. s.v.). 

lynx Clu7£), daughter of Peitho and Pan, or 
of Echo. She endeavoured to charm Zeus, or 
to make him fall in love with Io ; but she was 
metamorphosed by Hera into the bird called 
lynx. (Tzetz. ad Lyc. 310 ; Ant. Lib. 9 ; 
Schol. ad Pind. Pyth. iv. 214.) This bird was 
used as a love-charm, being tied to a wheel and 
made to revolve. It is probable that the charm 
(which was known to Pindar) is older than the 
story of lynx (Pind. Pyth. iv. 214, Nem. iv. 
35 ; Theocr. ii. 17 ; Xen. Mem. iii. 11, 17), and 
the story is merely a late explanation. 



Jaccetani, a people inHispaniaTarraconensis 
between the Pyrenees and the Iberus, in the 
NE. corner of Spain, in whose country the wars 
between Sertorius and Pompey, and between 
Caesar and Petreius took place (Caes. J3. C. i. 
60 ; Strab. p. 161 ; Ptol. ii. 6, 72). 

Jana, apparently an old Latin equivalent of 
Diana (Varro, B. B. i. 37, 3 ; Macrob. i. 9, 8), 
though it is also possible that she may 
originally have been the feminine coun- 
terpart (according to a common custom 
of imagining pairs of divinities) to Janus 
(who had nothing to do with Diana), and 
was afterwards identified with that god- 
dess. 

Janiculum. [Roma.] 
Janus, an ancient Latin deity, and 
apparently at one period the chief deity. 
Roman writers lay special stress upon 
the antiquity of his worship (Varro, ap. 
August. Civ. D. iv. 23; Juv. vi. 393, 
' antiquissime divum ' ; cf. Herodian, i. 
16; Procop. B. G. i. 25). Janus was the 
god of all beginnings both in public and 
in private life : of the birth of man and 
of the opening of the year, so that he 
Sisyphus, Ixion. and Tantalus. (Bartoli, Sepolc. Ant. tav. 56.) presided over what was the first month 

of the year in later, and perhaps also 
was fearfully punished for his impious ingrati- [ in the earliest, times [see below] ; he was the 
tude. His hands and feet were chained by I god, too, of the beginnings of enterprises alike 
Hermes to a wheel, which is said to have rolled \ of trade and of warfare, in which he secured 
perpetually in the air (which is the older ver- a safe return of the outgoing host. On what 
sion) or m the lower world. He is further said principle all these functions belonged to him 



Iulis ('lovAls : 'IouAnjTrjs, 'IovXkvs), chief 
town in Ceos ; birthplace of Simonides. [Ceos.] 

lulus, son of Aeneas, usually called Asca- 
nius (Verg. Aen. iv. 274; Ov. Her. vii. 75, 
137 ; Sil. It. viii. 71), and founder of the Julian 
family (Verg. Aen. 1, 288, vi. 789 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 
39) : but later traditions separated the two 
names, and related that lulus was son of 
Ascanius, and was deprived of his inheritance 
by his half-uncle Silvius (Dionys. i. 70, 4 ; 
Aeneas, Ascanius, Silvius). 

Ixion ('IfiW) (who is not mentioned in Homer 
or Hesiod), was the son of Phlegyas, or of 
Antion and Perimela, or of Pasion, or of Ares. 
According to the common tradition, his mother 
was Dia, a daughter of Dei'oneus. He was king 
of the Lapithae or Phlegyes, and the father of 
Pirithous. When Dei'oneus demanded of Ixion 
the bridal gifts he had promised, Ixion treacher- 
ously invited him to a banquet, and then con- 
trived to make him fall into a pit filled with 
fire. As no one purified Ixion of this treacherous 
murder, Zeus took pity upon him, purified him, 
carried him to heaven, and caused him to sit 
down at his table. But Ixion was ungrateful to 
the father of the gods, and attempted to win the 
love of Hera. Zeus thereupon fashioned a cloud 
in the likeness of Hera, and by it Ixion became 
the father of a Centaur. [Centauei.] Ixion 




to have been scourged, and compelled to ex 
claim, 'Benefactors should be honoured.' 
(Pind. Pyth. ii. 21-89; Aesch. Bum. 440; 
Soph. Phil. 679 ; Ap. Rh. iii. 62 ; Tzetz. Chit, 
ix. 273; Diod. iv. 69; Schol. ad Eur. Phoen. 
1185 ; Lucian, Dial. Deor. 6 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 
484, Aen. vi. 601; Ov. Met. iv. 460.) Some 



much disputed question. The theory till 
recently most in favour was that his name was 
connected with dies, that he was the sun-god, 
as Jana = Diana was the moon-goddess. The 
reasons for this on which Preller particularly 
relies were (1) the supposed etymology of Ja- 
nus and Jana from dies ; (2) the custom of 



modem writers explain Ixion as symbolising placing his shrine east and west; (3) that if 
the whirlwind; others (which is the most j Janus is not the sun-god the Latins had none, 
general view), as the sun eternally moving with 1 To the first it may be replied that there is abso- 
its fiery orb. It may be questioned whether it ! lutely no connexion between the functions of 
is not a myth borrowed from a ritual known to Diana and Janus or their ritual, and that Diana 
have been practised by people of central Europe | has traditionally a later origin at Rome, of the 
as a sun-charm. It consisted in carrying a time of Servius Tullius, whereas Janus stands 
blazing wheel brandished or made to revolve in out as pre-eminent in antiquity ; to the second, 
the air, about the fields which needed sunshine. I that the orientation of the shrine is much more 
That a figure, whether real or an imitation, was I likely to be connected with omens, if a reason is 
sometimes bound on it just as the Ziryf was j to be assigned ; and to the third that there is 
bound on the wheel in Theocr. Id. 2, is likely some reason to believe that to the early Latins 
enough. If so, the myth grew up to explain Mars held that relation to the sun which was 
the custom, and was borrowed from the more afterwards held by Apollo. Others have ex- 
northern tribes by the Greeks, who fitted it into I plained him as the god of the vault of heaven, 
their own mythology. I and have sought an Etruscan origin connecting 



JANUS 



457 



him with the Etruscan arch ; but the evidence" 1 
is against Janus being originally an Etruscan 
deity, and his connexion with the arch (which is 
not really like the vault of heaven), if he is con- 
nected, probably comes from the gateway. Janus 
has probably a much simpler origin. He belongs 
to the most primitive religion of the household, 
and just as Vesta was the old goddess of the 
hearth and its fire, so Janus was the god of the 
doorway (janua), who guarded and watched all 
that went out and came in (therefore looking both 
•ways) ; who prospered the outgoings and kept off 
•evil influence (as in the superstitions of many 
nations) from crossing the threshold ; and who 
sanctioned the opening and shutting of the 
<loor (Ov. Fast. i. 125, 137 ; Cic. K.D. ii. 27, 67 ; 
Macrob. i. 9, 7). Hence his name of Patulcius 
(the Opener) and Clusius (the Closer). It was 
doubtless a later development of this idea which 
made him the door-keeper of heaven (Ov. Fast. 
i. 117, 125), and again the god who granted 
birth, or the opening of the womb, hence called 
' Consivius,' and in the Salian hymn ' duonus 
cerus,' that is 'the good creator.' It was natural 
that, as the god of the goings out and the 
comings in, he should be the patron whose aid 
was sought in all beginnings and undertakings, 
and should be the 'matutinus pater' who 
started the daily work (Hor. Sat. ii. 0. 20). The 
prayer versified by Serenus (a poet of Hadrian's 
time) probably represents an ancient prayer, 
and is worth quoting as illustrating this passage 
of Horace, and as showing the real conception 
■of Janus. 

Jane pater, Jane tuens, dive biceps, biformis, 
catc rerum sator principium deonitn, 
Stridula cui limina, cui cardines tumult us. 
Cui rescrata mugiuiit aurea claastra mundi, 
Tibi vetus ara caluit aborigineo sacello. 

As the houses became grouped into a fortified 
town, so the public functions of Janus ensued. 
He was the god of the city gates as of the 
house door, and there is good reason for the 
belief that Portumnus (Verg. Aen. v. 241), who 
was similarly represented with keys, was merely 
Janus- Portumnus, the Janus who presided over 
the gates of the city (portae) and the havens or 
wharfs of the Tiber (jwrtus), for which reason 
a ship appears on the Janus coins. For Janus 
presided over public as well as private out- 
goings in commerce; and the meaning of his < 
being special god of the Janiculuin (Verg. Aen. 
viii. 819; Ov. Fast. i. 245) is that it was the 
place of egress and ingress for trade with 
Etruria by land, and also the fortress guarding 
the ancient wharfs of the Tiber (cf. Liv. i. 88 ; 
Dionys. iii. 45); hence in some myths Tiberinus 
was son of Janus. Another of his public func- 
tions, following from his being the god of begin- 
nings, was that of presiding over the year (Ov. 
Fast. i. 48; Mart. viii. 2, 1). His own month, 
January, was the first month of the year in the 
later Calendar, and it is possible that there may 
be truth in Ovid's assertion, that in the very 
oldest (i.e. before the Decemvirs) it was also the 
first \Dict. of Ant. art. Calendarium]. He 
also presided over the Calends of each mouth, 
whence he is called Junonins, because Juno as 
moon-goddess had to do with the months 
(Macrob. i. 9, l(i). A remarkable confirmation 
of the view that Janus and Vesta were the two 
most ancient deities of the house may be found 
in the fact that these relations reappear in the 
public ritual. The Hex Sacrorum [Diet, of i 
Ant. h.v.], who represented the oldest Roman 
religion, offered sacrifices at the Calends to 
Janus on the Capitol, while his wife sacrificed ' 



in the Eegia, which represented the old state- 
hearth of the king's or chief's house : on Jan. 9 
he offered a ram to Janus in the Eegia. The 
special cake called janual or it6-na.vov was 
offered on the 1st of January at his shrines gene- 
rally (Ov. Fast. i. 127 ; Lyd. Mens. iv. 2 ; Fest. 
p. 310). The public function of Janus which 




Head of Janus. (From a uoin [<w] of the 4th cent. E.c.) 

has been more celebrated than any other is his 
guardianship of the state in time of war, when 
the gates of his most ancient sanctuary at the 
NE. end of the Forum iclosed in time of peace) 
were left open. This sanctuary, as old as Numa's 
reign (Varro, L.L. v. 165 ; Liv. i. 19), was a square 
building open at both ends with a. flat roof : in 




Temple of Janus with closed doors. (From a coin of Nero 
in the British Museum.) 

fact, rather a gate-house than a temple. The 
tradition which attempted to account for the 
custom of opening it in time of war related that 
in the Sabine war a stream of water gushed 
forth from this sanctuary and swept buck the 
invaders (Ov. Fast. i. 209, Met. xiv. 786; 
Macrob. i. 9, 17). It has been suggested that 
the custom meant that the god, who in peace 
remained in his shrine, in war went out to 
battle (cf. Verg. Aen. i. 294; Ov. Fast. i. 2M ; 
Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 255/ ; but Janus was not the god 
who went out to battle, and it is a fur move 
likely explanation that, just as the old custom 
was not to close the door of the private house 
when the members of the family were out, so it 
was regarded as a bad omen to close what repre- 
sented the gates of the state against the citizens 
who had gone out to war. It remained open to 
show that the god wus ready to welcome them 
returning home safe and victorious. It was 
probably actually the Latin custom in old times 
that the army marched out through the eastern 
gate of Janus (which at Rome led from the 
Forum; and at the conclusion of the war quitted 
the gate-house of Janus by the western gate 
(Lyd. Mens. iv. 2 ; of. Verg. Am. vii. (ill). The 
legend of the wutt-r gushing forth probably 
arose from the fu< t that Janus was the god who 
opened the springs of water, hence in mythology 
made the husband of Juturna the water-nymph 



458 



JASON 



and father of Fontus (Arnob. hi. 29). The 
building, in which the double statue of the god 
was placed, facing both ways, was spoken of as 
Janus, or often as Janus Quirinus (Suet. Aug. 
22), where Quirinus seems to be an adjective 
and. to give the meaning as ' Janus the god of 
the Roman citizens ' : possibly it was first used 
when the peoples on the Quirinal and the Pala- 
tine united, to show that the Janus of the 
latter people belonged also to the former : in 
Hor. Oct. iv. 15, 9 the genitive ' Quirini ' is simi- 
larly used, though some alter it to ' Quirinum ' ; 
other descriptions of the building are ' porta 
Janualis,' ' geminae portae belli,' irvh-q ivvaMos, 
irv\ri iroAcfjLOv (Plut. Num. 20). There were 
besides many arches of Janus (Ov. Fast. i. 257 ; 
Liv. xli. 27) : the Janus Medius (Cic. Off. ii. 25, 
90 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 18) was probably an arch over 
the Vicus Tuscus, and therefore appropriately 
connected with business and trade, with books 
and money-changing (Hor. Ep. i. 20, 1), and there 
was at least one other in the Forum (cf. Hor. 
Ep. i. 1, 54). A temple of Janus stood also near 
the theatre of Marcellus, dedicated by C. 
Duilius (Tac. Ann. ii. 49). The Janus with 
four gates and a four-headed figure of the god 
(Janus Quadrifrons), said to be derived from 
Falerii (Serv. ad Verg. Aen. vii. 607), stood in 
the Forum Transitorium, which was connected 
with three other fora. In historical times 
Janus no longer held the supremacy among 
Roman deities, though he was still in old forms 
of prayer addressed first (Cic. N. D. ii. 27, 67). 
This was probably owing to the acceptance (as 
representing the great Roman deities) of the 
Greek gods, with whom Janus had no point of 
agreement. In art Janus is represented by two 
bearded faces (sometimes four), and, in full- 
length figures, holding a key and a staff. 

Jason ('Idffcw). 1. The celebrated leader of 
the Argonauts, was a son of Aeson and Poly- 
mede or Alcimede, and belonged to the family 
of the Aeolidae, at Iolcus in Thessaly. Cre- 
theus, who had founded Iolcus, was succeeded 
by his son Aeson ; but the latter was deprived 
of the kingdom by his half-brother Pelias, who 
tried to kill the infant Jason. (In Oil. xi. 256 
Pelias is rightful Icing of Iolcus.) Jason was 
saved by his friends, and intrusted to the care 
of the 'centaur Chiron (Hes. Th. 995 ; Pind. 
Fyth. iv. 70-262). Pelias was now warned by 
an oracle to be on his guard against the one- 
sandaled man. When Jason had grown up, he 
came to claim the throne. As he entered the 
market-place, Pelias, perceiving he had only one 
sandal, asked him who he was ; whereupon Jason 
declared his name, and demanded the kingdom 
(Phercyd. Fr. 60). Pelias consented to sur- 
render it to him, but persuaded him to remove 
the curse which rested on the family of the 
Aeolidae, by fetching the golden fleece and 
soothing the spirit of Phrixus (Phercyd. Fr. 60). 
Another tradition related that when Pelias was 
sacrificing to Poseidon Jason came with the 
other citizens, but, on his journey to Iolcus, he 
had lost one of his sandals in crossing the river 
Anaurus. Pelias, remembering the oracle about 
the one-sandaled man, asked Jason what he 
would do if he were told by an oracle that he 
would be killed by one of his subjects? Jason, 
on the suggestion of Hera, answered, that he 
would send him to fetch the golden fleece. 
Pelias accordingly ordered Jason to fetch the 
golden fleece, which was in the possession of 
king Aeetes in Colchis, and was guarded by a 
dragon. Jason set sail in the ship Argo, 
accompanied by the chief heroes of Greece. 



He obtained the fleece with the assistance of 
Medea, whom he made his wife, and with whom 
he returned to Iolcus. [For a fuller account 
see Abgonautae.] On his arrival at Iolcus, 
Jason, according to one account, found his aged 
father still alive, and succeeded him in the 
kingdom (Hes. Th. 997 ; Ov. Met. vii. 162), but 
according to the more common tradition (which 
was probably late, and accounted for the remo- 
val of Jason and Medea to Corinth), Aeson had 
been slain by Pelias, during the absence of 
Jason, who accordingly called upon Medea to 
take vengeance on Pelias. Medea thereupon 
persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut their 
father to pieces and boil him, in order to 
restore him to youth and vigour, as she had 
before changed a ram into a lamb, by boiling 




Medea boiling a ram, in order to persuade the daughters 
of Pelias to put him to death. (From a vase in the 
British Museum.) 

the body in a cauldron. (Diod. iv. 50 ; Apollod. 
i. 9, 27.) But Pelias was never restored to life, 
and his son Acastus expelled Jason and Medea 
from Iolcus. They then went to Corinth, where 
Jason deserted Medea, in order to marry 
Glauce or Creusa, daughter of Creon, the king 
of the country. Medea in revenge sent Glauce 
a poisoned garment, which burnt her to death 
when she put it on. Creon likewise perished in 
the flames. Medea also killed her two chil- 
dren, Mermerus and Pheres, and then fled to 
Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. 
(Bur. Medea; Paus. ii. 3, 11; Diod. iv. 54.) 
Later writers represent Jason as becoming in 
the end reconciled to Medea, returning with 
her to Colchis, and there restoring Aeetes to 
his kingdom, of which he had been deprived 
(Tac. Ann. vi. 34 ; Just. xlii. 2). The death of 
Jason is related in different ways. According to 
some, he made away with himself from grief 
(Diod. iv. 55) ; according to others, he was 
crushed by the poop of the ship Argo, which fell 
upon him as he was lying near it. (Staphyl. Fr. 
5 ; Schol. on the Argument of Eur. Med.)— 2. Ty- 
rant of Pherae and Tagus (or generalissimo) of 
Thessaly (Diet, of Antiq. art. Tagus), was prob- 
ably the son of Lycophron, who established a 
tyranny on the ruins of aristocracy at Pherae. 



JAVOLEXUS 



JOEDAXES 



459 



He succeeded his father as tyrant of Pherae 
soon after B.C. 395, and in a few years extended 
his power over almost the whole of Thessaly. 
Pharsalus was the only city in Thessaly which 
maintained its independence, under the govern- 
ment of Polydamas ; but even this place sub- 
mitted to him in 375. In the following year 
(374) he was elected Tagus of Thessaly. His 
power was strengthened by the weakness of the 
other Greek states, and by the exhausting con- I 
test in which Thebes and Sparta were engaged. 
He had every prospect of becoming master of 
Greece, when, at the height of his power, he 
was assassinated, 370. Jason had all the quali- 
fications of a great general and diplomatist : he i 
was active, prudent, capable of enduring much 
fatigue, and skilful in concealing his own 
designs and penetrating those of his enemies. 
As a strong and capable ruler he won the admi- 
ration and friendship of Isocrates (Xen. Hell. vi. 
1 ; Diod. xv. 57 ; Paus. vi. 17 ; Isocr. Epist. ad \ 
Jas. fil.)- — 3. Of Argos, a historian, under Ha- 
drian, wrote a work on Greece in four books. 

Javolenus Priscus, an eminent Roman jurist, 
was born about the commencement of the reign 
of Vespasian (aj>. 79), and was one of the 
council of Antoninus Pius (Vit. Ant. 12; Plin. 
Ep. vi. 15). He was a pupil of Caelius Sabinus, 
and a leader of the Sabiuian or Cassian school. 
[Capito.] 

Jaxartes ClofapTrjj : Syr, Syderia, or Sy- 
houri), a great river of Central Asia, about 
which the ancient accounts are very different 
and confused. It rises in the Comedi Montes 
(Moussour), and flows XW. into the Sea of 
Aral : the ancients supposed it to fall into the 
N. side of the Caspian, not distinguishing be- 
tween the two seas. It divided Sogdiana from 
Scythia. On its banks dwelt a Scythian tribe 
called Jaxartae. (Ptol. vi. 12, 1 ; Strab. pp. 
507-517.) 

Jericho or Hierichus <'upix<*, 'lepixoOs : 
Er-Iiiha ? Ru.), a city of the Canaanites, in a 
plain on the W. side of the Jordan near its 
mouth, was destroyed by Joshua, rebuilt in the 
time of the Judges, and formed an important 
frontier fortress of Judaea. Under Gabinius, 
ii.C. 57, Jericho was one of the five chief centres 
of administration for Judaea (Jos. Ant. xiv. 
5, 4). It was again destroyed, by Titus, rebuilt 
under Hadrian, and finally destroyed during 
the crusades. 

Jerome. [Hieronvmus.] ■ 

Jerusalem or Hieiosolyma ('npouo-aK-iifi, 
'Upoir6\vfjia : 'ltpo<To\up.'iTiis : Jerusalem), the 
capital of Palestine. It was the chief city of 
the Jebusites till B.C. 1050, when David took 
the city, and made it his capital. It was de- 
stroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, 
B.C. 588. In B.C. 580, the Jewish exiles, having 
been permitted by Cyrus to return, rebuilt the 
city and temple. In B.C. 332, Jerusalem quietly 
submitted to Alexander (Jos. Ant. xi. H). 
During the wars which followed his death, the 
city was taken by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus 
(b.c. 820), and remained subject to the Greek 
kings of Egypt till t lie conquest of Palestine 
by Antiochus III. the Great, king of Syria, 
B.C. 198. Up to this time the Jews had been 
allowed freedom of their religion and local 
government; but the oppression of Antiochus 
IV. Epiphanes provoked a rebellion, which w.ls 
at first put down when Antiochus took Jeru- 
salem (b.c. 170); but in a new revolt under the 
Maccabees, the city was retaken in B.C. 103. 
[Maccabaei.] In B.C. 133, Jerusalem was taken 
by Antiochus VII. Sidetcs, and its fortifications 



dismantled, but its government was left in the 
hands of the Maccabee John Hyvcanus, whose 
son, Aristobulus, assumed the title of king of 
Judaea, and Jerusalem continued to be the 
capital of the kingdom till b.c. 03, when it was 
taken by Pompey. (Strab. pp. 759-702 ; Tac. 
Hist. v. 9 ; Jos. Ant. xv. 11.) For the events 
which followed, see Hyrcanus, Hebodes, and 
Palaestixa. In a.d. 70, the rebellion of the 
Jews against the Romans was put down, and 
Jerusalem was taken by Titus, after a siege of 
several months, and razed to the ground I Jos. 
B. J. vii. 1, 2 ; Tac. Hist. v. 9-14). In conse- 
quence of a new revolt of the Jews, the emperor 
Hadrian resolved to destroy all vestiges of their 
national and religious peculiarities ; and, as 
one means to this end, he established a new 
Roman colony, on the ground where Jerusalem 
had stood, by the name of Aelia Capitolina, 
and built a temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on 
the site of the Jewish temple, a.d. 135 (Dio 
Cass. lxix. 12; Euseb. H. E. iv. 6). [For a 
fuller account see Diet, of the Bible.] 

Jocaste i 'loKourTH]), called Epicaste in Homer, 
daughter of ilenoeceus, and wife of the Theban 
king Laius, by whom she became the mother 
of Oedipus. She afterwards married Oedipus, 
not knowing that he was her son ; and when 
she discovered the crime she had unwittingly 
committed, she put an end to her life. For 
details see Oedipus. 

Joppe, Joppa Cluwirri: O. T. Japho: Jaffa), 
a very ancient maritime city of Palestine, and, 
before the building of Caesarea, the only sea- 
port of the whole country, and therefore called 
by Strabo the port of Jerusalem, lay just S. of 
the boundary between Judaea and Samaria 
(Strab. p. 759). 

Jordanes I'lopSai/Tjr. '\uptiavos: Jordan, Esch 
Scheria), has its source at the S. foot of M. 
Hermon (the S.most part of Anti-Libanusl, near 
Paneas (aft. Caesarea Philippi), whence it flows 
S. into the little lake Semechonitis, and thence 
into the Sea of Galilee (Lake of Tiberias), and 
thence by a winding course in a narrow valley, 
depressed below the level of the surrounding 
country, into the lake Asphaltites {Dead Sea). 

Jordanes, or Jornandes, a historian in the 
time of Justinian, the 0th century of our era. 
He was a Goth by birth, and was secretary to 
the king of the Alani. The idea that he was a 
bishop probably arose from his being confused 
with a bishop of that name (peril, bishop of 
Ravenna) to whom a certain Honorius Seholas- 
ticus wrote a poem. The title Episcopus is 
not given to the historian in the best MSS., 
nor is there any ground for identifying him 
with Jordanes bishop of Croton about 587 A.D. 
As regards the name of the historian, he appears 
as Jordanes in the best, as Jornandes only in 
inferior MSS. He wrote two historical works 
in Latin. 1. De Gctarum (Gotliorii in) Origins 
et llebin Gratis (in short, Gi-tira), containing 
the history of the ( loths, from the earliest times 
down to their subjugation by Belisarius in 541. 
The work is abridged from the lost history of 
the (loth- by ('iissiniloms, to which Jordanes 
added various particulars ; but it is written in 
semi-barbarous Latin, is compiled without 
judgment, and is characterised by partiality to 
the Goths, but gives valuable details. 2. De 
Siunma Temporttin vrl Oriyine Actibnsqne 
, Gentis liomanornm (in short, Itomana), a short 
compendium of history from the creation down 
to the victory obtained by Narses, in 552, over 
king Theodotus. It is valuable for accounts 
of the barbarous nations of the North, and the 



460 JOSEPHUS 

countries which they inhabited. Both works j 

edited by Th. Mommsen, Berl. 1882. 

Josephus, Flavius, the Jewish historian, was 
born at Jerusalem, a.d. 37. On his mother's 
side he was descended from the Asmonaean 
princes, while from his father, Matthias, he 
inherited the priestly office. At the age of 26 
he went to Rome to plead the cause of some 
Jewish priests whom Felix, the procurator of 
Judaea, had sent thither as prisoners. Here 
he gained the favour of Poppaea, and not only 
effected the release of his friends, but received 
presents from the empress. On his return to 
Jerusalem he found his countrymen bent on a 
revolt from Rome, from which he tried to dis- 
suade them ; but failing in this, he gave in to 
the popular feeling. He was chosen one of the 
generals of the Jews, and defended Jotapata 
against Vespasian. When the place was taken, 
the life of Josephus was spared by Vespasian, 
whose favour he won by prophesying that the 
•empire would fall to him and Titus in succes- 
sion. Vespasian released him from captivity 
when he was proclaimed emperor, nearly three 
years afterwards (a.d. 70). Josephus was pre- 
sent with Titus at the siege of Jerusalem, and 
afterwards accompanied him to Rome. He 
took the name of Flavius from Vespasian, who 
gave him a house at Rome, where he dwelt till 
hjs death, about 98. His time at Rome appears 
to have been employed mainly in the composi- 
tion of his works. — The works of Josephus are 
written in Greek. They are : — 1. The History 
of the Jewish War (ITep! rod 'lovSa'iKov 7roAe- 
,/xov), in seven books, written in Syro-Chaldaic, 
:and then translated by him into Greek. It 
"begins with the capture of Jerusalem by Antio- 
chus Epiphanes in B.C. 170, runs rapidly over 
the events before Josephus's own time, and 
gives a detailed account of the war with Rome, 
especially valuable as a graphic account by an 
eye-witness. 2. The Jewish Antiquities ('lov- 
Sa'iKr) apxaioXoyia), in twenty books, completed 
about a.d. 93, and addressed to Epaphroditus. 
The title as well as the number of books ma}' 
have been suggested by the 'Pw/j.aiK^i apxaio- 
\oyla of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. It gives 
an account of Jewish History from the creation 
of the world to a.d. 66. In this work Josephus 
seeks to accommodate the Jewish religion to 
heathen tastes and prejudices, but it has value 
for historical reference. 3. His oiun life, in one 
.book. This is an appendage to the Archaeo- 
logia, and is addressed to the same Epaphro- 
ditus. It was not written earlier than a.d. 97, 
since Agrippa II. is mentioned in it as no longer 
living. 4. Against Apion, in two books, also 
addressed to Epaphroditus. It is in answer to 
such as impugned the antiquity of the Jewish 
nation, on the ground of the silence of Greek 
writers respecting it. [Apion.] The treatise 
exhibits extensive acquaintance with Greek 
literature and philosophy. 5. Els WlaicKaPatovs 
J) -Kepi avroKpoiTopos Xoytffjxov, in one book. Its 
genuineness is doubtful. It is a declamatory 
account of the martyrdom of Eleazar (an aged 
priest), and of seven youths and their mother, 
in the persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes. 
Editions by Havercamp, Amst. 1726 ; by 
Bekker, Lips. 1855. 

Jovianus, Flavius Claudius, was elected 
emperor by the soldiers, in June a.d. 363, after 
the death of Julian [Julianus], whom he had 
accompanied in his campaign against the Per- 
sians. In order to effect his retreat in safety, 
Jovian surrendered to the Persians the Roman 
conquests beyond the Tigris, and several for- 



JUGURTHA 

tresses in Mesopotamia. He died suddenly at 
a small town on the frontiers of Bithynia and 
Galatia, February 17th, 364, after a reign of 
little more than seven months. Jovian was a 
Christian ; but he was tolerant. (Amm. Marc, 
xxv. 5-10.) 

Juba ('lJ/3os). 1. King of Numidia, was son 
of Hiempsal, who was re-established on the 
throne by Pompey. On the breaking out of the 
civil war between Caesar and Pompey, he ac- 
tively espoused the cause of the latter ; and, 
accordingly, when Caesar sent Curio into Africa 
(b. c. 49), he supported the Pompeian general 
Attius Varus with a large body of troops. Curio 
was defeated by their united forces, and fell in 
the battle. (Caes. B. C. ii. 23-44 ; Appian, B. C. 
ii. 44-46 ; Lucan, iv. 581.) In 46 Juba fought 
along with Scipio against Caesar himself, and 
was present at the decisive battle of Thapsus. 
Not long after this defeat he put an end to his 
own life. {Bell Afr. 25-94 ; Appian, B. O. ii. 
95-100 ; Suet. Jul. 35.) — 2. King of Mauretania, 
son of the preceding, was a mere child at his 
father's death (46), was carried a prisoner to 
Rome by Caesar, to grace his triumph. He was 
brought up in Italy, and became distinguished 
for learning. After the death of Antony (30), 
Augustus conferred upon Juba his paternal 
kingdom of Numidia, and at the same time 
gave him in marriage Cleopatra, otherwise called 
Selene, the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra 
(Dio Cass. Ii. 15). In 25 he received Mauretania, 
in exchange for Numidia, which was made a 
Roman province. He continued to reign in 
Mauretania till his death, which happened 
about a. d. 19. (Dio Cass. liii. 26, liv. 28 ; Strab. 
p. 828.) He wrote a great number of works in 
almost every branch of literature, especially on 
history ; but only a few fragments survive 
(Athen. pp. 83, 98, 175, 229). He is cited by 
Pliny as an authority on natural history. 

Judaea, Judaei. [Palaestina.] 

Jugurtha ('lovyovpdas or 'loydpdas), king of 
Numidia, was an illegitimate son of Mastanabal, 
and a grandson of Masinissa. He lost his father 
at an early age, but was adopted by his uncle 
Micipsa, who brought him up with his own sons, 
Hiempsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha quickly dis- 
tinguished himself both by his abilities and his 
skill in all bodily exercises, and gained so much 
popularity with the Numidians that he began 
to excite the jealousy of Micipsa. In order to 
remove him to a distance, Micipsa sent him, in 
B. c. 134, to assist Scipio against Numantia. 
Here his courage and ability gained for him the 
favour of Scipio ; and this circumstance deter- 
mined Micipsa to adopt him as a useful sup- 
porter for his sons. Micipsa died in 118, leaving 
the kingdom to Jugurtha and his two sons, 
Hiempsal and Adherbal, in common. J ugurtha 
soon found an opportunity to assassinate Hiem- 
psal at Thirmida, and afterwards defeated Ad- 
herbal in battle. Adherbal fled to Rome to 
invoke the assistance of the senate; but Ju- 
gurtha, by a lavish distribution of bribes, ob- 
tained a decree of the senate that the kingdom 
of Numidia should be equally divided between 
the two competitors ; but the commissioners 
entrusted with the execution of this decree were 
also bribed by Jugurtha, who thus succeeded 
in obtaining the W. division of the kingdom, 
adjacent to Mauretania, by far the larger and 
richer portion of the two (117). But this ad- 
vantage was far from contenting him. Shortly 
afterwards he invaded the territories of Adherbal 
with a large army, and defeated him. Adherbal 
made his escape to the fortress of Cirta, where 



JULIA 



461 



he was blockaded by Jugurtha. The Romans 
commanded Jugurtha to abstain from further 
hostilities ; but he paid no attention to their 
commands, and at length gained possession of 
Cirta, and put Adherbal to death, 112. "War 
was now declared against Jugurtha at Home, 
and the consul, L. Calpurnius Bestia, was sent 
into Africa, 112-111. Jugurtha had recourse to 
his customary arts ; and by means of large 
sums of money given to Bestia and M. Scaurus, 
his principal lieutenant, he purchased from 
them a favourable peace. The conduct of 
Bestia excited the greatest indignation at Rome ; 
and Jugurtha was summoned to the city under 
a safe conduct, the popular party hoping to be 
able to obtain a conviction by means of his 
evidence. The scheme, however, failed ; since 
one of the tribunes who had beeu gained over 
by the friends of Bestia and Scaurus forbade 
the king to give evidence. Soon afterwards 
Jugurtha contrived the assassination of Massiva, 
who claimed the throne of Xuruidia. [Massiva.] 
Jugurtha was ordered to quit Rome, and war 
was renewed ; but the consul, Sp. Postumius 
Albinus, who arrived to conduct it (110), was 
able to effect nothing. When the consul went 
to Rome to hold the comitia, he left his brother 
Aulus in command of the army. Aulus was 
defeated by Jugurtha ; great part of his army 
was cut to pieces, and the rest only escaped a 
similar fate by the ignominy of passing under 
the yoke. This disgrace roused the spirit of 
the Roman people : the treaty concluded by 
Aulus was annulled ; and the consul Q. Caccilius 
Metellus was sent into Africa at the head of a 
new army (109) with Marius as one of his lieu- 
tenants. Metellus was an able general and an 
upright man, whom Jugurtha was unable to 
cope with in the field, or to seduce by bribes, 
and routed the troops of his enemy, though he 
could not secure his person. Metellus was 
succeeded in the command in 106 by Marius; 
but the cause of Jugurtha had meantime been 
espoused by his father-in-law, Bocchus, king of 
Mauretania, who had advanced to his support 
with a large army. The united forces of Ju- 
gurtha and Bocchus were defeated, though not 
without difficulty, by Marius ; and Bocchus 
purchased the forgiveness of the Romans by 
surrendering his son-in-law to Sulla, the quaes- 
tor of Marius (105). Jugurtha remained in 
captivity till the return of Marius to Rome, 
when, after adorning the triumph of his con- 
queror (Jan. 1, 104), he was thrown into the 
prison below the Capitol (Tullianum), which 
lie called ' his bath of ice,' and there left to die 
of cold and hunger. (Sail. Jugurtha ; Liv. Ep. 
lxii.-lxvii. ; Plut. Mar. 7-10, SuU. 3, 6 ; Veil. 
Pat. ii. 11.) 

Julia. 1. Aunt of Caesar the dictator, and 
wife of C. Marius the elder. She died B. c. 68, 
and her nephew pronounced her funeral oration. 
(Plut. Mar. 6; Suet. Jul. 6.)— 2. Mother of M. 
Antonius, the triumvir. In the proscription of 
the triumvirate (48) she saved the life of her 
brother, L. Caesar [Caesar, No. 6]. — 3. Sister 
of Caesar the dictator, and wife of M. Atius 
Balbus, by whom she hud Atia, the mother of 
Augustus [Ati.vJ. — 4. Daughter of Caesar the 
dictator, by Cornelia, and his only child in 
marriage, was married to Cn. Pompey in 59. 
She was a woman of beauty and virtue, and was 
tenderly attached to her husband, although 
twenty-three years older than herself. She 
died in childbed in 54. (Plut. Pump. 48, 53; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 44, 47.) — 5. Daughter of Augustus 
by Boribonia, and his only child.. was born in 39. 



She was educated with great strictness, but 
grew up one of the most profligate, as well as 
one of the most beautiful and brilliant, women 
of her age. She was thrice married : to M. 
Marcellus, her first cousin, in 25 ; after his death 
(23) without issue, to M. Agrippa, by whom she 
had three sons, C. and L. Caesar, and Agrippa 
Postumus, and two daughters, Julia and Agrip- 
pina ; after Agrippa's death, in 12, to Tiberius 
Nero, the future emperor. In B.C. 2 Augustus 
at length became acquainted with the miscon- 
duct of his daughter, whose notorious adulteries 
had been one reason why her husband Tiberius 
had quitted Italv four years before. (Suet. Aug. 
19, 63, 64 ; Veil. Pat. i. 100 ; Dio Cass. lv. 10 ; 
Macrob. i. 11, vi. 5.) She was banished to 
Pandataria, an island off the coast of Campania, 
and at the end of five years was removed to 
Rhegium, but never suffered to quit the bounds 
of the city. Some have thought that she was 
the ' Corinna ' celebrated by Ovid in poems 
written between B. c. 14 and 2 ; but this is not 
very probable. Augustus bequeathed her no 




Julia, daughter of Augustus, ob. a.d. -2l 



legacy, and did not allow her ashes to repose in 
his mausoleum. Tiberius on his accession (a.d. 
14) deprived her of almost all the necessaries of 
life ; and she died in the same year (Suet. Tib. 
50; Tac. Ann. i. 53). — 6. Daughter of the pre- 
ceding, and wife of L. Aemilius Paulus. She 
inherited her mother's licentiousness, and was 
banished by her grandfather, Augustus, to the 
little island Tremerus, on the coast of Apulia, 
a.d. 9, where she lived nearly twenty years. 
She died in 28. It was believed by many that 
an intrigue of Ovid's with this Julia was the 
cause of his banishment, a.d. 9. [Ovidius.] (Tac. 
Ann. iii. 24, iv. 71; Suet. Aug. 64, 101.)— 7. 
Youngest child of Germanicus and Agrippina, 
was born a. d. 18 ; was married to M. Vinicius 
in 33 ; and was banished in 37 by her brother 
Caligula. She was recalled by Claudius, but 
was afterwards put to death at Messalina's in- 
stigation. The charge brought against her was 
adultery, and Seneca, the philosopher, was 
banished to Corsica as the partner of her guilt 
(Dio Cass. lix. 8, 8). — 8. Daughter of Drusus 
and Livia, the sister of Germanicus. She was 
married, a. d. 20, to her first cousin, Nero, son 
of Germanicus and Agrippina ; and after Nero's 
death, to Rubellius Blandus, by whom she had 
a son, Rubellius Plautus. She, too, was put to 
death by Claudius, at the instigation of Messa- 
lina, 59. (Tac. Arm. xiii. 48; Dio Cass. lx. 18.) 
— 9. Daughter of Titus, the son of Vespasian, 
married Flavius Sabinus, a nephew of the em- 
peror Vespasian. (DioCuss. lxvii. 3 ; Suet. Dmn. 
17, 22; Juv. ii. 32. i— 10. Domna Domm , — 
11, Brasilia Dbvbilla |. — 12. Maesa [M au |. 

J iilla Gens, one of the most ancient patrician 
houses at Rome, was of Alban origin, and was 
removed to Rome by Tullus Hostilius upon the 
destruction of Alba Longa. It claimed descent 
from the mythical lulus, the son of Venus and 
Anchises. The most distinguished family in the 



462 



JULIANUS 



JUNCAEIA 



gens is that of Caesae. Under the empire 
there were a great number of persons of the 
name of Julius, the most important of whom 
are spoken of under their surnames. 

Julianus Didius. [Didius.] 

Julianus, Flavius Claudius, whom Christian 
writers surnamed the Apostate, Roman em- 
peror, a.d. 361-363. He was born at Constan- 
tinople, a.d. 331, and was the son of Julius 
Constantius by his second wife, Basilina, and 
the nephew of Constantine the Great. Julian 
and his elder brother, Gallus, were the only- 
members of the imperial family whose lives 
were spared by the sons of Constantine the 
Great, on his death in 337. The two brothers 
were educated with care, and were brought up 
as Christians ; but as they advanced to man- 
hood, they were watched with jealousy and 
suspicion by the emperor Constantius. After 
the execution of Gallus in 354 [Gallus], the 
life of Julian was in great peril ; but he suc- 
ceeded in pacifying the suspicions of the 
•emperor, and was allowed to go to Athens in 
355 to pursue his studies. Here he devoted 
himself with ardour to the study of Greek 
literature and philosophy. Among his fellow- 
students were Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil. 
Julian had already abandoned Christianity in 
his heart and returned to the pagan faith of his 
ancestors; but fear of Constantius prevented 
him from making an open declaration of his 
apostasy. In November, 355, he received from 
Constantius the title of Caesar, and was sent 
into Gaul to oppose the Germans, who had 
crossed the Rhine, and were ravaging the east 
of Gaul. During the next five years (356-360) 
Julian carried on war against the German 
confederacies of the Alemanni and Franks with 
great success, and gained many victories over 
them. His administration was distinguished 
by justice and wisdom ; and he gained the 
goodwill of the provinces intrusted to his c'are. 
His growing popularity awakened the jealousy 
of Constantius, who commanded him to send 
some of his best troops to the East, to serve 
against the Persians. His soldiers refused to 
leave their favourite general, and proclaimed 
him emperor at Paris in 360. After fruitless 
negotiations between Julian and Constantius, 
both parties prepared for war. In 361 Julian 
marched along the valley of the Danube 
towards Constantinople ; but Constantius, who 
had set out from Syria to oppose his rival, died 
on his march in Cilicia, and left Julian the un- 
disputed master of the empire. On the 11th of 
December Julian entered Constantinople. He 
lost- no time in publicly avowing himself a 
pagan, but he proclaimed a policy of religious 
toleration. He did not, however, act with 
absolute impartiality. He preferred pagans as 
his civil and military officers, and forbade the 
Christians to teach rhetoric and grammar in 
the schools. He allowed the Jews to rebuild 
the temple at Jerusalem. In the following year 
(362) Julian went to Syria in order to make 
preparations for the war against the Persians. 
He spent the winter at Antioch, where he made 
the acquaintance of the orator Libanius ; and in 
the spring of 363 he set out against the Per- 
sians. He crossed the Euphrates and the 
Tigris ; and after burning his fleet on the Tigris, 
that it might not fall into the hands of the 
enemy, he boldly marched into the interior of 
the country in search of the Persian king. His 
army suffered from the heat, and from want of 
water and provisions ; and he was at length 
■compelled to retreat. The Persians now 



harassed his rear. Still the Romans remained 
victorious in many engagements ; but in the 
last battle fought, on the 26th of June, Julian 
was mortally wounded, and died in the course 
of the day. Jovian was chosen emperor in his 
stead, on the field of battle. [Jovianus.] Julian 
was an extraordinary character. As a monarch, 
he was indefatigable in his attention to busi- 
ness, upright in his administration, and com- 
prehensive in his views ; as a man, he was 
virtuous, in the midst of a profligate age, and 
did not yield to the temptations of luxury. In 
consequence of his apostasy he has been 
calumniated by Christian writers ; but for the 
same reason he has been unduly extolled by 
heathen authors. It may fairly be urged in his 
favour that he had become a Christian under 
compulsion, and that his whole family had been 
treacherously put to death by the professedly 
Christian sons of Constantine. The writings 
of Julian are conspicuous for cleverness and 
grace of style, and are an evidence of the 
remarkable activity of his mind. The following 
are his most important works : — (1) Letters, 
most of which were intended for public circu- 
lation, and are of importance for the history of 
the time. Edited by Heyler, Mainz, 1828, and 
Hercher, 1873. — (2) Orations, on various sub- 
jects, as for instance, On the emperor Constan- 
tius, On the worship of the sun, On the mother 
of the gods (Cybele), On true andfalse Cynicism, 
&c. — (3) The Caesars, or the Banquet (Kaiffapts 
j) '2,vnir6<TLov), modelled on Varro's Menippean 
Satires, is one of the most brilliant productions 
of ancient wit. Julian describes the Roman empe- 
rors approaching one after the other to sit round 
a table in the heavens ; and as they come up, 
their faults, vices, and crimes, are censured with 
a sort of bitter mirth by old Silenus, whereupon 
each Caesar defends himself as well as he can. 
Edited by Heusinger, Gotha, 1736, and by 
Harless, Erlangen, 1785. — (4) Misopogon or the 
Enemy of the Beard (MuroivdiyiDv), a severe 
satire on- the licentious and effeminate manners 
of the inhabitants of Antioch, who had ridiculed 
Julian, when he resided in the city, on account 
of his austere virtues, and had laughed at his 
allowing his beard to grow in the ancient 
fashion. — (5) Against the Christians (Kara Xpia- 
riavwv). This work is lost, but some extracts 
from it are given in Cyril's reply to it. The 
most convenient edition of the collected works 
of Julian is by F. C. Hertlein, Lips. 1875. 

Julianus, Salvius, a Roman jurist under 
Hadrian and the Antonines. He was prae- 
fectus urbi, and twice consul, but his name 
does not appear in the Fasti. By the order of 
Hadrian, he drew up the edictum perpetuum, 
important in the history of Roman juris- 
prudence. His work consisted in collecting 
edicts of the praetors, in condensing the ma- 
terials, and in omitting antiquated provisions. 

Julias {'lovKlas : Bib. Bethsaida : Et-Tell, 
Ru.), a city of Palestine on the E. side of the 
Jordan, N. of the Lake of Tiberias, so called by 
the tetrarch Philip, in honour of Julia, the 
daughter of Augustus. 

Juliobrlga (Begnosa), a town of the Cantabri 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, near the sources of 
the Iberus (Ptol. ii. 6, 51 ; Plin. iii. 27). 

Juliomagus. [Andecavi.] 

Juliopohs {'lovhidnoMs). [Goedium ; Tarsus.] 

Julius. [Julia Gens.] 

Juncaria (Jimquera), a town of the Indigetes 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from 
Barcino to Gaul, in a plain covered with rushes 
I ('lovyi<dpwv ireS'iov). (Strab. p. 160.) 



JUNIA 



JUPITER 



463 



Junia. 1. Half-sister of M. Brutus, the mur- 
derer of Caesar, and wife of M. Lepidus, the 
triumvir (Veil. Pat. ii. 88).— 2. Tertia, or Ter- 
tulla, own sister of the preceding, was the 
wife of C. Cassius, one of Caesar's murderers. 1 
She lived till a.d. 22. (Tac. Ann. iii. 76.) 

Junia Gens, an ancient patrician house at 
Rome, to which belonged the celebrated M. 
Junius Brutus, who took an active part in ex- 
pelling the Tarquins. But afterwards the gens 
appears as only plebeian. Under the republic 
the chief families were those of Bkutus, Bubul- 
cus, Gracchanus, Norbaxus, Pullus, Silaxus. 
The Junii who lived under the empire are 
likewise spoken of under their various surnames. 

Juno, an old Italian deity afterwards identi- 
fied with the Greek Hera, who is accordingly al- 
ways spoken of in Latin literature as Juno. For 
the mythology see Hera. The word Juno, like 
Jupiter and also Diovis, contains the root div, ' 
signifying a deity of the sky. Juno, therefore, 
was a moon-goddess, and as Jupiter is the king 
of heaven and of the gods, so Juno is the queen 
of heaven, or the female Jupiter. Hence as 
Juno Regina she had a cella adjoining the 
Capitoline temple of Jupiter (and a temple also 
under that name on the Aventine). She was 
worshipped at Rome from early times, and is 
reckoned by Varro with Jupiter and Minerva 
' inter antiquissimos deos' (Tertull. ad Nat. ii. 
12). Being, like Hera, a goddess of the moon, 
she had the same functions in the Roman 
mythology, as goddess of childbirth (Juno 
Lucina, Verg. Eel. iv. 8; Hor. Epod. v. 5; Ter. 
Ad. iii. 4, 41), and as goddess of marriage, thence 
called Pronuba,Juga, Domiduca (Verg. Aen.iv. 
166 ; Mart, Cap. ii. 149 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Ma- 
trimonium) ; and as she was the goddess of the 
month, the Calends were sacred to her. These 
attributes do not seem borrowed from Greek 
mythology, though of course the legends about 
her in literature were ; the inference is rather 
that she represents a deity worshipped by the 
old stock of Greek and Italian races before they 
separated, and was handed down to the one as 
Hera, to the other as Juno. A more distinctly 
Roman attribute is tluit she was regarded as the 
guardian spirit of women from birth to death, 
just as the Genius was to men, and was spoken 
of as their jnno [see p. 359, bl. As she was the 
model and pattern of dignified womanhood and 
matronly honour she was called Juno Moneta, 
the giver of good counsel, and a temple under 
this title was dedicated to her on the Capitol. 
The mint was attached to this temple from the 
time of Camillus (Liv. vii. 28 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 
1821, so that from her title comes our word 
money. She was known also as Juno Sospita 
(the saviour) ; a worship derived from Lanuvium 
and transferred to two of her temples at Rome 
(Liv. viii. 14, xxxii. 30), was celebrated on the 
Calends of February (Ov. Fa.it. ii. r>5). The 
gTeat festival, celebrated by all the women, in 
honour of Juno, was called Ma tronal ia {Diet . of 
■i4H<.s.v.),andtookplaceon the lstof March. She 
was worshipped also by women iwJtimi Capro- 
tina, apparently a goddess of fruitful marriage: 
the name may come from copra, a goat, but 
was explained by a traditional custom of sacri- 
ficing under a wild fig-tree (caprificus; Macrob. 
i. 11, 36); and as Juno Quiritis, Curitis or 
Curritix, which is said to designate her being a 
war-goddess of the Sabines (armed with a 
spear), but may also be compared with Janus 
Quirinus (p. 458, a). The title Juno Caelestis 
refers to a worship of the Phoenician Astarte 
introduced from Carthage after the third Punic 



war. The animals sacred to Juno were : the 
peacock to Juno Regina of the Capitoline 
temple : the goose to Juno Moneta, whose 
temple was also on the Capitol (Liv. v. 47) ; the 
crow, which symbolised faithful marriage (Ael. 
U. A. iii. 9) ; and for Caprotina the goat, whence 
she is shown on some coins drawn in a carriage 
by goats. In Etruria she was worshipped under 
the name of Cupra. In the representations of 
the Roman Juno that have come down to us, 
the tvpe of the Greek Hera is commonlv adop- 
ted. "[Hera.] 

Jupiter or Juppiter, called Zeus by the 
Greeks. The Greek god (whose myths were 
transferred in literature to the Italian deity) is 
spoken of in a separate article [Zeus]. Jupiter 
was originally an elemental divinity, and his 
name signifies the bright heaven, being origi- 
nally Diovis-pater: Diovis, like Zeus, comes 
from the root div to shine. Another form of 
his name, Diespiter, connected similarly with 
the bright day, conveyed the same idea. The 
name was spelt indifferently Jupiter or Juppi- 
ter till the end of the republic, but under the 
empire nearly always Juppiter. The Etruscans 
called him Tinea, and in Oscan his name 
was Lucetius, i.e. god of light (Serv. ad Aen. 
ix. 567), a name in the hymns of the Salii 
(Macrob. i. 15, 14). Being the lord of heaven, 
he was worshipped as the god of rain, storms, 
thunder, and lightning, whence he had the 
epithets of Pluvius, Fulgurator, Tonitrualis, 
Tonans, and Fulniinator. The worship of 
Jupiter seems to have belonged, in some form 
or other, to all the nations of the Italian stock ; 
but he was peculiarly the great deity of the 
' Latin nation. All the Latin communities 
united in the sacrifice to Jupiter Latiaris in 
his sacred grove on the Alban Mount, probably 
from a date much earlier than the beginning of 
Rome [Diet, of Ant. art. Feriae Latinael 
| There is no doubt that the later Romans wor- 
shipped Janus and Jupiter on their Palatine 
settlement, while the Sabine Tities worshipped 
Quirinus, Sancus and Sol on the Quirinal, but 
both may have united for the worship of the 
Capitoline Jupiter even before their amalga- 
mation ; and after it Jupiter at once took the 
supreme place as god and protector of tin- 
Roman people, the place of Janus being thence- 
forth quite subordinate and first only in formu- 
laries. Another very old seat of the worship of 
Jupiter was Lanuvium, in some ways a religious 
centre of the Latins : here, on the river Numicus, 
was a shrine of a deity called sometimes Jupiter 
Indiges, sometimes Aeneas Indiges. That 
Jupiter was the original god of the place can- 
I not be doubted [see p. 442, b]. The earliest site 
■ of the old Roman worship seems to be the 
I Fagutal, a sacred tree or grove of Jupiter 
' (Varr. L. L. v. 49, 50, 152; Fest. p. 87), ap- 
parently some relic of primitive tree or grove 
worship, traceable in the ' quercus pastoribus 
sacra' (Liv. i. 10) and in the grove of Jupiter 
on the Alban Mount, and resembling the 
worship of Diana Nemorensis. Jupiter Eli- 
cius was invoked as the god who gave rain, and 
belonged to the religious processions in times of 
drought called Aguaelicium [Dirt, of A at. B.V.1, 
when the sacred stone called the Lupin Manalis 
was carried to the Capitol. This was probably 
the true meaning of the title — to obtain water 
from Jupiter, the god of the sky — though 
legends connected it with drawing Jupiter from 
heaven to interpret omens of lightning (Liv. i. 
20 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 285-348). As the god who 
fertilised the earth with his rain he wus the 



464 



JUPITEB 



JUSTINIAN US 



nourishing god Jupiter Ruminus, and as 
Jupiter Silvanus and Jupiter Arborator he 

was identified with the rural gods. It is 
probable that the temple of Jupiter Fere- 
trius on the Capitol was among the oldest, if 
not actually the oldest, in Rome (Liv. i. 10 ; 
Nep. Attic. 20) ; and there is little doubt that 
the name was derived from/ewreto strike, and 
taught that Jupiter was the god of treaties and 
oaths, which were ratified by the killing of the 
victim. In the temple of Jupiter Feretrius 
were preserved the sceptre of the god and 
the stone (lapis, silex) which was brought 
in making treaties for the formal striking of 
the victim : the axe no doubt being afterwards 
used for the actual slaughter (Liv. i. 24, ix. 5, 
xxx. 43; Pol. iii. 25). Some have thought that 
it was a stone axe, still used as it had been 
before the days of iron axes, or because iron 
was unlucky ; but the more probable view is 
that it was a fire- stone or flint (though it must 
be recollected that silex does not necessarily 
mean a flint), which had from primitive times 
been regarded as the symbol for the god of 
lightning, or else merely a rough stone like the 
earliest symbols of many deities in many nations. 
Hence the expression Jovem lapidemjurare (i.e. 
to swear by the stone which is Jupiter), for a pe- 
culiarly solemn oath (Cic. ad Fain. vii. 12 ; Gell. 
i. 21). Later a historical reason was found 
for the name from the custom of dedicating 
in this temple the spolia opima taken on the 
field of battle from the general of the enemy, as 
was done traditionally by Romulus and in later 
times by Cossus and Marcellus [Diet, of Ant. 
art. Spolia]. Accordingly in Jupiter Feretrius, 
Stator (stayer of flight), Victor, Invictus, the 
Romans recognised him as the giver of victory, 
hardly less than Mars the god of war himself. 
His chief temple at Rome was that of Jupiter 
Capitolinus. The two other deities of the 
Capifcoline triad, Juno and Minerva, had cellae 
in this temple, and were r. dmitted to the sacred 
feast called Fpulum Jovis ; but in the temple 
he reigned as Jupiter Optimus Maximus, the 
Head of the State and the giver of its power 
and wealth : in it were the earthenware image 
holding a thunderbolt, and the quadriga which 
belonged to him as the god of thunder. Here 
ended the triumphal processions, and the vic- 
torious general, offering white oxen — white as 
for the god of light, like the white lamb offered 
on the Ides (Ov. Fast. i. 56) — placed on the 
knees of the god his laurel wreath. That the 
general who could not obtain this triumph 
should triumph instead on the Alban Mount 
(Liv. xxxiii. 23) is another indication that this 
worship of Jupiter was only an offshoot of that 
of Jupiter Latiaris. The temple, which was the 
central point for the whole Roman people, was 
said to have been dedicated by Tarquinius (if 
so, probably on the site of an older sanctuary) 
and completed by his son (Cic. Hep. ii. 20, 36 ; 
Liv. i. 38, 55 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 72) ; its age was 
marked by a nail driven into the wall by the 
praetor on the Ides of each September (Liv. 
vii. 3) ; it was burnt in 83 and rebuilt by Sulla 
and completed by Catulus ; in place of the 
ancient earthenware image a copy in gold and 
ivory of the Olympian Zeus was set up in it. 
The temple was twice burnt again, in a.d. 70 
and 80, and a last restoration was made by 
Domitian. In each phase of its existence it 
was richly endowed by offerings from victorious 
generals, from wealthy citizens, and from foreign 
princes. In honour of the god both the Ludi 
Capitolini and the Ludi Romani were held 



[see Did. of Ant. s.vv.]. By the country people- 
Jupiter was celebrated, as in the earliest times, 
as the deity who gave them their prosperity, 
and he therefore received sacrifices before har- 
vest, and libations at the vintage [Diet, of Ant. 
art. Vinalia] in the character of Jupiter-Liber. 
It has been plausibly suggested that these 
vintage festivals of Jupiter- Liber date from th& 




Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. (From a coin of 
Vespasian.) 

overthrow of the Etruscan power in Latium 
and Campania by an alliance of Latins with 
Greeks, from whom they learnt Greek viticul- 
ture, and that the story about Mezentius arose 
from this [Mezentius]. By the country house- 
holder, too, Jupiter Dapalis was honoured as. 
the giver of good (Cato, R.R. 132) ; and that in 
all Boman family life Jupiter Farreus had been 
a guardian of the marriage rites appears in the 
ceremony of marriage by confarreatio. The 
worship of Jupiter was carried wherever the 
Boman colonies established themselves, and 
there was naturally a tendency to identify with 
his worship that of kindred deities among- 
conquered nations : hence the worship of Ju- 
piter Penninus, who had a temple on the 
Great St. Bernard, replacing the sanctuary of a. 
Celtic deity ; hence also the more famous 
temples to Jupiter Dolichenus and Jupiter 
Heliopolitanus, who took the places of Eastern 
sun-gods at Doliche and Heliopolis. 

Jura or Jurassus Mons (Jura), a range of 
mountains which run N. of the lake Lemanus 
as far as Augusta Bauracorum (August, near 1 
Basle), on the Bhine, forming the boundary 
between the Sequani and Helvetii (Caes. B. G. 
i. 2). ^ 

Justiniana. 1. Prima, a town in Illyria,. 
near Tauresium, the birthplace of Justinian, 
was built by that emperor ; it became the resi- 
dence of the archbishop of Illyria, and, in the 
middle ages, of the Servian kings. — 2. Secunda, 
also a town in Illyria, previously called Ulpiana, 
was enlarged and embellished by Justinian. 

Justinianus, emperor of Constantinople, a.d. 
527-563, and one of the greatest of the emperors. 
He was born near Tauresium in Illyria, a.d. 
483 ; was adopted by his uncle, the emperor 
Justinus, in 520 ; succeeded his uncle in 527 ; 
married the beautiful but licentious actress, 
Theodora, who exercised great influence over 
him ; and died in 565, leaving the crown to his 
nephew, Justin II. His foreign wars were 
glorious, and though he took no personal part, 
he deserves the credit of employing able generals 
and fostering the organisation of his armies. 
The empire of the Vandals in Africa was over- 
thrown by Belisarius, and their king Gelimer 
led a prisoner to Constantinople ; and the king- 
dom of the Ostrogoths in Italy was likewise 
destroyed, by the successive victories of Beli- 
sarius and Narses. [Belisasius; Narses.] So 



JUSTINTANUS 



JUVAVUM 



465 



that Justinian reunited the dominions of the [ 
West and East, and his empire extended from 
the Atlantic to the Euphrates. Justinian 
adorned Constantinople with many magnificent 
buildings, among them the great church of S. 
Sophia ; but the cost of their erection, as well 
as the expenses of his foreign wars, obliged him i 
to impose heavy taxation. The greatest work, 
however) of Justinian is his legislation. He 
resolved to establish a perfect system of written 
laws for all his dominions ; and, for this end, 
to make two great collections, one of the im- 
perial constitutions, the other of all that was 
valuable in the works of jurists. His first work 
was the collection of the imperial constitutions. 
This he commenced in 528, in the second year | 
of his reign. The task was entrusted to a com- 
mission of ten, who completed their labours in 
the following year (529;; and their collection 
was declared to be law under the title of Jus- ! 
tinianeus Codex. — In 530 Tribonian, who had 
been one of the commission of ten employed in 
drawing up the Code, was authorised by the 
emperor to select fellow-laboureis to assist him 
in the other division of the undertaking. Tri- 
bonian selected sixteen coadjutors ; and this 
commission proceeded at once to lay under 
contribution the works of those jurists who had 
received from former emperors ' auctoritatem 
conscribendarum interpretandarumque legum.' 
They were ordered to divide their materials into 
50 Books, and to subdivide each Book into 
Titles I Tituli). Nothing that was valuable was 
to be excluded, nothing that was obsolete was 
to be admitted, and neither repetition nor in- 
consistency was to be allowed. This work was 
to bear the name Digesta or Pandectae. The 
work was completed, in accordance with the 
instructions that had been given, in the short 
space of three years; and on the 30th of Dec. 
583, it received from the imperial sanction the 
authority of law. It comprehends upwards of 
9000 extracts, in the selection of which the 
compilers made use of nearly 2000 different 
books, containing more than 3,000,000 lines.— 
The Code and the Digest contained a complete 
body of law ; but as they were not adapted to 
elementary instruction, a commission was ap- 
pointed, consisting of Tribonian, Theophilus, 
and Dorotheus, to compose an institutional 
work, which should contain the elements of the 
law (legum incunabula), and should not be en- 
cumbered with useless matter. Accordingly 
they produced a treatise under the title of 
Inttitutionet, which was based on elementary 
works of a similar character, but chiefly on the 
Institutiones of Gaius, and served as a manual 
or as an introduction to the Code and Digest. 
The Institutiones consisted of four books, and 
were published, with the imperial sanction, at 
the same time as the Digest. — After the publi- 
cation of the Digest and the Institutiones, 50 
DeciBiones and some new Constitutions also 
were promulgated by the emperor. This ren- 
dered a revision of the Code necessary; and 
accordingly a new Code was promulgated at 
Constantinople on the Kith of November, 534. 
The second edition (Codex Hepctitae Praelcc- 
t ion is) is the Code that we now possess, in 
twelve books, each of which is divided into titles. 
— Justinian subsequently published variousnew 
Constitutiones, to which he gave the name of 
Novellae Constitutiones. These Constitutiones 
form a kind of supplement to the Code, and 
were published at various times from 585 to 
6(55.— The four legislative works of Justinian, 
the Institutiones, Digest a, or Pandectae, Codex, 



and Novellae, are included under the general 
name of Corpus Juris Civilis, and form the 
Roman law, as received in Europe. — Editions 
of the Corpus for general use are by Gothefre- 
dus and Van Leeuwen, Amst. 1603, 2 vols. fol. ; 




Justinian, Roman Emperor, A.D. 527-565. 
Obr., head of Emperor, with nimbus and pearls, holding a 
spear; V. N. IVSTINIANVS PP. AVG. ; rev., Emperor 
on horseback. Victory preceding him, with trophv over 
shoulder, showing him the road ; SALVS ET GLOHIA 
KOMANOKVM ; below, CONOB. 

by Kriiger and Mommsen, Berlin, 1869-1877 ; 
the Institutiones separately, by J. B. Moyle,1890. 

Justinus. 1. The historian, of uncertain 
date, but who probably lived in the time of the 
Antonines, is the author of an extant work 
entitled Historiarum Philippicarum Libri 
XLIV. This work is taken from the Historiae 
PhUippicae ot Trogus Pompeius, who lived in 
the time of Augustus. The title PhUippicae 
was given to it because its main object was to 
give the history of the Macedonian monarchy, 
with all its branches; but it was written in a 
digressive manner, so that it formed a kind of 
universal history from the rise of the Assyrian 
monarchy to the conquest of the East by Rome. 
The original work of Trogus, which is lost, is 
thought by some to have been a translation of 
a Greek history of Timagenes, which was based 
on the <piAi7r7nKo of Theopompus, and on the 
works of Ephorus, Timaeus, Polybius, and 
others. The work of Justin is not so much an 
abridgment of that of Trogus, as a selection 
of such parts as seemed to him most worthy of 
being generally known. Ed. by F. Riihl, 1859 ; 
A. de Gutschmid, 1886. — 2. Surnamed the 
Martyr, a.d. 103-165. {Diet, of Christ. Biogr.] 
Juthungi, a tribe of the Alemanni, who dwelt 
on the N. side of the Danube between Vienna 
and Pesth (Aram. Marc. xvii. 6). 
Juturna, whose name was transferred in the 
I Aeneid to the sister of Tumus (Verg. Aen. xii. 
i 139) was an Italian goddess of fountains, ori- 
j ginally of a spring near Lavinium. A temple 
I was dedicated to its nymph at Rome in the 
! Campus Martius by Lutatius Catulus ; and 
I sacrifices were offered to her on the 11th of 
I January (Ov. Fast. i. 463). A pond in the 
forum, between the temples of Castor and Vesta, 
was called Lacus Juturnae. Latin writers 
derived her name from juvare, because of the 
healing powers of her spring (Varr. L. L. v. 71 ; 
Serv. ad Aen. xii. 139;, but in the oldest in- 
scriptions it appears as Diuturna. She is said 
to have been beloved by Jupiter, who rewarded 
( her with immortality and the rule over the 
waterB (Verg. Aen. I. c. ; Ov. Fust. ii. 583) ; but 
another tradition makes her the wife of Janus 
[see p. 467, bj. 

Juvavum or Jovavum {Salzburg), a town in 
Noricum,on the river Jovavus or Isonta (Salza) 
It was one of the towns of Noricuin which 
were made municipia by Claudius (Plin. iii. 
116, where some MSS. write Ivaus). It was 
destroyed by the Heruli in the fifth century, but 
I was afterwards rebuilt. 

II II 



466 



JUVENALIS 



LABICUM 



Juvenilis, Decimus Junius, the great Roman 
satirist, whose writings date between 100 and 
130 A. D. or a little later, but of whose life we 
have few authentic particulars. His ancient bio- 
graphers (the date and authors of the ' Vitae ' 
are quite unknown) relate that he was either 
the son or the adopted son of a rich freedman. 
He was bom at Aquinum (according to a tradi- 
tion which seems to be confirmed by Juv. iii. 
319) at a date which cannot be exactly fixed. 
By xiii. 17 his birth is placed in the consulship 
of Fonteius, who may be the consul of 59 a.d. 
or 67. He is said to have occupied himself 
with rhetoric, though with no view of political 
life, until middle age ; and his declamatory style 
gives probability to the statement. He began 
writing satires, moved thereto by indignation 
at the vices of the age (i. 22), not earlier than 
100 A. D., for he mentions the exile of Marius 
Priscus, which took place in that year (i. 49). 
He lived frugally and simply (Sat. xi.), and 
possessed a country estate or farm near Tibur 
(xi. 65). He visited Egypt at some period of 
his life (xv. 45) and according to the inscription 
dedicated by him to Ceres Helvina at Aquinum 
(C. I. L. x. 5382; cf. Juv. iii. 320) was at one 
time tribune of a cohort, a duumvir of Aquinum 
and a flamen. The anonymous biographer ex- 
plains his military life and his journey to Egypt 
by saying that in consequence of his attacks 
upon a favourite actor of the emperor he was, 
at the age of 80, removed from Rome by the 
appointment to a military command in Egypt. 
The age mentioned seems most improbable for 
any military office; but Sidonius appears to 
credit the story that he suffered some sort of 
exile for offence given to an actor (Sid. Apoll. 
viii. 270) . Suidas also bears the same testimony. 
It is worthy of notice that one tradition makes 
Britain his place of exile, and that the cohort 
to which the above-mentioned inscription makes 
Juvenal belong was stationed in Britain in 
A. D. 105 and 124. Of the date or place of his 
death there is no trustworthy record. That it 
was later than 127 A. D. is clear from his men- 
tion of Aemilius Junius (xv. 27). Martial 
speaks of him in friendly terms (Mart. vii. 24, 
91, xii. 18). — The extant works of Juvenal con- 
sist of sixteen satires : the last is incomplete and 
its genuineness has been doubted, but without 
good reason. Juvenal is accused by some 
critics of simulating a passion which he did not 
feel, but this charge is absolutely without evid- 
ence. He adopts a different plan from that of 
Horace, and, instead of dissuading by ridicule, 
lie denounces vice in the most indignant terms ; 
but whichever method may be the more efficient, 
there is no note of unreality in the disapproba- 
tion of either poet. The moral corruption of 
Juvenal's age was even greater than anything 
known to Horace, and there was superadded 
the tyranny of Domitian's reign. Each satire, 
in which he paints contemporary society, is 
a finished rhetorical essay, energetic, glowing, 
and sonorous, and the complete set are a vivid, 
and, so far as can be judged from other contem- 
porary evidence, a true description of life at 
Borne in that period. The best annotated edi- 
tion of Juvenal is by J. E. B. Mayor, London, 
1881, 1886 ; also Pearson and Strong, Oxford, 
1887, and text by Bucheler, Berl. 1886. Fried- 
lander's Sittengeschichte Boms supplies one 
of the best commentaries for readers of Ju- 
venal. 

Juventas. [Hebe.] 

Juventius. 1. Celsus. [Celsus.] — 2. Late- 
rensis. [Laterensis.] — 3. Thalna. [Thalna.] 



L. 

Labda (Ad/SSa), daughter of the Bacchiad 
Amphion, and mother of Cypselus, by Eetion. 
[Cypselus.] 

Labdacidae. [Labdacus.] 

Labdacus (Ad&Saicos), son of the Thebanking 
Polydorus, by Nycteis, daughter of Nycteus. 
Labdacus lost his father at an early age, and 
was placed under the guardianship of Nycteus, 
and afterwards under that of Lycus, a brother 
of Nycteus. When Labdacus had grown up to 
manhood, Lycus surrendered the government to 
him; and on the death of Labdacus, which 
occurred soon after, Lycus undertook the 
guardianship of his son Laius, the father of 
Oedipus. (Paus. ix. 5, 2 ; Apollod. iii. 8, 5 ; Eur. 
H. F. 27.) — The name Labdacidae is given to 
the descendants of Labdacus. [Oedipus.] 

Labdalum. [Sybacusae.] 

Labeates, a warlike people in Dalmatia, whose 
chief town was Scodra, and in whose territory 
was the Labeatis Palus (Lake of Scutari), 
through which the river Barbana (Bogana) runs 
(Liv. xliii. 21). 

Labeo, Antistrus. 1. A Roman jurist, was 
one of the murderers of Julius Caesar, and put 
an end to his life after the battle of Philippi, 
B. c. 42 (Plut. Brut. 12).— 2. Son of the preced- 
ing, and a still more eminent jurist (54 B. c- 
17 A. D.). He adopted the republican opinions 
of his father, and was in consequence disliked 
by Augustus (Tac. Ann. iii. 75 ; Gell. xiii. 12). 
It is asserted by some that the Labeone insanior 
of Horace (Sat. i. 3. 30) was a stroke levelled 
against this Labeo, in order to please the em- 
peror, but it could hardly refer to him, since that 
satire was written not later than 37 B. c. It 
might refer to his father. Labeo wrote a large 
number of works, which are cited in the Digest. 
He was the founder of one of the two great 
legal schools spoken of under Capito. 

Labeo, Q. Fabius, quaestor urbanusB.c. 196; 
praetor 189, when he commanded the fleet in 
the war against Antiochus ; and consul 183 (Liv. 
xxxvii. 47-60, xxxix. 45). 

Laberius, Decimus, a Roman eques, and the 
first to give a literary character to mimes, was 
born about B. c. 107, and died in 43 at Puteoli, 
in Campania. At Caesar's triumphal games in 
October, 45, P. Syrus, a professional mimus, 
seems to have challenged all his craft to a trial 
of wit in extemporaneous farce, and Caesar 
compelled Laberius to appear on the stage. 
Laberius was 60 years old, and the profession 
of a mimus was infamous. In his fine prologue 
he complained of the indignity ; and he availed 
himself of his various characters to point his 
wit at Caesar. In the person of a beaten Syrian 
slave he cried out, ' Marry ! Quirites, but we 
lose our freedom,' and all eyes were turned 
upon the dictator ; and in another mime he 
uttered the pregnant maxim, ' Needs must he 
fear, who makes all else adread.' Caesar 
awarded the prize to Syrus, and merely restored 
his knighthood (forfeited by the acting) with a 
money present to Laberius. The prologue of 
Laberius has been preserved by Macrobius (Sat. 
ii. 7) ; and if this may be taken as a specimen 
of his style, he ranks high in dramatic vigour. 
Laberius made great impression on his contem- 
poraries, although he is depreciated by Horace 
(Sat. i. 10, 6; cf. Macrob. I. c. ; Gell. xvi. 7). 

Labicum, Labici, Lavicum, Lavici (Labica- 
nus : Colonna), an ancient town in Latium 
among the Alban hills, fifteen miles SE. of 



LABIENUS 



LACONICA 



467 



Rome, was an ally of the Aequi ; was taken and 
was colonised by the Romans, B. c. 418 (Dionys. 
v. 61 ; Liv. iii. 25, iv. 45 ; Strab. pp. 230, 237). 
The road from Rome to Labicum (Via Labi- 
cana) started from the Esquiline gate. 

Labienus. 1. T., tribune of the plebsB.c. 63. 
Under pretence of avenging his uncle's death, 
who had joined Saturninus (100), he accused 
Rabirius of treason. Rabh-ius was defended by 
Cicero. [Rabirius.] In his tribuneship Labie- 
nus was entirely devoted to Caesar's interests, 
and when Caesar went into Transalpine Gaul in 
58, he took Labienus with him as his legatus. 
Labienus continued with Caesar during the 
greater part of his campaigns in Gaul, and was 
the ablest officer he had. On the breaking out 
of the Civil war in 49, he deserted Caesar and 
joined Pompey. His defection caused the 
greatest joy among the Pompeian party; but 
he disappointed the expectations of his new 
friends, and never performed anything of im- 
portance. (Cic. ad Att. vii. 11, 12, 13, viiL 2.) He 
fought against his old commander at the battle 
of Pharsalia in Greece, 48, at the battle of 
Thapsus in Africa, 46, and at the battle of 
Munda in Spain, 45. He was slain in the last 
of these battles (Appian, B. C. ii. 105). — 2. Q., 
son of the preceding, joined Brutus and Cassius 
after the murder of Caesar, and was sent by 
them into Parthia to seek aid from Orodes, the 
Parthian king. Before he could obtain an 
answer from Orodes, the news came of the 
battle of Philippi, 42. Two years afterwards 
he persuaded Orodes to entrust him with the 
command of a Parthian army ; and Pacorus, the 
son of Orodes, was associated with him in the 
command. In 40 they crossed the Euplirates, 
and defeated Decidius Saxa, the lieutenant of 
Antony, obtained possession of Antioch and 
Apamea, and penetrated into Asia Minor. But 
in the following year, 39, P. Ventidius, the most 
able of Antony's legates, defeated the Parthians. 
Labienus fled in disguise into Cilicia, where he 
was apprehended, and put to death. (Dio Cass, 
xlviii. 24, 39 ; Appian, B. C. v. 65, 183 ; Flor. iv. 
9; Plut. Ant. 30, 33.)— 3. T., an orator and 
historian in the reign of Augustus, either son or 
grandson of No. 1. He retained all the repub- 
lican feelings of his family, and took every op- 
portunity to attack Augustus and his friends. 
His enemies obtained a decree of the senate 
that all his writings should be burnt ; where- 
upon he shut himself up in the tomb of his 
ancestors, and thus perished, about A. D. 12. 
(Sen. Contr. 10, praef. 4 ; Suet. Cal. 16.) 

Labranda (to, Aa/SpovSa: Aa&pavSfvs, Aa- 
0pavSriv6s , Labrandenus), a town in Caria, 68 
stadia N. of Mylasa, celebrated for its temple 
of Zeus Stratios or Labrandenus, on a hill near 
the city (Hdt. v. 119; Strab. p. 659). 

Labro, a seaport of Etruria mentioned only 
in Cic. ad Q. F. ii. 5. It seems to be Liburnum 
( = Portus Pisanus), which was also PortusHer- 
culis Labronis, now Livorno [Pisae). 

Lahus or Labutas ( Aaj9oj or Aafiovras : Sobad 
Koh, part of the Elburz), a mountain of Parthia, 
between the Coronus and the Sariplii Montes 
(Pol. x. 29). 

Labynetus (Ao/3u»tjtos), a name given by 
Herodotus to more than one of the Babylonian 
monarchs. The Labynetus mentioned in i. 74 
as mediating a peace between Cyaxares and 
Alyattes, appears to be the same as Nabopolas- 
ser : the Labynetus mentioned in i. 77, 188, 
as a contemporary of Cyrus and Croesus seems 
to be Nabonidus, the grandson (not, as Hdt. 
aays, the son) of the former [see p. 150, bj. 



Labyrinthus. [See Diet, of Antiq. s. v.] 

Lacedaemon (Aa.Ke8alfj.cov), son of Zeus and 
Taygete, was married to Sparta, the daughter 
of Eurotas, by whom he became the father of 
Amyclas, Eurydice, and Asine. He was king of 
the country which he called after his own name, 
Lacedaemon, while he called the capital Sparta 
after the name of his wife. (Paus. iii. 1, 20 ; 
Apollod. iii. 10, 3.) [Spaeta.] 

Lacedaemorrius (Aa.Kt8atfj.6i/ios), son of Ci- 
mon, so named in honour of the Lacedaemonians 
(Plut. Cim. 16, Per. 29). 

Lacedas (Aa/ri)5aj), or Leocedes (Hdt. vi. 127), 
king of Argos, and father of Melas (Hdt. I. c.) 

Lacetani, a people in Hispania Tarvaconen- 
sis at the foot of the Pyrenees (Plin. iii. 22 ; 
Liv. xxi. 23). 

Lachares (Aaxdprjs), an Athenian dem- 
agogue, made himself tyrant of Athens, B.C. 296, 
when the city was besieged by Demetrius. 
When Athens was on the point of falling into 
the hands of Demetrius, Lachares made his 
escape to Thebes with the treasures of which he 
had robbed even the temples at Athens, and 
according to Pausanias was murdered for the 
sake of his wealth. This must have been many 
years later if Polyaenus is right in making him 
1 play the traitor at Cassandrea in 279. (Plut. 
Demetr. 33 ; Paus. i. 25, 7 ; Polyaen. vi. 7, 2.) 

Laches (Aaxis), an Athenian commander in 
the Peloponnesian war, is first mentioned in 
B.C. 427 (Thuc. iii. 86). He was recalled in 
426 and accused by Cleon of peculation (Thuc. 
iii. 115 ; Ar. Vesp. 240, 836 ; Dem. C. Timocr. p. 
740, § 127). After Cleon's death he appears as 
commissioner for making the peace, com- 
manded the troops sent to help Argos, and was 
slain at Mantinea (Thuc. v. 19, 61, 74). A dia- 
logue of Plato bears his name. 

Lachesis, one of the Fates. [Moerae.J 

LaciaorLaciadae (AaKta, AaKidSar. Aa/cict§7jr, 
Aajcievs), a demus in Attica, belonging to the 
tribe Oeneis, \V. of and near to Athens. 

Laciniuni {Aaxiviov aKpov), a promontory on 
the E. coast of Bruttium, a few miles S. of 
Croton, and forming the W. boundary of the 
Tarentine gulf. It possessed a celebrated tem- 
ple of Juno, who was worshipped here under 
the surname of Lacinia. The remains of this 
temple are still extant, and have given the 
modern name to the promontory, Capo delle 
Colonne or Capo di Nao (vaos). Hannibal 
dedicated in this temple a bilingual inscription 
(in Punic and Greek), which recorded the history 
of his campaigns, and of which Polybius made 
use in writing his history. (Strab. p. 261 ; Pol. 
iii. 33, 56; Liv. xxiv. 3, xxviii. 46.) 

Lacippo (Alecippe), a town in Hispania 
Baetica not far from the sea, and W. of Malaca. 

Lacmon or Lacmus {Aa.Kfj.oiu, AaKfios), the 
north part of Mount Pindus, in which the river 
Aous rises (Hdt. ix. 92; Strab. p. 271). 

Lacobriga. 1. (Lobera), a town of the Vac- 
au-\ in the N. of Hispania Tarraconensis on 
the road from Asturica to Tarraco.— 2. (Lugoa), 
a town on the SW. of Lusitania, E. of the 
I'ii mi. Sacrum. 

Laconica (AaKwvtidj), sometimes called 
Laconla by the Romans, a country of Pelopon- 
! nesus, was bounded on the N. by Argolis 
and Arcadia, on the W. by Messenia, and on 
the E. and S. by the sea. The whole 
country of Laconica is bounded on the W. by 
the range of Mount Taygetus, which extends in 
an unbroken line, traversed only by difficult 
mountain roads, from the N. to its southern 
point ut the promontory of Taenarum ; on the 

ii ii 2 



468 



LACONICUS 



LAELIUS 



N. it was separated from Arcadia by the 
mountainous district of Sciritis, and from Ar- 
golis by Mount Parthenius : it was cut through 
its whole length by Mount Parnon, which ran 
down, though in a less unbroken line than Tay- 
getus, to the Promontory of Malea, separating 
the plain of the Eurotas from Cynubia. This 
latter district, forming the eastern coast of 
Laconica was only acquired by Sparta about ! 
550 B.C., and in the earlier times the territory of 
Lacedaemon was the oblong valley district or 
plain between Taygetus and Parnes, through 
which the Eurotas flows into the Laconian 
gulf. This valley was called ' hollow Lacedae- 
mon,' and described also, as full of ravines 
(KriT&eacra.) where it is narrowed by spurs from 
the enclosing hills (Od. iv. 1 ; Strab. pp. 367, 
368). It had rich corn-land and vines and mul- 
berries, being fertile, especially on the slopes of 
the hills and in the widening plain below 
Sparta. On the other hand, the country on the 
E. of Parnon was hilly and rough, with no 
agricultural value. There were valuable mar- 
ble quarries near Taenarus. Off the coast 
shell-fish were caught, which produced a purple 
dye inferior only to the Tyrian. Laconica is 
well described by Euripides in his Cresphontes 
(Fr. 12) as difficult of access to an enemy. On 
the N. the country could only be invaded by the 
valleys of the Eurotas and the Oenus ; the 
range of Taygetus formed an almost insuperable 
barrier on the west, and the want of good har- 
bours on the east coast protected it from 
invasion by sea on that side. Gytheum was 
the chief harbour of Laconica. ' The most 
ancient inhabitants of the country are said to 
have been Cynurians and Leleges. They were 
conquered and gradually absorbed by the 
Achaeans, who were the inhabitants of the 
country in the heroic age. The Dorians after- 
wards invaded Peloponnesus and became the 
ruling race in Laconica. At first they settled 
in Sparta, nominally at peace with the old 
inhabitants of Amyclae, Pharis, Geronthrae, 
Las, and Aegys, but gradually they acquired 
the mastery, and a part of the old people 
of the country who submitted on terms became 
subjects of the Dorians under the name of 
Perioeci {TlepioiKoi), while others, called Helots, 
were reduced to serfdom. [Diet, of Antiq. art. 
Helotes ; Perioeci.] The general name for 
the inhabitants is Lacones (Aa/cioces) or Lace- 
daemonii (AaKedcufxSpioi) ; but the Perioeci are 
frequently called Lacedaemonii, to distinguish 
them from the Spartans [Sparta]. 

Laconicus Sinus (k6\ttos AaKwviicbs), a gulf 
in the S. of Peloponnesus, into which the 
Eurotas falls, beginning W. at the Prom. Tae- 
narum and E. at the Prom. Malea. 

Lactantrus, a celebrated Christian writer 
about 250-330 a.d. [Diet, of Christ. Biogr.] 

Lactarius Hons or Lactis Mons, a mountain 
in Campania, belonging to the Apennines, four 
miles E. of Stabiae, so called because the cows 
which grazed upon it produced excellent milk 
(Galen. Meth. Med. v. 12). Here Narses gained 
a victory over the Goths, a.d. 553 (Procop. S .0. 
iv. 35). The name is preserved in the town 
Lettere at its foot. 

Lacydes (AatcvSris), a native of Cyrene, suc- 
ceeded Arcesilaus as president of the Academy 
at Athens. The place where his instructions 
were delivered was a garden, named the Lacy- 
deum(AaKvfieiov), provided for the purpose by his 
friend Attalus Philometor, king of Pergamum. 
This alteration in the locality of the school 
seems to have contributed to the rise of the 



name of the New Academy. He died about 215. 
(Diog. La'e'rt. iv. 60 ; Cic. Ac. ii. 6, Tusc. v. 37.) 

Lade (AaSrj), an island off the west coast of 
Caria, opposite to Miletus and to the bay into 
which the Maeander falls. It was celebrated 
for the defeat of theloniansby the Persians B.C. 
494. (Hdt. vi. 8 ; Thuc. viii. 17 ; Strab. p. 635.) 

Ladon (AaScuv), the dragon which guarded the 
apples of the Hesperides, was the offspring of 
Typhon and Echidna, or of Ge, or of Phorcys 
and Ceto. Was slam by Heracles, and the 
representation of the battle was placed by Zeus 
among_the stars. (Hes. Th. 333 ; Hyg. Ast. ii. 6.) 

Ladon (AdScov). 1. A river in Arcadia, rising 
near Clitor, and falling into the Alpheus be- 
tween Heraea and Phrixa. In mythology 
Ladon is husband of Stymphalis, and father of 
Daphne and Metope. (Hes. Th. 344 ; Paus. viii. 
20, 1.) — 2. A river in Elis, rising on the fron- 
tiers of Achaia and falling into the Peneus. 

Laeetani (wrongly written Laletani), a people 
on the east coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, 
near the mouth of the river Bubricatus (Llobre- 
gat). Their chief town was Barcino. (Strab. 
p. 159 ; Ptol. ii. 6, 18 ; Plin. iii. 22.) 

Laelaps. [Cephalus.] 

Laelianus, one of the thirty tyrants, emperor 
in Gaul after the death of Postumus, a.d. 267, 
was slain by his own soldiers, who proclaimed 
Victorinus in his stead (Eutrop. ix. 7). 

Laelius. 1. C, was from early manhood the 
friend and companion of Scipio Africanus the 
elder, and fought under him in almost all his 
campaigns. He commanded the fleet in the 
capture of New Carthage, B.C. 210 (Pol. x. 3; 
Liv. xxvi. 42) ; commanded, the left wing at the 
battle of Baecula (208) ; commanded the fleet in 
the defeat of Adherbal off Gades in 206 (Liv. 
xxviii. 30) ; took an active part in the African 
campaign 204-201 ; was praetor of Sicily 196 ; 
consul 190, and obtained the province of Cisal- 
pine Gaul (Liv. xxxvii. 47). — 2. C, surnamed 
Sapiens, son of the preceding. His intimacy 
with Scipio Africanus the younger was as 
remarkable as his father's friendship with the 
elder, and it obtained an imperishable monu- 
ment in Cicero's treatise Laelius sive de Avii- 
citia. He was born about 186, was tribune of 
the plebs 151; praetor 145; and consul 140. 
Though not devoid of military talents, as his 
campaign against the Lusitanian Viriathus 
proved (Cic. Brut. 21, 84, Off.ii. 11, 40), he was 
more of a statesman than a soldier, and more 
of a philosopher than a statesman. From Dio- 
genes of Babylon, and afterwards from Panae- 
tius, he imbibed the doctrines of the Stoic 
school (Cic. Fin. ii. 8, 24) ; his father's friend 
Polybius was his friend, also ; the wit and idiom 
of Terence were pointed and polished by his 
and Scipio's conversation; and the satirist 
Lucilius was his familiar companion. The 
political opinions of Laelius were different at 
different periods of his life. He endeavoured, 
probably during his tribunate, to procure a re- 
division of the public land, but he desisted from 
the attempt, and either for this forbearance, or 
more probably for his philosophical tempera- 
ment, received the appellation of the Wise or 
the Prudent (Plut. Tib. Gracch. 20; Hor. 
Sat. ii. 1, 72). He afterwards became a strenu- 
ous supporter of the aristocratical party. 
Several of his orations were extant in the time 
of Cicero, but were characterised more by 
smoothness than by power. — Laelius is the 
principal interlocutor in Cicero's dialogue De 
Amicitia, and is one of the speakers in the De 
Senectute and in the De Bepublica. His two 



LAEXAS 



LAMACHUS 



daughters were married, the one to Q. Mucius 
Scaevola, the augur, tlie other to C. Fannius 
Strabo. The opinion of his worth seems to 
have been universal, and it is one of Seneca's 
injunctions to his friend Lucilius' to live like 
Laelius ' (Sen. En. 104). 

Laenas, Popuius. The Laenates were a ' 
a family of the plebeian gens Popilia, for the 
most part unfavourably distinguished for their 
sternness, cruelty, and haughtiness of character. 
For the traditional origin of the surname see 
Cic. Brut. 14, 56. 1. M., four times consul, B.C. 
359, 356, 350, 348. In his third consulship 
(350) he won a hard-fought battle against the 
Gauls, for which he celebrated a triumph — the 
first ever obtained by a plebeian. (Liv. vii. 23.) ; 
— 2. M., praetor 176, consul 172, and censor 159. ! 
In his consulship he defeated the Ligurian j 
mountaineers ; and when the remainder of the 
tribe surrendered to him, he sold them all as 
slaves. (Liv. xlii. 22.) — 3. C, brother of Xo. 2, 1 
was consul 172. He was afterwards sent as 
ambassador to Antiochus, king of Syria, whom 
the senate wished to abstain from hostilities ' 
against Egypt. The king read the letter of 
the senate and promised to take it into consi- 
deration. Popilius straightway described with 
his cane a circle in the ^and round the king, 
and ordered him not to stir out of it until he 
had given a decisive answer. This boldness so ' 
impressed Antiochus, that he yielded to the 
demand of Home. (Liv. xlv. 12 ; Veil. Pat. i. 
10; Cic. Phil. viii. 8, 23.)— 4. M., son of Xo. 2, 
consul B.C. 139, in the next year defeated by 
the Xumantines (Liv. Ep. 55). — 5. P., consul 
132, the year after the murder of Tib. Gracchus. 
He was charged by the victorious aristocratical 
party with the prosecution of the accomplices 
of Gracchus ; and in this task he showed all the 
hardheartedness of his family. He subsequently 
withdrew himself, by voluntary exile, from the 
vengeance of C. Gracchus, and did not return 
to Rome till after his death. (Cic. Lael. 11, 
37, pro Dom. 31, 82 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 7.) 

Laertes (Aafprjis), king of Ithaca, was 6on 
of Acrisius and Chalcomedusa, and husband of 
Anticlea, by whom he became the father of 
Odysseus and Ctimene. He took part in the 
Calydonian hunt, and in the expedition of the 
Argonauts. He was still alive when his son 
returned to Ithaca after the fall of Troy. 

Laertius, Diogenes. [Diocf.nk- 

Laestrygones (Aai<rrpvy6v(s), a savage race 
of cannibals, whom Odysseus encountered in his 
wanderings (Od. x. 81). They were governed 
by Antiphates and Lamus. The Greeks placed 
them on the E. coast of the island in the plains 
of Leontini, which are therefore called Lan- 
stryyonii Campi. (Strab. pp. 20, 22; Plin. iii. 
89.) The Romans, however, and more especi- 
ally the Roman poets, who regarded the Prom. 
Circeium as the Homeric island of Circe, trans- 
planted the Loestrygones to the S. coast of 
Latium in the neighbourhood of Fonniae, which 
they supposed to have been built by Lamus, 
the king of this people. [Fokmiab.] 

Laevi or Levi, a Ligimun people in Gallia 
Transpadana on the river Ticinus (Pol. ii. 17). 

Laevinus, Valerius. 1. P., consul b.c. 280, 
had the conduct of the war against Pyrrhus. 
The king wrote to Laevinus, offering to arbitrate- 
between Rome and Tarentum ; but Laevinus 
bluntly bade him to return to Epirus. An 
Epirot spy having been taken in the Roman 
lines on the banks of the Siris, Laevinus showed 
him the legions under arms, and hade him tell 
his master, if he was curious about the Roman 



men and tactics, to come and see them. In the 
battle which followed, Laevinus was defeated. 
(Liv. Ep. 13 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 16 ; Dionys. xviii. 1.) 
— 2. M., praetor 215, crossed over to Greece 
and carried on war against Philip. He con- 
tinued in the command in Greece till 211. when 
he was elected consul in his absence. In his 
consulship (210) he carried on the war in Sicily, 
and took Agrigentum. He continued as pro- 
consul in Sicily for several years, and in 208 
made a descent upon the coast of Africa. He 
died 200, and his sons Publius and Marcus 
honoured his memory with funeral games and 
gladiatorial combats, exhibited during four suc- 
cessive days in the forum. (Liv. xxxi. 50.) — 
3. C, son of Xo. 2, was by the mother's side 
brother of M. Fulvius Xobilior, consul 189. 
Laevinus was himself consul in 176, and carried 
on war against the Ligurians. (Pol. xxii. 12, 
14 ; Liv. xlii. 6, xliii. 14.) 

Lagoe or lagbe (Aay6r]. Aayfiri), a city in 
Phrygia on the road from Cibyra to Termessus. 
(Liv. xxxviii. 15 writes Lagon for Lagoen.) 

Lagus (Aayos), a Macedonian of obscure 
birth, was the father, or reputed father, of Pto- 
lemy, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy. 
He married Arsinoe, a concubine of Philip of 
Macedon. who was said to have been pregnant 
at the time of their marriage, on which account 
the Macedonians generally looked upon Ptolemy 
as the son of Philip. (Paus. i. 6, 2; Curt. ix. 8.) 

Lais (Aai's), the name of two celebrated Gre- 
cian Hetaerae, or courtesans. 1. The elder, a 
native probably of Corinth, lived in the time 
of the Peloponnesian war, and was celebrated 
as the most beautiful woman of her age She 
was notorious also for her avarice and caprice. 
(Athen. pp. 544, 585, 587.1 — 2. The younger, was 
the daughter of Timandra, and was probably 
born at Hyccara in Sicily. According to some 
accounts she was brought to Corinth when 
seven years old, having been taken prisoner in 
the Athenian expedition to Sicily, and bought 
by a Corinthian. She was a contemporary and 
rival of Phryne. She became enamoured of a 
Thessalian named Hippolochus, or Hippostra- 
tus, and accompanied him to Thessaly. Here, 
it is said, some Thessalian women, jealous of 
her beauty, enticed her into a temple of Aphro- 
dite, and there stoned her to death. (Plut. 
Ale. 9 ; Paus. ii. 2, 5 ; Athen. p. 589.) 

Laius (Aai'os), son of Labdacus, lost his father 
at an early age, and was brought up by Lycus. 
[Labdacus.] When Lycus was slain by Am- 
phion and Zethus, Luius took refuge with 
Pelops in Peloponnesus. After the death of 
Amphion and Zethus, Laius returned to Thebes, 
and ascended the throne of his father. He 
married Jocaste, and became by her the father 
of Oedipus, by whom he was slain. For details 
see OeijII i s. 

Lalandus, a district on the borders of Phrygia 
and Galatia, near Amorium, on the Lalandum 
Flumen, which flows from the S. into the 
Sangarius, a little SE. of Pessinus. Recent 
discoveries of inscriptions have made it prob- 
able that this is the true reading tar Alnmlrum 
h'lumrn in Liv. xxxviii. 18, and Mamlri Pontes 
for Alandri VowUt in eh. 16. 
Laletani. | Lakktani.J 

Lamachus (Aa/mxos), an Athenian, son of 
Xenophnnes, was the colleague of Aleibiades 
and Xicias in the great Sicilian expedition, B.C. 
415. In the councils of the generals Lamachus's 
plan was the boldest — to endeavour to capture; 
I the city by an immediate attack while it was 
I unprepared— and this might possibly have 



470 



LAME T US 



LANGOBABDI 



ended successfully, but Lamachus was over- 
borne by his colleagues. He fell under the 
walls of Syracuse, in a sally of the besieged. 
He appears amongst the dramatis personae of 
Aristophanes as the brave and somewhat blus- 
tering soldier. Plutarch describes him as brave, 
but so poor that on every fresh appointment 
he had difficulty in procuring his outfit. (Thuc. 
vi. 8, 49, 101; Arist. Ach. 565, 960, 1070; Plut. 
Nic. 16, Ale. 18, 20.) 

Lametus (Lamato), a river in Bruttium, near 
Croton, which falls into the Lameticus Sinus. 
Upon it was the town Lametini (8. Eufemia). 

Lamia (Aa/ula). 1. [Empusa.] — 2. An Athe- 
nian courtesan, mistress of Demetrius Polior- 
cetes (Plut. Demetr. 16). 

Lamia, AellUS. This family claimed a de- 
scent from the mythical hero, Lamus. 1. L., a 
Boman eques, supported Cicero in the suppres- 
sion of the Catilinarian conspiracy, B.C. 63, and 
was accordingly banished by the influence of 
the consuls Gabinius and Piso in 58. He was 
subsequently recalled from exile, and during the 
civil wars espoused Caesar's party. (Cic. pro | 
Sest. 12, 29, ad Att. xiii. 45, ad Fam. xi. 16 ; 
Val. Max. i. 8.) — 2. L., son of the preceding, 
and the friend of Horace, was consul a.d. 3. 
He was made praefectus urbi in 32, but he died 
in the following year. (Dio Cass, lviii. 19 ; Tac. 
Ann. vi. 27 ; Hor. Od. i. 26, iii. 17.)— 3. L., was 
married to Domitia Longina, the daughter of 
Corbulo ; but during the lifetime of Vespasian 
he was deprived of her by Domitian, who sub- 
sequently married her. Lamia was put to 
death by Domitian after his accession to the 
throne. (Dio Cass. Ixvi. 3 ; Suet. Dom. i. 10.) 

Lamia {Aa/ula : Aa/j.ievs, Aa/xitLrr/s : Zeitun 
or Zeituni), a town in Phthiotis in Thessaly, 
situated on the small river Achelous, and fifty 
stadia inland from the Maliac gulf, on which 
it possessed a harbour, called Phalara (Strab. 
pp. 433, 435). It has given its name to the war 
which was carried on by the confederate Greeks 
against Antipater after the death of Alexander, 
B.C. 323. The confederates under the command 
of Leosthenes, the Athenian, defeated Anti- 
pater, who took refuge in Lamia, where he was 
besieged for some months. Leosthenes was 
killed during the siege; and the confederates 
were obliged to raise it in the following year 
(322), in consequence of the approach of Leon- 
natus. The confederates under the command 
of Antiphilus defeated Leonnatus, who was 
slain in the action. Soon afterwards Antipater 
was joined by Craterus ; and thus strengthened 
he gained a decisive victory over the confede- 
rates at the battle of Cranon, which put an 
end to the Lamian war. (Diod. xviii. ; Pol. 
ix. 29.) 

Laminium (Laminitanus), a town of the Car- 
petani in Hispania Tarraconensis, ninety-five 
miles SE. of Toletum (Ptol. ii. 6, 57). 

Lampa or Lappa (Ad/xir/), Aairwi) ■ Aa/xiratos, 
Aa/j.TT€vs, near Argyropolis), a town in the N. 
of Crete, a little inland, S. of Hydramum 
(Strab. p. 475 ; Ptol. iii. 17, 10). 

Lampea (f/ Ad/xiteia) or Lampeus Mons, a 
part of the mountain range of Ebymanthus, 
on the frontiers of Achaia and Elis. 

Lampetie (Aa/xireTnj), daughter of Helios by 
the nymph Neaera. She and her sister Phae- 
thusa tended the flocks of their father in Sicily. 
In some legends she appears as one of the 
sisters of Pha'e'thon. [Helios.] 

Lampon (Ad/xircov), an Athenian, a celebrated 
soothsayer and interpreter of oracles. In con- 
junction with Xenocritus, he led the colony 



which founded Thurii in Italy, B.C. 443. (Diod. 
xii. 10 ; Aristoph. Av. 521, 988.) 

Lamponia, or -ium (Aa/xirdveta, -iliviov), a 
town of Mysia, in the Troad, near the borders 
of Aeolia (Hdt. v. 26 ; Strab. p. 610). 

Lampra, Lamprae, or Lamptrae (Aa/mpd, 
Aa/xivpal, Aa/xirrpal : Aafiwpzvs '■ Lamorica), a 
demus on the W. coast of Attica, near Asty- 
palaea, belonging to the tribe Erechtheis. 

Lampridius, Aelius. [Scbjptokes Histo- 
biae Augustae.] 

Lampsacus (Ad/xipaicos : Aap]/aK-r)v6s : Lap- 
sahi, Bu.), an important city of Mysia, in Asia 
Minor, on the coast of the Hellespont, possessed 
a good harbour. It stood on the site of a town 
called Pityusa or Pityeia, which existed before 
the colonisation by Ionians. (II. ii. 829 ; Strab. 
p. 589.) It was celebrated for its wine ; and 
was one of the cities assigned by Xerxes to 
Themistocles for his maintenance (Thuc. i. 
138 ; Plut. Them. 29). It was the chief seat of 
the worship of Priapus ; and the birthplace of 
the historian Charon, the philosophers Adi- 
mantus and Metrodorus, and the rhetorician 
Anaximenes. Lampsacus was a colony of the 




Coin of Lampsacus, 2nd cent. B.C.. 
Obv„ head of bearded Dionysus; rev., aam*akhnun; 
Apollo with lyre; magistrate's name, sbkpatoy toy 

SENOtANOY. 



Phocaeans : the name of the surrounding dis- 
trict, Bebrycia, connects its old inhabitants 
with the Thracian Bebryces. 

Lamus (Ad/xos), son of Poseidon, and king 
of the Laestrygones, was said to have founded 
Formiae, in Italy. [Fobmiae.] 

Lamus (Actios : Lamas), a river of Cilicia, 
the boundary between Cilicia Aspera and Cilicia 
Campestris ; with a town of the same name 
(Strab. p. 671). 

Lancia (Lancienses). 1. (Sollanco or Sol- 
lancia, near Leon), a town of the Astubes in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, nine miles E. of Legio. 
— 2. Surnamed Oppidana, a town of the Vet- 
tones in Lusitania, not far from the sources 
of the river Munda. 

Langobardi or Longobardi, corrupted into 
Lombards, a German tribe of the Suevic race. 
They dwelt originally on the left bank of the 
Elbe, near the river Saale ; but they afterwards 
crossed the Elbe, and dwelt on the E. bank of 
the river, where they were for a time subject 
to Maroboduus in the reign of Tiberius. (Tac. 
Ann. xii. 17, Germ. 40 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 106 ; Strab. 
p. 290.) Of their wanderings after this there 
is no record for four centuries ; but, like most 
of the other German tribes, they migrated south- 
wards, and in the second half of the fifth 
century appeared again on the N. bank of the 
Danube, in Upper Hungary. Here they de- 
feated and almost annihilated the Heruli. In 
the middle of the sixth century they crossed 
the Danube, at the invitation of Justinian, and 
settled in Pannonia. Here, after thirty years' 
conflict, they destroyed the Gepidae. In a.d. 
568, Alboin, their king, led his nation across 
the Julian Alps, and conquered the plains of 



LAXICE 



LAODICE 



471 



N. Italy, which hare thence received the name 
of Lombardy. Here he founded the kingdom 
of the Lombards, which existed for upwards of 
two centuries, till its overthrow by Charles the 
Great. — Paulus Diaconus, who was a Lombard 
by birth, derives their name of Langobardi 
from their long beards : others take it to mean 
' having long battle-axes ' ; but modern philo- 
logists generally reject both these etymologies, 
and suppose the name to have reference to their 
dwelling on the banks of the Elbe, Bijrde 
signifying a plain on the bank of a river. 

Lanice (Aavunj), nurse of Alexander the 
Great, and sister of Clitus (Arrian, iv. 9). 

Lanuvium (Laniivlnus : Lavignu), an an- 
cient city in Latium, situated on a hill of the 
Alban Mount, not far from the Appia Via, and 
subsequently a Roman municipium (Dionys. v. 
61 ; lav. viii. 14), yet its chief magistrate, as at 
Aricia, Tusculum, and other places, retained the 
old name of dictator (Cic. pro Mil. 10, 27). It 
possessed an ancient temple of Juno Sospita. 
[See p. 463, a.] Under the empire it obtained 
importance as the birthplace of Antoninus Pius. 

Laocoon (Aookowv), a Trojan, who plays a 
prominent part in the post-Homeric legends, 
was a son of Antenor or Acoe'tes, and a priest 
of the Thymbraean Apollo. He tried to dissuade 
his countrymen from drawing into the city the 
wooden horse which the Greeks had left behind 
them when they pretended to sail away from 
Troy. But, as he was preparing to sacrifice a 
bull to Poseidon, suddenly two serpents were 
seen swimming towards the Trojan coast from 




Laocoon. (From the group by Atfoionder and Athcno- 
doruu. now In the Vatican.) 

Te)n:do8. They made for Laocoon, who. while 
all the people took to flight, remained with his 
two Hons standing by the altar of the god. The 
serpents first coiled around the boys, and then 
around the father, and thus all three perished. 
The serpents then glided away to the acropolis 
of Troy, and disappeared behind the shield of 
Tritonis. The reason why Laocoon suffered 
this fearful death is differently stated. Accord- 
ing to some, it was because he had run his 
lance into the aide of the horse ; according to 
others, because, contrary to the will of Apollo, 
he had married and begotten children ; or, 
according to others again, because Poseidon, 
being hostile to the Trojans, wanted to show to 
the Trojans in the i>cr.-.oii of Laocoon what fate 



all of them deserved. (Verg. Aen. ii. 201 ; 
Tzetz. ad Lyc. 347 ; Hyg. Fab. 135 ; Quint. 
Smyrn. xii. 398.) Sophocles wrote a play on 
this subject, of which a few fragments remain 
— among them the line quoted in Aristoph. 
Ran. 665. His death also formed the subject of 
many ancient works of art ; and a magnificent 
group, engraved above, representing the father 
and his sons entwined by the serpents, is pre- 
served in the Vatican. [Agesandbk.J 

Laodamas (AaoSafias). 1. Son of Alcinous, 
king of the Phaeacians, and Arete (Od. vii. 
170). — 2. Son of Eteocles, and king of Thebes, 
i in whose reign the Epigoni marched against 
( Thebes. In the battle against the Epigoni, he 
: slew their leader Aegialeus, but was himself 
j slain by Alcmaeon. Others related that, after 
the battle was lost, Laodamas fled to the 
j Encheleans in Illyricum. (Apollod. iii. 7, 3 ; 
j Pans. ix. 5, 7 ; Hdt. v. 61.) 

Laodamia (AaoSafieia). 1. Daughter of Acas- 
tus, and wife of Protesilaus. When her hus- 
band was slain before Troy, she begged the 
gods to be allowed to converse with him for 
only three hours. The request was granted. 
Hermes led Protesilaus back to the upper 
world, and when Protesilaus died a second 
time, Laodamia died with him. lOv. Her. xiii., 
' Pont. iii. 1, 110 ; Lucian, Dial. Mart, xxiii. 1.) 
A later tradition states that, after the second 
death of Protesilaus, Laodamia made an image 
of her husband, to which she payed divine 
honours ; but as her father Acastus interfered, 
and commanded her to bum the image, she 
herself leaped into the fire (Hyg. Fab. 103, 
104). — 2. Daughter of Bellerophontes, became 
by Zeus the mother of Sarpedon, and was killed 
by Artemis (II. vi. 197). 

Laodice fAao8(K7j). 1. Daughter of Priam 
and Hecuba, and wife of Helicaon. Some relate 
that she fell in love with Acamas, the son of 
Theseus, when he came with Diomedes as 
ambassador to Troy, and that she became by 
Acamas the mother of Munitus. On the death 
of this son, she leaped down a precipice, or was 
swallowed up by the earth. (//. iii. 123 ; Paus. 
x. 26 ; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 513, 547.)— 2. Daughter 
of Agamemnon and Clytaemnestra ( II. ix. 146), 
called Electra by the tragic poets. [Electra.J 
— 3. Mother of Seleucus Nicator, the founder 
of the Syrian monarchy. — 4. Wife of Antiochus 

11. Theos, king of Syria, and mother of Seleu- 
cus Callinicus. For details, see p. 76, b. — 5. Wife 
of Seleucus Callinicus, and mother of Seleucus 
Ceraunus and Antiochus the Great. — 6. Wife of 
Antiochus the Great, was a daughter of Mitfari- 
dates IV. king of Pontus, and granddaughter of 
No. 4. — 7. Wife of Achaeus, the cousin and 
adversary of Antiochus the Great, was a sister 
of No 6.-8. Daughter of Antiochus the Greut 
by his wife Laodice [No. 6]. She was married 
to her eldest brother Antiochus, who died in his 
father's lifetime, 195. — 9. Daughter of Seleucus 
IV. Philopator, was murried to Perseus, king of 
Macedonia. — 10. Daughter of Antiochus IV. 
Epiphanes, was married to the! mpostor Alex- 
ander Bulus. — 11. Wife and alBO sister of 
Mithridfttes Eupator (commonly called tho 
Great), king of Pontus. During the ubsence oi 
her husband, she was unfaithful to him, and on 
his return attempted his life by poison. Her 
designs were, however, betrayed to Mithridates, 
who put her to death (Justin, xxxvii. 8). — 

12. Another sister of Mithridates Eupator, 
married to Ariarathes VI., king of Cappadocia, 
after whose dentil she murried Nicomodca, kin. 

i of Bithyma. 



472 



LAODICEA 



Laodlcea (AaoS'tKeia: AaoSiKevs, Laodioensis, 
Laodicenus), the name of six Greek cities in 
Asia, four of which (besides another now un- 
known) were founded by Seleucus I. Nicator, 
and named in honour of his mother Laodice, 
the other two by Antiochus II. and Antiochus I. 
or III. [See Nos. 1 and 5.] — 1. L. ad Lycum (A. 
irpbs T<f AvKif, Eski-Hissar, Ru.), a city of Asia 
Minor, stood on a ridge of hills near the S. bank 
of the river Lycus (Choruk-Su), a tributary of 
the Maeander, a little to the W. of Colossae, and 
to the S. of Hierapolis, on the borders of Lydia, 
Caria, and Phrygia, to each of which it is 
assigned by different writers ; but after the 
definitive division of the provinces, it is reckoned 
as belonging to Great Phrygia, and under the 
later Eoman emperors it was the capital of 
Phrygia Pacatiana. It was founded by Anti- 
ochus II. Theos, on the site of a previously 
existing town, and named in honour of his wife 
Laodice. It passed from the kings of Syria to 
those of Pergamum, and from them to the 
Romans, to whom Attalus III. bequeathed his 
kingdom, and who included it in the province 
of Asia. At first it was comparatively an insig- 
nificant place, and it suffered much from the 
frequent earthquakes to which its site seems 
to be more exposed than that of any other 
city of Asia Minor, and also from the Mith- 
ridatic war (Appian, Bell. Mithr. 20). Under 
the later Roman republic and the early em- 
perors, it rose to importance ; and, though more 
than once almost destroyed by earthquakes, it 
was restored by the aid of the emperors and 
the munificence of its own citizens, and became, 
next to Apamea, the greatest city in Phrygia, 
and one of the most flourishing in Asia Minor. 
(Plin. v. 105; Strab. p. 578; Tac. Ami. xiv. 27.) 
The magnificent ruins of the city comprise an 
aqueduct, a gymnasium, several theatres, and 
an almost perfect stadium. This prosperity was 
owing in great measure to its situation on the 
traffic routes from Asia to the coasts. It stood 
at the junction of roads leading from Ephesus 
and from Smyrna through Cibyra to Attalea, 
and also by way of Apamea to Nicomedia in the 
north and Iconium or Ancyra in the east. It 
was enriched also by its trade in wool and 
manufacture of cloth (Strab. I.e.; Cic. ad Fam. 
ii. 17, iii. 5). [For its importance in the history 
of the Church, see Diet, of the Bible.] — 2. L. 
Catacecaumene or Combusta (A. rj KaTaKtKav- 
fxevri, i.e. the burnt : Ladik, Ru.), a city of Ly- 
caonia, N. of Iconium, on the high road from 
the W. coast of Asia Minor to the Euphrates, 
and in the Byzantine period having direct com- 
munication with Dorylaeum and the north. 
Whether its name is due to its having been 
burnt and rebuilt is not recorded. It can have 
no connexion with the volcanic district called 
Ka.TaKeKavfj.4vri, which is in quite another part 
of Asia Minor. [See p. 207.]— 3. L. ad Mare 
(A. iiri T-ij OaAaTTT/: Ladiluyeh), a city on the 
coast of Syria, about fifty mi'les S. of Antioch, 
was built by Seleucus I. on the site of an earlier 
city, called Ramitha or Acvk)) 'Aktt). It had 
the best harbour in Syria, and was celebrated 
for its traffic in wine and fruit. In the civil 
contests during the later period of the Syrian 
kingdom, Laodicea obtained virtual indepen- 
dence, in which it was confirmed probably by 
Pompey, and certainly by Julius Caesar, who 
greatly favoured the city. In the civil wars, 
after Caesar's death, the Laodiceans were 
severely punished by Cassius for their ad- 
herence to Dolabella, and the city again suffered 
in the Parthian invasion of Syria, but was 



LAOMEDON 

recompensed by Antony with exemption from 
taxation. Herod the Great built the Laodiceans 
an aqueduct, the ruins of which still exist. It 
is mentioned occasionally as an important city 
under the later Roman empire ; and, after the 
conquest of Syria by the Arabs, it was one of 
those places on the coast which still remained 
in the hands of the Greek emperors, and with 
a Christian population. It was taken and 
destroyed by the Arabs in 1188. It is now a 
Turkish village, with considerable ruins of the 
ancient city. (Strab. pp. 751, 752.) — 4. L. ad 
Libanum (A. AiRavov, irpbs Aifiavq)), a city of 
Coele-Syria, at the N. entrance to the narrow 
valley (av\dv), between Libanus and Antili- 
banus. During the possession of Coele-Syria 
by the Greek kings of Egypt, it was the border 
fortress of Syria, and the chief city of a district 
called Laodieene. (Strab. p. 755 ; Plin. v. 82.) — 
5. A city in the SE. of Media, near the boundary 
of Persis, founded either by Antiochus I. Soter 
or Antiochus II. the Great (Strab. p. 524 ; Plin. 
vi. 115). — 6. In Mesopotamia (Plin. vi. 117). 

Laodocus (AaoScW). 1. Son of Bias and 
Pero, took part in the expeditions of the Argo- 
nauts, and of the Seven against Thebes. (Ap. 
Rh. i. 119 ; Apollod. iii. 6, 4.)— 2. Son of Ante- 
nor (II. iv. 87). 

Laomedon (Aaofxioaiv). 1. King of Troy, son 
of Ilus and Eurydice, and father of Priam, 
Hesione, and other children (II. xx. 236 ; 
Apollod. iii. 12, 3). Poseidon and Apollo, who 
had displeased Zeus, were doomed to serve 
Laomedon for wages. Accordingly, Poseidon 
built the walls of Troy, while Apollo tended the 
king's flocks on Mount Ida. When the two 
gods had done their work, Laomedon refused 
them the reward he had promised them, and 
expelled them from his dominions. (II. xxi. 
441-457 ; Hor. Od. iii. 3, 21.) Poseidon in wrath 
let loose the sea over the lands, and also sent a 
sea-monster to ravage the country. The Homeric 
account states that Heracles was induced to 
build a wall as a protection against the sea- 
monster by the promise mentioned below. This 
is expanded by a later tradition (Schol. ad loc.) 
into a story like that of Andromeda, that by 
command of an oracle the Trojans were obliged, 
from time to time, to sacrifice a maiden to the 
monster ; and on one occasion it was decided 
by lot that Hesione, the daughter of Laomedon 
himself, should be the victim. But it happened 
that Heracles was just returning from his ex- 
pedition against the Amazons, and he promised 
to save the maiden if Laomedon would give 
him the horses which Tros had once received 
from Zeus as a compensation for Ganymedes. 
(II. v. 265.) Laomedon promised to give them, 
but again broke his word, when Heracles had 
killed the monster and saved Hesione. Here- 
upon Heracles sailed with a squadron of six 
ships against Troy, killed Laomedon, with all 
his sons, except Podarces (Priam), and gave 
Hesione to Telamon. (II. v. 640, xx. 145 : Diod. 
v. 32, 49 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 6.) It will be seen 
that, excepting the episode of Hesione, all the 
points in Laomedon's story appear in the Iliad. 
The account of the wall built by Heracles has 
all the appearance of a tradition derived from 
an ancient wall against encroachments of the 
sea. Priam, as the son of Laomedon, is called 
Laomedontiades ; and the Trojans, as the sub- 
jects of Laomedon, are called Laomedontiadae. 
—2. Of Mytilene, was one of Alexander's 
generals, and after the king's death (b.c. 323), 
obtained the government of Syria. He was 
afterwards defeated by Nicanor, the general of 



LAPETHUS 

Ptolemy, and deprived of Syria. (Arrian, An. 
hi. 6; Diod. xviii. 39.) 

Lapethus or Lapathus !Aa7rij0os, Adirados : 
Aa7T7)9(Oi, AoTTTjfleuj : Lapitho or Lapta), an 
important town on the N. coast of Cyprus, on a 
river of the same name, E. of the Prom. Crom- 
myon (Strab. p. 682 ; Ptol. v. 14, 4 ; Plin. v. 130). 

Laphria, a surname of Artemis. [See p. 
128, a.] 

Laphystlus (Awpvartos), a mountain in 
Boeotia, between Coronea and Orchomenus, on 
which was a temple of Zeus Laphystius (Pans, 
i. 24, 2, ix. 34, 5). 
Lapidei Campi. [Campi Lapidei.] 
Lapithae (Aom'Scti), an ancient race, with a 
mythical ancestor Lapithes, son of Apollo 
(Diod. iv. 69), dwelling in Thessaly, in the lower 
valley of the Peneus, who are described as 



LAKES 



473 




Lapitha and Cont:iur. From a painting on marble at Herculitnium 

being akin to the Pelasgians — i.e. they were pre- 
historic inhabitants of that district. In the 
Iliad they are mentioned only as a warlike race 
among the combatants defending the Greek 
wall, and one of their leaders is named Piri- 
thous (II. xii. 128, 181). In the Odysney there 
is mention of their fight with the Centaurs, 
who had gone to the house of Pirithous, the ! 
king of the Lapithae (xxi. 2951, and this became 
the most famous part of their legendary his- 
tory. According to the full development of the 
story, the Lapithae were governed by Pirithous, 
who, being a son of Ixion, was a half-brother of 
the Centaurs. The Centaurs, therefore, de- i 
manded their share in their father's kingdom, ' 
and a war arose between them, which was at 
length terminated by a peace. But when 
Pirithous married Hippodamia, and invited the 
Centaurs to the marriage feast, tlx- latter, fired 
by wine and urged on by Ares, attempted to 
carry off the bride and the other women. 
Thereupon a bloody conflict ensued, in which 
the Centaurs were defeated by the Lapithae. 
(Strab. pp. 439-441 ; Diod. iv. 70; Ov. Met. xii. 
210; Hor. Or/, i. 18, 5.) It is probable that 
many of the details were found in the Cyclic 
poets, and that the story arose out of fights 
between the Lapithae and ruder mountain 
tribes, who appear as the Centaurs, and whom 
they drove back. A further Dorian tradition 
tells that Heracles helped the Dorians against 
the Lapithae, who were defeated. [Aeoimivs.] 
The Attic legend makes Theseus help Pirithous 
and the Lapithae against the Centaurs. [The- 
seus.] It is likely that the story of Heracles 
has to do with Dorian victories over the Lapi- 



thae, some of whom were at one time or other 
driven southwards from Thessaly into Attica ; 
and this may have been at the time of the 
Dorian movement towards the Peloponnesus. 
The part which the Lapithae had in forming 
the population of Attica is signified by the 
heroon of Pirithous in Attica (Paus. i. 30, 4), 
and by his connexion in Attic legends with 
Theseus ; and several Athenian families traced 
their descent from the Lapithae. The fight of 
the Lapithae and Centaurs was a favourite 
subject in art. Pausanias mentions a painting 
of it in the temple of Theseus at Athens, and 
a famous sculpture on the temple of Zeus at 
Olympia (Paus. i. 17, 2, v. 10, 8). [Cextauri.] 
Lar or Lars, was an Etruscan title or prae- 
nomen, borne, for instance, by Porsena and 
Tolumnius. From the Etruscans it passed 
into some Roman families, 
whence we read of Lar 
Herminius, who was con- 
sul B.C. 448. This word 
signified lord, king, or hero 
in the Etruscan. (Liv. ii. 
9, iii. 65, iv. 17.) 
Lara. [LajvundaJ 
Laranda irct Aapavfia: 
Larenda or Caramon), a 
considerable town in the 
S. of Lycaonia, on the 
road from Iconium to Se- 
leucia, at the N. foot of 
M. Taurus, in a fertile dis- 
trict; taken by storm by 
Perdiccas, but afterwards 
/estored. It was used by 
the Isaurian robbers as 
one of their strongholds, 
(Strab. p. 569 ; Diod. 
xviii. 22 ; Arum. Marc, 
xiv. 2.) 

Larentla. TAcca Lakentia.] 
Lares, Roman tutelary deities of the house- 
hold and all that belonged to it, and also (as L. 
Compitales, L. Viales) of roads and crossways 
[see below]. Their original significance, how- 
ever, is by no means certain. In Latin litera- 
ture they are so closely connected with the 
Penates as to be almost equivalent to them ; 
but there is little doubt that the two classes of 
deities were originally far more distinct than 
they appear to be in writers of Cicero's time 
and later. They have been often compared to 
the Greek 5)pa>es; but this again is with some 
reason regarded as part of a later tendency to 
accommodate Latin religion to certain ideas of 
Greek philosophy. It is commonly said that 
the name is the same as the Etruscan Larlh or 
Lars, and that therefore Lares means ' lords ' ; 
but it is by no means certain that the word 
is of Etruscan origin at all. The oldest Latin 
form is Laura, under which title the Lares are 
invoked in the Arval hymns ; and, though thin 
word may some day be proved to be borrowed 
from the Etruscans, our present knowledge of 
the Etruscan language does not warrant more 
than conjecture. The Lares in old formulas 
appear to be the gods of country places witli 
sacred groves (Cic. Lrijg. ii. 8, 19), whence it is 
deduced that the Lar was first the protector of 
the whole property, including the tlonius and 
familia of the Roman landowner, and then, as 
Lar Familiaris, was particularly connected 
with the household. It is, however, more natu- 
ral that the worship should extend from the 
household to the community than conversely. 
A somewhat different view of their origin truces 



474 



LAKES 



LAEISSA 



them to a worship of ancestors, on the theory 
that the Lares were spirits of ancestral founders, 
who were in old times actually buried within 
the precincts of the house (Serv. ad Aen. vi. 
152 ; cf. Cic. Legg. ii. 23, 58 ; Isid. Orig. xv. 11 ; 
August. CD. ix. 11). Support may be found 
for this view in the traditions which make Lara 
or Larunda the mother of the Lares and also a 
deity of the underworld, and Mania mother 
alike of Lares and Manes [Larunda ; Mania]. 
On the other hand, the legend of the birth of 
Servius Tullius from the Lar Familiaris (Dionys. 

iv. 2 ; Plin. xxxvi. 204) does not agree with the 
theory that the Lar was the spirit of an ances- 
tor, nor is there any proof of the antiquity of 
such a belief. Another view deserves consider- 
ation, and is perhaps right : that the Lar Fami- 
liaris was originally only another name for the 
Genius Domus [see Genius], and that the two 
Lares Compitales of the neighbourhood were 
afterwards united with him in the household 
worship. In pre-Ciceronian times the Lar 
Familiaris was spoken of in the singular, as the 
guardian of the house. He is introduced in 
the prologue of the Aulularia of Plautus 
in person, watching over the fortunes of the 
house, and acting in much the same way as a 
' brownie ' would act in northern legends (cf . 
Trinumm. 39). As he belonged to the house, 
his name was used for the house itself (Hor. 
Od. i. 12, 43; Sail. Cat. 21; Mart. xi. 82, 2; 
Stat. Silv. ii. 3, 16). In Cicero and afterwards 
the name appears in the plural (perhaps for the 
reason mentioned above), and often associated 
with the Dei Penates or gods of the household 
store (Cic. pro Dom. 41, 108; Rep. v. 5, 7), the 
ideas of Penates and Lares being apparently as 
closely connected as our 'hearth and home.' 
In the private worship of the household, images 
of the Lares were placed in a shrine (sacrarium 
or lararimn), to which offerings were made at 
meal-time : the Lares were crowned and re- 
ceived special offerings on Kalends, Ides and 
Nones, or on the birthday of the master of the 
house [Diet, of Ant. art. Larariuni] ; their 
images were polished with wax and therefore 
' renidentes ' (Hor. Epod. 2, 66 ; cf. Juv. xii. 87). 
The bride on her first entry, or a member of the 
family returning from abroad, paid honour to j 
them. Besides this private worship the Lares 
Compitales or Viales, called collectively Lares i 
Publici (Plin. xxi. 11), were honoured by the i 
community. These deities were two in number, 
probably because one belonged to each intersect- 
ing road : in mythology, they were the twin 
sons of Mercury and Lara or Larunda. They 
were the protectors, not merely of the crossways, 
but of the neighbourhood generally. [For the 
offerings, see Diet, of Ant. art. Conipitalia.~\ 
The same worship existed in old times at in- 
tersecting vici of Rome, where shrines of the 
Lares were placed ; but Augustus gave it greater 
importance and associated his own Genius with 
the two Lares Compitales (Ov. Fast. v. 145 ; 
Hor. Od. v. 5, 39 ; Genius). The state had its 
Lares praestites, and protection was sought 
by travellers from Lares permarini, to whom a 
temple in the Campus Martius was dedicated, 
B.C. 179. A temple to the state Lares on the 
Via Sacra near the Palatine was dedicated by 
Augustus to replace an ancient altar (Ov. Fast. 

v. 129, vi. 791 ; Mon. Ancyr. iv. 7). In art, the 
Lares were represented by two figures with the 
toga girt up (incincti, succincti, Ov. Fast. ii. 
634 ; Pers. v. 31), crowned with wreaths, bearing 
a drinking-horn or rhyton in their hands and 
sometimes a patera. Sometimes a dog is placed 



by them to represent watchfulness (Ov. Fast. 
v. 142). In a painting from Pompeii, Vesta 
stands between them, and the Genius is repre- 
sented by a snake below. 

Lares (Aap-qs : Alarbous), a city of N. Africa, 
in the Carthaginian territory (Byzacena), SW. 
of Zama ; a place of some importance at the 
time of the war with Jugurtha (Sail. Jug. 90; 
Ptol. iv. 3, 28). 

Largus, Scribonius. [Scribonius.] 

Lariuum (Larlnas, -atis : Larino), a town of 
the Frentani (whence the inhabitants are called 
Larinates cognomine Frentani; Plin. iii. 105), 
on the river Tifernus, and near the borders of 
Apulia, subsequently a Roman municipium 
(Cic. pro Cluent. 4, 10), possessed a consider- 
able territory extending dowu to the Adriatic 
sea. The speech of Cicero pro Cluentio enters 
largely into the local affairs of Larinum. 

Larissa (Adpiaffa), the name of several Pelas- 
gian places, whence Larissa is called in my- 
thology the daughter of Pelasgus (Paus. ii. 
24, 1). I. In Europe. 1. (Larissa or Larza), 
an important town of Thessaly, in Pelasgiotis, 
situated on the Peneus, in an extensive plain. 
It was once the capital of the Pelasgi, and had 
a democratical constitution, and hence allied 
itself to Athens in the Peloponnesian war (Thuc. 
ii. 22 ; Ar. Pol. v. 6), but subsequently became 
subject to the Macedonians. It retained its 
importance under the Romans, and was the 
seat of the district council or diet which the 




Coin of Larissa in Thessaly. (Early in 4th cent. B.C.) 
Obv., head of nymph Larissa ; rev., AAPI2AIGN, horse (a 
common type for the equestrian people of Thessaly). 



Thessalians were allowed to retain for their 
local affairs. (Appian, B.C. ii. 88; Plut. Caes. 
48 ; cf. Liv. xxxvi. 8, xlii. 38.) After the time 
of Constantine the Great it became the capital 
of the province of Thessaly. — 2. Surnamed 
Cremaste (rj Kpefjiaa-ri)), another important 
town of Thessaly, in Phthiotis, situated on a 
height, whence probably its name, and distant 
20 stadia from the Maliac gulf (Strab. pp. 
435, 440). II. In Asia. 1. An ancient city on 
the coast of the Troad, near Hamaxitus (Thuc. 
viii. 101 ; Strab. p. 620).— 2. L. Phriconis (A. 
T] 4>pM<»vis, also at Aripiaaai), a city on the 
coast of Mysia, near Cyme (hence called r\ irepl 
rrjv Kifir]v), of Pelasgian origin, but colonised 
by the Aeolians, and made a member of the 
Aeolic confederacy. It is probably the Larissa 
mentioned by Homer (II. ii. 841 ; Strab. p. 621). 
It was also called the Egyptian Larissa (fi 
Aiyv-wTia), because Cyrus the Great settled in 
it a body of his Egyptian mercenary soldiers 
(Xen. Hell. iii. 1, 7).— 3. L. Ephesia (A. v 
'E<pe<r'ia), a city of Lydia, in the plain of the 
Cayster, on the N. side of M. Messogis, NE. of 
Ephesus ; with a temple of Apollo Larissaeus 
(Strab. pp. 440, 620). — 4. In Assyria, an ancient 
city on the E. bank of the Tigris, some distance 
N. of the mouth of the river Zabatas or Lycus, 
described by Xenophon (Anab. iii. 4). It was 
deserted when Xenophon saw it ; but its brick 



LARISSUS 



LATI UM 



475 



walls still stood, 25 feet thick, 100 feet high, 
and 2 parasangs ( = G0 stadia = 6 geog. miles), 
in circuit. The site of Larissa is supposed to 
be that of the ruins near Nimroud, the same 
site as that of Nineveh. — 5. In Syria, called by 
the Syrians Sizara (2i'(.apo: Kulat Seijar), a 
city in the district of Apamene, on the W. bank 
of the Orontes, about half-way between Apamea 
and Epiphania. 

Larissus or Larisus (Aapiaaos, Adpiaos : Bis- 
so), a small river forming the boundary between 
Achaia and Elis, rises in Mt. Scollis, and flows 
into the Ionian sea. 

Larlus Lacus (Lake of Como), a large lake 
in Gallia Transpadana, running from X. to S., 
through which the river Adda flows (Verg. 
Georg. ii. 159 ; Strab. p. 192). After extending 
about fifteen miles, it is divided into two 
branches, of which the one to the SW. is about 
eighteen miles in length, and the one to the 
SE. about twelve miles. At the extremity of 
the SW. branch is the town of Comum ; and at 
the extremity of the SE. branch the river Adda 
issues out of the lake. The beauty of the 
scenery is praised by Pliny, who had more than 
one villa on its banks (Plin. Ep. ix. 7). One, 
which he named Comoedia, is placed by some at 
Bellagio, on the promontory which divides the 
two branches of the lake ; and another, called 
Tragoedia, at Lenno, on the W. bank. The 
intermitting fountain of which Pliny gives an 
account {Ep. iv. 30) is still called Pliniana. 

Lars Tolumnius. [Tolumnius.] 

Lartia Gens, patrician, distinguished at the 
beginning of the republic through two of its 
members, T. Lartius, the first dictator, and Sp. 
Lartius, the companion of Horatius on the 
wooden bridge. The name soon after dis- 
appears entirely from the annals. The Lartii 
were probably of Etruscan origin, and their 
name connected with the Etruscan word Lar 
or Lars. [LarJ 

Larunda, Lara, or Lala was regarded as 
mother of the Lares and = Mania : she was also 
in the old Roman religion a deity of the under- 
world and bore the names Muta or Tacita to 
signify the silence of the dead, just as the 
Manes are often called ' silent.' She was prob- 
ably also a goddess of fountains and therefore 
called daughter of the river Almo. From this 
later Roman mythology, connecting the form 
Lala with the Greek KaKtlv and endeavouring 
to account for the name ' Silent,' evolved the 
legend that she was a nymph who informed 
Juno of the connexion between Jupiter and Ju- 
turna ; hence the attempt to derive her name 
from \a\t~iv. Jupiter deprived her of her tongue, 
and ordered Mercury to conduct her into the 
lower world. On the way thither, Mercury fell 
in love with her, and she afterwards gave birth 
to two Lares. (Ov. Fast. ii. 599-616 ; Varro, 
L. L. ix. Gl ; Macrob. i. 7, 34 ; Lactant. i. 29, 
85; Mania.) 

Larvae. [Lemubj s. 

Larymna lAapu^rai, the name of two towns 
on the river Cephissiis, on the borders of 
Boeotia and Locris, and distinguished as Upper 
and Lower Larymna. The latter was at the 
mouth of the river and the former inland. 

Las (ASs : Ep. Adas : Passava), an ancient 
town of Laconia, on the E. side of the Laconian 
gulf, ten stadia from the sea, and S. of Gytheum. 
It is said to have been once destroyed by the 
Dioscuri, who hence received the surname of 
Lapcrtae, or the destroyers of Las. Under the 
Romans it was a place of no importance. 

Lasaea (Aaaata), a town in the E. of Crete, 



j not far from the Prom. Samonium, mentioned 
in the Acts of the Apostles (xxvii. 8). 

Lasion (AacriW : Aaauvvios : Lala), a fortified 
town in Elis, on the frontiers of Arcadia, and 
not far from the confluence of the Erymanthus 
and the Alpheus. This town was a constant 
source of dispute between the Eleans and Arca- 
dians. (Xen. Hell. iii. 2, 30, vii. 4, 13.) 

Lasthenes (Aa.<r8evr]s). 1. An Olynthian, 
who, together with Euthycrates, betrayed his 
country to Philip of Macedon, by whom he had 
been bribed, B.C. 347 (Dem. Phil. iii. p. 126, de 
Cor. p. 241; Diod. xvi. 53).— 2. A Cretan, a, 
principal leader in the war with the Romans. 
He was defeated and taken prisoner by Q. Me- 
tellus, 67 (Veil. Pat. ii. 34). 

Lasus (Adaos), one of the principal Greek 
lyric poets, was a native of Hermione, in Argo- 
lis. He is celebrated as the founder of the 
Athenian school of dithyrambic poetry, and as 
the teacher of Pindar. He was contemporary 
with Simonides, like whom he lived at Athens, 
under the patronage of Hipparchus. It would 
appear that Lasus introduced a greater freedom, 
both of rhythm and of music, into the dithy- 
rambic ode; that he gave it a more artificial 
and more mimetic character; and that the 
subjects of his poetry embraced a wider range 
than had been customary. (Aristoph. Vesp. 
1410, Schol. ad loc. ; Hdt. vii. 6 ; Suid. s. v.) 

Latera or Laterna Stagnum lEtang de 
: Maguelonne et de Ptrols), a lake formed by 
j the river Ledus in the territory of Xemausus 
in Gallia Xarbonensis, connected with the sea 
by a canal (Plin. ix. 29 ; Mel. ii. 5). 

Laterensis, Juventius, was one of the accu- 
sers of Plancius, whom Cicero defended, B.C. 54. 
[Plancius.J He was praetor in 51. He served 
j as a legate in the army of M. Lepidus, and 
when the soldiers of Lepidus passed over to 
Antony, Laterensis put an end to his life. 
(Appia'n, B. C. iii. 84.) 

Lathon, Lethon, Lethes, Lethaeus (Addwv 
Doric, At)Buv, A-q&aios), a river of Cyrenaica in 
X. Africa, falling into a Lacus Hesperidum, 
near the city of Hesperis or Berenice, in the 
region which the early Greek navigators identi- 
'. fied with the gardens of the Hesperides (Strab. 
pp. 647, 836 ; Ptol. iv. 4, 4 ; Plin. v. 31). 
Latialis or Latiaris. J dpiteb.] 
Latinus. 1. King of Latium, son of Faunus 
| and the nymph Marica, brother of Lavinius, 
husband of Amata,and father of Lavinia, whom 
j he gave in marriage to Aeneas. [Lavinia.] This 
I is the common tradition ; but according to 
] Hesiod he was a son of Odysseus and Circe, and 
1 brother of Agrius, king of the Tyrrhenians 
(Hes. Th. 1018) ; according to Hyginus he was 
a son of Telemachus and Circe (Hyg.F ah. 127) ; 
j while others describe him as a son of Heracles, 
by a Hyperborean woman, who was afterwards 
married to Faunus, or as a son of Heracles by 
a daughter of Faunus (Dionys. i. 48). Latinus 
as the mythical founder of the Latins was iden- 
tified with Jupiter Latiaris. — 2. A celebrated 
player in mimes (Diet, of Ant. h. v.) in the reign 
of Domitian, with whom he was a great favour- 
ite, und whom he served as a delator. He fre- 
quently acted aBinimus with Thvmele as mima. 
i Suet. Dom. 15; Juv. i. 85; Mart. ii. 72, ix. 29.) 

Latium (tj AotiVjj), a country in Italy, inha- 
bited by the Latini. The old derivation pro- 
posed for the name, Latinus (Varro, L. L. v. 
32), latere, because Saturn there hid himself 
(Verg. Aen. viii. 82 ; Ov. Fast. i. 238) may safely 
be rejected. It is probably connected with 
irKarvs (to which root belong hltus, side, and 



•476 



LATIUM 



LATRO 



later, brick) and means the plain or flat country. 
This name belongs geographically to the more 
level country lying between the sea on the West 
and the offshoot of the Apennines called the 
Sabine hills on the East, and separated from 
the higher land of Etruria by the Tiber and 
limited to the South by the Volscian hills ; and 
this was the extent of country occupied by the 
old Latins. But in historical times there are 
two further extensions. (1) The territory of 
Latium was subsequently extended southwards ; 
and long before the conquest of the Latins by 
the Romans, it stretched from the Tiber on the 
N., to the Prom. Circeium and Anxur or Tarra- 
cina on the S. Even in the treaty of peace 
made between Rome and Carthage in B.C. 
509, we find Antium, Circeii, and Tarra- 
cina, mentioned as belonging to Latium. The 
name of Latium antiquum OYvetus was given to 
"the country from the Tiber to the Prom. 
Circeium (Plin. iii. 56 ; Strab. p. 228). (2) The 
Romans still further extended the territories of 
Latium, by the conquest of the Hernici, Aequi, 
Volsci, and Aurunci, as far as the Liris on 
the S., and even beyond this river to the 
town Sinuessa and to Mt. Massicus. This 
new accession of territory was called Latium 
novum or adjectum (Plin. iii. 59 : Strab. pp. 
231-237). — Latium, therefore, in its widest sig- 
nification was bounded by Etruria on the N., 
from which it was separated by the Tiber ; by 
Campania on the S., from which it was separated 
by the Liris ; by the Tyrrhene sea on the W. ; 
and by the Sabine and Samnite tribes on the E. 
The greater part of this country is an extensive 
plain of volcanic origin, out of which rise an 
isolated range of mountains known by the name 
of Mons Albanus, of which the Algidus and 
the Tusculan hills are branches. Part of this 
plain, on the coast between Antium and Tarra- 
cina, which was at one time well cultivated, 
became a marsh in consequence of the rivers 
Nymphaeus, Ufens, and Amasenus finding no 
outlet for their waters [Pomptinae Paludes] ; 
but the remainder of the country was celebrated 
for it3 fertility in antiquity. — The ancient 
Latins [for whose origin see p. 453], called 
Prisci Latini, to distinguish them from the 
later Latins, the subjects of Rome, formed a 
league or confederation, consisting of thirty 
cantons [Diet, of Ant. art. Pagus\. The 
town of Alba Longa, for which a Trojan ori- 
gin was in later times invented, was the head 
of the league [Alba Longa]. That the Sa- 
bines, who eventually coalesced with the 
Latins to form the state of Rome, had in the 
first place occupied part of Latium by conquest, 
is a probable conclusion both from the Roman 
traditions of Titus Tatius and from many an- 
cient Roman institutions, civil and religious, of 
a Sabine origin ; and some have even suggested 
that the destruction of Alba Longa took place 
in this Sabine invasion. Again, there are 
traces of an Etruscan conquest of part of 
Latium in the name of Tusculum itself and in 
the stories of the Etruscan kings at Rome; and 
it is possible, as many have thought, that 
Etruscan occupation of towns in Latium coin- 
cided with the period assigned in the legends to 
the reigns of the Tarquins and Servius Tullius. 
The most probable view of the stages by which 
Rome extended her influence in Latium seems 
to be as follows. She first subdued the Latin 
states near the Tiber and Anio, Antemnae, 
Crustumerium, Ficulnea, Medullia, Caenina, 
Corniculum, Cameria, Collatia, and then pro- 
ceeded to the conquest and destruction of her 



rival, Alba Longa, after which she was acknow- 
ledged as the head of the Latin League of thirty 
states. Fidenae was long disputed by the 
Romans and the Etruscans of Veii. The 
difference made in the position of the Latin 
towns was that whereas in old times Alba 
Longa was merely a chief city among others of 
equal rights, who probably combined to appoint 
a federal commander for their united contingents 
of troops, Rome stood on the footing of being 
equal to all the rest together. The Roman 
forces amounted to half the federal army, and 
she received half the land and spoil taken in 
war. Henceforth the Latin festival was con- 
verted into a Roman one, which is the significa- 
tion of Livy's statement that Tarquin originated 
the Feriae Latinae (Liv. v.,17 ; Diet, of Ant. 
s. v.). The Latins asserted their independence, 
and commenced a struggle with Rome, which, 
though frequently suspended and apparently 
terminated by treaties, was as often renewed, 
and was not brought to a final close till B.C. 340, 
when the Latins were defeated by the Romans 
at the battle of Mt. Vesuvius. The Latin League 
was now dissolved, and the supremacy of Rome 
was completely established over all the Latin 
towns, but with special arrangements according 
to the will of the Romans as to what rights and 
what land each town should retain, or whether 
it should become merely a Roman municipium. 
i In some the old Latin name of dictator was still 
retained (Cic. pro Mil. 10, 27). [For details see 
Diet, of Ant. art. Latinitas.] — The old Latin 
towns were built for the most part on isolated 
! hills, the sides of which ,were made by art 
J steep and almost inaccessible. They were sur- 
rounded by walls built of great polygonal stones, 
the remains of which excite our astonishment. 

Latmicus Sinus (6 AaT/Micbs ko^ttos), a gulf 
on the coast of Ionia, in Asia'Minor, into which 
: the river Maeander fell, named from M. Latmus, 
which overhangs it. Its width from Miletus, 
j which stood on its S. side, to Pyrrha, was about 
I thirty stadia (Strab. p. 635). Through the 
changes effected on this coast by the Maeander, 
the gulf is now an inland lake, called Ahees- 
Chai or Ufa-Bassi. 

Latmus (Ad.Tp.os : Monte di Palatia), a moun- 
tain in Caria, extending in a SE. direction from 
the S. side of the Maeander to the NE. of 
Miletus and the Sinus Latmicus. It was the 
mythological scene of the story of Selene and 
Endymion, who is hence called by the Roman 
poets ' Latmius heros ' and ' Latmius venator : ' 
he had a temple on the mountain, and a cavern 
in its side was shown as his grave. [Endymion.] 
Latoblci, a Celtic people in the SW. of Pan- 
nonia on the river Savus, in the modern Car- 
niola (Ptol. ii. 15, 2; Plin. iii. 148). 

Latobrigi, a people in Gallia Belgica, men- 
tioned, along with the Tulingi and Rauraci, 
as neighbours of the Helvetii. They dwelt be- 
tween Bale and Berne. (Caes. B. G. i. 5, 29.) 
Latona. [Leto.] 

Latopolis (AaToivoXis '. Esneh, Ru.), a city of 
Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the Nile, be- 
tween Thebes and Apollonopolis, with a temple 
of the god Khnem. According to Strabo the 
inhabitants worshipped the Nile-fish called 
latus (Strab. pp. 812, 817). 

Latro, M. Porcius, a Roman rhetorician in 
the reign of Augustus, was a Spaniard by birth, 
and a friend and compatriot of the elder Seneca, 
by whom he is frequently mentioned. His 
school was much frequented at Rome, and he 
numbered among his pupils the poet Ovid. He 
died b. c. 4. (Sen. Controv. i. 13-24, ii. 10, 8.) 



LAUMELLUM 



LEARCHUS 



477 



Laumellum (Lomello), a town of Gallia j 
Transpadana between Yercellae and Ticinum 
(Ptol. iii. 1, 36). 

Laureacum or Lauriacum (Lorch, near Ens), ! 
a strongly fortified town on the Danube in 
NoricumRipense, the headquarters of the second | 
legion, and the station of a Roman fleet (Anim. 
Marc, xxxi. 10). 

Laurentia, Acca. [Acca Laubentia.] 

Laurentius Lydus. [Lydus.] 

Laurentum (Laurens, -ntis), one of the most 
ancient towns of Latium, situated between 
Ostia and Ardea, near the sea (Liv. i. 1 ; 
Dionys. i. 45 ; Strab. p. 229). It was supposed 
to have derived its name from groves of laurels, 
which (apparently like the eucalyptus) were I 
found to counteract the unhealthiness of its 
marshes (Herodian, i. 12). According to Virgil, 
it was the residence of king Latinus and the 
capital of Latium ; and it is certain that it was 
a place of importance in the time of the Roman 
kings, as it is mentioned in the treaty between 
Rome and Carthage in B. c. 509. The younger 
Pliny and the emperor Commodus had villas 
at Laurentum (Plin. Ep. ii. 17). It seems 
to have been, at any rate in winter, a healthy 
place, notwithstanding the marshes in the 
neighbourhood. These marshes supplied the 
tables of the Romans with excellent boars 
(Verg. Aen. x. 107, 709 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 42 ; 
Mart. x. 37, 5). — In the time of the Antonines 
Laurentum was united with Lavinium, from 
which it was only six miles distant, so that the | 
two formed only one town, which was called 
Laurolavinium, and its inhabitants were named 
Laurentes Lavinates. The site of Laurentum 
was probably at, or near, Torre di Paterno. 

Lauretanus Portus, a harbour of Etruria, 
between Populonia and Cosa (Liv. xxx. 39). 

Lauriacum. [Laubeacum.] 

Laurlum {Aavpiov, Aavpttov), in the S. of 
Attica, a little N. of the Prom. Sunium, included 
all the hilly metalliferous district S. of a line 
drawn from Thoricus to Anaphystus. It was 
celebrated for its silver mines, which in early 
times were so productive that every Athenian 
citizen received annually ten drachmae. On i 
the advice of Themistocles, the Athenians ! 
applied this money to equip 200 triremes, shortly 
before the invasion of Xerxes. In the time of 
Xenophon the produce of the mines was 100 
talents. They gradually became less and less 
productive, and in the time of Strabo they 
yielded nothing. (Hdt. vii. 144 ; Thuc. ii. 55 ; 
Xen. Mem. iii. <>, 12 ; Strab. p. 399 ; Diet, of ' 
Ant. art. Metalla.) At the present time the 
mines are worked for lead, and also within 
recent years it hus been found possible to obtain 
silver by re-melting the imi>erfectly smelted 
scoriae thrown out by the old Greeks. It is 
curious that when these refuse heaps were re- 
moved, a flower sprang up unknown to modern 
botany, whose seeds must have lain dormant 
since the old mining works. 

Lanron (Laury, W. of Xucar in Valencia), a 
town in the E. of Hispania Tarrnconensis, near 
the sea and the river Sucro, celebrated on ac- 
count of its siego by Sertorius, and as the pluce , 
where Cn. Pompey, the Younger, was put to 
death after the battle of M inula (Appian, li. C. 
i. 109; Plut. Sert. 18, Pomp. 18). 

Laus (ASos : Aatyos), a Greek city in Lucania, 
situated near the mouth of the river Laus, which 
formed the boundary between Lucania and Lrut- 
tium. It was founded by the Sybarites, after 
their own city liad been taken by the inhabitants 
of Croton, B.C. 510, but it had disappeared in 



the time of Pliny. (Strab. p. 253 ; Plin. iii. 72.) 
— The gulf into which the river Laus flowed 
was also called the gulf of Laus. 

Laus Pompeii (Lodi Vecchio), a town in 
Gallia Cisalpina, NW. of Plaeentia, and SE. of 
Mediolanum. It was founded by the Boii (Plin. 
iii. 124), and was probably made a municipium 
by Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompeius 
Magnus, and called by his name. 

Lausus. 1. Son of Mezentius, king of the 
Etruscans, slain by Aeneas (Verg. Aen. vii. 649, 
x. 790). — 2. Son of Numitor and brother of Ilia, 
killed by Amulius (Ov. Fast. iv. 55). 

Lautulae, a village of the Volsci in Latium, 
in a narrow pass between Tarracina and Fundi 
(Liv. vii. 39). 

Laverna, the Roman goddess of thieves and 
impostors. A grove was sacred to her on the 
Via Salaria, and she had an altar near the Porta 
Lavernalis, which derived its name from her. 
(Van-. L. L. v. 163; Hor. Ep. i. 16, 60; Petron. 
140 ; Arnob. iii. 26.) 

Lavicum. [Labicum.] 

Lavinia, daughter of Latinus andAmata, be- 
trothed to Turnus (Tuhnus], but afterwards 
given in marriage to Aeneas, by whom she be- 
came the mother of Aeneas Silvius (Liv. i. 1). 

Lavinium (Laviniensis : Pratica), an ancient 
town of Latium, three miles from the sea and 
six miles E. of Laurentum, on the Via Appia, 
and near the river Numicus, which divided its 
territory from that of Ardea. It is said to have 
been founded by Aeneas, and to have been 
called Lavinium, in honour of his wife Lavinia, 
the daughter of Latinus. (Liv. i. 1 ; Dionys. i. 
45; Strab. p. 229). It was an old religious 
centre for the Latins, having a temple of Venus 
common to the nation and administered by 
priests from Ardea (Strab. p. 232), and it was 
the sanctuary of the Penates of the Latin people 
(Varro, L. L. v. 144). Lavinium was at a later 
time united with Laurentum. [Laubentum.] 

Lazae or Lazi (Aafeu, Aa(oi), a people of Col- 
chis, S. of the Phasis (Ptol. v. 10, 5). 

Leaena (Aeaira), an Athenian hetaera, be- 
loved by Aristoglton or Harmodius. On the 
murder of Hipparchus she was put to the tor- 
ture ; but she died under her sufferings without 
making any disclosure, and, if we may believe 
one account, she bit off her tongue, that no 
secret might be wrung from her. The Athenians 
honoured her memory, and in particular by a 
bronze statue of a lioness (ktatva) without a 
tongue, on the Acropolis between the Propylaea 
and the temenos of Artemis Brauronia. (Paus. 
i. 23, 2 ; Plut. de Garrul. 8 ; Polyaen. viii. 45.) 

Leagrus (Ataypos), son of Glaucon, com- 
manded the Athenians who made the first un- 
successful attempt to colonise Ennea Hodoi 
(Amphipolis), and fell at Drabescus (Hdt. ix. 
75; Thuc. i. 100 ; Paus. i. 29, 4). His grandson 
is ridiculed in the lines of Plato quoted by 
Athen. n. 68. 

Leander (Adai/Spos or A(avSpos), the famous 
youth of Abydos, who wus in love with Hero, the 
priestess of Aphrodite in Sestus, and swam every 
night ucross the Hellespont to visit her, and re- 
turned before daybreak. Once during a stormy 
night lie perished in the waves. Next morning 
his body was washed on the coast of Sestus. 
Hero threw herself into the Bea. This story is 
the subject of the poem of Musaeus, entitled 
De Amore Herois et Lcandri [Musakus], and 
is also mentioned by Ovid {Her. xviii. 19), Virgil, 
(Georij. iii. 258), and Statius (Tlieb. vi. 585). 

Learchus (Atapxos). 1. [Athamas.]— 2. Of 
Hhegiuni, one of those Duedalian artists who 



478 



LEBADEA 



LEMNOS 



stand on the confines of the mythical and his- 
torical periods. One account made him a pupil 
of Daedalus ; another, of Dipoenus and Scyllis 
<Paus._iii. 17, 6). 

Lebadea (A6/3c£8eici : Livadhia), a town in 
Boeotia, W. of the lake Copais, between Chae- 
ronea and Mt. Helicon, at the foot of a rock 
from which the river Hercyna flows. In a cave 
of this rock, close to the town, was the cele- 
brated oracle of Trophonius. (Hdt. i. 46, viii. 
134 ; Strab. p. 413 ; Paus. ix. 39, 1.) 

Lebedos (AefieSos : AefieSios), one of the 
twelve cities of the Ionian confederacy, in Asia 
Minor, stood on the coast of Lydia, between 
Colophon and Teos, ninety stadia E. of the pro- 
montory of Myonnesus (Strab. pp. 633, 643). 
It was said to have been built at the time of the 
Ionian migration, on the site of an earlier Carian 
city; and it flourished, chiefly by commerce, 
until Lysimachus transplanted most of its in- 
habitants to Ephesus. In Horace's time it was 
a proverb for desolation. (Paus. i. 9, 8, vii. 3, 2 ; 
Hor. Ep. i. 11, 7.) Near it were mineral springs 
(Hdt. i. 142 ; Thuc. viii. 19), which exist near 
Ehhlesia, but no traces remain of the city. 

Leben or Lebena (Aefiriv, AejSijfa), a town on 
the S. coast of Orete, ninety stadia SE. of Gor- 
tyna, of which it was the harbour. It possessed a 
celebrated temple of Asclepius. (Strab. p. 478.) 

Lebinthus (Aefiivdos : Lebitha), an island in 
the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades, NE. of 
Amorgos (Strab. p. 487). 

Lechaeum (to A^xcuov : Aexo^os), one of the 
two harbours of Corinth, with which it was con- 
nected by two long walls. It was twelve stadia 
from Corinth, and was situated on the Corinthian 
gulf. It had a temple of Poseidon, who was 
hence called Lechaeus. [Corinthus.] 

Lectum (to Ac/ctoV : C. Baba or 8. Maria), 
the SW. promontory of the Troad, is formed 
where the W. extremity of M. Ida juts out into 
the sea, opposite to the N. side of the island of 
Lesbos. It was the S. limit of the Troad ; and, 
under the Byzantine emperors, the N. limit of 
the province of Asia. An altar was shown here 
in Strabo's time, said to have been erected by 
Agamemnon to the twelve chief gods of Greece. 
(II. xiv. 294 ; Hdt. ix. 114 ; Strab. p. 605.) 

Lecythus (A-qicvdos), a town in the peninsula 
of Sithonia near Torone, taken by Brasidas 
(Thuc. iv. 115). 

Leda (ArjSa), daughter of Thestius, whence 
she is called Thestias, and wife of Tyndareus, 
king of Sparta (Eur. I. A. 49 ; Paus. hi. 13, 8). 
According to the best known, but post-Homeric, 
legend, Zeus visited Leda in the form of a swan ; 
and she brought forth two eggs, from the one of 
which issued Helen, and from the other Castor 
and Pollux. [For the various accounts of the 
birth of Helen and her brothers, see Dioscuri ; 
Helena.] The origin of the myth is not easy 
to trace. There is no connexion in mythology 
between Zeus and the swan, which is the sacred 
bird of Apollo in the ' Hyperborean ' story ; the 
swan is also a symbol of Aphrodite as goddess 
of love. Perhaps the origin may be that the 
swan being a bird which breeds on the Eurotas, 
there was a local myth about it transferred to 
Zeus. Others imagine a totem of a swan tribe. 
That Leda represents a local deity is probable 
enough, but of what nature is as doubtful as 
the theory that she was the night and her 
daughter Helen the moon is unsatisfactory. 

Ledon (AeoW), a town in Phocis, NW. of 
Tithorea ; the birthplace of Philomelus, the 
commander of the Phocians in the Sacred war ; 
it was destroyed in this war (Paus. x. 2, 3, 33). 



Ledus or ledum (Les or Lez, near Mont- 
pellier), a small river in Gallia Narbonensis 
(Plin. ix. 29; Avien. Or. Mar. 590; Latera). 

Legae (Ariyai or Aiiyej), a people on the S. 
shore of the Caspian sea. A branch of them 
was found by the Romans in the N. mountains 
of Albania, at the time of Pompey's expedition. 
(Strab. p. 503 ; Plut. Pomp. 35.) 

Legio Septima Gemina (Leon), a town in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, in the country of the 
Astures, originally the headquarters of the 
legion so called (Ptol. ii. 6, 30 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 
67, 86, hi. 7). 

Leitus (Atjitos), son of Alector or Alectryon, 
by Cleobule, father of Peneleus, one of the Ar- 
gonauts, commanded the Boeotians in the war 
against Troy (II. ii. 494, xvii. 602 ; Paus. ix. 4, 3). 

Lelantus Campus (to Ay]Kavrou ireS'tov), a 
plain in Euboea, between Eretria and Chalcis, 
for the possession of which these two cities often 
contended. It contained warm springs and 
mines of iron and copper. (Strab. pp. 58, 447.) 

Leleges (AeAeyey), a race which in early 
times inhabited parts of Greece, Asia Minor, 
and the islands. The traditions about them 
vary greatly. In Homer they appear as an 
Asiatic race helping the Trojans (II. x. 429, xx. 
96) : Herodotus connects them with the Carians, 
and places them in the islands, subject to 
Minos (i. 171) : Pausanias also connects them 
with the Carians, and places them in Pylus and 
Laconia (i. 39, 1, iii. 1, 1, iv. 1, 36, vii. 2, 7). 
Strabo, who cites Aristotle, distinguishes them 
from Pelasgians, and says that they existed in 
Asia connected with Carians, and also in Acar- 
nania, Locris, Boeotia, Megaris, and Leucas 
(Strab. p. 321). The inference from these 
accounts is that the Leleges were a wandering, 
seafaring people of Carian rather than Greek 
origin. Their supposed settlement in many 
parts of Greece may be due to trading stations 
or to piratical enterprises. Some writers hold 
that they may have really been akin to the Greek 
races who have been mentioned, and not allied 
in origin to the Carians, who were not Greek. 
Their mythical ancestor was Lelex, king of 
Laconia. (Paus. iii. 1, 1.) 

Lelex. [Leleges.] 

Lemannus or Lemanus Lacus (Lake of Ge- 
neva), a large lake formed by the river Rho- 
danus, was the boundary between the old 
Roman province in Gaul and the land of the 
Helvetii. Its greatest length is fifty-five miles, 
and its greatest breadth six miles. (Caes. B. G. 
i. 8 ; Mel. ii. 5 ; Strab. p. 271.) 

Lemnos (Arj/j.vos : Ar]fj.vios, fem. At]fj.vids: Sta- 
Umene, i.e. els rav Ariiwou), one of the largest 
islands in the Aegaean sea, was situated nearly 
midway between Mt. Athos and the Hellespont, 
and about twenty-two miles SW. of Imbros. 
Its area is about 147 square miles. In the 
earliest times it appears to have contained only 
one town, which bore the same name as the 
island (II. xiv. 230) ; bub at a later period we 
read of two towns, Myrina (Palaeo Castro) on 
the W. of the island, and Hephaestia or He- 
phaestias (nr. Bapanidi) on the NW., with a 
harbour. (Hdt. vi. 140 ; Ptol. iii. 13, 4 ; Plin. 
iv. 73.) Lemnos was sacred to Hephaestus, who 
is said to have fallen here, when Zeus hurled 
him down from Olympus. Hence the workshop 
of the god is sometimes placed in this island. 
[Hephaestus, p. 393.] The legend has all the 
appearance of being derived from volcanic phe- 
nomena, and it was generally considered that 
Mosychlus in Lemnos was once a volcano ; but 
this is denied by recent geologists, who assert 



LEMONIA 

that the fires spoken of as issuing from it (An- 
timach. ap. Schol. ad Nicandr. Ther. 472 ; 
Lycophr. 227; Hesych. s.v.) must have been 
gaseous. — The most ancient inhabitants of 
Lemnos, according to Homer, were the Thracian 
Sinties (II. i. 594, Od. viii. 294; Strab. p. 
331, 36). When the Argonauts landed at 
Lemnos, they are said to have found it inhabited 
only by women, who had murdered all their 
husbands, and had chosen as their queen Hvp- 
sipyle, the daughter of Thoas, the king of the 
island. [Hypsipyt-e.] Some of the Argonauts 
settled here, and became by the Lemnian 
women the fathers of the Hinyae, the later 
inhabitants of the island. The Minyae are said 
to have been driven out of the island by the 
Pelasgians, who had been expelled from Attica. 
(Hdt. iv. 145, vi. 137 ; Ap. Rh. i. 608.) These 
Pelasgians are further said to have carried 
away from Attica some Athenian women ; but 
as the children of these women despised their 
half-brothers, born of Pelasgian women, the Pe- 
lasgians murdered both them and their children. 
In consequence of this atrocity, and of the 
former murder of the Lemnian husbands by 
the wives, Lemnian deeds became a proverb 
in Greece for all atrocious acts. (Hdt. vi. 128 ; 
Aesch. Cho. 623 ; Eur. Hec. 887.) Lemnos was 
afterwards conquered by one of the generals 
of Darius ; but Miltiades delivered it from the 
Persians, and made it subject to Athens, in 
whose power it remained for a long time. There 
was a labyrinth in Lemnos, built by Smilis and 
Theodoras about the time of the first Olympiad 
(Plin. xxxvi. 84). The principal production of 
the island was a red earth called terra Lemnia 
or sigillata, employed by the ancient physicians 
as a remedy for wounds and the bites of ser- 
pents, and still much valued for its supposed 
medicinal virtues. 

Lemonia, one of the country tribes of Rome, 
named after a village Lemonium, situated on 
the Via Latina beyond the Porta Capena. 

Lemovices, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, 
between the Bituriges and Arverni, whose chief 
town was Augustorituin, subsequently called 
Lemovices, the modern Limoges (Caes. B. G. 
vii. 4 ; Strab. p. 190). 

Lemovii. a people of Germany, mentioned 
along with the Rugii, who inhabited the shores 
of the Baltic in the modem Pomerania (Tac. 
Germ. 43). 

Lemures, spectres or spirits of the dead. 
The good spirits of the dead were called Dii 
Manes or Lares : the souls of the wicked or of 
those who for any reason could not rest were 
called Lemures or Larvae. They were said 
to wander about at night as spectres, and to 
torment and frighten the living, and to haunt 
houses with evil omen. (Ov. Fast. v. 419, 478; 
Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 209 ; Pers. v. 185 ; Apul. de Deo 
Socr. p. 237 ; Mart. Cap. ii. 102 ; Serv. ad Aen. 
iii. 68.) In order to propitiate them the Romans 
celebrated the festival of the Lemuralia or 
Lemuria with a curious and primitive method 
of laying or expelling the ghosts by walking 
barefoot and throwing black beans over the 
shoulder. [Diet, of Antiq. s.v.] 

Lenaeus (Arjealoj), a. surname of Dionysus, 
from Krjv6s, the wine- press. 

Lentia (Linz), a town in Noricum, on the 
Danube. 

Lentienses, a tribe of the Alemanni, who 
lived on the N. shore of the Lacus Brigantinus 
(Lake of Constance), in the modern Linzgau. 

Lento, Caesennlus, one of Antony's seven 
agrarian commissioners (septemviratas) in B.C. 



LENTULUS 



479 



44, for apportioning the Campanian and Leon- 
tine lands, whence Cicero terms him divisor 
Italiae. (Phil. xi. 6, 13, xii. 9, 23). 

Lentulus, Cornelius, one of the haughtiest 
patrician families at Rome ; so that Cicero coins 
the words Appietas and Lentulitas to express 
the qualities of the aristocratic party (ad Fam. 
iii. 7). — 1. L.. consul B.C. 327; legate in the 
Caudine campaign, 321 ; and dictator 320, 
when he avenged the disgrace of the Furculae 
Caudinae. This Was indeed disputed (Liv. ix. 
15) ; but his descendants at least claimed the 
honour for him, by assuming the agnomen of 
Caudinus. — 2. L., surnamed Caudinus, pontifex 
maximus, and consul 237, when he triumphed 
over the Ligurians. He died 213. lEutrop. iii. 
2.) — 3. P., surnamed Caudinus, served with P. 
Scipio in Spain, 210 ; praetor 204 ; one of the 
ten ambassadors sent to Philip of JIacedon, 
196. (Liv. xxxiii. 35.) — 4. P., praetor in Sicily 
214, and continued in his province for the two 
following years. In 189 he was one of ten 
ambassadors sent into Asia after the submission 
of Antiochus. (Liv. xxiv. 9, xxxvii. 55.) — 5. Cn., 
quaestor 212 : curule aedile 204 ; consul 201 ; 
and proconsul in Hither Spain 199 (Liv. xxxi. 
50). — 6. L., praetor in Sardinia 211 ; succeeded 
Scipio as proconsul in Spain, where he remained 
for eleven years, and on his return was only 
allowed an ovation, because he only held pro- 
consular rank. He was consul 199, and the 
next year proconsul in Gaul. (Liv. xxxi. 49.) — 
7. L., curule aedile 163 ; consul 156; censor 
147 (Cic. Brut. 20l. — 8. P., curule aedile with 
Scipio Nasica 169; consul suffectus with C. 
Domitius 162, the election of the former consuls 
being declared informal. He became princeps 
senatus, and must have lived to a good old age, 
since he was wounded in the contest with C. 
Gracchus in 121. (Liv. xliv. 18; Cic. in Cat.iv. 
6.1 — 9. P., surnamed Sura, the man of chief 
note in Catiline's party. He was quaestor to 
Sulla in 81 ; before him and L. Triarius, Verres 
hud to give an account of the monies he had 
received as quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. He 
was soon after himself called to account for 
embezzlement of public money, but was ac- 
quitted. It is said that he got his cognomen of 
Sura from his conduct on this occasion ; for 
when Sulla called him to account, he answered 
by scornfully putting out his leg, 'like boys,' 
says Plutarch, ' when they make a blunder in 
playing at ball' iPlut. Cic. 17). Other per- 
sons, however, had borne the name before 
(Liv. xxii. 81). In 75 he was praetor; and 
Hortensius. pleading before such a judge, had 
no difficulty in procuring the acquittal of 
Terentius Varro, when accused of extortion. 
In 71 he was consul. But in the next year he 
was ejected from the senate, with 63 others, for 
infamous life and mariners. (Dio Cass, lxviii. 
17 ; Gell. v. 6.) It was this, probably, that led 
him to join Catiline and his crew. From his 
distinguished birth and high rank he calculated 
on becoming chief of the conspiracy. When 
Catiline quitted the city for Etruria, Lentuln> 
was left as chief of the home conspirators, and 
his irresolution probably saved the city from 
being fired. For it was by his over-caution 
that the negotiation was entered into with the 
ambassadors of the Allobroges, who betrayed 
the conspirators. The well-known sequel will 
be found under the life of Catiline. Lentulus 
was deposed from the praetorship, and was 
strangled in the Capitoline prison on the 5th of 
December. (Sail. Cat. 82, 48, 55.)— 10. P., sur- 
named Spinther. He received this nickname 



480 



LENTULUS 



LEO 



from Ms resemblance to the actor Bpintlier. 
(Plm. vii. 54 ; Val. Max. ix. 14.) Caesar com- 
monly calls him by this name (B.C. i. 15); not 
so Cicero ; but there could be no offence in it, 
for he used it on his coins when he was pro- 
praetor in Spain ; and his son bore it after him. 
He was ourule aedile in 63, the year of Cicero's 
consulship, and was entrusted with the care of 
the apprehended conspirator, P. Sura [No. 9]. 
His games were long remembered for their 
splendour ; but his toga, edged with Tyrian 
purple, gave offence. (Sail. Cat. 47 ; Cic. Off. 

ii. 16.) He was praetor in 60 ; and by Caesar's 
interest he obtained Hither Spain for his next 
year's province, where he remained into part of 
58. In 57 he was consul, which dignity he also 
obtained by Caesar's support. In his consul- 
ship he moved for the immediate recall of 
Cicero, brought over his colleague Metellus 
Nepos to the same views ; and his services were 
gratefully acknowledged by Cicero. (Cic. adAtt. 

iii. 22, Fam. i. 1-9.) He had thus, notwith- 
standing his obligations to Caesar, openly taken 
part with the aristocracy. He received Cilicia 
as his province, but he attempted in vain to 
obtain a decree of the senate charging him 
with the office of restoring Ptolemy Auletes, 
the exiled king of Egypt. (Cic. ad Att. iv. 1 ; 
Plut. Pomp. 49.) He remained as pro-consul 
in Cilicia from 56 till July, 53, and obtained a 
triumph, though not till 51. On the breaking 
out of the Civil war in 49, he joined the Pompeian 
party. He fell into Caesar's hands at Corfinium, 
but was dismissed by him uninjured. He then 
joined Pompey in Greece ; and after the battle 
of Pharsalia, he followed Pompey to Egypt, 
and got safe to Rhodes, at which point (unless 
Cic. ad Fam. ix. 18 records his death) he dis- 
appears from history (Cic. ad Fam. xii. 14; 
Caes.-B.O. iii. 102). — 11. P., surnamed Spinther, 
son of No. 10, elected into the college of 
augurs in 57 (Dio Cass, xxxix. 17) : followed 
Pompey' s fortunes with his father. He was 
pardoned by Caesar, and returned to Italy. In 
45 he was divorced from his abandoned wife, 
Metella. (Comp. Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 239.) After 
the murder of Caesar (44) he joined the con- 
spirators. He served with Cassius against 
Ehodes; with Brutus in Lycia. (Plut. Caes. 
67 ; App. B.C. iv. 72, 82 ; Cic. ad Att. xiii. 10.) 
— 12. Cn., surnamed Clodianus, a Claudius 
adopted into the Lentulus family. He was 
consul in 72, with L. Gellius Publicola. In the 
war with Spartacus both he and his colleague 
were defeated — but after their consulship. With 
the same colleague he held the censorship in 
70, and ejected 63 members from the senate for 
embezzlement and other offences, among whom 
were Lentulus Sura [No. 9] and C. Antonius, 
afterwards Cicero's colleague in the consulship, 
though many of them, being acquitted by the 
courts, were afterwards restored (Cicero Clu. 
42, 120 ; Val. Max. v. 9). Lentulus supported 
the Manilian law, appointing Pompey to the 
command against Mithridates. As an orator, 
he concealed his want of talent by great skill 
and art, and by a good voice (Cic. Brut. 66, 
235). — 13. L., surnamed Cms, appeared in 61 
as the chief accuser of P. Clodius, for violating 
the mysteries of the Bona Dea. In 58 he was 
praetor, and in 49 consul with C. Marcellus. 
He was raised to the consulship in consequence 
of his being a known enemy of Caesar. He 
did all he could to excite his wavering party to 
take arms and meet Caesar ; he called Cicero 
cowardly ; blamed him for seeking a triumph 
at such a time (Cic. ad Fam. vi. 6, ad Att. xi. 



6) ; urged war at any price, in the hope, says 
Caesar (B.C. i. 4), of retrieving his ruined for- 
tunes and becoming another Sulla. It was 
mainly at Lentulus's instigation that early in 
the year the violent measures passed the senate 
which gave the tribunes a pretence for flying to 
Caesar at Bavenna (Plut. Caes. 33). He him- 
self fled from the city at the approach of 
Caesar, and afterwards crossed over to Greece- 
After the battle of Pharsalia, he fled to Egypt, 
and arrived there the day after Pompey's mur- 
der. On landing he was apprehended by young 
Ptolemy's ministers, and put to death in prison. 
(Caes. B.C. iii. 104; Plut. Pomp. 80.)— 14. L., 
surnamed Niger, flamen of Mars. In 57 he was 
one of the priests to whom was referred the 
question whether the site of Cicero's house was 
consecrated ground. In 56 he was one of the 
judges in the case of P. Sextius, and he died in 
the same year, much praised by Cicero (ad Att. 
iv. 6). — 15. L., son of the last, and also flamen 
of Mars. He defended M. Scaurus, in 54, when 
accused of extortion : he accused Gabinius of 
high treason, about the same time, but was sus- 
pected of collusion. In the Philippics he is 
mentioned as a friend of Antony's (Phil. iii. 10). 
— 16. Cossus, surnamed Gaetulicus, consul b.c. 
1, was sent into Africa in a.d. 6, where he de- 
feated the Gaetuli ; hence his surname. On the 
accession of Tiberius, a.d. 14, he accompanied 
Drusus, who was sent to quell the mutiny of 
the legions in Pannonia. He died 25, at a very 
great age, leaving behind him an honourable 
reputation. (Tac. Ann. i. 27, iii. 59, iv. 29, 44.) 
— 17. Cn., surnamed Gaetulicus, son of the last, 
consul a.d. 26. He afterwards Bad the com- 
mand of the legions of Upper Germany for ten 
years, and was very popular among the troops. 
In 39 he was put to death by order of Caligula, 
who feared his influence with the soldiers. 
(Suet. Galb. 6, Claud. 9; Dio Cass. lix. 22; 
Plin. Ep. v. 3 ; Mart, praef. ad Lib. i.) He 
was a historian and a poet : but we have only 
three lines of his poems extant, unless he is the 
author of nine epigrams in the Greek Anthology, 
inscribed with the name of Gaetulicus. 

Leo or Leon (Ae'coi/). 1. King of Sparta, about 
600 b.c. (Hdt. i. 65).— 2. Also called Leonides 
(Aeun>i8r)s) , of Heraclea on the Pontus, disciple 
of Plato, was one of the conspirators who, with 
their leader, Chion, assassinated Cleabchus, 
tyrant of Heraclea, b.c. 353 (Just. xvi. 5). — 3. 
Of Byzantium, a rhetorician and historical 
writer of the age of Philip and Alexander the 
Great. (Suid. s.v.) — 4. Diaconus or the Deacon, 
a Byzantine historian of the 10th century. His 
history, in ten books, includes the period from 
the Cretan expedition of Nicephorus Phocas, in 
the reign of the emperor Romanus II., a.d. 959, 
to the death of Joannes I. Zimisces, 975. His 
history, though faulty in style, is a valuable 
contemporary record. (Ed. by Hase, Paris, 
1818; by Migne, 1863.) — 5. Grammaticus, one 
of the writers who continued the Byzantine his- 
tory from the period when Theophanes leaves 
off. His work, entitled Chronographia, extends 
from the accession of Leo V. the Armenian, 
813, to the death of Romanus Lecapenus, 944. 
(Edited with Theophanes by Combefis, Paris, 
1655.) — 6. Leo was also the name of six Byzan- 
tine emperors. Of these Leo VI., surnamed the 
Philosopher, who reigned 886-911, is celebrated 
in the history of the later Greek literature. 
He wrote especially a valuable treatise on Greek 
tactics (ed. by Meursius, 1612 ; transl. by 
Burscheid, 1781). He is also celebrated in the 
history of legislation. As the Latin language 



LEOBOTES 

had long ceased to be the official language of 
the Eastern empire, Basil, the father of Leo, 
had formed and partly executed the plan of 
issuing an authorised Greek version of Jus- 
tinian's legislation. This plan was carried out 
by Leo. The Greek version is known under 
the title of BourihiKcd AiaTa£eis, or shortly, 
BaaiAacal (in Latin, Basilica), which means 
' Imperial Constitutions ' or ' Laws.' The pub- 
lication of this authorised body of law in the 
Greek language led to the gradual disuse of the 
compilations of Justiniau in the East. But the 
Roman law was thus more firmly established in 
Eastern Europe and Western Asia. 
Leobotes. [Labotas.] 

Leochares (Aewxap-qs), an Athenian statuary 
and sculptor, was one of the great artists of the 
later Athenian school, at the head of which 
were Scopas and Praxiteles. He flourished 
B.C. 352-338. He was associated with Scopas, 
Bryaxis, and Timotheus in the sculptures of 
the Mausoleum. His most famous work seems 
to have been his statue of the rape of Gany- 
mede (Plin. xxxiv. 79). The original work was 
in bronze. Of the extant copies in marble, the 
best is one, half the size of life, in the Vatican. 
[See cut on p. 357.] 

Leocorlum (AcaiK6ptov), a shrine in Athens, 
in the Ceramicus, erected in honour of the 
daughters of Leos. Hipparchus was murdered 
here._ iThuc. i. 20, vi. 57 ; Ael. V. H. xii. 28.) 

Leodamas (AewSa/ias), an Attic orator, edu- 
cated in the school of Isocrates, and greatly 
praised by Aeschines (c. Ctcs. § 138). 

Leonlca, a town of the Edetani in the W. of 
Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Leonidas (AeuviSus). 1. I., King of Sparta, 
B.C. 491-480, was one of the sons of Anaxan- 
drides by his first wife, and, according to some 
accounts, was twin-brother to Cleombrotus. 
He succeeded his half-brother Cleomenes I., 
B.C. 491, his cider brother Dorieus also having 
previously died. When Greece was invaded by 
Xerxes, 480, Leonidas was sent to make a stand 
against the enemy at the pass of Thermopylae. 
He took with him 300 Spartans — choosing those 
who had eons, so that their families did not risk 
extinction — about 2000 Helots, and he was 
joined on the way by 2000 Arcadians and 700 
from Corinth and other towns, and the same 
number from Thespiae, so that the whole force 
at his disposal was somewhat more than 5000, 
besides 400 Thebans whom he had compelled 
to join him as a sort of pledge from their city. 
The Persians in vain attempted to force their 
way through the pass of Thermopylae. They 
were driven back by Leonidas and his gallant 
band with immense slaughter. At length the 
Malian Ephialtes betrayed tlio mountain path 
of the Anopaea to the Persians, who were thus 
able to fall upon the rear of the Greeks. When 
it became known to Leonidas that the Persiuns 
were crossing the mountain, he dismissed all 
the other Greeks, except the Thespian and 
Theban forces, declaring that he and the Spar- 
tans under his command must needs remain in 
the post they had been sent to guard. Then, 
before the body of Persians, who were crossing 
the mountain under Hydarnes, could arrive to 
attack him in the rear, he advanced from the 
narrow pass and charged the myriads of the 
enemy with his handful of troops, hopeless now 
of preserving their lives, and anxious only to 
sell them dearly. In the desperate battle which 
ensued, Leonidas himself fell soon. His body 
was rescued by the Greeks, after a violent 
struggle. On the hillock in the pass, where the 



LEONTINI 



481 



I remnant of the Greeks made their last stand, a 
lion of stone was set up in his honour. It was 

; not a barren heroism, for the moral effect in 
discouragement to the Persians and encourage- 
ment to the Greeks was of great importance in 

' the issue. (Hdt. vii. 175, 202-225 ; Paus. iii. 4, 

; 14 ; Diod. xi. 4 ; Cic. Fin. ii. 19, 30, Tusc. i. 

, 42, 49.)— 2. II., King of Sparta, was son of the 
traitor Cleonj-mus. He acted as guardian to 
his infant relative, Areus II., on whose death 
he ascended the throne, about 256. Being op- 
posed to the projected reforms of his contempo- 
rary Agis IV., he was deposed, and the throne 

i was transferred to his son-in-law, Cleombrotus ; 

! but he was soon afterwards recalled, and caused 

! Agis to be put to death, 240. He died about 
236, and was succeeded by his son, Cleomenes 

! III. (Plut. Agis, 3-21 ; Cleom. 1-3).— 3. A 
kinsman of Olympias, the mother of Alexander 
the Great, was entrusted with Alexander's' edu- 
cation before he became the pupil of Aristotle. 
He trained the young prince in hard} - and self- 

j denying habits, There were two excellent cooks 
(said Alexander afterwards) with which Leonidas 
had furnished him — a night's march to season 
his breakfast, and a scanty breakfast to season 
his dinner (Plut. Alex. 22, 25). — 4. Of Tarentum, 
the author of upwards of 100 epigrams in the 
Doric dialect. His epigrams formed a part of 
the Garland of Meleager. They are chiefly 
inscriptions for dedicatory offerings and works 
of art. Leonidas probably lived in the time of 
Pyrrhus. — 5. Of Alexandria, also an epigram- 
matic poet, under Nero and Vespasian. In the 
Greek Anthology, 43 epigrams of little merit 
are ascribed to him. 

LeonnatUS (AtovvaTOs), a Macedonian of a 
princely family in Pella, one of Alexander's 
most distinguished officers. He saved Alex- 
ander's life in India in the assault on the city 
of the Malli After the death of Alexander 
(B.C. 303), he obtained the satrapy of the Lesser 
or Hellespontine Phrygia, and in tho following 
year he crossed over into Europe, to assist 
Antipater against the Greeks ; but he was de- 
feated by the Athenians and their allies, and 
fell in battle. (Arrian, iv. 12, 21 ; Curt. viii. 14, 
x. 7, 9 ; Diod. xviii. 12-15.) 
Leontes. [Lita.] 

Leontiades I At oxtioStjj). 1. A Theban, com- 
manded at Thermopylae the forces supplied by 
Thebes to the Grecian army, B.C. 480 (Hdt. vii. 
205). — 2. A Theban, assisted the Spartans in 
seizing the Cadmea, or citadel of Thebes, in 
382. He was slain by Pelopidas in 379, when 
the Spartan exiles recovered possession of the 
Cadmea. (Xen. Hell. v. 2-4 ; Diod. xv. 25.) 

Leontini [pi AtovTivoi: AeocTicos : Lcnlini), 
a town in tho E. of Sicily, about five miles from 




Coin of Lcontlul. of .'th cent. B.C. 
Obv., AEONTINQN fin rrchalc chiiroctor&i : head of Apollo 
boneath, lion and Inurol loavos; TtV., chariot, tin. 
charlote'T bc;n*l crowned by Victory: bcncivth, a ll'.i- 
(tho symbol of tho city). 

the sea, NW. of Syracuse, was situated upon 
the small river Lissus. It was built upon two 

I I 



482 



LEONTIUM 



LEPIDUS 



bills, whioh were separated from one another 
by a valley, in which were the forum, the 
senate-house, and the other public buildings, 
while the temples and the private houses occu- 
pied the hills. The rich plains N. of the city, 
Leontini Campi, were some of the most fertile 
in Sicily, and produced abundant crops of most 
excellent wheat. Leontini was founded by 
Chalcidians from Naxos, B.C. 730, only six years 
after the foundation of Naxos itself (Thuc. iv. 
3; Diod. xii. 53, xiv. 14). It never attained 
much political importance, in consequence of 
its proximity to Syracuse, to which it soon be- 
came subject, and whose fortunes it shared 
(Strab. p. 273). At a later time it joined the 
Carthaginians, and was taken and plundered by 
the Bomans. Under the Romans it sank into 
insignificance (Liv. xxiv. 39 ; Cic. Verr. ii. 66). 
Gorgias was a native of Leontini. 

Leontlum (A^6vriov), an Athenian hetaera, 
the disciple and mistress of Epicurus, wrote a 
treatise against Theophrastus. She had a 
daughter, Danae, who was also a hetaera. (Cic. 
N. D. i. 33, 93 ; Diog. Laert. xii.' 4.) 

Leontlum (Aeovrtov), a town in Achaia, be- 
tween Pharae and Aegium (Pol. ii. 41). 

Leontdpolis (AeovrdiroAis, Ae6vTwv tt6\is). 
1. A city in the Delta of Egypt, S. of Thmui's, 
and NW. of Athribis, was the capital of the 
Nomos Leontopolites, and probably of late 
foundation, as no writer before Strabo mentions 
it (Strab. pp. 802, 812).— 2. [Nicephorium.] 

Leoprepides. [Simonides, 2.] 

Leos (Aews), one of the heroes eponymi of the 
Athenians, said to have been a son of Orpheus. 
The phyle or tribe of Leontis derived its naiee 
from him. According to the popular legend, 
once, when Athens was suffering from famine 
or plague, the Delphic oracle ordered that the 
daughters of Leos should be sacrificed, and 
the father complied with the command. The 
Athenians afterwards erected the Leocorium 
(from Aews and ic6pai) to them. Their names 
were Praxithea, Theope, and Eubule. (Paus. i. 
5, 2, x. 10, 1 ; Plut. Thes. 13 ; Diod. xv. 17.) 

Leosthenes (A(aia6ei/r]s), an Athenian com- 
mander of the combined Greek army in the 
Lamian war. In the year after the death of 
Alexander (b.c. 323), he defeated Antipater near 
Thermopylae ; Antipater thereupon threw him- 
self into the small town of Lamia. Leosthenes 
pressed the siege with the utmost vigour, but 
was killed by a blow from a stone. His loss 
was mourned by the Athenians as a public 
calamity. He was honoured with a public 
burial in the Ceramicus, and his funeral oration 
was pronounced by Hyperides. (Diod. xvii. Ill, 
xviii. 8-13 ; Paus. i. 29, 13.) 

Leotychides (AewTvx'Srjs, AeuTux'Sijs, He- 
rod.). 1. King of Sparta, B.C. 491-469. He 
commanded the Greek fleet in 479, and defeated 
the Persians at the battle of Mycale. He was 
afterwards sent with an army into Thessaly to 
punish those who had sided with the Persians ; 
but in consequence of his accepting the bribes 
of the Aleuadae, he was brought to trial on his 
return home, and went into exile to Tegea, 469, 
where he died. He was succeeded by his 
grandson, Archidamus II. (Hdt. vi. 65-72 ; Paus. 
iii. 4, 7). — 2. Grandson of Archidamus II., and 
son of Agis II. There was, however, some 
suspicion that he was in reality the fruit of an 
intrigue of Alcibiades with Timaea, the queen of 
Agis ; in consequence of which he was excluded 
from the throne, mainly through the influence of 
Lysander, and his uncle, Agesilaus II., was sub- 
stituted in his room (Xen. Hell. iii. 3 ; Paus. iii. 8). 



Lepidus AemlHus, the name of a distin- 
guished patrician family. 1. M., aedile B.C. 
192 ; praetor 191, with Sicily as his province ; 
consul 187, when he defeated the Ligurians ; 
pontifex maximus 180; censor 179 with M. 
Pulvius Nobilior ; and consul a second time 
175. He was six times chosen by the censors 
princeps senatus, and he died 152, full of years 
and honours. (Liv. xl. 42-46, Epit. 48.) Lepidus 
the triumvir is called by Cicero {Phil. xiii. 7) 
the pronepos of this Lepidus ; but he would 
seem more probably to have been his abnepos, 
or great-great-grandson. — 2. M., consul 137, 
carried on war in Spain against the V accaei, but 
unsuccessfully. Since he had attacked the 
Vaccaei in opposition to the express orders of 
the senate, he was deprived of his command, 
and condemned to pay a fine. He was a man 
of education and refined taste. Cicero, who had 
read his speeches, speaks of him as the greatest 
orator of his age (Brut. 25, 86, 97).— 3. M., the 
father of the triumvir, was praetor in Sicily in 
81, where he earned a character by his oppres- 
sions only second to that of Verres. In the 
civil wars between Mariusand Sulla he belonged 
at first to the party of the latter, but he after- 
wards came forward as a leader of the popular 
party. In his consulship, 78, he attempted to 
rescind the laws of Sulla, who had lately died, 
but he was opposed by his colleague Catulus, 
who received the powerful support of Pompey. 
In the following year (77) Lepidus took up arms, 
and marched against Rome. He was defeated 
by Pompey and Catulus, under the walls of the 
city, in the Campus Martius, and was obliged to 
take to flight. Finding it impossible to hold his 
ground in Italy, Lepidus sailed with the re- 
mainder of his forces to Sardinia ; but, repulsed 
even in this island by the propraetor, he died 
shortly afterwards of chagrin and sorrow, which 
is said to have been increased by the discovery 
of his wife's infidelity. (Appian, B. G. i. 105, 107 ; 
Plut. Sull.U, 38, Pomp. 15.)— 1 Mam., sur- 
named Livianus, because he belonged originally 
to the Livia gens, consul 77, belonged to the 
aristocratical party, and was one of the influ- 
ential persons who prevailed upon Sulla to 
spare the life of the young Julius Caesar (Suet. 
Jul 1).— 5. M., consul 66, with L. Volcatius 
Tullus, the same year in which Cicero was 
praetor. He belonged to the aristocratical 
party, but on the breaking out of the Civil war 
in 49, he retired to his Formian villa to watch 
the progress of events. (Sail. Oat. 18 ; Dio 
Cass, xxxvi. 25.) — 6. L. Aemilius Paulus, son 
of No. 3, and brother of M. Lepidus, the triumvir. 
His surname of Paulus was probably given him 
by his father, in honour of the great Aemilius 
Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia. But since 
he belonged to the family of the Lepidi, and not 
to that of the Pauli, he is inserted in this place 
and not under Paulus. Aemilius Paulus did 
not follow the example of his father, but began 
his public career by supporting the aristocratical 
party. His first act was the accusation of Cati- 
line in 63. He was quaestor in Macedonia 59 ; 
aedile 55 ; praetor 53 ; and" consul 50, along with 
M. Claudius Marcellus. Paulus was raised to 
the consulship, on account of his being an enemy 
of Caesar, but Caesar gained him over to his side 
by a bribe of 1500 talents, which he is said to have 
expended on a magnificent basilica which he had 
begun in his aedileship, and which his son com- 
pleted. After the murder of Caesar (44), Paulus 
joined the senatorial party. He was one of the 
senators who declared M. Lepidus a public 
enemy, on account of his having joined Antony ; 



LEPIDUS 

«.nd, accordingly, when the triumvirate was 
formed, his name was set down first in the pro- 
scription list by his own brother. The soldiers, 
however, who were appointed to kill him, allowed 
him to escape. He passed over to Brutus in 
Asia, and after the death of the latter repaired 
to Miletus. Here he remained, and refused to 
go to Eome, although he was pardoned by the 
triumvirs. (Appian, B. C. ii. 26, iv. 12, 37 ; Suet. 
Jul. 29; Plut. Cues. 29, Pomp. 58.)— 7. M. 
Aemilius Lepidus, the Triumvir, brother of 
the last. On the breaking out of the Civil war 
(49), Lepidus, who was then praetor, joined 
Caesar's party ; and as the consuls had fled with 
Pompey from Italy, Lepidus was the highest 
magistrate remaining in Italy. During Caesar's 
absence in Spain, Lepidus presided at the 
comitia in which the former was appointed dic- 
tator. In the following year (48) he received 
the province of Nearer Spain. On his return to 
Home in 47, Caesar granted him a triumph, and 
made him his magister equitum ; and in the 
next year (46), his colleague in the consulship. 
In 44 he received the government of Narbonese 
Gaul and Nearer Spain, but had not quitted the 
neighbourhood of Rome at the time of the dic- 
tator's death. Having the command of an army 
near the city, he was able to render M. Antony 
efficient assistance ; and the latter in conse- 
quence allowed Lepidus to be chosen pontifex 
maximus. Lepidus soon afterwards repaired to 
his provinces of Gaul and Spain. He remained 
neutral in the struggle between Antony and the 
senate ; but he subsequently joined Antony, 
when the latter fled to him in Gaul after his 
defeat at Mutina. This was in the end of May, 
43 ; and when the news reached Rome, the 
senate proclaimed Lepidus a public enemy. In 
the autumn Lepidus and Antony crossed the 
Alps at the head of a powerful army. Octavian 
(afterwards Augustus) joined thein ; and in the 
month of October the celebrated triumvirate 
was formed by which the Roman world was di- 
vided between Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus. 
[See p. 150, b.] In 42 Lepidus remained in 
Italy as consul, while the two other triumvirs 
prosecuted the war against Brutus and Cassius. 
In the fresh division of the provinces after the 
battle of Philippi, Lepidus received Africa, where 
he remained till 86. In this year Octavian 
summoned him to Sicily to assist him in the 
war against Sex. Pompey. Lepidus obeyed, but, 
tired of being treated as a subordinate, lie re- 
solved to make an effort to acquire Sicily for 
himself and to regain his lost power. He was 
easily subdued by Octavian, who spared his life, 
but deprived him of his triumvirate, his army, 
and his provinces, and commanded that he 
should live at Circeii, under strict surveillance. 
He allowed him, however, to retain his dignity 
of pontifex maximus. He died B.C. 13. Augustus 
succeeded him as pontifex maximus. Lepidus 
was fond of case and repose, and it is not im- 
probable that he possessed abilities capable of 
effecting much more than he ever did. (Appian, 
JS. C. ii., iii., v.; Dio Cass, xli.-xlix.; Index to 
Cicero.) — 8. Paulus Aemilius Lepidus, son of 
No. 6, with whom he is frequently confounded. 
His name is variously given by the ancient 
writers, but Paulus Aemilius Lepidus (in full 
Paul. Aem. L. f. M. n. Lepidus) seems to 1><- 
the most correct form. He probably fled with 
his father to Brutus, but he afterwards made 
his peace with the triumvirs. He accompanied 
Octavian in his campaign against Sex. Pompey 
in Sicily in 36. In 34 he was consul suffectus. 
In 22 he was censor with L. Munatius Plancus, 



LEPONTII 



483 



and died while holding this dignity. He com' 
pleted the basilica begun by his father. He is 
best known from the beautiful poem of Pro- 
pertius on the death of his wife, Cornelia, 
daughter of Cornelius Scipio and Scribonia 
(Appian, B.C. v. 2; Suet. Aug. 16: Veil. Pat. ii. 
95 ; Propert. v. 11). — 9. M. Aemilius Lepidus, 
son of the triumvir [No. 7] and Junia, formed a 
conspiracy in 30, for the purpose of assassinating 
Octavian on his return to Rome after the battle 
of Actium. Maecenas, who had charge of the 
city, became acquainted with the plot, seized 
Lepidus, and sent him to Octavian in the East, 
who put him to death. His father was ignorant 
of the conspiracy, but his mother was privy to 
it. Lepidus was married twice : his first wife 
was Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir, and 
his second Servilia, who put an end to her life 
by swallowing burning coals when the conspiracy 
of her husband was discovered. (Veil. Pat. ii. 
88 ; Suet. Aug. 19.) — 10. Q. Aemilius Lepidus, 
consul 21 witli M. Lollius (Hor. Ep. i. 20, 28). 
— 11. L. Aemilius Paulus, son of No. 8 and 
Cornelia, married Julia, the grandaughter of 
Augustus. [Julia, No. 6.] Paulus is therefore 
called the progener of Augustus. He was con- 
sul a.d. 1 with C. Caesar, his wife's brother. 
He entered into a conspiracy against Augustus, 
of the particulars of which we are not informed 
(Suet. Jul. 19, 64). — 12. M. Aemilius Lepidus, 
brother of the last, consul a.d. 6 with L. Arrun- 
tius. He lived on the most intimate terms with 
Augustus, who employed him in the war against 
the Dalmatians in a.d. 9. After the death of 
Augustus, he was also held in high esteem by 
Tiberius. (Dio Cass. lv. 25; Tac. Ann. i. 13, iv. 
20.) — 13. M. Aemilius Lepidus, consul with T. 
Statilius Taurus in a.d. 11, must be carefully 
distinguished from the last. In a.d. 21 he ob- 
tained the province of Asia. (Tac. Ann. iii. 22, 
82.) — 14. Aemilius Lepidus, the son of 11 and 
Julia, the granddaughter of Augustus, and con- 
sequently the great-grandson of Augustus. He 
was one of the minions of the emperor Caligula. 
He married Drusilia, the favourite sister of the 
emperor ; but he was notwithstanding put to 
death by Caligula, a.d. 39. (Suet. Cal. 24, 36.) 

Lepontii, a people inhabiting both sides of 
the Alps, the valleys at the head of Lakes 
Maggiore and Como, and also those on the 
northern side of that part of the chain. Hence 
Pliny makes their southern branch neighbours 
of the Salassi, who lived about Ivrea, and 
placed their northern settlements about the 
sources of the Rhone (Plin. iii. 134) ; and Caesar 
{B. G. iv. 24) can correctly speak of their occu- 
pying the sources of the Rhine, since the 
western branch of the Rhine (the Vorder ltltein) 
rises scarcely 20 miles E. of the Rhone glacier, 
and it is by no means impossible that the 
settlements of the Lepontii may have extended 
far enough E. to include the sources of the 
Hitiier Ehei/n also. It is probable that they 
were a Rhaetian tribe, part of which crossed 
the Alps, while part remained on the north 
side (Strab. pp. 201, 206). Their name is re 
tained in the Val Leventina — that is, the 
upper valley of the Ticinus — inid in the 'Le- 
pontine Alps,' which are the part of the main 
chain lying between the passes of the Simjilou 
and the Bernardino. The strange statement 
of Ptolemy (iii. 1, 88J, that the Lepontii lived 
in the Cottian Alps, is perhaps explained by the 
fact that Oscela (Uomo d'Ossola) was, as he 
states, one of their chief towns, and thut ho 
confused this place with Ocelam, which is in 
the Cottian district. 

I I 2 



484 



LEPEEA 



LESBOS 



Leprea (AeVpea), daughter of Pyrgeus, from 
whom the town of Lepreum in Elis was said to 
have derived its name. [Lepreum.] Another 
tradition derived the name from Lepreus, a son 
of Pyrgeus. He was a grandson of Poseidon, 
and, both in his strength and his powers of 
eating, a rival of Heracles, by whom he was 
conquered and slain. (Paus. v. 5, 4.) 

Lepreum (AeTtptov, AeVpfoj : Aeirptdrris : 
Strovitzi), a town of Elis in Triphylia, situated 
40 stadia from the sea, was said to have been 
founded in the time of Theseus by Minyans 
from Lemnos, who drove out the Caucones. 
After the Messenian wars it was subdued by 
the Eleans with the aid of Sparta ; but it re- 
covered its independence in the Peloponnesian 
war, and was assisted by the Spartans against 
Elis. (Hdt. iv. 148, ix. 28; Thuc. v. 31; Xen. 
Hell. iii. 2, 25 ; Strab. p. 345.) At the time of 
the Achaean League it was subject io Elis 
(Pol. iv. 77-80). 

Q. Lepta, a native of Cales in Campania, 
and praef ectus f abrum to Cicero in Cilicia B.C. 51. 
He joined the Pompeian party in the Civil war, 
and is frequently mentioned in Cicero's letters. 
(Cic. ad Fam. iii. 7, v. 10, &c.) 

Leptines (A(=7rT(vr;s). 1. A Syracusan, son 
of Hermocrates, and brother of Dionysius the 
elder, tyrant of Syracuse. He commanded his 
brother's fleet in the war against the Car- 
thaginians B.C. 397, but was defeated by Mago 
with great loss. In 390 he was sent by Diony- 
sius with a fleet to the assistance of the Lu- 
canians against the Italian Greeks. Some time 
afterwards he gave offence to the tyrant, and 
on this account was banished from Syracuse. 
He thereupon retired to Thurii, but was sub- 
sequently recalled by Dionysius, who gave him 
his daughter in marriage. In 363 he com- 
manded the right wing of the Syracusan army 
in the battle against the Carthaginians near 
Cronium ; in which he was killed. (Diod. xiv. 
48-72, xv. 7, 17.) — 2. A Syracusan, who joined 
with Calippus in expelling the garrison of the 
younger Dionysius from Rhegium, 351. Soon 
afterwards he assassinated Calippus, and then 
crossed over to Sicily, where he made himself 
tyrant of Apollonia and Engyum. He was ex- 
pelled in common with the other tyrants by 
Timoleon ; but his life was spared and he was 
sent into exile at Corinth, 342. (Diod. xvi. 
45, 72; Plut. Timol. 24.)— 3. An Athenian, 
known only as the proposer of a law taking 
away all special exemptions from the burden of 
public charges (areAeioi rS>v Aetrovpyiwv), 
against which the celebrated oration of Demo- 
sthenes is directed, usually known as the oration 
against Leptines. This speech was delivered 
355 ; but the law must have been passed above 
a year before, as we are told that the lapse of 
more than that period had already exempted 
Leptines from all personal responsibility. 
Hence the efforts of Demosthenes were directed 
solely to the repeal of the law, not to the 
punishment of its proposer. His arguments 
were successful, and the law was repealed. — 
4. A Syrian Greek, who assassinated with his 
own hand, at Laodicea, Cn. Octavius, the chief 
of the Roman deputies, who had been sent into 
Syria, 162. Demetrius caused Leptines to be 
seized, and sent as a prisoner to Rome ; but 
the senate refused to receive him, being de- 
sirous to reserve this cause of complaint. (Pol. 
xxxii. 4-7 ; Appian, Syr. 4-7.) 

Leptis (Aeirris). 1. Leptis Magna or Neapo- 
lis (r) A67tt1s iJ.eya.Krj, NeairoAiy : Lebda), a city 
on the coast of N. Africa, between the Syrtes, E. 



of Abrotonum, and W. of the mouth of the little 
river Cinyps, was a Phoenician colony, with a 
nourishing commerce, though it possessed no 
harbour. With Abrotonum and Oea it formed 
the African Tripolis. The Romans made it a 
colony : it was the birthplace of the emperor 
Septimius Severus : and it continued to flourish 
till A.D. 366, when it was almost ruined by an 
attack from a Libyan tribe. Justinian did 
something towards its restoration ; but the 
Arabian invasion completed its destruction. 
Its ruins are still considerable. (Sail. Jug. 
19, 77-79; Strab. p. 835; Tac. Hist. iv. 50; 
Procop. de Aed. vi. 4.) — 2. Leptis Minor or 
Parva (AeirTlj r) fUKpa : Lamta, Ru.), usually 
called simply Leptis, a Phoenician colony on 
the coast of Byzacium, in N. Africa, between 
Hadrumetum and Thapsus : an important 
place under the Carthaginians and the Romans 
(Bell.Afr. 7 ; Caes. B. C. ii. 38 ; Sail. Jug. 19). 

Lerina (St. Honorat), an island off the coast 
of Gallia Narbonensis, opposite Antipolis. 

Lerna or Lerne (AJpvri), a district in Argolis, 
not far from Argos, in which was a marsh and 
a small river of the same name. It was cele- 
brated as the place where Heracles killed the 
Lernean Hydra. [See p. 396.] 

Lero (St. Marguerite), a small island off the 
coast of Gallia Narbonensis (Ptol. ii. 10, 21). 

Leros (Aepos : Ae'pios), a small island, one of 
the Sporades, opposite to the mouth of the 
Sinus Iassius, on the coast of Caria. Its in- 
habitants, who came originally from Miletus, 
bore a bad character. (Strab. p. 487.) Besides 
a city of the same name, it had in it a temple 
of Artemis, where the transformation of the 
sisters of Meleager into guinea-fowls took place, 
in memory of which guinea-fowls were kept in 
the court of that temple (Ant. Lib. 2 ; Ov. Met. 
viii. 533 ; Athen. p. 655). 

Lesbonax (Az<r$S>va£). 1. Son of Potamon of 
Mytilene, a philosopher and sophist, in the time 
of Augustus. He was the father of Polemon,. 
the teacher and friend of the emperor Tiberius. 
Lesbonax wrote several political orations, of 
which two have come down to us, one entitled 
Uepl rod iro\4fiov HLopivBioiv, and the other IIpo- 
rpeirTiKbs \6yos, both of which are not unsuc- 
cessful imitations of the Attic orators of the 
best times. They are printed in the collections 
of the Greek orators [Demosthenes], and sepa- 
rately by Orelli, Lips. 1820. — 2. A Greek gram- 
marian, of uncertain age, but later than No. 1, 
the author of an extant work on grammatical 
figures (Uepl <rxyM-dT<*>v), published by Valcke- 
naer in his edition of Ammonius. 

Lesbos (AJcrfios : Aiafitos, Lesbms : Mytilene, 
Metelin), the largest, and by far the most im- 
portant, of the islands of the Aegaean along the 
coast of Asia Minor, lay opposite to the Gulf 
of Adramyttium, off the coast of Mysia, the 
direction of its length being NW. and SE. It is 
intersected by lofty mountains, and indented 
with large bays, the chief of which, on the W. 
side, runs more than half way across the island. 
It had three chief headlands, Argennum on the 
NE., Sigrium on the W., and Malea on the S. 
Its valleys were very fertile, especially in the N. 
part, near Methymna; and it produced corn, 
oil, and wine renowned for its excellence. 
It was called by various names, the chief of 
which were, Issa, Pelasgia, Mytanis, and 
Macaria (Strab. p. 60 ; Diod. iii. 55, v. 81) : the 
late Greek writers called it Mytilene, from 
its chief city, and this name has been preserved 
to modern times. When Diodorus (v. 80) 
speaks of the earliest inhabitants as Pelasgians, 



LESBOTHEMIS 

lie merely expresses the fact that they were 
people of whose coming no tradition survived. 
In the great Aeolic migration the island was 
colonised by the first detachment of Aeolians, 
who founded in it a Hexapolis, consisting of 
the six cities, Mytilene, Methymna, Eresus, 
Pyrrha, Antissa, and Arisbe, afterwards reduced 
to five through the destruction of Arisbe by the 
Methymnaeans. The Aeolians of Lesbos after- 
wards founded numerous settlements along the 
coast of the Troad and in the region of Alt. Ida, 
and at one time a great part of the Troad seems 
to have been subject to Lesbos. The chief facts 
in the history of the island are connected with 
its principal city, Mytilene, which was the 
scene of the struggles between the nobles and 
the commons. [Alcaeus, Pittacus.] At the 
time of the Peloponnesian war, Lesbos was 
subject to Athens. After various changes, it 
fell under the power of Mithridates, and passed 
from him to the Eomans (II. xxiv. 544 ; Od. iv. 
342 ; Hdt. i. 151 ; Thuc. ii. 9 ; Strab. pp. 617- 
620). The island is most important in the early 
history of Greece, as the native region of the 
Aeolian school of lyric poetry. It was the 
birthplace of the musician and poet Tekpaxder, 
of the lyric poets Alcaeus, Sappho, and others, 
and of the dithyrambic poet Arion. Other 
forms of literature and philosophy early and 
long flourished in it : the sage and statesman 
Pittacus, the historians Hellaxicus and Theo- 
phanes, and the philosophers Theophrastus and 
Phanias, were all Lesbians. 

Lesbothemis (Aea-[}66e/us), a sculptor of an- 
cient date, and a native of Lesbos (Athen. pp. 
182, 635). 

Le3Cb.es or Lescheus (Ataxts, Ae'crxeus), one 
of the so-called Cyclic poets, son of Aeschylinus, 
a native of Pyrrha, in the neighbourhood of 
Mytilene, and hence called a Mytilenean or a 
Lesbian (Pans. x. 25, 5). He flourished about 
B.C. 708, and was usually regarded as the author 
of the Little Iliad ('l\tas i) Ixioouv or 'IAtas 
yuKpi). Aristotle, however (Poet. 23), does not 
name its author ; and the Lesbian Uellanicus, 
who would probably have claimed it for a 
countryman if lie could, assigns it to the Spartan 
Cinaethon. The Little Iliad consisted of four 
books, and was intended as a supplement to the 
Homeric Iliad. It related the events after the 
death of Hector, the fate of Ajax, the exploits 
of Philoctetes, Neoptolemus, and Odysseus, and 
the reception of the wooden horse within the 
walls of Troy. The actual capture of the city, 
called The Destruction of Troy ('Ih'wv trepan), 
which formed the continuation of the story was 
by another author, Arctinus. Hence Aristotle, 
alluding to the want of unity, remarks that the 
Little Iliad furnished materials for eight trage- 
dies, whilst only one could be based upon the 
Iliad or Odyssey of Homer. 

Lethaeus (Ajjflcuos). 1. A river of Ionia, in 
Asia Minor, flowing S. past Magnesia into the 
Moeander (Strab. p. 551). — 2. A river in the S. 
of Crete, flowing past Gortyna. — 3. [Latiion.] 

Lethe (At)07)), the personification of oblivion, 
called by Hesiod a daughter of Eris (Th. 227), 
i.e. the forgetfulness of former kindnesses which 
ensues from a quarrel. A river in the lower 
world was likewise called Lethe. The houIs of 
the departed drank of this river, and thus 
forgot all they had said or done in the upper 
world. [Hades.] 

Lethe, a river in Spain. "See LlMAEA. 

Leto (A7)t»), called Latona by the Romans, 
is described by Hesiod as a daughter of the Titan 
Coeus and Phoebe, a sister of Asteriu, and the 



LETO 



485 



mother of Apollo and Artemis by Zeus, before 
his marriage to Hera (Th. 405, 921 ; cf. 11. xiv. 
327). In Homer, though nothing is said of the 
place or manner of the birth, she is spoken of 
as the mother by Zeus of Apollo and Artemis. 
She, like her children, sides with the Trojans ; 
she and Artemis heal the wounded Aeneas in 
the temple of Apollo in Troy, which implies a 
tradition that the three deities were associated 
in a temple there, and also seems to ascribe to 
her a share in the healing powers of Apollo 
Paeonius. (27. i. 36, v. 447, xx. 40, 72, xxi. 497 ; 
Od. xi. 318.) The stories of the offence given 
to her by Niobe and by Tityus are also alluded 
to, but both in what are considered later parts 
of the poems (II. xxiv. 607 ; Od. xi. 580). Her 
: fame and her story increased as the worship of 
! Apollo grew in importance through the Hellenic 
' nation. The wanderings of the patient and 
gentle goddess persecuted during her pregnancy 
by Hera, who seems already to be the wife of 
Zeus, and all the scenes and associations of the 
birth of the twin deities are dwelt upon by post- 
Homeric poets. All the world being afraid of 
receiving Leto on account of Hera, who had 
sent the serpent Pytho to follow her, she wan- 
dered about till she came to Delos, which was 
then a floating island, and bore the name of 




Leto (Latona;. (From a painted vase.) 

Asteria or Ortygia. When Leto arrived there, 
Zeus fastened it by adamantine chains to the 
bottom of the saa, that it might be a secura 
resting-place for his beloved, and here she gave 
birth to Apollo and Artemis. The bed of Leto 
was by the Inopus, a small stream of Delos 
which Alexandrian traditions made an offshoot 
from the Nile passing under the sea (Strab. p. 
271; Callim. Hymn. Del. 206), and near her 
sacred lake ; it was shadowed by a palm tree 
(cf. Od. vi. 152) and a laurel which sprang up 
for her shelter, and all the land put forth flower-, 
in joy at the birth (Hymn, ad Ajtoll. Del. 119; 
Hdt. ii. 170; Eur. Hec. 459, Ion, 918, J. T. 
1100; Callim. Hymn. Del. 260). Some addi- 
tions have grown partly out of the other nam.' 
of the island, Ortygia (quail island): that Let.) 
took the form of a quail in order to reach the 
island; or that her sister, Asteria, flying from 
the love of Zeus, was changed into a quail and 
then into the floating island which received 
Leto. Leto is most commonly taken to be th • 
goddess of night (from \ai/8avtiv) ; hence sh>' 
gives birth to light deities who come forth as it 
were from the womb of night, Apollo, Artemi < 
(as moon-goddess), and Asteria, goddess of 
stars : with this view agree her epithets kvcu>6- 
irerXos tdark-robed), |i«iAixos (gentle), and the 
expression that she is ' kind to men and to tho 



486 



LEUCA 



LEUCOSYRI 



immortal gods' (Hes. Th 407). — From their 
mother Apollo is frequently called Letoius or 
Latoius, and Artemis (Diana) Leto'ia, Letois, 
Latois, or Latoe. 

Leuca (to Aeu/ca), a town at the extremity of 
the Iapygian promontory in Calabria, with a 
stinking fountain, under which the giants who 
were vanquished by Heracles are said to have 
been buried. The promontory is still called 
Capo di Leuca. (Strab. p. 281.) 

Leucae, Leuca (AeOjcai, Aeu/c7j : Lefke), a 
small town on the coast of Ionia, in Asia Minor, 
near Phocaea, built by the Persian general 
Tachos in B. c. 352, and remarkable as the scene 
of the battle between the consul Licinius Cras- 
sus and Aristonicus, in 131 (Diod. xv. 18 ; 
Strab. p. 646). 

Leucas or Leucadia (A^vkols, AevKaSia : Aeu- 
KaSios : Santa Maura), an island in the Ionian 
sea, off the W. coast of Acarnania, about twenty 
miles in length, and from five to eight miles in 
breadth. It has derived its name from the 
numerous calcareous hills which cover its sur- 
face. It was originally united to the mainland 
at its NE. extremity by a narrow isthmus. 
Homer speaks of it as a peninsula, with a town 
Nericus (Od. xxiv. 377). According to Strabo 
(p. 322) its first inhabitants were Teleboansand 
Leleges. Subsequently the Corinthians under 
Cypselus, between B. c. 665 and 625, founded a 
new town, called Leucas in the NE. of the 
country near the isthmus, in which they settled 
1000 of their citizens, and to which they re- 
moved the inhabitants of Nericus, which lay a 
little to the W. of the new town. (Strab. I. c. ; 
Thuc. i. 30.) The Corinthians also cut a canal 
through the isthmus and thus converted the 
peninsula into an island. This canal was after- 
wards filled up by deposits of sand ; and in the 
Peloponnesian war it was no longer available 
for ships, which during that period were con- 
veyed across the isthmus on more than one 
occasion (Thuc. iii. 81, iv. 8). The canal was 
opened again by the Romans (Liv. xxxiii. 17). 
At present the channel is dry in some parts, and 
has from three to four feet of water in others. 
The town of Leucas was a place of importance, 
and during the war between Philip and the 
Romans was at the head of the Acarnanian 
league, and the place where the meetings of the 
league were held. It was in consequence taken 
and plundered by the Romans, B. c. 197. The 
remains of this town are still to be seen. The 
other towns in the island were PLellomenum 
i'EwS/xevov) on the SE. coast, and Phara (4>apa), 
on the SW. coast. — At the S. extremity of the 
island, opposite Cephallenia, was the celebrated 
promontory, variously called Leucas, Leucatas, 
Leucates, or Leucdte {C. Ducato), on which 
was a temple of Apollo, who hence had the 
surname of Leucadius (Verg. Aen. iii. 274 ; 
Propert. iii. 11, 69). At the annual festival of 
the god it was the custom to cast down a cri- 
minal from this promontory into the sea : to 
break his fall birds of all kinds were attached 
to him, and if he reached the sea uninjured, 
boats were ready to pick him up (Strab. p. 
452 ; Ov. Her. xv. 167, Trist. v. 2, 77 ; Cic. 
Tusc. iv. 18, 41). This appears to have been 
an expiatory rite ; and it gave rise to the well- 
known story that lovers leaped from this rock, 
in order to seek relief from the pangs of love. 
Thus Sappho is said to have leapt down from 
this rock, when in love with Phaon ; but this 
well-known story does not stand the test of 
examination. [Sappho.] 

Leuce (Aeu/r/y), an island in the Euxine sea, I 



near the mouth of the Borysthenes, sacred to- 
Achilles. [Achilleus Dkomos.] 

Leuci, a people in the SE. of Gallia Belgica, 
S. of the Mediomatrici, between the Matrona 
and Mosella. Their chief town was Tullum 
(Toul). (Caes. B. G. i. 40 ; Strab. p. 193.) 

Leuci Montes, called by the Romans Albi 
Montes, a range of mountains in the W. of 
Crete. [Albi Montes.] 

Leucippe. [Alcathoe.] 

Leucippides (Aeu/cnnn'Ses), i.e. Phoebe and 
Hilaira, the daughters of Leucippus. They 
were priestesses of Athene and Artemis, and 
betrothed to Idas and Lynceus, the sons of 
Aphareus ; but Castor and Pollux carried them 
off and married them. [Dioscuei, p. 298, a.] 

Leucippus (AevKnriros). 1. Son of Oenomaus. 
For details, see Daphne. — 2. Son of Perieres 
and Gorgophone, brother of Aphareus, and 
prince of the Messenians, was one of the Caly- 
donian hunters. By his wife Philodice, he had 
two daughters, Phoebe and Hilaira, usually 
called Leucippides. (Paus. iii. 26, 3 ; Ov. Met. 
viii. 306 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 8.) — 3. A Grecian philo- 
sopher, the founder of the atomic theory of the 
ancient philosophy, which was more fully deve- 
loped by Democritus. Where and when he was 
bom we have no data for deciding. Miletus, 
Abdera, and Elis have been assigned as his birth, 
place ; the first, apparently, for no other reason 
than that it was the birthplace of several natural 
philosophers ; the second, because Democritus 
came from that town ; the third, because he was 
looked upon as a disciple of the Eleatic school. 
The period when he lived is equally uncertain. 
He is called the teacher of Democritus. (Diog. 
Laert. ix. 30, 34.) For the doctrines ascribed to 
him, see Democbitus. 

Leucon (AevKccv). 1. Son of Poseidon or 
Athamas and Themisto, and father of Erythrus 
and Evippe (Apollod. i. 9, 2 ; Hyg. Fab. 157). 
— 2. A powerful king of Bosporus, who reigned 
B. c. 393-353. He was in close alliance with the 
Athenians, to whom he gave the right of shipping 
corn without export duty before any others were 
supplied, and as in years of scarcity this gave 
them the means of obtaining a plentiful supply 
unattainable by other nations, the Athenians in 
return admitted him and his sons to the citizen- 
ship of Athens, with immunity from all liabilities 
of a citizen (Dem. Lept. p. 466, §§ 30, 33 ; Strab. 
p. 310 ; Diod. xiv. 93, xvi. 91). — 3. An Athenian 
poet, of the Old Comedy, a contemporary of 
Aristophanes (Suid. s. v. ; Athen. p. 343). 

Leuconium [AsvKtiviov), a town in the island 
of Chios (Thuc. viii. 24). 

Leucdnoe (AevKovSn), daughter of Minyas, 
usually called Leucippe. [Alcathoe.] 

Leucopetra (AevKonerpa : C. dell' Armi), a 
promontory in the SW. of Bruttium, on the 
Sicilian straits, and a few miles S. of Rhegium, 
to whose territory it belonged (Strab. p. 259). 

Leucophrys (AevK6<ppvs). 1. A city of Caria, 
in the plain of the Maeander, close to a curious 
lake of warm water, and having a temple of 
Artemis Leucophryne (Xen. Hell. iv. 8 ; Strab. 
p. 647 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 62). — 2. A name given to 
the island of Tenedos, from its white cliffs. . 

Leucophryne. [Leucophrys.] 

Leucosia or Leucasia [Piano), a small island 
in the S. of the gulf of Paestum, off the coast of 
Lucania, and opposite the promontory Posidium, 
said to have been called after .one of the Sirens 
(Strab. pp. 123, 252, 258). 

Leucdsyri (AevKtScrvpoi, i.e. Wliite Syrians), 
was a name early applied by the Greeks to the 
inhabitants of Cappadocia, who were of the 



LEUCOTHEA 

Syrian race, in contradistinction to the Syrian 
tribes of a darker colour bevond the Taurus 
(Hat. i. 72, vii. 72; Strab. pp. 552, 737). After- 
waras, when Cappaaoces came to be the common 
name for the people of S. Cappaaocia, the wora 
Leucosyri was appliea specifically to the people 
in the N. of the country (aft. Pontus) on the 
coast of the Euxine, between the rivers Halys 
ana Iris : these are the White Syrians of Xeno- 
phon (Anab. v. 6). 

Leucothea (AeuKoBta), a sea goaaess, was pre- 
viously Ino, the wife of Athamas. She was also 
regardea as a goaaess of the aawn, ana was 
nurse of Dionysus. [Athamas ; Matuta.] 

Leucothoe, aaughter of the Babylonian king 
Orchamus ana Eurynome, was beloved by 
Apollo. Her amour was betrayed by the jealous 
Clytia to her father, who buriea her alive ; 
whereupon Apollo metamorphosea her into an 
incense shrub. (Ov. Met. iv. 208.) 

Leuctra I ret Aevurpa : Lefka or Lefhra), a 
small town in Boeotia, on the roaa from Plataeae 
to Thespiae, memorable for the victory which 
Epaminonaas ana the Thebans here gainea over 
Cleombrotus ana the Spartans, B. c. 371 (Xen. 
Hell. vi. 4, 7 ; Dioa. xv. 54 ; Paus. ix. 13, 3 ; 
Plut. Felop. 20, 21). 

Leuctrum (AeC/cTpoe). 1. Or Leuctra (Leftro), 
a town in Messenia, on the E. siae of the Jles- 
senian gulf, between Caraamyle ana Thalama, 
on the small river Pamisus. The Spartans ana 
Messenians aisputea for the possession of it. 
(Strab. p. 360 ; Paus. iii. 21, 7.)— 2. A town in 
Achaia, dependent on Rhypae (Strab. p. 387). 

Lexovii or Lexobli, a people in Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis, on the Ocean, W. of the mouth of the 
Sequana. Their capital was Noviomagus 
(Lisicux). (Caes. B. G. iii. 9, 11 ; Strab. p. 189.) 

Liba (7/ Ai'/Sa), a city of Mesopotamia, between 
Nisibis and the Tigris (Pol. v. 51). 

Libanius (Ai£oeios), a distinguishea Greek 
sophist ana rhetorician, was born at Antioch, 
on the Orontes, about A. D. 314. He stuaiea at 
Athens, and afterwaras set up a school of rhe- 
toric at Constantinople, which was attenaed by 
so large a number of pupils that it excitea the 
jealousy of the other professors, who chargea 
Libanius with being a mngieian, ana obtainea 
his expulsion from Constantinople about 340. 
He then went to Nicomeaia, where he taught 
with equal success, but also arew upon himself 
an equal aegree of malice from his opponents. 
After a stay of five years at Nicomeaia, he was 
recalled to Constantinople. Eventually he took 
up his abode at Antioch, where he spent the 
remainaer of his life. Here he received the 
greatest marks of favour from the emperor 
Julian, 302, and afterwaras from Thcodosius ; 
but his enjoyment of life was disturbed by ill 
health, by misfortunes in his family, ana more 
especially by the disputes in which he was in- 
cessantly involved, partly with rival sophists, 
and partly with the prefects. He was the 
teacher of St. Basil and St. Chrysostom, with 
whom he always kept up a friendly connexion; 
for although a pagan and entirely devoted to the 
study of pagan literature, he made no difference 
between Christian and pagan pupils. The year 
of his death is uncertain, but from one of his 
epistles it is evident that he was alive in 391, 
and it is probable that he died a few years after, 
in the reign of Arcodius. The extant works of 
Libanius are : 1. Models for rhetorical exercises 
{Xlpoyvfivaonaruiv irapaSttyixaTa). 2. Orations 
(\6yoi), sixty-seven in number. 8. Declama- 
tions (Mf A«Vai), i.e. orations on fictitious sub- 
jects, and descriptions of various kinds, fifty in 



LIBER 



487 



number. 4. A Life of Demosthenes, and argu- 
ments to the speeches of the same orator. 5. 
Letters ('EntaToAal), of which a very large 
number is still extant. Many of these letters 
are extremely interesting, being addressed to 
men such as the emperor Julian, Athanasius, 
Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, and Chrysostom. The 
style of Libanius is superior to that of the other 
rhetoricians of the fourth century. He took 
the best orators of the classic age as his moaels, 
ana we can often see in him the aisciple ana 
happy imitator of Demosthenes ; but he is not 
free from affectation, ana we rarely fina in him 
that simplicity of style which constitutes the 
great charm of the best Attic orators. As far 
as the history of his age is concernea, some of 
his orations, ana still more his epistles are of 
great value : such as the oration in which he re- 
lates the events of his own life ; the eulogies on 
Constantius ana Constans ; the orations on 
Julian ; several orations aescribing the conaition 
of Antioch, ana those which he wrote against 
his professional ana political opponents. The 
best eaition of the orations ana acclamations is 
by Reiske, Altenburg, 1791-97, 4 vols. 8vo, ana 
the best eaition of the epistles is by Wolf, 
Amsterdam, 1738, fol. 

Llbanus (6 Ai'/favor, rb AifSavov : Heb. Le- 
banon, i.e. the White Mountain : Jehel Libna?i), 
a lofty and steep mountain range on the confines 
of Syria ana Palestine, diviaing Phoenice from 
Coele-Syria. It extenas from above Siaon, 
about lat. 33i° N., in a airection NNE. as far 
as about lat. Sih°. Its highest summits are 
coverea with perpetual snow (between Beirut 
ana Tripoli it reaches a height of nearly 12,000 
feet) ; its siaes were in ancient times clothea 
with forests of ceaars, of which only scatterea 
trees now remain, ana on its lower slopes grow 
vines, figs, mulberries, ana other fruits : its 
wines were highly celebratea in ancient times. 
It is consiaerably lower than the opposite range 
of Antilibanus. In the Scriptures the wora 
Lebanon is usea for both ranges, ana for either 
of them ; but in classical authors the names 
Libanus ana Antilibanus are distinctive terms, 
being applied to the W. and E. ranges respec- 
tively. (Strab. pp. 742, 755 ; Ptol. v. 15.) 

Libarna or Libarnum, a town of Liguria on 
the Via Aurelia, NW. of Genua (Plin. iii. 49). 

Llbentina or Lubentlna, a surname of Venus 
by which she is describea as the goadess of 
pleasure (Varro, L.L. v. G; Cic. N.V. ii. 28). 

Liber, or Liber Pater, a name frequently 
given by the Roman poets to the Greek Bacchus 
or Dionysus, who was accordingly regarded as 
identical with the Italian Liber. But the god 
Liber, and the goddess Libera were ancient 
Italian divinities, presiding over the cultivation 
of the vine and the fertility of the fields. It 
has been remarked before \p. 453, aj that there is 
a difference of opinion as to whether the culti- 
vation of the vine existed in Italy before the 
beginning of Greek colonisation in the eighth 
century b.C.j or was introduced by Greek 
settlers. There is not much evidence either 
way. The fact that libations of milk existed 
in an old ritual instead of wine may point to a 
time when the people of Italy were herdsmen 
and had no vines, but it does not tell us at what 
date this was so. Whatever the' truth may be, 
it is probable that the ceremonies at Lavinium 
mentioned by Varro (ap. August. 0. D, vii. 21) 
belonged to Liber as an ancient Latin deity of 
fruitfulncss in trees and nature generally, and 
eventually of vines in particular. lb' was wor 
shipped probably by libations (whether Curtius 



488 



LIBERIA 



LIBO 



be correct or not in connecting his name with 
libare) and with the images (oscilla) hung up 
in trees, which were symbols perhaps of human 
sacrifices in early times, and were continued 
when Liber was almost entirely confused with 
Dionysus (Verg. Georg. ii. 382 ; Diet, of Ant. 
art. Oscilla). It is not easy to determine whe- 
ther the connexion of Liber and Libera with 
Ceres was due to true Italian ritual or to Greek 
influence. A temple to these three divinities 
was vowed by the dictator, A. Postumius, in 
B. c. 496, and was built near the Circus Flami- 
nius ; it was afterwards restored by Augustus, 
and dedicated by Tiberius (Tac. Ann. ii. 49 ; 
Dionys. vi. 17) ; but this may possibly have been 
due to a growing tendency to identify Liber 
with Dionysus and Libera with Persephone, and 
so to connect both with Ceres = Demeter (Cic. 
N. D. ii. 24, 62). The union of Liber in some 
places with Jupiter as Jupiter Liber was pro- 
bably of older date [see p. 464, b]. Although the 
Greek Dionysus (as Bacchus) almost entirely 
took the place of the old Italian god, yet Liber 
was still recognised beside Bacchus with a cer- 
tain personality, just as Hercules existed in his 
Roman as well as in his Greek form. There is 
no doubt that, whatever the etymology, there 
was a disposition to connect Liber and after- 
wards Bacchus with freedom and free gifts, which 
might not unnaturally be ascribed to the wine- 
god. Hence on the festival of the Liberalia, I 
on March 17, the boys assumed the toga libera 
(Ov. Fast. hi. 371). For the festival see Diet, 
of Ant. art. Liberalia ; it must be recollected 
that the Bacchanalia was a festival of Greek 
origin and did not belong to the Italian Liber. 
Libera. [Liber.] 

Libertas, the personification of Liberty, was 
worshipped at Rome as a divinity. A temple 
was erected to her on the Aventine by Tib. 
Sempronius Gracchus. Another was built by 
Clodius on the spot where Cicero's house had 
stood. A third was erected after Caesar's vic- 
tories in Spain. From these temples we must 
distinguish the Atrium Libertatis, which was in 
the N. of the Forum, towards the Quirinal. This 
building under the republic served as an office 
of the censors, and also contained tables with 
laws inscribed upon them. It was rebuilt by 
Asinius Pollio, and then became the repository 
of the first public library at Rome. (Liv. xxiv. 
16; Dio Cass, xxviii. 17, xliii. 44, xlvii. 25, lxiii. 
29.) — Libertas is usually represented in works 
of art as a matron, with the pilleus or conical 
cap [Diet, of Ant. art. Pilleus], the symbol of 
liberty, or a wreath of laurel. 

Libethrldes. [Libethbum.] 

LibethriUS Mons (to AifSi)6piov opos), a moun- 
tain in Boeotia, a branch of Mt. Helicon, forty 
stadia from Coronea, possessing a grotto of the 
Libethrian nymphs, adorned with their statues, 
and two fountains, Libethrias and Peira (Paus. 
ix. 34, 4). 

Libethrum. (Aei'jSTjflpov, ra Adp-qBpa, to Ai/3rj- 
Opa), an ancient Ihracian town in Pieria in 
Macedonia, on the slope of Olympus, and SW. 
of Dium, where Orpheus is said to have lived. 
This town and the surrounding country were 
sacred to the Muses, who were hence called 
Libethrldes ; and it is probable that the wor- 
ship of the Muses under this name was trans- 
ferred by Pierian Thracians from this place to 
Boeotia. (Strab. pp. 410, 471 ; Paus. ix. 30, 9 ; 
Verg. Eel. vii. 21 ; Liv. xliv. 5.) 

Libitina, an Italian divinity, who was ap- 
parently originally a goddess of the earth, and 
its delights, especially of gardens : hence she 



was identified with Venus, who had gardens 
under her protection (Varro, B.B.i. 1, 6, L. L. vi. 
20) ; and there was a temple of Venus, the Lucus 
Libitinae. Possibly Libitina may have been 
a goddess of trees generally, including vines. 
Venus at any rate was included in the Vinalia, 
though that may be due to other causes. As 
most goddesses of the earth were also goddesses 
of the underworld (e.g. Demeter and Isis ; cf. 
also Aphrodite, p. 85, a), so Libitina was also 
goddess of the dead, and this attribute prevailed 
to the exclusion of all others, perhaps when 
her other attributes were transferred to Venus 
Libitina. As the goddess of the dead, when 
the Greek religion had influenced the Roman, 
she was sometimes identified with Persephone 
(Plut. Nem. 12, Q. B. 23). Her temple at Rome 
in her grove (Lucus Libitinae) was a repository 
of everything necessary for burials, and persons 
might there either buy or hire those things. 
Hence a person undertaking the burial of a per- 
son (an undertaker) was called libitinarius, and 
his business libitina; hence the expression libi- 
tinam exercere, or facer e, and libitina funeri- 
bus non sufficiebat (i.e. they could not all be 
buried). (Val. Max. v. 2, 10; Liv. xl. 19, xli. 
21; Hor. Od. iii. 30, Sat. ii. 6, 19; Juv. xii. 121; 
Mart. viii. 43, x. 97.) According to an old 
regulation ascribed to Servius Tullius, partly 
intended to secure a register of deaths, it was 
ordained that for every person who died, a piece 
of money should be deposited in the temple of 
Libitina. Thus money was called lucar Libi- 
tinae, and hence Horace (Sat. ii. 6, 19) calls 
the unhealthy autumn ' quaestus Libitinae.' 
(Dionys. iv. 19 ; Suet. Ner. 39 ; Diet, of Ant. 
art. Lucar.) 

Libo, Scribomus, a plebeian family. 1. L., 
tribune of the plebs, B.C. 149, accused Ser. Sul- 
picius Galba on account of the outrages which 
he had committed against the Lusitanians. 




Coin of the Scribonian Gens. 
Obo., head ol Fortuna; LIBO BONEVENT (Bonus Even- 
tus) ; rev., PUTEAL SCRIBON ; an altar-like puteal with 
lyres and wreath, below which some trace a pair of; 
tongs as symbol of Vulcan, god of lightning. 

[Galba, No. 6.] It was perhaps this Libo who 
consecrated the Puteal Scribonianum or Pit- 
teal Libonis, of which we so frequently read in 
ancient writers. The Puteal was an enclosed 
place in the Forum, near the Arcus Fabianus, 
and was so called from its being open at the 
top, like a puteal or well. It was dedicated in 
very ancient times, because the spot had been 
struck by lightning ; it was subsequently re- 
paired and re-dedicated by Libo, who erected in 
its neighbourhood a tribunal for the praetor, in 
consequence of which the place was frequented 
by persons who had lawsuits, such as money- 
lenders and the like. (Comp. Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 35, 
Epist. i. 19, 8.) It appears on the coins of the 
Scribonian Gens. — 2. L., the father-in-law of 
Sex. Pompey, the son of Pompey the Great. 
On the breaking out of the Civil war in 49, he 
naturally sided with Pompey, and was entrusted 
with the command of Etruria. Shortly after- 
wards he accompanied Pompey to Greece, and 
was actively engaged in the war that ensued. 



LIBON 



LICINIUS 



489 



On the death of Bibulus (48) he had the chief colonies, and especially to the inhabitants of 
command of the Pompeian fleet. (Caes. B. C. the Phoenician cities on the coast of the Cartha- 
iii. 15-24 ; Dio Cass. xli. 48.) In the civil wars ginian territory : it is derived from the fact that 
■which followed Caesar's death, he followed the 1 these people were a mixed race of the Libyan 
fortunes of his son-in-law, Sex. Pompey. In 40, natives and the Phoenician settlers (Liv. xx. 
Octavian married his sister, Scribonia, and this 22 ; Diod. xx. 55). 

marriage was followed by a peace between the I Libyssa {Aifivacra : Herekeh ?), a town of Bi- 
triumvirs and Pompey (39). "When the war thynia, in Asia Minor, on the N. coast of the 
was renewed in 36, Libo for a time continued Sinus Astacenus, W. of Nicomedia, celebrated 
with Pompey, but, seeing his cause hopeless, he ; as the place where the tomb of Hannibal was to 
deserted him in the following year. In 34, he be seen (Ptol. v. 1, 13 ; Plin. v. 148). 
was consul with M. Antony. (Appian, B. C. v. Licates or Licatli, a people of Vmdelicia on 
52-73, 139 ; Dio Cass. xlix. 38.) the E. bank of the river Licus or Licia (Lech), 

Libon (Atftoiv), an Elean, the architect of the one of the fiercest of the Yindelician tribes 
great temple of Zeus in the Altis at Olympia, (Strab. p. 206). 



Libui, Libici or Lebicii (AeffeKioi, AifitKot), a islands between Euboea and the coast of Locris, 
Gallic tribe in Gallia Transpadana who occu- called Scarphia, Caresa, and Phocaria. [See 
pied the territory about the entrance to Vol Lichas, No. 1.] 

Sesia, and Val d' Aosta ; their chief town was Lichas (Ai'xos). 1. An attendant of Heracles, 
Vercellae (Pol. ii. 17 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 36 ; Liv. brought his master the poisoned garment which 
xxi. 38 ; Plin. iii. 123). destroyed the hero. [See p. 400, a.] Heracles, 

Liburnia, a district of Illyricum, along the in anguish and wrath, threw Lichas into the 
coast of the Adriatic sea, was separated from sea, and the Lichadian islands were believed to 
Istria on the NW. by the river Arsia, and from have derived their name from him. (Strab pp. 
Dalmatia on the S. by the river Titius, thus 426, 447 ; Ov. Met. ix. 155.) — 2. A Spartan, son 
corresponding to the W. part of Croatia, and of Arcesilaus, was proxervus of Argos, and is 
the N. part of the modern Dalmatia. The frequently mentioned in the Peloponnesian 
country is mountainous and unproductive, and war. He was famous throughout Greece for 
its inhabitants, the Liburni. supported them- his hospitality, especially in his entertainment 
selves chiefly by commerce and navigation, and of strangers at the C ymnopaedia. (Thuc. v. 
also by piracy. They were skilful sailors, and 14, 22, 76, viii. 18 ; Xen. Mem. i. 2, 61.) 
they appear to have been the first people who Licia or Licus. [Licates.] 
had the sway of the waters of the Adriatic. Licinia. 1. A Yestal virgin, accused of incest, 
They took possession of most of the islands of together with two other Vestals, Aemilia and 
this sea as far as Corcyra, and had settlements Marcia, B.C. 114. L. Metellus, the pontifex 
even on the opposite coast of Italy. Their maximus, condemned Aemilia, but acquitted 
ships were remarkable for their swift sailing, Licinia and Marcia. The acquittal of the two 
and hence vessels built after the same model last caused such dissatisfaction that the people 
were called Libumicae or Liburnae naves, appointed L. Cassius Longinus to investigate 
(Liv. x. 2, xlii. 48; Caes. B.C. iii. 5; Hor. , the matter; and he condemned both Licinia and 
Epod. i. 1; Diet, of Ant. art. Nan's) The Marcia (Macrob. i. 10). — 2. Wife of C. Sem- 
Liburnians were the first Illyrian people who pronius Gracchus, the celebrated tribune. — 
submitted to the Romans. Being hard pressed 3. Daughter of Crassus the orator, and wife of 
by the Iapydes on the N. and by the Dahna- the younger Marina. 

tians on the S., they sought the protection of T.mTnTa Gens, a celebrated plebeian house, to 
Rome. Hence we find that many of their which belonged C. Licinius Calvus Stolo, whose 
towns were immunes, or exempt from taxes. 1 exertions threw open the consulship to the ple- 
The islands of the coast were reckoned a part of ' beiuns. Its most distinguishtd families at a 
Liburnia and are known as Liburni Us or Li- iater time were those of CkassUS, Lucullus 
burnicae Insulae. [Ielykicum.] and Mukena. There were likewise numerous 

Libya (A</3w)), daughter of Epaphus and oilier surnames in the gens, which arealsogiven 
Memphis, from whom Libya (Africa) is said to in their proper places. 

have derived its name. By Poseidon she be- I Licinius. 1. C. Licinius Calvus, surnamod 
came the mother of Agenor, Belus, and Lelex. Stolo, which he derived, it is said, from the caro 
(Paus.i. 44, 3 ; Apollod. ii. 1, 4.) with which he dug up the shoots that sprang up 

Libyii (Ax)9uij : AiBve s, Libyes). 1. The Greek from the roots of his vines (Varro, It. It. i. 2). 
name for the continent of Africa in general. ; He brought the contest between the patricians 
[Africa.] — 2. L. Interior (A. y 4vt6s), the and plebeians to a happy termination and thus 
whole interior of Africa, as distinguished from became the founder of Rome's greatness. He 
the well known regions on the N. and NE. was tribune of the people from B.C. 376 to 367, 
cousts. — 3. Libya, speeificully, or Libyae No- und was faithfully supported in his exertions by 
mos (AtBirrjs i>o,u<Jr), a district of N. Africa, be- his colleague L. Sextius. The laws which he 
tween Egypt and Mannarica, so called because proposed were: (1) That in future no more con- 
it once formed an Egyptian Nomos. It is ' sular tribunes should be appointed, but that 
sometimes called Libya Exterior. (Plin. v. 89, consuls should be elected, one of whom should 
60; Aeotptus; Africa.) always be a plebeian. (2) That no one should 

Libyci Montes {rh AifijKbv vpos: Jebel Nel- possess more than 500 jugeraof the public land, 
teleh), the range of mountains which form the or keep upon it more than 100 head of large 
W. margin of the valley of the Nile. [Aeoyptus.] and 500 of small cattle. (3) A law regulating 

Lib y cum Mare (t& AtfivKhv Tti\ayo%), the the affairs between debtor and creditor. (4) That 
part of the Mediterranean l>etween the island of the Sibylline books should be entrusted to a 
Crete and the N. coast of Africa (Strab. pp. college of ten men (decemviri), half of whom 
122, 1HM). should be plebeians. [Diet, of Ant. art. Leges 

Libyphoenices (AifivipoiviKf s, AifftxpoiviKts I, Liciniac.] These rogations were passed after 
a term applied to the people of those parts of a most vehement opposition on the part of tho 
N. Africa iu which the Phoenicians had founded patricians, and L. SeitUB was the first plebeian 



about B.C. 450 (Paus. v. 10, 3). 




490 



LICINIUS 



LIGARIUS 



who obtained the consulship, 36G. Licinius 
himself was elected twice to the consulship, 364 
and 361. Some years later he was accused by 
M. Popilius Laenas of having transgressed his 
own law respecting the amount of public land 
which a person might possess. He was con- 
demned and sentenced to pay a heavy fine. 
(Liv. vi. 35, 42, vii. 1, 9, 16 ; Val. Max. viii. 6, 3.) 
— 2. C. Licinius Macer, an annalist and an orator, 
was a man of praetorian dignity, who, when im- 
peached (66) of extortion by Cicero, finding that 
the verdict was against him, forthwith committed 
suicide before the formalities of the trial were 
completed. His Annales commenced with the 
very origin of the city, and extended to twenty- 
one books at least ; but how far he brought 
down his history, is unknown. (Val. Max. ix. 
12 ; Plut. Cic. 9 ; Cic. Brut. 82, 238, Legg. i. 7 ; 
Liv. iv. 7, vii. 9.) — 3. C. Licinius Macer Calvus, 
son of the last, a distinguished orator and poet, 
was born in 82, and died about 47 or 46, in his 
35th or 36th year. His most celebrated oration 
was delivered against Vatinius, who was de- 
fended by Cicero, when he was only 27 years of 
age. So powerful was the effect produced by 
this speech, that the accused sitarted up in the 
midst of the pleading, and passionately ex- 
claimed, ' Rogo vos, judicen, num, si iste diser- 
tus est, ideo me damnari opcrteat ? ' His poems 
were full of wit and grace, and possessed suffi- 
cient merit to be classed by the ancients with 
those of Catullus. His elegies, especially that 
on the untimely death of his mistress Quintilia, 
have been warmly extolled by Catullus, Pro- 
pertius, and Ovid. Calvus was remarkable for 
the shortness of his stature, and hence the 
vehement action in which he indulged while 
pleading was in such ludicrous contrast with his 
insignificant person, that even his friend 
Catullus has not been able to resist a joke, and 
has presented him to us as the ' Salaputium 
disertum,' 'the eloquent Tom Thumb.' (Cic. 
Brut. 82, 279, 283 ; Quint, x. 1, 115 : Catull. 96 ; 
Propert. ii. 19, 40; Ov. Am. hi. 9, 61.) 

Licinius, Roman emperor a.d. 307-324, whose 
full name was Publius Flavius Gaxebius 
Valerius Licinianus Licinius. He was a 
Dacian peasant by birth, and the early friend 
and companion in arms of the emperor Galerius, 
by whom he was raised to the rank of Augustus, 
and invested with the command of the Illyrian 
provinces at Carmentum, on the 11th of Novem- 
ber, A.D. 307. Upon the death of Galerius in 
311, he concluded a peaceful arrangement with 
Maximinus II., in virtue of which the Helles- 
pont and the Bosporus were to form the boun- 
dary of the two empires. In 313 he married 
at Milan, Constantia, the sister of Constantine, 
and in the same year set out to encounter 
Maximinus, who had invaded his dominions. 
Maximinus was defeated by Licinius near 
Heraclea, and died a few months afterwards at 
Tarsus. Licinius and Constantine were now 
the only emperors, and each was anxious to 
obtain the undivided sovereignty. Accordingly 
war broke out between them in 315. Licinius 
was defeated at Cibalis in Pannonia, and after- 
wards at Adrianople, and was compelled to 
purchase peace by ceding to Constantine 
Greece, Macedonia, and Illyricum. This peace 
lasted about nine years, at the end of which 
time hostilities were renewed. The great battle 
of Adrianople (July, 323), followed by the re- 
duction of Byzantium, and a second great 
victory achieved near Chalcedon (September), 
placed Licinius at the mercy of Constantine, 
who, although he spared his life for the moment, 



soon found a convenient pretext for putting him 
to death, 324. (Vict. Caes. 40, 41 ; Zosim. ii. 
7-28 ; Eutrop. x. 3.) 

Licinus. 1. A Gaul by birth, was taken 
prisoner in war, and became a slave of Julius 
Caesar, whose confidence he gained so much as 
to be made his dispensator or steward. Caesar 
gave him his freedom. He also gained the 
favour of Augustus, who appointed him in B.C. 
15 governor of his native country, Gaul. By 
the plunder of Gaul and by other means he 
acquired enormous wealth, and hence his name 
is frequently coupled with that of Crassus. He 
lived to see the reign of Tiberius. (Dio Cass. 
Liv. 21 ; Suet. Aug. 67 ; Juv. i. 109.) To this 
Licinus, and not, as the scholiast says, to the 
barber of Hor. A.P. 301, refers the couplet: 

Marmoreo tumulo Licinus jacet, at Cato yarvo, 
Pompeius nullo ; quis putet esse deos ? 

and the answer, of later date : 
Saxa premunt Licimvm : levat altum fama Catonem, 
Pompeium tituli : credimus esse deos. 

— 2. ClodlUS Licinus, a Roman annalist, who 
lived about the beginning of the first century 
B.C., wrote the history of Rome from its capture 
by the Gauls to his own time (Suet. Gr. 20 ; 
Liv. xxix. 22). This Clodius is frequently con- 
founded with Q. Claudius Quadrigarius. [Quad- 
kigabius.] — 3. L, Porcius Licinus, plebeian 
aedile, 210, and praetor 207, when he obtained 
Cisalpine Gaul as his province (Liv. xxvi. 6, 
xxvii. 46).— 4. L. Porcius Licinus, praetor 193, 
with Sardinia as his province, and consul 184, 
when he carried on war against the Ligurians 
(Liv. xl. 34). — 5. Porcius Licinus, a Roman 
poet, who probably lived in the latter part of 
the second century B.C. (Gell. xix. 9). 

Licymnia, spoken of by Horace (Od. ii. 12, 
13 seq.), is said by old commentators to be 
meant for Terentia, the wife of Maecenas, but 
it is unlikely that he should have ventured so 
to write about her, and the name is probably 
imaginary. 

Licymnius (\ikv/j.vios). 1. Son of Electryon 
and the Phrygian slave Midea, and consequently 
half-brother of Alcmene. He was married to 
Perimede, by whom he became the father of 
Oeonus, Argeus, and Melas. He was a friend 
of Heracles, whose son Tlepolemus slew him — 
according to some, unintentionally, and accora- 
ing to others, in a fit of anger. (Pind. Ol. vii. 29 
Apollod. ii. 8, 2: Paus. ii. 22, 8, iii. 15, 4.)— 2. 
Of Chios, a dithyrambic poet, of uncertain date. 
Some winters place him before Simonides ; but 
it is perhaps more likely that he belonged to 
the later Athenian dithyrambic school about 
the end of the fourth century B.C. (Ar. Bhet. iii. 
12 ; Athen. pp. 564, 603).— 3. Of Sicily, a rhe- 
torician, pupil of Gorgias, and teacher of Polus 
(Plat. Phaedr. p. 267; Ar. Bhet. iii. 2, 13). 

Lide (AiSrj), a mountain of Caria, above 
Pedasus (Hdt. i. 175). 

Ligarius, Q., was legate, in Africa, of C. 
Considius Longus, who left him in command of 
the province, B.C. 50. Next year (49) Ligarius 
resigned the government of the province into 
the hands of L. Attius Varus. Ligarius fought 
under Varus against Curio in 49, and against 
Caesar himself in 46. After the battle of Thap- 
sus, Ligarius was taken prisoner at Adrumetum ; 
his life was spared, but he was banished by 
Caesar. Meantime, a public accusation was 
brought against Ligarius by Q. Aelius Tubero. 
The case was pleaded before Caesar himself in 
the forum. Cicero defended Ligarius in a speech 
still extant, in which he maintains that Ligarius 



LIGER 

had as much claim to the mercy of Caesar as 
Tubero and Cicero himself. Ligarius was par- 
doned by Caesar, who was on the point of setiing 
out for the Spanish war. Ligarius joined the 
conspirators who assassinated Caesar in 44. 
Ligarius and his two brothers perished in the 
proscription of the triumvirs in 43. (Cic. pro 
Lig., ad Fam. vi. 13, ad Alt. xiii. 12, 19; App. 
B.C. ii. 113 ; Plut. Cic. 39, Brut. 11.) 

Liger or Ligeris {Loire), one of the largest 
rivers in Gaul, rises in M. Cevenna, flows 
through the territories of the Arverni, Aedui, and 
Camutes, and falls into the Atlantic between 
the territories of the Namnetes and Pictones 
(Caes. B.G. vii. 5 ; Strab. p. 189 ; Tibull. i. 7, 
11 ; Lucan, i. 438). 

Liguria (ri AiyvcrriK-n, v Aiyvarwri), a dis- : 
trict of Italy, was, in the tims of Augustus, j 
bounded on the W. by the river Varus, and the ! 
Maritime Alps, which separated it from Trans- 1 
alpine Gaul ; on the SE. by the river Macra, 
which separated it from Etruria ; on the N. by 
the river Po, and on the S. by the Mare Ligusti- i 
cum. The country is very mountainous and 
unproductive, as the Maritime Alps and the 
Apennines run through the greater part of it. i 
The mountains run almost down to the coast, 
leaving only space sufficient for a road, which 
formed the highway from Italy to the S. of 
Gaul. The chief occupation of the inhabitants 
was the rearing and feeding of cattle. The 
numerous forests on the mountains produced 
excellent timber, which, with the other products 
of the country, was exported from Genua, the 
principal town of the country. The inhabitants j 
were called by the Greeks Ligyes (Ai^ues) and \ 
Ligy8tini (Atyurrnvoi) and by the Romans 
Ligures (sing. Irigus, more rarely Ligur). It 
is probable that the Ligurians, like the Iberians, 
were remains of a people who occupied great 
part of SW. Europe before the arrival of Aryan 
nations, and afterwards were gradually com- 
pressed into the strips of coastland in the S. of 
Gaul and N. of Italy. A part of the same 
race formed the native population of Corsica. 
The Greeks probably became acquainted with 
them first from the Samians and Phoeaeans, 
who visited their coasts for the purposes of 
commerce ; and so powerful were they con- 
sidered at this time that Hesiod names them, 
along with the Scythians and Ethiopians, as a 
great people (Hes. ap. Strab. p. 300). Tradi- 
tion also related that Heracles fought with the 
Ligurians on the plain of stones near Massilia 
(Aesch. ap. Strab. p. 183) ; and even a writer so 
late as Eratosthenes gave the name of Ligystice 
to the whole of the W. peninsula of Europe 
(cf. Hdt. v. 9 ; Thuc. vi. 2 ; Strab. p. 203). So 
widely were they believed to be spread that the 
Ligyes in Germany and Asia were supposed to 
be a branch of the same people. The Ligurian 
tribes were divided by the Romans into Ligures 
Transalpini and Cisalpini. The tribes which 
inhabited the Maritime Alps w. re called in 
general Alpini, and also Capillati or Comati, 
from their custom of allowing their hair to 
grow long (Dio Cass. liv. 24 ; Lucan, i. 412). 
The tribes which inhabited the Apennim-. were 
called Montani. The names of the principal 
tribes were : — On the W. side of the Alps, the 
Sai.yk.s or Salluvh, Oxybii, and Deciates; on 
theE. side of the Alps, the IMTEMELU, ImgatJNI, 
and Apuani near the coast, the Vaoienni, 
Sai.assi, and Taurisi on the upper course of 
the Po, and the Lakvi and Mabisci N. of the 
Po. — The Ligurians were small of stature, but 
strong, active and brave. In early times they 



LIMAEA 



491 



served as mercenaries in the armies of the 
Carthaginians, and subsequently they earned 
on a long and fierce struggle with the Romans. 
Their country was invaded for the first time by 
the Romans in B.C. 238; but it was not till after 
the termination of the second Punic war and 
the defeat of Philip and Antiochus that the 
Romans were able to devote their energies to 
the subjugation of Liguria. It was many years, 
however, before the whole country was finally 
subdued. "Whole tribes, such as the Apuani, 
were transplanted to Samnium, and their place 
supplied by Roman colonists. The country 
was divided between the provinces of Gallia 
Narbonensis and Gallia Cisalpina ; and in the 
time of Augustus and of the succeeding em- 
perors, the tribes in the mountains were placed 
under the government of an imperial procura- 
tor, called Procurator or Praefectus Alpium 
Maritimarum . It formed the 9th region. 
Under Diocletian the 11th region (Trans- 
padana) was included with the 9th under the 
single name Liguria, with Mediolanum (Milan) 
as its chief town. 

ligusticum Mare, the name originally of the 
whole sea S. of Gaul and of the NW. of Italy, 
but subsequently only the E. part of this sea, 
or the Gulf of Genoa, whence later writers 
speak only of a Sinus Ligusticus (Strab. p. 122). 

Lilaea (AiXaia : AiA.aievj),an ancient town in 
Phocis, near the sources of the Cephissus 
(Strab. p. 4"7; Paus. ix. 24, x. 83). 

Lilybaeum (AiAvfiawv : Marsala), a town in 
the W. of Sicily, with an excellent harbour, 
situated on a promontory of the same name (C. 
Boeo or di Marsala), opposite to the Prom. 




Coin of Lilybaeum. 
Obv., head ot Apollo ; rev., aiaybaitan ; Lyrs. 

Hermaeum or Mercurii (C. Bon) in Africa, the 
space between the two being the shortest dis- 
tance between Sicily and Africa. The town of 
Lilybaeum was founded by the Carthaginians 
about B.C. 397, and was made the principal Car- 
thaginian fortress in Sicily. It was surrounded 
by massive walls and by a trench fiO feet wide 
and 40 feet deep. On the destruction of Seli- 
nus in 249, the inhabitants of the latter city 
were transplanted to Lilybaeum, which thus 
became still more powerful. Lilybaeum was 
besieged by the Romans in the first Punic war, 
but they were unable to take it ; and they only 
obtained possession of it by the treaty of peace. 
Under the Romans Lilybaeum continued to be 
a place of importance. At Marsala, which 
occupies only the S. half of the ancient town, 
there are the ruins of a Roman aqueduct, and a 
few other ancient remains. (Pol. i. 42 ; Strab. 
pj>. 122, 366 ; Diod. v. 2, xiii. 64.) 

Limnea. Limia, limius, Belion (Lima), a 
river ill Gallaecia in Spain, between the Dnrius 
and the Miniux, which (lowed into the Atlantic 
Ocean. It was also called the river of Forget- 
fulnessli ttjs A^07js, Flumen Oblivionis) ; and 
it is said to have been so culled, because the 
Turduli and the Celts on one occasion lost here 



492 



LIMENIA 



LIRIS 



their comniander, and forgot the object of their 
expedition. This legend was so generally be- 
lieved that it was with difficulty that Brutus 
Callaicus could induce his soldiers to cross the 
river when he invaded Gallaecia, B.C. 136. On 
"the banks of this river dwelt a small tribe called 
Limici. (Strab. p. 153 ; Plin. iv. 115 ; Sil. Ital. 
i. 235, xvi. 476 : Plut. Q. B. 34.) 

Limenia (Aifitvia: Limna), a town of Cyprus, 
a little S. of Soli (Strab. p. 683). 

Limites Romani, the name of a continuous 
series of fortifications, consisting of castles, 
walls, earthen ramparts, and the like, which the 
Romans erected along the Rhine and the 
Danube, to protect their possessions from the 
attacks of the Germans. [Germania ; Rhaetia.] 

Limnae (At/xvai, Ai/jwaios). 1. A town in 
Messenia, on the frontiers of Laconia, with a 
temple of Artemis, who was hence surnamed 
Limnatis. This temple was common to the 
people of both countries; and the outrage 
which the Messenian youth committed against 
some Lacedaemonian maidens, who were sacri- 
ficing at this temple, was the occasion of the 
first Messenian war. Limnae was situated in 
the Ager Dentheliatis, which district was a 
subject of constant dispute between the Lace- 
daemonians and Messenians after the re- 
establishment of the Messenian independence 
by Epaminondas. (Strab. p. 257 ; Paus. iii. 2, 
6, iv. 31, 3 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 43.) — 2. A town in 
the Thracian Chersonesus on the Hellespont, 
founded by the Milesians. — 3. See Sparta. 

Linmaea (Ai/xvaia: Ai/j.vaios), a town in Acar- 
nania, on the road from Argos Amphilochicum 
to Stratos, and near the Ambracian gulf, on 
which it had a harbour (Thuc. ii. 80; Pol. v. 5). 

Limonum. [Pictones.] 

Limyra (to Aiixupa'. Ru. N. of Phineka ?), a 
city in the SE. of Lycia, on the river LmyRUS, 
twenty stadia from its mouth (Strab. p. 666 ; 
Ov. Met. ix. 646). 

Limyrus (Atftvpos : Phineka ?), a river of 
Lycia, flowing into the bay W. of the Sacrum 
Promontorium (Phineka Bay) : navigable as 
far up as Limyra. Recent travellers differ as 
to whether the present river Phineka is the 
Limyra or its tributary the Arycandus. (Strab. 
p. 666 ; Plin. v. 100.) 

Liudum (Lincoln), a town of the Coritani, in 
Britain, on the road from Londinium to Ebora- 
cum, and a Roman colony. The modern name 
Lincoln has been formed out of Lindum 
Colonia. (Ptol. ii. 3, 30.) 

Lindus (AlvSos : AlySios : Lindo, Ru.), on the 
E. side of the island of Rhodes, was one of the 
most ancient Dorian colonies on the Asiatic 
coast. It is mentioned by Homer (II. ii. 656), 
with its kindred cities, Ialysus and Camirus. 
These three cities, with Cos, Cnidus, and Hali- 
carnassus, formed the original Hexapolis, in the 
SW. corner of Asia Minor. Lindus stood upon 
a mountain in a district abounding in vines and 
figs, and had two celebrated temples, one of 
Athene surnamed AivUa, and one of Heracles. 
It was the birthplace of Cleobulus, one of the 
seven wise men, to whom is ascribed the 
' swallow-song ' which the boys of Lindus used 
to sing when they went round collecting gifts at 
the return of summer (Athen. p. 360). It re- 
tained much of its consequence even after the 
foundation of Rhodes. [Rhodus.] Inscriptions 
of importance have been found in its Acropolis. 
(Hdt. ii. 182 ; Diod. v. 58, xii. 75 ; Strab. p. 655.) 

Lingones. 1. A powerful people in Trans- 
alpine Gaul, whose territory extended from the 
foot of Mt. Vogesus and the sources of the Ma- 



trona and Mosa, N. as far as the Treviri, and S. 
as far as the Sequani, from whom they were 
separated by the river Arar. The emperor Otho 
gave them the Roman franchise. Their chief 
town was Andematurinum, afterwards Lingones 
(Langres). (Caes. B. G. iv. 10; Pol. ii. 19, 9; 
Luc an, i. 395 ; Strab. p. 193, who, however, 
seems to be mistaken in placing the Medioma- 
trici, instead of the Leuci, next to the Lingones.) 
— 2, A branch of the above-mentioned people, 
who migrated into Cisalpine Gaul along with 
the Boii, and shared the fortunes of the latter. 
[Bon.] They dwelt E. of the Boii as far as the 
Adriatic sea in the neighbourhood of Ravenna. 
(Pol. ii. 17 ; Liv. v. 35.) 

Linternum. [Liternum.] 

Linus (Aivos), is represented in mythology as 
a hero whose early death is lamented in a dirge, 
' the song of Linus,' which was sung as a har- 
vest song as early as the time of Homer (II. 
xviii. 570). Although he was clearly originally 
a harvest deity, yet his connexion with the 
song gives him in mythology a musical paren- 
tage, and he is described in the Argive tradition 
as the son of Apjollo by Calliope, or by Psama- 
the daughter of the king of Argos. The Theban 
tradition makes him the son of Urania, and his 
father is Amphimarus, son of Poseidon, which 
points to an earlier or ' Pelasgian ' origin. 
(Paus. i. 43, 7, ii. 19, 7, ix. 29, 3.) Argive tra- 
dition related, that Linus was exposed by his 
mother after his birth, and was brought up by 
shepherds, but was afterwards torn to pieces by 
dogs. Psamathe's grief at the occurrence be 
trayed her misfortune to her father, who con- 
demned her to death. Apollo, indignant at the 
father's cruelty, visited Argos with a plague ; 
and, in obedience to an oracle, the Argives en- 
deavoured to propitiate Psamathe and Linus 
by means of sacrifices. Matrons and virgins 
sang dirges which were called \ivoi, and the 
festival was called Arnei's because Linus had 
grown up among lambs. According to the 
Boeotian tradition Linus was killed by Apollo, 
because he had ventured upon a musical contest 
with the god ; and every year, before sacrifices 
were offered to the Muses, a funeral sacrifice 
was offered to him, and dirges (AiVoi) were sung 
in his honour. A somewhat similar, but later, 
tradition makes him teach Heracles, who 
struck him with a lyre when he was reproved, 
and killed him. (Theocr. xxiv. 103 ; Diod. iii. 
67 ; Apollod. ii. 4, 9 ; Athen. p. 164.) His tomb 
was claimed by Argos and by Thebes, and like- 
wise by Chalcis in Euboea. (Hes. ap. Clem. 
Alex. p. 330 ; Apollod. i. 3, 2 ; Paus. ii. 19, 7 ; 
Verg. Eel. iv. 57.) In the myth of Linus, 
which in some respects resembles those of 
Hyacinthus, Adonis, and Glaucus, the death of 
the vegetation under the hot summer sun 
seems to be symbolised. Linus as a god of 
vegetation became identified with the vegeta- 
tion itself, and especially the corn, and it is 
likely enough that in the earliest rites there 
were sacrifices such as belonged to many primi- 
tive harvest superstitions; but the song only 
remained. Among shepherds he was in the same 
manner invoked to give increase of lambs. 

Lipara and Liparenses Insulae. (Aeoliae.J 

Liparis (A'nrapis), a small river of Cilicia, 
flowing past Soloe (Plin. v. 93). 

Liquentia (Livenza), a river in Venetia in 
the N. of Italy between Altinum and Concordia, 
which flowed into the Sinus Tergestinus (Serv. 
ad Aen. ix. 679). 

Liris (Garigliano), more anciently called 
Clanis, or Glahis, one of the principal rivers 



LISSUS 

in central Italy, rises in the Apennines "W. of I 
lake Fucinus, flows first through the territory 
of the Marsi in a SE.-ly direction, then turns 
SW. near Sora, and at last flows SE. into the 
Sinus Caietanus near Minturnae, forming the 
boundary between Latium and Campania. Its 
stream, except where its course was winding 
and tranquil, was sluggish ; whence the ' Liris 
quieta aqua ' and the ' taciturnus amnis ' (Hor. 
Od. i. 31, 8 ; cf. Sil. It. iv. 348). 

Lissus (Ai<r<r6s : tdacrios, Aitrcrevs). 1. (Ales- 
sio), a town in the S. of Dalmatia, at the mouth 
of the river Drilon, founded by Dionysius of 
Syracuse, B.C. 385. It was situated on a hill 
near the coast, and possessed a strongly fortified ; 
acropolis, called Acroli3Sus, which was con- 
sidered impregnable. The town afterwards fell 
into the hands of the IUyrians, and was eventu- 
ally colonised by the Romans. (Diod. xv. 13 ; ; 
Pol. ii. 12 ; Strab. p. 316 ; Caes. B.C. iii. 26.)— 
2. A small river in Thrace, W. of the Hebrus. 

Lista (S. Anatoglia), a town of the Sabines, 
S. of Reate, is said to have been the capital of 
the Aborigines, from which they were driven 
out by the Sabines (Dionys. i. 14). 

Lita (Litani), a river of Syria which rises in 
Antilibanus, near Heliopolis (Baalbec), and 
flows into the sea a little N. of Tyre. It is some- 
times wrongly called Leontes. (Ptol. v. 15.) 

Litana Silva (Silva di Luge), a large forest 
on the Apennines in Cisalpine Gaul, SE. of 
Mutina, in which the Romans were defeated 
by the Gauls, B.C. 216 (Liv. xxiii. 24, xxxiv. 22). 

Liternumor Linternuai {Patria), a town on 
the coast of Campania, at the mouth of the 
river Clanius or Glanis, which in the lower part 
of its course takes the name of Liternus (Pat ria 
or Clanio), and which flows through a marsh 
to the N. of the town called Literna Palus. 
The town was made a Roman colony B.C. 194, 
and was recoloirised by Augustus. It was to 
this place that the elder Scipio Africanus 
retired when the tribunes attempted to bring 
him to trial, and here he is said to have died. 
His tomb was shown at Litemum ; but some 
maintained that he was buried in the family 
sepulchre near the Porta Capena at Rome. 
(Strab. p. 243 ; Liv. xxxii. 29, xxxviii. 52 ; Sen. 
Ep. 86 ; Val. Max. v. 3, L) 

Lityerses (Xnvtpans), was said to have been 
the son of Midas who dwelt at Celaenae in 
Phrygia, and compelled all strangers who came 
past his fields to work at his harvest, but if 
they failed to surpass him in his work he cut 
off their heads and hid their bodies in the 
sheaves, over which a harvest-song was sung. 
Heracles vanquished him in reaping and slew 
him, and his memory was preserved in a har- 
vest-song called Lityerses. (Schol. ad Theocr. x. 
41 ; Athen. pp. 615, 619 : Eustath. ad Horn. p. 
1164 ; Pollux, iv. 54 ; Suid. s. v. ; cf. Linus.) 
The myth points to superstitions apparent in 
the folk-lore of many countries, of which some 
remnants still exist. Lityerses was, no doubt, 
originally a god of the corn to whom human 
sacrifice was made, possibly in some places the 
sacrifice of anyone who chanced to pass when 
the last sheaf was cut. This sacrifice, in a 
less savage generation, was replaced by a figure 
placed in the last sheaf, or by the last sheaf 
itself made up more or less in the shape of a 
human figure, such as still is the bundle of 
corn from the last sheaf called ' the maiden ' in 
parts of Scotland. The old 'Lityerses' song 
remained, and the myth of his contests and his 
death was invented to account for this custom ; 
for it must be recollected that the victim sacri- 



LIVIA 495 
heed to the harvest god, whether a human being 
or an animal or a dummy figure, would repre- 
sent for the time being the corn-deity himself. 

Livia. 1. Sister of M. Livius Drusus, the 
celebrated tribune, B.C. 91, was married first to 
M. Porcius Cato, by whom she had Cato Uti- 
censis, and subsequently to Q. Servilius Caepio, 
by whom she had a daughter, Servilia, the 
mother of M. Brutus, who killed Caesar. — 2. 
Livia Drusilla, the daughter of Livius Drusus 
Claudianus [Dhusus, No. 3], was married first 
to Tib. Claudius Nero : and afterwards to 
Augustus, who compelled her husband to 
divorce her, B.C. 38. She had already borne 
her husband one son, the future emperor 
Tiberius, and at the time of her marriage with 
Augustus was six months pregnant with 
another, who subsequently received the name 
of Drusus^, She never had any children by 
Augustus, Dut she retained his affection till his 
death. It was generally believed that she caused 
C. Caesar and L. Caesar, the two grandsons of 




Augustus, to be poisoned, in order to .-.'.cure the 
succession of her own children, though no 
evidence against her was alleged except that 
their death was convenient for her schemes 
(Tac. Ann. i. 3, 10; Veil. Pat. ii. 101, 102 ; Dio 
Cass. Iv. 11). If she was unscrupulous in the 
pursuit of her objects, she deserves credit for 
councils ci clemency both to Augustus and 
Tiberius (Dio Cass. lvi. 47, lviii. 2 ; Veil. Pat. 
ii. 130). On the accession of her son Tiberius 
to the throne, she at first attempted to obtain 
an equal share in the government; but this the 
jealous temper of Tiberius woulrl not brook. 
He commanded her to retire altogether from 
public affairs, and soon displayed even hatred 
towards her. When she was on her death bed 
he refused to visit her. She died in A.S. 29, at 
the age of 82 or 86. Tiberius took no part in 
the funeral rites, and forbade her consecration, 
which had been proposed by the senate, but 
was not carried out till the reign of Claudius. 
(Tac. Ann. v. 1, 2; Dio Cass. lx. 5; Suet. Tib. 



494 



LIVIA 



LIVIUS 



50, 51.) — 3. Or Livilla, the daughter of Drusus 
senior and Antonia, and the wife of Drusus 
junior, the son of the emperor Tiberius. She 
was seduced by Sejanus, who persuaded her to 
poison her husband, a.d. 23. Her guilt was not 
discovered till the fall of Sejanus, eight years 
afterwards, 31. (Suet. Claud. 1; Tac. Ann. ii. 43, 
84, iv. 1, vi. 2.)— 4. Julia Livilla, daughter of 
Germanicus and Agrippma. [Julia, No. 7.] 

Livia Gens, plebeian, but one of the most 
illustrious houses among the Roman nobility. 
The Livii obtained eight consulships, two cen- 
sorships, three triumphs, a dictatorship, and a 
mastership of the horse. The most distin- 
guished families are those of Dbusus and 
Salinatob. 

LiVlUS, T., the Roman historian, was bom 
at Patavium (Padua), in the N. of Italy, B.C. 59. 
The greater part of his life appears to have 
been spent in Rome, but he returned to his 
native town before his death, which happened 
at the age of 76, in the fourth year of Tiberius, 
A.D. 17. (Mart. i. 61, 3 ; Plut. Caes. 47 ; Euseb. 
Chron. 1958, 2033 ; Sen. Ep. 100, 9 ; Quint, x. 
1, 39.) His literary talents secured the pa- 
tronage and friendship of Augustus; he became 
a person of consideration at court, and by his 
advice Claudius, afterwards emperor, was in- 
duced in early life to attempt historical compo- 
sition (Liv. iv 29 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 34 ; Suet. 
Claud. 417). Eventually, his reputation rose 
so high and. became so widely diffused, that a 
Spaniard travelled from Cadiz to Rome solely 
for the purpose of beholding him, and having 
gratified his curiosity in this one particular, 
immediately returned home (Plin. Ep. ii. 3). 
The great and only extant work of Livy is a 
History of Rome, termed by himself Annales 
(xliii. 13), extending from the foundation of the 
city to the death of Drusus, B.C. 9, comprised in 
142 books. Of these 35 have descended to us ; 
but of the whole, with the exception of two, we 
possess Epitomes, which must have been drawn 
up by one who was well acquainted with his 
subject. By some they have been ascribed to 
Livy himself, by others to Florus ; but there is 
nothing in the language or context to warrant 
either of these conclusions ; and external evi- 
dence is altogether wanting. From the cir- 
cumstance that a short introduction or preface 
is found at the beginning of books i., xxi. and 
xxxi., and that each of these marks the commence- 
ment of an important epoch, the whole work 
has been divided into decades, containing ten 
books each. This arrangement was of a later 
date, and cannot be traced earlier than Vic- 
torianus. Livy himself speaks merely of books 
(x. 31, xxi. 1). The first decade (books i.-x.) is 
entire. It embraces the period from the foun- 
dation of the city to the year B.C. 294, when the 
subjugation of the Samnitesmay be said to have 
been completed. The second decade (books 
jxi.-xx.) is altogether lost. It embraced the 
period from 294 to 219, comprising an account, 
among other matters, of the invasion of Pyrrhus 
and of the first Punic war. The third decade 
(books xxi.-xxx.) is entire. It embraces the 
period from 219 to 201, comprehending the 
whole of the second Punic war. The fourth 
decade (books xxxi.-xl.) is entire, and also one- 
half of the fifth (books xli.-xlv.). These 15 
books embrace the period from 201 to 167, and 
develop the progress of the Roman arms in 
Cisalpine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece, and Asia, 
ending with the triumph of Aemilius Paulus. 
Of the remaining books nothing remains except 
inconsiderable fragments, the most notable 



being a few chapters of the 91st book, concern- 
ing the fortunes of Sertorius. The composition 
of such a vast work necessarily occupied many 
years ; and we find indications which throw 
some light upon the epochs when different sec- 
tions were composed. Thus in book i. (c. 19) 
it is stated that the temple of Janus had been 
closed twice only since the reign of Numa, for 
the first time in the consulship of T. Manlius 
(b.c. 235), a few years after the termination of 
the first Punic war ; for the second time by 
Augustus Caesar, after the battle of Actium, in 
29. But we know that it was shut again by 
Augustus after the conquest of the Canta- 
brians, in 25 ; and hence it is evident that the 
first book must have been written between the 
years 29 and 25. Moreover, since the last book 
contained an account of the death of Drusus, it 
is evident that the task must have been spread 
over 17 years, and probably occupied a much 
longer time. — The style of Livy may be pro- 
nounced almost faultless. The narrative flows 
on in a calm but strong current ; the diction 
displays richness without heaviness, and sim- 
plicity without tameness. There is, moreover, 
a distinctness of outline and a warmth of 
colouring in all his delineations, whether of 
living men in action, or of things inanimate, 
which never fail to call up the whole scene 
before our eyes. (For the verdict of antiquity 
see Sen. Suas. vi. 21 ; Tac. Agr. 10 ; Quint, x. 
1, 101.) — In judging of the merits of Livy as a 
historian, we are bound to ascertain, if possible, 
the end which he proposed to himself. No one 
who reads Livy with attention can suppose that 
he ever conceived the project of drawing up a 
critical history of Rome. His aim was to offer 
to his countrymen a clear and pleasing narra- 
tive, which, while it gratified their vanity, should 
present what he honestly believed himself to be 
a true account, or, at least, not improbable. To 
effect this purpose he studied with care the 
writings of some of his more celebrated prede- 
cessors on Roman history. Where his authorities 
were in accordance with each other, he generally 
rested satisfied with this agreement; where 
their testimony was irreconcileable, lie was con- 
tent to point out their want of harmony, and 
occasionally to offer an opinion on their com- 
parative credibility. But in no case did he ever 
dream of ascending to the fountain head. He 
never attempted to test the accuracy of his 
authorities by examining monuments of remote 
antiquity, of which not a few were accessible to 
every inhabitant of the metropolis. Thus, it is 
perfectly clear that he had never read the 
Leges Regiae, nor the Commentaries of Servius 
Tullius, nor even the Licinian Rogations ; and 
that he had never consulted the vast collection 
of decrees of the senate, ordinances of the 
plebs, treaties, and other state papers, which 
were preserved in the city. Nay, more, he did 
not always consult even all the authors to whom 
he might have resorted with advantage, such as 
Fabius Pictor and Piso. And even those 
writers whose authority he followed he did not 
use in the most judicious manner. His chief 
authorities, where he had not Polybius as his 
guide, were Valerius Antias (whom he does 
not at first mistrust; see p. 73), Licinius Macer, 
Claudius Quadrigarius, Coelius Antipater (espe- 
cially for the Hannibalian war), and Aelius 
Tubero ; and in some cases his acceptance of 
conflicting accounts has led to inconsistencies. 
Other mistakes also have been noticed, arising 
from his never having acquired even the ele- 
ments of the military art, of jurisprudence, or 



LIVIUS 



LOCRI 



495 



of political economy, and from imperfect know- \ 
ledge of geography. But while we fully ac- 
knowledge these defects in Livy, we cannot 
admit that his general good faith has ever been 
impugned with any show of justice. We are 
assured (Tac. Ann. iv. 34) that he was fair and 
liberal upon matters of contemporary history ; 
we know 1 that he praised Cassius and Brutus, 
that his character of Cicero was a high eulogium, 
and that he spoke so warmly of the unsuccess- 
ful leader in the great Civil war, that he was j 
sportively styled a Pompeian by Augustus. It 
is true that in recounting the domestic strife 
which agitated the republic for nearly two cen- 
turies, he represents the plebeians and their 
leaders in the most unfavourable light. But 
this arose, not from any wish to pervert the 
truth, but from ignorance of the exact relation 
of the contending parties. It is manifest that 
he never can separate in his own mind the 
spirited plebeians of the infant commonwealth l 
from the base and venal rabble whieh thronged I 
the forum in the days of Marius and Cicero ; 
while in like manner he confounds those bold 
and honest tribunes who were the champions 
of liberty with such men as Saturninus or 
Sulpicius, Clodius or Vatinius. The modern 
tendency to treat Livy in Roman history which 
has passed beyond the legendary period as an 
authority who may be lightly set aside when he 
does not agree with an adopted theory cannot 
be too strongly condemned. A conspicuous 
instance of this — and there are others — is the 
hasty rejection of his account of Hannibal's 
descent into Italy, which more scientific investi- 
gation has shown to be in all probability correct 
[see p. 380, b]. — There remains one topic to which 
we must advert. We are told by Quiutilian 
(i. 5, § 56, viii. 1, § 3) that Asinius Pollio had 
remarked a certain Patavinity in Livy. Scholars 
have given themselves a vast deal of trouble to 
discover what this term may indicate, and 
various hypotheses have been propounded ; but 
if there is any truth in the story, it is evident 
that Pollio must have intended to censure some 
provincial peculiarities of expression, which we, 
at all events, are in no position to detect. 
Editions of the text of Livy are by Mad vig, l.siji!, 
1876; H. J. Miiller, 1881; with commentaries, 
by Drakeuborch, 1740; Weissenborn, 1878. 
Livius AndronTcua. [Andronicus.] 
Lix, Lixa, Lixus (Ai'£, Ai'£a, Alios: Al- 
Araish), a city on the W. coast of Mauretania 
Tingitana, in Africa, at the mouth of a river of 
the same name ; it was a place of some com- 
mercial importance. 

Locri, sometimes called Locrenses by the 
Romans, the inhabitants of Locris (ri AoKpis), 
were an ancient people in Greece, said to be 
descended from the Leleges, with which some 
Hellenic tribes were intermingled at a very 
early period. They were, however, in Homer's 
time regarded as Hellenes; and according to 
tradition even Deucalion, the founder of the 
Hellenic race, was said to have lived in Locris, 
in the town of Opus or Cynos. In historical 
times the Locriaus were divided into two dis- 
tinct tribes, differing from one another in cus- 
toms, habits, and civilisation. Of these tiie 
Eastern Locriaus, called Epicnemidii and 
Opuntii, who dwelt on the E. coast of Greece, 
opposite the island of Euboea, were the more 
ancient and more civilised ; while the Western 
Locriaus, called Ozolae, who dwelt on the Cor- 
inthian gulf, were a colony of the former, and 
were more barbarous. Homer mentions only 
the E. Locrians. (II. ii. 527-535 ; Pind. Ol. \\. 



63 ; Thuc. i. 5 ; Strab. pp. 322, 425.) At a later 
time there was no connexion between the 
Eastern and Western Locrians ; and in the 
Peloponnesian war we find the former siding 
with the Spartans, and the latter with the 
Athenians. — 1. Eastern Locris, extended from 
Thessaly and the pass of Thermopylae along 
the coast to the frontiers of-Boeotia, and was 
bounded on the W. by the mountain range of 
Cnemis, Ptoum, and Messapium, which sepa- 
rated their country from Doris and Phocis. 
The inhabitants were called indifferently Locri 
Epicnemidii {'EwiKi/rifi'iSiot), from the fact of 
their dwelling by Mt. Cnemis, and Locri 
Opuntii from their chief town, Opus. The 
latter name was most commonly used in his- 
torical times ; the former is sometimes written 
Hypocnemidii ('XiroKvrifj.iSiOi). It has often, but 
erroneously, been supposed that the name 
Epicnemidii denoted those who dwelt in the N. 
of Locris, and the name Opuntii those who dwelt 
in the S. Locris was a fertile and cultivated 
strip of land. In 456 the Locrians became per- 
force allies of Athens, but followed the lead of 
Thebes in the Peloponnesian war, and again in 
the Theban wars with Sparta in 395 and 370. 
Ajax,sonof Oileus, was the national hero of the 




Coin of Locri Opuntii. 
Obc. bead of Persephone: ret.. onoNTlQN ; AJax, son of 
Oileus, as a warrior. 



Opuntian Locrians [Ajax, 2]. — 2. Western 
Locris, or the country of the Locri 0z51ae 
l'O(oXai), was bounded on the N. by Doris, on 
the W. by Aetolia, on the E. by Phocis, and on 
the S. by the Corinthian gulf. The origin of 
the name of Ozolae is uncertain. The ancients 
derived it from 5(Teie ' to smell,' on account of 
the undressed skins worn by the inhabitants, or 
on account of the great quantity of asphodel 
that grew in their country, or from the stench 
arising from mineral springs, beneath which 
the centaur Nessus is said to have been buried 
' (Paus. x. 38, 1 ; Strab. p. 427) ; or from 3£bi, 
1 vine-branches. The country is mountainous, 
and for the most part unproductive. Mt. Corax 
from Aetolia, and Mt. Parnassus from Phocis, 
occupy the greater part of it. The Locri 
Ozolae resembled their neighbours, the Aeto- 
lians, both in their predatory habits and in 
their mode of warfare. They were divided into 
several tribes, and are described by Thucydides 
as a rude and barbarous people, even in the Pe- 
! loponnesian war. From B.C. 815 they belonged 
to the Aetolian League. (Thuc. i. 5, iii. 94 ; Pol. 
xviii. 80.) Their chief town was Amphihsa. 

Locri Epizephyrii (Aoxpol 'E,irtC«pipim : 
Motta di liurzano), one of the most ancient 
Greek cities in Lower Italy, was situated in the 
SE. of Bruttium, N. of the promontory of 
Zephyriuin, from which it was said to have 
derived its surname Epizephyrii, though others 
suppose this name given to the place simply 
! because it lay to the W. of Greece. It was 
founded by the Locrians from Greece, B.C. 688. 
Strabo expressly says that it was founded by the 
Ozolae, and not by the Opuntii, as must writers 



496 LOCUSTA 

related : but bis statement is not so probable 
as the common one. (Pind. 01. x. 18, xi. 19 ; 
Strab. p. 259 ; Paus. iii. 19, 12 ; Pol. xii. 5-12 ; 
Verg. Aen. iii. 399). The inhabitants regarded 
themselves as descendants of Ajax Oileus ; and 
as he resided at the town of Naryx among the 
Opuntii, the poets gave the name of Naryciato 
Locris (Ov. Met. xv. 705), and called the 
founders of the town the Narycii Locri (Verg. 
Aen. iii. 399). For the same reason the pitch 
of Bruttium is frequently called Narycia (Verg. 
Georg. ii. 438). Locri was celebrated for the 
excellence of its laws, which were drawn up by 
Zaleucus soon after the foundation of the city. 
[Zaleucts.] The town enjoyed great pro- 
sperity down to the time of the younger Diony- 
sius, who resided here for some years after his 
expulsion from Syracuse, and committed the 
greatest atrocities against the inhabitants. It 
suffered much in the wars against Pyrrhus and 
in the second Punic war. The Romans allowed 




Coin of Locri Epizephyrii. 
Obv., head of Zeus ; rev., aokpqn ; Roma (puma) crowned 
by Fides (nisns). Probably struck in 274 B.C., after de- 
feat of Pyrrhus, when the .Romans conceded indepen- 
dence to the Locri. 



it to retain its freedom and its own constitu- 
tion, which was democratical (see coin) ; but it 
gradually sank in importance, and is rarely 
mentioned in later times. Near the town was 
an ancient and wealthy temple of Proserpina. 

Locusta, or, more correctly, Lucusta, a 
woman celebrated for her skill in concocting 
poisons. She was employed by Agrippina in 
poisoning Claudius, and by Nero for despatch- 
ing Britannicus. She was rewarded by Nero 
with ample estates; but under the emperor 
Galba she was executed with other malefactors 
of Nero's reign. (Juv. i. 71 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 66, 
xiii. 15 ; Suet. Ner. 33 ; Dio Cass. lx. 34.) 

Lollia Paulina, granddaughter of M. Lollius, 
mentioned below, and heiress of his immense 
wealth. She was married to C. Memmius 
Regulus ; but the emperor Caligula sent for 
her, divorced her from her husband, and mar- 
ried her, but soon divorced her again. After 
Claudius had put to death his wife Messalina, 
Lollia was one of the candidates for the vacancy, 
but she was put to death by Agrippina. (Tac. 
Ann. xii. 1 ; Suet. Cal. 25, Claud. 26.) 

Lollianus (AoAAiavos), Greek sophist in the 
time of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, was a 
native of Ephesus, and taught at Athens. 

Lollius. 1. M. Lollius Palicanus, tribune 
of the plebs, B.C. 71, and an active opponent of 
the aristocracy (Cic. Verr. i. 47, ii. 41). — 2. M. 
Lollius, consul 21, and governor of G-aul in 16. 
He was defeated by some German tribes who 
had crossed the Rhine. Lollius was subse- 
quently appointed by Augustus as tutor to his 
grandson, C. Caesar, whom he accompanied to 
the East, b.c. 2. Here he incurred the dis- 
pleasure of C. Caesar, and is said in consequence 
to have put an end to his life by poison. (Tac. 
Ann. i. 10 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 97, 102.) Horace 
addressed an Ode (iv. 9) to Lollius, and two 
Epistles (i. 2, i. 18) to the eldest son of Lollius. 



LONGINUS 

Londinium, also called Oppidum Londini- 
ense, Lundinium, or Londinum (London), the 
capital of the Cantii in Britain, was situated on 
the S. bank of the Thames in the modern 
Southwark, though it afterwards spread over 
the other side of the river. It is not men- 
tioned by Caesar, probably because his line of 
march led him in a different direction ; and 
its name first occurs in the reign of Nero, 
when it is spoken of as a flourishing and popu- 
lous town, frequented by Roman traders, and 
the chief emporium for commerce in Britain, 
although neither a Roman colony nor a munici- 
pium (Tac. Ann. xiv. 33). On the revolt of the 
Britons under Boudicca or Boadicea, a.d. 62, the 
Roman governor Suetonius Paulinus abandoned 
Londinium to the enemy, who massacred the 
inhabitants and plundered the town. Prom the 
effects of this devastation it gradually re- 
covered, and the number of roads mentioned 
in the Itinerary as converging upon it mark it 
as an important place in the reign of Antoninus 
Pius, indeed as the second town of Britain in 
consideration. It was surrounded with a wall 
and ditch by Constantine the Great or Theo- 
dosius, the Roman governor of Britain ; and 
about this time it was distinguished by the 
surname of Augusta (Amm. Marc, xxvii. 8, 
xxviii. 3). Londinium had now extended so 
much on the N. bank of the Thames, that it 
was called at this period a town of the Trino- 
bantes, from which we may infer that the new 
quarter was both larger and more populous 
than the old jpart on the S. side of the river. 
The wall built by Constantine or Theodosius 
was on the N. side of the river, and is con- 
jectured to have commenced at a fort near the 
present site of the Tower, and to have been 
continued along the Minories, to Cripplegate, 
Newgate, and Ludgate. London was the central 
point from which all the Roman roads in 
Britain diverged. It possessed a Milliarium 
Aureum [Diet, of Ant. s.v.], from which the 
miles on the roads were numbered. A fragment 
of this Milliarium is the celebrated ' London 
Stone.' 

Long-anus (St. Lucia), a river in the NE. of 
Sicily between Mylae and Tyndaris, on the 
banks of which Hiero gained a victory over 
the Mamertines (Pol. i. 9 ; Diod. xxii. 13). 

Longinus, a distinguished Greek philosopher 
and grammarian of the third century of our 
era. He was called Cassius Longinus or 
Dionysius Cassius Longinus. The place of 
his birth is uncertain ; he was brought up with 
care by his uncle Pronto, who taught rhetoric 
at Athens, whence it has been conjectured that 
he was a native of that city. He afterwards 
visited many countries, and became acquainted 
with all the illustrious philosophers of his age, 
such as Ammonius Saccas, Origen the dinciple 
of Ammonius (not to be confounded with the 
Christian writer), Plotinus, and Amelius. He 
was a pupil of the two former, and was an 
adherent of the Platonic philosophy. On his 
return to Athens he opened a school, which 
was attended by numerous pupils, among whom 
the most celebrated was Porphyry. He seems 
to have taught philosophy and criticism, as 
well as rhetoric and grammar ; and the extent 
of his information was so great that he was 
called ' a living library ' and ' a walking mu- 
seum.' After spending a considerable part of 
his life at Athens he went to the East, where he 
became acquainted with Zenobia, of Palmyra, 
who made him her teacher of Greek literature, 
and eventually her principal adviser. It was 



LONGINUS 



LUCANUS 



497 



mainly through his advice that 9he threw off 
her allegiance to the Roman empire. On her 
capture by Aurelian in 273, Longinus was put to 
death by the emperor. Longinus was probably 
the greatest philosopher of his age, but it is 
doubtful whether any of his works, except a few 
fragments, survive. The treatise On the Sublime 
(n«pl v\f>o'vs), a great part of which is still 
extant, is ascribed to him ; but most critics now 
believe it to be the work of an earlier writer 
(according to some, Dionysius of Halicarnassus). 
By whatever author, it is written in an excellent 
style, and is among the best pieces of literary 
criticism in Greek. Ed. by 0. Jahn, 1867. 

Longinus, Cassius. [Cassius.J 

Longobardi. [Langobakdi.] 

Longula. 1. (Longulanus : Buon Biposo), a 
town of the Volsei in Latium, not far from 
Corioli, and belonging to the territory of 
Antium, but destroyed by the Romans at an 
early period (Liv. ii. 33). — 2. A town in Sam- 
nium (Liv. ix. 39). 

Longns (Aoyyos), a Greek sophist, earlier 
than the fourth or fifth century of our era, is 
the author of noi/ueciKa to, kcitL Aacpviv Kal 
X\6r)v, or Pastoralia de Daphnide et Chloe. 
Ed. by Passow, Lips. 1811. 

Lopadusa (AonaSovaa : Lampedusa), an 
island in the Mediterranean, between Melita 
(Malta) and Byzacium in Africa I Strab. p 834). 

Lorlum or Lorii, a small place in Etruria 
with an imperial villa, twelve miles N\V. of 
Rome on the Via Aurelia, where Antoninus 
Pius was brought up, and where he died (Vit. 
Ant. P. 12). 

Loryma (to Aupv/xa. : Aplotheki, Ru.), a city 
on the S. coast of Caria, close to the promontory 
of Cynossema (C. Aloupo), opposite to Ialysus 
in Rhodes, the space between the two being 
about the shortest distance between Rhodes 
and the coast of Caria (Thuc. viii. 48 ; Strab. p. 
652 ; Liv. xlv. 10). 

Lotis, a nymph, who, to escape the embraces 
of Priapus, was metamorphosed into a tree 
called after her Lotus (Ov. Met. ix. 347). 

Lotophagi lAtaroipayoi, i.e. lotus-eaters). 
Homer, in the Odyssey, represents Odysseus as 
coming in his wandering* to a coast inhabited 
by a people who fed upon a fruit called 
lotus, the effect of which was that everyone 
who ate it lost all wish to return to his na- 
tive country, but desired to remain there with 
the Lotophagi, and to eat the lotus lOd. ix. 94). 
Afterwards, in historical times, the Greeks 
found that the people on the N. coast of Africa, 
between the Syrtes, and especially about the 
Lesser Syrtis, used to a great extent, as an 
article of food, the fruit of a plant which they 
identified with the lotus of Homer, and they 
called these people Lotophagi (Hdt. iv. 177; 
Xen. Anab. iii. 2, 25; Pliu. v. 4). To this day, 
the inhabitants of the same part of the coast of 
Tunis and Tripoli eat the fruit of the plant 
which is supposed to be the lotus of the 
ancients, and drink a wine made from its juice, 
aa the ancient Lotophagi are also said to have 
done. This plant, the Zizyphus Lotus of the 
botanists (or jujube-tree), is a prickly branch- 
ing shrub, with fruit of the size of a wild plum, 
of a saffron colour and a sweetish taste. The 
ancient geographers also place the Lotophagi in 
the large island of Meninx or Lotophagitis 
(Jerbah), adjacent to this coast. They carried 
on a commercial intercourse with Egypt and 
with the interior of Africa, by the very same 
caravan routes which are used to the present 
day. This lotus shrub must be carefully dis- 



tinguished from the sacred Egyptian lotus 
flower, a water lily of the Nile, which appears 
both as a symbol of Egyptian deities and in 
works of art. 

Loxias (Aofi'ay), a surname of Apollo, prob- 
ably derived from his ambiguous oracles (\d|a), 
though some have referred it to \eyeiv. 

Loxo (Aofw), daughter of Boreas, one of the 
Hyperborean maidens who brought the worship 
of Artemis to Delos, whence the name is also 
used as a surname of Artemis herself. 

Lua, also called Lua Mater or Lua Saturni, 
one of the early Italian divinities, and a goddess 
of the earth ; she is, like Ops, connected with 
Saturn, as his wife or feminine counterpart. 
The arms taken from a defeated enemy were de- 
dicated to her, and burnt as a sacrifice, with a 
view of averting calamity; with which rite may 
be compared the devotio of the hostile armie- 
to Tellus (Liv. viii. 1, xlv. 33 ; Gell. xiii. 23). 

Luca (Lucensis : Lucca), a Ligurian city in 
Upper Italy, at the foot of the Apennines and 
on the river Ausus, NE. of Pisae. It was 
included in Etruria by Augustus ; but in the 
time of Julius Caesar it was the most southerly 
city in Liguria, and belonged to Cisalpine Gaul, 
j It was made a Roman colony B.C. 177. It was 
the place where Caesar, Pompey and Crassus 
met B.C. 56. (Liv. xxi. 59 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15 ; Cic. 
ad Fam. xiii. 13 ; Suet. Jul. 24.) There are 
remains of a large amphitheatre ; but its real 
importance dates from the middle ages. 

Lucania (Lucanus), a district in Lower Italy, 
was bounded on the N. by Campania and Sam- 
nium, on the E. by Apulia and the gulf of Ta- 
l rentum, on the S. by Bruttium, and on the 
, W. by the Tyrrhene sea. It was separated from 
! Campania by the river Silarus, and from Brut- 
tium by the river Laus, and it extended along 
the gulf of Tarentum from Thurii to Metapon- 
I turn. The country is mountainous, as the 
I Apennines run through the greater part of it ; 
but towards the gulf of Tarentum there is an 
extensive and fertile plain. Lucania was cele- 
brated for its excellent pastures (Hor. Ep. i. 
28) ; and its oxen were the finest and largest in 
Italy. The swine also were good ; and a pecu- 
liar kind of sausage was known at Rome under 
the name of Lucanica. The coast of Lucania 
was inhabited chiefly by Greeks whose cities 
were numerous and flourishing. The most im- 
portant were Metapontum, Hehaclea, Thuh:i, 
Buxentum, Elea or Velia, Posidonia or 
Paestum. The original inhabitants were eolle.J 
by the Greeks Oenotrians [see p. 458]. The 
Lucanians proper were Samnites, a brave and 
warlike race, who left their mother-country and 
settled both in Lucania and Bruttium in the 
fifth century B.C. They not only expelled or 
subdued the Oenotrians, but they gradually 
acquired possession of most of the Greek cities 
on the coast. (Strab. pp. 252-255; Diod. xiv. 
91, 101, 102.) They are first mentioned in B.C. 
396 as the allies of the elder Dionysius in his 
war against Thurii. They were on the side ol 
Rome during most part of the Samnite wars, 
but, having been disappointed in not obtaining 
the possession of Greek cities in Lucania 
promised them by Rome, they joined Pyrrhus. 
and were subdued by the Romans after 
Pyrrhus had left Italy. Before the second Punic- 
war their forccB consisted of 30,000 foot and 
3000 horse: but in the course of this war, m 
which they took the side of Hannibal, their 
country was repeatedly laid waste, and never 
recovered its former prosperity. 

Lucauus, M. Annaeus, usually called Lucan, 

K K 



498 



LUCANUS 



LUCIANUS 



a Roman poet, was born at Corduba in Spain, 
a.d. 39. His father was L. Annaeus Mella, a 
brother of M. Seneca, the philosopher. Lucan 
was carried to Rome at an early age, where his 
education was superintended by the most 
eminent preceptors of the day. His talents 
developed themselves at a very early age, and 
excited such general admiration as to awaken 
the jealousy of Nero, who, unable to brook 
competition, forbade him to recite in public. 
Stung to the quick by this prohibition, Lucan 
embarked in the famous conspiracy of Piso, 
was betrayed, and, by a promise of pardon, was 
induced to turn informer. He began by de- 
nouncing his own mother Acilia (or Atilia), and 
then revealed the rest of his accomplices with- 
out reserve. But he received a traitor's 
reward. After the more important victims had 
been despatched, the emperor issued the man- 
date for the death of Lucan, who, finding escape 
hopeless, caused his veins to be opened. When, 
from the rapid effusion of blood, he felt his 
extremities becoming chill, he began to repeat 
aloud some verses which he had once composed, 
descriptive of a wounded soldier perishing by a 
like death, and, with these lines upon his lips, 
expired, a.d. 65, in the twenty-sixth year of his 
age. (Life of Lucan by Suetonius, and [prob- 
ably] by Vacca ; cf . Quintil. x. 1, 90 ; Mart. xiv. 
194 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 382.) — Lucan wrote 
various poems, the titles of which are preserved, 
but the only extant production is a heroic poem, 
in ten books, entitledP/tarsaZm, in which the pro- 
gress of the struggle between Caesar and Pompey 
is fully detailed, the events, commencing with 
the passage of the Rubicon, being arranged in 
regular chronological order. The tenth book is 
imperfect, and the narrative breaks off abruptly 
in the middle of the Alexandrian war, but we 
know not whether the conclusion has been lost, 
or whether the author ever completed his task. 
The whole of what we now possess was certainly 
not composed at the same time. In the earlier 
portions, written when he was still in favour 
with the emperor, we find liberal sentiments 
and the preference of Pompey to Caesar ex- 
pressed in more moderate terms, accompanied 
by praise of Nero ; but, as we proceed, the 
blessings of freedom are loudly proclaimed, 
and the invectives against tyranny and against 
Caesar are couched in bitter language, probably 
aimed at the emperor. The work contains 
great beauties and great defects. It is charac- 
terised by copious diction, lively imagination, 
and a bold and masculine tone of thought, with 
scattered lines or passages which rise to real 
magnificence ; but it is at the same time dis- 
figured by extravagance, far-fetched conceits, 
and unnatural similes. The best editions are 
by Weber, Lips. 1821-1831, and by Haskins, 
London, 1889. 

Lucanus, Ocellus. [Ocellus.] 

Lucceius. 1. L., friend and neighbour of 
Cicero. His name frequently occurs at the 
commencement of Cicero's correspondence with 
Atticus, with whom Lucceius had quarrelled 
(ad Att. i. 3, 5, 10, ii. 11, 14). Cicero attempted 
to reconcile his two friends. In B.C. 63 Lucceius 
accused Catiline ; and in 60 he became a candi- 
date for the consulship, along with Julius 
Caesar, who agreed to support him ; but he lost 
his election in consequence of the aristocracy 
bringing in Bibulus, as a counterpoise to 
Caesar's influence. Lucceius seems now to 
have withdrawn from public life and to have 
devoted himself to literature. He was chiefly 
engaged in the composition of a history of 



Rome, from the Social war. In 55 he had 
nearly finished the history of the Social, and 
of the first Civil, war, when Cicero wrote to his 
friend, pressing him to devote a separate work 
to the period from Catiline's conspiracy to 
Cicero's recall from banishment (ad Fam. v. 
12). Lucceius promised compliance with his 
request, but he appears never to have written 
the work (ad Att. iv. 6). On the breaking out 
of the Civil war in 49, he espoused the side of 
Pompey. He was subsequently pardoned by 
Caesar and returned to Rome, where he con- 
tinued to live on friendly terms with Cicero (ad 
Fam. v. 13). — 2. C, surnamed Hirrus, of the 
Pupinian tribe,, tribune of the plebs 53, pro- 
posed that Pompey should be created dictator. 
In 52 he was a candidate with Cicero for the 
augurship, and in the following year a candi- 
date with M. Caelius for the aedileship, but he 
failed in both. On the breaking out of the 
Civil war in 49, he joined Pompey He was 
sent by Pompey as ambassador to Orodes, king 
of Parthia, but he was thrown into prison by 
the Parthian king. He was pardoned by 
Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia, and 
returned to Rome. (Cic. ad Att. viii. 5, 11 ; 
Caes. B. C. i. 15, iii. 82 ; Dio Cass. xlii. 2.) 

Lucenses Callaici, one of the two chief tribes 
of the Callaici or Gallaeci on the N. coast of 
Hispania Tarraconensis, derived their name 
from their town Lucus Augusti. 

Luc en turn (Alicante), a town of the Contes- 
tant on the coast of Hispania Tarraconensis 
(Plin. iii. 19). 

Luceria (Lucerlnus : Lucera), sometimes 
called Nuceria, a town in Apulia on the borders 
of Samnium, SW. of Arpi, was situated on a 
steep hill, and possessed an ancient temple of 
Minerva (Strab. pp. 264, 284 ; Plm. iii. 16). In 
the war between Rome and Samnium, it was 
first taken by the Samnites (b.c. 321), and next 
by the Romans (319) ; but having revolted to 
the Samnites in 314, all the inhabitants were 
massacred by the Romans, and their place 
supplied by 2500 Roman colonists (Li v. ix. 26; 
Veil. Pat. i. 14 ; Diod. xix. 72). Having thus 
become a Roman colony, it continued faithful 
to Rome in the second Punic war (Pol. iii. 88, 
100; Liv. xxii. 9, xxvii. 10). In the time of 
Augustus it had declined in prosperity ; but was 
still of sufficient importance in the third cen- 
tury to be the residence of the praetor of Apulia. 

Lucianus (Aoviaavds), usually called Lucian, 
a Greek writer, born at Samosata, the capital 
of Commagene, in Syria. The dates of his birth 
a'nd death are uncertain ; but it has been con- 
jectured, with much probability, that he was 
born about a.d. 120, and he probably lived till 
towards the end of that century. We know 
that some of his more celebrated works were 
written in the reign of M. Aurelius. Lucian's 
parents were poor, and he was at first ap- 
prenticed to his maternal uncle, who was a 
statuary. He afterwards became an advocate, 
and practised at Antioch. Being unsuccessful 
in this calling, he employed himself in writing 
speeches for others, instead of delivering them 
himself. But he did not remain long at An- 
tioch ; and at an early period of his life he set 
out upon his travels, and visited the greater 
part of Greece, Italy, and Gaul. In these 
journeys he acquired a good deal of money as 
well as fame by lectures on rhetoric delivered 
in various towns. On his return to his native 
country, probably about his fortieth year, he 
abandoned the rhetorical profession, the arti- 
fices of which, he tells us, were foreign to hie 



LTJCIANTJS 

temper. He still, however, occasionally tra- 
velled ; for it appears that he was in Aehaia 
and Ionia about the close of the Parthian war, 
160-165 ; on which occasion, too, he seems to 
have visited Olympia and beheld the self- 
immolatiou of Peregrinus. About the year 170, 
or a little previously, he visited the false oracle 
of the impostor Alexander, in Paphlagonia. 
Late in life he obtained the office of procurator 
of part of Egypt, which office was probably 
bestowed on him by the emperor Commodus. 
The nature of Lucian's writings inevitably pro- 
cured him many enemies, by whom he has ! 
been painted in very black colours. According 
to Suidas he was surnamed the Blasphemer, 
and was torn to pieces by dogs, as a punish- 
ment for his impiety ; but on this account no 
reliance can be placed. — As many as eighty- 
two works have come down to us under the 
name of Lucian ; but several of these are 
spurious. The most important of them are his 
Dialogues. They are of very various degrees 
of merit, and are treated in the greatest pos- 
sible variety of style, from seriousness down to 
the broadest humour and buffoonery. Their 
subjects and tendency, too, vary considerably ; 
for while some are employed in attacking the 
heathen philosophy and religion, others are 
mere pictures of manners without any polemic 
drift. Our limits only allow us to mention a 
few of the more important of these Dialogues : — 
The Dialogues of the Gods, twenty-six in 
number, consist of short dramatic narratives of 
some of the most popular incidents in the 
heathen mythology. The reader, however, is 
generally left to draw his own conclusions from 
the story, the author only taking care to put it 
in the most absurd point of view. — In the 
Jupiter Convicted a bolder style of attack is 
adopted ; and the cynic proves to J upiter's face 
that, everything being under the dominion of 
fate, he has no power whatever. As this dia- 
logue shows Jupiter's want of power, so the 
Jupiter the Tragedian strikes at his very exist- 
ence, and that of the other deities. — The Vita- 
rum Auctio, or Sale of the Philosophers, is an 
attack upon the ancient philosophers. In this 
humorous piece the heads of the different 
sects are put up to sale, Hermes being the 
auctioneer. — The Fisherman is a sort of apology 
for the preceding piece, and may be reckoned 
among Lucian's best dialogues. The philo- , 
gophers are represented as having obtained a 
day's life for the purpose of taking vengeance 
upon Lucian, who confesses that he has bor- [ 
rowed the chief beauties of his writings from 
them. — The Banquet, or the Lapithae, is one 
of Lucian's most humorous attacks on the 
philosophers. The scene is a wedding-feast, at 
which a representative of each of the principal 
philosophic sects is present. A discussion en- 
sues, which sets all the philosophers by the ears, 
and ends in a pitched battle. — The Xigrinus is 
also an attack on philosophic pride; but its 
main scope is to satirise the Romans, whose | 
!>omp, vain-glory, and luxury are unfavourably 
ontrasted with the simple habits of the Athe- I 
lianH. — The more miscellaneous class of Lu- ; 
ian's dialogues, in which the attacks upon 
nytliology and philosophy are not direct but 
Ojpirlental, or which are mere pictures of | 
nanners, contains some of his best. At the , 
lead must be placed Timon, which may per- I 
laps be regarded as Lucian's masterpiece. — I 
The Dialogues of the Dead are perhaps the 
Dart known of nil Lucian's works. The subject 
affords great scope for moral reflection, and for , 



LUCILIUS 



490 



satire on the vanity of human pursuits. Wealth, 
power, beauty, strength, not forgetting the vain 
disputations of philosophy, afford the mate- 
rials. — The Icaro-Menippus is in Lucian's best 
vein, and a masterpiece of Aristophanic humour. 
Menippus, disgusted with the disputes and 
pretensions of the philosophers, resolves cn a 
visit to the stars, for the purpose of seeing how 
far their theories are correct. By the mecha- 
nical aid of a pair of wings he reaches the 
moon, and surveys thence the miserable passions 
and quarrels of men. Hence he proceeds to 
Olympus, and is introduced to the Thunderer 
himself. Here he is witness of the manner in 
which human prayers are received in heaven. 
They ascend by enormous vent-holes, and be- 
come audible when Jupiter removes the covers. 
Jupiter himself is represented as a partial 
judge, and as influenced by the largeness of 
the rewards promised to him. At the end he 
pronounces judgment against the philosophers, 
and threatens in four days to destroy them 
all. — Charon is a dialogue of a graver turn 
than the preceding. Charon visits the earth 
to see the course of life there, and what it is 
that always makes men weep when they enter 
his boat. Mercury acts as his cicerone. — Lu- 
cian's merits as a writer consist in his know- 
ledge of human nature ; his strong common 
sense ; the fertility of his invention ; the raci- 
ness of his humour, and the simplicity and 
Attic grace of his diction. There was abund- 
ance to justify his attacks in the systems 
against which they were directed. Yet he 
establishes nothing in their stead. His aim is 
only to" pull down ; to spread a universal 
scepticism. Editions of Lucian by Hemster- 
huis and Reitz, Amst. 1743, 4 vols. 4to : by 
Lehman. Lips. 1821-1831, 9 vols. 8vo : text by 
Jacobitz, 1874 ; select dialogues by E. Abbott, 
1877 ; Heitland, 1878 ; Jerram, 1879. 
Lucifer. [Hesperus.] 

Lucilius. 1. C, was born at Suessa of the 
Aurunci, B.C. 148. He served in the cavalry 
under Bcipio in the Numantine war ; lived 
upon terms of the closest familiarity with 
Scipio and Laelius ; and was either the maternal 
grand-uncle or, which is less probable, the 
maternal grandfather of Pompey the Great. 
He died at Naples, 103, in the 46th year of his 
age. Lucilius was the first to impress upon 
Roman satire its character of personal invec- 
tive, following in this the Old Attic Comedy ; 
but as this method of attack was not admitted 
upon the stage, the invective of Lucilius was 
literary, and not dramatic like that of Aristo- 
phanes. He gave to Roman satire that form 
which afterwards received full development in 
the hands of Horace, Persius, and JuvenaL 
Horace, while he censures the harsh versifica- 
tion and the slovenly haste with which Lucilius 
threw off his compositions, acknowledges with 
admiration the fierceness and boldness of hie 
attacks upon the vices and follies of his con- 
temporaries. (Hor. Sat. i. 4, 6, i. 10, 1, ii. 1, 
16, 62 ; Juv. i. 165 ; Pers. i. 114.) Cicero, Varro, 
and Quintilian differ from Horace in giving 
praise to the style as well as the matter of his 
writings (Cic. de Or. i. 16, 72; Quintil. x. 1, 93 ; 
Gell. vi. 14). The Satires of Lucilius were 
divided into thirty books. Upwards of 300 
fragments from these have been preserved, but 
the greatest number consist of isolated coup- 
lets, or single lines. It is clear from these 
fragments that his reputation for caustic 
pleasantry was by no means unmerited, and 
that in coarseness and broad personalities he 

K K 9 



500 



LUCILLA 



LUCRINUS 



in no respect fell short of the licence of the Old 
Comedy, which would seem to have been, to a 
certain extent, his model. The fragments were 
published separately, by Pranciscus Dousa, 
Lug. Bat. 4to, 1597 ; by L. Miiller, Lips. 1872 ; 
by C. Lachmann, Berl. 1876. — 2. Lucilius 
Junior, probably the author of an extant poem 
in 640 hexameters, entitled Aetna, which ex- 
hibits throughout great command of language, 
and contains not a few brilliant passages. Its 
object is to explain upon philosophical prin- 
ciples, after the fashion of Lucretius, the causes 
of the various volcanic phenomena. Lucilius 
Junior was the procurator of Sicily, and the 
friend to whom Seneca addresses his Epistles, 
his Natural Questions, and his tract On Provi- 
dence, and whom he strongly urges to select 
this very subject of Aetna as a theme for his 
muse (Sen. N.Q. iii. 1, Ep. 26, 46, 59, 79). 
The Aetna was originally printed among Virgil's 
poems ; it is included in Wernsdorf 's Poet. Lat. 
Min. and is edited separately by Munro, 1867. 

Lucilla, Annia, daughter of M. Aurelius and 
the younger Faustina, was born about a.d. 147. 
She was married to the emperor L. Verus, and 
after his death (169) to Claudius Pompeianus. 
In 183 she engaged in a plot against her brother 
Commodus, which having been detected, she 
was banished to Capreae, and there put to 
death. (Dio Cass. lxxi. 1, lxxii. 4.) 

Lucina, the goddess of light, or rather the 
goddess that brings to light, and hence the god- 
dess that presides over the birth of children. 
Hence she was identified both with Juno and 
with Diana, and became a surname to both 
these goddesses. Lucina corresponded to the 
Greek goddess Ilithyia. [Artemis, Diana, 
Juno, Ilithyia.] 

Lucretia, the wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus, 
whose rape by Sex. Tarquinius led to the de- 
thronement of Tarquinius Superbus and the 
establishment of the republic. [Tarquinius.] 

Lucretia Gens, originally patrician, but sub- 
sequently plebeian also. The surname of the 
patrician Lucretii was Triciptinus, one of 
whom, Sp. Lucretius Triciptinus, the father of 
Lucretia, was elected consul, with L. Junius 
Brutus, on the establishment of the republic, 
B.C. 509. The plebeian families are known by 
the surnames of Gallus, Ofella, and Vespillo, 
but none of them is of sufficient importance to 
require notice. 

Lucretllis, a pleasant mountain in the 
country of the Sabines (Hor. Oct. i. 17, 1), over- 
hanging Horace's villa, a part of the modern 
Monte Gennaro. [See p. 428, a.] 

T. Lucretius Carus, the Roman poet, respect- 
ing whose personal history our information is 
both scanty and suspicious. Jerome, in his 
additions to the Eusebian Chronicle, fixes B.C. 
95 or 99 as the date of his birth, adding that he 
was driven mad by a love potion, that during 
his lucid intervals he composed several works 
which were ravised by Cicero, and that he 
perished by his own hand in his 44th year. 
Donatus, in his Life of Virgil, places the death 
of Lucretius in Virgil's 15th year, which would 
assign 99 for the year of his birth and 55 for 
that of his death. It is probable that both 
Donatus and Jerome copied their statements 
from the lost portion of Suetonius de Vir. 
Illustr. ; if so, the authority is not so late as it 
would appear to be. The story of the madness, 
which is adopted by Tennyson, must thus have 
been current in the time of Suetonius, and may 
have some elements of truth in it, though the 
poem is not such as would be written after the 



mind began to fail. That Cicero edited the 
poem is nowhere else directly stated, but Munro 
has shown that there is some reason for be- 
lieving it to be true. At any rate Cicero had 
already studied it within a few months of the 
death of Lucretius — that is, almost as soon as 
the book was published (ad Q. Fr. ii. 11). The 
writings of Lucretius are mentioned with praise 
also by Ovid (Am. i. 15, 23), by Statius (Silv. 
ii. 7, 76), and by Quintilian (x. 1, 87). Horace 
alludes to their influence (Sat. i. 5, 101), and 
that he was admired also by Virgil is clear from 
the numerous passages in which his diction is 
imitated. — The work which has immortalised 
the name of Lucretius is a philosophical didactic 
poem, composed in heroic hexameters, divided 
into six books, containing upwards of 7400 
lines, addressed to C. Memmius Gemellus, who 
was praetor in 58, and is entitled De Berum 
Natura. Lucretius showed his admiration for 
the teaching of Empedocles (i. 729), and, of his 
own countrymen, for Ennius (i. 117) and 
Cicero, whose Aratea he imitates in some 
passages ; but his great master was Epicurus, 
for whom he expresses the most profound reve- 
rence (iii. 3-30). Epicurus maintained that the 
unhappiness and degradation of mankind arose 
in a great degree from the slavish dread which 
they entertained of the power of the gods, and 
from terror of their wrath; and the fundamental 
doctrine of his system was, that the gods, whose 
existence he did not deny, lived in the enjoy- 
ment of absolute peace, and totally indifferent 
to the world and its inhabitants. To prove 
this position he adopted the atomic theory of 
Leucippus, according to which the material 
universe was not created by the Supreme Being, 
but was formed by the union of elemental 
particles which had existed from all eternity, 
governed by certain simple laws. He further 
sought to show that all those striking pheno- 
mena which had been regarded by the vulgar 
as direct manifestations of divine power, were 
the natural results of ordinary processes. [Epi- 
curus.] To state clearly and. develop fully 
the leading principle of this philosophy, in such 
a form as might render the study attractive to 
his countrymen, was the object of Lucretius, 
his work being simply an attempt to show that 
there is nothing in the history or actual condi- 
tion of the world which does not admit of 
explanation without having recourse to the 
active interposition of divine beings. This 
creed is set forth by Lucretius to liberate men 
from fear of the gods and of death, and to give 
them peace of mind. Marvellous skill is dis- 
played in the manner in which abstruse specu- 
lations and technicalities are luminously set 
forth in sonorous verse ; and the severity of the 
subject is relieved from time to time by magnifi- 
cent bursts of poetry, as fine as anything in the 
Latin language. Apart from the attractions of 
Lucretius as one of the greatest of Latin poets, 
it has interested modern science to trace out 
resemblances between the modern atomic theory 
and that which Lucretius expounds. Editions 
by Lambinus, 1570 ; Lachmann, 1850 ; Munro. 
1864, 1886. 

Lucrinus Lacus, was properly the inner pari 
of the Sinus Cumanus or Puteolanus, a bay or 
the coast of Campania, between the promontorj 
Misenum and Puteoli, running a considerable 
way inland. But at a very early period the 
Lucrine lake was separated from the remaindei 
of the bay by a dike eight stadia in length 
which was probably formed originally by some 
volcanic change, and was subsequently renderec 



LUCULLUS 



501 



more complete by the work of man. (Diod. iv. 
22 ; Strab. p. 245.) Being thus separated from 
the rest of the sea, it assumed the character of 
an inland lake, and is therefore called Lacus by 
the Eomans. Its waters still remained salt, 
and were celebrated for their oyster beds (Hor. 
Epod. ii. 49, Sat. ii. 4, 32 ; Juv. iv. 141) Behind 
the Lucrine lake was another lake called Lacus 
Avebnus. In the time of Augustus, Agrippa 
made a communication between the lake Aver- 
nus and the Lucrine lake, and also between the 
Lucrine lake and the Sinus Cumanus, thus 
forming out of the three the celebrated Julian 
Harbour (Dio Cass, xlviii. 50; Suet. Aug. 16; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 79; Verg. Georg. ii. 161). The 
Lucrine lake was filled up by a volcanic erup- 
tion in 1538, when a conical mountain rose in 
its place, called Monte Nuovo. The Avernus 
thus became again a separate lake, and there is 
no trace of the dike in the Gulf of Pozzuoli. 

Lucullus, Licimus, a celebrated plebeian 
family. 1. L., the grandfather of the conqueror 
of Mithridates, was consul B.C. 151, together 
with A. Postumius Albinus, and carried on war 
in Spain against the Vaccaei (Cic. Brut. 21, 81 ; 
Liv. Ep. 48). — 2. L., son of the preceding, was 
praetor, 103, and carried on war unsuccessfully 
against the slaves in Sicily. On his return to 
Rome he was accused, condemned, and driven 
into exile. (Cic. Verr. iv. 66 ; Flor. iii. 19, 11.)— 
3. L., son of the preceding, and celebrated as 
the conqueror of Mithridates. He was probably 
born about 110. He served with distinction in 
the Marsic or Social war, and accompanied 
Sulla as his quaestor into Greece and Asia, 88. 
When Sulla returned to Italy after the conclu- 
sion of peace with Mithridates in 84, Lucullus 
was left behind in Asia, where he remained till 
80. In 79 he was curule aedile with his younger 
brother Marcus. So great was the favour at 
this time enjoyed by Lucullus with Sulla, that 
Die dictator, on his death-bed, not only confided 
to him the charge of rev ising and correcting his 
Commentaries, but appointed him guardian of 
his son Faustus, to the exclusion of Pompey : 
a circumstance which is said to have first given 
rise to the enmity that ever after subsisted 
between the two. In 77 Lucullus was praetor, 
and at the expiration of this magistracy ob- 
tained the government of Africa, where he 
distinguished himself by the justice of his 
administration. In 74 he was consul with M. 
Aurelius Cotta. In this year the war with 
Mithridates was renewed, and Lucullus received 
the conduct of it. He carried on this war for 
eight years with great success. The details are 
given under Mithbidates, and it is only neces- 
sary .to mention here the leading outlines. Lu- 
cullus defeated Mithridates with great slaughter, 
and drove him out of his hereditary dominions 
and compelled him to take refuge in Armenia 
with his son-in-law Tigranes (71). He after- 
wards invaded Armenia, defeated Tigranes, and 
took his capital Tigranocerta (69). In the next 
campaign (68) he again defeated the combined 
forces of Mithridates, and laid siege to Nisibis; 
but in the spring of the following year (67), a 
mutiny among his troops compelled him to 
raise the siege of Nisibis, and return to Pontus. 
Mithridates had already taken advantage of his 
absence to invade Pontus, and had defeated his 
lieutenants Fabius and Triarius in several suc- 
cessive actions. But Lucullus on his arrival 
was unable to effect anything against Mithri- 
dates, in consequence of the mutinous disposi- 
tion of his troops. The adversaries of LuciiIIuh 
availed themselves of so favourable an occasion, 



and a decree was passed to transfer to Aeilius 
Glabrio, one of the consuls for the year, the 
province of Bithynia and the command against 
s Mithridates. But Glabrio was wholly incom- 
! petent for the task assigned him : on arriving 
in Bithynia, he made no attempt to assume the 
command, but remained quiet within the con- 
fines of the Roman province. Mithridates 
meanwhile ably availed himself of this position 
of affairs, and Lucullus had the mortification 
of seeing Pontus and Cappadocia occupied by 
the enemy before his eyes, without being able 
to stir a step in their defence. But it was still 
more galling to his feelings when, in 66, he was 
called upon to resign the command to his old 
rival Pompey, who had been appointed by the 
Manilian law to supersede both him and Glabrio. 
Lucullus did not obtain his triumph till 63, in 
consequence of the opposition of his enemies. 
He was courted by the aristocratical party, who 
sought in Lucullus a rival and antagonist to 
Pompey; but he soon began to withdraw 
gradually from public affairs, and devote him- 
self more and more to a life of indolence and 
luxury. He died in 57 or 56. Previous to his 
death he had fallen into a state of complete 
dotage, so that the management of his affairs 
was confided to his brother Marcus. The name 
of Lucullus is almost as celebrated for the 
luxury of his latter years as for his victories 
over Mithridates. He amassed vast treasures 
in Asia, and these supplied him the means, 
after his return to Rome, of gratifying his taste 
for luxury and magnificence. His gardens in 
the suburbs of the city were laid out in a style 
of extraordinary splendour ; but still more re- 
markable were his villas at Tusculum and in 
the neighbourhood of Neapolis. In the con- 
struction of the latter, with its parks, fish-ponds, 
dec, he had laid out vast sums in cutting 
through hills and rocks, and throwing out 
advanced works into the sea. So gigantic, in- 
deed, was the scale of these labours for objects 
apparently so insignificant, that Pompey called 
him, in derision, the Roman Xerxes. He is 
said to have spent nearly £2000 on a single 
dinner at Rome ; and even during his cam- 
paigns the pleasures of the table had not been 
forgotten, for he was the first to introduce 
cherries into Italy, which he had brought with 
him from Cerasus in Pontus. Lucullus was a 
patron of literature, and inclined to literary 
pursuits. He collected a valuable library, which 
was opened to the use of the literary public ; 
and here he himself used to associate with the 
Greek philosophers and literati, and would enter 
warmly into their discussions. Hence the pic- 
ture drawn by Cicero at the beginning of the 
Academics was probably to a certain extent 
taken from the reality. His constant companion 
from the time of his quaestorship had been 
Antiochus of Ascalon, from whom he adopted 
the precepts of the Academic school of philo- 
sophy. His patronage of the poet Archias is 
well known. He composed a history of the 
Marsic war in Greek. {Life of Lucullus, by 
Plutarch; Dio Cass, xxxiv. xxxv. ; Cic. Acad. i. 
1, ii. 1.) — 4. L. or M., son of the preceding and 
of Servilia, half-sister of M. Cato, was a mere 
chikl at his father's death. His education was 
superintended by Cato and Cicero. After 
Caesar's death he joined the republican party, 
and fell at the battle of Philippi, 42. (Cic. ad 
Att. xiii. 6; Veil. Pat. ii. 71.)— 6. M., brother 
of No. 8, was adopted by M. Terentius Varro, 
mill consequently bore tin- names of M. Tr.M N - 
tiuh Vabro Lucullus. He fought under Sulla 



602 



LUCUMO 



LUPUS 



in Italy, 82 ; was ourule aedile with his brother, 
79 ; praetor, 77 ; and consul, 73. After his con- 
sulship he obtained the province of Macedonia. 
He carried on war against the Dardanians and 
Bessi, and penetrated as far as the Danube. 
On his return to Borne he obtained a triumph, 
71. He was a strong supporter of the aristo- 
cratical party. He pronounced the funeral 
oration of his brother, but died before 49. 
(Plut. Sull. 27, Lucull. 43 ; Flor. iii. 4, 7 ; Cic. 
pro Dom. 52.) 

Lucumo. [Tabquinids.] 

Ludias. [Lydias.] 

Lugdunensis Gallia. [Gallia.] 

Lugdunum (Lugdunensis). 1. (Lyon), the 
chief town of Gallia Lugdunensis, situated at 
the foot of a hill at the confluence of the Arar 
(Saone), and the Rhodanus (Rhone), is said to 
have been founded by some fugitives from the 
town of Vienna, further down the Rhone. In 
the year after Caesar's death (b.c. 43) Lugdu- 
num was made a Roman colony by L. Munatius 
Plancus, and became under Augustus the 
capital of the province, and the residence of the 
Roman governor (Dio Cass. xlvi. 50 ; Strab. p. 
192). Being situated on two navigable rivers, 
and being connected with the other parts of 
Gaul by roads which met at this town as their 
central point, it soon became a wealthy and 
populous place, and is described by Strabo as 
the largest city in Gaul next to Narbo. It 
received many privileges from the emperor 
Claudius ; but it was burnt down in the reign 
of Nero (Sen. Ep. 91; Tac. Ann. xvi. 13). It 
was, however, soon rebuilt, and continued to 
be a place of great importance till a.d. 197, 
when it was plundered and the greater part of 
it destroyed by the soldiers of Septimius 
Severus, after his victory over his rival Albinus 
in the neighbourhood of the town (Herodian, 
iii. 23). From this blow it never recovered 
during the Roman dominion, and was more and 
more thrown into the shade by Vienna. Lug- 
dunum possessed a vast aqueduct, of which the 
remains may still be traced for miles, a mint, 
and an imperial palace, in which Claudius was 
born, and in which many of the other Roman 
emperors resided. At the tongue of land 
between the Rhone and the Arar stood an altar 
dedicated by Drusus to Rome and the genius of 
Augustus, a.d. 12. For this altar the cantons 
annually chose the ' priest of the three Gauls ' ; 
here the Celtic diet met [see p. 354, a] ; and here 
Caligula instituted contests in rhetoric ; prizes 
being given to the victors, and contumelious 
punishments inflicted on the vanquished (Juv. 
i. 44 ; Suet. Cal. 20 ; Dio Cass. lix. 22). Lug- 
dunum is memorable in the history of the 
Christian Church as the seat of the bishopric of 
Irenaeus, and on account of the persecutions 
which the Christians endured here in the 
second and third centuries. — 2. L. Batavoi am 
(Leyderi), the chief town of the Batavi. 
[Batavi.] — 3. L. Convenarum (St. Bertrand de 
Comminges), the chief town of the Convenae in 
Aquitania. [Convenae.] 
Luna. [Selene.] 

Luna (Lunensis : Luni), an Etruscan town, 
situated on the left bank of the Macra, about 
four miles from the coast, originally formed 
part of Liguria, but became the most northerly 
city of Etruria when Augustus extended the 
boundaries of the latter country as far as the 
Macra. The town itself was never a place of 
importance, but it possessed a large and com- 
modious harbour at the mouth of the river, 
called Lunae Portus (Gulf of Spezzia). In 



B.C. 177 Luna was made a Roman colony, and 
2000 Roman citizens were settled there (Liv. 
xli. 13). In the Civil war between Caesar and 
Pompey it had sunk into utter decay, but was 
colonised a few years afterwards (Lucan, i. 
586 ; Strab. p. 222). Luna was celebrated for 
its white marble, which now takes its name 
from the neighbouring town of Carrara. The 
quarries appear not to have been worked before 
the time of Julius Caesar ; but this marble was 
much used for public buildings in the reign of 
Augustus. The wine and the cheeses of Luna 
also enjoyed a high reputation (Mart. xiii. 30). 

Lunae Montes (rb rrjs 2eKr]vris opos), a 
range of mountains which some of the ancient 
geographers believed to exist in the interior of 
Africa, covered with perpetual snow, and con- 
taining the sources of the Nile (Ptol. iv. 8, 3, 6). 

Luperca. [Lupercus.] 

Lupercus was merely another name for the 
Italian rural deity Fatinus, who was also called 
Inuus (i.e. the god who gives fruitfulness to 
the flocks). The title Lupercus has been ex- 
plained by many writers as meaning ' the pro- 
tector of the flocks from wolves ' (lupus-arceo) ; 
but on the whole it is likely that a more recent 
interpretation is right which makes the word 
only an equivalent of lupus (cf. nov-erca) ; and 
that the name of ' wolves ' was given to Faunus 
and to his priests owing to some primitive wor- 
ship of the wolf as a wolf -god, whether that is 
to be regarded as a relic of totemism or not. 
These rites were celebrated in the cave of the 
Lupercal under the Palatine, and with them 
were connected the stories of the nurse of Ro- 
mulus and Remus, who is called sometimes 
Acca Laeentia, sometimes Lupa or Luperca 
(Arnob. iv. 3 ; Lactant. i. 20), and sometimes 
appears as an actual she- wolf . It is likely that 
these stories of the wolf-nurse are more recent 
than the rites and the priesthood, and grew out 
of them. [See Diet, of Ant. art. Lupercalia, 
Luperci.] For an account of the deity, see 
Faunus. 

Lupia. [Luppia.] 

Lupiae or Luppiae, (Leuc), a town in Cala- 
bria, between Brundusium and Hydruntum 
(Strab. p. 282). 

Lupodunum (Laden-burg/?), a town in Ger- 
many on the river Nicer (Neckar) (Auson. 
Mosel. 423). 

Luppia or Lupia (Lippe), a navigable river 
in the NW. of Germany, which falls into the 
Rhine at Wesel in Westphalia, and on which 
the Romans built a fortress of the same name. 
The river Eliso (Alme) was a tributary of the 
Luppia, and at the confluence of these two 
rivers was the fortress of Aliso. (Veil. Pat. ii. 
105 ; Tac. Ann. i. 60 ; Strab. p. 291.) 

Lupus, Rutilius. 1. P., consul, with L. 
Julius Caesar, in B.C. 90, was defeated by the 
Marsi, and slain in battle (App. B. C. i. 40, 43 ; 
Flor. iii. 18). — 2. P., tribune of the plebs, 56, 
and a warm partisan of the aristocracy. He 
was praetor in 49, and was stationed at Terra- 
cina with three cohorts. He afterwards crossed 
over to Greece. (Caes. B. O. i. 24, iii. 55.) — 3. 
Probably in the reign of Tiberius, the author of 
a rhetorical treatise in two books, entitled De 
Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis, which 
appears to have been originally an abridgment 
of a work by Gorgias of Athens, one of the 
preceptors of young M. Cicero, but which has 
evidently undergone many changes (Quint, ix. 
2, 102). Its chief value is derived from the 
numerous translations which it contains of 
striking passages from the works of Greek 



LUECO 

orators now lost. — Edited by Ruhnken along 
with Aquila and Julius Ruffinianus, Lug. Bat. 
1768, reprinted by Frotscher, Lips. 1831 ; by 
Draheim, Berl. 1874. 

Lurco, M. Aufidlus, tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 61, the author of a law on bribery yde 
Ambitu). He was the maternal grandfather of 
the empress Livia, wife of Augustus. He was 
the first person in Rome who fattened pea- 
cocks for sale (Plin. x. 45). 

Luscinus, Fabricius. [Fabricius.] 

Lusi \Aovaoi) a town in the N. of Arcadia, 
had a temple of Artemis Lusia (Paus. viii. 18, 
8 ; Pol. iv. 18). 

Lusitanla, Lusitani. [Hispania.] 

Lusones, a tribe of the Celtiberi in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, near the sources of the Tagus. 

Lutatius Catulus. [Catulus.] 

Lutatius Cerco. [Cebco.] 

Lutetla, or, more commonly, Lutetia Pari- 
sidrnm (Faris), the capital of the Parisii in 
Gallia Lugdunensis, was situated on an island 
in the Sequana (Seine), and was connected 
with the banks of the river by two wooden 
bridges (Caes. B. G. vi. 3, vii. 58; Strab. p. 
194). Under the emperors it became a place of 
importance, and the chief naval station on the 
Sequana. Here Julian was proclaimed em- 
peror, a.d. 360 (Amm. Marc. xvii. 2, xx. 4). 

Lycabettua {Avko.I3t)tt6s : Mt. St. George), a 
mountain in Attica, belonging to the range of 
Pentelicus, close to the walls of Athens on the 
NE. of the city, and on the left of the road 
leading to Marathon. [Athexae, p. 140.] 

Lycaeus (Avkcuos), or Lyceus, a lofty moun- 
tain in Arcadia, N\V. of Megalopolis, from the 
summit of which a great part of the country 
could be seen. It was one of the chief seats of 
the worship of Zeus, who was hence surnamed 
Lycaeus (Paus. viii. 38). Here was a temple of 
Zeus ; and here also was celebrated the festival 
of the Lycaea (Diet, of Ant. s. v.)- Pan was 
likewise called Lycaeus, because he was born 
and had a sanctuary on this mountain. 

Lycambes. r Ant hilochus.] 

Lycaon (Avkowv), king of Arcadia, son of 
Pelasgus by Meliboea or Cyllene. The tradi- 
tions about Lycaon represent him in very 
different lights. Some describe him as the 
first civiliser of Arcadia, who built the town of 
Lycosura, and introduced the worship of Zeus 
Lycaeus. But he is more usually represented 
as an impious king, with fifty sons as impious 
as himself. Zeus visited the earth in order to 
punish them. The god was recognised and 
worshipped by the Arcadian people. Lycaon 
resolved to murder him ; and in order to try if 
he were really a god, nerved before him a dish 
of human flesh. Zeus pushed away the table, 
and the place where this happened was after- 
wards called Trapezus. Lycaon and all his 
sons, with the exception of the youngest (or 
eldest!, Nyctimns, were killed by Zeus with a 
flash of lightning, or according to others, were 
changed into wolves. (Paus. viii. 2 ; Callisto.) 
It is open to question whether in these stories 
we have reminiscences of ancient human sacri- 
fices to the Pelusgian Zeus, or of a superstition 
akin to the northern wehr-wolf stories, or of 
pastoral rites of the Arcadians for protection 
against wolves, like the Roman Lupercalia : it 
is possible that all these origins may have a 
part in the myth : it is also possible that the 
name itself may originally have meant 'light,' 
in connexion with the Lycoean Zeus, and may 
have be. ii falsely refined l<> wolves. — Callisto, 
the daughter of Lycaon, it said to have been 



LYCIA 



503 



changed into the constellation of the Bear, 
whence she is called by the poets Lycaonis 
Arctos, Lycaonia Arctos, or Lycaonia Virgo, 
or by her patronymic Lycaonis. 

Lycaonia (AvKaov'ia : Avuaoves : part of Kara- 
man), a district of Asia Minor, assigned, under 
the Persian empire, to the satrapy of Cappa- 
docia, but considered by the Greek and Roman 
geographers the SE. part of Phrygia ; bounded 
on the N. by Galatia, on the E. by Cappadocia. 
on the S. by Cilicia Aspera, on the SW. by 
Isauria (which was sometimes reckoned as a 
part of it) and by Phrygia Paroreios, and on 
the NW. by Great Phrygia. It was a long 
narrow strip of country, its length extending in 
the direction of NW. and SE. ; Xenophon, who 
first mentions it, describes its width as extend- 
ing E. of Iconium (its chief city) to the borders 
of Cappadocia, a distance of 30 parasangs, 
about 110 miles. It forms a table-land between 
the Taurus and the mountains of Phrygia, 
deficient in good water, but abounding in flocks 
of sheep. The people, who were perhaps akin 
to the Pisidians, spoke a language mentioned 
in the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 11) as a dis- 
tinct dialect : they were warlike, and especi- 
ally skilled in archery. After the overthrow of 
Antiochus the Great by the Romans, Lycaonia, 
which had belonged successively to Persia and 
to Syria, was partly assigned to Eumenes, and 
partly governed by native chieftains, the last of 
whom, Antipater, a contemporary of Cicero, 
was conquered by Amyntas, king of Galatia, at 
whose death, in B.C. 25, it passed, with Galatia, 
to the Romans (Dio Cass. liii. 26). In Trajan's 
reign it was united to the province of Cappa- 
docia (Ptol. v. 6), its chief town being Iconium. 
In the fourth century a.d. it was a separate 
province. 

Lyceum. [Athexae, p. 144, b.] 

Lyceus. [Apollo, p. 89, b.] 

Lychnltis. [Lychnldus.] 

Lychnidus, more rarely Lychnidrum or 
Lychnis lAvxf'Sos, Avx>"Sioi/, Auxvis. Avxvi- 
Sios', Achrita, Ochrida), a town of Myricuni, 
was the ancient capital of the Dessaretii, but 
was in the possession of the Romans as early 
as their war with king Gentius. It was situated 
in the interior of the country, on a height on 
the N. bank of the lake Lychnitis (Aux"""is, 
or 7] Avxvihia Ki/ivri), from which the river Drilon 
rises. The town was strongly fortified, and 
contained many springs. (Liv. xxvii. 32, xliii. 
9 ; Strab. p. 323.) In the middle ages it was 
the residence of the Bulgarian kings, and called 
Acliris or Achrita, whence its modern name. 

Lycia (Avkicl : Atimoi, Lycius : Meis),& small, 
but most interesting, district on the S. side of 
Asia Minor, jutting out into the Mediterranean 
in a form approaching to a rough semicircle, 
adjacent to parts of Caria and Piunphyliaon the 
W. and E., and on the N. to the district of Ciby- 
ratis in Phrygia, to which, under the Byzantine 
emperors, it was considered to belong. It was 
bounded on the NW.by the little river Glaucus 
and the gulf of the same name, on the XE. by 
the mountain called Climax (the N. part of the 
same range as that called Solyma), and on the 
N. its natural boundary was the Taurus, but its 
limits in this direction were not strictly defined. 
The N. parts of Lycia and the district of Ciby- 
ratis form together a high table-land, which is 
supported on the N. by the Taurus ; on the E. 
by the mountains called Solyma (Taktalu- 
Dagh\, which run from N. to S. along the E. 
coast of Lycia, far out into the sea, forming tho 
SE. promontory of Lycia, called Sacrum Pi 



504 



LYCIA 



LYCOPHRON 



(C. Khelidonia) ; the summit of this range is 
7800 feet high, and is covered with snow : the 
SW. and S. sides of this table-land are formed 
by the range called Massicytus (Aktar Dagh), 
which runs SE. from the E. side of the upper 
course of the river Xanthus : its summits are 
about 4000 feet high ; and its S. side descends 
towards the sea in a succession of terraces, ter- 
minated by bold cliffs. The mountain system 
of Lycia is completed by the Cragus, which fills 
up the space between the W. side of the Xan- 
thus and the Gulf of Glaucus, and forms the 
SW. promontory of Lycia : its summits are 
nearly 6000 feet high. The chief rivers are the 
Xanthus (Echen-Chai), which has its sources 
in the table-land S. of the Taurus, and flows 
from N. to S. between the Cragus and Massicy- 
tus, and the Limyrus, which flows from N. to 
S. between the Massicytus and the Solyma 
mountains. The valleys of these and the smaller 
rivers, and the terraces above the sea in the S. 
of the country were fertile in corn, wine, oil, 
and fruits, and the mountain slopes were 
clothed with splendid cedars, firs, and plane- 
trees : saffron also was one chief product of 
the land. The general geographical structure 
of the peninsula of Lycia, as connected 
with the rest of Asia Minor, bears no little 
resemblance to that of the peninsula of Asia 
Minor itself, as connected with the rest of 
Asia. According to the tradition preserved by 
Herodotus, the most ancient name of the country 
was Milyas (r) MiAvds), and the earliest inha- 
bitants (probably of the Syro- Arabian race) were 
called Milyae, and afterwards Solymi : subse- 
quently the Termilae, from Crete, settled in the 
country : and lastly, the Athenian Lycus, the 
son of Pandion, fled from his brother Aegeus 
to Lycia, and gave his name to the country. 
(Hdt. i. 173.) Homer, who gives Lycia a pro- 
minent place in the Iliad, represents its chief- 
tains, Glaucus and Sarpedon, as descended from 
the royal family of Argos (Aeolids) : he does 
not mention the name of Milyas ; and he speaks 
of the Solymi as a warlike race, inhabiting the 
mountains, against whom the Greek heroBelle- 
rophontes is sent to fight, by his relative the 
king of Lycia (II. vi. 171-184, x. 430, xii. 312 ; 
Od. v. 282.) Besides the legend of Bellerophon 
and the Chimaera, Lycia is the scene of another 
popular Greek story, that of the Harpies and 
the daughters of Pandarus ; and memorials of 
both are preserved on the Lycian monuments 
now in the British Museum. On the whole, it 
is clear that Lycia was colonised by an immi- 
grant Hellenic race (probably from Crete), which 
drove the native Solymi into the mountains 
further inland, and that its historical inhabit- 
ants were Greeks, though with a mixture of 
native blood. The earlier names were preserved 
in the district in the N. of the country called 
Milyas, and in the mountains called Solyma. 
The Lycians always kept the reputation they 
have in Homer, as brave warriors. They and 
the Cilicians were the only people W. of the 
Halys whom Croesus did not conquer, and they 
were the last who resisted the Persians. [Xan- 
thus.] Under the Persian empire they must 
have been a powerful maritime people, as they 
furnished fifty ships to the fleet of Xerxes. 
After the Macedonian conquest, Lycia formed 
part of the Syrian kingdom, from which it was 
taken by the Romans after their victory over 
Antiochus III. the Great, and given to the 
Rhodians. It was soon restored to independ- 
ence, and formed a flourishing federation of 
cities, each having its own republican form of 



j government, and the whole presided over by a 
chief magistrate, called AvKidpxws- There was 
a federal council, composed of deputies from the 
twenty-three cities of the federation, in which 
the six chief cities, Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, 
Olympus, Myra, and Tlos, had three votes each, 
certain lesser cities two each, and the rest one 
each : this assembly determined matters relat- 
ing to the general government of the country, 
and elected the Lyciarches, as well as the judges 
and the inferior magistrates. (Strab. pp. 664,, 
665.) Internal dissensions at length broke up 
this constitution, and the country was united 
by the emperor Claudius to the province of 
Pamphylia (Suet. Claud. 25 ; Dio Cass. lx. 17). 
It was separated from Pamphylia in 313 a.d., 
and governed by a praeses of its own. [See 
also Xanthus.] 
Lycius (Avkios). [Apollo.] 
Lycomedes (Au/co/iT)5?js). 1. A king of the 
Dolopians, in the island of Scyros, near Euboea. 
It was to his court that Achilles was sent dis- 
guised as a maiden by his mother Thetis, who 
was anxious to prevent his going to the Trojan 
war. Here Achilles became the father of Pyr- 
rhus or Neoptolemus by Deidamia, the daugh- 
ter of Lycomedes. Lycomedes treacherously 
killed Theseus by thrusting him down a rock. 
[Achilles; Theseus.] — 2. An Arcadian general, 
a native of Mantinea and one of the chief foun- 
ders of Megalopolis, b. c. 370. He afterwards 
showed jealousy of Thebes, and formed a sepa- 
rate alliance between Athens and Arcadia, in 
j 366. He was murdered in the same year on his 
return from Athens, by some Arcadian exiles. 
(Xen. Hell. vii. 1, 23 ; Diod. xv. 59.) 

Lycon(AuiceDj'). 1. An orator and demagogue 
at Athens, was one of the accusers of Socrates 
! and prepared the case against him. When the 
j Athenians repented of their condemnation of 
! Socrates, they put Meletus to death and 
banished Anytus and Lycon. [Socbates.] — 2. 
Of Troas, a Peripatetic philosopher, and the 
pupil of Straton, whom he succeeded as the head 
of the Peripatetic school, B. c. 272. He held that 
post for more than forty-four years, and died at 
the age of 74. He enjoyed the patronage of 
Attalus and Eumenes. He wrote on the boun- 
daries of good and evil (Cic. Fin. v. 5, 13). 

Lycophron (Avk6<ppwv). 1. Younger son of 
Periander, tyrant of Corinth, by his wife Melissa. 
For details see Periandeb. — 2. A citizen of 
Pherae, where he put down the government of 
the nobles and established a tyranny about B. c. 
405. He afterwards endeavoured to make him- 
self master of the whole of Thessaly, and in 
404 he defeated the Larissaeans and others of 
the Thessalians, who opposed him. (Xen. Hell. 
ii. 3, 4 ; Diod. xiv. 82.) — 3. A son, apparently, 
of Jason, and one of the brothers of Thebe, wife 
of Alexander, the tyrant of Pherae, in whose 
murder he took part together with his sister and 
his two brothers, Tisiphonus and Pitholaus, 359. 
On Alexander's death the power appears to have 
been wielded mainly by Tisiphonus, though 
Lycophron had an important share in the go- 
: vernment. Lycophron succeeded to the supreme 
\ power on the death of Tisiphonus, but in 352 
j he was obliged to surrender Pherae to Philip, 
i and withdraw from Thessaly. — 4. A grammarian 
| and poet, was a native of Chalcis in Euboea, 
I and lived at Alexandria, under Ptolemy Phil- 
adelphus (b. c. 285-247.), who entrusted to him 
the arrangement of the works of the comic 
I poets in the Alexandrian library. Lycophron 
himself wrote a work on Comedy. Ovid (Ibis, 
533) states that he was killed by an arrow. — 



LYCOPOLIS 

Lycophron wrote a number of tragedies ; but 
tbe only one of his poems which has come down 
to us is the Cassandra or Alexandra. This is 
a long iambic monologue of 1474 verses, in 
which Cassandra is made to prophesy the fall 
of Troy, the adventures of the Grecian and 
Trojan heroes, with other mythological and his- 
torical events, going back as early as the fables 
of Io and Europa, and ending with Alexander 
the Great. The work has no pretensions to 
poetical merit. It is simply a cumbrous store 
of traditional learning. Its obscurity obtained 
for its author the name 6 2kot6ii/6s. It is useful 
for mythological reference ; but for this purpose 
the Scholia of Isaac and John Tzetzes are far 
more valuable than the poem itself. Editions 
by Potter, Oxon. 1697, fol. ; Bachmann, Lips. 
1828 ; Kinkel, 1880. 

Lycopolis (rj Avkwv woKis : Siout, Eu.), a 
city of Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the 
Nile, between Hermopolis and Ptolemais, said 
to have derived its name from the circum- 
stance that an Aethiopian army was put to 
flight near it by a pack of wolves (Diod. ii. 88 ; 
Ael. B. A. x. 28). 

Lycorea (AvKdopeta. : AvKupevs, Avicwpios. 
Au«wp6i'T7)s), an ancient town at the foot of Mt. 
Lycorea (Liakura), which was the southern of 
the two peaks of Mt. Parnassus. [Parnassus.] 

lycons. [Cythebis.] 

Lycortas ( An/copras), of Megalopolis was the 
father of Polybius, the historian, and the close 
friend of Philopoemen, whose policy he always 
supported. He is first mentioned in B.C. 189, 
as one of the ambassadors sent to Rome ; and 
his name occurs for the last time in 168. (Justin, 
xxxii. 1.) 

Lycosura (AvtcSaovpa : Avxoaovpeis : Paleo- 
krambavos or Sidhirokastro near Stala), a 
town in the S. of Arcadia, and on the NW. 
slope of Mt. Lycaeus, and near the small river 
Plataniston, said by Pausanias to have been 
the most ancient town in Greece, and to have 
been founded by Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus 
(Pans. viii. 2, 4, 88). 

Lyctus (Awctos : Avktios), sometimes called 
LyttUS (Auttoj), a town in the E. of Crete, SE. 
of Cnossus, situated on a height of Mt. Argaeus, 
eighty stadia from the coast. Its harbour was 
called Chersonesus. It is mentioned in the 
Iliad (ii. 64, xvii. 611). It was generally con- 
sidered to be a Spartan colony, and its inhabi- 
tants were celebrated for their bravery (Arist. 
Pol. ii. 7). It was conquered and destroyed 
by the Cnbssians, but it was afterwards rebuilt 
(Poh iv. 53 ; Strab. p. 476). 

Lycurgns (AvKovpyos). 1. Son of Dryas, 
and king of the Edones in Thrace. He is 
famous for his persecution of Dionysus and 
his worship in Thrace. Homer relates that, 
in order to escape from Lycurgus, Dionysus 
leaped into the sea, where he was kindly re- 
ceived by Thetis ; and that ZeuB thereupon 
blinded the impious king, who died soon after- 
wards, hated by the immortal gods (II. vi. 
130). This story has received many additions 
from later poets. Some relate that DionysuB, on 
his expeditions, came to the kingdom of Ly- 
curgus, hut wos expelled by the impious king. 
Thereupon the god drove Lycurgus mad, in 
which condition he killed his son Dryas, and 
also hewed off one of his legs, supposing that he 
whs cutting down vines. rDioNYsus, pp. 293, 
294.] The country now produced no fruit ; and 
the oracle declaring that fertility should not be 
restored unless Lycurgus were killed, the 
Edonians carried him to Mount Pangaeus, 



LYCURGUS 



505 



where he was imprisoned in a cave (Soph. Ant. 
955 ; Apollod. iii. 5, 1). Afterwards he was torn 




Madness of Lycurgus. (Part of relief on a sarcophagus : 
Osterley, Denkm. ii. 87.) 

[Lycurgus is swinging his axe over his "wife, whom he is 
made to take for a vine. Two Furies with torches are 
driving him to madness, and a panther of Dionysus 
seems about to attack him.] 

to pieces by horses or by panthers (Hyg. Fab. 
132). — 2. King in Arcadia, son of Aleus and 
Neaera, brother of Cepheus and Auge, husband 
of Cleophile, Eurynome, or Antinoe, and father 
of Ancaeus, Epochus, Amphidamas, and Iasus. 
Lycurgus killed Arei'thous, who used to fight 
with a club. Lycurgus bequeathed this club to 
his slave Ereuthalion, his sons having died 
before him (II. vii. 142). — 3. Son of Pronax and 
brother of Amphithea. the wife of Adrastus 
(Paus. iii. 18, 12). He took part in tbe war of 
the Seven against Thebes, and fought with 
Amphiaraus. He is mentioned among those 
whom Asclepius called to life again after their 
death. — 4. King of Nemea, son of Pheres and 
Periclymene, brother of Admetus, husband 
of Eurydice or Amphithea, and father of 
Opheltes. 

Lycurgus (AvKovpyos). 1. The Spartan legis- 
lator. Of his history we have no certain infor- 
mation ; and there are such discrepancies 
respecting him in the ancient writers, that 
many modern critics have denied . his real 
existence altogether. There is no warrant 
for any such denial, though it is probable that 
the appropriate name given to his father is 
altogether fictitious (Aristotle, indeed, in Pol. 
iv. 11 = p. 1296, seems to place Lycurgus 
among the middle-class citizens), and that 
some of the institutions ascribed to him belong 
to a later date. The more generally received 
account about him was as follows. Lycurgus 
was the son of Eunomus, king of Sparta, and 
brother of Polydectes. The latter succeeded 
his father as king of Sparta, and afterwards 
died, leaving his queen with child. The ambi- 
tious woman proposed to Lycurgus to destroy 
her offspring if he would share the throne with 
her. He seemingly consented ; but when she 
had given birth to a son (Charilaus), he openly 
proclaimed him king ; and as next of kin, acted 
as his guardian. But to avoid all suspicion of 
ambitious designs, with which the opposite 
party charged him, Lycurgus left Sparta, and 
set out on his celebrated travels, which have 
been magnified to a, fabulous extent. He is 
Biiid to have visited Crete, and there to have 
studied the wise laws of Minos. Next he went 
to Ionia arid Egypt, and is reported to have 
penetrated into Libya, Iberia, and even India. 
In Ionia he is said to have met either with 
Homer himself, or at least with the Homeric 
poems, which he introduced into the mother 
country. The return of Lycurgus to Sparta 
was hitiled by all parties. Sparta was in a state 
of anarchy, and he was considered the mull 



506 



LYCUEGUS 



who alone could cure the diseases of the state. 
He undertook the task ; yet before he set to 
work, he strengthened himself with the autho- 
rity of the Delphic oracle, from which he is said 
to have obtained ordinances (rhetrae) on which 
he based his reforms, as follows : ' Found a 
temple to Zeus and Athene ; arrange the tribes 
and Obes to the number of 30 [i.e. 10 Obes in 
each of the three tribes — probably an older 
institution] ; appoint the Gerousia and Arch- 
agetae (= kings). Convoke assemblies of the 
people between Babyca and Cnacion, and there 
propose and enact laws by the will of the 
people.' The reform seems not to have been 
carried altogether peaceably. According to one 
legend Lycurgus lost an eye in a personal 
attack made upon him. The new division of 
the land among the citizens must have violated 
many existing interests. But all opposition 
was overborne, and the whole constitution, 
military and civil, was remodelled. After 
Lycurgus had obtained for his institutions an 
approving oracle of the national god of Delphi, 
he exacted a promise from the people not to 
make any alterations in his laws before his 
return. And now he left Sparta to finish his 
life in voluntary exile, in order that his country- 
men might be bound by their oath to preserve 
his constitution inviolate for ever. Where and 
how he died nobody could tell. He vanished 
from the earth like a god, leaving no traces 
behind but his spirit ; and he was honoured as 
a god at Sparta with a temple and yearly 
sacrifices down to the latest times. The date 
of Lycurgus is variously given, but it was 
probably a few years before 800 B.C. (Hdt. i. 
65 ; Plut. Lycurgus ; Strab. pp. 364, 482 ; 
Arist. Pol. v. 12 = p. 1316 ; [Xen.] Bep. Lac. x. 
8 ; cf. Thuc. i. 18.) — Lycurgus was regarded 
through all subsequent ages as the legislator of 
Sparta, and therefore almost all the Spartan 
institutions were ascribed to him as their 
author. We therefore propose to give here a 
sketch of the Spartan constitution, referring for 
details to the Diet, of Antiq. ; though we must 
not imagine that this constitution was entirely 
the work of Lycurgus. The Spartan constitu- 
tion was of a mixed nature : the monarchical 
principle was represented by the kings, the 
aristocracy by the senate, and the democratical 
element by the assembly of the people, and 
subsequently by their representatives, the 
ephors. The kings had originally to perform 
the common functions of the kings of the 
heroic age. They were high priests, judges, 
and leaders in war ; but in all of these depart- 
ments they were in course of time superseded 
more or less. As judges they retained only a 
particular branch of jurisdiction, that referring 
to the succession of property. As military 
commanders they were to some extent restricted 
and watched by commissioners sent by the 
senate ; the functions of high priest were cur- 
tailed leasj, perhaps because least obnoxious. 
In compensation for the loss of power, the 
kings enjoyed great honours, both during their 
life and after their death. The senate or 
(?e? - o?^smconsisted of 30 members, one from each 
Obe, all elected except the two kings, who were 
ex officio members, and represented each his own 
Obe. In their functions they replaced the old 
council of the nobles as a sort of privy council 
to the kings, but their power was greater, since 
the votes of the kings were of no greater weight 
than those of other senators ; they had the right 
of originating and discussing all measures 
before they could be submitted to the decision 



of the popular assembly ; they had, in conjunc- 
tion (later) with the ephors, to watch over the 
due observance of the laws and institutions ; 
and they were judges in all criminal cases.' 
without being bound by any written code. For 
all this they were not responsible, holding their 
office for life. — But with all these powers, the 
elders formed no real aristocracy. They were 
not chosen either for property qualification or 
for noble birth. The senate was open to the 
poorest citizen, who during sixty years had been 
obedient to the laws and zealous in the per- 
formance of his duties. — The mass of the 
people — that is, the Spartans of pure Doric 
descent — formed the sovereign power of the 
state. The popular assembly consisted of 
every Spartan of thirty years of age, and of un- 
blemished character; only those were excluded 
who had not the means of contributing their 
portion to the syssitia. They met at stated 
times, to decide on all important questions 
brought before them, after a previous discussion 
in the senate. They had no right of amend- 
ment, but only that of simple approval or rejec- 
tion, which was given in the rudest form 
possible, by shouting. The popular assembly, 
however, had neither frequent nor very im- 
portant occasions for directly exerting their 
sovereign power. Their chief activity consisted 
in delegating it ; hence arose the importance of 
the ephors, who were the representatives of the 
popular element of the constitution. The five 
ephors answer in many points to the Boman 
tribunes of the people. Their appointment is 
included by Herodotus among the institutions 
of Lycurgus, but it is probable that Aristotle is 
right in dating these later, from the reign of 
Theopompus. [Diet, of Ant. art. Ephori.] Their 
appointment was perhaps a concession to the 
people, at first as overseers of the markets and 
as magistrates who might check illegal oppres- 
sion by kings or great men. Subsequently they 
absorbed most of the power in the state. To 
Lycurgus was ascribed also a prohibition to use 
written laws or to have any coinage but iron : 
but these traditions must refer to later customs, 
since there were neither coins nor written 
laws in Greece as early as Lycurgus. — With 
reference to their subjects, the few Spartans 
formed a most decided aristocracy. On the 
conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, part 
of the ancient inhabitants of the country, under 
name of the Perioici, were allowed indeed to 
retain their personal liberty, but lost all civil 
rights, and were obliged to pay to the state a 
rent for the land that was left them. But a 
great part of the old inhabitants were reduced 
to a state of perfect slavery, different from that 
of the slaves of Athens and Borne, and more 
similar to the villa,nage of the feudal ages. 
These were called Helots. They were allotted, 
with patches of land, to individual members of 
the ruling class. They tilled the land, and paid 
a fixed rent to their masters, not, as the perioici, 
to the state. The Spartans formed, as it were, 
an army of invaders in an enemy's country, 
their city was a camp, and every man a soldier. 
At Sparta, the citizen only existed for the state ; 
he had no interest but the state's, and no 
property but what belonged to the state. It 
was a fundamental principle of the constitution 
that all citizens were entitled to the enjoyment 
of an equal portion of the common property. 
This was done in order to secure to the common- 
wealth a large number of citizens and soldiers 
free from labour for their sustenance, and able 
to devote their whole time to warlike exercises, 



LYCU9 



LYDIA 



507 



in order thus to keep up the ascendency of 
Sparta over her perioici and helots. The 
Spartans were to be warriors and nothing but 
warriors. Therefore, not only all mechanical 
labour was thought to degrade them ; not only 
was husbandry despised and neglected, and 
commerce prevented, or at least impeded, by 
prohibitive laws and by the use of iron money ; 
but also the nobler arts and sciences were so 
effectually stifled that Sparta is a blank in the 
history of the arts and literature of Greece. 
The state took care of a Spartan from his cradle 
to his grave, and superintended his education 
in the minutest points. This was not confined 
to his youth, but extended throughout his 
whole life. The syssitia, or, as they were called 
at Sparta, phiditia, the common meals, may be 
regarded as an educational institution ; for at 
these meals subjects of general interest were 
discussed and political questions debated. The 
youths and boys used to eat separately from 
the men, in their own divisions. — 2. A Lacedae- 
monian, who, though not of the royal blood, 
was chosen king, in B.C. 2-20, together with 
Agesipolis III., after the death of Cleomenes. 
It was not long before he deposed his colleague 
and made himself sole sovereign, though under 
the control of the Ephori. He carried on war 
against Philip V. of Macedon, and the Achaeans. 
He died about 210, and Machanidas then made 
himself tyrant. (Pol. iv. 2, 35, v. 21, 91 ; Paus. 
iv. 29.) — 3. An Attic orator, son of Lycophron, 
who belonged to the noble family of the Eteo- 
butadae, was born at Athens, about B.C. 396. 
He was a disciple of Plato and Isocrates. In 
public life he was a warm supporter of the 
policy of Demosthenes, and was universally 
admitted to be one of the most virtuous citizens 
and upright statesmen of his age. He was 
Tamias or manager of the public revenue from 
338 to 326, and discharged the duties of this 
office with such ability and integrity, that he 
raised the public revenue to the sum of 1200 
talents. One of his laws enacted that bronze 
statues should be erected to Aeschylus, So- 
phocles, and Euripides, and that copies of their 
tragedies should be preserved in the public 
archives. He died while holding the office of 
President of the Theatre of Dionysus, in 323. 
A fragment of an inscription containing an 
account of his administration of the finances is 
still extant. There were fifteen orations of Ly- 
curgus extant in antiquity; but only one has 
come down to us entire, the oration against Leo- 
crates, which was delivered in 332. Leocrates, 
who had fled from Athens after the battle of 
Cliaeronea, was indicted for treason. The ora- 
tion is printed in the various collections of the 
Attic orators. [Demosthenes.] 

Lycus (Awcor). 1. Son of Poseidon and Ce- 
laeno, who was transferred by his father to the 
Islands of the Blessed (Apollod. iii. 10, 1). By 
Alcyone, the sister of Celaeno, Poseidon begot 
Hyrieus, the father of the following. — 2. Son 
of Hyrieus and C'lonia, and brother of Nycteus. 
Polydorus, king of Thebes, married tin; daughter 
of Nycteus, by whom he had a son Labdacus ; 
and on his death he left the government of 
Thebes and the guardianship of Labdacus to his 
father-in-law. Nycteus afterwards fell in battle 
against Epopeus, king of Sicyon, who hud carried 
away his beautiful daughter Antiope. Lycus 
succeeded his brother in the government of 
Thebes, und in the guardianship of Labdacus. 
He surrendered the kingdom to Labdacus when 
the latter iiud grown up. On the death of Lib- 
riums soon afterwurds, Lycus again succeeded 



to the government of Thebes, and undertook 
the guardianship of Laius, the son of Labdacus 
(Paus. ii. 6, 2, ix. 5, 5). Lycus marched against 
Epopeus, whom he put to death (according to 
other accounts Epopeus fell in the war with 
Nycteus) , and he carried away Antiope to Thebes. 
She was treated with the greatest cruelty by 
Dirce, the wife of Lycus ; in revenge for whicli 
her sons by Zeus — Amphion and Zethus — after- 
wards put to death both Lycus and Dirce. 
[Amphion.] — 3. Son of No. 2, or, according to 
others, son of Poseidon, was also king of Thebes. 
In the absence of Heracles, Lycus attempted to 
kill his wife Megara and her children, but was 
afterwards put to death by Heracles (Eur. H. F. 
31; Hyg. Fab. 32). — 4. Son of Pandion, and 
brother of Aegeus, Nisus, and Pallas. He was 
expelled by Aegeus, and took refuge in the 
country of the Termilae, which was called Lycia 
after him. He was honoured at Athens as a 
hero, and Pausanias asserts that the Lyceum 
derived its name from him. (It is more prob- 
ably connected with Apollo Lyceus.) He is said 
to have introduced the Eleusinian mysteries 
into Andania in Messenia. He is sometimes 
also described as an ancient prophet, and the 
family of the Lycomedae, at Athens, traced 
their name and origin from him. (Hdt. i. 173, 
vii. 92 ; Paus. i. 19, 4, iv. 1, 2, 20, x. 12 ; Aristoph. 
Vesp. 408.) — 5. Son of Dascylus, and king of 
the Mariandynians, who received Heracles and 
the Argonauts with hospitality (Ap. Rh. ii. 139). 
— 6. Of Rhegium, the father, real or adoptive, 
of the poet Lycophron, was a historical writer 
in the time of Demetrius Phalereus. 

Lycus (Avkos), the name of several rivers 
which are said to be so called from the impetuo- 
sity of their current. 1. (Kilij), a little river 
of Bithynia, falling into the sea S. of Heraclea 
Pontica (Xen. An. vi. 2, 3). — 2. (Germeneli- 
Chai), a considerable river of Pontus, rising in 
the mountains on the N. of Armenia Minor, and 
flowing W. into the Iris at Eupatoria (Strab. 
pp. 529, 547). — 3. (Choruk-Su), a considerable 
river of Phrygia, flowing from E. to W. past 
Colossae and Laodicea into the Maeander (Hdt. 
vii. 30; Strab. p. 578). — 4. (Nahr-eUKelb), a 
river of Phoenicia, falling into the sea N. of 
Berytus. — 5. (Great Zab or Ulu-Su), a river of 
Assyria, rising in the mountains on the S. of 
Armenia, and flowing SW. into the Tigris, just 
below Larissa (Nimroud). The same as the 
Zabatus of Xenopfjon. (Curt. iv. 9 ; Xen. An. ii. 
i 5, L) 

Lydda (to Au55a, fi AvSSri : Lud), a town of 
Palestine, SE.of Joppa, and KW. of Jerusalem, 
at the junction of several roads which leud from 
the sea-coast, was destroyed by the Romans in 
the Jewish war, but soon after rebuilt, and 
called Diospolis (Jos. B. J. ii. 19, 8, iii. 4, 8). 

Lydia (AuSi'o : Au$6s, Lydus), a district of 
Asia Minor, in the middle of the W. side of the 
peninsulu, between Mysia on the N. and Curia 
! on the S., and between Phrygia on the E. and 
' the Aegaean Sea on the W. The name had a 
widely-extended meaning when applied to the 
old Lydian kingdom; but of Lydia strictly so 
called the N. boundary, towards Mysia, was the 
range of mountains which form the N. margin 
of the valley of the Hermus, called Sardene, a 
SW. branch of the Phrygian Olympus : the E. 

boundary towards Phrygia was an imaginary 
I line : and the S. boundary towards Curia was 
i the river Maeander, or, according to some autho- 
: rities, the range of mountains which, under the 
1 luime of Messogis (Kastaim Dagh) forms the N. 
1 margin of the valley of the Maeander, auri is a 



508 



LYDIA 



LYGDAMIS 



N¥. prolongation of the Taurus. From the F.. 
part of this range, in the SE. corner of Lydia, 
another branches off to the NW., and runs to 
the W. far out into the Aegaean Sea, where it 
forms the peninsula opposite to the island of 
Chios. This chain, which is called Tmolus 
(Kisilja Musa Dagh), divides Lydia into two 
unequal valleys ; of which the S.and smaller is 
watered by the river Caysteb, and the N. forms 
the great plain of the Hermus : these valleys 
are very beautiful and fertile, especially that of 
the Hermus. The E. part of Lydia, and the 
adjacent portion of Phrygia, about the upper 
course of the Hermus and its tributaries, is an 
elevated plain, showing traces of volcanic action, 
and hence called Catacecaumene (KaraKeKav- 
fiivrj). In early times the country had another 
name, Maeoma (Vlnoviv, Maiopla), by which 
alone it is known to Homer (II. ii. 865, v. 43, x. 
431) ; and this name was afterwards applied 
specifically to the E. and S. part of Lydia,. and 
then, in contradistinction to it, the name Lydia 
was used for the NW. part (Strab. pp. 620, 625, 
678, 680). It is a probable suggestion that the 
original Lydia of the lower Hermus was con- 
quered by the Maeonians, a people of Phrygian 
origin, before the Homeric period, and that when 
Gyges established a national Lydian kingdom 
he restored the old name to the whole country. 
In the mythical legends the common name of 
the people and country, Lydi and Lydia, is 
derived from Lydus, the son of Atys, the first 
king. The Lydians appear to have been a race 
closely connected with the Carians and the 
Mysians, with whom they observed a common 
worship in the temple of Zeus Carius at Mylasa : 
they also practised the worship of Cybele, and 
other Phrygian customs. Some modern writers 
believe them to have been a people of Semitic 
origin, and find in this an explanation of the 
name, which is Oriental, and of some charac- 
teristics in their customs and religion. This 
would account for the tradition in Hdt. iii. 7 
which derives one of the Lydian dynasties from 
Ninus. Amidst the uncertainties of the early 
legends, it is clear that Lydia was a very early 
seat of Asiatic civilisation, and that it exerted 
a very important influence on the Greeks. The 
Lydian monarchy, which was founded at Sardis, 
before the time of authentic history, grew up 
into an empire, under which the many different 
tribes of Asia Minor W. of the river Halys 
were for the first time united. Tradition men- 
tioned three dynasties of kings : the Atyiidae, 
which ended (according to the computations 
of chronologers) about B. c. 1221 ; the Hera- 
clidae, which reigned 505 years, down to 716 ; 
and the Mermnadae, 160 years, down to 556. 
Only the last dynasty can be safely regarded as 
historical, and the fabulous element has a large 
place in the details of their history : their 
names and computed dates were : — (1) Gyges, 
b. c. 716-678 ; (2) Ardys, 678-629 ; (3) Sadyat- 
tes, 629-617 ; (4) Alyattes, 617-560 ; (5) Croe- 
sus, 560 (or earlier)-546 ; under whose names 
an account is given of the rise of the Lydian 
empire in Asia Minor, and of its overthrow by 
the Persians under Cyrus. Under these kings 
the Lydians appear to have been a highly 
civilised, industrious, and wealthy people, prac- 
tising agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, 
and acquainted with various arts ; and exercis- 
ing, through their intercourse with the Greeks 
of Ionia, an important influence on the progress 
of Greek civilisation. Among the inventions, 
or improvements, which the Greeks are said to 
have derived from them, were the weaving and 



dyeing of fine fabrics (II. iv. 141 ; Claud, de 
Bapt. Pros. i. 270) ; various processes of metal- 
lurgy ; the use of gold and silver money, which 
the Lydians are said first to have coined, the 
former from the gold found on Tmolus and from 
the golden sands of the Pactolus (Hdt. i. 94) ; and 
various metrical and musical improvements, es- 
pecially the scale or mode of music called the 
Lydian, and the form of the lyre called the maga- 
dis. (Diet, of Antiq. art. Musica.) The Lydians 
had also public games similar to those of the 
Greeks. Their high civilisation, however, was 
combined with a lax morality, and, after the Per- 
sian conquest, when they were forbidden by 
Cyrus to carry arms, they sank gradually into a 
state of effeminate luxuriousness, and their 
very name and language had almost entirely 
disappeared by the commencement of our era. 
Under the Persians, Lydia and Mysia formed the 
second satrapy : after the Macedonian conquest, 
Lydia belonged to the kings of Syria, and 
(after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the 
Romans) to those of Pergamum, and so passed, 
by the bequest of Attalus III., to the Romans, 
under whom it formed part of the province of 
Asia. — On the tradition that Etruria was colo- 
nised by the Lydians, see Etruria. Hence 
the Roman poets use Lydian as equivalent to 
Etruscan (Verg. Aen. ii. 781, ix. 11). 

Lydiades (AvdidSws), a citizen of Megalopolis, 
who, though of an obscure family raised himself 
to the sovereignty of his native city, about B. c. 
244. In 234 he voluntarily abdicated the sove- 
reignty, and permitted Megalopolis to join the 
Achaean League as a free state. He was one 
of the noblest characters in the later Greek his- 
tory. He was elected several times general of 
the Achaean League, and became a formidable 
rival to Aratus. He fell in battle against Cleo- 
menes, 226. (Pol. ii. 44, 51 ; Plut. Arat. 30, 35, 
37, Gleom. 6 ; Paus. viii. 27.) 

Lydias or Ludias (AvSlas, Ion. AuSi'rjf, Aov- 
S'tas : Karastnak or Mavronero), a river in Ma- 
cedonia, rises in Eordaea, passes Edessa, and 
after flowing through the lake on which Pella is 
situated, falls into the Axius, a short distance 
from the Thermaic gulf. In the upper part of 
its course it is called the Eordaean river ('Eop- 
SaT/cbs nora/jibs) by Arrian. (Eur. Bacch. 565; 
Strab. p. 330.) Herodotus (vii. 127) by mistake 
makes the Lydias unite with the Haliacmon, 
the latter of which is W. of the former. 

Lydus (AvSos), son of Atys and Callithea, and 
brother of Tyrrhenus, the mythical ancestor of 
the Lydians (Hdt. i. 7 ; Dionys. i. 27). 

Lydus, Joannes Laurentius, was born at 
Philadelphia, in Lydia (whence he is called 
Lydus or the Lydian), in a.d. 490. He held 
various public offices, and lived to an advanced 
age. He wrote : 1. Ilepl iir\vosv ffvyypacpr], De 
Mensibus Liber, of which there are two epi- 
tomae, or summaries, and a fragment extant. 
2. Uep\ apx&v «■ i". K. De Magistratibus Bei- 
publicae Bonianae. 3. lUpl Stoa-q/xeicov, De 
Ostentis (ed. Wachsmuth, 1863). The work De 
Mensibus is a historical commentary on the 
Roman calendar, with an account of the various 
festivals, derived from a great number of 
authorities, most of which have perished. • Of 
the two summaries of this curious work, the 
larger one is by an unknown hand, the shorter 
one by Maximus Planudes. The work De 
Magistratibus was thought to have perished, 
but was discovered by Villoison in the suburbs 
of Constantinople, in 1785. The best edition of 
the complete works is by Bekker, Bonn, 1837. 
Lygdamis (AvySa/Ms). 1. Of Naxos, a dis* 



LYGII 



LYSAXDER 



509 



tinguished leader of the popular party of the 
island in the struggle with the oligarchy. He 
conquered the latter, and obtained thereby the 
chief power in the state. He assisted Pisistratus 
in his third return to Athens ; but during his 
absence his enemies seem to have got the upper 
hand again ; for Pisistratus afterwards subdued 
the island, and made Lygdamis tyrant of it, 
about B.C. 540. In 532 he assisted Polycrates 
in obtaining the tyranny of Samos. (Hdt. i. 61, 
64 : Ar. Pol. v. 5 ; 'A0. iroX. 15.)— 2. Father of 
Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus, the con- 
temporary of Xerxes. — 3. Tyrant of Halicar- 
nassus, the son of Pisindelis, and the grandson 
of Artemisia. Herodotus is said to have taken 
an active part in delivering his native city from 
the tyranny of this Lygdamis. 

Lygli or Ligii, an important people in Ger- 
many, between the Viadus (Oder) and the Vis- 
tula, in the modern Silesia and Posen, were 
bounded by the Burgundiones on the X., the 
Goths on the E., the Bastarnae and Osi on the 
W., and the Marsingi, Silingae, and Semnones 
on the S. They were divided into several tribes, 
the chief of which were the Manimi, Duni, 
Elysii, Burii, Arii, Xaharvali, and Helveconae. 
They first appear in history as members of the 
great Marcomannic league formed by Marobo- 
duus in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. 
In the third century some of the Lygii migrated 
with the Burgundians westwards, and settled in 
the country bordering on the Rhine. (Tac. 
Germ. 43, Ann. xii. 29 ; Strab. p. 290 ; Dio 
Cass, lxvii. 5.) 

Lyncestis (AvfKTimis), a district in the SW. 
of Macedonia, N. of the river Erigon, and upon 
the frontiers of Illyria. Its inhabitants, the 
Lyncestae, were Illyrians, and were originally 
an independent people, who were governed by 
their own princes, said to be descended from 
the family of the Bacchiadae. The Lyncestae 
appear to have become subject to Macedonia [ 
by a marriage between the royal families of the 
two countries. The ancient capital of the 
country was LynCUS (j) Avjkos), though Hera- 
clea at a later time became the chief town in 
the district. (Thuc. ii. 99, iv. 83, 124 ; Strab. 1 
pp. 323, 326.) Ovid speaks of a river near 
LyncUB, the waters of which were said to be as 
intoxicating as wine (Ov. Met. xv. 329). 

Lynceus (Auyicevs). 1. One of the 50 sons of 
Aegyptus, whose life was saved by his wife 
Hypermnestra, when all his other brothers 
were murdered by the daughters of Danaus on 
their wedding night. [Aegyptus.] A rite at 
Argos was derived from this story (or the story 
from the rite), a torch procession, said to com- 
memorate the fact that Lynceus, when he had 
escaped safely to Lyrcea, gave a signal to 
Hypermnestra of his arrival, by waving a 
torch (Paus. ii. 25, 4). Danaus kept Hyper- 
mnestra in strict confinement, but was after- 
wards prevailed upon to give her to Lynceus, 
who succeeded him on the throne of Argos. 
According to a different legend, Lynceus Blew 
Danaus and all the sisters of Hypermnestra, 
in revenge for his brothers (Paus. ii. 16, 1 ; 
Apollod. ii. 1, 5; Ov. Her. 14). Lynceus was 
succeeded as king of Argos by his son Ahas. — 
2. Son of Aphareus and Arene, and brother of 
Idas, was one of the Argonauts, and famous for 
his keen sight. He is ulso mentioned among 
the Calydonian hunters, and was slain by Pollux. 
(Apollod. i. 8, 2; Ap. Rh. i. 151 ; I'iimI. .\V;». x. 
61 ; Hor. Sat. i. 2, 90; Ep. i. 1, 28 ; Idas.)— 3. 
Of Samos, the disciple of Theophrastus, and 
brother of the historian Duris, was u content- 



I porary of Menander, and his rival in comic 
I poetry (Athen. viii. p. 237 ; Plut. Dem. 27 ; Suid. 
s.v.). 

Lyncus, king of Scythia, or, according to 
others, of Sicily, endeavoured to murder Tri- 
ptolemus, who came to him with the gifts of 
Ceres, but metamorphosed by the goddess into 
a lynx (Ov. Met. v. 650 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 327). 

Lyrcea or Lyrceum (Avpntia, Avpiceiov), a 
small town in Argolis, situated on a mountain of 
the same name (Strab. p. 271 ; Paus. ii. 25, 4). 

LyraessuS (AvpvT)cr aos), a town in the interior 
of Mysia mentioned by Homer : destroyed be- 
fore the time of Strabo (II. ii. 690, xix. 60, xx. 92 ; 
Aesch. Pers. 324; Strab. p. 612). 

Lysander (Av<rav$pos). 1. A Spartan, was of 
servile origin, or at least the offspring of a mar- 
riage between a freeman and a woman of inferior 
condition. (Ael. V.H. xii. 43; Athen. p. 271.) 
He obtained the citizenship, and became one of 
the most distinguished of the Spartan generals 
and diplomatists. In B.C. 407 he was appointed 
navarchus, and succeeded Cratesippidas in the 
command of the fleet off the coasts of Asia 
Minor. He fixed his headquarters at Ephesus, 
and soon obtained great influence, not only with 
the Greek cities, but also with Cyrus, who 
supplied him with large sums of money to pay 
his sailors. Xext year, 406, he was succeeded 
by Callicratidas. In one year the reputation 
and influence of Lysander had become so great 
that Cyrus and the Spartan allies in Asia 
requested the Lacedaemonians to appoint Ly- 
sander again to the command of the fleet. The 
Lacedaemonian law, however, did not allow the 
office of navarchus to be held twice by the 
same person ; and, accordingly, Aracus was sent 
out in 405, as the nominal commander-in-chief, 
while Lysander, virtually invested with the 
supreme direction of affairs, had the title of 
vice-admiral (ewiaroKevs). In this year he 
brought the Peloponnesian war to a conclusion, 
by the defeat and capture of the Athenian fleet 
off Aegospotami. Only eight Athenian ships 
made their escape, under the command of Conon. 
He afterwards sailed to Athens, and in the 
spring of 404 the city capitulated ; the long 
walls and the fortifications of the Piraeus were 
destroyed, and an oligarchical form of govern- 
ment was established, known by the name of 
' The Thirty.' Lysander was now by far the most 
powerful man in Greece, and he displayed more 
than the usual pride and haughtiness which dis- 
tinguished the Spartan commanders in foreign 
countries. He was passionately fond of praise, 
and took care that his exploits should be cele- 
brated by the most illustrious poets of his time. 
He always kept the poet Choerilus in his 
retinue ; and his praises were also sung by 
Antilochus, Antimachus of Colophon, and 
Niceratus of Heraclea. He was the first of the 
Greeks to whom Greek cities erected altars as 
to a god. offered sacrifices, and celebrated festi- 
vals. (Plut. Lys. 18; Paus. vi. 3, 14; Athen. p. 
69U.) His power and ambition caused tin- 
Spartan government uneasiness, and accord- 
ingly the Ephors recalled him from Asia Minor, 
to which ho had again repaired, and for some 
years kept him without any public employment. 
On the death of Agis II. in 397, he secured the 
succession for Agesilaus, the brother of Agis, 
in opposition to Leotychides, the reputed boh 
of the latter. He did not receive from Agesilaus 
the gratitude he had expected. He was one of 
the members of the council, 30 in number, 
which was appointed to accompany the new 
king in his expedition into Asia in 396. Agooi- 



510 



LYSANDRA 



laus purposely thwarted all his designs, and 
refused all the favours which he asked. On his 
return to Sparta, Lysander resolved to bring 
about the change he had long meditated in the 
Spartan constitution, by abolishing hereditary 
royalty, and making the throne elective. He is 
said to have attempted to obtain the sanction 
of the oracles of Delphi, Dodona, and Zeus Am- 
nion, but without success. He does not seem 
to have ventured upon any overt act, and his 
enterprise was cut short by his death in the 
following year. On the breaking out of the 
Boeotian war in 395, Lysander was placed at 
the head of one army, and the king Pausanias 
at the head of another. Lysander marched 
against Haliartus, and perished in battle under 
the walls, 395. (Plut. Lysander ; Xen. Hell, ii., 
iii.). — 2. A Spartan ephor banished by the 
Lacedaemonians (Cic. Off. ii. 23, 80). 

Lysandra (AvcravSpa), daughter of Ptolemy 
Soter and Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater. 
She was married first to Alexander, the son of 
Cassander, king of Macedonia, and after his 
death to Agathocles, the son of Lysimachus. 
After the murder of her second husband, B.C. 
284 [Agathocles, No. 3], she fled to Asia, and 
besought assistance from Seleucus. The latter 
in consequence marched against Lysimachus, 
who was defeated and slain in battle 281. 
(Paus. i. 9, 10 ; Plut. Demetr. 31.) 

Lysanias (Avaavlas). 1. Tetrarch of Abilene, 
was put to death by Antony, to gratify Cleopatra, 
B.C. 36 (Dio Cass. xlix. 32). — 2. Apparently a 
descendant of the last, tetrarch of Abilene at 
the time when Jesus Christ entered upon his 
ministry (Luke, iii. 1). 

Lyslas (Autn'as), an Attic orator, was born at 
Athens about B.C. 459. (This is the date in 
Dionys. Lys. 12, and [Plut.] Vit. Lys, ; but it 
is conjectural ; and some writers put the birth 
of Lysias as late as 444.) He was the son of 
Cephalus, who was a native of Syracuse, and 
had taken up his abode at Athens, on the 
invitation of Pericles. At the age of 15, Lysias 
and his brothers joined the Athenians who went 
as colonists to Thurii in Italy, 444, or followed 
them later. He there completed his education 
under the instruction of two Syracusans, Tisias 
and Nicias. He afterwards enjoyed great 
esteem among the Thurians, and seems to have 
taken part in the administration of the city. 
After the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily, he 
was expelled by the Spartan party from Thurii, 
as a partisan of the Athenians. He now 
returned to Athens, 412. During the rule of 
the Thirty (404) he was looked upon as an 
enemy of the government, his large property 
was confiscated, and he was thrown into prison ; 
but he escaped, and took refuge at Megara (cf. 
Lys. in Eratosth. § 16). He joined Thrasybulus 
and the exiles, and in order to render them 
effectual assistance he sacrificed all that re- 
mained of his fortune. He gave the patriots 
2000 drachmas and 200 shields, and engaged a 
band of 300 mercenaries. Thrasybulus pro- 
cured him the Athenian franchise, which he had 
not possessed hitherto, since he was the son of 
a foreigner : but he was afterwards deprived of 
this right because it had been conferred without 
a probouleuma. Henceforth he lived at Athens 
as an isoteles, occupying himself, as it appears, 
solely with writing judicial speeches for others, 
and died in 378, at the age of 80. — Lysias wrote 
a great number of orations ; and among those 
which were current under his name the ancient 
critics reckoned 230 as genuine. Of these 34 
only are extant ; and of these three are only 



LYSICRATES 
fragments : of the remaining 31 those c. 
Andoc, Alcib. 2, pro Polystr,, pro Milite, and 
the Funeral Oration are probably spurious. 
Most of these orations were composed after his 
return from Thurii to Athens. The only one 
which he delivered himself is that against 
Eratosthenes, 403. The language of Lysias is 
perfectly pure, and may be regarded as one of 
the best specimens of the Attic idiom. All the 
ancient writers agreed that his orations were 
distinguished by grace and elegance, in what 
was called ' the plain style,' i.e. that which useF 
the language of ordinary life and avoids grandi- 
loquence. Its style is clear and lucid ; and his 
delineations of character striking and true to 
life. The orations of Lysias are contained'in 
the collections of the Attic orators. [Demo- 
sthenes.] Separate edition by Scheibe, 1886. 

Lysicrates, Choeagic Monument of, vul- 
garly called the ' Lantern of Demosthenes,' was 
dedicated by Lysicrates in B c. 335-34, as we 
learn from an inscription on the architrave, 
which records 
that ' Lysicrates, 
son o"f Lysithei- 
des of Cicynna, 
was choragus, 
when the boys 
of the tribe of 
Acamantis con- 
quered, when 
Theon played the 
flute, when Lysi- 
ades wrote the 
piece, and when 
Evaenetus was 
archon.' It was 
the practice of the 
victorious chor- 
agi to dedicate to 
Dionysus the tri- 
pods which they 
had gained in the 
contests in the 
theatre. Some 
of these tripods 
were placed upon 
small temples, 
which were erec- 
ted either in the 
precincts of the 
theatre, or in a 
street which ran 
along the eastern side of the Acropolis, from 
the Prytaneium to the Lenaeum, or sacred 
enclosure of Dionysus near the theatre, and 
which was hence called the ' Street of Tripods.' 
(Paus. i. 20, § X.) Of these temples only two 
now remain : the monument of Thrasyllus, and 
the monument of Lysicrates, which stood in 
the street itself. It appears that this street 
was formed entirely by a series of such monu- 
ments, and that from the inscriptions engraved 
on the architraves the dramatic chronicles or 
didascaliae were mainly compiled. The monu- 
ment of Lysicrates is of the Corinthian order. 
It is a small circular building on a square base- 
ment, of white marble, and covered by a cupola, 
supported by six Corinthian columns. Its 
whole height was 34 feet, of which the square 
basis was 14 feet (not shown in the cut), the 
body of the building to the summit of the 
columns 12 feet, and the entablature, together 
with the cupola and apex, 8 feet. There was 
no access to the interior, which was only six 
feet in diameter. The frieze, of which there 
are casts in the British Museum, represents the 




Choragic Monument ot Lysicrates, 
restored. 



LYSIMACHIA 



LYSIPPUS 



511 



destruction of the Tyrrhenian pirates by Dio- 
nysus and his attendants. 

LysimacMa or -ea (Aucrifj.ax'ia, Avaifxaxeia : 
Avaifiaxevs)- 1. (Eksemil), an important town 
on the NE. of the gulf of Melas, and on the 
isthmus connecting the Thracian Chersonesus 
with the mainland, was founded B. c. 309 by 
Lysimachus, who removed to his new city the 
greater part of the inhabitants of the neigh- 
bouring town of Cardia (Strab. pp. 134, 331 ; 
Diod. x. 29; Pol. v. 34). It was subsequently 
destroyed by the Thracians, but was restored 
by Antiochus the Great (Liv. xxxiii. 38). Under 
the Romans it greatly declined ; but Justinian 
built a strong fortress on the spot, which he 
called Hexamilium f'E^o/ii'Aioi'), doubtless from 
the width of the isthmus, under which name it 
is mentioned in the middle ages. — 2. A town in 
the SW. of Aetolia, near Pleuron, situated on a 
lake of the same name, which was more an- 
ciently called Hydra (Strab. p. 460). 

Lysimachus (Au(nuaxos),kingof Thrace, was 
a Macedonian by birth, and one of Alexander's 
generals, but of mean origin, his father Agatho- 
cles having been originally a Penest or serf in 
Sicily (Arrian, Anab. vi. 28). He was early 
distinguished for his undaunted courage, as well 
as for his gTeat activity and strength of body. 
We are told by Q. Curtius that Lysimachus, 
when hunting in Syria, had killed a lion of im- 
mense size single-handed ; and this circum- 
i tance is regarded by that writer as the origin of a 
fable gravely related by many authors, that on 
account of some offence, Lysimachus had been 
shut up by order of Alexander in the same den 
with a lion, but, though unarmed, had succeeded 
in destroying the animal, and was pardoned by 




Coin of LyBJmacho.8. King of Thrace, ob. B.C. 261. 
Obv.. head of Alexander, with horn of Ammon [see p. Sty ; 
rev., Athene holding Victory ; BajiaEdi ayximaXOY. 

the king in consideration of his courage fCurt. 
viii. 1, 15 ; Plut. Demetr. 27; Paus. i 9, 5 ; Sen. 
de It. iii. 17). In the division of the provinces, 
after the death of Alexander (b. c. 323), Thrace 
and the neighbouring countries as far as the 
Danube were assigned to Lysimachus. For some 
years he was actively engaged in war with the 
warlike barbarians that bordered his province 
on the N. At length, in 315, he joined the 
league which Ptolemy, Seleucus and Cassander 
had formed against Antigonus ; but he did not 
take any active part in the war for some time. 
In 30G he took the title of king, when it was 
assumed by Antigonus, Ptoiemy, Seleucus, and 
Cassander. In 302 Lysimachus crossed over 
into Asia Minor to oppose Antigonus, while 
Seleucus also advanced against the latter from 
the East. In 301 Lysimachus and Seleucus 
effected a junction, and gained a decisive vic- 
tory at Ipsus over Antigonus and his son Deme- 
trius i Diod. xx. 100). Antigonus fell on the 
field, and Demetrius became a fugitive. The 
conquerors divided between them the dominions 
of the vanquished; and LysimachiiB obtained for 
hi-. share all that part of Asia Minor extending 
from the Hellespont and the Aegaean to (he 
heart of l'hrygia. In 291 Lysimachus crossed 
the Danube .uid penetrated into the heart of 



the country of the Getae ; but he was reduced 
to the greatest distress by want of provisions, 
and was ultimately compelled to surrender with 
his whole army. Dromichaetes, king of the 
Getae, treated him with the utmost generosity, 
and restored him to liberty. In 288 Lysimachus 
united with Ptolemy. Seleucus and Pyrrhus in 
a common league against Demetrius, who had 
for some years been in possession of Macedonia, 
and was now preparing to march into Asia. 
Next year, 287, Lysimachus and Pyrrhus in- 
vaded Macedonia. Demetrius was abandoned 
by his own troops, and was compelled to seek 
safety in flight. Pyrrhus for a time obtained 
possession of the Macedonian throne, but he 
was expelled by Lysimachus in 286. Lysima- 

; chus was now in possession of all the dominions 
in Europe that had formed part of the Mace- 
donian monarchy, as well as of the greater part 
of Asia Minor. He remained in undisturbed 
possession of these vast dominions till shortly 
before his death. His downfall was occasioned 
by a dark domestic tragedy. His wife Arsinoe, 
daughter of Ptolemy Soter, had long hated her 
stepson Agathocles, and at length, by false ac- 
cusations, induced Lysimachus to put his son 
to death (Just. xvii. 1). This bloody deed 
alienated the minds of his subjects, and many 
cities of Asia broke out into open revolt. Ly- 
sandra, die widow of Agathocles, fled with her 
children to the court of Seleucus, who forthwith 
invaded the dominions of Lysimachus. The 
two monarchs met in the plain of Corus (Coru- 
pedion), and Lysimachus fell in the battle that 
ensued, B. c. 261. (Paus. i. 10 ; Appian, Syr. 62.) 
He was in his eightieth year at the time of his 
death. — Lysimachus founded Lysimachia, on 
the Hellespont, and 
also enlarged and re- 

j built many other cities. 
Lysimelia (jj Avai/xt- 

\ Aeia Ai'/uf?;), a marsh 
near Syracuse in Sicily, 
probably the same as 
the marsh anciently 
called Syraco from 
which the town of Sy- 
racuse is said to have 
derived its name (Time, 
viii. 53 ; Theocr. xvi. 
84 ; Syracusae.) 

Lysinoe {Av<tiv6ti : 
Agelan ?), a town in 
Pisidia, S. of the lake 
Ascania (Liv. xxxviii. 
15). 

Lysippus ( Au<ri7T7ros), 
of Sicyon, one of the 
greatest Greek sculp- 
tors, was a contempo- 
rary of Alexander the 
Great. Originally a 
simple w< rkman in 
bronze (faber acra- 
rius), he rose to the 
eminence which he 
afterwards obtained by 
the direct study of na- 
ture (Plin. xxxiv. CI). 
He rejected many of 
the old conventional 
rules which the early 
urtistH followed. He followed the school of 
Polyclitus, but changed the canons of it in 
many points, especially in making the head 
smaller and the body more slender. He aimed 
at idealising human beauty rather than that 




Marble copy of tho 
ApoxyomenuK of LygippUB. 
(Vutlcan.) 



512 



LYSIS 



MACEDONIA 



of the gods, and at representing the grace and 
mobility of the male figure. He made statues 
of gods, it is true, and among them of Zeus; 
but even in this field of art his favourite subject 
was the human hero Heracles. The works of 
Lysippus are said to have amounted to the 
enormous number of 1500. They were almost 
all, if not all, in bronze ; in consequence of 
which none of them are extant. He made sta- 
tues of Alexander at all periods of life, and in 
many different positions, which exercised con- 
siderable influence on succeeding art. Alexan- 
der's edict is well known, that no one should 
paint him but Apelles, and no one make his 
statue but Lysippus. (Plin. vii. 125 ; Hor. Ep. 
ii. 1, 240 ; Cic. Fain. v. 12.) 

Lysis (Averts), an eminent Pythagorean phi- 
losopher, who, driven out of Italy in the perse- 
cution of his sect, betook himself to Thebes, 
and became the teacher of Epaminondas, by 
whom he was held in the highest esteem (Paus. 
ix. 13 ; Cic. de Or. iii. 34, 139, Off. i. 44, 155). 

Lysis, a river of Caria, only mentioned by 
Livy (xxxviii. 15). 

Lysistratus, of Sicyon, the brother of Ly- 
sippus, was a sculptor, and devoted himself to the 
making of portraits. He was the first who took 
a cast of the human face in gypsum; and from 
this mould he produced copies by pouring into 
it melted wax (Plin. xxxv. 153). 

Lystra (i) Avtrrpa, ra Avarpa: Khatyn-serai, 
Ru.), a city of Lycaonia, on the confines of 
Isauria (Act. Apost. xiv. 8, 21 ; Plin. v. 147). 



M. 

Macae (Maxai). 1. A people on the E. coast 
of Arabia Felix, probably about Muscat (Ptol. 
vi. 7, 14). — 2. An inland people of Libya, in the 
Regio Syrtica — that is, the part of N. Africa be- 
tween the Syrtes (Hdt. iv. 175). 

Macalla, a town on the E. coast of Bruttium, 
which was said to possess the tomb and a sanc- 
tuary of Philoctetes (Lycophr. Alex. 927). 

Macar or Macareus (Ma/cap or Mtacapevs). 1. 
Son of Helios (or Crinacus) and Rhodos, fled 
from Rhodes to Lesbos after the murder of 
Tenages (II. xxiv. 544; Diod. v. 56).— 2. Son of 
Aeolus, who committed incest with his sister 
Canace. [Canace.] — 3. Son of Jason and 
Medea, also called Mermerus or Mormorus (Hyg. 
Fab. 239).— 4. Of Lesbos, father of Issa, hence 
called Macareis (Diod. v. 81 ; Ov. Met. vi. 
124). 

Macaria (Mcucapla), daughter of Heracles and 
Deianira (Paus. i. 32 ; Eur. Heracl.). 

Maccabaei (Mcuacafiouoi), the descendants of 
the family of the heroic Judas Maccabi or Mae- 
cabaeus, who successfully resisted the tyranny 
of Antiochus in Judaea. [For their history see 
Diet, of the Bible.'] 

Macedonia (MaxeSof la : MatceSSves), a country 
in Europe, said to have derived its name from 
Macednus, or Macedon, a son of Zeus, and Thyia, 
a daughter of Deucalion (Apollod. iii. 8, 1). The 
name first occurs in Herodotus, but another form 
was Macitia (MaKer'ta) ; and accordingly the 
Macedonians are sometimes called Macetae 
(Hesych. s. v. ; Sil. It. xiii. 878 ; Stat. Silv. iv. 6). 
The country is said to have been originally named 
Emathia. Herodotus understood by the name 
Macedonis only the country to the S. and W. of 
the river Lydias (Hdt. vii. 127) ; but the boun- 
daries of the ancient Macedonian monarchy, be- 
fore the time of Philip, the father of Alexander, 
were: on the S. Olympus and the Cambunian 



mountains, which separated it fromThessaly and 
Epirus; on the E. the river Strymon, which 
separated it from Thrace (Thuc. ii. 99) ; and on 
the N. and W. Illyria and Paeonia, from which 
it was divided by no well defined limits. 
Macedonia was greatly enlarged by the con- 
quests of Philip. He added to his kingdom 
Paeonia on the N., so that the mountains 
Scordus and Oberlus now separated it from 
Moesia ; a part of Thrace on the E. as far as 
the river Nestus, which Thracian district was 
usually called Macedonia adjecta ; the penin- 
sula Chalcidice on the S.; and on the W. a 
part of Illyria, as far as the lake Lychnitis. 
On the conquest of the country by the Romans, 
B.C. 168, Macedonia was divided into four dis- 
tricts, paying a land tax to Rome : they were 
quite independent of one another and had each 
a republican form of government and a general 
council : — (1) the country between the Strymon 
and the Nestus, with a part of Thrace E. of the 
Nestus, as far as the Hebrus, and also includ- 
ing the territory of Heraclea Sintica and Bisal- 
tice, W. of the Strymon: the capital of this 
district was Amphipolis ; (2) the country be- 
tween the Strymon and the Axius, exclusive of 
those parts already named, but including 
Chalcidice : the capital Thessalonica ; (3) the 
country between the Axius and Peneus: the 
capital Pella ; (4) the mountainous country in 
the W. : the capital Pelagonia. (Liv. xlv. 17, 18, 
30). After the conquest of the Achaeans, in 
146, Macedonia was formed into a Roman pro- 
vince, and Thessaly and Illyria were incorpo- 
rated with it ; but at the same time the district 
E. of the Nestus was again assigned to Thrace. 
The Roman province of Macedonia accordingly 
extended at first as far S. as the province of 
Achaia, including in its limits Epirus; but 
under the empire its SE. limit was the Sinus 
Maliacus, and Epirus was detached from it. 
Thus it extended on the Aegaean coast from the 
river Nestua to Oeta and the Sinus Maliacus 
and on the Adriatic coast from the river Drilon 
to the Aous (Ptol. iii. 17, 7.) It was originally 
governed by a proconsul ; it was made by 
Tiberius one of the provinces of the Caesar ; 
but it was restored to the senate by Claudius. 
Under Diocletian four provinces were carved 
out of Macedonia : (1) Thessaly ; (2) Epirus 
Nova (the Illyrian coast) ; (3) Macedonia 
Prima ; (4) Macedonia Secunda or Salutaris. 
— Macedonia may be described as a large 
plain, surrounded on three sides by lofty moun- 
tains. Through this plain, however, run many 
smaller ranges of mountains, between which are 
wide and fertile valleys, extending from the 
coast far into the interior. The chief moun- 
tains were Scordus, or Scardus, on the NW. 
frontier, towards Illyria and Dardania ; further 
E. Orbelus and Scomus, which separated it 
from Moesia ; and Rhodope, which extended 
from Scomius in a SE. direction, forming the 
boundary between Macedonia and Thrace. On 
the S. frontier were the Cambunii Montes and 
Olympus. The chief rivers were in the direc- 
tion of E. to W., the Nestus, the Strymon, the 
Axius, the largest of all, the Ludias or Lydias, 
and the Haliacmon. — The great bulk of the 
inhabitants of Macedonia consisted of Thracian 
and Illyrian tribes. At an early period some 
Greek tribes settled in th.3 S. part of the 
country. They are said to have come from 
Argos, and to have been led by Gauanes, 
Aeropus, and Perdiccas, three descendants of 
Temenus, the Heraclid. Perdiccas, the youngest 
of the brothers, was looked upon as the founder 



MACELLA 



MACRINUS 



513 



of tlie Macedonian monarchy (Hdt. viii. 138). A I 
later tradition, however, regarded Caranus, who i 
was also a Heraclid from Argos, as the founder 
of the monarchy. These Greek settlers inter- 
married with the original inhabitants of the 
country. The dialect which they spoke was 
akin to the Doric, but it contained many 
barbarous words and forms ; and the Macedo- 
nians were accordingly never regarded by the 
other Greeks as genuine Hellenes. Moreover, 
it was only in the S. of Macedonia that the 
Greek language was spoken ; in the N. and 
NW. of the country the Illyrian tribes con- 
tinued to speak their own language and to 
preserve their ancient habits and customs. 




Coin of Macedonia, aiter Roman conquest. 
Obv.. head of Artemis in shield; rev.. HAREiOXIQN 
flPOTHZ and club of Heracles, surrounded by oak- 
wreath. This is a coin of the first region, struck when 
the Roman senate gave the Macedonian regions the 
right of coinki- sliver, in log B.C. 

Very little is known of the history of Mace- 
donia till the reign of Amyutas I., who was a 
contemporary of Darius Hystaspis; but from 
that time their history is more or less intimately 
connected with that of Greece, till at length 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, 
became the virtual master of the whole of 
Greece. The conquests of Alexander extended 
the Macedonian supremacy over a great part of 
Asia ; and the Macedonian kings continued to 
exercise their sovereignty over Greece till the 
cotiquest of Perseus by the Romans, 168, 
brought the Macedonian monarchy to a close. 
The details of the Macedonian history are 
given in the lives of the separate kings. 

Macella (Macellaro), a small fortified town 
in the W. of Sicily, about fifteen miles E. of 
Segesta (Pol. i. 24). 

Macer, Aemihus 1. A Roman poet, a 
native of Verona, died in Asia, B.C. 16. He 
wrote a poem or poems upon birds, snakes, and 
medicinal plants, in imitation, it would appear, 
of the Theriaca of Nicander (Serv. ad Eel. v. 
1 ; Quintil. x. 1, 87 ; Ov. Trist. iv. 10, 43). The 
work now extant entitled Aemilius Macer de 
Herbarum Virtutibus belongs to the middle 
ages. — 2. We must carefully distinguish from 
Aemilius Macer of Verona a poet Macer who 
wrote on the Trojan war, and who must have 
been alive in a.d. 12, since he is addressed by 
Ovid in that year (ex Pont. ii. 10, 2.) — 3. A 
Roman jurist, who lived in the reign of Alex- 
ander Severus. He wrote several works, ex- 
tracts from which are given in the Digest. 

Macer, Clodius, was governor of Africa at 
Nero's death, A.D. 68, when he laid claim to the 
throne. He was murdered at the instigation of 
Galba by the procprator Trebonius Garucianus. 
(Tuc. Hist. i. 7, iv. 49; Suet. Galb. 11.) 
Macer, Licinlus. [Licinius.] 
Macestus M i qtrros : Simaul-Su, and lower 
Susugherli), a considerable river of Mysia, 
rises in the NW. of Phrygia, and flows N. 
through Mysia into the Rhyndacus (Strab. \>. 
676). It is probably the same river which 
Polybius (v. 77) calk Megistus (Mt-yiOTor). 



Machaerus (MaxoipoOs : MaxaipiTTjs), a 
strong border fortress in the S. of Peraea, in 
Palestine, on the confines of the Nabathaei : a 
stronghold of the Sicarii in the Jewish war 
(Jos. Ant. xiii. 16, B. J. vii. 6). 

Machanidas, tyrant of Lacedaemon, suc- 
ceeded Lycurgus about B.C. 210. Like his pre- 
decessor, he had no hereditary title to the 
crown, but ruled by the swords of his mercen- 
aries alone. He was defeated and slain in 
battle by Philopoemen, the general of the 
Achaean League in 207. (Pol. xi. 11, xiii. 6 ; 
Plut. Philop. 10.) 

Machaon (Maxatue), son of Asclepius [see 
p. 131], was married to Anticlea, the daughter 
of Diocles, by whom he became the father of 
Gorgasus, Nicomachus, Alexanor, Sphyrus, and 
Polemocrates. Together with his brother 
Podalirius he went to Troy with thirty ships, 
commanding the men who came from Tricca, 
Ithome, and Oechalia. In this war he acted as 
the surgeon of the Greeks, and also distin- 
guished himself in battle. He was himself 
wounded by Paris, but was carried from the 
field by Nestor (II. ii. 729, iv. 193, xi. 505, 512, 
598). Later writers mention him as one of 
the Greek heroes who were concealed in the 
wooden horse (Verg. Aen. ii. 263) and he i? 
said to have cured Philoctetes (Tzet. ad Lyc 
911; Propert. ii. 1, 59). He was killed by 
Eurypylus, the son of Telephus, and received 
divine honours at Gerenia (Paus. iv. 3, 2). 

Machlyes (MaxAues), a people of Libya, near 
the Lotophagi, on the W. side of the lake 
Triton, in what was afterwards called Africa 
Propria (Hdt. iv. 179; Ptol. iv. 14, 11). 

Machon (Maxaiv), of Corinth or Sicyon, a 
comic poet, flourished at Alexandria, where he 
gave instructions respecting comedy to the 
grammarian Aristophanes of Byzantium (Athen. 
pp. 241, 664). 

Macistus or Macistu.nl (Molkkttos, Ma/curToc-: 
Maxicmos}, a town of Elis in Triphylia, NE. of 
Lepreum, originally called Platanistus (IWara.- 
vtarovs), and founded by the Caucones (Hdt. iv. 
148 ; Strab. pp. 343, 345). 

Macoraba (MaKopafia: Mecca), a city in the 
W. of Arabia Felix ; probably a sacred city of 
the Arabs before the time of Mohammed. 

Macra (Magra), a small river rising in the 
Apennines and flowing into the Ligurian sea- 
near Luna, which, from the time of Augustus, 
formed the boundary between Liguria and 
Etruria (Strab. p. 222; Plin. iii. 48). 

Macrianus, one of the Thirty Tyrants, a dis- 
tinguished general, who accompanied Valerian 
in his expedition against the Persians, a.d. 260. 
On the capture of that monarch, Macrianus was 
proclaimed emperor, together with his two sons 
Macrianus and Quietus. He assigned the 
management of affairs in the East to Quietus, 
and set out with the younger Macrianus for 
Italy. They were encountered by Aureolus on 
the confines of Thrace and Illyria, defeated and 
slain, 262. Quietus was shortly afterwards 
slain in the East by Odenathus (Trebell. Trig. 
Tyr. 12). 

Macri Campi. ICampi Macbi.] 

Macrmus. M. Opilius Severus, Roman em- 
peror, April, a.d. 217-June, 218. He was born 
at Caesarea in Mauretania, of humble parent*, 
A D. 104, and rose at length to be praefect of the 
praetorians under Caracalla. He accompanied 
Caracalla in his expedition against the Par- 
tisans, and was proclaimed emperor after the 
death of Caracalla, whom he had caused to be 
assassinated. He conferred the title of Caesar 

L L 



514 



MACEO 



MAECENAS 



upon his son Diadumenianus, and at the same 
time gained great popularity by repealing some 
obnoxious taxes. But in the course of the same 
year he was defeated with great loss by the 
Parthians, and was obliged to retire into Syria. 
While here his soldiers, with whom he had be- 
come unpopular by enforcing among them order 
and discipline, proclaimed Elagabalus as em- 
peror. With the troops which remained faithful 
to him, Macrinus marched against the usurper, 
but was defeated, and fled in disguise. He was 
shortly afterwards seized in Chalcedon, and put 
to death, after a reign of 14 months. (Vit. 
Macrin. ; Dio Cass, lxxxviii. 11-41.) 

Macro, Naevius Sertorius, a favourite of 
the emperor Tiberius, was employed to arrest 
the powerful Sejanus in a.d. 31, after whose 
death he was praefect of the praetorians during 
the remainder of Tiberius's reign and the earlier 
part of Caligula's. Macro was as cruel as 
Sejanus. He laid informations ; he presided at 
the rack ; and he lent himself to the most 
savage caprices of Tiberius during the last and 
worst period of his government. During the 
lifetime of Tiberius he paid court to the young 
Caligula ; and he promoted an intrigue between 
his wife Ennia and the young prince. It was 
rumoured that Macro shortened the last mo- 
ments of Tiberius by stifling him with the 
bedding as he recovered unexpectedly from a 
swoon. But Caligula became jealous of Macro, 
and compelled him to kill himself with his wife 
and children, 38. (Tac. Ann. vi. 15, 29, 45-50 ; 
Suet. Tib. 73 ; Dio Cass, lviii. 9-28, lix. 1-10.) 

Macrobii (MctKp6f}ioi, i.e. Long-lived), an 
Aethiopian people in Africa, placed by Hero- 
dotus (hi. 17) on the shores of the S. Ocean, 
i.e. probably beyond the S. frontier of Egypt 
(cf. Plin. vi. 190 ; Mel. iii. 9). 

Macrdcephali (McucpoxdQaAoi), i.e. ' the peo- 
ple with long heads,' a tribe in the Caucasus 
(Strab. pp. 43, 520 ; Plin. vi. 11). 

Macro brus, the grammarian, whose full name 
was Ambrosius Aurelius Theodosius Macro- 
bius. All we know about him is that he lived 
in the age of Honorius and Theodosius, that he 
was probably a Greek, and that he had a son 
named Eustathius. He states in the preface to 
his Saturnalia that Latin was to him a foreign 
tongue, and hence we may fairly conclude that 
he was a Greek by birth, more especially as we 
find numerous Greek idioms in his style. He 
may be the same as the Macrobius who in 399 
was praefect of Spain, and in 422 was praef. 
sacri cubiculi. If so, he must have been con- 
verted to Christianity before he held the latter 
office and after he wrote his books, which are 
clearly the work of a pagan (Cod. Theodos. vi. 
8, 1, xvi. 10, 15). His extant works are : — (1) 
Saturnaliorum Conviviorum Libri VII., con- 
sisting of a series of dissertations on history, 
mythology, criticism, and various points of 
antiquarian research, supposed to have been 
delivered during the holidays of the Saturnalia 
at the house of Vettius Praetextatus, who was 
invested with the highest offices of state under 
Valentinian and Valens. The form of the work 
is avowedly copied from the dialogues of Plato, 
especially the Banquet : in substance it bears 
a strong resemblance to the Nodes Atticae of 
A. Gellius. The first book treats of the festivals 
of Saturnus and Janus, of the Boman calendar, 
&c. The second book commences with a collec- 
tion of bons mots, ascribed to the most celebrated 
wits of antiquity ; to these are appended a 
series of essays on matters connected with the 
pleasures of the table. The four following I 



books are devoted to criticisms on Virgil. The 
seventh book is of a more miscellaneous cha- 
racter than the preceding. — (2) Commentarius 
ex Cicerone in Somnium Scipiowis, a tract 
much studied during the middle ages. The 
Dream of Scipio, contained in the sixth book of 
Cicero's De Hepublica, is taken as a text, which 
suggests a succession of discourses on the 
physical constitution of the universe, according 
to the views of the Neo-Platonists, together 
with notices of some of their peculiar tenets on 
mind as well as matter. — (3) De Differentiis et 
Societatibus Qraeci Latinique Verbi, a treatise 
purely grammatical, of which only an abridg- 
ment is extant, compiled by a certain Joannes. 
— The best editions of the works of Macrobius 
are by Gronovius, Lug. Bat. 1670; L. Janus, 
1852 ; and Eyssenhardt, Lips. 1868. 

Macrones (MaKpcoees), a warlike Caucasian 
people on the NE. shore of the Pontus Euxinus 
(Hdt. ii. 104, vii. 78 ; Plin. vi. 11). 

Mactorium (MaKT&pwv : MaKTiepivos), a town 
in the S. of Sicily, near Gela (Hdt. vii. 153). 

Macynia (MaKvvia: Manvvevs), a town in the 
S. of Aetolia, near the mountain Taphiassus, E. 
of Calydon and the Evenus (Strab. pp. 451, 460). 

Madianitae (MaStavlTai, WlaSnjvcuoi, MaSirjuo'i : 
O. T. Midianim), a powerful nomad people in 
the S. of Arabia Petraea, about the head of the 
Bed Sea (see Diet, of the Bible). 

Madytus (MASvtos : MaSvrios : Maito), a sea- 
port town on the Thracian Chersonesus (Strab. 
p. 331 ; Liv. xxxi. 16). 

Maeander (MaiavSpos : Mendereh or Meinder, 
or Boyuk-Mendereh, i.e. the Great Mendereh, 
in contradistinction to the Little Mendereh, 
the ancient Cayster), has its source in the 
mountain called Aulocrenas, above Celaenae, 
in the S. of Phrygia, close to the source of the 
Marsyas, which immediately joins it. [Celae- 
nae.] It flows in a general W. direction, with 
various changes of direction, but on the whole 
with a slight inclination to the S. After leaving 
Phrygia, it flows parallel to Mt. Messogis, on 
its S. side, forming the boundary between Lydia 
and Caria, and at last falls into the Icarian 
Sea between Myus and Priene. Its whole length 
is above 170 geographical miles. The Maeander 
is deep, but narrow, and very turbid ; and 
therefore not navigable far up. Its upper course 
lies chiefly through elevated plains, and partly 
in a deep rocky valley : its lower course, for the 
last 110 miles, is through a beautiful wide plain, 
through which it flows in those numerous wind- 
ings that have made its name a descriptive 
verb (to meander), and which it often inundates. 
The alteration made in the coast about its 
mouth by its alluvial deposit was observed by 
the ancients, and it has been continually going 
on. [See Latmicus Sinus and Miletus.] The 
chief tributaries of the Maeander were, on the 
right or N. side, the Cludrus, Lethaeus, and 
Gaeson, and, on the left or S. side, the Obrimas, 
Lycus, Harpasus, and Marsyas. (II. ii. 869 ; 
Hes. Th. 339 ; Hdt. vii. 26 ; Xen. An. i. 2, 7 ; 
Strab. p. 577 ; Ov. Met. viii. 162.)— As a god 
Maeander is described as the , father of the 
nymph Cyane, who was the mother of Caunus. 
Hence the latter is called by Ovid (Met. ix. 
573) Maeandrius juvenis. 

Maecenas, C. Cilnius, was born some time 
between B.C. 73 and 63 ; and we learn from 
Horace (Od. iv. 11) that his birthday was the 
13th of April. His family, though belonging 
wholly to the equestrian order, was of high 
antiquity and honour, and traced its descent 
from the Lucumones of Etruria. His paternal 



MAECENAS 

ancestors, the Cilnii, are mentioned by Livy 
(x. 3, 5) as having attained great power and 
wealth at Arretium about B.C. 301. The mater- 
nal branch of the family was also of Etruscan 
origin, and it was from them that the name of j 
Maecenas was derived, it being customary \ 
among the Etruscans to assume the mother's as i 
well as the father's name. It is in allusion to j 
this circumstance that Horace (Sat. i. 6, 3) 
mentions both his avus maternus atque pater- J 
nus as having been distinguished by command- 
ing numerous legions ; a passage, by the way, 
from which we are not to infer that the ancestors 
of Maecenas had ever led the Roman legions. 
Although it is unknown where Maecenas re- 
ceived his education, it must doubtless have 
been a careful one. We learn from Horace that 
he was versed both in Greek and Roman litera- 
ture ; and his taste for literary pursuits was 
shown, not only by his patronage of the most 
eminent poets of his time, but also by several 
performances of his own, both in verse and 
prose. It has been conjectured that he became 
acquainted with Augustus at Apollonia before 
the death of Julius Caesar ; but he is men- 
tioned for the first time in B.C. 40, and from 
this year his name constantly occurs as one of 
the chief friends and ministers of Augustus. 
Thus we find him employed in B.C. 37 in nego- 
tiating with Antony ; and it was probably on 
this occasion that Horace accompanied him to 
Brundusium, a journey which he has described 
in the fifth Satire of the first book. During the 
war with Antony, which was brought to a close 
by the battle of Actium, Maecenas remained 
at Rome, being entrusted with the administra- 
tion of the civil affairs of Italy. During this 
time he suppressed the conspiracy of the 
younger Lepidus. It is probable, therefore, that 
he was not present at the battle of Actium; 
but it seems that he had intended to go to the 
war, for it is better to refer Hor. Epod. i. to 
that battle than, as some critics do, to the 
Sicilian expedition against Sext. Pompeius. On 
the return of Augustus from Actium, Maecenas 
enjoyed a greater share of his favour than ever, 
and, in conjunction with Agrippa, had the 
management of all public affairs. It is related 
that Augustus at this time took counsel with 
Agrippa and Maecenas respecting the expe- 
diency of restoring the republic ; that Agrippa 
advised him to pursue that course, but that I 
Maecenas strongly urged him to establish the 1 
empire. For many years Maecenas was trusted 
and honoured by Augustus ; but between B.C. 
21 and 16 lie seems to have lost the favour of 
the emperor, and after the latter year he retired 1 
entirely from public life. The cause of this , 
estrangement ia enveloped in doubt. Dio 
Cassius attributes it to an intrigue carried on 
by Augustus with Terentia, Maecenas's wife, but 
the authority of Suetonius is better, and we 
should probably accept his account of the 
matter, that Maecenas had revealed to his wife j 
that the conspiracy of her brother Murena had 
been discovered, and thus the conspirators were 
warned. ThiB was regarded as an indiscretion 
which forfeited confidence, and Maecenas was 
not made praefectus urbi when that office was 
constituted, in l(i, though in previous years he 
bad as minister of Augustus, done much that 
would have belonged to the post. (Suet. Aug. 
fit) ; Dio Cass. liv. 19.) Maecenas died B.C. B, 
and wan buried on the Esquiline. He left no , 
children, and he bequeathed his property to 
Augustus, who had continued or renewed his I 
friendship, though without official uppointments. I 



MAECIUS 



51? 




Bust of Maecenas 



— Maecenas bad amassed an enormous fortune. 
He had purchased a tract of ground on the 
Esquiline hill, which had formerly served as a 
burial-place for the lower orders (Hor. Sat. i. 
8, 7). Here he had planted a garden and built 
a house, remarkable for its loftiness, on account 
of a tower by which it was surmounted, and 
from the top of which Nero is said to have 
afterwards contemplated the burning of Rome. 
In this residence he seems to have passed the 
greater part of his time, and to have visited 
the country but seldom. His house was the 
rendezvous of all the 
wits of Rome ; and 
whoever could contri- 
bute to the amusement 
of the company was 
always welcome to a 
seat at his table. But 
his really intimate 
friends consisted of 
the greatest geniuses 
and most learned men 
of Rome ; and if it was 
from his universal in- 
clination towards men 
of talent that he ob- 
tained the reputation 
of a literary patron, it 
was by his friendship 
for such poets as Vir- 
gil and Horace that 
he deserved it. Vir- 
gil was indebted to 

him for the recovery of his farm, which had 
been appropriated by the soldiery in the divi- 
sion of lands, in B.C. 41 ; and it was at the 
request of Maecenas that he undertook the 
Georgics, the most finished of all his poems. 
[Vergujus.] To Horace he was a still greater 
benefactor. He presented him with the means 
of comfortable subsistence, a farm in the Sabine 
country. If the estate was but a moderate one, 
we learn from Horace himself that the bounty 
of Maecenas was regulated by his own con- 
tented views and not by his patron's want of 
generosity. [For the relation between Horace 
and Maecenas, see Hokatius.] — Of Maecenas's 
own literary productions only a few fragments 
exist. From these, however, and from the 
notices which we find of his writings in ancient 
authors, we are led to think that we have not 
suffered any great loss by their destruction ; 
for, although a good judge of literary merit in 
others, he does not appear to have been an 
author of much taste himself. In his way of 
life Maecenas was addicted to every species of 
luxury. We find several allusions in the ancient 
authors to the effeminacy of his dress. He wat. 
fond of theatrical entertainments, especially 
pantomimes, as may be inferred from his pa- 
tronage of Bathyllus, the celebrated dancer, 
who was a freedman of his. That moderation 
of character which led him to be content with 
his equestrian rank, probably arose from his 
love of ease and luxury, or it might have been 
the result of more prudent and political views. 
As a politician, the principal trait in his cha- 
racter was fidelity to his master, and the main 
end of all his cares was the consolidation of the 
empire. But at the same time he recommended 
Augustus to put no check on the free expression 
of public opinion, and above all to avoid that 
cruelty which for so many years had stained 
the Roman annals with blood. 

Maedi. r M.u:i>tcA.J 

Maecius Tarpa. [Tabfa.] 

LL2 



516 



MAEDICA 



MAEEA 



Maedica (McuStic^), " the country of the 
Maedi, a powerful people in the W. of Thrace, 
on the W. bank of the Strymon, and the S. 
slope of Mt. Scomius. They frequently made 
inroads into the country of the Macedonians, 
till at length they were conquered by the latter, 
and their land incorporated with Macedonia. 
(Thuc. ii. 98 ; Strab. pp. 316, 331 ; Liv. xxvi. 25.) 

Haelius, Sp., the richest of the plebeian 
knights, employed his fortune in buying up 
corn in Etruria in the great famine at Borne in 
B.C. 440. This com he sold to the poor at a 
small price, or distributed it gratuitously. 
Such liberality gained him the favour of the 
plebeians, but at the same time exposed him to 
the hatred of the ruling class, particularly of 
the praefectus annonae, C. Minucius. Accord- 
ingly in the following year he was accused of 
having formed a conspiracy for the purpose of 
seizing the kingly power. Thereupon Cincin- 
natus was appointed dictator, and C. Servilius 
Ahala, the master of the horse. Maelius was 
summoned to appear before the tribunal of the 
dictator ; but as he refused to go, Ahala, with 
an armed band of patrician youths, rushed into 
the crowd, and slew him. His property was 
confiscated, and his house pulled down ; its 
vacant site, which was called the Aequimae- 
lium, continued to subsequent ages a memorial 
of his fate. Later ages fully believed the story 
of Maelius's conspiracy, and Cicero repeatedly 
praises the glorious deed of Ahala. But his 
guilt is very doubtful. Ahala was brought to 
trial, and only escaped condemnation by a volun- 
tary exile. (Liv. iv. 13 ; Cic. de Sen. 8, 28, de 
Rep. ii. 27 ; Flor. i. 26 ; Val. Max. vi. 3.) 

Maenaca (MateaKTj), a town of HispaniaBae- 
tica on the coast, the most westerly colony of 
the Phocaeans (Strab. p. 156). 

Maenades (McuvdSzs), a name of the Bac- 
chantes, from fxaivofiai, 'to be mad,' because 
they were frenzied in the worship of Dionysus. 




Maenade or Bacchante, with snake-hound hair. (Thiersch, 

Veber die hellenischen bcmalU'n Vasen.) 

Maenalus (rb Maivakov or MaivaXiou upos : 
Boinon), a mountain in Arcadia, which ex- 
tended from Megalopolis to Tegea, was cele- 
brated as the favourite haunt of the god Pan 
(Strab. p. 388 ; Paus. viii. 36, 7 ; Verg. Eel. viii. 
22). From this mountain the surrounding 
country was called Maenalia (Wlaivakia) ; and 
on the mountain was a town Maenalus (Thuc. 



v. 64 ; Paus. iii. 11, 7). The mountain was so 
celebrated that the Roman poets frequently 
use the adjectives Maenalius and Maenalia as 
equivalent to Arcadian. 

Maenius. 1. C, consul, B.C. 338, with L. 
Furius Camillus. The two consuls completed 
the subjugation of Latium; they were both 
rewarded with a triumph; and equestrian 
statutes were erected to their honour in the 
forum (Liv. viii. 13). The statue of Maenius 
was placed upon a column, which is spoken of 
by later writers under the name of Columna 
Maenia, and which appears to have stood near 
the end of the forum, on the Capitoline. 
Maenius was dictator in 320, and censor in 318. 
In his censorship he allowed balconies to be 
added to the various buildings surrounding the 
forum, in order that the spectators might obtain 
more room for beholding the games which were 
exhibited in the forum ; and these balconies 
were called after him Maeniana (Diet, of 
Antiq. s. v.). — 2. The proposer of the law, 
about 286, which required the patres to give 
their sanction to the election of the magistrates 
before they had been elected, or, in other words, 
to confer, or agree to confer, the imperium on 
the person whom the comitia should elect (Cic. 
Brut. 14). — 3. A contemporary of Luciiius, was 
a great spendthrift, who squandered all his 
property, and afterwards supported himself by 
playing the buffoon. He possessed a house in 
the forum, which Cato in his censorship (184) 
purchased of him, for the purpose of building 
the Basilica Porcia. (Hor. Sat. i. 1, 101, i. 3, 21, 
Epist. i. 15, 26.) 

Maenoba (MaiVojSa), a town in the SE. of 
Hispania Baetica, near the coast, on a river of 
the same name (Mel. ii. 6, 7 ; Strab. p. 143). 

Maeon (Malwv), son of Haemon of Thebes. 
He and Lycophontes were the leaders of the 
band that lay in ambush against Tydeus, in the 
war of the Seven against Thebes. Maeon was 
the only one whose life was spared by Ty- 
deus. Maeon in return buried Tydeus, 
when the latter was slain. (II. iv. 394 ; 
Paus. ix. 18, 2.) 
Maeonia. [Lydia.] 
Maednides. [Homebus.] 
MaeStae. [Maeotis Palus.] 
Maeotis Palus (fi Mtuon-is Ki^uv: Sea 
of Azov), an inland sea on the borders of 
Europe and Asia, N. of the Pontus Euxi- 
nus (Black Sea), with which it communi- 
cates by the Bosporus Cimmebius. Its 
form may be described roughly as a tri- 
angle, with its vertex at its NE. extremity, 
where it receives the waters of the great 
river Tanai's (Don) : it discharges its super- 
fluous water by a constant current into the 
Euxine. The ancients had very vague no- 
tions of its true form and size : the earlier 
geographers thought that both it and the 
Caspian Sea were gulfs of the great N. 
Ocean (Hdt. iv. 86; Strab. pp. 125, 307, 
493; Plin. iv. 24). The Scythian tribes on 
its banks were called by the collective 
name of MaeStae or Maeotici (MatcDrai, 
McucoTtKol). The sea had also the names of 
Cimmerium or Bosporicum Mare. Aeschy- 
lus (Prom. 731) applies the name of Maeotic 
Strait to the Cimmerian Bosporus (avKtiiv 
Ma(euTiK<5s). 

Maera (Vloupa). 1. The dog of Icarius, the 
father of Erigone. [Icabius, No. 1.] — 2. 
Daughter of Proetus and Antea, a companion 
of Artemis, by whom she was killed, after she 
had become by Zeus the mother of Locrus (Od. 



MAESA 

xi. 325). — 3. Daughter of Atlas, was married to 
Tegeates, the son of Lycaon. Her tomb was 
shown both at Tegea and Mantinea in Arcadia 
(Paus. viii. 12, 4). 

Maesa, Julia, sister-in-law of Septimius 
Severus, aunt of Caracalla, and grandmother of 
Elagabalus and Alexander Severus. She was 
a native of Emesa in Syria, and seems, after 
the elevation of Septimius Severus, the husband 
of her sister Julia Domna, to have lived at the 
imperial court until the death of Caracalla, 
and to have accumulated great wealth. She 
contrived and executed the plot which trans- 
ferred the supreme power from Macrinus to her 
grandson Elagabalus. When she foresaw the 
downfall of the latter, she prevailed on him to 
adopt his cousin Alexander Severus. By 
Severus she was treated with the greatest 
respect ; she enjoyed the title of Augusta 
during her life, and received divine honours 
after her death. [Elagabalus ; Severus.] 

Maeson (MaiVoii/), a comic actor, of Megara 
(whether the Sicilian or the Grecian Megara is 
disputed), from whom came the term crKwfi/jiaTa. 
imiauviKa., for coarse jokes (Athen. p. 659). To 
him was attributed the proverb, 

'Avr' evepye<rlr)s 'Ayafif/ivova Srjaav 'Axoioi. 

Maevius. [Bavtus.] 

Magaba, a mountain in Galatia, 10 Roman 
miles E. of Ancyra (Liv. xxxviii. 19). 

Magas (Mo-ycts), king of Cyrene, was a step- 
son of Ptolemy Soter, being the son of Berenice 
by a former marriage. He was a Macedonian 
by birth ; and he seems to have accompanied 
his mother to Egypt, where he soon rose to a 
high place in the favour of Ptolemy. In B.C. 
308 he was appointed to the command of the 
expedition destined for the recovery of Cyrene 
after the death of Ophelias. The enterprise 
was successful, and Magas obtained the govern- 
ment of the province. At first he ruled it only 
as a dependency of Egypt, but after the death 
of Ptolemy Soter he not only assumed the 
character of an independent monarch, but 
even made war on the king of Egypt. He 
married Apama, daughter of Antioehus Soter 
by whom he had a daughter, Berenice, after- 
wards the wife of litolemy Euergetes. He died 
258. (Paus. i. 7; Athen. p. 550; Justin, xxvi. 3.) 

Magdolum (MdySoKov, MdySwKov: O. T. 
Migdol), a city of Lower Egypt, near the NE. 
frontier, about twelve miles SW. of Pelusium : 
where Pharaoh Necho defeated the Syrians, 
according to Herodotus (ii. 159). 

Magetobria or Admagetobriga, a town on 
the W. frontiers of the Sequani, near which the 
Ci.iuls were defeated by the Germans shortly be- 
fore Caesar's arrival in Gaul (Caes. B. G. i. 31). 

Magi (Mdyoi), the name of the order of 
priests and religious teachers among the Medes 
and Persians. There is strong evidence that a 
class similar to the Magi, and in some cases 
hearing the same name, existed among other 
Eustern nations, especially the Chaldeans of 
Babylon ; nor is it at all probable that either 
the Magi or their religion were of strictly 
Median or Persian origin : but in classical 
literature they are presented to us almost 
exclusively in connexion with Medo-Persian 
history. Herodotus represents them as one of 
the six tribes into which the Median people 
were divided (Hdt. i. 101, 107, 140). Under the 
Median empire, before the supremacy passed to 
the Persians, they were so closely connected 
with the throne, and had so great tin influence 
in the stute, that they evidently retained their 



MAGNENTIUS 



517 



position after the revolution ; and they had 
power enough to be almost successful in the 
attempt they made to overthrow the Persian 
dynasty after the death of Cambyses, by putting 
forward one of their own number as a pretender 
to the throne, alleging that he was Smerdis,the 
son of Cyrus, who had been put to death by his 
brother Cambyses (Hdt. iii. 67-68). It is clear 
that this was a plot to restore the Median supre- 
macy. The defeat of this Magian conspiracy by 
Darius the son of Hystaspes and the other Per- 
sian nobles was followed by a general massacre 
of the Magi, which was celebrated by an annual 
festival (ra Wlaycxpovia), during which no Magian 
was permitted to appear in public. Still their 
position as the only ministers of religion re- 
mained unaltered. The breaking up of the 
Persian empire must have greatly altered their 
condition ; but they continue to appear in 
history down to the time of the later Roman 
empire, and from them we get our word magic 
(r) /jLayiK-h, i.e. the art or science of the Magi). — 
The constitution or the reformation of the Magi 
as an order is ascribed by tradition to Zoroaster, 
as the Greeks and Romans called him. He is 
said to have restored the true knowledge of the 
supreme good principle (Ormuzd), and to have 
taught his worship to the Magi, whom he 
divided into three classes, learners, masters, 
and perfect scholars. [Zoroaster.] They 
alone could teach the truths and perform the 
ceremonies of religion, foretell the future, inter- 
pret dreams and omens, and ascertain the will 
of Ormuzd by the arts of divination. They had 
three chief methods of divination : by calling up 
the dead, by cups or dishes, and by water. 
The forms of worship and divination were 
strictly denned, and were handed down among 
the Magi by tradition. Like all early priest- 
hoods, they seem to have been the sole posses- 
sors of all the science of their age. To be 
instructed in their learning was esteemed the 
highest of privileges, and was permitted, with 
rare exceptions, to none but the princes of the 
royal family. Their learning became cele- 
brated at an early period in Greece, by the 
name of fiaytia, and was made the subject of 
speculation by the philosophers, whose know- 
ledge of it seems, however, to have been very 
limited ; while their high pretensions, and the 
tricks by which their knowledge of science 
enabled them to impose upon the ignorant, 
soon attached to their name among the Greeks 
and Romans that bad meaning which is still 
connected with the words derived from it. 
Magna Graecia. [Gkaecia.J 
Magna Mater. [Rhea.] 
Magnentius, Roman emperor in the West, 
A. D. 850-853, whose full name was Flavius 
Popiltos Maon entius. He was a German by 
birth, and after serving as a common soldier was 
eventually intrusted by Constans, the son of 
Constantine the Great, with the command of the 
Jovian and Herculian battalions who had re- 
placed the ancient praetorian guards when the 
empire was remodelled by Diocletian. He 
availed himself of his position to organise a 
conspiracy against the weak and profligate Con- 
stans, who was put to death by his emissaries. 
Magnentius thereupon was acknowledged as 
emperor in all the Western provinces, except 
Illyria, where Vetranio had assumed the purple. 
Constantius hurried from the frontier of Persia 
to crush the usurpers. Vetranio submitted to 
Constantius at Kardiea in December, 850. 
Magnentius was first defeated by Constantius 
at the sanguinury battle of Mursa on the Drav«, 



518 



MAGNES 



in the autumn of 351, and was obliged to fly 
into Gaul. He was defeated a second time in 
the passes of the Cottian Alps, and put an end 
to his own life about the middle of August, 353. 
Magnentius was a man of commanding stature 
and great bodily strength ; but not one spark of 
virtue relieved the blackness of his career as a 
sovereign. The power which he obtained by 
treachery and murder he maintained by extor- 
tion and cruelty. (Vict. Caes. 41, 42 ; Zosim. 
ii. 41-54.) 

Magnes (Mayfjjs), one of the most important 
of the earlier Athenian comic poets of the Old 
Comedy, was a native of the demus of Icaria or 
Icarius, m Attica. He flourished B. c. 460, and 
onwards, and died at an advanced age, shortly 
before the representation of the Knights of 
Aristophanes — that is, in 423. (Aristoph. Equit. 
524.) He is said to have won a prize for comedy 
eleven times. He was famed for his mimetic 
dances (which formed one of the stages in the 
growth of comedy) : for these he used choruses 
representing animals (in one play, frogs) ; and 
in this found an imitator in Aristophanes. 

Magnesia (Nlayvriaia. : Wlayvris, pi. Wlay- 
V7/T<=y). 1. The most easterly district of Thes- 
saly, was a long narrow slip of country, extend- 
ing from the Peneus on the N. to the Pagasaean 
gulf on the S., and bounded on the W. by the 
great Thessalian plain. It was a mountainous 
country, as it comprehended the Mts. Ossa and 
Pelion. Its inhabitants, the Magnetes, are said 
to have founded the two cities in Asia mentioned 
below. — 2. M. ad Sipylum (M. irpbs SiiruAp or 
inb SituAw : Manissa, Ru.), a city in the 
NW. of Lydia, in Asia Minor, at the foot of the 
NW. declivity of Mount Sipylus, and on the S. 
bank of the Hermus, is famous in history as the 
scene of the victory gained by the two Scipios 
over Antiochus the Great, which secured to the 
Romans the empire of the East, B. c. 190. After 
the Mithridatie war, the Romans made it a 
libera civitas. It suffered, with other cities of 
Asia Minor, from the great earthquake in the 
reign of Tiberius ; but it was still a place of 
importance in the fifth century. (Strab. p. 622 ; 
Liv. xxxvii. 37 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 47.) — 3. M. ad 
Maeandrum (M. r/ irpbs MaiduSprfi, M. ett! 
MaiavSpcp : Inek-bazar, Ru.), a city in the SW. 
of Lydia, in Asia Minor, was situated on the 




Coin of Magnesia ad Maeandrum (2nd cent. B.C.). 
Obv., head of Artemis ; rev., MATNHTnN ; Apollo beside tri- 
pod; below these, Maeander pattern, magistrate's 
name, EY$HM02 riAYSANlOY ; -whole in oak-wreath. 

river Lethaeus, a N. tributary of the Maeander. 
It was destroyed by the Cimmerians (probably 
about B. c. 700) and rebuilt by colonists from 
Miletus, so that it became an Ionian city by 
race as well as by position. It was one of the 
cities given to Themistocles by Artaxerxes. It 
was celebrated for its temple of Artemis Leu- 
cophryene (see coin), one of the most beautiful 
in Asia Minor, the ruins of which exist. (Hdt. 
i. 101, iii. 122 ; Diod. xi. 57 ; Strab. pp. 636, 647.) 

Magnopolis CNlayvS-n-ohis), or Eupatoria 
Magnopolis, a city of Pontus, in Asia Minor, 



MAGO 

near the confluence of the rivers Lycus and Iris, 
begun by Mithridates Eupator and finished by 
Pompey (Strab. p. 556 ; Appian, Mithr. 78, 115). 

Mago (Maywv). 1. A Carthaginian, said to 
have been the founder of the military power of 
Carthage, by introducing a regular discipline 
and organisation into her armies (Just, xviii. 
7, xix. 1). He flourished from B.C. 550 to 500, 
and was probably the father of Hamilcar, who 
was slain in the battle against Gelo at Himera. 
[HAMIX.OAE, No. 1.] — 2. Commander of the Car- 
thaginian fleet under Himilco in the war against 
Dionysius, 396. When Himilco returned to 
Africa after the disastrous termination of the 
expedition, Mago appears to have been invested 
with the chief command in Sicily. He carried on 
the war with Dionysius, but in 392 was compelled 
to conclude a treaty of peace, by which he aban- 
doned his allies the Sicilians to the power of 
Dionysius. In 383 he again invaded Sicily, but 
was defeated by Dionysius and slain in the 
battle. (Diod. xiv. 59, 95, xv. 15.) — 3. Commander 
of the Carthaginian army in Sicily in 344. He 
assisted Hicetas in the war against Timoleon ; 
but, becoming apprehensive of treachery, he 
sailed away to Carthage. Here he put an end 
to his own life, to avoid a worse fate at the hands 
of his countrymen, who, nevertheless, crucified 
his lifeless body (Plut. Timol. 17-22).— 4. Son 
of Hamilcar Barca, and youngest brother of the 
famous Hannibal. He accompanied Hannibal 
to Italy, and after the battle of Cannae (216) 
carried the news of this great victory to Car- 
thage. (Pol. iii. 71, 79, 114 ; Liv. xxi. 54, xxii. 
2, 46.) But, instead of returning to Italy, he 
was sent into Spain with a considerable force 
to the support of his other brother Hasdrubal, 
v«ho was hard pressed by the two Scipios (215). 
He continued in this country for many years ; 
and after his brother Hasdrubal quitted Spain 
in 208, in order to march to the assistance of 
Hannibal in Italy, the command in Spain de- 
volved upon him and upon Hasdrubal, the son 
of Gisco. After their decisive defeat by Scipio 
at Silpia in 206, Mago retired to Gades, and 
subsequently passed the winter in the lesser of 
the Balearic islands, where the memory of his 
sojourn is still preserved in the name of the 
celebrated harbour, Portus Magonis, or Port 
Mahon. (Liv. xxviii. 23-37 ; Appian, Hisp. 
25-37.) Early in the ensuing summer (205) 
Mago landed in Liguria, where he surprised the 
town of Genoa. Here he maintained himself 
for two years, but in 203 he was defeated with 
great loss in Cisalpine Gaul, by Quintilius 
Varus, and was himself severely wounded. 
Shortly afterwards he embarked his troops in 
order to return to Africa, but he died of his 
wound before reaching Africa. (Liv. xxx. 18 ; 
App. Hisp. 37 ; Zonar. ix. 13.) Cornelius Nepos 
(Hann. 7, 8), in opposition to all other autho- 
rities, represents Mago as surviving the battle 
of Zama, and says that he perished in a ship- 
wreck, or was assassinated by his slaves. — 5. 
Surnamed the Samnite, was one of the chief 
officers of Hannibal in Italy, where he held for 
a considerable time the chief command in Brut- 
tium (Liv. xxv. 15). — 6. Commander of the 
garrison of New Carthage when that city was 
taken by Scipio Africanus, 209. Mago was sent 
a prisoner to Rome (Pol. x. 8-19; Liv. xxvi. 
44-51). — 7. A Carthaginian of uncertain date, 
who wrote a work upon agriculture in the Punic 
language, in twenty-eight books. So great was 
the reputation of this work even at Rome, that 
after the destruction of Carthage, the senate 
ordered that it should be translated into Latin 



M AGON IS PORTUS 



MAMERCUS 



519 



by competent persons, at the head of whom was 
D. Silanus. It was subsequently translated into 
Greek, with some abridgment and alteration, by 
Cassius Dionysius of Utica. Mago's precepts 
on agricultural matters are continually cited by 
the Roman writers on those subjects in terms 
of the highest commendation. (Varro, B. B. 
i. 1, 10 ; Plin. xviii. 22 ; Colum. B. B. i. 1, 13.) 

Magonis Portus. [Mago, No. 4.] 

Magontiacum. [Mogontiacum.] 

Manarbal (Maap/3as), son of Himilco, and 
one of the most distinguished officers of Han- 
nibal in the second Punic war. He is first 
mentioned at the siege of Saguntum. After 
the battle of Cannae he urged Hannibal to 
push at once with his cavalry upon Rome 
itself ; and on the refusal of his commander, he 
is said to have observed, that Hannibal knew 
how to gain victories, but not how to use them. 
(Liv. xxi. 12, 45, xxii. 13, 46, 51 ; Flor. ii. 6.) 

Maia (MaTa or Mouas). 1. Daughter of 
Atlas and Pleione, was the eldest of the Plei- 
ades, and the most beautiful of the seven 
sisters. In a grotto of Mt. Cyllene in Arcadia 
she became by Zeus the mother of Hermes. ' 
Areas, the son of Zeus by Callisto, was given to 
her to be reared. [Pleiades.] — 2. With this 
deity was sometimes confused an old Italian 
goddess Maja ( = Bona Dea, Ops or Fauna) 
worshipped at Rome. She is mentioned in 
connexion with Vulcan, and was regarded by 
gome as the wife of that god, though it seems 
for no other reason but because a priest of 
Vulcan offered a sacrifice to her on the 1st of 
May. [Bona Dea.1 

Majoriaaus. Julius Valerius, Roman em- 
peror in the West, a.d. 457-461, was raised to 
the empire by Ricimer. His reign was chiefly 
occupied in making preparations to invade the 
Vandals in Africa ; but the immense fleet which 
he had collected for this purpose in the harbour 
of New Carthage in Spain was destroyed by the 
Vandals in 460. Thereupon he concluded a 
peace with Genseric. His activity and popu- 
larity excited the jealousy of Ricimer, who 
compelled him to abdicate and then put an end 
to his life (Procop. Vand. i. 7). 
Majuma. [Constantia, No. 3.] 
Malaca {Malaga), an important town on 
the coast of Hispania Baetica, and on a river 
of the same name (Guadalmedina), was 
founded by the Phoenicians, and has always 
been a flourishing place of commerce (Strab. 
pp. 156-168 ; Avien. Or. Mar. 426). 
Malalas. [Maeelas.] 

Malanga (yiahayya), a city of India, prob- 
ably the modern Madras (Ptol. vii. 1, 92). 

Malchns (MdKxos), of Philadelphia in Syria, 
a Byzantine historian and rhetorician, wrote a 
history of the empire from a.d. 474 to 480, of 
which we have extracts, published along with 
Dexippus by Bekker and Niebuhr, Bonn, 1829. 

Malea i Ma\c'a &npa : C. Maria), the S. 
promontory of the island of Lesbos (Thuc. iii. 
4 ; Xen. Hell. i. 6, 26; Strab. p. 617). 

Malea, (y.aKta or MaAf'ai: C. St. Angelo or 
Malea), a promontory on the SE. of Laconia, 
separating the Argolie and Laconic gulfs ; the 
passage round it was dreaded by sailors. Here 
was a temple of Apollo, who hence bore the 
surname Maledtes. (Hdt. i. 82; Strab. p. 868.) 

Malelas, or Malalas, Joannes C\wj.i>vTit 6 
Ka\i\a or MaKaKa), a native of Antioch, and a 
Byzantine historian, lived shortly after Justi- 
nian the Great. The word Malalas signifies in 
Syriac an orator. He wrote a chronicle of 
universal history from the creation of the world 



to the reign of Justinian inclusive. Edited by 
Dindorf, Bonn, 1831. 

Malene (MaXrivri), a city of Mysia, only men- 
tioned by Herodotus (vi. 22). 

Mallacus Sinus (MaXitucbs koKttos : Bay of 
Zeitun), a narrow bay in the S. of Thessaly, 
running W. from the NW. point of the island 
of Euboea. On one side of it is the pass of 
Thermopylae. It derived its name from the 
Malienses, who dwelt on its shores. It is some- 
times called the Lamiacus Sinus, from the 
town of Lamia in its neighbourhood. (Hdt. iv. 
33 ; Thuc. iii. 96 ; Paus. i. 4, 3.) 

Malis (Makis y?i, Ionic and Att. MtjAis yv : 
MaXtevs or Mr;A.eeus, Maliensis), a district in the 
S. of Thessaly, on the shores of the Maliacus 
Sinus, and opposite the NW. point of the 
island of Euboea. It extended as far as the 
pass of Thermopylae. Its inhabitants, the 
Malians, were Dorians, and belonged to the 
Amphictyonic League (Hdt. vii. 198). 

Malli (Ma\Kol) y an Indian people on both 
sides of the Hydraotes : their capital is sup- 
posed to have been on the site of the fortress of 
Mooltan (Arrian, An. vi. 7-14 ; Strab. p. 701). 

Mallus (MaAAos), a city of Cilicia, on a hill a 
little E. of the mouth of the river Pyramus, 
was said to have been founded at the time of 
the Trojan war by Mopsus and Amphilochus. 
It had a port called Magarsa. (Strab. p. 675.) 

Maluginensis, a celebrated patrician family 
of the Cornelia gens in the early ages of the re- 
public, the members of which frequently held 
the consulship. It disappears from history 
before the time of the Samnite wars. They 
sometimes united the surnames of Cossus and 
Maluginensis. — 1. Ser. Cornelius Cossus Malu- 
ginensis, consul B.C. 485, in which year Sp. 
i Cassius was condemned (Liv. ii. 41). — 2. His 
son, L. Cornelius Maluginensis, consul B.C. 459 ; 
j fought against the Aequi and Volsci (Liv. iii. 
22—24). — 3. P. Cornelius Maluginensis, consular 
tribune in 397 and 390 (Liv. v. 16, 36). 

Malva. [Mulucha.] 

Mamaea, Julia, a native of Emesa in Syria, 
was daughter of Julia Maesa, and mother of 
Alexander Severus. She was a woman of 
integrity and virtue, and brought up her son 
with the utmost care. She was put to death by 
the soldiers along with her son, a.d. 235. 
[Elagabalus ; Severus.] 

Mamercus. 1. Son of king Numa, accord- 
ing to one tradition, and son of Mars and 
Silvia, according to another. [Mars.]. — 2. 
Tyrant of Catana, when Timoleon landed in 
Sicily, B.C. 344. After his defeat by Timoleon 
he fled to Messana, and took refuge with 
Hippon, tyrant of that city. But when Timo- 
leon laid siege to Messana, Hippon took to 
flight, and Mamercus surrendered, stipulating 
only for a regular trial before the Syracusans. 
But as soon as he was brought into the 
assembly of the people there, he was con- 
demned by acclamation, and executed like a 
common malefactor. (Plut. Timol. 13, 80, 34 ; 
Diod. xvi. 69, 82.) 
Mamercus or Mamercinus, Aemllius, a (lis 
I tinguished patrician family which professed to 
I derive its name from Mamercus in the reign of 
Numa. 1. Ei.. thrice consul : namely, B.C. 481, 
478, 473.-2. Tib., twice consul, 470 and 467 
— 3. Mam., thrice dictator, 487, 433, and 426. 
In his first dictatorship he carried on war 
against the Veientines and Fidcnae. Lar 
Tolumnius, the king of Veii, is said to have 
been killed in single combat in this year by 
Cornelius Cossus. In his second dictatorship 



520 



MAMERS 



MANES 



Aemilius carried a law limiting to eighteen 
months the duration of the censorship, which 
had formerly lasted for five years. This measure 
was received with great approbation by the 
people ; but the censors then in office were so 
enraged at it, that they removed him from his 
tribe, and reduced him to the condition of an 
aerarian (Liv. iv. 17-34). — 4. L., a distinguished 
general in the Samnite wars, was twice consul, 
341 and 329, and once dictator, 335. In his 
second consulship he took Privernum, and 
hence received the surname of Privemas (Liv. 
viii. 1, 16, 20). 

Mamers. [Mars.] 

Mamertlni. [Messana.] 

Mamertlum (Mamertini), a town in Bruttium, 
of uncertain site (Strab. p. 261). 

Mamilia Gens, plebeian, was originally a 
distinguished family in Tusculum. They traced 
their name and origin to Mamilia, the daughter 
of Telegonus, the founder of Tusculum, and the 
son of Odysseus and the goddess Circe (Liv. i. 
49; Dionys. iv. 45.) It was to a member of this 
family, Octavius Mamilius, that Tarquinius 
betrothed his daughter ; and on his expulsion 
from Rome, he took refuge with his son-in- 
law, who, according to the tradition preserved 
by Livy, roused the Latin people against the 
infant republic, and perished in the great 
battle at the lake Regillus (Liv. ii. 15, 19). In 
B.C. 458, the Roman citizenship was given to 
L. Mamilius the dictator of Tusculum, because 
he had two years before marched to the assist- 
ance of the city when it was attacked by 
Herdonius (Liv. iii. 18, 29). The gens was 
divided into three families, Limetanus, Tur- 
rinus, and Vitulus, but none of them were 
of much importance. Among them was Q. 
Mamil. Vitulus, who took Ajjrigentum b.c. 262 
(Pol. i. 17), and C. Mamil. Limetanus, tribune 
b.c. 110 (Sail. Jug. 40, 65). 

Mammilla, the name of a patrician family of 
the Cornelia gens, which was never of much 
importance in the state. 

Mamurius Veturius. [Veturius.] 

Mamurra, a Roman eques, born at Formiae, 
was the commander of the engineers (praefectus 
fabrum) in Julius Caesar's army in Gaul. He 
amassed great riches, the greater part of which, 
however, he owed to Caesar's liberality. He 
was the first person at Rome who used columns 
of solid marble for his house, and covered 
the walls with layers of marble (Plin. xxxvi. 
48). He was in bad repute for licentious- 
ness, and was violently attacked by Catullus 
in his poems, who called him decoctor Formi- 
anus (xli. 4). Mamurra seems to have been 
alive in the time of Horace, who calls Formiae, 
in ridicule, Mamurrarum urbs (Sat. i. 5, 37), 
from which we may infer that his name had 
become a byword of contempt. (See pp. 210, 
211 ; Cat. xxix. 15, lvii. 2 ; Suet. Jul. 73 ; Cic. 
Att. vii. 7, xiii. 52.) 

Mana Genita. [Genita Mama.] 

Mancia, Helvius, a Roman orator, about 
B.C. 90, who was remarkably ugly, and whose 
name is recorded chiefly in consequence of a 
laugh being raised against him on account of 
his deformity by C. Julius Caesar Strabo, who 
was opposed to him on one occasion in some law- 
suit (Cic. de Or. ii. 66, 266). 

Manclnus, Hostilius. 1. A., was praetor 
urbanus B.C. 180, and consul 170, when he had 
the conduct of the war against Perseus, king of 
Macedonia. He remained in Greece for part of 
the next year (169) as proconsul. (Liv. xliii. 
4-17 ; Pol. xxviii. 3.) — 2. L., was legate of the 



consul L. Calpurnius Piso (148) in the siege of 
Carthage, in the third Punic war. He was 
consul 145. (App. Pun. 110 ; Liv. Ep. 51.)— 3. 
C, consul 137, had the conduct of the war 
against Numantia. He was defeated by the 
Numantines, and purchased the safety of the 
remainder of his army by making a peace with 
the Numantines. The senate refused to recog- 
nise it, and went through the hypocritical 
ceremony of delivering him over to the enemy, 
by means of the fetiales. This was done with 
the consent of Mancinus, but the enemy refused 
to accept him. On his return to Rome Manci- 
nus took his seat in the senate, as heretofore, 
but was violently expelled from it by the 
tribune P. Rutilius, on the ground that he had 
lost his citizenship. As the enemy had not 
received him, it was a disputed question whether 
he was a citizen or not by the Jus Postli/minii 
(see Diet, of Ant. s. v. Postliminium), but the 
better opinion was that he had lost his civic 
rights, and they were accordingly restored to 
him by a lex. (Cic. de Or. i. 40, 141, Off. iii. 30, 
109 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 1 ; App. Hisp. 79-83.) 

Mandane. [Cyrus.] 

Manddnius. [Indibilis.] 

Mandri Fontes, a town in Phrygia, a day's 
march N E . of Anabura. It is wrongly written Al- 
andri Fontes in some editions (Liv. xxxviii. 16). 

Mandraplum, Mandropus, or Maudrupolis 
(MavSpoviroAis), a town in the S. of Phrygia, on 
the lake Caralitis. 

Mandubii, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, 
in Burgundy, whose chief town was Alesia. 

Manduria (MavSvpiov in Plut. : Casal Nuovo), 
a town in Calabria, in the territory of the Sal- 
lentines, on the road from Tarentum to Hy- 
druntum, and near a small lake, which is said 
to have been always full to the edge, whatever 
water was added to or taken from it (Plin. ii. 
226), a phenomenon which is still observed by the 
inhabitants. Here Archidamus HI., king of 
Sparta, was defeated and slain in battle by the 
Messapians and Lucanians, b. c. 338 (Plut. Ages. 
3 ; Paus. iii. 10, 5). It was taken by Fabius 
Maximus, b. c. 209, and never recovered its pro- 
sperity (Liv. xxvii. 15). 

Manes (i.e. the ' good beings'), was the name 
given to the spirits of the dead (Fest. p. 146 ; 
Non. p. 66 ; Serv. ad Aen. ii. 268). They were re- 
garded as disembodied and immortal, and were 
worshipped probably from the earliest times : 
hence they were spoken of as Dii Manes. They 
were represented as dwelling beneath the earth 
under the guardianship of Mania (who was 
also called Lara or Larunda), the mother of the 
Lares (Varro, L. L. ix. 61; Plin. xxxii. 2; 
Larunda). It was an ancient custom in all 
towns of Italy to dig a pit, called Mundus, like 
an inverted sky (cf. Ov. Fast. iv. 820; Plut. 
Bom. 10), which was supposed to represent the 
abode of the gods of the underworld, and es- 
pecially of the Manes. Such a pit was on the 
Palatine hill at Rome, and was the Mundus of 
the old Palatine state (Fest. p. 258). The stone 
laid over this, and called lapis manalis, was 
regarded as the door of the underworld, through 
which the Dii Manes passed (Paul. p. 128). At 
the festivals of the gods of the underworld — 
that is, of Dis Pater, Ceres, and Proserpina, as 
well as of the Manes— this stone was removed : 
the ceremony was called ' Mundus patet,' and 
took place three times a year — on August 24, 
October 5, and November 8. As the Manes 
then came forth from the earth these days were 
unlucky for business and for marriage, and, to 
propitiate the dead, offerings were made, called 



MANETHO 



MANTINEA 



521 



inferiae, especially at the parentalia in Febru- 
ary (see Diet, of Ant. s.v.). The Manes were 
joined with the other powers of the underworld 
as the deities to whom the enemies' host was 
devoted to destruction by the ceremony of 
devotio (Liv. viii. 6, 9, 10, x. 28 ; Val. Max. i. 
7, 3), which shows the existence of a very old 
superstition that the spirits of the dead could 
work death. [For the connexion of the Genius 
with the Dii Manes, see p 360, a.] 

Manetho (M.ave6ws orMa«8aii/),aii Egyptian, 
a native of Sebennytus, and priest of Heliopolis, 
who lived in the reign of the first Ptolemy 
(283-246 B. a). He was the first Egyptian who 
gave in the Greek language an account of the 
religion and history of his country. He based 
his information upon the ancient works of 
the Egyptians themselves, and more especially 
upon their sacred books. The work in which 
he gave an account of the theology of the 
Egyptians and of the origin of the gods and 
the world bore the title of Twv Qvulkoiv 
E-ttito^t;. His historical work was entitled a 
History of Egypt. It was divided into three 
parts or books. The first contained the history 
of the country previous to the thirty dynasties, 
or what may be termed the mythology of Egypt, 
and also of the first dynasties. The second 
opened with the eleventh, twelfth, and concluded 
with the nineteenth dynasty. The third gave 
the history of the remaining eleven dynasties, 
and concluded with an account of Nectanebus, 
the last of the native Egyptian kings. This 
work of Manetho is lost ; but large extracts, 
which provide a list of the dynasties, have been 
preserved by the ecclesiastical writers Georgius 
Syncellus and Eusebius. The original work 
contained an account of the kings arranged in 
order in thirty dynasties with a notice of the 
duration of each. In recent times the general 
correctness of Manetho's information has been 
proved by the deciphering of the hieroglyphics, 
and his list, though the names are sometimes 
c orrupted, is a guide for assigning to the names of 
kings upon the monuments their true place in 
the dynasties, and a most important aid in com- 
puting the chronology. The fragments are col- 
lected by C. Miiller, Frag. Hist. — There exists 
an astrological poem, entitled 'AiroTtKeo-fiaTiKa, 
in six books, which bears the name of Manetho ; 
but it is spurious, and cannot have been written 
before the fifth century of our era. Edited by 
Axt and Kigler, Cologne, 1832; Kbchly, 1858. 

Mania. [Manes.] 

Manillas. 1. M., was consul b. c. 149, the 
first year of the third Punic war, and carried on 
war against Carthage. He was celebrated as a 
jurist, especially as framer of deeds of pur- 
chase (Cic. de Or. i. 58, 246 ; Varro, R. R. ii. 
2, 5), and is one of the speakers in Cicero's 
De Iiepublica (i. 12). — 2. C, tribune of the 
plebs, B. c. 66, proposed the law granting to 
Pompey the command of the war against Mith- 
ridates and Tigranes, and the government of the 
provinces of Asia, Cilicia, and Bithynia. This 
bill was warmly opposed by Q. Catulus, Q. Hor- 
tensius, and the leaders of the aristocratical 
party, but was supported by Cicero in an ora- 
tion which has come down to as. At the end of 
his year Manilius was brought to trial by the 
aristocratical party, and was condemned ; but 
of what offence he was accused is uncertain. 
(Cic. pro Leg. Manil. ; Dio Cass, xxxvi. 25 ; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 8.'!; Appian, Mithr. 97; Pint. 
romp. 30.) — 3. Manillas is tin- name generally 
given to the author of the Attronomica, a poem 
in five books written in the reign of Tiberius. 



, It has more to do with astrology than with as- 
tronomy, but is valuable for its learning and for 
| the insight which it gives into the views enter- 
, tained on that subject. The name of the author 
is only gathered from the later MSS., which vary 
between Manilius, Manlius, and Mallius. Edi- 
tions by Bentley, 1739 ; Jacob, Berl. 1846. 

Manila Gens, an ancient and celebrated patri- 
cian gens at Rome. The chief families were 
those of Actdinus, Tokquatus, and Vulso. 

Manliana (MavA'iai>a : Miliana, Bu.), a city 
of importance in Mauretania Caesariensis, where 
one of Pompey's sons died (Ptol. iv. 2, 25). 

M. Manilas, consul b. c. 392, took refuge in 
the Capitol when Rome was taken by the Gauls, 
in 390. One night, when the Gauls endeavoured 
to ascend the Capitol, Manlius was roused from 
his sleep by the cackling of the geese in the 
temple of Juno ; collecting hastily a body of 
men, he succeeded in driving back the enemy, 
who had just reached the summit of the hill. 
From this he is said to have received the sur- 
name of Capitolinns. In 385, he defended the 
cause of the plebeians, who were suffering from 
I the harsh treatment of their patrician creditors. 
The patricians accused him of aspiring to royal 
power, and he was thrown into prison by the 
dictator Cornelius Cossus. The plebeians put 
on mourning for their champion, and were ready 
to take up arms in his behalf. The patricians 
in alarm liberated Manlius ; but this act of con- 
cession only made him bolder, and he still 
championed the cause of the plebeians. In the 
following year the patricians charged him with 
high treason, and brought him before the people 
assembled in the Campus Martius ; but as the 
Capitol which had once been saved by him could 
be seen from this place, the court was removed 
to the Poetelinian grove outside the Porta No- 
mentana. The patricians succeeded in procur- 
ing his condemnation, and the tribunes threw 
him down the Tarpeian rock. Thenceforth, it 
was said, none of the Manila gens bore the 
praenomen of Marcus. (Liv. v. 47, vi. 14 ; Cic. 
Rep. ii. 27, 49.) 

L. Manilas, also called Mallius and Manilius, 
probably belonged to the age of Sulla, and wrote 
on mythology after the manner of Euhemerus 
(Dionys. i. 19; Plin. x. 4 ; Varro, L. L. v. 31). 

Mannus, a son of Tuisco, was regarded by the 
ancient Germans, along with his father, as the 
j founder of their race. They ascribed to Man- 
nus three sons, from whom the three tribes of 
the Ingaevones, Hermiones, and Istaevoms, or 
Iscaeones, derived their names (Tac. Germ. 2). 

Mantiana Palus. [Absissa Palus.] 

Mantinea (Mavriveia, in Honi. Mavrii/tr) : 
Mavriveis), one of the most ancient and important 
towns in Arcadia, situated on the small river 
Ophis, near the centre of the E. frontier of the 
country. It is celebrated in history for the great 
battle fought under its wallsbetween the Spartans 
and Thebans, in which Epaminondasfell, n r. 362. 
According to tradition, Mantinea (which is men- 
tioned in //. ii. 607) was founded by Mantineus, 
the son of Lycaon, but it was formed in reality 
out of the union of four or five hamlets. tPaus 
viii. 8, 4 ; Xen. Hell. v. 2, 6 ; Strab. p. 337.) Till 
the foundation of Megalopolis, it was the largest 
city in Arcadia, and it long exercised a kind of 
supremacy over the other Arcadian towns ; but 
! after the battle of 418 (Thuc. v. 65, 81), the 
Mantineans renounced their claim to this su- 
premacy. In 3H5 the Spartans under Agesipolis 
attacked the city, and destroyed it by turning 
the waters of the Ophis against its walls, which 
wore built of bricks, and the inhabitants were 



522 



MANTIUS 



MAKATHON 



Heracles. (Verg. Aen. x. 200, Eel. ix. 28, 
Georg. ii. 198 ; Strab. p. 213 ; Plin. iii. 130.) 

Maracanda (to; MapaKavSa : Samarkand), 
the capital of the Persian province of Sogdiana 
was seventy stadia in circuit. It was here that 
Alexander the Great killed his friend Clitus. 
(Strab. p. 517 ; Arr. An. iii. 30.) 

Maraphii (Mapdcptoi), one of the three noblest 
tribes of the Persians, standing, with the Maspii, 
next in honour to the Pasargadae (Hdt. i. 125). 

Maratheslum {Mapa6i)<nov), a town on the 
coast of Ionia, between Ephesus and Neapolis : 
it belonged to the Samians, who exchanged it 
with the Ephesians for Neapolis, which lay 
nearer to their island. The modern Scala Nova 
marks the site of one of these towns, but it is 
doubtful which (Strab. p. 639). 

Marathon (MapaBdv: MapaOcvvios), a dermis 
in Attica belonging to the tribe Leontis, was 
situated near a bay on the E. coast of Attica, 
22 miles from Athens by one road, and 26 miles 
by another. It originally belonged to the Attic 
tetrapolis, and is said to have derived its name 
from the hero Marathon. This hero, according 
to one account, was the son of Epopeus, king of 



dispersed in villages (Xen. Hell. v. 2, 6 ; Diod. 
xv. 5). After the battle of Leuctra the city re- 
covered its independence, and the walls were 
rebuilt (Xen. Hell. vi. 5, 3). At a later period it 
joined the Achaean League, but notwithstanding 
formed a close connexion with its old enemy 
Sparta, in consequence of which it was severely 
punished by Aratus, who put to death its lead- 
ing citizens and sold the rest of its inhabitants 
as slaves (Pol. ii. 57 ; Paus. viii. 8, 11). It never 
recovered the effects of this blow. Its name 
was now changed into Antigonla, in honour of 
Antigonus Doson, who had assisted Aratus in 
his campaign against the town. The emperor 
Hadrian restored to the place its ancient appel- 
lation, and rebuilt part of it in honour of his 
favourite Antinous, the Bithynian, who derived 
his family from Mantinea. The ruins belong 
to the buildings of the fourth century B.C. The 
plain, formerly well drained and fertile (Homer, 
II. ii. 607, calls it iparti'Ai), is now swampy. 

MantlUS (Mayrios), son of Melampus, and 
brother of Antiphates. [Melampus.] 

MantO (NlavTw, -ovs). 1. Daughter of the 
Theban soothsayer Tiresias, was herself pro- 
phetess of the Ismenian 
Apollo at Thebes. After 
the capture of Thebes 
by the Epigoni, she was 
sent to Delphi with 
other captives, as an 
offering to Apollo, and 
there became the pro- 
phetess of this god. 
Apollo afterwards sent 
her and her companions 
to Asia, where they 
founded the sanctuary 
of Apollo near the place 
where the town of Co- 
lophon was afterwards 
built. Ehacius, a Cre- 
tan, who had settled 
there, married Manto, 
and became by her the 
father of Mopsus. Ac- 
cording to Euripides, 
she had previously be- 
come the mother of 
Amphilochus and Tisi- 
phone, by Alcmaeon, 
the leader of the Epi- 
goni. Being a pro- 
phetess of Apollo, she 
is also called Daphne, 
i.e. the laurel virgin. 

(Apollod. iii. 7, 4 ; Paus. Plan of the Plain of Marathon, 

vii. 3, 1, ix. 33, 1 ; 

Strab. p. 443.) — 2. Daughter of Heracles, was j Sicyon, who having been expelled from Pelo- 




likewise a prophetess, and the person from 
whom the town of Mantua received its name 
(Verg. Aen. x. 199). 

Mantua (Mantuanus : Mantua), a town in 
Gallia Transpadana, on an island in the river 
Mincius, was not a place of importance, but is 
celebrated because Virgil, who was born at the 
neighbouring village of Andes, regarded Mantua 
as his birthplace. It seems to have been on 
friendly terms with Rome in the second Punic 
war (Liv. xxiv. 10), and later became a munici- 
pium. After the death of Caesar, Octavian as- 
signed some of the lands of Cremona to his 
soldiers, and, as these were not sufficient, took 
some of the Mantuan territory also, which was 
the occasion of Virgil's loss of property. It was 
originally an Etruscan city, and is said to have 
derived its name from Manto, the daughter of 



ponnesus by the violence of his father, settled 
in Attica ; while, according to another account, 
he was an Arcadian who took part in the expe- 
dition of the Tyndaridae against Attica, and 
devoted himself to death before the battle. 
(Paus. i. 32, 4, ii, 1, 1 ; Plut. Thes. 32.) It is 
mentioned as a notable place in Od. vii. 80. 
The site of the ancient town of Marathon was 
probably not at the modern village of Marathon, 
but at a place called Vrana, a little to the S. of 
Marathon. Marathon was situated in a plain, 
which extends along the seashore, about six 
miles in length, and from three miles to one 
mile and a half in breadth. It is surrounded 
on the other three sides by rocky hills and 
rugged mountains. Two marshes bound the 
extremity of the plain ; the northern is more 
than a square mile in extent, but the southern 



MARATHUS 

is much smaller, and is almost dry at the con- 
clusion of the great heats. Through the centre 
of the plain runs a small brook. In this plain 
was fought the celebrated battle between the 
Persians and Athenians, B.C. 490. The Persians 
were drawn up on the plain, and the Athenians 
on some portion of the high ground above the 
plain, their headquarters being in the enclosure 
of Heracles, which overlooked the enemies' 
position (Hdt. vi. 108; Paus. i. 32). The tumu- 
lus raised over the Athenians who fell in the 
battle is still to be seen. 

JIarathus (Mdpados), an important city on 
the coast of Phoenicia, opposite to Aradus and 
near Antaradus (Strab. p. 753) ; it was destroyed 
by the people of Aradus in the time of the 
Syrian king Alexander Balas, a little before 
B.C. 150 (Diod. Frag, xxxiii.). 

Marcella. 1. Daughter of C. Marcellus and 
Octavia, the sister of Augustus. She was thrice 
married : first, to M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who 
separated from her in B.C. 21, in order to marry 
Julia, the daughter of Augustus ; secondly, to 
Julus Antonius, the son of the triumvir, by 
whom she had a son Lucius; thirdly, to Sext. 
Appuleius, consul a.d. 14, by whom she had a 
daughter, Appuleia Varilia (Pint. Ant. 87; Dio 
Cass. liii. 1, liv. 6; Suet. Aug. 03; Tac. Ann. ii. 
50). — 2. Wife of the poet Martial. [Marti.vlis.] 

Marcellinus, the author of the Life of Thucy- 
dides. [Thucydides.J 

Marcellus, Claudius, an illustrious plebeian 
family. 1. M., celebrated as five times consul, 
and the conqueror of Syracuse. In his first 



MARCELLUS 



523 




This coin, struck by P. Cornelias Lentalas Marcellinus 
[see below. No. 12], has on the obverse the head of Slur 
ceUus. the Conqueror of Syracuse. The reverse re- 

Jreacnts him carrying the ttjtolin ajtimn to the Temple of 
uplter Feretrius, with MARCELLVS COS. O.VINQ. 

consulship, B.C. 222, Marcellus and his colleague 
conquered the Insubrians in Cisalpine Gaul, 
and took their capital Mediolanum. Marcellus 
distinguished himself by slaying in battle with 
his own hand Britomartus or Viridomarus, the 
king of the enemy, whose spoils he afterwards 
dedicated as spolia opima in the temple of 
Jupiter Feretrius. This was the third and last 
instance in Roman history in which such an 
offering was made (Pol. ii. 84 ; Plut. Marc. 6; 
Val. Max. ii. 3, 5 ; Propert. v. 10, 40).— In 21fi 
Marcellus was appointed praetor, and rendered 
important service to the Roman cause in the S. 
of Italy after the disastrous battle of Cannae. 
He was mainly answerable for the important 
repulse of Hannibal from Nola, and for the , 
successful resistance in Campania in the follow- 
ing years. He had been destined for a com- 
mand in Sicily, but he remained in the S. of 
Itily, with the title of proconsul. In the 
course of the same year he was elected consul 
in the place of Postumius Albinos, who had 
been killed in Cisulpine Gaul ; but as the senate 
declared that the omens were unfavourable, 
Marcellus resigned the consulship. In 214 
Marcellus was consul a third linn-, and still 
continned in the S. of Italy, where he carried j 
on the war with ability, but without decisive 1 
results. In the summer of this year ho was ' 



sent into Sicily, since the party favourable to 
the Carthaginians had obtained the upper hand 
in many of the cities in the island. After 
taking Leontini, he proceeded to lay siege to 
Syracuse, both by sea and land. His attacks 
were vigorous and unremitting; but though he 
brought many powerful military engines against 
the walls, these were rendered whollry unavailing 
by the superior skill and science of Archimedes. 
Marcellus was at last compelled to turn the 
siege into a blockade. It was not till 212 that 
he obtained possession of the place. It was 
given up to plunder, and Archimedes was one 
of the inhabitants slain by the Roman soldiers. 
The booty found in the captured city was 
immense ; and Marcellus also carried off many 
of the works of art with which the city had 
been adorned, to grace the temples at Rome. 
This was the first instance of a practice which 
afterwards became so general. In 210 he was 
consul a fourth time, and again had the conduct 
of the war against Hannibal. He fought a 
battle with the Carthaginian general near 
Numistro in Lucania, but without any decisive 
result. In 202 he retained the command of his 
army with the rank of proconsul. In 208 he 
was consul for the fifth time. He was slain in 
a cavalry reconnaissance near Venusia, at the 
age of 60, and was buried with due honours by 
order of Hannibal (Liv. xxvii. 28 ; Pol. x. 32 ; 
Val. Max. i. 6). — Marcellus appears to have 
been harsh, unyielding, and cruel ; but he was 
a brave and experienced officer, and to him as 
much as to any other single commander was 
due the successful resistance which the Romans 
made to Hannibal after Cannae (Plut. Mar- 
cellus ; Liv. xxii.-xxvii.). — 2. M., son of the pre- 
ceding, accompanied his father as military tri- 
bune, in 208, and was present with him at the 
time of his death. In 204 he was tribune of 
the people ; in 200 curule aedile ; in 198 prae- 
tor ; and in 19G consul. In his consulship he 
carried on the war against the Insubrians and 
Boii in Cisalpine Gaul (Liv. xxxv. 5). He was 
censor in 189, and died 177 (Liv. xxxvii. 58, 
xli. 13). — 3. M., consul 183, carried on the war 
against the Ligurians (Liv. xxxix. 54). — 4. M., 
son of No. 2, was thrice consul, first in 166, 
when he gained a victory over the Alpine trib< s 
of the Gauls ; secondly, in 155, when l.e 
defeated the Ligurians ; and thirdly, in 152, 
when he carried on the war against the Celti- 
berians in Spain. In 148 he was sent ambassador 
to Masinissa, king of Numidia, but was shi[>- 
wrecked on the voyage, and perished. (Liv. xlv. 
41. Ep. 48, 50; Pol. xxxv. 2; Strab. p. 141.)— 
5. M., an intimate friend of Cicero, is first 
mentioned as curule aedile with P. Clodius in 
5G. He was consul in 51, and showed himself 
a bitter enemy to Caesar. Among other ways 
in which he displayed his enmity, he caused a 
citizen of Comum to be scourged, in order to 
show his contempt for the privileges lately 
bestowed by Caesar upon that colony (Cic. ail 
Att. v. 11; Suet. Jul. 3ft), But the animosity 
of Marcellus did not blind him to the impru- 
dence of forcing on a war for which his party 
was unprepared ; and at the beginning of 49 he 
in vain suggested the necessity of making levies 
of troops, before any open steps were taken 
against Caesar. His advice was overruled, and 
he was among the first to fly from Rome and 
Italy (Cic. ail Fam. viii. 18 ; Caes. B.C. i. 2). 
After the battle of Pharsalia (48) he withdraw 
to Mytilene, where lie gave himself up to 
rhetoric and philosophy- At length, in 40, in a 
full assembly of the senate, 0. Marcellus, the 



524 



MAECELLUS 



MAECIA 



cousin of the exile, threw himself at Caesar's 
feet to implore the pardon of his kinsman, and 
his example was followed by the whole body of 
the assembly. Caesar yielded to this demonstra- 
tion of opinion, and Marcellus was declared to 
be forgiven. Cicero thereupon returned thanks 
to Caesar, in the oration Pro Marcello, which 
has come down to us. Marcellus set out on his 
return ; but he was murdered at the Piraeus, 
by one of his own attendants; P. Magius Chilo 
(Cic. ad Fam. vi. 6 ; ad Att. xiii. 10-22).— 6. 
C., brother of the preceding, was consul 49. He 
is constantly confounded with his cousin, C. 
Marcellus [No. 8], who was consul in 50. He 
accompanied his colleague, Lentulus, in his 
flight from Eome, and eventually crossed over 
to Greece. In the following year (48) he com- 
manded part of Pompey's fleet; but this is the 
last we hear of him (Dio Cass. xli. 1-3; Caes. 

B. C. i. 1-5, 14, 25).— 7. C, uncle of the two 
preceding, was praetor in 80, and afterwards 
succeeded M. Lepidus in the government of 
Sicily. His administration of the province is 
frequently praised by Cicero in his speeches 
against Verres, as affording the most striking 
contrast to that of the accused. Marcellus 
himself was present on that occasion, as one of 
the judges of Verres (Cic. Verr. ii. 3, 21). — 8. 

C, son of the preceding, and first cousin of M. 
Marcellus [No. 5], whom he succeeded in the 
consulship, 50. He enjoyed the friendship of 
Cicero from an early age, and attached himself 
to the party of Pompey, notwithstanding his 
connexion with Caesar by his marriage with 
Octavia. In his consulship he was the advocate 
of all the most violent measures against Caesar ; 
but when the war actually broke out, he dis- 
played the utmost timiditv and helplessness. 
He could not make up his mind to join the 
Pompeian party in Greece ; and after much 
hesitation he at length determined to remain in 
Italy. He readily obtained the forgiveness of 
Caesar, and thus was able to intercede with 
the dictator in favour of his cousin, M. Mar- 
cellus [No. 5]. He must have lived till near 
the close of 41, as his widow, Octavia, was 
pregnant by him when betrothed to Antony in 
the following year (Dio Cass, xlviii. 31). — 9. M., 
son of the preceding and of Octavia, the 
daughter of C. Octavius and sister of Augustus, 
was born in 43. As early as 39 he was betrothed 
in marriage to the daughter of Sex. Pompey ; 
but the marriage never took place, as Pompey's 
death, in 35, removed the occasion for it. In 
27 he seems, with Tiberius, to have been one of 
the leaders of the boys in the ' Trojan ' game, 
celebrated by order of Augustus, on which 
Virgil, as an eye-witness, probably founded his 
description. [Diet, of Ant. art. Trojae Ludus.] 
Augustus, who had probably destined the young 
Marcellus as his successor, adopted him as his 
son in 25, and at the same time gave him his 
daughter Julia in marriage. In 23 he was curule 
aedile, but in the autumn of the same year he 
was attacked by the disease of which he died 
shortly after at Baiae, notwithstanding all the 
skill and care of the celebrated physician 
Antonius Musa. He was in the twentieth year of 
his age, and was thought to have given so much 
promise of future excellence, that his death was 
mourned as a public calamity. Augustus him- 
self pronounced the funeral oration over his 
remains, which were deposited in the mauso- 
leum lately erected for the Julian family (Dio 
Cass. liii. 28, 31 ; Propert. iii. 18, 30). At a 
subsequent period (14) Augustus dedicated in 
his name the magnificent theatre near the 



Forum Olitorium, of which the remains are 
still visible. But the most durable monument 
to the memory of Marcellus is to be found in 
the well-known passage of Virgil {Aen. vi. 861- 
887), which must have been recited to Augustus 
and Octavia before the end of 22. — 10. M., 
called by Cicero, for distinction's sake, the 
father of Aeserninus (Brut. 36), served under 
Marius in Gaul in 102, and as one of the lieu- 
tenants of L. Julius Caesar in the Marsic war, 
90 (Cic. Brut. 36; App. B.C. i. 40).— 11. M. 
Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus, son or grand- 
son of No. 10, quaestor in Spain in 48, under 
Q. Cassius Longinus, took part in the mutiny 
of the soldiers against Cassius (Bell. Alex. 57- 
64; Dio Cass. xlii. 15).— 12. P. Cornelius 
Lentulus Marcellinus, son of No. 10, must 
have been adopted by one of the Cornelii 
Lentuli. He was one of Pompey's lieutenants 
in the war against the pirates, B.C. 67 (App. 
Mithr. 95). — 13. Cn. Cornelius lentulus Mar- 
cellinus, son of the preceding, was praetor 59, 
after which he governed the province of Syria 
for nearly two years, and was consul 56, when 
j he showed himself a friend of the aristocratical 
party, and opposed all the measures of the 
triumvirate (Dio Cass, xxxix. 16). 

Marcellus, Eprlus, born of an obscure family 
at Capua, rose by his oratorical talents to dis- 
tinction at Eome in the reigns of Claudius, 
Nero, and Vespasian. He was one of the prim 
cipal delators under Nero, and accused many 
of the most distinguished men of his time (Tac. 
Ann. xiii. 23, xvi. 23, 26, 28, 33). He was brought 
to trial in the reign of Vespasian, but was 
acquitted, and enjoyed the patronage and favour 
of this emperor as well. In a.d. 69, however, 
he was convicted of having taken part in the 
conspiracy of Alienus Caecina, and therefore 
put an end to his own life (Dio Cass. lxvi. 16). 

Marcellus, Nonius. [Nonius Marcellus.] 

Marcellus Sidetes, a native of Side, in Pam- 
phylia, lived in the reigns of Hadrian and Anto- 
ninus Pius, A.D. 117-161. He wrote a long 
medical poem in Greek hexameter verse, con- 
sisting of 42 books, of which two fragments re- 
main (ed. Lehrs, 1846). 

Marcellus, Ulpius, a jurist, lived under Anto- 
ninus Pius and M. Aurelius. He is often cited 
in the Digest. 

Marcia. 1. Wife of M. Eegulus (Sil. It. 
vi. 403, 576).— 2. Wife of M. Cato Uticensis', 
daughter of L. Marcius Philippus, consul B.C. 
56. It was about 56 that Cato is related to 
have ceded her to his friend Q. Hortensius, with 
the approbation of her father. She continued 
to live with Hortensius till the death of the 
latter, in 50, after which she returned to Cato 
(App. B. C. ii. 99 ; Plut. Cat. Min. 25 ; Lucan, 
ii. 329). — 3. Wife of Fabius Maximus, the friend 
of Augustus, learnt from her husband the secret 
visit of the emperor to his grandson Agrippa, 
and informed Livia of it, in consequence of 
which she became the cause of her husband's 
death, a.d. 13 or 14 (Tac. Ann. i. 5 ; Ov. Fast. 
vi. 802). — i. Daughter of Cremutius Cordus. 
[Cordus.] — 5. The favourite concubine of Coin- 
modus, organised the plot by which the emperor 
perished. [Commodus.] She subsequently be- 
came the wife of Eclectus, his chamberlain, 
also a conspirator, and was eventually put to 
death by Julianus, along with Laetus, who also 
had been actively engaged in the plot. 

Marcia Gens, claimed to be descended from 
A ncus Marcius, the fourth king of Eome. [Anous 
Mahcius.] Hence one of its families subse- 
quently assumed the name of Bex, and the 



MARCIANA 



MAREA 



525 



rieads of Numa. Pompilius and Ancus Marcius 
were placed upon the coins of the Marcii. But 
notwithstanding these claims to such high 
antiquity, no patricians of this name, with the 
exception of Coriolanus, are mentioned in the 
early history of the republic [Coriolaxus] ; and 
it was not till after the enactment of the Lici- 
nian laws that any member of the gens obtained 
the consulship. The names of the most dis- 
tinguished families are Censorixus, Phtlippus, 
Rex, and Rutilus. 

Marciana, the sister of Trajan, and mother 
of Matadia, who was the mother of Sabina, the 
wife of the emperor Hadrian. 

Marcianopolis IMapKiavovwoAis : Devna), an 
important city in the interior of Moesia Inferior, 
W. of Odessus, founded by Trajan, and named 
after his sister Marciana. It was situated on 
the high road from Constantinople to the 
Danube (Amm. Marc, xxvii. 6, 12). 

Marcianus. 1. Emperor of the East a.d. 
450-457, was a native of Thrace or Illyricum, 
and served for many years as a common soldier 
in the imperial army. Of his early liistory we 
liave only a few particulars ; but he had attained 
such distinction at the death of Theodosius II. 
in 450, that the widow of the latter, the cele- 
brated Pulcheria, offered her hand and the 
imperial title to Marcian, who thus became 
Emperor of the East. Marcian was a man of 
resolution, and when Attila sent to demand 
the tribute which the younger Theodosius had 
engaged to pay, the emperor replied, ' I have 
iron for Attila, but no gold.' Attila swore 
vengeance ; but he first invaded the Western 
Empire, and his death, two years afterwards, 
saved the East. In 451 Marcian assembled the 
council of Chalcedon, in which the doctrines of 
the Eutychians were condemned. He died in 
457, and was succeeded by Leo (Procop. Vand. 
i. 4 ; Priscus, pp. 39, 72).— 2. Of Heraclea in 
Pontus, a Greek geographer, of uncertain date, 
but who perhaps lived in the 5th century of 
the Christian era. He wrote a work in prose, 
entitled A Periplus of the External Sea, both 
eastern and western, and of the largest 
Islands in it. The ' External Sea ' he used in 
opposition to the Mediterranean. This work 
was in two books ; of which the former, on the 
E. and S. seas, has come down to us entire ; 
but of the latter, which treated of the W. and 
N. seas, we possess only the last three chapters 
on Africa, and a mutilated one on the distance 
between Rome and the principal cities in the 
world. In this work he chiefly follows Ptolemy. 
He also made an epitome of the Periplus of Ar- 
temiodorus of Epheaus [Aktemiodorus, No. 4 J, 
of which we possess the introduction, jmd the 
periplus of Pontus, Bithynia, and Paphlagonia. 
Marcianus likewise published an edition of 
Menippus with additions and corrections. [Mk- 
nippus.] The works of Marcianus are edited 
by Miiller, in the (leographi Graeci Minores, 
and separately by Hoffmann, Marciani Pert- 
plus, dsc., Lips. 1841. 

Marcianus, AellU8, a Roman jurist, who lived 
under Caracalla and Alexander Severus. His 
works are frequently cited in the Digest. 

Marcianus Capeila. [Capella.] 

Marcius, an Italian si-it, whose prophetic 
verses (Carminn Marrinna) were first dis- 
covered by M. Atilius, the praetor, in B.C. 21S. 
Tliey were written in Latin, and two extracts 
from them are given by Livy, one containing a 
prophecy of the defeat of the Romans at Cannae, 
and the second, commanding the institution of 
the Ludi A poll in ares. The Marcian prophecies 



were subsequently preserved in the Capitol 
with the Sibylline books. Some writers men- 
tion only one person of this name, but others 
speak of two brothers, the Marcii. 

Marcius. [Marcia Gens.] 

Marcius Mons or Maecius (rb Mdpiciov upos), 
the scene of the defeat of Volscians and Latins 
by Camillus, B.C. 389. Plutarch says that it is 
about 25 miles from Rome, and Livy (who calls 
it Maecius) places it near Lanuvium. Some 
writers make it the modern Colle di Due Torri. 
(Plut. Cam. 33 ; Liv. vi. 2.) 

Marco-durum (Diiren on the Boer), the scene 
of a victory of Civilis, some distance west of 
Cologne (Tac. Hist. iv. 28). 

Marcomanni (that is, men of the mark or 
border) a powerful German people of the Suevic 
j race, originally dwelt in the SW. of Germany, 
between the Rhine and the Danube, on the 
banks of the Main ; but under the guidance of 
their chieftain Maroboduus, who had been 
brought up at the court of Augustus, they mi- 
grated into the land of the Boii, a Celtic race, 
who inhabited Bohemia and part of Bavaria. 
Here they settled after subduing the Boii, and 
I founded a powerful kingdom, which extended S. 
as far as the Danube. [Maroboduus.] At a 
later time, the Marcomanni, in conjunction 
with the Quadi and other German tribes, carried 
on a long and bloody war with the emperor M. 
Aurelius, which lasted during the greater part 
of his reign, and was only brought to a conclu- 
sion by his son Commodus purchasing peace of 
( the barbarians as soon as he ascended the 
throne, a.d. 180. (Tac. Germ. 42; Dio Cass, 
lxvii. 7 ; Amm. Marc. xix. 6.) 

Mardeneor Mardyene (MapSijc^, MapSu-nvri), 
a district of Persis, extending N. from Taocene 
to the W. frontier and to the sea-coast. It 
seems to have taken its name from some branch 
of the great people called Mardi or Amardi, who 
are found in various parts of W. and central 
Asia ; for example, in Armenia, Media, Margi- 
ana, and, under the same form of name as those 
in Persis, in Sogdiana. (Hdt. i. 125; Strab. p. 
524 ; Ptol. vi. 4, 3.) 

Mardi. [Amardi, Mardene.] 

Marddnlus (Wlap86vios), a distinguished Per- 
sian, was the son of Gobryas, and the son-in- 
law of Darius Hystaspis. In B.C. 492 he was 
sent by Darius, with a large armament, to punish 
Eretria and Athens for the aid they had given 
to the Ionians. But his fleet was destroyed by 
;i storm off Mt. Athos, and the greater part 
of his land forces was cut to pieces by the 
Brygians, a Thracian tribe. On the accession 
of Xerxes, Mardonius was one of the chief insti- 
gators of the expedition against Greece, with 
the government of which he hoped to be in- 
vested after its conquest ; and he was appointed 
one of the generals of the land army. After 
the battle of Salamis (480), he became alarmed 
for the consequences of the advice he had given, 
and persuaded Xerxes to return home with the 
rest of the army, leaving 800,000 men under 
his command for the subjugation of Greece. 
He was defeated in the following year (479), 
I near Plataeae, by the Greek forces under I'au- 
I sanias, and was slain in the battle. (Hdt. vi. 
43. 91, vii. 5, 9, 82, viii. 100-144, ix. 1-65.) 

Mardus. Amakdhs.J 

Mardyene. Mardyeni. [Mabdene.] 

Marea, -ea, -la (Mapoj, Mapda, MapU: 
Mapfwrrjj, Mareota : Mariiit, Ru.), a town of 
Lower Egypt, in the district of Mareotis, on the 
S. side of the lake Mareotis, at the mouth of a 
canal (Time. i. 104 ; Diod. ii. 081 ; Athen. pp. 



526 



MAEEOTIS 



MARIUS 



25, 33;. It was a frontier garrison under the 
Pharaohs on the side of Libya, but declined in 
importance afterwards. 

Mareotis (MapewTis: Mareoticus). Also 
called Mapeavj-rjs N6/xos, a district of Lower 
Egypt, on the extreme NW., on the borders of 
the Libyae Nomos ; it produced good wine 
(Strab. p. 796; Colum. B. B. iii. 2; Verg. 
Georg. ii. 91 ; Hor. Od. i. 37, 14). 

Mareotis or Marea (or -ia) Lacus (?) 
Mapeurts, Mapela, Map/a \lfivri '. Birket-Mariut, 
or El-Kreit), a considerable lake in the NW. of 
Lower Egypt, separated from the Mediterra- 
nean by the neck of land on which Alexandria 
stood, and supplied with water by the Canopic 
branch of the Nile, and by canals. It was less 
than 300 stadia (30 geog. miles) long, and more 
than 150 wide. It was surrounded with vines, 
palms, and papyrus. It served as the rjort of 
Alexandria for vessels navigating the Nile. 

Mares (MSpes), a people of Asia, on the N. 
coast of the Euxine, served in the army of Xerxes, 
equipped with helmets of wickerwork, leathern 
shields, and javelins (Hdt. iii. 94, vii. 79). 

Maresa, Marescha (Mapr/ad, Mapicrd, 
Mapicrcrd, Mapecr^a : prob. Ru. SSW. of Beit 
Jibrin), an ancient fortress of Palestine, in the 
S. of Judaea, of some importance in the history 
of the early kings of Judah and of the Macca- 
bees. The Parthians had destroyed it before 
the time of Eusebius ; and it is probable that 
its ruins contributed to the erection of the city 
of Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin), which was 
afterwards built on the site of the ancient 
Baetogabra, two Roman miles NW. of Maresai 
[See Diet, of the Bible, art. M.ireshah.] 

Marescha. [Mabesa.] 

Margiana (r/ Mapyiavli : the S. part of Khiva, 
SW. part of Bokhara, and NE. part of Khoras- 
san), a province of the ancient Persian empire, 
and afterwards of the Greco-Syrian, Parthian, 
and Persian kingdoms, in Central Asia, N. of 
the mountains called Sariphi (Ghoor), a part of 
the chain of the Indian Caucasus, which 
divided it from Aria ; and bounded on the E. 
by Bactriana, on the NE. and N. by the river 
Oxus, which divided it from Sogdiana and 
Scythia, and on the W. by Hyrcania. It 
received its name from the river Margus (Mur- 
ghab), which flows through it, from SE. to- 
NW., and is lost in the sands of the Desert of 
Khiva. On this river, near its termination, 
stood the capital of the district, Antiochia 
Margiana (Merv). With the exception of the 
districts round this and the minor rivers, which 
produced excellent wine, the country was for 
the most part a sandy desert. Its chief inhabi- 
tants were the Derbices, Parni, Tapuri, and 
branches of the great tribes of the Massagetae, 
Dahae, and Mardi. The country became 
known to the Greeks by the expeditions of 
Alexander and Antiochus I., the first of whom 
founded, and the second rebuilt, Antiochia ; 
and the Romans of the age of Augustus ob- 
tained further information about it from the 
returned captives who had been taken by the 
Parthians and had resided at Antiochia. (Strab. 
p. 516 ; Ptol. vi. 10 ; Plin. vi. 46.) 
Margites. [Homerus, p. 425, b.] 
Margum or Margus, a fortified place in 
Moesia Superior, W. of Viminacium, situated 
on the river Margus (Morava) at its confluence 
with the Danube. Here Diocletian gained a 
decisive victory over Carinus. The river 
Margus, which is one of the most important of 
the southern tributaries of the Danube, rises in 
Mt. Orbelus. (Eutrop. ix. 13, x. 20.) 



Margus. [Margiana.] 

Maria. [Marea, Mareotis.] 

Mariaba (WlaplaQa. : Marib), the chief town 
of the Sabaei in SW. Arabia (Strab. pp. 768, 
778). It is uncertain whether this is the same 
place as the Mariaba mentioned by Strabo p. 
782 (where some read Marsiaba) as the furthest 
point reached by Aelius Gallus, and as belonging 
to the tribe Rhainanitae. On the whole, it is 
probable that they were identical, and that the 
Rhamanitae were merely a branch of the Sabaei. 
It is likely that the Mariba of Plin. vi. 160 is 
also the same place. 

Mariamma (M.apidfj./xri, -tdfir), -idfivri), a city 
of Coele- Syria, some miles W. of Emesa, 
assigned by Alexander the Great to the terri- 
tory of Aradus (Arrian, An. ii. 14, 18). 

Mariamne. [Herodes.] 

Mariamne T arris, a tower at Jerusalem, 
built by Herod the Great. 

Mariana, a Roman colony on the E. coast of 
Corsica founded by C. Marius (Plin. iii. 80 ; Mel. 
ii. 7, 19 ; Sen. Cons, ad Helv. 8), the ruins of 
which are extant under their ancient name at 
the mouth of the river Golo. 

Mariana Fossa. [Fossa.] 

Mariandyni (MapiavSvvoi), an ancient people 
of Asia Minor, on the N coast, E. of the river 
Sangarius, in the NE. part of Bithynia. With 
respect to their ethnical affinities, it seems 
doubtful whether they were connected with the 
Thracian tribes (the Thyni and Bithyni) on the 
W., or the Paphlagonians on the E. ; but the 
latter appears the more probable. (Hdt. iii. 90, 
vii. 72; Strab. pp. 345, 542; Xen. An. 4, 4; 
Aesch. Bers. 938.) 

Marianus Mons (Sierra Moreno), a moun- 
tain in Hispania Baetica, properly only a 
western offshoot of the Orospeda. The eastern 
part of it was called Saltus Castulonensis, and 
derived its name from the town of Castulo. 
(Ptol. ii. 4, 15 ; cf. Strab. p. 142.) 

Marica, a Latin nymph, the mother of 
Latinus by Faunus, was worshipped by the 
inhabitants of Minturnae in a grove on the 
river Liris. Hence the country round Min- 
turnae is called by Horace (Od. iii. 17, 7) 
Maricae litora. 

Marinus (Map?vos). 1. Of Tyre, a Greek 
geographer, who lived in the middle of the 
second century of the Christian era, and was 
the immediate predecessor of Ptolemy. Mari- 
nus was undoubtedly the founder of mathe- 
matical geography in antiquity ; a,nd Ptolemy 
based his work upon that of Marinus. [Ptole- 
maeus.] The chief merit of Marinus was, that 
he put an end to the uncertainty that had 
hitherto prevailed respecting the positions oi 
places, by assigning to each its tatitude and 
longitude. — 2. Of Flavia Neapolis, in Palestine, 
a philosopher and rhetorician, the pupil and 
successor of Proclus, whose Life he wrote, a work 
still extant, edited by Boissonade, Lips. 1814. 

Marisus (Marosch), called Maris (Mdpts) by 
Herodotus, a river of Dacia, which according to 
the ancient writers falls into the Danube, but 
in reality it falls into the Theiss, and, along 
with this river, into the Danube (Hdt. iv. 49 ; 
Strab. p. 304). 

Maritima, a seaport town of the Avatici, 
and a Roman colony in Gallia Narbonensis 
(Mel. ii. 5 ; Ptol. ii. 18, 8). 

Marius. 1. C, who was seven times consul, 
was born in B.C. 157, near Arpinum, of an 
obscure family. His father's name was C. 
Marius, and his mother's Fulcinia ; and his 
parents, as well as Marius himself, were clients 



MARIUS 



527 



of the noble plebeian house of the Herennii. 
So indigent, indeed, was the family, that 
young Marius is said to have worked as a 
common peasant for- wages, before he entered 
the Roman army. (Comp. Juv. viii. 246 ; Plut. 
Mar. 3 ; Plin. xxxiii. 150.) He distinguished 
himself so much by his valour at the siege 
of Numantia in Spain (134), as to attract the 
notice of Scipio Africanus, who is said to have 
foretold his future greatness (Cic. pro Ball. 
20, 47 ; Val. Max. ii. 2, 3). His name does not 
occur again for fifteen years ; but in 119 he was 
elected tribune of the plehs, when he was 
38 years of age. In this office he came for- 
ward as a popular leader, and proposed a law to 
give greater freedom to the people at the elec- 
tions ; and when the senate attempted to over- 
awe him, he commanded one of his officers to 
carry the consul Metellus to prison. He now 
became a marked man, and the aristocracy op- 
posed him with all their might. He lost his 
election to the aedileship, and with difficulty 
obtained the praetorship ; but he acquired in- 
fluence by his marriage with Julia, the sister 
of C. Julius Caesar, the father of the future 
ruler of Rome. In 109 Marius served in Africa 
as legate of the consul Q. Metellus in the war 
against Jugurtha, where he was soon regarded 
as the most distinguished officer in the army 
(Sail. Jug. 46 ff.). He also ingratiated himself 
with the soldiers, who praised him in their 
letters to their friends at Rome. His popularity 
became so great that he resolved to return to 
Rome, and become at once a candidate for the 
consulship; but it was with great difficulty 
that he obtained from Metellus permission to 
leave Africa. On his arrival at Rome he was 
elected consul with an enthusiasm which bore 
down all opposition before it ; and he received 
from the people the province of Numidia, and 
the conduct of the war against Jugurtha (107). 
(Sail. Jug. 73.) On his return to Numidia he 
carried on the war with great vigour ; and in the 
following year (106) Jugurtha was surrendered 
to him by the treachery of Bocchus, king of ! 
Mauretania. [Jugurtha.] Marius sent his 
quaestor Sulla to receive the Numidian king 
from Boccluis (Sail. Jug. 103 ff.). This circum- 
stance sowed the seeds of the personal hatred 
which afterwards existed between Marius and 
Sulla, since the enemies of Marius claimed for 
Sulla the merit of bringing the war to a close by 
obtaining possession of the person of Jugurtha. 
Meantime Italy was threatened by a vast horde 
of barbarians, who had migrated from the N. of 
Gennany. The two leading nations of which j 
they consisted were called Cimbri and Teutones, i 
both probably of German race, though numbers 
of Celts had joined them, and Celtic leaders 
were prominent in their battles. Among these 
Celtic contingents were the Ambrones, and , 
Home of the Swiss tribes, such as the Tigurini. 
The whole host is said to have contained j 
300,000 fighting men, besides a much larger 
number of women and children. They had 
defeated one Roman army after another, and it 
appeared that nothing could check their pro- 
gress. Everyone felt that Marius was the only j 
man capable of saving the state, and he was 
accordingly elected consul a second time 
daring his absence in Africa. Marius entered , 
Rome in triumph on the 1st of January. Mean- 
time the threatened danger was for a while 
averted. Instead of crossing the Alps, the 
Cimbri marched into Spain, which they ravaged 
for the next two or three years. But as the ] 
return of the barbarians was constantly ex- I 



j pected, Marius was elected consul a third time 
j in 103, and a fourth time in 102. In the latter 
of these years the Cimbri returned into Gaul. 
The barbarians now divided their forces. The 
Cimbri marched round the northern foot of the 
Alps, in order to enter Italy by the NE., cross- 
ing the Tyrolese Alps by the defiles of Triden- 
tum (Trent). The Teutones and Ambrones, on 
the other hand, marched against Marius, who 
had taken up a position in a fortified camp on 
the Rhone. The decisive battle was fought 
near Aquae Sextiae (Aix). The carnage was 
dreadful. The whole nation was annihilated, 
for those who did not fall in the battle put an 
end to their own lives. The Cimbri, meantime, 
had forced their way into Italy. Marius was 
elected consul a fifth time (101), and joined the 
proconsul Catulus in the N. of Italy. The two 
generals gained a great victory over the enemy 
on a plain called the Campi Raudii, near Ver- 
cellae (Vercelh). The Cimbri met with the 
same fate as the Teutones ; the whole nation 
was destroyed. Marius was received at Rome 
with unprecedented honours. He was hailed as 
the saviour of the state ; Ins name was coupled 
with the gods in the libations and at banquets, 
and he received the title of third founder of 
Rome. The reform of Marius which had the 
most lasting effect was the reorganisation of 
the army. The richer classes now shrank from 
military service, and the middle class had 
almost disappeared. Accordingly Marius ad- 
mitted all free-born citizens to the infantry, 
and abolished all old distinctions of rank. 
All recruits went through the same severe drill, 
I like that of the gladiators, devised by P. 
Rutilius Rufus, so that the army was composed 
of professional soldiers, no longer a militia. 
The old distribution of maniples was re- 
placed by making the cohort the unit. The 
cavalry was henceforth composed of foreign 
troops, Thracians, Africans and Gauls, and the 
light-armed troops were drawn from Liguria and 
the Balearic isles. Hence it is said with some 
truth that with Marius began the mercenary 
army. [For details see Diet, of Autiq. art. 
Exercitus.'} — Hitherto the career of Marius 
had been a glorious one ; but the remainder 
of his life is full of horrors, and brings out 
the worst features of his character. In order 
to secure the consulship a sixth time, he 
entered into close connexion with two of the 
worst demagogues that ever appeared at Rome, 
Saturninusand Glaucia. He gained his object, 
and was consul a sixth time in 100. In this 
year he drove into exile his old enemy Metellus ; 
but shortly afterwards, when Saturninus and 
Glaucia took up arms against the state, Marius 
crushed the insurrection by command of the 
senate. [Saturninus. j For the next few years 
Marius took little part in public affairs. He 
possessed none of the qualifications which were 
necessary to maintain influence in the state 
during a time of peace, being an unlettered 
soldier, rude in manners, and arrogant in 
conduct. The general result of his policy 
showed his incapacity for politics. As the 
event proved, he had really acted so as to 
Undermine what remained of the Gracchan 
constitution and to pave the way for a reaction 
towards oligarchy. The Social war again called 
him into active service (90). He served as 
legate of the consul I'. Rutilius Lupus; and 
after the latter had fallen in battle, he defeated 
the Marsi in two successive engagements. 
Murius was now 07, and his body hud grown 
stout and unwieldy ; but he waB still us greedy 



528 



MAR 



MAROBODUUS 



■of honour and distinctio n. 
He had set his heart ir n- 
mand of the war agains :ie 
senate had bestowed upon the consul Bulla at 
the end of the Social war (88). In order to 
gain his object, Marius allied himself to the 
tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus, who brought for- 
ward a law for distributing the Italian allies, 
who had just obtained the Roman franchise, 
among all the Roman tribes. As those new 
citizens greatly exceeded the old citizens in 
number, they would of course be able to carry 
whatever they pleased in the comitia. The law 
was carried notwithstanding the violent opposi- 
tion of the consuls, and the tribes, in which 
the new citizens now had the majority, ap- 
pointed Marius to the command of the war 
against Mithridates. Sulla fled to his army, 
which was stationed at Nola ; and when Marius 
sent thither two military tribunes to take the 
command of the troops, Sulla not only refused 
to surrender the command, but marched upon 
Rome at the head of his army. Marius was now 
obliged to take to flight. After wandering 
along the coast of Latium, he was at length 
taken prisoner in the marshes formed by the 
river Liris, near Minturnae. The magistrates of 
this place resolved to put him to death, in 
accordance with a command which Sulla had 
sent to all the towns in Italy. A Gallic or 
Cimbrian soldier undertook to carry their 
sentence into effect, and with a drawn sword 
entered the apartment where Marius was 
confined. The part of the room in which Marius 
lay was in the shade ; and to the frightened 
barbarian the eyes of Marius seemed to dart out 
fire, and from the darkness a' terrible voice 
exclaimed — ' Man, durst thou murder C. 
Marius ? ' The barbarian immediately threw 
down his sword, and rushed out of the house. 
(Plut. Mar. 37 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 19 ; Cic. Fin. ii. 
32.) Straightway there was a revulsion of feel- 
ing among the inhabitants of Minturnae. They 
got ready a ship, and placed Marius on board. 
He reached Africa in safety, and landed at 
Carthage ; but he had scarcely put his foot on 
shore before the Roman governor sent an officer 
to bid him leave the country. This last blow 
almost unmanned Marius : his only reply was 
— ' Tell the praetor that you have seen C. 
Marius a fugitive sitting among the ruins of 
Carthage.' Soon afterwards Marius was joined 
by his son, and they took refuge in the island of 
Cercina. During this time a revolution had 
taken place at Rome, in consequence of which 
Marius was enabled to return to Italy. The 
consul Cinna (87), who belonged to the Marian 
party, had been driven out of Rome by his 
colleague Octavius, and had subsequently been 
deprived by the senate of the consulate. Cinna 
collected an army, and resolved to recover his 
honours by force of arms. As soon as Marius 
heard of these changes he left Africa, and joined 
Cinna in Italy. Marius and Cinna now laid 
siege to Rome. The failure of provisions com- 
pelled the senate to yield, and Marius and 
Cinna entered Rome as conquerors. The most 
frightful scenes followed. The guards of 
Marius stabbed everyone whom he did not 
salute, and the streets ran with the blood of the 
noblest of the Roman aristocracy. Among the 
victims of his vengeance were the great orator 
M. Antonius and his former colleague Q. 
Catulus. Without going through the form of 
an election, Marius and Cinna named them- 
selves consuls for the following year (86). But 
lie did not long enjoy the honour: he was now 



in his 71st year ; his body was worn out by the 
fatigues and sufferings he had recently under- 
gone ; and on the 18th day of his consulship 
he died of an attack of pleurisy, after seven 
days' illness. (Plut. Marius ; Sail. Jug. II. c. ; 
App. B. C. i. 29,40, 5.5 ; Liv. Bp. 66-80.)— 2. C, 
the son of the preceding, but only by adoption. 
He followed in the footsteps of his father, and 
was equally distinguished by merciless severity 
against his enemies. He was consul in 82, 
when he was 27 years of age. In this year he 
was defeated by Sulla near Sacriportus on the 
frontiers of Latium, whereupon he took refuge 
in the strongly fortified town of Praeneste. 
Here he was besieged for some time ; but after 
Sulla's great victory at the Colline gate of 
Rome over Pontius Telesinus, Marius put an 
end to his own life, after making an unsuccess- 
ful attempt to escape. (Plut. Bull. 28-32 ; App. 
B.C. i. 87-94 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 26, 27.)— 3. The 
false Marius. [Amatius.J — 4. M., a friend 
and neighbour of Cicero, who addressed four 
letters to him (Fain. vii. 1-4). — 5. M. Marius 
Gratidianus. See Gratidius, No. 2. — 6. Ma- 
rius Priscus, proconsul of Africa, was tried and 
condemned for extortion. The younger Pliny 
and the historian Tacitus prosecuted. (Plin. 
Bp. ii. 11; Juv. i. 49, viii. 120.)— 7. M. Aurelius 
Marius, one of the Thirty Tyrants, was the 
fourth of the usurpers who in succession ruled 
Gaul, in defiance of Gallienus. He reigned 
only two or three days, but there are coins of 
his extant. (Treb. Poll. Trig. Tyr. vii.)— 8. 
Marius Celsus. [Celsus.] — 9. Marius Maxi- 
mum, a Roman historian, who lived about a.d. 
165-230, and wrote a continuation of Suetonius' 
biographies of the emperors from Nerva to 
Elagabalus. His work has perished, but it was 
much used by the writers of the Historia 
Augusta, who often insert extracts from it. 
He is usually identified with a Marius Maximus 
who appears in inscriptions as holding high 
offices, a praetor and a praefectus urbi (C. I.L. 
1450, 1452), and there is no reason against it. — 
10. Marius Victorlnus. [Victorinus.] 

Marmarica (f) MapfiapiKi] : Map/xaplSai : B. 
part of Tripoli and NW. part of Egypt), a 
district of N. Africa, between Cyrenaica and 
Egypt, but by some ancient geographers 
reckoned as a part of Cyrenaica, and by others 
as a part of Egypt ; while others, again, call 
only the W. part of it, from the borders of 
Cyrenaica to the Catabathmus Magnus, by the 
name of Marmarica, and the E. part, from the 
Catabathmus Magnus to the Sinus Plinthinetes, 
Libyae Nomos. Inland it extended as far as 
the Oasis of Ammon. It was, for the most 
part, a sandy desert, intersected with low ranges 
of hills. — Its inhabitants were called by the 
general name of Marmaridae. Their chief 
tribes were the Adyrmachidae and Giligammae, 
on the coast, and the Nasamones and Augilae 
in the interior. (Strab. pp. 131, 798.) 

Marmarium (Mapfidptou : Mapfidpios : Mar- 
inari), a place on the SW. coast of Euboea, with 
a temple of Apollo Marmarius, and celebrated 
marble quarries, which belonged to Carystus. 

Maro, Vergilius. [Vergilitjs.] 

Maroboduus — the Latinised form of the Ger- 
man Marbod — king of the Marcomanni, was a 
Suevian by birth, and was born about B.C. 18. 
He was sent in his boyhood with other hostages 
to Rome, where he attracted the notice of 
Augustus, and received a liberal education. 
After his return to his native country, he suc- 
ceeded in establishing a powerful kingdom in 
central Germany, along the N. bank of the 



MARON 



MAES 



529 



Danube, from Regensberg nearly to the borders 
of Hungary, which stretched far into the in- 
terior. His power excited the jealousy of 
Augustus, who had determined to send a for- 
midable army to invade his dominions ; but the 
revolt of the Pannonians and Dalmatians (a.d. 
6) prevented the emperor from carrying his 
design into effect. iUaroboduus eventually be- 
came an object of suspicion to the other Ger- 
man tribes, as a king who ruled too much after 
a Roman pattern ; and was at length expelled 
from his dominions by Catualda, a chief of the j 
Gothones, about a.d. 19. He took refuge in 
Italy, and Tiberius allowed him to pass the 
remainder of his life at Ravenna. He died in 
35, at the age of 53 years. (Tac. Ann. ii. 41-46, 
62 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 108 ; Strab. p. 290.) 

Karon (Vliptav), son of Evanthes, and grand- 
son of Dionysus and Ariadne, priest of Apollo 
at Maronea in Thrace. He appears in Homer 
as the hero of sweet wine, and gives to Odysseus 
the cask which he carries with him to the 
Cyclops (Od. ix. 197). In this Homeric story 
it seems that Dionysus is hardly yet recognised 
as a deity [see p. 293, b]. Thrace is the country 
from which wine comes to the Homeric heroes, 
and Ismarus was known to the Greeks as an 
early home of the vine. Hence Maron is a 
personification of the viticulture of Ismarus, 
and his father Evanthes is really the local 
Dionysus (cf. Eur. Cycl. 141) ; but in the Odyssey 
Maron is priest, not of Dionysus, but of Apollo. 
Other stories connect Maron with Oenopion 
(i.e. with Cretan viticulture), and he appears 
as = Silenus, or one of the companions of Diony- 
sus. (Propert. ii. 32, 14 ; Athen. p. 33 ; Diod. i. 
18 ; Norm. Dionys. xiv. 99.) 

Maronea (Mapwvcia: MapwffiVrjj : Marogna), 
a town on the S. coast of Thrace, situated on 




Coin of Maronea In Thrace (early In 8rd cent. B.C.). 
0'".r., hor^.' MAPO; i rr. . vine of Dionysus and caducous ; 
Eni IKEZIu (magistrate's name). 



the N. bank of the lake Ismaris and on the 
river Sthenas, more anciently called Ortagurea 
(Hdt. vii. 109 ; Diod. i. 20 : Plin. iv. 42). It be- 
longed originally to the Cicones, but afterwards 
received colonists from Chios. It was cele- 
brated for its excellent wine, and it is possible 
that Maron and Maronea are merely other 
forms of the name Is-marus. [Ismarus, Maron.j 

Karpessa (Mapmjorira), daughter of Evi-nn , 
and Alcippe. For details see Idas. 

Karpessa (Mdoirn^ira), a mountain in Paros, 
from which the celebrated Parian marble was 
obtained. Hence Virgil (Aen. vi. 471) speaks of 
Marpf.sia cautes. [Paros.] 

Marrucini, a brave and warlike people in 
Italy, of the Sabellian race, occupying a narrow 
slip of country along the right bank of the river 
AterauB, and bounded on the N. by the Vestini, 
on the W. by the Paeligni and Marsi, on the S. 
by the Frentani, and on the E. by the Adriatic 
sea. Their chief town was Tkatk, and at the 
mouth of the Atemus they possessed, in com- 
mon with the Vestini, the seaport Atkrnim. 
Along with the Marsi, Paeligni, and the other 



Sabellian tribes they fought against Rome ; and 
together with them they submitted to the 
Romans in B.C. 304 (Liv. is. 41 ; App. B.C. i. 39, 
52 ; Strab. p. 241). 

MarruvTum or Maruvium. 1. (S. Benedetto), 
the chief town of the Marsi (who are therefore 
calledgens Maruvia,Yiig. Aen. vii. 750), situated 
on the E. bank of the lake Fucinus, and on the 
road between Corfinium and Alba Fucentia. 
Under the Romans it was a flourishing munici- 
pium. (Strab. p. 241 ; Plin. iii. 106.)— 2. A town 
of the Aborigines in the country of the Sabines, 
not to be confounded with No. 1 (Dionys. i. 14). 

Mars, though in Latin literature completely 
identified with Ares and invested with all the 
Greek myths belonging to that deity, was an 
ancient Italian god in no way connected with 
Ares, identified with him after the Greek my- 
thology prevailed, merely because both had 
come to be regarded as peculiarly gods of war. 
The oldest form of his name seems to have been 
Maurs, of which Mavors and Kars were varia- 
tions, and the name was also reduplicated into 
Marmar and Mamers and Mamurius. The 
god was addressed also as Marspiteror Maspiter 
(Mars-pater). Of all the theories of his original 
significance the most probable is that Mars was 
primarily the god of the year, and especially of 
the spring season of the year, representing the 
strength of nature in its productions and births. 
Hence some have connected his name with Mas 
[i.e. manly vigour), while several modern writers 
who regard him as the sun-god and equivalent 
to Apollo derive his name from the root mar 
(cf. fiapimipw), to shine. There are, no doubt, 
certain aspects of the worship of Mars which 
present resemblances to that of Apollo and 
make it likely that he was sometimes regarded 
in Italy as a light-giving god, perhaps as god of 
the sun, and therefore probably called Mars 
Lucetius in some inscriptions. Among the 
points in which the old mythology and ritual of 
Mars are compared with those of Apollo are 
the expulsion of winter and darkness by Mars 
in the spring by the clashing of the Salian 
shields kf. p. 88, b], and in the curious rites of 
the Mamuralia or Equirria. But these resem- 
blances may just as easily be traced to the 
conception of Mars as the god of the year, and 
particularly of the vigorous growth of the year 
in spring. Hence Mars was worshipped espe- 
cially in his own month, March, the time of 
returning spring, in somewhat the same way as 
the return of Apollo was celebrated at Delphi, 
and Mamurius Vetus may well have symbolised 
the old season and the darkness of winter 
driven out by the new [Diet, of Ant. art. 
Equirriii and Salii]. For the same reason 
Mars was honoured with offerings of firstfruits 
in spring, and on special occasions by the dedi- 
cation of everything born in a particular spring 
— the Ver Sacrum of Umbro-Sabellian tribes, 
which is said to have caused various ancient 
migrations [Diet, of Ant. s.v. For the story 
of Anna Pkrknna, as indicating a connexion of 
Mars with the year, see p. 72"). It was natural 
that the aspect assumed by Mars and his wor- 
ship should vary according to the character and 
requirements of the community . Among herds- 
men he was — like other deities to some extent 
associated with him, such as Faunus or Luper- 
cus — a god who averted evil from herds, and by 
agriculturists as one who helped their field 
labours ; and in this character he was specially 
invoked in the old ritual of the Fratres Arvalet 
l>irt. of Ant. s.v.], and the ploughing ox was 
SMM3 to him. But the warlike tribes, as the 

M M 



530 



■ MAESI 



MAESYAS 



Umbro-Sabellian nations were extending their 
conquests over Italy, regarded him more as their 
protector in war and leader in battle. Hence 
he was Mars Gradivus : that is, Mars who 
strides forward to the fight = dovpios "Apr\s 
(Serv. ad Aen. iii. 35). To this (whether or not 
it was the original use) belonged the war-dances 
of the Salii and their clashing of shields 
[Diet, of Ant. s.v.] ; and the horse, as the war- 
like animal (bellator equus) was sacrificed to 
him (cf. Ov. Fast. i. 698 ; Verg. Georg. iii. 83). 
Mars was particularly the Sabine god (as Mars- 
Quirinus), but he was also a Latin god, second 
only to Jupiter and (at one time) Janus. Hence 
in the combination of both races at Eome there 
was a twofold settlement of this deity, the 
Mars of the Palatine associated with Picus and 
Faunus and with the story of Eomulus and 
Eemus, and the Mars-Quirinus of the Quirinal ; 
and, while Jupiter of the Capitol became the 
supreme god of the city, and the provinces of 
agriculture &c. passed to other deities, Mars 
became gradually more exclusively the god of 
war, and when Greek mythology predominated 
was recognised as equivalent to Ares in all 
respects, though in ritual his original character- 
istics were traceable. He had his feminine 
counterpart in Nebio, the Sabine goddess of 
strength (cf. Suet. Tib. 1 ; Gell. xiii. 23), and 
from the myth of his sacred marriage with her 
was regarded as one of the deities who presided 
over marriage. It was perhaps for this reason 
that he was associated, too, with Juno, who was 
also worshipped on March 1st [see p. 463]. The 
le gend that Mars was born from Juno, through 
the operation of a flower (Ov. Fast. v. 253) is 
due to Greek mythology. The most character- 
istic sanctuaries of Mars were the shrine in the 
Begia [Diet, of Ant. s.v.], where the sacred 
spears were kept, the movement of which was 
an omen of the utmost gravity (Liv. xl. 19 ; 
Gell. iv. 6) ; the Temple of Mars at the Porta 
Capena, from which the procession of knights 
started on July 15th ; and his altar in the 
Campus Martius, where sacrifice was offered at 
the Equirria. Some trace of his still older 
worship under the symbol of a tree is traceable 
in the sacred oak of Mars (Suet. Vesp. 5), and 
the sacred fig which gave him the name Mars 
Picanus. Of all the animals sacred to him the 
wolf was most regarded : the wolf was a symbol 
of Eome ; was connected with the myths of her 
founder ; was an omen specially noticed in 
battle (Liv. x. 27, xxii. 1). Some have taken the 
wolf as signifying winter subdued by Mars, or 
have compared the connexion of Apollo with 
the wolf. It is more probable that it was the 
sacred animal of some of the tribes, particularly 
of the Hirpini (whose name was derived from 
herpus = lupus), and that its dedication to Mars 
is a survival of that superstition. [For the 
representations of Mars, see Ares.] 

Marsi. 1. A brave and warlike people of the 
Sabellian race, dwelt in the centre of Italy, in 
the high land surrounded by the mountains of 
the Apennines, in which the lake Fucinus is 
situated. Along with their neighbours the 
Paeligni, Marrucini, &c, they concluded a peace 
with Eome, B.C. 304. (Pol. ii. 24, 12 ; Liv. ix. 
45.) Their bravery was proverbial ; they were 
the prime movers of the celebrated war waged 
against Eome by the Socii or Italian allies in 
order to obtain the Roman franchise, and 
known by the name of the Marsic or Social 
war. Their chief town was Mabbuvtum. — The 
Marsi appear to have been acquainted with the 
medicinal properties of several of the plants 



growing upon their mountains, and to have em- 
ployed them as remedies against the bites of 
serpents, and in other cases (Verg. Aen. vii. 
750 ; Hor. Epocl. xvii. 29 ; Sil. It. viii. 495 ; Plin. 
xxi. 78; Gell. xvi. 11). Hence they were re- 
garded as magicians, and were said to be de- 
scended from a son of Circe (Plin. vii. 15). 
Others again derived their origin from the 
Phrygian Marsyas, simply on account of the re- 
semblance of the name (Plin. iii. 108). — 2. A 
people in Germany, appear to have dwelt ori- 
ginally on both banks of the Ems, and to have 
been only a tribe of the Cherusci, although 
Tacitus makes them one of the most ancient 
peoples in Germany. They joined the Cherusci 
in the war against the Romans which termi- 
nated in the defeat of Varus, but were subse- 
quently driven into the interior of the country 
by Germanicus. (Tac. Germ. 2, Ann. i. 50, 56.) 

Marsigni, a people in the SE. of Germany, 
of Suevic extraction (Tac. Germ. 43). 

Marsus, Domitius, a Roman poet of the Au- 
gustan age. He was living after the death of 
Virgil, but died before B. c. 8 (Ov. Pont. iv. 16, 
3). He seems to have been a friend of Maecenas 
(Mart. viii. 56, 21), but is not mentioned by 
Horace, though some critics think that the 
awkward lines Hor. OA. iv. 4, 20-22, are intro- 
duced to ridicule the Amazonis of Marsus. He 
wrote poems of various kinds, but his epigrams 
were the most celebrated of his productions. 
Hence he is frequently mentioned by Martial, 
who speaks of him in terms of the highest ad- 
miration (Mart. iv. 29, v. 5, vii. 99). He wrote 
a beautiful epitaph on Tibullus, which has come 
down to us : 

' Te qiioque Vergilio comitem non aequa, Tibiule, 
Mors juvenem campos misit ad Elysios, 
Ne foret ant elegis molles qui fleret amores, 
Ant caneret forti regia bella pede.' 

Marsyas (Maptrvas). 1. A mythological per- 
sonage, connected with the earliest period of 
Greek music. He is variously called the son of 
Hyagnis, or of Oeagrus, or of Olympus. Some 
make him a satyr, others a peasant. All agree 
in placing him in Phrygia. The following is the 
outline of his story : — Athene having, while 
playing the flute, seen the reflection of herself 
in water, and observed the distortion of her 
features, threw away the instrument in disgust. 
It was picked up by Marsyas, who no sooner 
began to blow through it than the flute, having 
once been inspired by the breath of a goddess, 
emitted of its own accord the most beautiful 
strains. Elated by his success, Marsyas was 
rash enough to challenge Apollo to a musical 
contest, the conditions of which were that the 
victor should do what he pleased with the van- 
quished. The Muses, or, according to others, 
the Nysaeans, were the umpires. Apollo played 
upon the cithara and Marsyas upon the flute ; 
and it was not till the former added his voice 
to the music of his lyre that the contest was 
decided in his favour. As a just punishment 
for the presumption of Marsyas, Apollo bound 
him to a tree, and flayed him alive. His blood 
was the source of the river Marsyas, and Apollo 
hung up his skin in the cave out of which that 
river flows. His flutes (for, according to some, 
the instrument on which he played was the 
double flute) were carried by the river Marsyas 
into the Maeander, and again emerging in the 
Asopus, were thrown on land by it in the Sicy- 
onian territory, and were dedicated to Apollo 
in his temple at Sicyon. (Hdt. vii. 26; Xen. 
An. i. 2, 8 ; Diod. iii. 58 ; Paus. ii. 7, 9 ; Ov. Met. 
vi. 382, 400; Hyg. Fab. 167; Apollod. i. 4, 2.) 




MARSYAS 

The fable evidently refers to the struggle be- 
tween the citharoedic and auloedic styles of 
music, of which the former was connected with 
the worship of Apollo among the Dorians, and 
the latter with the rites of Cybele in Phrygia. 

In the fora of ancient 
cities there was frequently 
placed a statue of Mar- 
syas, which was probably 
intended to hold forth an 
example of the severe 
punishment of arrogant 
presumption. The statue 
of Marsyas in the forum 
of Rome is well known by 
the allusions of Horace 
(Sat. i. 6, 120), Juvenal 
(ix. 1, 2), and Martial (ii. 
64, 7).— 2. A Greek his- 
torian, was the son of 
Periander, a native of 
Pella in Macedonia, a 
contemporary of Alexan- 
der, with whom he is 
said to have been edu- 
cated. His principal work 
was a history of Macedo- 
nia, in ten books, from 
Marsyas. (From a statue the earliest times to the 
SfcteSfctfSSZSS wars of Alexander. He 
2, tav. u.) also wrote other works, 

the titles of which are 
given by Suidas. (Diod. xx. 50 ; Suid. s. v.) — 3. 
Of Phihppi, commonly called the Younger, to 
distinguish him from the preceding, was also a 
Greek historian. The period at which he 
flourished is uncertain. (Athen. p. 467.) 

Marsyas (Vlapavas). 1. A small and rapid 
river of Phrygia, a tributary of the Maeander, 
took its rise, according to Xenophon, in the 
palace of the Persian kings at Celaenae, beneath 
the Acropolis, and fell into the Maeander, 
outside of the city. Pliny, however, states that 
its source was in the valley called Aulocrene, 
about ten miles from Apamea Cibotus, which 
city was on or near the site of Celaenae. (Xen. 
An. i. 2, 8; Plin. v. 106 ; Hdt. vii. 28; Curt. hi. 
1 ; Strab. p. 578.) Some modern travellers have 
identified it with the insignificant Lidja, but it 
is more probably the larger Hudaverdi. The 
explanation of Mr. Hogartli (Journ. Hell. Stud. 
1888) is that the Maeander was the united river 
formed by the junction of the streams of the 
Marsyas, Orgas, and Obrimas rising from three 
separate springs about Apamea), and acquired 
its separate name after the point where the 
lowest springs, the Obrimas = Lidja (also called 
Bepfid or ' hot springs ') joined the other two. 
— 2. (Chinar-Chai), a considerable river of 
Caria, having its source in the district called 
Idrias, flowing NW. and N. through the middle 
of Caria, past Strutonicea and Alabanda, and 
falling into the S. side of the Maeander, nearly 
opposite to Tralles (Hdt. v. 118). — 3. In Syria, 
a small tributary of the Orontes, into which it 
falls on the E. side, near Apamea (l'lin. v. 81). 
— 4 (or Massyas). A name given to the exten- 
sive plain in Syria through which the upper 
course of the Orontes flows, lying between the 
ranges of Casius and Lebanon, and reaching 
from Apamea on the N. to Luodicea ad Libanuin 
on the S. (Strab. pp. 759, 755). 

Martlalia. 1. M. Valerius, the epigramma- 
tic poet, was born at Bilbilia in Spain, in the 
third year of Claudius, A. . 48. He came to 
Rome in the thirteenth year of Nero, 66 ; and 
after residing in the metropolis thirty-five years, 



MARTIALIS 



531 



he returned to the place of his birth, in the third 
year of Trajan, 100. It is likely enough that he 
left Eome because Trajan did not approve of 
the obscenity which marked many of his poems. 
At Bilbilis he possessed an estate given to him, 
perhaps in admiration for his genius, by a 
wealthy lady named Marcella (xii. 31), who was 
probably only a patroness, though some believe 
her to have been his second wife ; that he was 
married to her cannot be inferred from the ex- 
pressions either in this epigram or in xii. 21, 
though it is not contradicted by them. His 
first, and perhaps his only, wife was named 
Cleopatra (iv. 22 : unless that be a fancy 
name). He lived certainly to 101, perhaps to 
104, but not later (Plin. Ep. iii. 21). His fame 
was extended and his books were eagerly sought 
for, not only in the city, but also in Gaul, Ger- 
many, and Britain ; he secured the patronage 
of the emperors Titus and Domitian, and re- 
ceived for himself, although apparently without 
family, the privileges accorded to those who 
were the fathers of three children (jus trium 
liberorum), together with the rank of tribunus 
and the rights of the equestrian order (ii. 92, 
iii. 95, v. 13). His circumstances appear to have 
been easy during his residence at Rome, for he 
had a house in the city and a suburban villa 
near Nomentum (iii. 4, vi. 43, xii. 57) ; yet he 
complains of poverty (i. 77, iii. 38), whence some 
have imagined, that this was his wife's property, 
that he was divorced from her, and that so he 
became poor ; but of all this there is no definite 
proof. — The extant works of Martial consist of 
a collection of short poems, all included under 
the general appellation Epigrammata, upwards 
of 1500 in number, divided into fourteen books. 
Those which form the last two books, usually 
distinguished respectively as Xenia and Apo- 
phoreta, amounting to 350, consist of distichs, 
descriptive of a vast variety of small objects, 
chiefly articles of food or clothing, such as were 
usually sent as presents among friends during 
the Saturnalia, and on other festive occasions. 
In addition to the above, nearly all the printed 
copies include thirty-three epigrams, forming a 
book apart from the rest, which has been com- 
monly known as Liber do Spectaculis, because 
the contents relate to the shows exhibited by 
Titus and Domitian, but there is no ancient 
authority for the title. These three collections 
were first published, and then Martial proceeded 
to collect and publish his other epigrams in 
books, sometimes singly and sometimes several 
at one time. The Liber de Spectaculis and the 
first nine books of the regular series involve a 
great number of historical allusions, extending 
from the games of Titus (80) down to the return 
of Domitian from the Sarmatian expedition, in 
January, 94. The tenth book was published 
twice : the first edition was given hastily to the 
world ; the second, that which we now read (x. 2), 
celebrates the arrival of Trajan at Rome, after 
his accession to the throne (99). The eleventh 

j book seems to have been written mostly under 
Domitian, and published under Nerva. After 
a silence of three years (xii. prooem.), the twelfth 
book was despatched from Bilbilis to Home (xii. 

l.H), and must therefore be assigned to 101. — 
It is well known that the word Epigram, which 
originally denoted simply an inscription, was 

1 in process of time applied to any brief metrical 
effusion, whatever the Hubject might be, or 
whatever the form under which it was presented. 
Martial, however, first placed the epigram upon 
the narrow basis which it now occupies, and 
from his time the term has been in a great 

M M 2 



532 



MARTINIANUS 



MASINISSA 



measure restricted to denote a short poem, in 
■which all the thoughts and expressions converge 
to one sharp point, which forms the termination 
of the piece. Martial's epigrams are distin- 
guished by singular fertility of imagination, 
prodigious flow of wit, and delicate felicity of 
language ; and from no source do we derive more 
copious information on the national customs 
and social habits of the Romans during the first 
century of the empire. But, however much we 
admire the genius of the author, we feel no re- 
spect for the character of the man. The servile 
adulation with which he loads Domitian proves 
that he was a courtier of the lowest class ; and, 
however much we may be attracted by the bril- 
liancy and grace of much of his poetry, it is 
impossible to condone the obscenity which is 
scattered broadcast over his writings, evidently 
with no idea of moral censure but rather from 
impurity of thought. — The best edition of Mar- 
tial is by Friedlander (Lips. 1886), whose Sit- 
tengeschichte Boms provides also an excellent 
commentary on Martial and Juvenal ; select 
epigrams by Paley and Stone, 1881 ; Stephen- 
son, 1888 ; books i. and ii. by J. E. B. Mayor. 
— 2. Gargilius, a contemporary of Alexander 
Severus, who is cited by Vopiscus (Prob. ii. 7). 
He wrote on husbandry and medicinal herbs, 
and on veterinary art, following Pliny in many 
points. The fourth book of the Medicina Plinii 
(i.e. extracts on medicine from Pliny) was made 
up of excerpts from Gargilius Martialis. Part 
of his work on gardens was found by A. Mai on 
a palimpsest in the Royal Library at Naples. 

Martinianus, was elevated to the dignity of 
Caesar, by Licinius, when he was making pre- 
parations for the last struggle against Constan- 
tine. After the defeat of Licinius, Martinianus 
was put to death by Constantine, a.d. 323. (Vict. 
de Caes. 41.) 

Martius Campus. [Roma.] 

Martyropolis, or Maipheracta (MaprupS- 
iroAis : Meia Farekin), a city of Sophene, in 
Armenia Major, on the river Nymphus, a tribu- 
tary of the Tigris; under Justinian, a strong 
fortress, and the residence of the first Dux 
Armeniae (Procop. de Aed. iii. 2). 

Marullus, C. Epidius, tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 44, removed, in conjunction with his col- 
league L. Caesetius Flavus, the diadem which 
had been placed upon the statue of C. Julius 
Caesar, and attempted to bring to trial the 
persons who had saluted the dictator as king. 
Caesar, in consequence, deprived him of the 
tribunate, and expelled him from the senate. 
(Dio Cass. xliv. 9 ; Suet. Jul. 79 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 
68 ; Cic. Phil. xiii. 15, 31.) 

Maruvlum. [Mabbuvtum.] 

Marus (Mareh), a river flowing into the 
Danube near Carnuntum (Tac. Ann. ii. 63). 

Mascas (WaffKas, Maaicas: Wady-el-Seba), 
an E. tributary of the Euphrates, in Mesopo- 
tamia, mentioned only by Xenophon (Anab. i. 
5), who describes it as surrounding the city of 
Corsote, and as being 35 parasangs from the 
Chaboras. 

Iffiases (Maerr/s : MaoTrrios), a town on the S. 
coast of Argolis, the harbour of Hermione (II. 
ii. 562; Strab. p. 376 ; Paus. ii. 36, 2). 

Masinissa (Maffffavdaa-ns), king of the Nu- 
midians, was the son of Gala, king of the Mas- 
sylians, the easternmost of the two great tribes 
into which the Numidians were at that time 
divided ; but he was brought up at Carthage, 
where he appears to have received an education 
superior to that usual among his countrymen. 
In B.C. 212 the Carthaginians persuaded Gala 



to declare war against Syphax, king of the 
neighbouring tribe of the Massaesylians, who 
had lately entered into an alliance with Rome. 
Masinissa was appointed by his father to com- 
mand the invading force, with which he attacked 
and totally defeated Syphax. In the next year 
(211) Masinissa crossed over into Spam, and 
supxjorted the Carthaginian generals there with 
a large body of Numidian horse. He fought on 
the side of the Carthaginians for some years ; 
but after their great defeat by Scipio in 206, he 
secretly promised the latter to support the Ro- 
mans as soon as they should send an army into 
Africa. (Liv. xxvii. 20, xxviii. 13, 16, 35 ; Pol. 
xi. 21 ; Appian, Hisp. 25, 27.) In his desertion 
of the Carthaginians he is said to have been 
also actuated by resentment against Hasdrubal, 
who had previously betrothed to him his beau- 
tiful daughter Sophonisba, but violated his en- 
gagement iu order to bestow her hand upon 
Syphax, whose alliance the Carthaginians now 
preferred to that of Masinissa. — During the 
absence of Masinissa in Spain, his father Gala 
had died, and the throne had been seized by a 
usurper ; but Masinissa on his return soon ex- 
pelled the usurper and obtained possession of 
the kingdom (Liv. xxix. 29). He was now at- 
tacked by Syphax and the Carthaginians, who 
were anxious to crush him before he could 
receive assistance from Rome. He was re- 
peatedly defeated by Syphax and his generals, 
and with difficulty escaped falling into the 
hands of his enemies. But the arrival of Scipio 
in Africa (204) soon changed the posture of 
affairs. Masinissa instantly joined the Roman 
general, and rendered the most important ser- 
vices to him during the remainder of the war. 
He took a prominent part in the defeat of the 
combined forces of Syphax and Hasdrubal, and 
in conjunction with Laelius he reduced Cirta, 
the capital of Syphax. Among the captives 
that fell into their hands on this occasion was 
Sophonisba, the wife of Syphax, and the same 
who had been formerly promised in marriage 
to Masinissa himself. The story of his hasty 
marriage with her, and its tragical termination, 
is related elsewhere. [Sophonisba.] In the 
decisive battle of Zama (202), Masinissa com- 
manded the cavalry of the right wing, and con- 
tributed in no small degree to the successful 
result of the day. (Liv. xxx. 29-35 ; Pol. xv. 12.) 
On the conclusion of the final peace between 
Rome and Carthage, he was rewarded with the 
greater part of the territories which had be- 
longed to Syphax, in addition to his hereditary 
dominions (Liv. xxx. 44 ; Pol. xv. 18). Prom 
this time till the commencement of the third 
Punic war there elapsed an interval of more 
than 50 years, during the whole of which 
period Masinissa continued to reign with un- 
disputed authority over the countries thus 
subjected to his rule. At length, in 150, he 
declared open war against Carthage, and these 
hostilities led to the outbreak of the third Punic 
war. Masinissa died in the second year of the 
war, 148. On his death-bed he had sent for 
Scipio Africanus the younger, at that time 
serving in Africa as a military tribune, but 
he expired before his arrival, leaving it to the 
young officer to settle the affairs of his king- 
dom. He died at the advanced age of 90, 
having retained in an extraordinary degree his 
bodily strength and activity to the last, so that 
in the war against the Carthaginians, only two 
years before, he commanded his army in person. 
His character has been often assailed for his 
desertion of the Carthaginians, and it must be 



MASIUS 

admitted that he was not a man of scrupulous 
faith. But, on the other hand, it must be re- 
membered that as a native prince he had reason 
to hate Carthaginian oppression, and that per- 
sonally he had wrongs and want of faith on 
their part to resent. It is impossible to deny 
his claims to respect for the vigour and success 
of his rule and his unconquerable energy and 
fortitude. He was the father of a numerous 
family ; but three only of his legitimate sons 
survived him, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa. 
Between these three the kingdom was portioned 
out by Scipio, according to the dying directions 
of the old king. (Pol. xxxvii. 3 ; App. Pun. 
71, 106; Val. Max. viii. 13; Cic. de Sen. 10; 
Sail. Jug. 5.) 

Masius Mons (rb Macrtov upos : Karajeh 
Dagh), a mountain chain in the N. of Mesopo- 
tamia, between the upper course of the Tigris 
and the Euphrates, running from the main 
chain of the Taurus SE. along the border of 
Mygdonia (Strab. p. 506). 

Maso, C. Pa"pirius, consul b.c. 231, carried 
on war against the Corsicans, whom he sub- 
dued ; and from the booty obtained in this war 
he dedicated a temple to Eons. Maso was the 
maternal grandfather of Scipio Africanus the 
3 r ounger, his daughter Papiria marrying Aemi- 
lius Paulus. (Val. Max. iii. 6, 5.) 

Massa, Baebius, or Bebrus, was accused by 
Pliny the younger and Herennius Senecio of 
plundering the province of Baetica, of which he 
had been governor, A.D. 93. He was condemned, 
but escaped punishment by the favour of Do- 
mitian, and from this time he became one of 
the informers and favourites of the tyrant. (Tac. 
Hist. iv. 50, Agr. 4.5 ; Juv. i. 34 ; Mart. xii. 29.) 

Massaesyli or -ii. [Maubetaxia : Numtdia.] 

Massaga (to. Maerercrya), the capital city of 
the Indian people Assaceni. 

Massagetae (Motr aayirai), a wild and warlike 
people of Central Asia, in Scythia intra Imaiim, 
N. of the Jaxartes (the Araxes of Herodotus) 
and the Sea of Aral, and on the peninsula be- 
tween this lake and the Caspian. Their country 
corresponds to that of the Kirghiz Tartars in 
the N. of Independent Tartary. Some of the 
ancient geographers give them a greater extent 
towards the SE., and Herodotus appears to in- 
clude under the name all the nomad tribes of 
Asia E. of the Caspian. They appear to have 
been of the Turkoman race ; their manners and 
customs resembled those of the Scythians in 
general, except that they had a practice of 
killing and eating their aged people. (Hdt. 
i. 201-214 ; Strab. p. 512 ; Arrian, An. iv. 16.) 
Their chief appearance in ancient history is 
in connexion with the expedition undertaken 
against them by Cyrus the Great, in which 
Cyrus was defeated and slain. [Cyrus. J 

Massani (Wlaaoavoi), a people of India, on 
the lower Indus, near the Island of Pattalene 
(Diod. xv. 102). 

Masslcus Mons, a range of hills in the N\V. 
of Campania near the frontiers of Latium, cele- 
brated for its excellent wine, tlie produce of the 
vineyards on the southern slope of the moun- 
tain, which have a volcanic soil. The celebrated 
Falernian wine came from the eastern side of 
this mountain. (Verg. Georq. ii. 143, Aen. vii. 
724 j Hor. Od. i. 1, 19; Col. iii. 8.) 

Massicytus or Massicytes (Man-friKuT7)s), one 
of the principal mountain chains of Lycia. 

Massilia (Ma<r<raAia: MaarraKtdrns, MasBili- 
ensis : Marseilles), a Greek city in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, on the coast of the Mediterranean, in 
the country of the Salyea. It was situated on 



MASSILIA 



533 



a promontory, which was connected with the 
mainland by a narrow isthmus, and was washed 
on three sides by the sea. Its excellent harbour, 
called Lacydon (Mel. ii. 5), the old port, was 
formed by a small inlet of the sea, about half a 
mile long and a quarter of a mile broad. This 
harbour had only a narrow opening, and before 
it lay an island, where ships had good anchorage. 



JiTialUs ^ 


°f 






/%//# ""- 






(•<'.4~.P Afi 

























Han of the Neighbourhood of Marseilles. 
A, site of the modern town ; B, mount above the citadel,; 
C, modern port ; I>, Pont Neul ; E. citadel ; F, Catalan 
village and harbour : G, Port TEndoome ; H, I. d'lf ; 
I. Bateneau I. ; K, Pomegues I. 

Massilia was founded by the Phocaeans of Asia 
Minor about B.C. 600, according to the tradi- 
tions, by friendly agreement with the natives, 
and soon became a very flourishing city. (Athen. 
p. 576 ; Justin, xliii. 3.) It extended its dominion 
j over the barbarous tribes in its neighbourhood, 
and planted several colonies on the coast of 
Gaul and Spain, such as Antipolis, Nicaea, 
and Emporium. Its naval power and com- 
mercial greatness soon excited the jealousy of 
the Carthaginians, who made war upon the city, 
but the Massilians not only maintained their 
independence, but defeated the Carthaginians 
in a sea-fight (Thuc. i. 13 ; Paus. x. 8, 6). At 
an early period they cultivated the friendship 
of the Romans, to whom they always continued 
faithful allies. Accordingly when the SE. 
corner of Gaul was made a Roman province, 
the Romans allowed Massilia to retain its inde- 
pendence and its own constitution. (Lav. xxi. 20 ; 
Pol. iii. 95 ; Cic. pro Font. 1 ; Caes. B. C. i. 85.) 
This constitution was aristocratic. The city 
was governed by a senate of 600 persons called 
Timuchi. From these were selected 15 presi- 
dents, who formed a sort of committee for 
carrying on the ordinary business of the govern- 
ment, and three of these were intrusted with 




Coin of i i ! iii. (4th cent. B.C.). 
Obv., head of Artomls, crowned with ollvo wreath; rev., 
Ma:ia, Hon. 

the executive power. (Strab. p. 179 ; Cic. dc Hep. 
i. 27, 43.) The inhabitants retained the religious 
rites of their mother country, and they honoured 
especially the Ephesian Artemis, whose Btatuo 
was said to have been brought from Ephesus 
together with the shoot of the first olive planted 
at Massilia. Massilia was for many centuries 
one of the most important commercial cities in 
the ancient world. In the civil war between 
Caesar and Pompey (B.C. 49), it espoused the 



534 MAS SIVA 

cause of the latter, but after a protracted siege, 
in which it lost its fleet, it was obliged to sub- 
mit to Caesar. (Caes. B. C. i. 34-36, ii. 1-22 ; 
Dio Cass. xli. 25.) Its inhabitants had long 
paid attention to literature and philosophy; 
and under the early emperors it became one of 
the chief seats of learning, to which the sons of 
many illustrious Romans resorted to complete 
their studies, but it never regained its old im- 
portance under the Roman empire. — The modern 
Marseilles occupies the site of the ancient town, 
but contains no remains of ancient buildings. 

Masslva. 1. A Numidian, grandson of Gala, 
king of the Massylians, and nephew of Masi- 
nissa, whom he accompanied into Spain (Liv. 
xxvii. 19). — 2. Son of Gulussa, and grandson of 
Masinissa, was assassinated at Rome by order 
of Jugurtha, because he claimed the kingdom of 
Numidia (Sail. Jug. 35 ; Liv. Ep. 64). 

Massurius Sabmus. [Sabinus.] 

Massyli or -ii. [Maubetania : Numidia.] 

Mastanabal or Manastabal, the youngest of 
the tln-ee legitimate sons of Masinissa, between 
whom Numidia was divided by Scipio after the 
death of the aged king (b.c. 148). He died before 
his brother Micipsa, and left two sons, Jugurtha 
and Gauda. (App. Pun. 106 ; Sail. Jug. 5, 65.) 

Mastaura (to. Maaravpa : Mastavro, Ru.), a 
city of Lydia on the borders of Caria, near Nysa 
(Strab. p. 650). 

Mastiani (Macrr lavoi), a people on the S. coast 
of Spain between Calpe and Nova Carthago 
(Pol. iii. 33). 

Mastusia. 1. The SW. point of the Thracian 
Chersonesus, opposite Sigeum. — 2. A mountain 
of Lydia, on the S. slope of which Smyrna lay. 

Maternus, Curiatius, a Roman rhetorician 
and tragic poet (Tac. Dial. 2, 5, 11). 

Maternus Firmicus. [Fibmicus.] 

Matho. 1. One of the leaders of the Cartha- 
ginian mercenaries in their war against Carthage, 
after the conclusion of the first Punic war, B.C. 
241. He was eventually taken prisoner and 
put to death (Pol. i. 69-88). — 2. A pompous, 
blustering advocate, ridiculed by Juvenal and 
Martial (Juv. i. 30 ; Mart. iv. 80, vii. 10). 

Matho, Pomponius. 1. M\, consul b.c. 233, 
carried on war against the Sardinians, whom 
he defeated. In 217 he was magister equitum ; 
in 216 praetor ; and in 215 propraetor in Cis- 
alpine Gaul (Liv. xxii. 33, xxiv. 10). — 2. M., 
brother of the preceding, consul 231, also carried 
on war against the Sardinians. He was likewise 
praetor in 217. He died in 204. (Liv. xxix. 38.) 
— 3. M., probably son of No. 2, aedile 206, and 
praetor 204, with Sicily as his province (Liv. 
xxxi. 12). 

Matiana (Manavri, Mariavoi, -rjuii, -rjuol, 
Hat.), the SW.-most district of Me3ia Atro- 
patene, along the mountains separating Media 
from Assyria, of which the inhabitants were 
callea Matiani. The great salt lake of Spaura 
(Mariac); Klfxvt) : Lake of Urmi) was in this 
district. Their territory extended up into Ar- 
menia. £Hdt. iii. 94, v. 52 ; Strab. pp. 73, 509.) 

Matinius, a Roman money-lender and banker 
(Cic. ad Att. v. 21 ; Scaptius). 

Matinus, a mountain in Apulia, running into 
the sea, was one of the offshoots of Mons Garga- 
nus, and is frequently mentioned by Horace in 
consequence of his being a native of Apulia 
(Hor. Od. i. 28, 3, iv. 2, 27, Epod. 16, 28). 

Matisco (Macon), a town of the Aedui in 
Gallia Lugdunensis on the Arar (Caes. B. G. 
vii. 90, viii. 4). 

Matius Calvena, C, a Roman eques, and a 
friend of Caesar ana Cicero. After Caesar's 



MAURETANIA 

death he espoused the side of Octavianus, with 
whom he became very intimate. (Cic. adFam. 
xi. 27, 28, ad Att. ix. 11, xiv. 1, xvi. 11 ; Suet. 
Jul. 52 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 60.) 

Matron (Mdrpav), of Pitana, a celebrated 
writer of parodies upon Homer, probably lived 
a little before the time of Philip of ,Macedon 
(Athen. pp. 5, 31, 699). 

Matrona (Marne), a river in Gaul, which 
formed the boundary between Gallia Lug- 
dunensis and Belgica, and which falls into the 
Sequana, a little S. of Paris (Caes. B. G. i. 1). 

Mattiaci a people in Germany, who dwelt 
on the E. bank of the Rhine, between the Main 
and the Lahn, and were a branch of the Chatti. 
They were subdued by the Romans, who, in 
the reign of Claudius, had fortresses and silver- 
mines in their country. After the death of 
Nero they revolted against the Romans and 
took part with the Chatti and other German 
tribes in the siege of Moguntiacum. (Tac. 
Germ. 29, Ann. xi. 20, Hist. iv. 37.) From this 
time they disappear from history; and their 
country was subsequently inhabited by the 
Alemanni. Their chief towns were Aquae 
Mattiacae (Wiesbaden), and Mattiacum (Mar- 
burg), which must not be confounded with 
Mattium, the capital of the Chatti. A sort of 
pomade called Mattiacae pilae was imported 
by the Romans from their country (Mart, 
xiv. 27 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Sapo). 

Mattium (Maden), the chief town of the 
Chatti, situated on the Adrana (Eder), was 
destroyea by Gerrnanicus (Tac. Ann. i. 56). 

Matuta, commonly callea Mater Matuta, 
was an old Italian goaaess of the aawn, and 
her name is connectea with mane, matutinus 
(Lucret. v, 656 ; Fest. p. 122). Like other 
goaaesses of light, she was a goddess of child- 
birth and therefore invoked by women. Hence 
she was worshipped by married women at 
the Matralia on the 11th of June (Varro, L. L. 
v. 106 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 475). She was also 
worshipped as a goddess of the sea and of 
harbours, like Ino Leucothea, with whom she 
was identified. [Diet, of Ant. art. Matralia.] 
A temple was dedicated to Matuta at Rome in 
the Forum Boarium by king Servius, and was 
restored by the dictator Camillus, after the 
taking of Veii (Liv. v. 19, xxv. 7). Other noted 
seats of her worship were at Satricum in the 
Volscian territory, and at Pisaurum (Liv. vi. 
33; C. I. L. i. 177). 

Mauretania or Mauritania (rj Mavpovaia: 
Mavpovffioi, Mavpot, Maurusii, Mauri), the 
W.-most of the aivisions of N. Africa, lay be- 
tween the Atlantic on the W., the Mediter- 
ranean on the N., Numiaia on the E., and 
Gaetulia on the S. ; but the aistricts embraced 
under the names of Mauretania and Numidia 
respectively were of very different extent at 
different periods. The earliest known inhabi- 
tants of all N. Africa W. of the Syrtes were the 
Gaetulians, who were displaced and driven 
inland by peoples of Asiatic origin, who are 
found in the earliest historical accounts settled 
along the N. coast under various names ; their 
chief tribes being the Mauri or Maurusii, W. of 
the river Malva or Malucha (Muluia or Mo- 
halou) ; thence the Massaesylii, to (or nearly 
to) the river Ampsaga (Wady-el-Kebir), and the 
Massylii between the Ampsaga and the Tusca 
(Wady-Zain), the W. boundary of the Cartha- 
ginian territory. Of these people, the Mauri, 
who possessed a greater breadth of fertile- 
country between the Atlas and the coasts, seem 
to have applied themselves more to the settled 



MAURI 



MAXIMIANUS 



535 



pursuits of agriculture than their kindred neigh- 
bours on the E., whose unsettled warlike habits 
were moreover confirmed by their greater ex- 
posure to the intrusions of the Phoenician 
settlers. Hence arose a difference, which the 
Greeks marked by applying the general name 
of Nojia8es to the tribes between the Malva and 
the Tusca ; whence came the Roman names o^ 
Numidia for the district, and Numidae for its 
people. [Numidia.] Thus Mauretania was at 
first only the country W. of the Malva, and 
corresponded to the later district of Mauretania 
Tingitana, and to the modern empire of 
Morocco, except that the latter extends further 
S. ; the ancient boundary on the S. was the 
Atlas. The Romans first became acquainted 
with the country during the war with Jugurtha, 
B.c 106 ; of their relations with it, till it became 
a Roman province, about 33, an account is given 
under Bocchus. During this period the king- 
dom of Mauretania had been increased by the 
addition of the "W. part of Numidia, as far as 
Saldae, which Julius Caesar bestowed on Bogud, 
as a reward for his services in the African war. 
A new arrangement was made about 25, when 
Augustus gave Mauretania to Juba II., in 
exchange for his paternal kingdom of Numidia. 
(Tac. Ann. iv. 23 ; Dio Cass. lis. 25 ; Suet. Cal. 
26 ; Strab. pp. 828, 831, 840.) Upon the murder 
of Juba's son, Ptolemaeus, by Caligula (a.d. 40), 
Mauretania became finally a Roman province, 
and was formally constituted as such by Clau- 
dius, who added to it nearly half of what was 
still left of Numidia — namely, as far as the Am- 
psaga — and divided it into two parts, of which 
the W. was called Tingitana, from its capital 
Tingis {Tangier), and the E. Caesariensis from 
its capital Julia Caesarea (Zershell), the boun- 
dary between them being the river Malva, the 
old limit of the kingdom of Bocchus L (Dio 
Cass. lx. 0; Plin. v. 2 ; Tac. Hist. i. 11.) The 
latter corresponded to the W. and central part 
of the modern regency (and now French colony) 
of Algiers. These ' Mauretaniae duae ' were 
governed by an equestrian procurator. In the 
later division of the empire under Diocletian 
and Constantine, the E. part of Caesariensis, 
from Saldae to the Ampsaga, was erected into 
a new province, and called M. Sitifensis from 
the inland town of Sitifi (Setif); at the same 
time the W. province, M. Tingitana, seems to 
have been placed under the same government 
as Spain, so that we still find mention of the 
' Mauretaniae dnae,' meaning now, however, 
Caesariensis and Sitifensis. From a.d. 429 to 
534 Mauretania was in the hands of the Van- 
dals, and in 650 and the following years it was 
conquered by the Arabs. Its chief physical 
features are described under Africa and Atlas. 

Mauri. [Maubetania.] 

Mauricianus, Junius, a Roman jurist, lived 
under Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138-161). His works 
are cited in the Digest. 

Mauricus, Junius, an intimate friend of 
Pliny, was banished by Domitian, hut recalled 
from exile by Nerva (Plin. Ep. iv. 22 ; Tac. 
Hint, iv. 40, Agr.45). 

Mauritania. [Maubei ania.J 

Maurus, Terentianus. [Tebeni [ani 

Maurusii. [Mauhf.tania.] 

Mausolus or Maussolus (MaurraiAos or Mouit- 
iraiAos), king of Caria, was the eldest son of 
Hecatoninus, whom he succeeded in the sove- 
reignty, B.C. 377. In 362 lie took part in the 
general revolt of the satraps against Artaxerxes 
Mnemon, and availed himself of tlmt oppor- 
tunity to extend his dominions. In 858 he 



joined with the Rhodians and others in the war 
waged by them against the Athenians, known 
by the name of the Social war. He died in 
353, leaving no children, and was succeeded by 
his wife and sister Artemisia. The extravagant 
grief of the latter for his death, and the honours 
she paid to his memory — especially by the erec- 
tion of the costly monument which was called 
from him the Mausoleum — are related else- 

! where. [Artemisia.] (For an account of the 

! Mausoleum, see Diet, of Ant. s.v.) 
Mavors. [Mabs.] 

Maxentius, Roman emperor a.d. 306-312 
whose full name was M. Aurelius Valerius 
Maxentius. He was the son of Maximianus 
and Eutropia, and received in marriage the 
daughter of Galerius ; but he was passed over 
in the division of the empire which followed the 
abdication of his father and Diocletian in 
a.d. 305. Maxentius, however, did not tamely 
acquiesce in this arrangement, and, being sup- 
ported by the praetorian troops, who had been 
1 recently deprived of their exclusive privileges, 
I he was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 306. 
1 He summoned his father, Maximianus, from his 
retirement in Lucania, who again assumed the 
! purple. The military abilities of Maximianus 
J were of great service to his son, who was of in- 
: dolent and dissolute habits. Maximianus com- 
j pelled the Caesar Severus, who had marched 
upon Rome, to retreat in haste to Ravenna, and 
soon afterwards treacherously put him to death 
(307). The emperor Galerius now marched in 
I person against Rome, but Maximianus com- 
pelled him likewise to retreat. Soon afterwards 
j Maxentius, having shaken off his father's con- 
trol, crossed over to Africa, which he ravaged 
with fire and sword, because it had submitted 
to the independent authority of a certain 
Alexander. Upon his return to Rome Maxen- 
tius openly aspired to dominion over all the 
Western provinces, and declared war against 
Constantine, alleging, as a pretext, that the 
latter had put to death his father Maximianus. 
He began to make preparations to pass into 
Gaul ; but Constantine anticipated his move- 
ments, and invaded Italy. The struggle was 
brought to a close by the defeat of Maxentius at 
Saxa Rubra near Rome, October 27th, 312. 
Maxentius tried to escape over the Milvian 
bridge into Rome, but perished in the river. 
Maxentius is represented as a monster of 
capacity, cruelty, and Inst. (Zos. ii. 9-18 ; Zonar. 
xii. 33, xiii. 1.) 

Maxilua, a town in Hispania Baetica, where 
bricks were made so light as to swim upon water. 
See Calentum. 
Maxima Caesariensis. [Britannia.] 
Maximianopolis (Ma^/j.tai'oi'moAis : O. '['. 
Hadad Rimmon). 1. A city of Palestine, in the 
valley of Megiddo, a little to the S\V. of Megiddo. 
— 2. Also called Porsulae, a town in Thrace 
on the Via Egnatia, NE. of Abdera (Procop. 
de Aeci. iv. 11). 

Maximianus. I., Roman emperor, a.d. 286- 
305, whose full name was M. Aurelius Valerius 
Maximianus. He was born of humble parent 
in l'annonia, and had acquired such fume by bis 
services in the army, that Diocletian selected 
this rough soldier for his colleague, and 
created him first Caesar (285), and then Augus- 
tus (286), conferring at the same tinio the 
honorary appellation of Hercnliux, while lie 
himself assumed that of Jovius. The subse- 
quent history of Maximian has been fully 
detailed in former articles. [Diocletian us; 

| CONHTANTINUS L{ MaXENTIUH.] It is HUfiiciellt 



536 



MAXIMINUS 



MAXIMUS 



to relate here that, after having been compelled 
to abdicate, at Milan (305), he was again in- 
vested with the imperial title by his son Max- 
entius, in the following year (306), to whom he 
rendered important services in the war with 
Severus and Galerius. Having been expelled 
from Borne shortly afterwards by his son, he 
took refuge in Gaul with Constantine, to whom 
he had given his daughter Fausta in marriage. 
Here he again attempted to resume the im- 
perial throne, but was easily deposed by Con- 
stantine (308). Two years afterwards he en- 
deavoured to induce his daughter Fausta to 
destroy her husband, and was in consequence 
compelled by Constantine to put an end to his 
own life (Zosim. ii. 7-11 ; Zonar. xii. 31-33). — 
II., Roman emperor, a.d. 305-311, usually called 
Galerius. His full name was Galerius Va- 
lerius Maximianus. He wasborn near Sardica 
in Dacia, and was the son of a shepherd. He 
rose from the ranks to the highest commands in 
the army, and was appointed Caesar by Dio- 
cletian, along with Constantius Chlorus, in 292. 
At the same time he was adopted by Diocletian, 
whose daughter Valeria he received in marriage, 
and was entrusted with the command of Illyria 
and Thrace. In 297 he undertook an expe- 
dition against the Persian monarch Narses, in 
which he was unsuccessful, but in the following 
year (298) he defeated Narses with great slaugh- 
ter, and compelled him to conclude a peace. 
Upon the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian 
(305), Galerius became Augustus or emperor. 
In 307 he made an unsuccessful attempt to 
recover Italy, which had owned the authority of 
the usurper Maxentius. [Maxentius.] He died 
in 311. He was a cruel persecutor of the 
Christians ; and it was at his instigation that 
Diocletian issued the ordinance (303) which for 
so many years deluged the world with innocent 
blood. (Zosim. ii. 8-11 ; Zonar. xii. 31-34 ; 
Euseb. H. E. x. 1-3.) 

Maximinus. I., Boman emperor a.d. 235- 
238, whose full name was C. Julius Verus 
Maximinus, was born in a village on the con- 
fines of Thrace, of barbarian parentage. Brought 
up as a shepherd, he attracted the attention of 
Septimius Severus, by his gigantic stature and 
marvellous feats of strength, and was permitted 
to enter the army. He rose to the highest rank 
in the service ; and on the murder of Alexander 
Severus by the troops in Gaul (235), he was 
proclaimed emperor. He immediately bestowed 
the title of Caesar on his son Maximus. During 
his reign he carried on war against the Germans 
with success ; but his government was charac- 
terised by a degree of oppression and cruelty 
hitherto unexampled. The Boman world at 
length tired of this monster. The senate and 
the provinces gladly acknowledged the two 
Gordiani, who had been proclaimed emperors 
in Africa ; and after their death the senate 
itself proclaitned Maximus and Balbinus em- 
perors (238). As soon as Maximinus heard 
of the elevation of the Gordians, he hastened 
from his winter-quarters at Sirmium. Having 
crossed the Alps, he laid siege to Aquileia, and 
was there slain by his own soldiers along with 
his son Maximus, in April. The most extra- 
ordinary tales are related of the physical powers 
of Maximinus, which are almost incredible. His 
height exceeded eight feet. The circumference 
of his thumb was equal to that of a woman's 
wrist, so that the bracelet of his wife served 
him for a ring. It is said that he was able 
single-handed to drag a loaded waggon, could 
with his fist knock out the teeth, and with a 



kick break the leg, of a horse (Script. Aug. 
Maximin. Duo ; Herodian, vii. viii.). — II., Bo- 
man emperor 305-314, originally called Daza, 
and subsequently Galerius Valerius Maxi- 
minus. He was the nephew of Galerius by a 
sister, and in early life was a shepherd in his 
native Illyria. Having entered the army, he 
rose to the highest rank in the service ; and 
upon the abdication of Diocletian in 305, he was 
adopted by Galerius and received the title of 
Caesar. In 308 Galerius gave him the title of 
Augustus ; and on the death of the latter jn 
311, Maximinus and Licinius divided the East 
'between them. In 313 Maximinus attacked the 
dominions of Licinius, who had gone to Milan, 
to marry the sister of Constantine. He was, 
however, defeated by Licinius near Heraclea, 
and fled to Tarsus, where he soon after died. 
Maximinus surpassed all his contemporaries 
in the profligacy of his private life, in the 
general cruelty of his administration, and in the 
hatred with which he persecuted the Christians. 
(Zosim. ii. 8 ; Euseb. R. E. ix. 2.) 

Maximus. 1. Of Ephesus or Smyrna, one 
of the teachers of the emperor Julian, to whom 
he was introduced by Aedesius. Maximus was 
a philosopher of the Neo-Platonic school, and, 
like many others of that school, both believed 
in and practised magic. On the accession of 
Julian, Maximus was held in high honour at 
the court, and accompanied the emperor on his 
fatal expedition against the Persians, which he 
had prophesied would be successful. In 364 
he was accused of having caused by sorcery the 
illness of the emperors Valens and Valentinian, 
and was thrown into prison, where he was ex- 
posed to cruel tortures. He owed his liberation 
to the philosopher Themistius. In 371 
Maximus was accused of taking part in a con- 
spiracy against Valens, and was put to death 
(Amm. Marc. xxix. 1). — 2. Of Epirus, or per- 
haps of Byzantium, was also an instructor of 
the emperor Julian in philosophy and heathen 
theology. He wrote in Greek, De insolubilibus 
Opposztionibus, published by H. Stephanus, 
Paris, 1554, appended to the edition of Diony- 
sius Halicarnassus, as well as other works. 

Maximus, Fabius, 1. Q. Fabius Maximus 
Rullianus, was the son of M. Fabius Am- 
bustus, consul B.C. 360. Fabius was master of 
the horse to the dictator L. Papirius Cursor in 
325, whose anger he incurred by giving battle 
to the Samnites during the dictator's absence, 
and contrary to his orders. Victory availed 
Fabius nothing in exculpation. A hasty flight 
to Borne, where the senate, the people, and his 
aged father interceded for him with Papirius, 
barely rescued his life, but could not avert his 
degradation from office. (Liv. viii. 29-35 ; Val. 
Max. ii. 7.) In 322 Fabius obtained his first 
consulship. It was the second year of the 
second Samnite war, and Fabius was the most 
eminent of the Boman generals in that long 
and arduous struggle for the empire of Italy. 
In 315 he was dictator, and was completely 
defeated by the Samnites at Lautulae. In 310 
he was consul for the second time, and carried 
on the war against the Etruscans. In 308 he 
was consul a third time, and is said to have 
defeated the Samnites and Umbrians. (Liv. 
ix. 22-42 ; Diod. xx. 27-44.) He was censor in 
304, when he seems to have confined the liber- 
tini to the four city tribes, and to have increased 
the political importance of the equites (Liv. 
ix. 46). In 297 he was consul for the fifth 
time, and in 296 for the sixth time. In tho 
. latter year he commanded at the great battle 



MAXIMUS 



537 



of Sentinum, when the combined armies of the 
Samnites, Gauls, Etruscans, and Umbrians 
were defeated by the Romans. (Liv. x. 21-30.J 
— 2. Q. Fabius Maximus Gurges, or the ' 
Glutton, from the dissoluteness of his youth, j 
son of the last. His mature manhood atoned I 
for his early irregularities. (Juv. vi. 267 ; | 
Macrob. ii. 9.) He was consul 292, and was 
completely defeated by the Pentrian Samnites. 
He escaped degradation from the consulate, 
only through his father's offer to serve as his [ 
lieutenant for the remainder of the war. In a 
second battle the consul retrieved his reputa- 
tion, and was rewarded with a triumph, of 
which the most remarkable feature was old 1 
Fabius riding beside his son's chariot. (Plut. 
Fait. 24 ; Dionys. xvi. 15.) He was consul the 
second time 276. Shortly afterwards he went 
as legatus from the senate to Ptolemy Phil- 
adelphus, king of Egypt. He was consul a 
third time, 265. — 3. Q. Fabius Maximus, with 
the agnomens Verrucosus, from a wart on his 
upper lip, Ovicula, or the Lamb, from the 
mildness or apathy of his temper, and Cunc- 
tator, from his caution in war, was grandson 
of Fabius Gurges (Plut. Fab. i. ; Varr. B. JR. 
ii. 1). He was consul for the first time 233, 
when Liguria was his province ; censor 230 ; 
consul a second time 228 ; opposed the agrarian 
law of C. Flaminius 227 ; was dictator for hold- 
ing the comitia in 221 ; and in 218 was legatus 
from the senate to Carthage, to demand repara- j 
tion for the attack on Saguntum. In 217, 
immediately after the defeat at Trasimenus, 
Fabius was appointed dictator. From this 
period, so long as the war with Hannibal was 
merely defensive, Fabius became the leading 
man at Home. On taking the field he laid 
down a simple and immutable plan of action. 
He avoided all direct encounter with the 
enemy ; moved his camp from highland to 
highland, where the Numidian horse and 
Spanish infantry could not follow him ; watched 
Hannibal's movements with unrelaxing vigil- 
ance, and cut off his stragglers and foragers. 
The narratives of his enclosure of Hannibal in 
one of the upland valleys between Cales and 
the Vultumus, and the Carthaginian's adroit 
escape by driving oxen with blazing faggots 
fixed to their horns up the hill-sides, are well- 
known. But at Rome and in his own camp the 
caution of Fabius was misinterpreted. It is 
probable, also, that a more forward strategy 
was now advisable to prevent Hannibal from 
carrying out his projects, though the tactics of 
Fabius were of the highest value in order to give 
the Romans time to regain some confidence after 
Trasimene. The expedient, however, which was 
adopted was absurd : the people divided the com- 
mand between him and M. Minucius Rufus, his 
master of the horse. Minucius was speedily 
entrapped, and would have been destroyed by 
Hannibal had not Fabius generously hastened 
to his rescne. Fabius was consul for the third 
time in 215, and for the fourth time in 214. In 
213 he served as legatus to his own son, Q. 
Fabius, consul in that year, and an anecdote is 
preserved which exemplifies the strictness of 
the Roman discipline. On entering the camp 
at Sucssula, Fabius advanced on horseback to 
greet his son. He was passing the lictors when 
Uie consul sternly bade him dismount. ' My 
son,' exclaimed the elder Fabius, ' I wished to 
see whether you would remember that you were 
consul.' (Liv. xxiv. 44.) Fabius was consul 
for the fifth time in 209, in which year he 
retook Tarentum. In the closing years of the 



second Punic war Fabius appears to less 
advantage. The war had become aggressive 
(and rightly so) under a new race of generals. 
Fabius disapproved of the new tactics ; he 
dreaded the political supremacy of Scipio, and 
was his uncompromising opponent in his scheme 
of invading Africa. He died in 203. (Life 
by Plutarch; Pol. iii. 87-106; Liv. xx.-xxx. ; 
Appian_, Annib. 11-16 ; Cic. de Sen. 4, 17.) — i. 
Q. Fabius Maximus, elder son of the preceding, 
was praetor 214 and consul 213. He was 
legatus to the consul M. Livius Salinator 207. 
He died soon after this period, and his funeral 
oration was pronounced by his father. (Cic. 
A r . £>. iii. 32.) — 5. Q. Fabius Maximus Aemi- 
lianus ; was by birth the eldest son of L. Aemi- 
lius Paulus, the conqueror of Perseus, and was 
adopted by No. 3. Fabius served under his 
father (Aemilius) in the Macedonian war, 168, 
and was despatched by him to Rome with the 
news of his victory at Pydna. (Pol. xxix. 6.) 
He was praetor in Sicily 149-148, and consul 
in 145. Spain was his province, where he 
encountered, and at length defeated, Viriathus. 
Fabius was the pupil and patron of the historian 
Polybius. (Pol. xviii.. xxxii. 8-10 ; Liv. xliv. 

35. )— 6. Q. Fabius Maximus Aliobrogicus, 
son of the last. He was consul 121 ; and he 
derived his surname from the victory which he 
gained in this year over the AUobroges and 
their ally, Bituitus, king of the Arverni in 
Gaul. He was censor in 108. He was an 
orator and a man of letters. (Cic. pro Mv. r. 

36, 75 ; Plin. vii. 166.) — 7. Q. Fabius Maximus 
Servilianus, was adopted from the gens Ser- 
vilia by No. 5. He was uterine brother of Cn. 
Servilius Caepio, consul in 141. He himself 
wa£ consul in 142, when he carried on war with 
Viriathus. (Appian, Hisp. 70.) 

Maximus, Magnus Clemens, Roman em- 
peror, a.d. 383-388, in Gaul, Britain, and Spain, 
, was a native of Spain. He was proclaimed 
emperor by the legions in Britain in 383, and 
forthwith crossed over to Gaul to oppose 
Gratian, who was defeated by Maximus, and 
was shortly afterwards put to death. Theo- 
dosius found it expedient to recognise Maximus 
as emperor of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, in order 
to secure Valentiniau in the possession of Italy. 
Maximus, however, aspired to the undivided 
! empire of the West, and accordingly in 387 he 
' invaded Italy at the head of a formidable army. 
Valentinian was unable to resist him, and lied 
to Theodosius in the East. Theodosius forth- 
with prepared to avenge his colleague. In 388 
he forced his way through the Noric Alps, took 
Aquileia by storm and there put Maximus to 
death. Victor, the son of Maximus, was de- 
feated and slain in Gaul by Arbogates, the 
general of Theodosius. (Zosim. iv. 35 ff. ; Oros. 
vii. 34 ff.) 

Maximus, Petronius, Roman emperor, a.d. 
455, belonged to a noble Roman family, and 
enjoyed some of the highest offices of state 
under Honorius and Valentinian III. In con- 
sequence of the violence offered to his wife by 
Valentinian, Maximus formed a conspiracy 
against this emperor, who was assassinated, 
and Muximus himself proclaimed emperor in 
his stead. His reign, however, lasted only two 
or three months. Having forced Eudoxia, the 
' widow of Valentinian, to marry him, she re- 
solved to avenge the death of her former hus- 
band, and accordingly Genseric was invited to 
invade Italy. When Genseric landed at the 
mouth of the. Tiber, Muximus was slain by a 
band of Burgundiun mercenaries, commanded 



538 



MAXIMUS 



MEDEA 



by some old officers of Valentinian. (Prooop. 
B. Vand. i. i, 5 ; Sidon. Ep. i. 9, ii. 13.) 

Maxlmus Planudes, [Planudes.] 

Maximus Tyrius, a native of Tyre, a Greek 
rhetorician and Platonic philosopher, lived 
during the reigns of the Antonines and of 
Commodus. Some writers suppose that he was 
one of the tutors of M. Aurelius ; but it is more 
probable that he was a different person from 
Claudius Maximus, the Stoic, who was the 
tutor of this emperor. Maximus Tyrius appears 
to have spent the greater part of his life in 
Greece, but he visited Rome once or twice. 
There are extant forty-one Dissertations 
(A(aAe'£eis or ASyot) of Maximus Tyrius on theo- 
logical, ethical and other philosophical subjects, 
written in an easy and pleasing style, but not 
characterised by much depth of thought. The 
best edition is by Reiske, Lips. 1774-5, 2 vols. 

Maximus, Valerius. [Valerius.] 

Maxilla. [Ades.] 

Maxyes (Ma|ues), a people of N. Africa, on 
the coast of the Lesser Syrtis, on the W. bank 
of the river Triton, who claimed descent from 
the Trojans. They shaved the right side of the 



other writers, by Hecate, the daughter of Perses. 
(Hes. Th. 961 ; Apollod. i. 9, 23 ; Diod. iv. 45). 
She was celebrated for her skill in magic. The 
most important parts of her story are given 
under Absyrtus, Argonautae, and Jason. It 
is enough to state here that when Jason came 
to fetch the golden fleece, she fell in love with 
the hero, assisted him in accomplishing the ob- 
! ject for which he had visited Colchis, and after- 
j wards fled with him as his wife to Greece ; that 
they were driven from Iolcus because she had 
deceived the daughters of Pelias into killing 
their father [see p. 458, b], and went to Corinth, 
where Medea, having been deserted by Jason 
for the youthful daughter of Creon, king of 
Corinth, took fearful vengeance upon her 
faithless spouse by murdering the two children 
whom she had by him, and by destroying his 
young wife by a poisoned garment ; and that 
she then fled to Athens in a chariot drawn by 
winged dragons. So far her story has been 
related in the articles mentioned above. Her 
flight from Corinth is represented in the an- 
nexed cut. The old man on the left is Creon j 
| before him is his daughter Creusa falling to 




head, and painted their bodies with vermilion. 
(Hdt. iv. 191.) 

Mazaca. [Caesarea, No. 1.] 

Mazara (Ma(dpa: Ma(apa7os: Mazzara), a 
town on the W. coast of Sicily, situated on a 
river of the same name, between Lilybaeum 
and Selinus, and founded by the latter city, 
was taken by the Romans in the first Punic war 
(Diod. xiii. 54, xxiii. 9). 

Mazices (Ma(j/ces), a people of N. Africa, in 
Mauretania Caesariensis, on the S. slope of M. 
Zalacus (Ptol. iv. 2, 19 ; Lucan, iv. 681). They, 
as well as the Maxyes, are thought to be the 
ancestors of the Amazirghs. 

Mecyberna (Wl-qKvfiepva : M7]icvf}epvaws : 
Molivo), a town of Macedonia in Chalcidice, at 
the head of the Toronaic gulf, E. of Olynthus, 
of which it was the seaport. From this town 
part of the Toronaic gulf was subsequently 
called Sinus Mecybernaeus. (Hdt. vii. 122 ; 
Thuc. v. 39 ; Strab. p. 330.) 

Medaba (M7)5a/3a), a city of Peraea in Pales- 
tine. 

Medaura, Ad Medera, or Amedera (Haidra), 
a city of N. Africa, on the borders of Numidia 
and Byzacena ; a Roman colony, and the birth- 
place of Appuleius. (Appul. Apol. p. 443 ; 
Ptol. iv. 3, 30 ; Procop. de Aed. vi. 6.) 

Medea (MrjSeict), daughter of Aeetes, king of 
Colchis, by the Oceanid Idyia, or, according to 



j the ground ; then the children of Medea in 
front of a terminal head of Neptune ; then 
Medea with sword in hand ; and finally Medea 
making off in the serpent-car. At Athens she 
is said to have married King Aegeus, or to 
have been beloved by Sisyphus. Zeus him- 
self is said to have sued for her, but in vain, 

( because Medea dreaded the anger of Hera ; and 
the latter rewarded her by promising immor- 
tality to her children. Her children are, ac- 
cording to some accounts, Mermerus, Pheres 
or Thessalus, Alcimenes, and Tisander ; accord- 
ing to others, she had seven sons and seven 
daughters, while others mention only two 
children, Medus (some call him Polyxenus) and 
Eriopis, or one son, Argus. (Apollod. i. 9, 28 ; 
Diod. iv. 54.) Respecting her flight from 
Corinth, there are different traditions. In the 
Attic story, she fled to Athens and married 
Aegeus, but when it was discovered that she 
plotted to poison Theseus she escaped and went 
to Asia, the inhabitants of which were called 
after her Medes (Paus. ii. 3, 7 ; Plut. Thes. 
12 ; Ov. Met. vii. 391). Others relate that she 
first fled from Corinth to Heracles at Thebes, 
who bad promised her his assistance while yet 
in Colchis, in case of J ason being unfaithful to 
her. She cured Heracles, who was seized with 
madness ; and as he could not afford her the 
assistance he had promised she went to Athens. 



MEDEON 



MEDIOLANUM 



539 



(Diod. iv. 54.) She is said to have given birth 
to her son Medus after her arrival in Asia, 
where she had married a king ; whereas others 
state that her son Medus accompanied her 
from Athens to Colchis, where her son slew 
Perses, and restored her father Aeetes to his 
kingdom. The restoration of Aeetes, however, 
is attributed by some to Jason, who accom- 
panied Medea to Colchis. (Diod. iv. 55 ; Tac. 
Ann. vi. 41 ; Hyg. Fab. 26 ; Just. xlii. 2.) 
Another legend makes her the wife of Achilles 
in Elysium (Schol. ad Eur. Med. 10, ad Ap. 
Eh. iv. 814). 

Medeon (MeSeeSe: MeSewvtos). 1. OrMedion 
(Katund), a town in the interior of Acarnania, 
near the road which led fromLinmaeatoStratos 
(Thuc. iii. 106 ; Pol. ii. 2, 3).— 2. A town on the 
coast of Phocis near Anticyra, destroyed in the 
Sacred war, and never rebuilt (Paua. x. 3, 2). 
— 3. A town in Boeotia, mentioned by Homer, 
situated at the foot of Mt. Phoenicus, near On- 
chestus and the lake Copais (II. ii. 501 ; Strab. 
p. 410). — 4. A town of the Labeates in Dal- 
matia, near Scodra (Liv. xliv. 23). 

Media (7/ MriS'ia : MriSos, Medus), an important 
country of W. Asia, occupying the extreme W. 
of the great table-land of Iran, and lying 
between Armenia on the N. and NW., Assyria 
and Susiana on the W. and SW., Persis on the 
S., the great desert of Aria on the E., and 
Parthia, Hyrcania, and the Caspian on the NE. 
Its boundaries were, on the N. the Araxes, on 
the W. and SW. the range of mountains called 
Zagros and Parachoatras (Mts. of Kurdistan 
and Louristan), which divided it from the 
Tigris and Euphrates valley, on the E. the 
Desert, and on the NE. the Caspii Montes 
(Elburz M.), the country between which and the 
Caspian, though reckoned as a part of Media, 
was possessed by the Gelae, Mardi, and other 
independent tribes. Media thus corresponded 
nearly to the modern province of lrak-Ajemi. 
It was for the most part a fertile country, pro- 
ducing wine, figs, oranges and citrons, and 
honey, and supporting an excellent breed of 
horses. It was well peopled, and was altogether 
one of the most important provinces of the 
ancient Persian empire. (Strab. pp. 522-526.) 
After the Macedonian conquest, it was divided 
into two parts, Great Media ( r\ neydKij M7j5i'o), 
and Atropatene. [Atropatene.] The earliest 
history of Media is involved in much obscurity. 
Herodotus and Ctesias (in Diodorus) give 
different chronologies for its early kings (Hdt. 
i. 95; Diod. ii. 24, 32). Ctesias makes Arbaces 
the founder of the monarchy, about B.C. 842, 
and reckons eight kings from him to the over- 
throw of the kingdom by Cyrus. Herodotus 
reckons only four kings of Media : namely, (1) 
Deioces, b.c. 710-657 ; (2) Phraortes, 657-635 ; 
(8) Cyaxares, 635-595 ; (4) Astyaoks, 595-560. 
The last king was dethroned by a revolution 
which transferred the supremacy to the Persians, 
who had formerly been the subordinate people 
in the united Medo-Persian empire. [Cyrus J 
The Medes made more than one attempt to re- 
gain their supremacy ; the usurpation of the 
Magian Pseudo-Smerdis was no doubt such an 
attempt [Magi] ; and another occurred in the 
reign of Darius II., when the Medes revolted, 
but were soon subdued (b.c. 408). With the 
rest of the Persian empire, Media fell under the 
power of Alexander ; it next formed a part of 
the kingdom of the Seleucidae, from whom it 
was conquered by the Parthians, in the second 
century B.C., from which time it belonged to 
the Parthian, and then to the later Persian 



empire. The people of Media were a branch 
of the Indo-Germanic family, and nearly allied 
to the Persians ; their language was a dialect 
of the Zend, and their religion the Magian. 
According to Herodotus they were at first 
called Arii (Hdt. vii. 62). They were divided into 
six tribes, the Buzae, Parataceni, Struchates, 
Arizanti, Budii, and Magi. In the early period 
of their history, they were eminent warriors, 
especially as mounted archers (Xen. Anab. ii. 
1, 7) ; hut the long prevalence of peace, wealth 
and luxury reduced them to a by- word for 
effeminacy. — It is important to notice the use 
of the names Medus and Medi by the Roman 
poets, for the nations of Asia E. of the Tigris in 
general, and the Parthians in particular (Hor. 
Od. ii. 16, 6). 

Mediae Murub (rb M-qSias Ka\ovp.evov Teixos), 
an artificial wall, which ran from the Euphrates 
to the Tigris, at the point where they approach 
nearest, a little above 33° N. lat. and divided 
Mesopotamia from Babj'lonia. It is described 
by Xenophon (A)iab. ii. 4), as being twenty 
parasangs long, 100 feet high, and twenty 
thick, and was built of baked bricks, cemented 
with asphalt. Its erection was ascribed to 
Semiramis, and hence it was also called -rb 
Sefx.ipdiJ.iSos SiaretXiCIJ-a. (Strab. pp. 80, 529.) 

Mediolanum (Mediolanensis), more fre- 
quently called by Greek writers Mediolanium 
[ (MeSio\dyioy), the names of several cities 
founded by the Celts. 1. {Milan), the capital 
of the Insubres in Gallia Transpadana, was 
situated in an extensive plain between the rivers 
Ticinus and Addua (Liv. v. 34; Strab. p. 213). 
It was taken by the Romans B.C. 222, and after- 
wards became a municipium (Pol. ii. 34 ; Eutrop. 
j iii. 6; Oros. iv. 13; Tac. Hist. i. 70; Plin. iii. 
J 138). It was a head-quarters of military 
government in North Italy from which the 
movements of the barbarians across the Alps 
could be watched, as appears even in the time 
of Augustus (Suet. Aug. 20J. On the new 
division of the empire made by Diocletian, it 
became the residence of his colleague Maximi- 
anus, and continued to he the usual residence 
j of the emperors of the West (Eutrop. ix. 27 ; 
Zos. ii. 10, 17), till the irruption of Attila — who 
took and plundered the town — induced them to 
transfer the scat of government to the more 
inaccessible town of Ravenna. Mediolanum 
was at this time one of the first cities of the 
empire ; it possessed an imperial mint, and was 
the seat of an archbishopric. It is celebrated 
in ecclesiastical history as the see of St. 
Ambrose. On the fall of the Western empire, 
, it became the residence of Theodoric the Great 
and the capital of the Ostrogothic kingdom, 
and surpassed even Rome itself in populous- 
ness and prosperity. It received a fearful blow 
in a.d. 589, when, in consequence of having 
sided with Belisurius, it was taken by the Goths 
under Vitiges, a great part of it destroyed, and 
its inhabitants put to the sword (Procop. Ii.G. 
\ ii. H, 21). It, however, gradually recovered from 
j the effects of this blow, and was a place of im- 
portance under the Lombards. — 2. (Saintes), a 
! town of the Santonea in Aquitania, NE. of the 
| mouth of the Garumna ; subsequently called 
: Santones after the people, whence its modern 
' name (Strab. p. 190; Amm. Marc. xv. 11). — 3. 
(Chateau Meillan), a town of the Bitnxiges 
Cubi in Aquitania, NE. of tho town hist men- 
tioni'd. — 4. (livreux), a town of the Aulcrci 
Kburovices in the N. of Gallia Lugdunensis, S. 
of the Sequana, on the road from Rotomagus 
to Lutetia Parisiorum; subsequently called 



540 MEDIOMATEICI 



MEG ABA 



Civitas Ebroicorum, whence its modern name 
(Ptol. ii. 8, 11). — 5. A town of the Segusiani in 
the S. of Gallia Lugdunensis. — 8. A town in 
Gallia Belgiea, on the road from Colonia Tra- 
jana to Colonia Agrippina. — 7. (Malpas ?), a 
town in Britain between Deva (Chester) and 
Uriconium (Wroxeter). 

Mediomatrlci, a people in the SE. of Gallia 
Belgiea on the Mosella, S. of the Treviri, 
originally extended to the Bhine, but in the 
time of Augustus they had been driven from 
this river by the Vangiones, Nemetes, and other 
German tribes. Their chief town was Divodu- 
rum (Mete). (Caes. B.G. iv. 10 ; Strab. p. 193.) 

Mediterraneum Mare. [Internum Make.) 

Meditrlna, a Boman divinity of the art of 
healing, in whose honour the festival of the 
Meditrinalia was celebrated in the month of 
October (Diet, of Ant. art. Meditrinalia). 

Medina, or Mesma (MeS/xa, MeV/u.a), a Greek 
city of Southern Italy on the W. coast of 
Bruttii, founded by the Locrians (Strab. 
p. 256 ; Scyl. p. 4). Its name is probably pre- 
served in the river Mesima. 

Medoacus or Meduacus, a river in Venetia 
in the N. of Italy, formed by the union of two 
rivers, the Medoacus Major (Brenta) and 
Medoacus Minor (Baccliiglione), which falls 
into the Adriatic sea near Edron, the harbour 
of Patavium (Liv. x. 2 ; Plin. hi. 121). 

Medobriga (Marvao, on the frontiers of Por- 
tugal), a town in Lusitania, on the road from 
EmeritatoScalabis(-BeZZ.^Ueir;.48; Plin. iv. 118). 

Medocus. [Amadocus.] 

Medon (WleSuv). 1. Son of Oileus, and 
brother of the lesser Ajax, fought against Troy, 
and was slain by Aeneas (II. ii. 727, xiii. 693, xv. 
332).— 2. Son of Codrus. [Codbus.] 

Meduli, a people in Aquitania, S. of the 
mouth of the Garumna, in the modern Medoc. 
There were excellent oysters found on their 
shores (Auson. Epist. iv. v. vii). 

Medulli, a people on the E. frontier of Gallia 
Narbonensis and in the Maritime Alps, in whose 
country the Druentia (Durance) and Duria 
(Dora Riparia) took their rise (Strab. p. 203). 

MedulHa (Medulllnus : Sant' Angela), a 
colony of Alba, in the land of the Sabines, situ- 
ated between the Tiber and the Anio. Tar- 
quinius Priscus incorporated their territory 
with the Boman state (Liv. i. 33, 38 ; Dionys. 
ii. 36, vi. 34). 

Medulllnus, Furius, an ancient patrician 
family at Borne, the members of which held 
the highest offices of state in the early times of 
the republic (Liv. ii. 39, 43, 54). 

Medullus, a mountain in Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, near the Minius (Flor. iv. 12). 

Medus, a son of Medea. [Medea.] 

Medus (Mf/5os), a small river of Persis, flow- 
ing from the confines of Media, and falling into 
the Araxes near Persepolis (Strab. p. 729). 

Medusa. [Gobgones.] 

Megabazus or Megabyzus (Meydfia(os, 
Meyd/3v(os). 1. One of the seven Persian nobles 
who conspired against the Magian Smerdis, B.C. 
521. Darius left him with an army in Europe, 
when he recrossed the Hellespont, on his return 
from Scythia, 506. He subdued Perinthus and 
the other cities on the Hellespont and the coast 
of Thrace (Hdt. iii. 70, iv. 143, v. 1-16).— 2. Son 
of Zopyrus, and grandson of the above, was one 
of the commanders in the army of Xerxes, 480. 
He afterwards commanded the army sent against 
the Athenians in Egypt, 458 (Hdt. vii. 82 ; Thuc. 
i. 109). 

Megabocchus, C, was tried together with 



T. Albueius for extortion in Sardinia (Cic. 
Fragm. pro Scaur, ii. 40), apparently one of 
the Catilinarian conspirators (Cic. ad Att. ii. 7). 

Megacles (MeyaicXiis). 1. A name borne by 
several of the Alcmaeonidae. The most import- 
ant of these was the Megacles who put to death 
Cylon and his adherents, after they had taken 
refuge at the altar of Athene, b.c. 612. [Cylon.] 
— 2. A Syracusan, brother of Dion, and brother- 
in-law of the elder Dionysius. He accompanied 
Dion in his flight from Syracuse, 358, and after- 
wards returned with him to Sicily. 

Megaera. [Eumenides.] 

Megalla or Megaris, a small island in the 
Tyrrhene sea, opposite Neapolis (Plin. iii. 82). 

Megalopolis (?) Me7aA7? tt6\ls, Meya\6TroMs : 
M<=7aA.OTToAiT?js). 1. (Stnano), the most recent, 
but the most important of the cities of Arcadia, 
.was founded on the advice of Epaminondas, 
after the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371, and was 
formed out of the inhabitants of thirty-eight 
villages. It was situated in the district 
Maenalia, near the frontiers of Messenia, on 
the river Helisson, which flowed through the 
city, dividing it into two nearly equal parts. 
It stood on the site of the ancient town Orestion 
or Orestia ; was fifty stadia (six miles) in cir- 
cumference; and contained, when it was be- 
sieged by Polysperchon, about 15,000 men 
capable of bearing arms, which would give us 
a population of about 70,000 inhabitants. 
Megalopolis was for a time subject to the Mace- 
donians ; but soon after the death of Alexander 
the Great, it was governed by a series of native 
tyrants, the last of whom, Lydiades, voluntarily 
resigned the government, and united the city 
to the Achaean League, B.C. 234. It became in 
consequence opposed to Sparta, and was taken 
and plundered by Cleomenes, who killed or 
drove into banishment all its inhabitants, and 
destroyed a great part of the city, 222. After 
the battle of Sellasia in the following year, it 
was restored by Philopoemen, who again col- 
lected the inhabitants ; but it never recovered 
its former prosperity. Philopoemen and the hi s- 
torian Polybius were natives of Megalopolis. The 
ruins of its theatre, once the largest in Greece, 
are important in archaeology, particularly as 
regards the disputed question of a raised stage. 
The excavations of 1890-91 by the British School 
of Athens have explored the theatre, and dis- 
covered the ground plan of the adjoining Ther- 
silion or great assembly hall of the Arcadians, 
and of the Agora and temple of Zeus across the 
river. — 2. A town in Caria. [Aphbodisias.] — 3. 
A town in Pontus. [Sebastia.] — 4. A town in 
the N. of Africa, in Byzacena ; it was taken and 
destroyed by Agathocles. 

Meganlra. [Metanira.] 

Megapenthes (MeyaTreVflrjs). 1. Son of Proe- 
tus, father of Anaxagoras and Iphianira, and 
king of Argos. He exchanged his dominion for 
that of Perseus, so that the latter received 
Tiryns instead of Argos. (Paus. ii. 18, 4 ; 
Apollod. ii. 4.) — 2. Son of Menelaus by an 
Aetolian slave, Pieris or Teridae. Menelaus 
brought about a marriage between Megapenthes 
and a daughter of Alector. According to a 
Bhodian tradition, Megapenthes expelled Helen 
from Argos, who thereupon fled to Polyxo at 
Bhodes. (Od. iv. 11 ; Paus. iii. 19, 2.) 

Megara, wife of Heracles. [See p. 396, a.] 
Megara (ra Meyapa, in Lat. Megara, -ae, and 
pi. Megara, -orum : Nlzyapevs, Megarensis). 1. 
(Megara), the capital of Megaris, was situated 
8 stadia (l mile) from the sea opposite the island 
Salamis, about 26 miles from Athens and 31 



MEGARA 

miles from Corinth. It consisted of three parts : 
(1) the ancient Pelasgian citadel, called Carta, 
said to have been built by Car, the son of 
Phoroneus, which was situated on a hill N W. 
of the later city. This citadel contained the 
ancient and celebrated Megaron (niyapov) or 
temple of Demeter, from which the town is 
supposed to have derived its name. (Paus. i. 
39, 5.) (2) The modern citadel, situated on a 
lower hill to the S"W. of the preceding, and called 
Alcatlwe, from its reputed founder Alcathous, 
son of Pelops (Paus. i. 42 ; Ov. Met. vii. 443, viii. 
7). (3) The town properly so called, situated at 
the foot of the two citadels, said to have been 
founded by the Pelopidae under Alcathous, and 
subsequently enlarged by a Doric colony under 
Alethes and Athemenes at the time of Codrus. 
Its seaport was Xisaea (Nuraial, which was 
connected with Megara by two walls, eight 
stadia in length, built by the Athenians when 
they had possession of Megara, B.C. 461-445 
(Thuc. i. 103) ; but as Pegae also belonged to 
the Megarians they, like the Corinthians, had 
ports on both seas, and a through traffic. 
Nisaea is said to have been built by Nisus, the 
son of Pandion ; and the inhabitants of Megara 
are sometimes called Nisaean Megarians (oi 
Nktoioi MeyapeTs) to distinguish them from the 
Hyblaean Megarians (oi 'TfSKcuoi Meyapels) in 
Sicily. In front of Nisaea lay the small 'island 



MEGARIS 



541 



democratical form of government established 
(Pint. Q. Gr. 18), After the Persian wars, 
Megara was for some time at war with Corinth, 
and was thus led to form an alliance with 
Athens, and to receive an Athenian garrison 
into the city, 461 ; but the oligarchical party 
having got the upper hand the Athenians were 
expelled, 441. In the Peloponnesian war it 
suffered greatly, and in 424 was only saved 
from capture by the approach of Brasidas 
(Thuc. iii. 51, iv. 56, 109). Megara after this 
gradually declined in power, partly from these 
party quarrels, but also because she was a small 
state in comparison with her neighbours. The 
city was taken and it. walls destroyed by 
Demetrius Poliorcetes ; it was taken again by 
the Romans under Q. Metellus ; and in the 
time of Augustus it had ceased to be a place of 
importance. — Megara is celebrated as the city 
of Tbteognis, and, in the history of philosophy, 
as the seat of a philosophical school, usually 
called the Megarian, which was founded by 
Euclid, a native of the city, and a disciple of 
Socrates. [Euolides, No. 2.] — 2. A town in 
Sicily on the E. coast, N. of Syracuse, founded 
by Dorians from Megara in Greece, B.C. 728, on 
the site of a small town Hybla, and hence 
called Megara Hyblaea, and its inhabitants 
Megarenses Hyblaei (Mtyapeis 'T/SAcuoi). From 
the time of Gelon it belonged to Syracuse. 




Minoa (Mi'cctfo), which added greatly to the 
security of the harbour. — In the most ancient 
times Megara and the surrounding country are 
said to have been inhabited by Leleges. It ; 
subsequently became annexed to Attica ; and 
Megaris formed one of the four ancient divisions , 
of Attica. (Strab. p. 392.) It was next con- 
quered by the Dorians, and was for a time sub- 
ject to Corinth (Hdt. v. 70; ; but it finally 
asserted its independence, and rapidly became 
| wealthy and powerful city (Paus. vi. 19, 13). 
To none of these events can an} - date be assigned | 
with certainty. An inscription mentions the 
victory of Orsippus of Megara at Olympia in 
720 B.C., the first athlete who ran entirely 
naked : it states also that he won back much 
territory (probably from Corinth) for his own 
city (C. I. G. 1050 ; cf. Paus. i. 44, 1). Its power 
at an early period is attested by the flourishing 
colonies which it founded, of which SelyMBIUA, 
Chalcedon, and Byzantium, and the Hyblaean 
Megara in Sicily, were the most important. 
Its navy was a match for that of Athens, with 
which it contested the island of Salamis ; and 
it was not till after a long struggle that the 
Athenians succeeded in obtaining possession of 
this island. The government was originally an 
aristocracy as in most of the Doric cities; but 
Theagenes, who put himself at the head of the 
popular party, obtained the supreme power 
about B.C. G20 (Arist. Pol. v. 5, 9 = p. 1305). 
Theagenes was afterwards expelled ; and a 



Megara. 

(Hdt. vii. 156; Thuc. vi. 4; Strab. p. 269.) It 
was taken and plundered by the Romans in the 
second Punic war, and from that time sank 
into insignificance, but it is still mentioned by 
Cicero under the name of Megaris. [Hybla.] 

Megareus IMeyapds), son of Onchestus, also 
called a son of Poseidon and Oenope, of Hippo- 
menes, of Apollo, or of Aegeus. He was a 
brother of Abrote, the wife of Nisus, king of 
Megara, and the father of Evippus, Thnalcus, 
Hippomenes, and Evaechme. Jlegara is said 
to have derived its name from him. (Paus. i. 
39 ; Ov. Met. x. 605 ) 

Megaris i>; Mtyapis orr] MtyapiK^i, sc. yrj), a 
small district in Greece between the Corinthian 
and Saronic gulfs, originally reckoned part of 
Hellas proper, but subsequently included in the 
Peloponnesus. It was bounded on the N. by 
Boeotia, on the E. and NE. by Attica, and on 
the S. by the territory of Corinth. It contained 
about 143 square miles. The country was very 
mountainous ; and its only plain was the one 
in which the city of Megara was situated, 
which was called rh AtvKOv TrtSiov (Schol. ad 
(lit. v. 333). It was separated from Boeotia by 
Mt. Cithaeron, and from Attica by the moun- 
tains called the Horns (to Kipa.ro) on account 
of their two projecting summits (Strab. p. 395; 
Diod. xiii. 65). The Geranean mountains ex- 
tended through the greater part of the countrj", 
and formed its S. boundary towards Corinth 
(Thuc. i. 105; Paus. i. 40, 7). There were two 



542 



MEGASTHENES 



MELAMPUS 



roads through these mountains from Corinth, 
one called the Scironian pass, which ran along 
the Saronic gulf, passed by Crommyon and 
Megara, and was the direct road from Corinth 
to Athens (Strab. p. 391 ; Hdt. viii. 71 ; Paus. 
i. 44, 7 ; Eur. Hipp. 1208) ; the other ran along 
the Corinthian gulf, passed by Geranea and 
Pegae, and was the road from Corinth into 
Boeotia. The only town of importance in 
Megaris was its capital, Megara. [Megaka.] 

Megasthenes (Meyaa-Bev-qs), a Greek writer 
who was sent by Seleucus Nicator as ambassador 
to Sandracottus, king of the Prasii, where he 
resided some time. He wrote a work on India, 
in four books, entitled Indica (ra 'IvSikol), to 
which later Greek writers were chiefly indebted 
for their accounts of the country. (Strab. pp. 
70, 702; Arrian, An. v. 6; Athen. p. 153.) 

Meges (Meyys), son of Phyleus, and grandson 
of Augeas, was one of the suitors of Helen, and 
led his bands from Dulichium and the Echi- 
nades against Troy (II. ii. 625, v. 69, xv. 520 ; 
Paus. x. 25, 2). 

Megiddo (WlayeSSw, MayeSd : Lejjun ?), a 
considerable city of Palestine, on the river 
Kishon, in a valley of the same name, which 
formed a part of the great plain of Jezreel or 
Esdraelon, on the confines of Galilee and 
Samaria. It was probably the same place 
which was called Legio under the Eomans. 
[See Diet. of_ the Bible.] 

Megistani, a people of Armenia, in the dis- 
trict of Sophene, near the Euphrates. 

Megiste (Wley'tcrrr)), an island off Lycia, oppo- 
site Antiphellus (Strab. p. 666 ; Liv. xxxvii. 22). 

Mela, river. [Mella.J 

Mela, Fabius, a Boman jurist, often cited 
in the Digest ; probably of the Augustan age. 

Mela, Mella, M. Annaeus, the youngest son 
of M. Annaeus Seneca, the rhetorician, and 
brother of L. Seneca, the philosopher, and of 
Gallic By his wife Acilia he had at least one 
son, the celebrated Lucan. After Lucan's death, 
a.d. 65, Mela laid claim to his property ; and as 
he was rich, he was accused of being privy to 
Piso's conspiracy, and anticipated a certain 
sentence by suicide. (Tac. Ann. xv. 48 ; Dio 
•Cass. lxii. 25.) 

Mela, Pomponius, the first Boman author 
who composed a formal treatise upon Geo- 
graphy, was a native of Spain, and probably 
flourished under the emperor Claudius (iii. 49). 
His work is entitled De Situ Orbis Libri III. 
It contains a brief description of the whole 
world as known to the Eomans. The text is 
often corrupt, but the style is simple, and the 
Latinity is pure ; and although everything is 
compressed within the narrowest linrits, we find 
the monotony of the catalogue occasionally 
diversified by animated and pleasing pictures. 
Editions by Parthey, Berlin, 1867 ; Frick, Lips. 
1880. 

Melaena Acra (ri MeAcuva &Kpa). 1. (Kara 
Burnu, which means the same as the Greek 
name, i.e. the Black Cape), the NW. promon- 
tory of the great peninsula of Ionia : formed by 
Mt. Mimas ; celebrated for the millstones hewn 
from it (Strab. p. 645).— 2. (C. San Nicolo), the 
NW. promontory of the island of Chios. — 3. 
(Tshili) a promontory of Bithynia, a little E. of 
the Bosporus, between the rivers Bhebas and 
Artanes ; also called KaXivaxpov and BiBvvias 
&Kpov (Ap. Bh. ii. 651). 

Melaenae (MeAairaf : MeAaiuevs). 1. Or 
Melaeneae (MeXatveal), a town in the W. of 
Arcadia on the Alpheus, NW. of Buphagium, 
and SE. of Heraea (Paus. viii. 26, 8).— 2. A 



demus in Attica, on the frontiers of Boeotia, be- 
longing to the" tribe Antiochis. 

Melambium (WleXd/tPtov), a town of Thessaly 
in Pelasgiotis, belonging to the territory of 
Scotussa (Pol. xviii. 3). 

Melampus (Me\dfxwovs). 1. Son of Amythaon 
by Idomene, or by Aglaia, or by Bhodope, 
and a brother of Bias (Apollod. i. 9, 1 ; Diod. 
iv. 68). He was looked upon by the ancients 
as the first mortal who was endowed with 
prophetic powers, as the person who first 
practised the medical art, and who estab- 
lished the worship of Dionysus in Greece (Hdt. 
ii. 49). He is said to have been married to 
Iphianassa, by whom he became the father of 
Mantius and Antiphates (Od. xv. 225 ; Diod. 
I.e.). Abas, Bias, Manto, and Pronoe are also 
named by some writers as his children. Before 
his house there stood an oak tree containing a 
serpent's nest. The old serpents were killed by 
his servants, but Melampus took care of the 
young ones and fed them carefully. One day, 
when he was asleep, they cleaned his ears with 
their tongues. On his waking he perceived, to 
his astonishment, that he now understood the 
language of birds, and that with their assistance 
he could foretell the future. In addition to this 
he acquired the power of prophesying from the 
victims that were offered to the gods ; and, after 
having an interview with Apollo on the banks 
of the Alpheus, he became a most renowned' 
soothsayer. During his residence at Pylos his 
brother Bias was one of the suitors for the hand 
of Pero, the daughter of Neleus. The latter 
promised his daughter to the man who should 
bring him the oxen of Iphiclus, which were 
guarded by a dog whom neither man nor animal 
could approach. Melampus undertook the task 
of procuring the oxen for his brother, although 
he knew that the thief would be caught and 
kept in imprisonment for a year, after which he 
was to come into possession of the oxen. Things 
turned out as he had said; Melampus was 
thrown into prison, and in his captivity he 
learned from the wood- worms that the building 
in which he was imprisoned would soon break 
down. He accordingly demanded to be let out, 
and as Phylacus and Iphiclus thus became 
acquainted with his prophetic powers, they 
asked him in what manner Iphiclus, who had no 
children, was to become a father. Melampus, on 
the suggestion of a vulture, advised Iphiclus to 
take the rust from a knife and drink it in water 
during ten days. (Paus. iv. 36, 2 ; Apollod. i. 
9, 12.) This was done, and Iphiclus became 
the father of Podarces. Melampus now received 
the oxen as a reward for his good services, drove 
them to Pylos, and thus gained Pero for his 
brother. Afterwards Melampus obtained pos- 
session of a third of the kingdom of Argos in 
the following manner : — In the reign of Anax- 
agoras, king of Argos, the women of the kingdom 
were seized with madness, and roamed about 
the country in a frantic state. Melampus cured 
them of their frenzy, on condition that he and 
his brother Bias should receive an equal share 
with Anaxagoras in the kingdom of Argos. 
Melampus and Bias married the two daughters 
of Proetus, and ruled over two-thirds of Argos. 
(Hdt. ix. 34 ; Apollod. ii. 2, 2 ; Strab. p. 346 ; 
Ov. Met. xv. 322; Pboetus.)— 2. The author of 
two little Greek works of no value, entitled 
Divinatio ex Palpitatione and De Naevis 
Oleaceis in Corpore. He lived probably in the 
third century B.C. at Alexandria. Edited by 
Franz, in Scriptores Physiognomiae Veteres, 
Altenburg, 1780. 



MELANCHLAEXI 



MELEAGEE 



543 



Melanchlaeni (Me\ayx^<u>">i), a people in 
the N. of Sarmatia Asiatica, about the upper 
course of the river Tanai's (Don), resembling 
the Scythians in manners, though of a different 
race. Their name was derived from their dark 
clothing. (Hdt. iv. 20, 100 ; Ptol. v. 9, 19.) 

Melanippe (MzXai/'tTrinq), daughter of Chiron, 
also called Evippe. Being with child by Aeolus, 
she fled to mount Pelion ; and in order that 
her condition might not become known, she 
prayed to be metamorphosed into a mare. 
Artemis granted her prayer, and in the form of 
a horse she was placed among the stars. (Ari- 
stoph. Thesm. 512; Hyg. Fab. 86.) Another 
account describes her metamorphosis as a 
punishment for having despised Artemis, or for 
having divulged the counsels of the gods (Hyg. 
Astr. ii. 18) Her story was the subject of two 
tragedies by Euripides, MeAavlirn-r] t) ao<pT\, and 
MeKw'nrmi rj Seo-juajris (see Fragm. of Euri- 
pides, ed. Dindorf). The former was imitated 
by Ennius, the latter by Accius. (Cic. Tunc. 
iii. 9, 20 ; Off. i. 31, 114 ; Juv. viii. 229 ; Aeolus.) 
Melanippe seems sometimes to be confused 
with Arne, the mother of Aeolus and Boeotus 
by Poseidon. 

Melanippides (NeXavi-mriSris). 1. A dithy- 
rambic poet of Melos, contemporary of Pindar 
(Suid. s.v.j. — 2. A later dithyrambic poet of the 
same place, who lived about B.C. 470-420. He 
is highly praised by Xenophon (Mem. i. 4, 3). 
He died at the court of Perdiccas. (Plut. Mus. 
p. 1141; Arist. Bhet. iii. 9; Athen. p. 616.) 
Fragm. in Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Graec. 

Melanippus (MeKdvnriros), son of Astacus of 
Thebes, who, in the attack of the Seven on his 
native city, slew Tydeus and Mecisteus. His 
tomb was shown in the neighbourhood of Thebes 
on the road to Chalcis. (Hdt. v. 67 ; Aesch. Sejit. 
409 ; Paus. ix. 18, 1.1 

Melanopus (MeKavanros), son of Laches, went 
on an embassy to Mausolus, King of Caria, cap- 
tured a vessel of Xaucratis, and illegally retained 
the prize money. He hud ulso been accused 
of embezzlement during an embassy to Egypt. 
(Dem. c. Timocr. pp. 703, 740, §§ 12, 127.) 
Melanogaetuli. [G a e t ilia.] 
Melanthlus (Mt\dv8ios). 1. Also called Me- 
lantheus, son of Dolius, was a goat-herd of 
Odysseus, who sided with the suitors of Pene- 
lope, and was killed by Odysseus (Oil. xvii. 212, 
xxii. 474). — 2. An Athenian tragic poet, of 
whom little is known beyond the attacks made 
on him by Aristophanes and the other comic 
poets. The most important passage respecting 
him is in the Peace of Aristophanes (796, Sec). 
He wus celebrated for his wit, of which several 
specimens are preserved by Plutarch iStjmp. pp. 
631, — 3. Or Melanthus, a Greek painter 
of the Sicyonian school, was contemporary witli 
Apelles (b.c. 332), with whom he studied under 
Pamphilus. He was one of the best colourists 
of all the Greek painters (Plin. xxxv. 50, 76). 

Melanthlus (Vl*\dv8ios, prob. Melet-Irma), 
a river of Pontus, in Asia Minor, E. of the 
Prom. Jasonium ; the boundary between Pontus 
Polemoniacus and Pontus CappadociuB. 

Melanthus or Melanthlus {yii\av9os), one 
of the Nelidae, and king of Messenia, whence 
he was driven out by the Heraclidae, on their 
conquest of the Peloponnesus; and, following 
the instructions of the Delphic oracle, took 
refuge in Attica. In a war between the Athe- 
nians and Boeotians, Xanthus, the Boeotian 
king, challenged Thymoetes, king of Athens 
and the last of the Thesidae, to single combat. 
Thymoetes declined the challenge on the 



ground of age and infirmity. Melanthus under- 
took it on condition of being rewarded with 
the throne in the event of success. So ran the 
story, which strove afterwards to disguise the 
violent change of dynasty. He slew Xan- 
thus, and became king, to the exclusion of the 
Thesidae. According to Pausanias, the con- 
queror of Xanthus was Andropompus, the 
father of Melanthus ; according to Aristotle, it 
was Codrus, his son. (Hdt. i. 147, v. 65 ; Arist. 
Pol. v. 10 ; Paus. ii. 18, iv. 5, vii. 1.) 

Melantii Scopuli, rocky islets near Myconus 
in the Aegaean sea (Strab. p. 636 ; Ap. Eh. iv. 
1707). 

Melas (Me'Aas), the name of several rivers 
whose waters were of a dark colour. 1. (Mauro 
Xero or Mauro Potamo), a small river inBoeo- 
tia, which rises seven stadia N. of Orchomenus, 
becomes navigable almost from its source, flows 
between Orchomenus and Aspledon, and loses 
the greater part of its waters in the marshes con- 
nected with lake Copais. A small portion of its 
waters fell in ancient times into the river Cephis- 
sus (Strab. p. 467 ). — 2. A river of Thessaly in the 
district Malis, flows near Heraclea and Trachis, 
and falls into the Maliac gulf (Hdt. vii. 198 ; 
Strab. p. 428k — 3. A river of Thessaly in Phthi- 
otis, falls into the Apidanus (Lucan, vi. 374). — 

4. A river of Thrace, flows first SW., then NW., 
and falls X. of Cardia into the Melas Sinus (Hdt. 
vi. 41). — 5. (Matiavgat-Su), a navigable river, 
fifty stadia (five geog. miles) E. of Side, was 
the boundary between Pamphylia and Cilicia. 
— 6. [Kara-Su, i.e. the Black Biver), in Cappa- 
docia, rises in M. Argaeus, flows past Mazaca, 
and, after forming morasses, falls into the 
Halys, and not (as Strabo says) into the Eu- 
phrates. (Ptol. v. 6, 8 ; Strab. p. 538.) 

Melas Sinus (Me'Aas koXttos: GulfofSaros), 
a gulf between the coast of Thrace on the NW. 
and the Thracian Chersonesus on the SE., into 
which the river Melas flows. 

Meldi or Meldae, a people in Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis upon the river Sequana (Seine), near 
Paris (Ptol. ii. 8, 15; Strab. p. 194; Plin. iv. 
107). If the reading Meldi in Caesar, B. G. v. 

5, is correct, it must be assumed that there was 
a people of the same name on the coast near 
Itius Portus. 

Meleager IMeAeaypos). 1. Son of Oeneus 
and Althaea, the daughter of Thestius, husband 
of Cleopatra, and father of Polydora. He was 
one of the most famous Aetolian heroes of Caly- 
don, and distinguished himself by his skill in 
throwing the javelin. He took part in the 
Argonautic expedition. At the time of his re- 
turn home, the fields of Calydon were laid 
waste by a monstrous boar, which Artemis 
had sent against the country, because Oeneus, 
the king of the place, once neglected to offer up 
a sacrifice to the goddess. No one dared en- 
counter the terrible animal, till at length 
Meleager, with a band of other heroes, slew the 
animal ; but the Calydonians and Curetes quar- 
relled about the head and hide, und at length 
waged open war against each other; and in this 
li'.'lit the brother of Althuea, u prince of the 
Curetes, was slain by Meleager. The warfare 
continued, and the Calydonians were always 
victorious so long as Meleager went out with 
tin in. But when his mother Althaea pronounced 
a curse upon him, Meleager stayed at home 
with his wife, Cleopatra. The Curetes now 
began to press Calydon very hard. It was in 
vain that the old men of the town made him 
the most brilliant promises if he would again 
join in the fight, and that his father, his sisters, 



544 



MELEAGER 



and his mother supplicated Mm. At length, 
however, he yielded to the prayers of his wife, 
Cleopatra : he put the Curetes to flight, but he 
never returned home, for the Erinnys, who had 
heard the curse of his mother, overtook him. 
Such is the more ancient form of the legend, as 
we find it in Homer (II. ix. 527, seq.). In the 
later traditions Meleager collects the heroes 
from all parts of Greece to join him in the 
hunt. Among others was the fair maiden 
Atalanta ; but the heroes refused to hunt with 




Meleager. (From a painting at Pompeii.) 



MELIA 

their brother. Two of them, Gorge and Dei'anira, 
through the mediation of Dionysus, were not 
metamorphosed. (Apollod. i. 8, 2; Diod. iv. 
34 ; Hyg. Fab. Ill ; Anton. Lib. 2 ; Ov. Met. 
viii. 450, 531.) The story of the burning log is 
clearly not known to Homer, but is at least as 
old as Phrynichus (Paus. x. 31, 2). The meta- 
morphosis of the 
Meleagrides was 
mentioned by So- 
phocles, who said 
that amber came 
from their tears 
(Plin. xxxvii. 41). 
Some later tradi- 
tions make Ares 
the father of Me- 
leager (Ov. I.e. ; 
Hyg. I.e.). Me- 
leager is repre- 
sented in paint- 
ings and in sculp- 
ture (especially 
in the statues at 
Rome and Berlin) 
as a young man 
with a hunting 
spear and a dog 
by his side. A 
group by Scopas 
in the temple at 
Tegea is men- 
tioned by Pausa- 
nias (viii. 45, 4). 
The boar-hunt is 
a favourite sub- 
' ject for sculp- 
tures in relief. — 
2. Son of Neo- 
Ma- 




her, until Meleager, who was in love with her, 
overcame their opposition. Atalanta gave the 
animal the first wound, and it was at length 
slain by Meleager. He presented the hide to , .. 

Atalanta, but the sons of Thestius took it from ptolemus, a Ma- Meleager (Berim). 

her, whereupon Meleager in a rage slew them, cedonian officer in the service of Alexander the 
This, however, was the cause of his own death, Great. After the death of Alexander the Great 
which came to pass in the following way. When (b.c. 323) Meleager resisted the claims of Per- 
he was seven days old the Moerae appeared, diccas to the regency, and was eventually asso- 
declaring that the boy would die as soon as the < ciatedwith the latter in this office. Shortly after- 
piece of wood which was burning on the hearth wards, however, he was put to death by order of 
should be consumed. Althaea, upon hearing Perdiccas. (Arrian, An. i. 4, 20, hi. 11; Curt. 

x. 21-29.)— 3. Son of Eucrates, 
the celebrated writer and col- 
lector of epigrams, was a native 
of Gadara in Palestine, and 
lived about B.C. 60. There are 
131 of his epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology. An account 
is given under Planudes. 

Meletus or Melitus (MeArj- 
ros: MeAcros), an obscure tragic 
poet, but notorious as one of 
the accusers of Socrates, was 
an Athenian, of the Pitthean 
demus. He is represented by 
Plato and Aristophanes and 
their scholiasts as a frigid and 
licentious poet, and a worthless 
and profligate man. In the 
accusation of Socrates it was Meletus who laid 

Basileus ; 




Althaea and the Fates. (Zoega, Bassi rilievi, tav. 46.) 



this, extinguished the firebrand, and concealed 

it in a chest. Meleager himself became invul- 1 the indictment before the Archon 

nerable; but after he had killed the brothers I but in reality he was the most insignificant of 

of his mother, she lighted the piece of wood, J the accusers ; and according to one account 



and Meleager died. Althaea, too late repenting 
of what she had done, put an end to hertife ; 
and Cleopatra died of grief. The sisters of 
Meleager wept unceasingly after his death, 
until Artemis changed them into guinea-hens 
(fxzXeayp'iSes), which were transferred to the 
island of Leros. Even in this condition they 
mourned during a certain part of the year for 



he was bribed by Anytus and Lycon to take 
part in the affair. Soon after the death of 
Socrates, the Athenians repented of their in- 
justice, and Meletus was stoned to death. (Plat. 
Apol. pp. 25, 26 ; Athen. p. 551 ; Diod. xiv. 37 ; 
Diog. Laert. ii. 43.) 

Melia (MeAi'a), a nymph, daughter of Oceanus, 
became by Inachus the mother of Phoroneua 



MELIBOEA 

and Aegialeus or Pegeus ; and by Silenus the 
mother of the centaur Pholus ; and by Poseidon 
of Amycus. She was carried off by Apollo, and 
became by him the mother of Ismenius, and of 
the seer Tenerus. She was worshipped in the 
Ismenium, the sanctuary of Apollo, near Thebes. 
(Paus. is. 10, 26 ; Strab. p. 413 ; ApoUod. ii. 5, 
4). In the plural form, the Meliae or Meliades 
(MeAi'ai, MeAiaSes) are the nymphs who, along 
with the Gigantes and Erinnyes, sprang from 
the drops of blood that fell from Uranus and 
were received by Gaea (Hes. Th. 187). 

Meliboea (MeAifioia: yieXtffoevsi- 1. A town 
on the coast of Thessaly in Magnesia, between 
Mt. Ossa and Mt. Pelion, is said to have been 
built by Magnes, and to have been named 
Meliboea in honour of his wife (Hdt. vii. 188 ; 
Strab. p. 443). It is mentioned by Homer (II. 
ii. 717) as belonging to the dominions of Pliilo- 
ctetes, who is hence called by Virgil (Aen. hi. 
401) dux Meliboeus. It was celebrated for its 
purple dye (Lucret. ii. 499 ; Virg. Aen. v. 251). 
— 2. A small island at the mouth of the river 
Orontes in Syria. 

Melicertea. [Palaemon.] 

Helinno (MeAiW&j), a lyric poetess of Locri 
in S. Italy who wrote the ode to Rome begin- 
ning Xoupe fim 'Pwfia, which has been wrongly 
ascribed to Erinna. She lived in the third 
century B.C. 

Melissus (Me'Ai<ro-os.'. 1. Of Samos, a Greek 
philosopher, the son of Ithagenes, was, accord- 
ing to the common account, the commander of 
the fleet opposed to Pericles, B.C. 440 (Plut. 
Per. 26). He belonged to the Eleatic school, 
and was a pupil of Parmenides (Arist. deXenoph. 
Gore/, et Meliss. 1). — 2. A Latin grammarian 
and a comic poet, was a freedman of Maece- 
nas, and was entrusted by Augustus witli the 
arrangement of the library in the portico of 
Octavia (Suet. Gramm. 21). 

Mellta or Mellte (McAi'ttj : MeXiraios, Meli- 
tensis). 1. (Malta), an island in the Medi- 
terranean sea, situated 58 miles from the 
nearest point of Sicily, and 179 miles from the 
nearest point of Africa. Its greatest length is 
17$ miles, and its greatest breadth 9$ miles. 
The island was first colonised by the Phoeni- 
cians, who used it as a place of refuge for their 
ships, on account of its excellent harbours. It 
afterwards passed into the hands of the Cartha- 
ginians, but was taken possession of by the 
Romans in the second Punic war, and annexed 
to the province of Sicily (Liv. xxi. 51). The 
Romans, however, appear to have neglected the 
island, and it is mentioned by Cicero as a fre- 
quent resort of pirates (Cic. Verr. iv. 46). It 
contained a town of the same name founded by 
the Carthaginians, and two celebrated temples, 
one of Juno on a promontory near the town, 
and another of Heracles in the SE. of the island. 
The inhabitants manufactured fine cloth, which 
was in much request at Rome. They also ex- 
ported a considerable quantity of honey; and 
from this island, according to some authorities, 
came the catuli Melitaei, the favourite lapdogs 
of the Roman ladies I Strab. p. 277; Athen. p. 
518) : Pliny, iii. 151, believes that they came 
from the Adriatic island. — 2. iMcleda), a small 
island in the Adriatic sea off the coast of Illyria 
(l)nlmatia), NW. of Epidaurus (Ptol. ii. 10, 14 ; 
Plin . iii. 141). — 3. A deraus in Attica, which also 
formed part of the city of Alliens, was situated 
S. of the inner Ceramieus, and probably in- 
cluded the hill of the Museum. One of the 
gates of Athens was called the Melitian gate, 
because it led to this doinua. [See p. 112.] — 4. 



MEMMIA 



545 



A lake in Aetolia near the mouth of the Ache- 
lous, belonging to the territory of the town 
Oeniadae. 

Melitaea, Melitea or Melitia (MeAn-ai'a, Me- 

Aireia, MeAiTi'a : MeAirotevs), a town of Thes- 
saly, in Phthiotis, on the N. slope of Mt. Othrys, 
and near the river Enipeus. It is said to have 
been called Pyrrha in more ancient times, and 
the tomb of Hellen, son of Deucalion, was in 
its market-place (Thuc. iv. 78 ; Strab. p. 432). 

Mellte (MeAm)), a nymph, one of the Nereids 
(II. xviii. 42 ; Hes. Th. 246). 

Melltene (MeAn-Tji/Tj), a district of Eastern 
Cappadocia, celebrated for its fertility. The 
town Melitene (Malatia) stood near the Eu- 
phrates at the junction of roads leading from 
Pontus to Mesopotamia and from Cappadocia 
to Amida in Armenia (Strab. p. 537 ; Tac. Ann. 
xv. 26 ; Procop. de Aed. iii. 4). It was the 
station of the Twelfth Legion (Fuhninata) 
after 70 a. d., and in the later division of pro- 
vinces was the capital of Armenia Secunda. In 
a. D. 577 the Romans defeated Chosroes near it. 

MelltO (MeAi'tcdj/), bishop of Sardes in the 
reign of M. Aurelius. (Diet, of Christ. Biogr.) 

Mella or Mela (Mella), a river in Gallia 
Transpadana, flowing by Brixia and falling into 
the Ollius (Catull. 77, 33 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 278). 

Mellaria. 1. A town of the Bastuli in His- 
pania Baetica between Belon and Calpe, on the 
road from Gades to Malaca (Plut. Sertor. 12 ; 
Strab. p. 140 ; Ptol. ii. 4, 6 ; Plin. iii. 7).— 2. A 
town in the same province, considerably N. of 
the former, on the road from Corduba to 
Emerita (Plin. iii. 14). 

Melodunum (Helun), a town of the Senones 
in Gallia Liigdunensis, on an island of the Se- 
quana (Seine), and on the road from Agendicum 
to Lutetia Parisiorum (Caes. B. G. vii. 58). 

Melos (M7)Aos : M^Aios : Milo), an island in 
the Aegaean sea, and the most westerl)- of the 
group of the Cyclades, whence it was called 
Zephyria by Aristotle (Plin. iv. 70). It is about 
seventy miles N. of the coast of Crete, and 
3ixty-five E. of the coast of Peloponnesus. Its 
length is about fourteen miles from E. to W., 
and its breadtli about eight miles. It contains 
on the N. a deep bay, which forms an excellent 
harbour, and on which was situated a town, 
bearing the same name as the island. The 
island is of volcanic origin; it contains hot 
springs and mines of sulphur and alum (Athen. 
p. 43 ; Plin. xxxv. 174). Its soil is very fertile, 
and it produced in antiquity, as it does at pre- 
sent, abundance of corn, oil, wine, See, It was 
first colonised by the Phoenicians, who are said 
to have called it Byblus or Byblis, after the 
Phoenician town Byblus. It was afterwards 
colonised by Lacedaemonians, or at least by 
Dorians ; and consequently in the Peloponnesian 
war it embraced the side of Sparta. (Hdt. viii. 
48; Thuc. v. 84-11G ; Diod. xii. 80; Strab. p. 
484.) In B. c. 426 the Athenians made an un- 
successful attack upon the island; but in 416 
they obtained possession of the town after a 
siege of several months, killed all the adult 
males, sold the women and children as slaves, 
and peopled the island by an Athenian colony. 
— Melos was the birthplace of Diagoras, the 
atheist, whence Aristophanes calls Socrates also 
the Melian (Nub. 830). The ' Venus of Milo,' 
now in the Louvre, was found here in 1820. 

Melpomene. [Musae.] 

Memmi, a people in Gallia NarbonenHis, on 
the W. bank of the Durentia, whoso chief town 
was Carpentoracte (Carpentras). 

Memmia Gens, a plebeian gens at Rome, 

N N 



546 



MEMMIUS 



MEMNON 



whose members do not occur in history before 
B. c. 173. They pretended to be descended 
from the Trojan Mnestheus (Virg. Aen. v. 117). 

Memmius. 1. C, tribune of the plebs b. c. 
Ill, was an ardent opponent of the oligarchical 
party at Eome during the Jugurthine war. 
Among the nobles impeached by Memmius were 
L. Calpurnius Bestia and M. Aemilius Scaurus. 
Memmius was slain by the mob of Saturninus 
and Glaucia, while a candidate for the consul- 
ship in 100 (Cic. Cat. iv. 2 ; Appian, B. C. i. 32 ; 
Sail. Jug. 27-34).— 2. C. Memmius Gemellus, 
tribune of the plebs 66, curule aedile 60, and 
praetor 58. He belonged at that time to the 
Senatorian party, since he impeached P. Vati- 
nius, opposed P. Clodius, and was vehement in 
his invectives against Julius Caesar. But be- 
fore he competed for the consulship, 54, he had 
been reconciled to Caesar, who supported him 
with all his interest. Memmius, however, again 
offended Caesar by revealing a certain coalition 
with his opponents at the comitia. He was im- 
peached for ambitus, and, receiving no aid from 
Caesar, withdrew from Borne to Mytilene, where 
he was living in the year of Cicero's procon- 
sulate. Memmius married Fausta, a daughter 
of the dictator Sulla, whom he divorced after 
having by her at least one son, C. Memmius. 
[No. 3.] He was eminent both in literature and 
in eloquence. Lucretius dedicated his poem, 
De Berum Natura, to him. He was a man of 
profligate character, and wrote indecent poems 
(Plut. Lucull. 37; Cic. ad Att. i. 18, iv. 15-18, 
ad Fam. xiii. 1-3 ; Plin. Ep. v. 3 ; Ov. Trist. 

ii. 433; Gell. xix. 9).— 3. C. Memmius, son of 
the preceding, was tribune of the plebs 54, when 
he prosecuted A. Gabinius for malversation in 
his province of Syria, and Domitius Calvinus 
for ambitus at his consular comitia. Memmius 
was stepson of T. Annius Milo who married his 
mother, Fausta, after her divorce. He was consul 
suffectus 34 (Val. Max. viii. 1, 3 ; Dio Cass. xlix. 
42 ; Cic. ad Q. Fr. iii. 2). — 4. P. Memmius 
Eegulus, consul suffectus A. D. 31, afterwards 
praefect of Macedonia and Achaia. He was the 
Jrusband of Lollia Paulina, and was compelled 
by Caligula to divorce her. (Tac. Ann. xii. 23 ; 
Suet. Cal. 25 ; Dio Cass. lix. 12.) 

Memuon (mifxvoov). 1. The beautiful son of 
Tithonus and Eos (Aurora), and brother of 
Emathion. He does not belong to the Iliad, 
but is mentioned in the Odyssey as the hand- 
somest of mortals and as the slayer of Anti- 
lochus (Od. iv. 187, xi. 522). As son of the Dawn 
he comes in all variations of the myth from the 
land of the sun ; but this is placed sometimes 
in the extreme south, sometimes in the east. 
Memnon is brought into the Trojan story by 
Arctinus in his Aethiopis : he was a prince of 
the Ethiopians, who came to the assistance of 
his uncle Priam, for Tithonus and Priam were 
half-brothers, both being sons of Laomedon by 
different mothers. He came to the war in 
armour made for him by Hephaestus, and slew 
Antilochus, the son of Nestor, but was himself 
slain by Achilles, after a long and fierce combat. 
While the two heroes were fighting, Zeus 
weighed their fates, and the scale containing 
Memnon's sank. (Quint. Smyrn. i. ; Diet. Cret. 
iv. 2, 3 ; cf. Pind. Pyth. vi. 31, 01. ii. 83, Nem. 

iii. 63, vi. 50.) Details have been added by a 
succession of poets. The mother of Memnon 
was inconsolable at his death. She wept for 
him every morning ; and the dew-drops of the 
morning are the tears of Eos. To soothe the 
grief of his mother, Zeus caused a number of 
birds to issue out of the funeral pile on which 



the body of Memnon was burning, which, after 
flying thrice around the burning pile, divided 
into two separate companies, which fought so 
fiercely, that half of them fell down upon the 
ashes of the hero, and thus formed a funeral 
sacrifice for him. These birds were called 
Memnonides, and, according to a story current 
on the Hellespont, they visited every year the 
tomb of the hero. At the entreaties of Eos, 
Zeus conferred immortality upon Memnon (Ov. 
Met. xiii. 576-622 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 493, 755 ; 
Paus. x. 31, 2). — The weighing of the fates, 
which recalls the Homeric weighing of the fates 
of Hector and Achilles (II. xxii. 209), gave the 
name to the VvxoGTaaia. of Aeschylus, in which 
the mothers of the two heroes stand on either 
side each entreating for her son (Plut. de Aud. 
Poet. 17 ; Pollux, iv. 130). There are besides 
various traditions belonging to different 
countries as to the country whence Memnon 
came, and the place and manner of his burial. 
Ctesias says that Memnon was sent by the king 
of Assyria to aid his feudatory Priam, while 
the Egyptians said that he had. come directly 
from Egypt (Diod. ii. 22). The stories are harmo- 
nised in a later tradition which makes Memnon 
come from Ethiopia and Egypt to Susa (where 
he built the citadel called Memnonium) and 
thence to Troy (Paus. x. 31 ; cf . Hdt. v. 53, vii. 
151). The body of Memnon was saved from 
dishonour and borne away for burial, like that 
of Sarpedon in 11. xvi. 667. In the play of 
Aeschylus Eos herself, by a mechanical contriv- 
ance, was shown bearing it away (Poll. iv. 130) ; 
in another account it is wafted to its grave near 
the Aesepus by the winds (Quint. Smyrn. ii. 
549) ; in another, the Ethiopians themselves 
carry it home to Tithonus (Diod. ii. 22). Tombs 
of Memnon were shown in Egypt, on the banks 
of the Phrygian Aesepus, and at Paltus on the 
Syrian coast (Strab. pp. 587, 728). It must re- 
main a matter of doubt how far the connexion 
of the myth with different places may have 
been due to accidental similarity of local names. 
At Susa, for instance, it is certain that the 
acropolis was called rh MefivSvwv, and it is pos- 
sible that the story may have been subsequently 
attached to it. The most famous of all the tra- 
ditions is that which represented a colossal 
statue near Thebes as the figure of Memnon the 
son of Eos. The statue is really that of Amen- 
hotep III. (or Amenophis), who reigned in the 
eighteenth dynasty, about 1430 B.C. It was placed 
there beside another statue of Thi, the wife of 
Amenhotep, and a Mesopotamian princess, and 
was the work of a royal architect and minister, 
who bore the same name as his master ; at some 
time or other it began to give forth a musical 
note when it was touched by the rising sun — ex- 
plained by modern writers as due to 1 the sudden 
change of temperature creating currents of air, 
which pressed through crevices of the stone 
and caused a melancholy singing note.' It may 
have been an attempt to account for it, and some 
likeness in the name, which attached the story 
of Memnon bewailed by his mother the Dawn 
to this statue : not, however, as it appears, at a 
very early date. The name rh Me/Weiop had 
been applied when Strabo visited the place and 
heard the musical note (not recorded before his 
time), though he does not definitely state the 
vocal statue to be Memnon's. A little later it 
is frequently alluded to as Memnon's statue 
(Plin. xxxvi. 58 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 61 ; Juv. xv. 5 ; 
Lucian, Tox. 27). Pausanias (i. 42) in describ- 
ing it notices correctly that the Egyptians them- 
selves called it the statue, not of Memnon, but 



MEMNONIUM 

of Phamenoph (i.e. Ainenophis). On the statue 
were inscribed also verses by visitors, mostly of 
the first and second cent. a. d. (C. I. G. 4738). 
Herodotus (ii. 106) mentions with disapproval 
a conjecture that a monument between Smyrna 
and Ephesus (really Hittite : see p. 218, b) was 
a figure of Memnon. It may be noted as a 
curious coincidence that the recently- discovered 
correspondence of Amenhotep III. and IV. 
shows that they were intimately connected by 
alliance and by marriage with kings of Babylon, 
Assyria, and Mesopotamia, and also with the 
prince of a country apparently near Paltus in 
Syria. In art the weighing of the fates of 
Memnon and Achilles is a favourite subject for 
vase paintings, as is also the bearing of the body 
of the dead Memnon : in some he is carried by 
Eos; in one, like Sarpedon, by Death and Sleep. 
— 2. A native of Rhodes, joined Artabazus, 
satrap of Lower Phrygia, who had married his 
sister, in his revolt against Darius Ochus. 
When fortune deserted the insurgents they fled 
to the court of Philip. Mentor, the brother of 
Memnon, being high in favour with Darius, 
interceded on behalf of Artabazus and Memnon, 
who were pardoned and again received into 
favour. On the death of Mentor, Memnon, who 
possessed great military skill and experience, 
succeeded him in his authority, winch extended 
over all the W. coast of Asia Minor (about B. c. 
336). When Alexander invaded Asia, Memnon 
defended Halicarnassus against Alexander, until 
it was no longer possible to hold out. He then 
collected an army and a fleet, with the design of 
carrying the war into Greece, but died at Myti- 
lene in 333, before he could carry his plan into 
execution. His death was an irreparable loss 
to the Persian cause ; for several Greek states 
were prepared to join him, had he carried the 
war into Greece. (Arrian, An. i. 12-23, ii. 1; 
Diod. xvi. 34, 52, xvii. 18-21.)— 3. A native of 
Heraclea Pontica, wrote a large work on the 
history of that city. Of how many books it 
consisted we do not know. Photius had read 
from the ninth to the sixteenth inclusive, of 
which portion he has made a tolerably copious 
abstract. The first eight books he had not read, 
and he speaks of other books after the sixteenth. 
The ninth book began with an account of the 
tyrant Clearchus, the disciple of Plato and Iso- 
crates, and the sixteenth book came down to the 
time of Julius Caesar, after the latter had ob- 
tained the supreme power. The work was prob- 
ably written in the time of Augustus, and cer- 
tainly not later than the time of Hadrian or the 
Antonines. The Excerpta of Photius are pub- 
lished separately, by Orelli, Lips. 1810. 

Memnomum. [Memnon.] 

Memphis (Mt^ts, Mtv<p: O. T. Moph: Me^- 
(plrris, Memphites ; in Egyptian Men-rufer, ' the 
good abode ' ; Menf and Metrahenny, Ru.), a 
great city of Egypt which stood on the left 
(W.) bank of the Nile, about ten miles above 
the pyramids of Jizeh, near the N. limit of the 
Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, a nome of which 
{M(ntphr)s) was named after the city. It was 
connected by canals with the lakes of Moeris 
and Mareotis. It was the chief seat of the 
worship of Ptah (whom the Greeks identified 
with Hephaestus). It was of unknown an- 
tiquity, its foundation being ascribed to Menes, 
and was the capital of the third, fifth, seventh 
and eighth dynasties. It ranked during tin- 
gnat period of Thebes as second only to that 
city, and after the downfall of Thebes re- 
mained the wealthiest and most important city 
of Egypt (though it was partially destroyed by 



MENANDER 



547 



Cambyses in B.C. 524) until Alexandria super- 
seded it. In the time of its splendour it is said 
to have been 150 stadia in circumference, and 
half a day's journey in every direction. Of the 
splendid buildings with which it was adorned, 
the chief were the palace of the Pharaohs ; the 
temple-palace of the god-bull Apis ; the temple 
of Serapis, with its avenue of sphinxes, now 
covered by the sand of the desert; and the 
temple of Ptah. (Hdt. ii. 99, 114, 136, 153, 154 ; 
Diod. i. 50 ; Strab. pp. 803-817.) 

Menaenum or Menae (Menenius Cic, Mena- 
ninus Plin., but on coins Menaenus ; Mineo), a 
town on the E. coast of Sicily, S. of Hybla, the 
birthplace and residence of the Sicel chief 
Ducetius, who was long a formidable enemy of 
the Greek cities in Sicily. [Ducetius.] On his 
fall the town lost all its importance. (Diod. xi. 
78, 88, 90 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 22, 42). 

Menalippns. [Melaneppus.] 

Menander [MevavSpos), of Athens, the most 
distinguished poet of the New Comedy, was 
the son of Diopithes and Hegesistrate, and 
flourished in the time of the successors of 
Alexander. He was born B.C. 342. His father, 
Diopithes, commanded the Athenian forces on 
the Hellespont in the year of his son's birth. 
Alexis, the comic poet, was the uncle of Me- 
nander, on the father's side ; and we may 
naturally suppose that the young Menander 
derived from his uncle his taste for the comic 
drama, and was instructed by him in its rules 
of composition. His character must have been 
greatly influenced by his intimacy with Theo- 
phrastus and Epicurus, of whom the former 
was his teacher and the latter his intimate 
friend. His taste and sympathies were alto- 
gether with the philosophy of Epicurus ; and 
in an epigram he declared that ' as Themisto- 
cles rescued Greece from slavery, so Epicurus 
from unreason.' From Theophrastus, on the 
other hand, he must have derived much of that 
skill in the discrimination of character winch 
we so much admire 
in the Churacteres 
of the philosopher, 
and which formed 
the great charm of 
the comedies of 
Menander. Of the 
actual events of 
his life we know 
but little. He en- 
joyed the friend- 
ship of Demetrius 
Phalereus, whose 
attention was first 
drawn to him by 
admiration of his 
works. Ptolemy, 
the son of Lagus, 
was also one of his admirers; and he invited 
the poet to his court at Alexandria ; but 
Menander seems to have declined the prof- 
fered honour. He died at Athens B.C. 291, at 
the ago of fifty-two, and is said to have been 
drowned while swimming in the harbour of 
Piraeus. Notwithstanding Menander's fame as 
a poet, his public dramatic career was not 
eminently successful ; for, though he composed 
upwards of 100 comedies, he only gained the 
prize eight times. His preference for vivid 
delineation of character instead of eoorso jest- 
ing may have been the reason why he was not 
so great a favourite with the common people as 
his principal rival, Philemon, who is said, 
moreover, to have used unfair means of gain- 

N N 2 




Bust of Menander 



548 



MENAPII 



MENEDEMUS 



ing popularity. Menander appears to have 
borne the popular neglect very lightly, in the 
consciousness of his superiority ; and once, when 
he happened to meet Philemon, he is said to 
have asked him, ' Pray, Philemon, do you not 
blush when you gain a victory over me ? ' The 
neglect of Menander's contemporaries has been 
amply compensated by his posthumous fame. 
His comedies retained their place on the stage 
down to the time of Plutarch, and the unani- 
mous consent of antiquity placed him at the 
head of the New Comedy, and on an equality 
with the great masters of the various kinds of 
poetry. It is clear that in the New Comedy 
Menander had much more scope for an inge- 
nious plot than was attainable in the older 
comedy : in the first place, because it was no 
longer a political pasquinade attacking known 
persons, under real or feigned names, but a 
picture of social life, in which the characters 
were typical, and whatever satire was used was 
directed at manners, not at persons ; and 
secondly, the Chorus, which was an impedi- 
ment to the plot, was abandoned. Menander 
seems to have been skilful in the invention and 
development of his story — usually an intrigue 
or love-story — clever in his character-drawing, 
polished and witty in his dialogue. His come- 
dies were imitated by the Eoman dramatists, by 
Plautus in the Bacchides, Stichus, and Poe- 
nulus, and still more by Terence, who was little 
more than a translator of Menander. But we 
cannot form from any one play of Terence a 
fair notion of the corresponding play of Menan- 
der, as the Roman poet frequently compressed 
two of Menander's plays into one by what was 
called Contaminatio. Of Menander's comedies 
only fragments are extant, edited by Meineke, 
in Fragm. Comic. Graec. 

Menapli, a powerful people in the N. of 
Gallia Belgica, originally dwelt on both banks 
of the Rhine, but were afterwards driven out of 
their possessions on the right bank by the 
Usipetes and Tenchteri, and inhabited only the 
left bank near its mouth, and W. of the Mosa 
(Caes. B.G. ii. 4, iv. 4, 22, 38 ; Tac. Hist. iv. 28 ; 
Strab. pp. 194, 199). Their country was covered 
with forests and swamps. They had a fortress 
near the Mosa called Castellum Menapiorum 
(Cassel, a little N. of HazebroucJc). 

Menas (Wlrtvas), also called Menodorus (Mt)v6- 
Sapos) by Appian, a freedman of Pompey the 
Great, was one of the principal commanders of 
the fleet of Sext. Pompey in his war against 
Octavian and Antony, B.C. 40. In 39 he tried 
in vain to dissuade his master from concluding 
a peace with Octavian and Antony ; and, at an 
entertainment given to them by Sextus on 
board his ship at Misenum, Menas suggested to 
him to cut the cables of the vessel, and, running 
it out to sea, despatch both his rivals. The 
treacherous proposal, however, was rejected by 
Pompey. (Dio Cass, xlviii. 30, 36-45 ; Appian, 
B. G. v. 56, 66, 70-73 ; Plut. Ant. 32 ; Veil. 
Pat. ii. 73, 77.) On the breaking out of the 
war again in 38, Menas deserted Pompey and 
went over to Octavian. In 36 he returned to 
his old master's service ; but in the course of 
the same year he again played the deserter, 
and joined Octavian. In 35 he accompanied 
Octavian in the Pannonian campaign, and was 
slain at the siege of Siscia. (Dio Cass, xlviii. 54, 
xlix. 1, 37 ; App. B. C. v. 77-101 ; Suet. Aug. 
74.) According to the old scholiasts, this 
Menas is the person so vehemently attacked by 
Horace in his fourth Epode. It is difficult to 
reconcile with this Horace's description of the 



person attacked in the Epode as 1 tribumis 
militum.' There is less difficulty in accepting 
the tradition that the fickleness of Menas is 
alluded to in Od. iii. 3, 16. 

Mende or Mendae (MeyS?) : MevScuos), a town 
on the W. coast of the Macedonian peninsula 
Pallene and on the Thermaic gulf, was a colony 
of the Eretrians, and was celebrated for its 
wine. It was for some time a place of consider- 
able importance, but was ruined by the foun- 
dation of Cassandria. (Hdt. vii. 123 ; Thuc. iv. 
123, 130 ; Paus. x. 5, 27 ; Liv. xxxi. 45.) 

Mendes (MeVS-rjs : M.ev8ti<rios : Ru. near Ma- 
tarieli), a considerable city of the Delta of 
Egypt, on the S. side of the lake of Tanis 
(Menzaleh), and on the bank of one of the 
lesser arms of the Nile, named after it 
Mer St}(Tiov arofia : the seat of the worship of 
the sacred ram Mendes, whose worship the 
Greeks connected with that of Pan. Mendes 
became the capital of the 29th and 30th dynas- 
ties. (Hdt. ii. 42, 46 ; Diod. i. 84 ; Strab. p. 802.) 

Menecles {MeveitAris). 1. Of Alabanda, a 
celebrated rhetorician. He and his brother 
Hierocles taught rhetoric at Rhodes, where the 
orator M. Antonius heard them, about B.C. 94 
(Cic. Brut. 95, 325, de Or. ii. 23 ; Strab. p. 
661). — 2. A historian of Barce mentioned by 
Athenaeus, p. 184. 

Menecrates (Meve/cpai-Tjs). 1. A Syracusan 
physician at the court of Philip, king of Mace- 
don, B.C. 359-336. He made himself ridiculous 
by calling himself 'Jupiter,' and assuming 
divine honours. There is a tale that he was 
invited one day by Philip to a magnificent 
entertainment, where the other guests were 
sumptuously fed, while he himself had nothing 
but incense and libations, as not being subject 
to the human infirmity of hunger. He was at 
first pleased with his reception, but afterwards 
perceiving the joke, and finding that no more 
substantial food was offered him, he left the 
party in disgust. (Athen. p. 289 ; Ael. V. H. xii. 
51.)— 2. Tiberius Claudius Menecrates, a 
physician mentioned by Galen, composed more 
than 150 medical works, of which only a few 
fragments remain. 

Menedemus (Meve'Srj/uos), a Greek philosopher, 
was a native of Eretria, and though of noble 
birth was poor, and worked for a livelihood 
either as a builder or as a tent-maker. Accord- 
ing to one story he seized the opportunity 
afforded by his being sent on some military 
service to Megara, to hear Plato, and aban- 
doned the army to addict himself to philosophy ; 
but it may be questioned whether he was old 
enough to have heard Plato. According to- 
another story, he and his friend Asclepiades 
got their livelihood as millers, working during 
the night, that they might have leisure for 
philosophy in the day (Athen. p. 168). The two 
friends afterwards became disciples of Stilpo at 
Megara. From Megara they went to Elis, and 
placed themselves under the instruction of 
some disciples of Phaedo. On his return to 
Eretria Menedemus established a school of 
philosophy, which was called the Eretrian. He 
did not, however, confine himself to philo- 
sophical pursuits, but took an active part in the 
political affairs of his native city, and came to- 
be the leading man in the state. He went on 
various embassies to Lysimachus, Demetrius, 
and others ; but being suspected of the 
treacherous intention of betraying Eretria into- 
the power of Antigonus, he quitted his native 
city secretly, and took refuge with Antigonus 
in Asia. Here he starved himself to death in 



MENELAI PORTUS 



MENESTHEI PORTUS 549 



the 74th year of his age, probably about b.c. 
277. (Diog. Lae'rt. ii. 125-144 ; Strab. p. 393.) 
Of the philosophy of Menedemus little is known, 
except that it closely resembled that of the 
Megarian school. [Euclides, No. 2.1 

Menelai, or -us, Portus (MeveXaios Mfirjv, 
MeveAaos: Marsa- Toubrouk, or Bas-el- 
Milhrl), an ancient city on the coast of 
Marmarica, in N. Africa, founded, according to 
tradition, by Menelaus. It is remarkable as 
the place where Agesilaus died. (Hdt. ii. 119 ; 
Strab. pp. 40, 838 ; Nep. Ages. 8.) 

Menelaium. [Therapae.] 

Menelaus (MfveKaos, MereAeois, or MeveXaj). 
1. Son of Plisthenes or Atreus, and younger 
brother of Agamemnon. His early life is 
related under Agamemnon. He was king of 
Lacedaemon, and married to the beautiful 
Helen, by whom he became the father of Her- 
mione. When Helen had been carried off by 




Menelaus and Helen. (MllUngen, Aik. Uned. Hon. pi. 32.) 

Paris, Menelaus and Odysseus sailed to Troy in 
order to demand her restitution. Menelaus 
was hospitably treated by Antenor, but the 
journey was of no avail ; and the Trojan Anti- 
machus even advised his fellow-citizens to kill 
Menelaus and Odysseus (II. xi. 139). Thereupon 
Menelaus and his brother Agamemnon resolved 
to march against Troy with all the forces that 
Greece could muster. In the Trojan war 
Menelaus was under the special protection of 
Hera and Athene, and distinguished himself by 
his bravery in battle (II. ii. 581, iv. 8, 129, v. 
50, 57G, xiii. C14). He killed many illustrious 
Trojans, and would have slain Paris also in 
single combat, had not the latter been carried 
off by Aphrodite in a cloud (II. iii. and iv.). 
Menelaus was one of the heroes concealed in 
the wooden horse; and as soon as Troy was 
taken he and Odysseus hastened to the house 
of Deiphobus, who had married Helen after the 
death of Paris, and put him to death in a bar- 
barous manner (Od. iv. 280, viii. 518; Verg. Aen. 
vi. 523). Menelaus is said to have been secretly 
introduced into the chamber of Deiphobus by 
Helen, who thus became reconciled to her 
former husband. He was among the first that ■ 
sailed away from Troy, accompanied by his 
wife Helen and Nestor ; but he was eight years 
wandering about the shores of the Mediterra- 
nean and in Egypt, beforo he reached home 
(Od. iii. 276-312, iv. 125, 228; cf. Hdt. ii. 118, 
116; Pans. x. 25 2 Strab. p. 801). He ar- 



rived at Sparta on the very day on which 
Orestes was engaged in burying Clytaemnestra 
and Aegisthus (OfZ.iv.365J. Henceforward he 
lived with Helen at Sparta in peace and 
wealth, and his palace shone in its splendour 
like the sun or the moon. When Telemachus 
visited Sparta to inquire after his father, 
Menelaus was solemnising the marriage of his 
daughter Hermione with Neoptolemus, and of 
his son Megapenthes with a daughter of 
Alector (Od. iv. 1-80 ; Paus. iii. 14, 6). In the 
Homeric poems Menelaus is described as a 
man of an athletic figure ; he spoke little, but 
what he said was always impressive ; he was 
brave and courageous, but milder than Aga- 
memnon, intelligent and hospitable. According 
to the prophecy of Proetus in the Odyssey 
(iv. 561), Menelaus and Helen were not to die, 
but the gods were to conduct them to Elysium : 
for Helen was the daughter and Menelaus the 
son-in-law of Zeus. Menelaus was worshipped 
as a hero at Therapne, where his tomb and that 
of Helen were shown. Respecting the tale that 
Helen never went to Troy, but was detained in 
Egypt, see Helena. [For the conjectural 
history of the rule of the Pelopidae in the 
Peloponnesus see Mycenae and TmvNS ; and 
for the Trojan war see Troja.] — 2. Son of 
Lagus, and brother of Ptolemy Soter, held 
possession of Cyprus for his brother, but was 
defeated and driven out of the island by Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes, b.c. 306 (Diod. xx. 21-53 ; 
Plut. Demetr. 15-17).— 3. A Greek mathemati- 
! cian, a native of Alexandria, the author of an 
extant treatise in three books, on the Sphere. 
He made astronomical observations at Rome in 
the first year of the emperor Trajan, a.d. 98. 

Menelaus (Mevc'Aaos), a city of Lower Egypt, 
on the Canopic branch of the Nile, named after 
the brother of Ptolemy the son of Lagus. It 
was made the capital of the district between 
the lakes of Moeris and Mareotis (vo/xbs Mev€- 

A. oi'tt;s). (Strab. pp. 801, 803.) 
Menenius Lanatus. 1. Agrippa, consul, 

B. C. 503, conquered the Sabines. It was owing to 
his mediation that the first great rupture 

J between the patricians and plebeians, when the 
[ latter seceded to the Sacred Mount, was brought 
■ to a happy and peaceful termination in 493 ; 
' and it was upon this occasion he is said to have 
| related to the plebeians his well-known fable of 
the belly and the members (Liv. ii. 16, 32 ; 
j Dionys. v. 44, 49). — 2. T., consul 477, was de- 
feated by the Etruscans. He had previously 
allowed the Fabii to be destroyed by the 
Etruscans, although he might have assisted 
them with his army. For this act of treachery 
he was brought to trial by the tribunes and 
condemned to pay a fine. He took his punish- 
ment so much to heart, that he shut himself up 
in the house and died of grief. (Liv. ii. 51 
Dionys. ix. 18-27 ; Gell. xviii. 21.) 

Menes or Mena (M^njj), first king of Egypt, 
according to tradition. Herodotus records of 
him that he built Memphis on a piece of ground 
which he had rescued from the river by turning 
it from its former course, and erected therein a 
magnificent temple to Hephaestus (Ptah). 
Diodorus tells us that he introduced into 
Egypt the worship of the gods and the practice 
of sacrifices, as well as a luxurious style of 
living. His date is placed at 1000—1500 B.C. (Hdt. 
ii. 4, 99; Diod. i. 43, 45, 89 ; Plut. Is. ct Os. 8.) 

Menesthei Portus (Puerto de .S'. Maria), a 
harbour in Hispania Bactica, not far from 
Gades, with an oracle of Mcncstheus, who is 
said to have Bettled in Spain (Strab. p. 140). 



550 MENESTHEU3 



MERCUBIUS 



Menestheus (Meveo-0evs). 1. Son of Peteos, 
an Athenian king, who led the Athenians against 
Troy. With the assistance of the Tyndarids, he is 
said to have driven Theseus from his kingdom, 
but to have been afterwards expelled by the 
Theseids and to have died in Spain. (II. ii. 552, 
iv. 327 ; Paus. i. 17, 6, ii. 25, 6 ; Plut. Thes. 32 ; 
Strab. p. 140.) — 2. Son of Iphierates, the famous 
Athenian general, by the daughter of Cotys, 
king of Thrace. He married the daughter of 
Timotheus ; and in 356 was chosen commander 
in the Social war, his father and his father-in- 
law being appointed to aid him with their 
counsel and experience. They were all three 
impeached by their colleague, Chares, for 
alleged misconduct and treachery in the cam- 
paign ; but Iphierates and Menestheus were 
acquitted. (Nep. Iph. 3, Tim. 3 ; Diod. xvi. 21.) 

Meninx or Lotophagitis, aft. Girba (Mriviyi, 
AoiTocpay^Tis, Awrocpdywp vr\<ros '. Jerbah), a 
considerable island, close to the coast of Africa 
Propria, at the SE. extremity of the Lesser 
Syrtis, with two cities, Meninx (Menaz) on the 
NE., and Girba, or Gerra, on the SW. It was 
the birthplace of the emperors Vibius Gallus 
and Volusianus. (Strab. pp. 25, 123, 157, 834 ; 
Aurel. Vict. Bp. 31.) 

Menippe (MeW-mrr;), daughter of Orion and 
sister of Metioche. These two sisters put 
themselves to death in order to propitiate the 
two Erinnyes who had visited Aonia with a 
plague. They were metamorphosed by Perse- 
phone and Hades into comets, and the Aonians 
erected to them a sanctuary near Orchomenos. 
(Ov. Met. xiii. 685 ; Ant. Lib. 25.) 

Menippus (Mzvnriros). — 1. Usurped the rule 
of Oreus in Euboea, with the aid of Philip of 
Macedon (Dem. de Cor. pp. 248, 252 ; Diod. xvi. 
74).— 2. An officer of Philip V. of Macedon 
(Liv. xxvii. 32, xxviii. 5: Pol. x. 42). — 3. An 
envoy from Antiochus to Rome ; afterwards 
incited and aided the Aetolians in their war 
with Rome (Liv. xxxiv. 57, xxxv. 32, 50). — 4. 
A Cynic philosopher, and originally a slave, was 
a native of Gadara in Coele- Syria. He seems to 
have been a hearer of Diogenes, and flourished 
about b.c. 60. He amassed great wealth as a 
usurer, but was cheated out of it all, and com- 
mitted suicide. We are told that he wrote 
nothing serious, but that his books were full of 
jests ; whence it would appear that he was one 
of those Cynic philosophers who threw all their 
teaching into a satirical form. In this character 
he is several times introduced by Lucian. His 
works are lost ; but we have considerable frag- 
ments of Varro's Saturae Menippeae, written 
in imitation of Menippus. (Diog. Laert. ii. 99, 
Vi. 101.) 

Mennis, a city of Adiabene, in Assyria, only 
mentioned by Curtius (v. 1). 

Menodotus (WIt)i/68otos), a physician of Nico- 
media in Bithynia, who was a pupil of 
Antiochus of Laodicea, and tutor to Herodotus 
of Tarsus ; he belonged to the medical sect of 
the Empirici, and lived probably about the 
beginning of the second century after Christ. 

Menoeceus(M6(/oi/ceus). 1. ATheban, grand- 
son of Pentheus, and father of Hipponome, 
Jocasta, and Creon (Eur. Phoen. 10 ; Apollod. 
ii. 4, 5). — 2. Grandson of the former, and son of 
Creon. He put an end to his life because Tire- 
sias had declared that his death would bring 
victory to his country, when the seven Argive 
heroes marched against Thebes. His tomb was 
at Thebes near the Neitian gate. (Eur. Phoen. 
768, 930 ; Paus. ix. 25 ; Apollod. iii. 6, 7.) 

Menoetius (Msvo'itios). 1. Son of Iapetus 



and Clymene or Asia, and brother of Atlas, 
Promethus, and Epimetheus. He was killed by 
Zeus with a flash of lightning, in the battle 
with the Titans, and was hurled into Tartarus. 
(Hes. Th. 507; Apollod. i. 2, 3.)— 2. Son of 
Actor and Aegina, husband of Polymele or 
Sthenele, and father of Patroclus, who is hence 
called Menoetiades. Menoetius fled with the 
young Patroclus, who had slain the son of Am- 
phidamas, to Peleus in Phthia, and had him edu- 
cated there. (II. xi. 770, xxiii. 85 ; Strab. p. 425.) 

Menon (MeVcof). — 1. A noble of Pharsalus 
in Thessaly who aided the Athenians at Eion 
(Thuc. ii. 22, iv. 102 ; Dem. c. Arist. pp. 686, 
687). — 2. A Thessalian adventurer, was one of 
the generals of the Greek mercenaries in the 
army of Cyrus the Younger when the latter 
marched into Upper Asia against his brother 
Artaxerxes, B.C. 401. After the death of Cyrus 
he was apprehended along with the other 
Greek generals by Tissaphernes, and was put to 
death by lingering tortures, which lasted for a 
whole year. His character is drawn in the 
blackest colours by Xenophon. He is the same 
as the Menon introduced in the dialogue of 
Plato which bears his name. (Xen. An. i. 1, 10, 
ii. 6, 21 ; Diod. xiv. 19, 27.) 

Mens, a personification of mind, worshipped 
by the Romans, had a sanctuary on the Capitol. 

Mentesa (Mentesanus), surnamed Bastia, 
a town of the Oretani in Hispania Tarraconen- 
sis, on the road from Castulo to Carthago Nov^ 
(Liv. xx vi. 17 ; Ptol. ii. 6, 59). 

Meritor (Wevreap). 1. Son of Alcimus and 
faithful friend of Odysseus, frequently mentioned 
in the Odyssey (ii. 226, iii. 13, xxiv. 445). — 2. 
A Greek of Rhodes, who, with his brother 
Memnon, rendered active assistance to Arta- 
bazus. When the latter found himself com- 
pelled to take refuge at the court of Philip, 
Mentor entered the service of Nectanabis, 
king of Egypt. He was sent to the assistance 
of Tennes, king of Sidon, in his revolt against 
Darius Ochus ; and when Tennes went over to 
the Persians, Mentor was taken into the service 
of Darius. He rose rapidly in the favour of 
Darius, and eventually received a satrapy, in- 
cluding all the western coast of Asia Minor. 
His influence with Darius enabled him to pro- 
cure the pardon of his brother Memnon. He 
died in possession of his satrapy, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Memnon. [Memnon.} 
(Diod. xvi. 42-52; Arrian, An. vii. 419.)— 3. 
The most celebrated silver-chaser among 
the Greeks, who must have lived before B.C. 
356, since some of his work perished with the 
temple of Ephesus in that year. His works 
were vases and cups, which were most highly 
prized by the Romans (Plin. vii. 127, xxxiii. 
154 ; Propert. i. 14, 2 ; Mart. xi. 15, 5 ; Cic. 
Verr. iv. 18, 38 ; Juv. viii. 104). 

Menyllus (MeVuAAos) commanded at Muny- 
chia for Antipater after the Lamian war (Diod. 
xviii. 18 ; Plut. Phoc. 28-31). 

Mercurii Promontorium. [Heemaeum.] 

Mercurius, a Roman divinity of commerce 
and gain, especially the tutelary god of the 
mercatores and their guild (collegium). The 
character of the god is clear from his name, 
which is connected with merx and mercari. 
It is, however, doubtful whether he was a god 
of the original settlers at Rome of the Latin 
and Sabine stock. There is more reason to 
believe that his worship was introduced by the 
Etruscans, possibly first in consequence of the 
development of the corn trade with Etruria and 
with Sicily (Liv. ii. 34), and grew in importance 



MERCURIUS 

Under the Tarquins, as the commerce was ex- 
tended not only to Magna Graecia but also to 
Carthage. The equivalent god of commerce 
among the Etruscans was called Turms (pro- 
bably an Etruscan word, not a corruption of 
Hermes), and it is likely that the Romans 
adopted the worship of that deity, but substi- 
tuted a name formed from their own language. 
The earliest temple to Mercury was built near 
the Circus Maximus, B.C. 493 (Liv. ii. 21, 27), 
where his festival was celebrated, together with 
that of Maia, on the Ides of May (Macrob. i. 12, 
19). Besides this, numerous shrines of the god 
were set up in streets frequented by traders, 
and various names were applied to the statues 
in them : e.g. Mercurius Malevolus, M. Sobrius, 
M. Epulo (Fest. pp. 161, 296 ; C. I. L. vi. 522), 
some of which may refer to the character which 
the sculptor gave in each case to the statue. 
Hence one street was called Sobrius Vicus, 
which some have curiously explained as being 
named from the absence of wine-shops in the 
street, or because milk, and not wine, was of- 
fered (Fest. p. 297). The title Epulo designated 
Mercury as one of the deities honoured with 
banquets by the Epulones. Merchants also 
visited the well near the Porta Capena, to which 
magic powers were ascribed ; and with water 
from that well they used to sprinkle themselves 
and their merchandise, that they might be 
absolved from guilt of lying, and make a 
large profit (Ov. Fast. v. 673). The name of 
Mercury's Well clung even in the middle ages 
to this spot, which is still traceable. The Ro- 
mans of later times identified Mercurius, the 
patron of merchants and tradespeople, with the 
Greek Hermes (as god of gain), and transferred 
all the attributes and myths of the latter to the 
former. The Fetiales, however, never recognised 
the identity, and instead of the caduceus used 
a sacred branch as the emblem of peace. [Diet, 
of Ant. art. Sagmina.] For the Greek myths 
transferred to Mercurius, and for representa- 
tions of him in works of art, see Hermes. 

Mercurius Trismegistus. [Hermes Tris- 
megistus.] 

Merlones (Mrjpi6vTis), a Cretan hero, son of 
Molus, who, conjointly with Idomeneus, led the 
Cretans in 80 ships against Troy. He was one 
of the bravest heroes in the Trojan war, and 
usually acted together with Idomeneus. Later 
traditions relate that on his way homeward lie 
was thrown on the coast of Sicily, where he was 
received by the Cretans who had settled there ; 
whereas according to others he returned safely 
to Crete, and was buried and worshipped as a 
hero, together with Idomeneus, at Cnossus. (II. 
ii. 651, viii. 264, xvii. 669 Diod. iv. 79.) 

Mermerus fMe'pyuepos). 1. Son of Jason and 
Medea, also called Macareus or Mormorus, was 
murdered, together with his brother Pheres, by 
his mother at Corinth (Apollod. i. 9, 28 ; Diod. 
iv. 54). — 2. Son of Pheres, and grandson of 
Jason and Medea (Oil. i. 260). 

Mermessus or Myrmessus (Mfp/irja-cri'is, 
Mvpfiyi<T(r6s), also written Maxmessus and 
Marpessus, a town of Mysia, in tin; territory 
of Lampsacus, not far from Policlina; the 
native place of a sibyl (Paus. x. 12, 2 ; Suid. s.v.). 

Herobaudes, Flavins, a general and a poet, 
whose merits are recorded in an inscription on 
the base of a statue dug up in the Ulpiun forum 
at Rome in the year 1812 or 1813. We learn 
from the inscription that the statue was erected 
in a.d. 435. He wrote a Laus Christ i, and some 
historical poems, especially on Aiitius, of which 
fragments were discovered by Niebuhr upon a 



MESEMBRIA 



551 



palimpsest belonging to the monastery of St. 
Gall, and were published by him at Bonn, 1823; 
also in Weber's Corp. Poet. Lat. 

Meroe (Mepo?; : pts. of Nubia and Sennar), 
the island, so called, and almost an island in 
reality, formed by the rivers Astapus (Blue 
Nile) and Astaboras (Atbarah), and the portion 
of the Nile between their mouths, was a district 
of Ethiopia. Its capital, also called Meroe, 
stood near the N. point of the island, on the E. 
bank of the Nile, below the modem Shendij, 
where the plain, near the village of Assour, is 
covered with ruins of temples, pyramids, and 
other works, in a style closely resembling the 
Egyptian. Standing in a fertile district, rich 
in timber and minerals, at the foot of the high- 
lands of Abyssinia, and at the junction of two 
great rivers, Bleroe became at a very early 
period a chief emporium for the trade between 
Egypt, N. Africa, Ethiopia, Arabia, and India, 
and the capital of a powerful state. From 
Meroe, in the eighth century B. c, was founded 
the Ethiopian dynasty (the twenty-fifth;, which 
reigned at Thebes [see p. 30, b]. The power at 
Meroe was generally in the hands of a ruling 
caste of priests, who chose a king from among 
themselves, and bound him to govern according 
to their laws ; until king Ergamenes (about B.C. 
300) threw off the yoke of the priests (whom he 
massacred) and converted his kingdom into an 
absolute monarchy. — For further details see 
Aethiopia, and Aegyptus. 

Merom Lacus. [Semechonitis.] 

Merope (Mepd-rrq). 1. One of the Heliades 
or sisters of Phaethon (Ov. Met. ii. 340 ; Hyg. 
Fab. 154). — 2. Daughter of Atlas, one of the 
Pleiades, and wife of Sisyphus of Corinth, by 
whom she became the mother of Glaucus. In 
the constellation of the Pleiades she is the 
seventh and the least visible star, because she 
is ashamed of having had intercourse with a 
mortal man (Apollod. i. 9, 3, iii. 10, 1 ; Ov. Fast. 
iv. 175). — 3. Daughter of Cypselus, wife of 
Cresphontes, and mother of Aepytus. For 
details, see Aepytus. 

Merops (Mepotfi). 1. King of the island of 
Cos, husband of the nymph Ethemea, and father 
of Eumelus. His wife was killed by Artemis, 
because she had neglected to worship that 
goddess. Merops, in order to rejoin his wife, 
wished to make away with himself, but Hera 
changed him into an eagle, whom she placed 
among the stars. (Eur. Hel. 384 ; Hyg. Astr. ii. 
16 ; Ant. Lib. 15.) — 2. King of the Ethiopians, 
by whose wife, Clymene, Helios became the 
father of Phaethon (Strab. p. 33 ; Ov. Met. i. 
763). — 3. King of Rhyndacus, on the Hellespont, 
also called Macar or Macareus, was a celebrated 
soothsayer, and fatherof Clite, Arisbe, Amphius, 
and Adrastus (77. ii. 831, xi. 329 ; Strab. p. 586). 

Merula, L. Cornelius, was flamen dialis, and, 
on the deposition of L. Cinna in B.C. 87, was 
elected consul in his place. On the capture of 
Rome by Marius and Cinna at the close of the 
same year, Merula put an end to his own life. 
(App. B. C. i. 65-75; Tac. Ann. iii. 58; Plut. 
Mar. 41, 45.) 

Mesambrla (MeirauPpiri : Bushehr), a penin- 
sula on the coast of Persis, near the river 
Padargus, the present Abu-shir. 

Meschela (Me&x* Aa : prob. near Bonah), a 
large city on the coast of N. Africa, said to have 
been founded by Greeks returning from the 
Trojan war. It was taken by Eumachus, the 
lieutenant of Agathocles (Diod. xx. 67). 

Mesembrla (yi(at)p.fSp'ta, Herod. Mtaafi&piri : 
yitoi)nlipi<ui6s). 1. (Missivri or Messuri), a 



552 



MBSENE 



MESS ALL A 



celebrated town of Thrace on the Pontus Euxi- 
nus, and at the foot of Mt. Haemus, founded by 
the inhabitants of Chalcedon and Byzantium in 
the time of Darius Hystaspis, and hence called 
a colony of Megara, since those towns were 
founded by the Megarians (Hdt. vi. 33 ; Strab. 
p. 319 ; Ptol. iii. 10, 8).— 2. A town in Thrace, 
but of much less importance, on the coast of 
the Aegaean sea, and in the territory of the 
Cicones, near the mouth of the Lissus, and the 
most westerly of the Samothracian settlements 
on the mainland (Hdt. vii. 108). 

Mesene (MecnjW), i.e. Midland), a name given 
to that part of Babylonia which consisted of 
the great island formed by the Euphrates, the 
Tigris, and the Boyal Canal ; containing the 
greater part of Babylonia (Strab. p. 84). 

Mesoa or Messda. [Spabta.] 

Mesogis. [Lydia, p. 507, b.] 

Mesomedes (MerroixifSris), a lyric and epigram- 
matic poet under Hadrian and the Antonines, 
was a native of Crete, and a freedman of Ha- 
drian, whose favourite Antinous he celebrated 
in a poem. A salary which he had received 
from Hadrian, was diminished by Antoninus 
Pius. Three poems of his are preserved in the 
Greek Anthology. 

Mesopotamia (MeaonoTafxta, r) MeV?/ tw 
iroTa/Mwu : O. T. Aram Naharaim, i.e. Syria be- 
tween the JRivers : LXX Mecro-Koraji'ia %vp'ias : 
Al-Jesira, i.e. The Island), a district of W. 
Asia, named from its position between the 
Euphrates and the Tigris, of which rivers the 
former divided it from Syria and Arabia on 
the W., the latter from Assyria on the E. : on 
the N. it was separated from Armenia by a 
branch of the Taurus, called Masius, and on 
the S. from Babylonia by the Median Wall. 
The name was probably first used by the Greeks 
in the time of the Seleucidae (Arrian, vii. 7 ; Tac. 
Ann. vi. 43). In earlier times the country was 
reckoned a part, sometimes of Syria, and some- 
times of Assyria. Nor in the division of the 
Persian empire was it recognised as a distinct 
country, but it belonged to the satrapy of Baby- 
lonia. Excepting the mountainous region on 
the N. and NE. formed by the chain of Masius, 
and its prolongation parallel to the Tigris, the 
country formed a vast plain, broken by few 
hills, well watered by rivers and canals, and 
very fertile, except in the S. part, which was 
more like the Arabian Desert, on the opposite 
side of the Euphrates. Besides corn, and fruit, 
and spices (e.g. the amomum), it produced fine 
timber, and supported large herds of cattle ; in 
the S., or desert part, there were numerous wild 
animals, such as wild asses, gazelles, ostriches, 
and lions. Its chief mineral products were 
naphtha and jet (Curt. v. 1, 12 ; Strab. xvi. 747). 
The N. part of Mesopotamia was divided into 
the districts of Mygdonia and Oseoene. It 
belonged successively to the Assyrian, Baby- 
lonian, Persian, Macedonian, Syro-Grecian, 
Parthian and later Persian empires, but at 
times formed part of the Boman empire. Trajan 
conquered it in 115, when he formed the three 
provinces called Armenia, Assyria, and Meso- 
potamia ; but Hadrian relinquished it. Aurelius 
reconquered it, and founded a colony at Sin- 
gara; Sept. Severus founded others at Nisibis 
and Rhesaena. (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 22, Ixxv. 1, 3 ; 
Eutrop. viii. 6.) It was really of small value 
to Rome, and little else but a battlefield. 
Jovian finally gave it up to the Persians ( Amm. 
Marc. xxv. 9). — In a wider sense the name is 
sometimes applied to the whole country between 
the Euphrates and the Tigris. 



Mespila (r) Me'tnnAct : Ru. at Koiiyounjik, 
opp. to Mosul, Layard), a city of Assyria, on 
the E. side of the Tigris, which Xenophon 
(Anab. iii. 4) mentions as having been formerly 
a great city, inhabited by Medes, but in his 
time fallen into decay. It had a wall six para- 
sangs in circuit, composed of two parts : namely, 
a base fifty feet thick and fifty high, of polished 
stone full of shells (the limestone of thecountry), 
upon which was built a brick wall fifty feet 
thick and 100 high. It had served, according 
to tradition, as the refuge for the Median queen 
when the Persians overthrew the empire of the 
Medes, and it resisted all the efforts of the Per- 
sian king to take it, until a thunderstorm fright- 
ened the inhabitants into a surrender. 

Messa (M<=V<ra, Wleaari : Mezapo), a town 
and harbour in Laconia near C. Taenarum 
(II. ii. 502 ; Paus. iii. 25, 9). 

Messabatene or -ice (Me<r<ra#aTi7W;, Meo-cra- 
/3aTiK^ : Me<r<raj8aTai), a small district on the 
SE. margin of the Tigris and Euphrates valley, 
on the borders of Media, Persis, and Susiana, 
reckoned sometimes to Persis and sometimes 
to Susiana. The name is derived from the moun- 
tain passes in the district. (Strab. pp. 524, 744.) 

Messalina. [Messallina.] 

Messalla, less correctly Messala, the name 
of a distinguished family of the Valeria gens at 
Rome. They appear for the first time on the 
consular Fasti in B.C. 263, and for the last in 
a.d. 506. — 1. M'. Valerius Maximus Corvinus 
Messalla, was consul B.C. 263, and, in con- 
junction with his colleague M. Otacilius, carried 
on the war with success against the Cartha- 
ginians in Sicily. The two consuls concluded a 
peace with Hiero. In consequence of his re- 
lieving Messana he obtained the cognomen of 
Messalla. His triumph was distinguished by 
two remarkable monuments of his victory — by a 
pictorial representation of a battle with the 
Sicilian and Punic armies, which he placed in 
the Curia Hostilia, and by a sun-dial (Horo- 
logium), from the booty of Catana, which was 
set up on a column behind the rostra, in the 
forum. Messalla was censor in 252. (Pol. i. 16, 
17 ; Liv. Ep. 16 ; Plin. vii. 214, xxxv. 22.)— 2. M. 
Valerius Messalla, consul 226 (Zonar. xviii. 
19). — 3. M. Valerius Messalla, praetor pere- 
grinus 194, and consul 188, when he had the 
province of Liguria (Liv. xxxiv. 54, xxxviii. 42, 
xlii. 28).— 4. M. Valerius Messalla, consul 
161, and censor 154 (Val. Max. ii. 9, 9). — 5. M. 
Valerius Messalla Niger, praetor 63 ; consul 
51 ; and censor 55. He belonged to the aristo- 
cratical party. He married a sister of the 
orator Q. Hortensius. (Dio Cass, xxxvii. 46 ; 
Caes. B. G. i. 2 ; Cic. ad Earn. viii. 2.)— 6. M. 
Valerius Messalla, son of the preceding ; con- 
sul 53 ; belonged, like his father, to the aristo- 
cratical party ; but in consequence probably of 
his enmity to Pompey, he joined Caesar in the 
Civil war, and served under him in Africa. He 
was in high repute for his skill in augury, on 
which science he wrote. (Cic. ad Earn. vi. 18, ad 
Att. iv. 16 ; Dio Cass. xl. 17, 45; Bell. Afr. 28 ; 
Gell. xiii. 14.) — 7. M. Valerius Messalla Cor- 
vinus, son of the preceding, was educated 
partly at Athens, where probably began his 
intimacy with Horace and L. Bibulus (Hor. 
Sat. i. 10, 81; App. B. C. iv. 38). After Caesar's 
death (44) he joined the republican party, and 
attached himself especially to Cassius, whom, 
long after, when he had become the friend of 
Octavianus, he was accustomed to call ' my 
general' (Tac. Ann. iv. 34; Dio Cass, xlvii. 
24 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 71). Messalla was proscribed, 



MESS ALL A 



MESSALLINA 



553 



but since his kinsmen proved his absence from 
Rome at the time of Caesar's assassination, the 
triumvirs erased his name from the list, and 
offered him security for his person and property. 
Messalla, however, rejected their offers, followed 
Cassius into Asia, and at Philippi, in the first 
day's battle, turned Octavianus's flank, stormed 
his camp, and narrowly missed taking him 
prisoner (Plut. Brut. 41). After the death of 
Brutus and Cassius, Messalla, with a numerous 
body of fugitives, took refuge in the island of 
Thasos. His followers, though defeated, were 
not disorganised, and offered him the command. 
But he induced them to accept honourable 
terms from Antony, to whom he attached him- 
self until Cleopatra's influence made his ruin 
certain and easy to be foreseen. Messalla then 
again changed his party, and served Augustus 
effectively in Sicily, 36 ; against the Salassians, 
a mountain tribe lying between the Graian and 
the Pennine Alps, 34 ; and at Actium, 31. 
(App. B. C. v. 102-113; Dio Cass. xlix. 38; 
Strab. p. 189.) A decree of the senate had 
abrogated Antony's consulship for 31, and 
Messalla was appointed to the vacant place. 
He was proconsul of Aquitania in 28-27, and 
obtained a triumph for his reduction of that , 
province. Shortly before or immediately after j 
his administration of Aquitania, Messalla held 
a prefecture in Asia Minor. He was deputed by j 
the senate, probably in 30, to greet Augustus 
with the title of ' Pater Patriae ' ; and the 
opening of his address on that occasion is pre- 
served by Suetonius (Aug. 58; cf. Ov. Fast. 
ii. 127, Trist. ii. 39; Dio Cass. lvi. 8, 41). 
During the disturbances at the comitia in 27, 
Augustus nominated Messalla to the revived 
office of warden of the city; but lie resigned it 
in a few days. Messalla soon afterwards with- 
drew from all public employments except his 
augurship, to which Augustus had specially 
appointed him, although, at the time of his ad- 
mission, there was no vacancy in the augural j 
college. About two years before his death, 
which happened about the middle of Augustus's 
reign, B.C. 3-a.d. 8, Messalla's memory failed 
him, and he often could not recall his own 
name (Tac. Dial. 17). His tomb was of remark- 
able splendour. Messalla was distinguished | 
as much in the literary as in the political 
world of Rome. He was a patron of learning 
and the arts, and was himself a historian, a 
poet, a grammarian, and an orator. He wrote 
commentaries on the civil wars after Caesar's 
death, and a genealogical work, De Romania 
Familiia. (Plut. Brut. 40, 41, 45, 53; Tac. 
Ann. iv. 34; Suet. Aug. 74; Plin. xxxiii. 50.) 
The treatise, however, De Progenia August?, 
which sometimes accompanies Eutropius and 
the minor Roman historians, is the forgery of a 
much later age. Messalla's poems were of a 
Batirical or even licentious character (Plin. Ep. 
v. 3). His writings as a grammarian were 
numerous and minute, comprising treatises on 
construction and lexicography, and on the powers 
and uses of single letters (Quint, i. 7, 37). His I 
eloquence reflected the character of his age. I 
More smooth and correct than vigorous or 
original, he persuaded rather than convinced, 
and conciliated rather than persuaded (Quint, 
iv. 1, 8). He recommended and practised 
translation from the Greek orators; and hi* 
version of the Phryne of Hyperides was thought 
to exhibit remarkable skill in cither language 
(Quint, x. 5, 2). His political eminence, the 
wealth he inherited or acquired in the civil 
wars, and the favour of Antony and Augustus, 



rendered Messalla one of the principal persons 
of his age, and an effective patron of its litera- 
ture. His friendship for Horace and his inti- 
macy with Tibullus are well known. In the 
elegies of the latter poet, the name of Messalla 
is continually introduced. (Hor. Of?, iii. 21, 
Sat. i. 6, 42, A. P. 371 ; Tib. i. 7, iv. 1.) The 
dedication of the Ciris, a doubtful work, is not 
sufficient proof of his friendship with Virgil ; 
but the companion of ' Plotius and Varius, of 
Maecenas and Octavius ' (Hor. Sat. i. 10, 81), 
cannot well have been unknown to the author 
of the Eclogues and Georgics. He directed 
Ovid's early studies (ex Pont. iv. 16), and 
Tiberius sought his acquaintance in early man- 
hood, and took him for his model in eloquence. 
— 8. M. Valerius Messaki Barbatus Appi- 
anus, was consul B.C. 12, and died in his year 
of office. He was the father (or grandfather) of 
the empress Messallina. (Dio Cass. liv. 28; 
Suet. Claud. 26.)— 9. L. Valerius Messalla 
Volesus, consul a.d. 5, and afterwards pro- 
consul of Asia, where his cruelties drew on him 
the anger of Augustus and a condemnatory 
decree from the senate (Tac. Ann. iii. 68). — 
10. L. Vipstanus Messalla, legionary tribune 
in Vespasian's army, a.d. 70, was brother of 
Aquilius Regulus, the notorious delator in 
Domitian's reign (Plin. Ep. i. 5). He is one of 
Tacitus' authorities for the history of the civil 
wars after Galba's death, and a principal inter- 
locutor in the dialogue De Oratoribus. (Tac. 
Hist. iii. 9, 18, iv. 42, Dial. 15-25.) 

Messallina, or Messalina. 1. Statilia, 
granddaughter of T. Statilius Taurus, cos. 
a.d. 11, was the third wife of the emperor 
Nero, who married her in a.d. G6. She had 
previously espoused Atticus Vestinus, whom 
Nero put to death without accusation or 
trial, merely that he might marry Messal- 
lina (Tac. Ann. xv. 68 ; Suet. Ner. 35, Oth. 
10). — 2. Valeria, daughter of M. Valerius Mes- 
salla Barbatus and of Domitia Lepida, was 
the third wife of the emperor Claudius. She 




lluat of Muhmillliiri, wife ol ClaudlUH. (From the 
Capitol, Homo.) 

married Claudius, to whom she was previously 
related, before his accession to the empire. 
Her profligacy and licentiousness were nolo- 



554 



ME S SANA 



B1ESSAPIA 



rious ; and the absence of virtue was not con- 
cealed by any sense of shame or regard for 
decorum. She was as cruel as she was profli- 
gate ; and many members of the most illustrious 
families of Borne were sacrificed to her fears or 
her hatred. She long exercised an unbounded 
empire over her weak husband, who alone was 
ignorant of her infidelities. For some time she 
was supported in her career of crime by the 
freedmen of Claudius; but when Narcissus, 
the most powerful of the emperor's freedmen, 
perceived that he should probably fall a victim 
to Messallina's intrigues, he determined to get 
rid of her. The insane folly of Messallina 
furnished the means of her own destruction. 
Having conceived a violent passion for a hand- 
some Roman youth, C. Silius, she publicly 
married him with all the rites of a legal conu- 
bium during the absence of Claudius at Ostia, 
a.d. 48. Narcissus persuaded the emperor that 
Silius and Messallina would not have dared 
such an outrage had they not determined also 
to deprive him of empire and life. Claudius 
wavered long, and at length Narcissus himself 
issued Messallina's death-warrant. She was put 
to death by a tribune of the guards in the 
gardens of Lucullus. (Tac. Ann. xi. 26-38 ; Dio 
Cass. lx. 14-31 ; Suet. Claud. 17-39 ; Juv. vi. 
115-135, x. 333, xiv. 331.) 

Messana (Meo-o^c??, Mefftrava Dor. : Mecr- 
advios : Messina), a celebrated town on the 
NE. coast of Sicily, on the straits separating 
Italy from this island, which are here about 
four miles broad. It was originally a town of 
the Sicels, and was called Zancle (Z^kAt;), or 
a sickle, on account of the shape of its harbour, 
which is formed by a singular curve of sandy 
shore. The first Greek colonists were, according 
to Thucydides, pirates from the Chalcidian town 
of Cumae in Italy, who were joined by Chalci- 
dians from Euboea, and, according to Strabo, 
by Naxians ; but these two accounts are not 
contradictory, for since Naxos in Sicily was also 
a colony from Chalcis, we may easily suppose 
that the Naxians joined the other Chalcidians 
in the foundation of the town (Thuc. vi. 4 ; 
Strab. p. 268 ; Paus. iv. 23, 7 ; Diod. iv. 85). 
Since the people of Zancle helped the Chalci- 
dians to found Rhegiuin, in conjunction with 
Messenians expelled during the first Messenian 
war, Zancle itself must have been founded 
between 735 (the date of Naxos) and the end of 
the first Messenian war. [Bhbgium.] Zancle 
soon became so powerful that it founded the 
town of Himera, about B.C. 648. After the 
capture of Miletus by the Persians, the inhabi- 
tants of Zancle invited the Ionians, who had 
been expelled from their native country, to 
settle on their 'beautiful coast' (kciAt; o.ktt), 
Hdt. vi. 22) ; and a number of Samians and 
other Ionic Greeks accepted their offer. On 
landing in the S. of Italy, they were persuaded 
by Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium, to take posses- 
sion of Zancle during the absence of Scythes, 
the tyrant of the city, who was engaged in the 
siege of some other Sicilian town. But their 
treachery was soon punished; for Anaxilaus 
himself shortly afterwards drove the Samians 
out of Zancle, and made himself master of the 
town, the name of which he changed into 
Messana or Messene, both because he was him- 
self a Messenian, and because he transferred to 
the place a body of Messenians from Rhegium. 
(Hdt. vi. 22, vii. 164; Thuc. I.e.; Strab. I.e.; 
Diod. xi. 48.) Anaxilaus died 476 ; and about ten 
years afterwards (466) his sons were driven out 
of Messana and Bhegium, and republican 



governments established in these cities. Messana 
now enjoyed great prosperity for several years, 
and in consequence of its excellent harbour 
and advantageous position, it became a place of 
great commercial importance. The Athenians 
failed in their attempt to seize it in 415 (Thuc. 
vi. 48, 74). But in 396 it was taken by the 
Carthaginians, who destroyed the town because 
they saw that they should be unable to main- 
tain so distant a possession against the power 
of Dionysius of Syracuse (Diod. xiv. 56-58). 
Dionysius began to rebuild it in the same year, 
and besides collecting the remains of the former 
population, he added a number of Locrians, 
Messenians, and others, so that its inhabitants 
were of a very mixed kind. After the banish- 
ment of the younger Dionysius, Messana was. 
for a short time free, but it fell into the power 
of Agathocles about 312 (Diod. xix. 65, 102). 
Among the mercenaries of this tyrant were a 
number of Mamertini, an Oscan people from 
Campania, who had been sent from home under 
the protection of the god Mamers or Mars to 
seek their fortune in other lands. These 
Mamertini were quartered in Messana ; and 
after the death of Agathocles (282) they made 
themselves masters of the town, killed the male 
inhabitants, and took possession of their wives, 
their children, and their property. The town 
was now called Mamertina, and the inhabitants 




Obv., ME22ANION; hare, dolphin below; rev., biga drawn 
by mules ; charioteer crowned by Victory. (Anaxilaus 
won a victory with mules at Olympia, and introduced 
hares into Sicily.) 

Mamertini ; but its ancient name of Messana 
continued to be in more general use (Pol. i. 7 ; 
Diod. xxi. 18 ; Cic. Verr. ii. 5, 46, iii. 6). The 
new inhabitants could not lay aside their old 
predatory habits, and in consequence became 
involved in a war with Hiero of Syracuse, who 
defeated them in several battles, and would 
probably have conquered the town, had not the 
Carthaginians come in to the aid of the Mamer- 
tini, and, under the pretext of assisting them, 
taken possession of their citadel. The Mamer- 
tini had at the same time applied to the Romans 
for help, who gladly availed themselves of the 
opportunity to obtain a footing in Sicily. Thus 
Messana was the immediate cause of the first 
Punic war, 264. (Pol. i. 10; Diod. xxiii. 1 : Liv. 
Ep. 16.) The Mamertini expelled the Cartha- 
ginian garrison, and received the Romans. 
Messana then passed under the Roman do- 
minion, but nominally as a civitas foederata, 
retaining its own land and subject to tribute 
only in time of war (Cic. Verr. v. 22, 56 ; Plut. 
Pomp. 10). It was the headquarters of the 
fleet of Sextus Pompeius, and, probably on 
that account, lost its privileges, and simply 
received the Roman franchise as an oppidum 
civium Bomanorum (Plin. iii. 88), but still 
continued a flourishing place, and as late as the 
Gothic wars was an important fortress (Ptol. 
iii. 8, 9 ;_ Procop. B.G. i. 8, iii. 39). 

Messapia (Me<r<rair£a), the Greek name of 
Calabria. 



MESSAPIUM 

Messaplum (to Me<ro-a7r(oe opos), a mountain 
in Boeotia on the E. coast, near the town 
Anthedon, from which Messapus is said to have 
sailed to the S. of Italy (Strab. p. 405). 

Messapus (MeWcnros), a Boeotian, from 
whom Messapia in the S. of Italy was believed 
to have derived its name (Strab. I.e.). 

Messene (Me<r<r>7v?))> daughter of Triopas, and 
wife of Polycaon, whom she induced to take 
possession of the country which was called 
after her, Messenia. She introduced there the 
worship of Zeus and the mysteries of the great 
goddess of Eleusis (Paus. iv. 1, 3, 27). 

Messene (Me<rtrtii/ri : Meo-o-vjyios). 1. (Mavro- 
mati), the later capital of Messenia, was 
founded by Epaminondas B.C. 369, and com- 
pleted and fortified within the space of eighty- 
five days. It was situated at the foot of the 
steep hill of Ithome, which was celebrated as a 
fortress in the history of the Messenian wars, 
and now formed the acropolis of the new city. 
(Paus. iv. 27 ; Diod. xv. 66.) Messene was one 
of the most strongly fortified cities of Greece. 
It was surrounded by massive walls built 
entirely of stone and flanked with numerous 
towers (Paus. iv. 31). There are still consider- 
able remains of some of these towers, as well 
as the foundations of the walls, and of several 
public buildings. The northern gate of the 
city is extant, and opens into a circular court, 
62 feet in diameter. The city was supplied 
with water from a fountain called Clepsydra, 
still a fine spring. — 2. See Messana. 

Messenia (yieffcryvta : MevcrriVios ; in older 
writers yitaa-hvr) : Od. xxi. 15 ; cf. Pind. Pyth. 
iv. 126), a country in Peloponnesus, bounded on 
the E. by Laconia, on the N. by Elis and 
Arcadia, and on the S. and W. by the sea. It 
was separated from Laconia by Mt. Taygetus ; 
but part of the W. slope of Taygetus belonged 
to Laconia ; and it is difficult to determine the 
exact boundaries between the two countries, as 
they were different at different periods. In the 
most ancient times the river Nedon formed the 
boundary between Messenia and Laconia to- 
wards the sea ; but later the true frontier line 
was further SE., at a woody hollow called 
Choerius, twenty stadia S. of Abia (Paus. iv. 1), 
in the mountain district which Tacitus speaks 
of as Ager Dentheliates (Ann. iv. 43). The 
river Neda formed the N. frontier between 
Messenia and Elis. The area of Messenia is 
about 1162 square miles. It was for the most 
part a mountainous country, and contained only 
two plains of any extent, in the N. the plain of 
StenijcUrus, and in the S. a still larger plain, 
through which the Pamisus flowed, and which 
was called Macaria or the Blessed, on account 
of its great fertility (Strab. p. 361). There 
were, however, many smaller valleys among the 
mountains ; and the country was much less 
rugged and far more productive than the neigh- 
bouring Laconia. Hence Messenia is described 
by Pausanias as the most fertile country in 
Peloponnesus ; and it is praised by Euripides 
on account of its climate, which was neither too 
cold in winter nor too hot in summer (Eur. ap. 
Strab. p. 366). The most ancient inhabitants 
of Messenia were Leleges, intermingled with 
Argives. According to tradition Polycaon, the 
younger son of Lelex, married the Argive Mes- 
sene, a daughter of Triopas, and named the 
country Messene in honour of his wife. This 
is the name by %vhich it is called in Homer, 
who does not use the form Messenia. Five 
generations afterwards Aeolians settled in the 
country, under the guidance of Perieres, a son 



MESSENIA 



555 



of Aeolus. His son Aphareus gave a home to 
Neleus, who had been driven out of Thessaly, 
and who founded the town of Pylos, which 
became the capital of an independent sove- 
reignty. For a long time there was properly no 
Messenian kingdom. The western part of the 
land belonged to the dominions of the Neleid 
princes of Pylos, of whom Nestor was the most 
celebrated, and the eastern to the Lacedae- 
monian monarchy. Thus it appears to have 
remained till the conquest of Peloponnesus by 
the Dorians, when Messenia fell to the share of 
Cresphontes, who destroyed the kingdom of 
Pylos, and united the whole country under his 
sway. The ruling class were now Dorians, and 
they continued to speak the purest Doric down 
to the latest times. The Spartans soon coveted 
the more fertile territory of their brother 
Dorians ; and after many disputes between the 
two nations, and various inroads into each 
other's territories, open war at length broke 
out. This war, called the first Messenian war, 
lasted twenty years, B.C. 743-723 ; and notwith- 
standing the gallant resistance of the Messenian 
king, Aristodemus, the Messenians were obliged 
to submit to the Spartans after the capture of 
their fortress Ithome, and to become their sub- 
jects. [Abistodejius.] After bearing the yoke 
thirty-eight years, the Messenians again took 
up arms under their heroic leader Aristomenes. 
[Akistomenes.] The second Messenian war 




Coin of Messenia (1th cent. B.C.). 
Obv., head of l>emeter ; rec. MEZSAX1QN ; figure of Zeus 
bearing the eagle (supposed to be copied from the statue 
by Ageladas). 

lasted seventeen years, B.C. 685-668, and termi- 
nated with the conquest of Ira and the complete 
subjugation of the country. Most of the Mes- 
senians emigrated to foreign countries, and 
those who remained behind were reduced to the 
condition of Helots or serfs. In this state they 
remained till 464, when the Messenians and 
other Helots took advantage of the devastation 
occasioned by the great earthquake at Sparta 
to rise against their oppressors. This third 
Messenian war lasted ten years, 464-455, and 
ended by the Messenians surrendering Ithome 
to the Spartans on condition of their being 
allowed a free departure from Peloponnesus. 
They settled at Naupactus on the Corinthian 
gulf opposite Peloponnesus, which town the 
Athenians had lately taken from the Locri 
Ozolae, and gladly granted to such deadly 
enemies of Spurta. At the conclusion of the 
Peloponnesian war (404) the unfortunate Mes- 
senians were obliged to leave Naupactus and 
take refuge in Italy, Sicily, and other countries ; 
but when the supremacy of Sparta was over- 
thrown by the battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas 
resolved to restore the independence of Mes- 
senia. He accordingly gathered together the 
Messenian exiles from the various lands in 
which they were scattered ; and in the summer 
of 860 he founded the town of Messene at the 
foot of Mt. Ithome. [Messene.] Messenia 
was never again subdued by the Spartans, and 
it maintained its independence till the conquest 



556 



MESTLETA 



METELLA 



of Greece by the Romans, 146, when it formed 
part of the province of Achaia. 

Mestleta or Mestchetha (Mtzkheth) a city of 
Iberia, in Asia, on the river Cyrus. 

Mestra (MTjo-Tpa), daughter of Erysichthon, 
and granddaughter of Triopas, whence she is 
called Triopeis by Ovid. She was sold by her 
hungry father, that he might obtain the means 
of satisfying his hunger. In order to escape 
from slavery, she prayed to Poseidon, who loved 
her, and who conferred upon her the power of 
metamorphosing herself whenever she was sold. 
According to one tradition she became after- 
wards the wife of Autolycus (Ov. Met. viii. 
738-878; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 1393; Ant. Lib. 17, 
where the name is Hypermestra; cf. Ekvsi- 
shthon). 

Messogis [Lydia, p. 507, b]. 

Metagonitis (MeraycorfTis : MerayavTrai, Me- 
tagonltae), a name applied to the N. coast of 
Mauretania Tingitana (Marocco), between the 
Fretum Gaditanum and the river Mulucha ; de- 
rived probably from the Carthaginian colonies 
(utToryoovia) settled along it (Ptol. iv. 2, 10; 
Pol. iii. 33). There was on this coast a promon- 
tory called Metagonium, the modem Bas-el- 
Earsbah (Strab. p. 827 ; Mel. i. 7, 1). 

Metallinum or Metellinum (Metallinensis : 
Medelliri), a Roman colony in Lusitania on the 
Anas, near Augusta Emerita (Plin. iv. 17). 

Metanira {Mcrdveipa), wife of Celeus, and 
mother of Triptolemus, received Demeter on her 
arrival in Attica. Pausanias called her Mega- 
naera. (Hymn, in Cer. 161 ; Apollod. i. 5, 1 ; 
Paus. i. 39, 1.) For details see Celeus. 

Iptapnrastes, Symeon (Su^eo* 6 Meracppd- 
CT-qs), a Byzantine writer, lived in the ninth and 
tenth centuries, and held high offices at the 
Byzantine court. His surname Metaphrastes 
was given to him on account of his having com- 
posed a paraphrase of the Lives of the Saints. 
He wrote a Byzantine history, entitled Annates, 
beginning with the emperor Leo Armenus, A.p. 



Diod. iv. 67.) Pythagoras transferred his school 
to Metapontum and died there. In 415 they 
allied themselves to the Athenians. (Thuc. vi. 
44, vii. 33.) Its fertility was so great that the 
people of Metapontum dedicated a golden har- 
vest at Delphi (Strab. p. 264). It fell into the 




Coin of Metapontum (4th cent. B.C.). 
Obv., AEYKI ; head of Leueippus, the founder ; rev., ear of 
corn, as sign of fertility. 

hands of the Romans with the other Greek 
cities in the S. of Italy in the war against 
Pyrrhus ; but it revolted to Hannibal after the 
battle of Cannae (Liv. xxii. 61). From the 
time of the second Punic war it disappears 
from history, and was in ruins in the time of 
Pausanias (vi. 19, 11). 
Metaurum. [Metaubus, No. 2.] 
Metaurus. 1. (Metaro), a small river in fim- 
bria, flowing into the Adriatic sea, but rendered 
memorable by the defeat and death of Has- 
drubal, the brother of Hannibal, on its banks, 
B.C. 207. It rises in the group of Apennines 
called Monte Nerone, and flows forty-five miles 
into the sea, two miles S. of Fano. (Strab. 
p. 227 ; Sil. It. viii. 449 ; Hor. Od. iv. 4, 387.)— 2. 
(Marro), a river on the E. coast of Bruttium, 
at whose mouth was the town of Metaurum. 

Metella, Caecilia. 1. Daughter of Met. Mace- 
donicus [No. 3], married Scipio Nasica (consul 
111 B.C.). Her grandson was Metellus Scipio 
[No. 15] (Cic. Brut. 58, 212).— 2. Daughter of 
Met. Balearicus [No. 5], married App. Claud. 
Pulcher, and was mother of P. Clodius, Cicero's 



813, and finishing with Romanus, the son of j enemy [Claudius, No. 21]. — 3. Daughter of Met. 



Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 
by Bekker, Bonn, 
1838. 

Metapontum,the 
Roman name for 
the Greek Meta- 
pontium(M6Ta7T(iv- 
riov : MtTarSwrios, 
Metapontlnus : 
Torre di Mare), a 
celebrated Greek 
city in the S. of 
Italy, on the Ta- 
rentine gulf, and 
on the E. coast of 
Lucania, is said to 
have been origin- 
ally called Meta- 
bum (MtETaPov). It 
was an Achaean 
colony, under the 
command of a 
leader named Leu- 
eippus, but pro- 
bably occupied the 
site of an older 
city (which would 
account for tradi- 
tions of its early 



963. Edited | Calvus [No. 4] and mother of Lucullus (Plut. 




Tomb of Caecilia Metella, on the Appian Way. (See Metella, No. 6.) 



settlement by Pylians of the time of Nestor or 
by Phocians) which had been destroyed before 
the Achaeans of Sybaris and Crotona founded a 
new city there about 700 B.C. (Strab. pp. 222, 264; 



Lucull. 1). — i. Daughter of Met. Dalmaticus 
[No. 9], married first to Scaurus, secondly to 
Sulla, who avenged upon Athens an affront 
offered to her by the Athenians (Plut. Sull. 6, 



METELLUS 



557 



13, 22, 35 ; Cic. Scaur. 45).— 5. Daughter (pro- 
bably) of Met. Nepos [No. 14], wife of P. Len- 
tulus Spinther, the younger, from whom she 
was divorced in 45 (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 339 ; Cic. 
ad Att. xi. 15, 23. xii. 52, xiii. 7). — 6. Daughter 
of Met. Creticus [No. 16], and wife of Crassus, 
the son of the triumvir, to whose memory the 
magnificent tomb on the Appian Way was raised. 

Metellus, a distinguished plebeian family of 
the Caecilia gens at fiome. 1. L. Caecilius 
Metellus, consul B.C. 251, carried on the war in 
Sicily against the Carthaginians. In the follow- 
ing year he gained a, srreat victory at Panormus 
over Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian general. The 
elephants which he took in this battle were 
exhibited in his triumph at Rome. (Pol. i. 39, 40 ; 
Plin. vii. 139). Metellus was consul a second 
time in 249, and was elected pontifex maximum 
in 243, and held this dignity for twenty-two years. 
He must therefore have died shortly before the 
beginning of the second Punic war. In 241 he 
rescued the Palladium when the temple of Vesta 
was on fire, but lost his sight in consequence. 
(Ov. Fast. vi. 436; Dionys. ii. 66; Val. Max. 
i. 4, 4). He was dictator in 224, for the -purpose 
of holding the comitia. — 2. Q. Caecilius 
Metellus, sou of the preceding, was plebeian 
aedile 209 ; curule aedile 208 ; served in the 
army of the consul Claudius Nero 207, and was 
one of the legates sent to Rome to convey the 
joyful news of the defeat and death of Has- 
drubal ; and was consul, with L. Veturius Philo, 
206. In his consulship he and his colleague 
carried on the war against Hannibal in Brut- 
tium, where he remained as proconsul during 
the following year. In 205 he was dictator for 
the purpose of holding the comitia. Metellus 
survived the second Punic war many years, and 
was employed in several public commissions. 
(Liv. xxviii. 9, xxxix. 24 ; Cic. Brut. 14, 57 ; Val. 
Max. vii. 2, 3.) — 3. Q. Caecilius Metellus 
Macedonicus, son of the last, was praetor 148, 
and carried on war in Macedonia against the 
usurper Andriscus, whom he defeated and took 
prisoner. He next turned his arms against the 
Achaeans, whom he defeated at the beginning 
of 146. On his return to Rome in 146 he 
triumphed, and received the surname of Mace 
donicus. Metellus was consul in 143, and re- 
ceived the province of Nearer Spain, where he 
carried on the war with success for two years 
against the Celtiberi. He was succeeded by 
Q. Pompeius in 141. Metellus was censor 131. 
He died 115, full of years and honours. He is 
frequently quoted by the ancient writers as an 
extraordinary instance of human felicity. He 
had filled all tl.e highest offices of the state 
with reputation and glory, and was carried to 
the funeral pile by four sons, three of whom 
had obtained the consulship in his lifetime, 
while the fourth was a candidate for the office at 
the time of hia father's death. (Liv. Ep. 49, 50, 
52, 58, 59 ; Veil. Pat. i. 11 ; Cic. Fin. v. 27, 82 ; 
Pans. vii. 18, 15.) — 4. L. Caecilius Metellus 
Calvus, brother of the last, consul 112 (Cic. ad 
Att. xii. 5; Val. Max. viii. 5). — 5. Q. Caecilius 
Metellus Balearicus, eldest son of No. 3, was 
consul 123, when he subdued the inhabitants 
of the Balearic islands, and received in conse- 
quence the surname of Balearicus. He was censor 
120. (Liv. Ep. 60 ; Diod. v. 17 ; Strab. p. 167.)— 
6. L. Caecilius Metellus Diadematus, second 
■on of No. 8, has been frequently confounded 
with Metellus Dalmnticus, consul 119 [No. 9]. 
Metellus Diadematus received the latter sur- 
name from his wearing for a long time a 
banduge round his forehead, in consequence of 



an ulcer. (Cic. post Bed. ad Quirit. 3, 0; Plut. 
Cor. 11.) He was consul 117. — 7. M. Caecilius 
Metellus, third son of No. 3, was consul 115, 
the year in which his father died. In 114 he 
was sent into Sardinia as proconsul, and sup- 
pressed an insurrection in the island, in con- 
sequence of which he obtained a triumph in 
113, on the same day as his brother Caprarius. 
(Eutrop. iv. 25.) — 8. C. Caecilius Metellus 
Caprarius, fourth son of No. 3. The origin of 
his surname is quite uncertain. He was 
consul 113, and carried on war in Macedonia 
against the Thracians, whom he subdued. He 
obtained a triumph in consequence in the same 
year, and on the same day with his brother 
Marcus. He was censor 102 with his cousin 
Metellus Numidicus. (Veil. Pat. ii. 8; Tac. 
Germ. 37.) — 9. L. Caecilius Metellus Dal- 
maticus, elder son of No. 4, and frequently 
confounded, as has been already remarked, with 
Diadematus [No. 5], was consul 119, when he 
subdued the Dalmatians, and obtained in con- 
sequence the surname Dalmaticus. With the 
booty obtained in this war he repaired the 
temple of Castor and Pollux. He was censor 
with Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus in 115, and he 
was also pontifex maximus. (Cic. Clu. 42, 119.) 
He was alive in 100, when he is mentioned as 
one of the senators of high rank who took up 
arms against Saturninus (Liv. Ep. 62 ; Appian, 
Illyr. 11; Plut. Pomp. 2).— 10. Q. Caecilius 
Metellus Numidicus, younger son of No. 4, 
was one of the most distinguished members of 
his family. The character of Metellus stood 
very high among his contemporaries ; in an 
age of growing corruption his personal integrity 
remained unsullied ; and he was distinguished 
for his abilities in war and peace. He was one 
of the chief leaders of the aristocratical party 
at Rome. He was consul 109, and carried on 
the war against Jugurtha in Numidia with 
great success. [Jugubtha.] He remained in 
Numidia during the following year a3 pro- 
consul ; but, as he was unable to bring the 
war to a conclusion, his legate, C. Marius, in- 
dustriously circulated reports in the camp and 
the city that Metellus designedly protracted 
the war for the purpose of continuing in the 
command. These rumours had the desired 
effect. Marius was raised to the consulship, 
Numidia was assigned to him as his province, 
and Metellus saw the honour of finishing the 
war snatched from his grasp. [Mabius.] On 
his return to Rome in 107 he was received with 
the greatest honour. He celebrated a splendid 
triumph, and received the surname of Nu- 
midicus. In 102 he was censor with his cousin 
Metellus Caprariu3. In 100 the tribune 
Saturninus and Marius resolved to ruin Me- 
tellus. Saturninus proposed an agrarian law, 
to which he added the clause that the senate 
should swear obedience to it within five days 
after its enactment, and that whosoever should 
refuse to do so should be expelled the senate and 
pay a heavy fine. Metellus refused to take the 
oath and was therefore expelled the senate; 
but Saturninus, not content with this, brought 
forward a bill to punish him witli exile. The 
friends of Metellus were ready to take up arms 
in his defence ; but Metellus quitted the city 
and retired to Rhodes, where he bore his mis- 
fortune with great calmness. He was, how- 
ever, recalled to Rome in the following year (99), 
on the proposition of the tribune Q. Calidius. 
The orations of Metellus are spoken of with 
praise by Cicero, and they continued to be read 
with admiration in the time of Fronto. (Sail. 



558 



METELLUS 



Jug. 43-88; Plut. Marius; Flor. iii. 16; Liv. 
Ep. 65, 69 ; App. B. O. i. 28-33 ; Cic. pro Balb. 
5, 11.) — 11. Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos, son 

of Balearicus [No. 5], and grandson of Mace- 
donicus [No. 3], appears to have received the 
surname of Nepos because he was the eldest 
grandson of the latter. Metellus Nepos exerted 
himself in obtaining the recall of his kinsman 
Metellus Numidicus from banishment in 99, 
and was consul in 98 with T. Didius. In this 
year the two consuls carried the Lex Caecilia 
Didia. (Cic. post Med. in Sen. 15, ad Att. ii. 9.) 
— 12. Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius, son of 
Numidicus [No. 10], received the surname of 
Pius on account of the love which he displayed 
for his father when he besought the people to 
recall him from banishment in 99. He was 
praetor 89, and was one of the commanders in 
the Marsic or Social war. He was still in arms 
in 87, prosecuting the war against the Samnites, 
when Marius landed in Italy and joined the 
consul China. The senate, in alarm, sum- 
moned Metellus to Rome ; but as he was 
unable to defend the city against Marius and 
China he crossed over to Africa. After re- 
maining in Africa three years he returned to 
Italy and joined Sulla, who also returned to 
Italy in 83. In the war which followed against 
the Marian party, Metellus was one of the 
most successful of Sulla's generals, and gained 
several important victories both in Umbria and 
in Cisalpine Gaul. In 80 Metellus was consul 
with Sulla himself, and in the following year 
(79) he went as proconsul into Spain, in order 
to prosecute the war against Sertorius, who 
adhered to the Marian party. Here he re- 
mained for the next eight years, and found it 
so difficult to obtain any advantages over 
Sertorius that the senate sent Pompey to his 
assistance with proconsular power and another 
army. Sertorius, however, was a match for 
them both, and would probably have continued 
to defy all the efforts of Metellus and Pompey 
if he had not been murdered by Perperna and 
his friends in 72. [Seetobius.] Metellus was 
pontifex maximus, and, as he was succeeded in 
this dignity by Julius Caesar in 63, he must 
have died either in this year or at the end of 
the preceding. (Sail. Jag. 64; Plut. Mar. 42, 
Sertor. 12-27 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 15, 28-30.)— 13. Q. 
Caecilius Metellus Celer, elder son of Nepos 
[No. 11]. In 66 he served as legate in the 
army of Pompey in Asia ; and was praetor in 
63, the year in which Cicero was consul (Cic. 
Sail. 23, 65). During his year of office he 
afforded warm and efficient support to the 
aristocratical party. He prevented the con- 
demnation of C. Rabirius by removing the 
military flag from the Janiculum. He co- 
operated with Cicero in opposing the schemes 
of Catiline ; and, when the latter left the city 
to make war upon the republic, Metellus had 
the charge of the Picentine and Senonian dis- 
tricts. By blocking up the passes he prevented 
Catiline from crossing the Apennines and pene- 
trating into Gaul, and thus compelled him to 
turn round and face Antonius, who was march- 
ing against him from Etruria. In the following 
year, 62, Metellus went with the title of pro- 
consul into the province of Cisalpine Gaul, 
which Cicero had relinquished because he was 
unwilling to leave the city. In 60, Metellus 
was consul with L. Afranius, and opposed all 
the efforts of his colleague to obtain the ratifi- 
cation of Pompey's acts in Asia, and an assign- 
ment of lands for his soldiers. He died in 
59, and it was suspected that he had been poi- 



soned by his wife Clodia, with whom he lived 
on the most unhappy terms, and who was a 
woman of the utmost profligacy. (Sail. Cat. 
57 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii., xxxviii. ; cf . Index to 
Cicero.) — 14. Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos, 
younger son of the elder Nepos [No. 11]. He 
served as legate of Pompey in the war against 
the pirates and in Asia from 67 to 64. He 
returned to Rome in 63 in order to become a 
candidate for the tribunate, that he might 
thereby favour the views of Pompey. His 
election was opposed by the aristocracy, but 
without success. His year of office was a stormy 
one. One of his first acts in entering upon his 
office on the 10th of December, 63, was a violent 
attack upon Cicero. He maintained that the 
man who had condemned Roman citizens 
without a hearing ought not to be heard him- 
self, and accordingly prevented Cicero from 
addressing the people on the last day of his 
consulship, and only allowed him to take the 
usual oath, whereupon Cicero swore that he 
had saved the state. In the following year (62) 
Metellus brought forward a bill to summon 
Pompey, with his army, to Rome, in order to 
restore peace ; but on the day on which the bill 
was to be read the two parties came to open 
blows, and Metellus was obliged to take to 
flight. He repaired to Pompey, with whom he 
returned to Rome in 61. He was praetor in 
60, and consul in 57 with P. Lentulus Spinther. 
Notwithstanding his previous enmity with 
Cicero, he did not oppose his recall from exile. 
In 56 Metellus administered the province of 
Nearer Spain, where he carried on war against 
the Vaccaei. He died in 55. Metellus did 
not adhere strictly to the political principles of 
his family. He did not support the aristocracy, 
like his brother; nor, on the other hand, can 
he be said to have been a leader of the demo- 
cracy. He was, in fact, little more than a 
servant of Pompey, and, according to his 
bidding, at one time opposed and at another 
supported Cicero. [See Index to Cicero ; Dio 
Cass, xxxvii. 38-51, xxxix. 1-7, 54.] — 15. Q. 
Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio, the adopted 
son of Metellus Pius [No. 12]. He was the son 
of P. Scipio Nasica, praetor 94, and grandson 
of Caecilia Metella, daughter of Macedonicus 
[No. 3]. Hence his name is given in various 
forms. Sometimes he is called P. Scipio 
Nasica, sometimes Q. Metellus Scipio, and 
sometimes simply Scipio or Metellus. (Cic. 
Brut. 58, 212 ; Dio Cass. xl. 51.) He was tri- 
bune of the plebs in 59, and was a candidate 
for the consulship along with Plautius Hyp- 
saeus and Milo in 53. He was supported by 
the Clodian mob, since he was opposed to Milo ; 
but in consequence of the disturbances in the 
city the comitia could not be held for the elec- 
tion of consuls. After the murder of Clodius 
at the beginning of 52 Pompey was elected sole 
consul. In the course of the same year Pompey 
married Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio, and 
on the 1st of August he made his father-in-law 
his colleague in the consulship. Scipio showed 
his gratitude by using every effort to destroy 
the power of Caesar and strengthen that of 
Pompey. He took an active part in all the 
proceedings which led to the breaking out of 
the Civil war in 49 ; and in the division of the 
provinces made among the Pompeian party he 
obtained Syria, to which he hastened without 
delay. After plundering the province in the 
most unmerciful manner, he crossed over into 
Greece in 48 to join Pompey. He commanded 
the centre of the Pompeian army at the battle 



METHANA 



■ METIS 



559 



of Pharsalia. After tlie loss of the battle he 
fled, first to Corcyra and then to Africa, where 
he received the chief command of the Pompeian 
troops. Be was defeated by Caesar at the de- 
cisive battle of Thapsus in 46. He attempted 
to escape by sea, but his squadron having been 
overpowered by P. Sittius, he put an end to 
his own life. Metellus Scipio never exhibited 
any proofs of striking abilities either in war or 
in peace. In public he showed himself cruel, 
vindictive, and oppressive ; in private he was 
mean, avaricious, and licentious, even beyond 
most of his contemporaries. (Plut. Pomp. 55, 
Caes. 30, Cic. 15 ; App. B. C. ii. 60-100 ; Caes. 
B. C. i. 1-4, iii. 31, Bell. Afric. 79.)— 16. Q. 
Caecilius Metellus Creticus, was consul 69, 
and carried on war against Crete, which he 
subdued in the course of three years. He re- 
turned to Rome in 66, but was unable to obtain 
a triumph, in consequence of the opposition of 
Pompey, to whom he had refused to surrender 
his command in Crete, which Pompey had 
claimed in virtue of the Gabinian law, which 
had given him the supreme command in the 
whole of the Mediterranean. Metellus, how- 
ever, would not relinquish his claim to a 
triumph, and accordingly resolved to wait in 
the neighbourhood of the city till more favour- 
able circumstances. He was still before the 
city in 63, when the conspiracy of Catiline 
broke out. He was sent into Apulia to prevent 
an apprehended rising of the slaves ; and in the 
following year, 62, after the death of Catiline, 
he was at length permitted to make his 
triumphal entrance into Rome, and received 
the surname of Creticus. Metellus, as was to 
be expected, joined the aristocracy in their 
opposition to Pompey, and succeeded in pre- 
venting the latter from obtaining the ratifica- 
tion of his acts in Asia. (Liv. Bp. 98-100 ; 
Flor. iii. 7, iv. 12; Veil. Pat. ii. 34 ; Dio Cass, 
xxxvi. 1 ; Sail. Cat. 30.)— 17. L. Caecilius 
Metellus, brother of the last, was praetor 71, 
and as propraetor succeeded Verres in the 
government of Sicily in 70. He defeated the 
pirates, and compelled them to leave the island. 
His administration is praised by Cicero ; but he 
nevertheless attempted, in conjunction with his 
brothers, to shield Verres from justice. He was 
consul 68 with Q. Marcius Rex, but died at the 
beginning of the year. (Cic. Verr. iii. 53, 122, 
v. 21, 55 ; Dio Cuss. xxxv. 4.)— 18. M. Caecilius 
Metellus, brother of the two last, was praetor 
69, in the same year that his eldest brother was 
consul. The lot gave him the presidency in the 
court de pecuniis repetundis, and Verres was 
very anxious that his trial should come on 
before Metellus. (Cic. Verr. i. 8, 9.)— 19. L. 
Caecilius Metellus Creticus, was tribune of 
the plebs, 49, and a warm supporter of the 
aristocracy. He did not fly from Rome with 
Pompey and the rest of his party ; and he at- 
tempted to prevent Caesar from taking posses- 
sion of the sacred treasury, and only gave way 
upon being threatened with death. (Plut. Caes. 
85, Pomp. 62 ; Caes. B. C. i. 83 ; Dio Cass, 
xli. 17; App. B. C. ii. 41 ; Lucan, iii. 114.) 

Methana. [Metuone, No. 4.] 

Metharme (Mt6dpnT) : daughter of king Pyg- 
malion, and wife of Cinyras. See ClSYUAS. 

Methone (Nltddvy. MtBwva'ios). 1. Or Mo- 
thone (tHoSuvri : Motion), a town at the SW. 
corner of Messenia, with an excellent harbour, 
protected from the sea by a reef of rocks, of 
which the largest was called Mothon. The 
ancients regarded Methone as the Pedasus of 
Homer (II. ix. 294). After the conquest of Mes- 



senia, it became one of the Lacedaemonian 
harbours, and is mentioned as such in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. The emperor Trajan made it a 
free city. (Strab. p. 359 ; Paus. iv. 35.) — 2. 
(Eleutherolchori), a Greek town in Macedonia 
on the Thermaic gulf, forty stadia NE. of Pydna, 
was founded by the Eretrians, and is celebrated 
from Philip having lost an eye at the siege of 
the place. After its capture by Philip it was 
destroyed, but was subsequently rebuilt, and is 
mentioned by Strabo as one of the towns of 
Macedonia. (Thuc. iv. 129, vi. 7 ; Strab. p. 330; 
Diod. xvi. 31.) — 3. A town in Thessaly men- 
tioned by Homer, which does not occur in 
historical times (II. ii. 716). The ancients 
placed it in Magnesia. — 4. Or Methana 
(MeBava : Methana or Mitone), an ancient town 
in Argolis, situated on a peninsula of the same 
name, opposite the island of Aegina. The 
peninsula runs a considerable way into the sea, 
and is connected with the mainland by a 
narrow isthmus, lying between Troezen and 
Epidaurus. The town lay at the foot of a 
mountain of volcanic origin. (The name 
appears as Medaivrj in Thuc. iv. 45 ; but, accord- 
ing to Strabo, not in all MSS. In Strab. p. 374, 
and Pans. ii. 34, it is Meflcwa.) 

Methora f Me'flopa, M6Sovpa tj tSjv 0euv : Ma- 
tra, the sacred city of Krishna), a city of India 
intra Gangem, on the river Jomanes (Jumna), 
was a great seat of the worship of the Indian 
god whom the Greeks identified with Heracles 
(Arrian, Ind. 8 ; Plin. vi. 69). 

Methydrium, (WlcBvSpiov: Me0u8piei/s),atown 
in central Arcadia, 170 stadia N. of Megalopolis 
(Paus. viii. 35, 36 ; Thuc. v. 58). 

Methymna (7) MriBvixva, Mi@vtJ.va, the former 
generally in the best writers ; also on coins the 
Aeolic form Ma.dvfj.va: Mr)dvfj.vaios, Medv/jvalos : 
Molivo), the second city of Lesbos, stood at the 
north extremity of the island, and had a good 
harbour. It was the birthplace of the musician 
and dithyrambic poet Arion,and of the historian 




Coin of Methymna (1th cent. B.C.). 
Obv., head of Athene ; rev., MA6YMNAI0N ; lyre Inclosed in 
a square. 

Hellanicus. The celebrated Lesbian wine came 
from its neighbourhood. In the Peloponnesian 
war it remained faithful to Athens, even during 
the great Lesbian revolt [MytileneJ : afterwards 
it was sacked by the Spartans (n.c. 406) and 
never quite recovered its prosperity, though in 
the time of Diocletian it was reckoned among 
the chief towns of the Insularum Provincia. 
(Hdt. i. 151; Thuc. iii. 2, 18; Liv. xlv. 81; 
Hierocl. p. 086.) 

Metion (MrjTi'uiv), son of Erechtheus and 
Praxithea, and husband of Alcippe. His sons, 
the Metionidue, expelled their cousin Pandion 
from his kingdom of Athens, but were them- 
selves afterwards expelled by the sons of Pan- 
dion. (Apollod. iii. 15 ; Paus. i. 5, 8.) 

Metis (Mtjtis), the personification of pru- 
dence, is described as a daughter of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and the first wife of Zeus. Afraid 
. lest she Bhould give birth to a child wiser and 
more powerful than himself, Zeus devoured hex 
in the first month of her pregnancy. After- 



560 



METIUS 



MICIPSA 



wards lie gave birth, to Athene, who sprang 
from his head. [See p. 138, a.] 
Metius. [Mettius.] 

Meton (MeVcw) , an astronomer of Athens, who, 
in conjunction with Euetemon, introduced the 
cycle of nineteen years, by which he adjusted 
the course of the sun and moon, since he had 
observed that 235 lunar months correspond 
very nearly to nineteen solar years. The begin- 
ning of this cycle has been placed B.C. 432. [See 
further in Diet, of Ant. art. Calendar iii.m.'] 
We have no details of Meton's life, with the 
exception that his father's name was Pausa- 
nias, and that he feigned insanity to avoid sail- 
ing for Sicily in the ill-fated expedition of 
which he is stated to have had an evil pre- 
sentiment. (Ael. V. H. x. 7 ; Diod. xii. 36.) 

Metrodorus (Mr)Tp68(apos). 1. Of Cos, son of 
Epicharmus, and grandson of Thyrsus. Like 
several of that family, he addicted himself 
partly to the study of the Pythagorean philo- 
sophy, partly to the science of medicine. He 
wrote a treatise upon the works of Epicharmus. 
HelivedaboutB.c.460. (Iambi. Vit.Pyth. 34.)— 
2, Of Lampsacus, a contemporary and friend 
of Anaxagoras. He wrote on Homer, the lead- 
ing feature of his system of interpretation being 
that the deities and stories in Homer were to 
be understood as allegorical modes of repre- 
senting physical powers and phenomena. He 
died 464. (Diog. Laert. ii. 11.)— 3. Of Chios, a 
disciple of Democritus, or, according to other 
accounts, of Nessus of Chios, lived about 
330. He was a philosopher of considerable re- 
putation, and professed the doctrines of the 
Sceptics in their fullest sense. He also studied, 
if he did not practise, medicine, on which he 
wrote much. He was the instructor of Hippo- 
crates and Anaxarchus. (Diog. Laert. ix. 
58; Cic. Acad. ii. 23, 73.)— 4. A native of 
Lampsacus or Athens, was the most distin- 
guished of the disciples of Epicurus, with whom 
he lived on terms of the closest friendship. He 
died 277, in the fifty-third year of his age, seven 
years before Epicurus, who would have ap- 
pointed him his successor had he survived him. 
The philosophy of Metrodorus appears to have 
been of a more grossly sensual kind than that 
of Epicurus. Perfect happiness, according to 
Cicero's account, he made to consist in having 
a well-constituted body. He found fault with 
his brother Timocrates for not admitting that 
the appetite was the test and measure of every- 
thing that pertained to a happy life. He was 
the author of several works, quoted by the 
ancient writers. (Cic. Tusc. v. 37, 109, N. D. i. 
40, 113, Fin. ii. 28, 92 ; Diog. Laert. x. 22.)— 
5. Of Scepsis, a philosopher, who was raised 
to a position of great influence and trust by 
Mithridates Eupator, being appointed supreme 
judge without appeal even to the king. Subse- 
quently he was led to desert his allegiance, 
when sent by Mithridates on an embassy to 
Tigranes, king of Armenia. Tigranes sent him 
back to Mithridates, but he died on the road. 
According to some accounts he was despatched 
by order of the king ; according to others he 
died of disease. He is frequently mentioned by 
Cicero ; he seems to have been particularly cele- 
brated for his powers of memory. In conse- 
quence of his hostility to the Romans he was 
surnamed the Roman-hater. (Cic. de Or. ii. 88, 
360 ; Strab. p. 609.) — 6. Of Stratonice in Caria, 
was at first a disciple of the school of Epicurus, 
but afterwards attached himself to Carneades. 
He lived about 110. (Diog. Laert. x. 9; Cic. 
Acad. ii. 6, 16.) 



Metropolis (M?jTp<S7roAis). 1. The ancient 
capital of Phrygia, but in historical times an 
inconsiderable place. (Strab. pp. 576, 663 ; 
Athen. p. 574 ; Liv. xxxviii. 15.) It stood be- 
tween Celaenae and Synnada and in the great 
road from Ephesus to the Cappadocian Caesarea. 
Its site is, according to Ramsay, half-way be- 
tween the modem towns Tatarli and Haidarli. 
— 2. In Lydia (Turbali, Ru.), a city in the 
plain of the Ca.yster, between Ephesus and 
Smyrna, 120 stadia from the former and 200 
from the latter (Strab. p. 632). — 3. [Kastri), a 
town of Thessaly in Histiaeotis, near the Pe- 
neus, and between Gomphi and Pharsalus, 
formed by the union of several small towns, to 
which Ithome also belonged (Strab. p. 438 ; 
Caes. B. 0. iii. 81).— 4. Another town of Thes- 
saly, near Gyrton (Liv. xxxvi. 10). — 5. A town 
of Acarnania in the district Amphilochia, be- 
tween the Ambracian gulf and the river Ache- 
lous (Pol. iv. 64). 

Mettius or Metius. 1. Curtius. [Cubitus.] 
— 2. FuffetlUS, dictator of Alba in the reign of 
Tullus Hostilius, third king of Rome. After the 
combat between the Horatii and Curiatii had 
determined the supremacy of the Romans, Met- 
tius was summoned to aid them in a war with 
Fidenae and the Veientines. On the field of 
battle Mettius drew off his Albans to the hills, 
and awaited the issue of the battle. On the 
following day the Albans were all deprived of 
their arms, and Mettius himself, as the punish- 
ment of his treachery, was torn asunder by 
chariots driven in opposite directions. (Liv. i. 
23-28 ; Dionys. iii. 5-30.) 

Metulum, the chief town of the Iapydes in 
Illyricum, was near the frontiers of Liburnia, 
and was situated on two peaks of a steep 
mountain. Augustus nearly lost his life in re- 
ducing this place, the inhabitants of which 
fought against him with the most desperate 
courage. (Strab. p. 207 ; Dio Cass. xlix. 35.) 

Mevaala (Mevanas, -atis : Beragna), an 
ancient city in the interior of Umbria on the 
river Tinea, was situated on the road from 
Rome to Ancona in a very fertile country, and 
was celebrated for its breed of beautiful white 
oxen. It was a strongly fortified place, though 
its walls were built only of brick. (Liv. ix. 41 ; 
Tac. Hist. iii. 55 ; Verg. Georg. ii. 146 ; Lucan, 
i. 473 ; Strab. p. 227 ; Plin. xxxv. 173.) 

Mezentius (Meo-eVnos), king of the Tyrrhe- 
nians or Etruscans, at Caere or Agylla, was ex- 
pelled by his subjects on account of his cruelty, 
and took refuge with Turnus, king of the Rutu- 
lians, whom he assisted in the war against 
Aeneas and the Trojans. Mezentius and his 
son Lausus were slain in battle by Aeneas. 
This is the account of Virgil (Verg. Aen. viii. 
480, x. 689, 785, 800). Livy and Dionysius, how- 
ever, say nothing about the expulsion of Me- 
zentius from Caere, but represent him as an 
ally of Turnus, and relate that Aeneas disap- 
peared during the battle against the Rutulians 
and Etruscans at Lanuvium. Dionysius adds 
that Ascanius was besieged by Mezentius and 
Lausus ; that the besieged in a sally by night 
slew Lausus, and then concluded a peace with 
Mezentius, who from henceforth continued to 
be their ally. (Liv. i. 2 ; Dionys. i. 64.) Another 
tradition states that Mezentius demanded from 
the Latins the produce of their vineyards, but 
they vowed the firstfruits to Jupiter and so won 
the victory (Plut. Q. B. 45 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 881 ; 
Macrob. iii. 5 ; see p. 464, b). 

Micipsa (Miidtyas), king of Numidia, the eldest 
of the sons of Masinissa. After the death of 



MICON 

the latter (b.c. 148) the sovereign power was 
divided by Seipio between Micipsa and his two 
brothers, Gulussa and Mastanabal, in such a 
manner that the possession of Cirta, the capital 
of Numidia, together with the financial ad- 
ministration of the kingdom, fell to the share 
of Micipsa. It was not long, however, before 
the death of both his brothers left him in pos- 
session of the undivided sovereignty of Xu- 
midia, which he held from that time without 
interruption till his death. His rule was mild 
and equitable, and he encouraged literature and 
art. (Diod. xxxv. Sail. Jug. 5-11 ; Flor. iii. 2 ; 
Strab. p. 832.) He died in 118, leaving the 
kingdom to his two sons, Adherbal and Hiem- 
psal, and their adopted brother Jugurtha. 

Micon (M'ikwv), of Athens, son of Phanochus, 
was a very distinguished painter and also a 
sculptor, contemporary with Polygnotns, about 
B.C. 460. Several of his pictures are mentioned 
by Pausanias as in the Stoa Poecile and the 
Temple of Theseus (i. 17, 18), and by Pliny 
(xxxv. 59). Among his statues Pausanias men- 
tions Callias the pancratiast atOlympia Cvi. 6, 1). 

Midaium (MiSaeioe), a city of Phrygia 
Epictetus, between Dorylaeum and Pessinus ; 
the place where Sextus Pompeius was captured 
by the troops of Antony, B.C. 35 (Strab. p. 576; 
Dio Cass. xlix. 18). 

Midas (Mi'Sas), son of Gordius and Cybele, is 
said to have been a wealthy but effeminate king 
of Phrygia, a pupil of Orpheus, and a promoter 
of the worship of Dionvsus (Hdt. i. 14 ; Paus. i. 
4, 5; Strab. p. 304). His 
wealth is alluded to in a 
story connected with his 
childhood, for it is said that 
while a child, ants carried 
grains of wheat into his 
mouth, to indicate that one 
day he should be the richest 
of all mortals (Cic. Div. i. 
86, 78; Ael. VJS. xii. 45). 
He is said to have built the 
town of Ancyra, and as king 
of Phrygia he is called Bere- 
eynthius heros (Ov. Met. 
xi. 106). There are several 
stories connected with Mi- 
das, of which the following 
are the most celebrated. (1) 
Silenus, the companion and 
teacher of Dionysus, had 
gone astray in a state of in- 
toxication, and was caught 
by country people in the 
rose gardens of Midas. He 
was bound with wreaths of 
flowers and led before the 
king. These gardens were 
in Macedonia, near Mount 
Bermion orBromion, where 
Hidas was king of the 
Briges, with whom he after- 
wards emigrated to Asia, 
where their name was 
changed into Phryges. Mi- 
das received Silenus kindly ; 
and, after treating him with 
hospitality, he led him back 
to Dionysus, who allowed 
Uii 1ms to ask a favour of him. 
Midas in his folly desired that all things which 
he touched should be changed into gold. The 
request was granted ; but as even the fowl 
which he touched became gold, lie implored the 
god to take his favour back. Dionysus ac- 



MIDAS 



561 



cordingly ordered him to bathe in the source of 
Pactolus near Mount Tmolus. This bath saved 
Midas, but the river from that time had an 
abundance of gold in its sand. (Hyg. Fab. 191 ; 
Ov. Met. xi. 90; Verg. Eel. vi. 13.)— (2) Midas, 
who was himself related to the race of Satyrs, 
once had a visit from a Satyr, who indulged in 
all kinds of jokes at the king's expense. There- 
upon Midas mixed wine in a well ; and when 
the Satyr had drunk of it, he fell asleep and 
was caught. (Paus. i. 4, 5 ; Athen. p. 45.) This 
well of Midas was at different times assigned to 
different localities. Xenophon (Anab. i. 2, § 13) 
places it in the neighbourhood of Thymbrium 
and Tyraeum, and Pausanias at Ancyra. — (3) 
Once when Pan and Apollo were engaged in a 
musical contest on the flute and lyre, Midas was 
chosen to decide between them. The king 
decided in favour of Pan, whereupon Apollo 
changed his ears into those of an ass. Midas 
contrived to conceal them under his Phrygian 
cap, but the servant who used to cut his hair 
discovered them. The secret so much harassed 
this man that, as he could not betray it to a 
human being, he dug a hole in the earth, and 
whispered into it, ' King Midas has ass's ears.' 
He then filled the hole up again, and his heart 
was relieved. But on the same spot a reed 
grew up, which in its whispers betraved the 
secret. (Hyg. Fab. 191 ; Ov. Met. xi. 146 ; Pers. 
i. 121 ; cf. Aristoph. Pint. 287.) Midas is said 
to have killed himself by drinking the blood of 
an ox (Strab. p. 61). — The rock tomb of Midas, so 




Tomb of Mldoa at Dognnlu In ['hrjglu 

called, is SW. of Pessinus between Orcistusand 
Conni, and is interesting as one of the earliest 
specimens of sculptured architecture, adorned 
with ornaments chiefly composed of squares. — 
It is probable that the stories of Midas grew 

O O 



562 



MIDEA 



MILO 



out of liis patronage of the worship of Dionysus 
as Sabazius. The musical contest, like that of 
Mabsyas, represents a rivalry between the flutes 
of the Phrygian orgies and the lyre of Apollo's 
worshippers ; the story of the ass's ears may 
have arisen from Midas being shown in Satyric 
drama with pointed ears like a Satyr, by ex- 
aggeration compared to ass's ears, perhaps in 
allusion to the ass which appeared in proces- 
sions, bearing Silenus. 

Midea or Midea (Mi'Seia, M(8ea: Mi8ectT?;s), 
a town in Argolis, of uncertain site, destroyed by 
the Argives, is said to have been called Perse- 
polis, because it had been fortified by Perseus. 

Midianitae. [Madianitae.] 

Midias (MeiSias), an Athenian of wealth and 
influence, was a violent enemy of Demosthenes, 
the orator. In B.C. 354 Midias assaulted De- 
mosthenes when he was discharging the duties 
of Choregus, during the celebration of the 
great Dionysia. Demosthenes brought an ac- 
cusation against Midias ; but the speech which 
he wrote for the occasion, and which is extant, 
was never delivered, since Demosthenes 
dropped the accusation, in consequence of his 
receiving the sum of thirty minae. 

Mieza (MU(a: Mie(evs), a town of Macedonia 
in Emathia, SW. of Pella, and not far from the 
frontiers of Thessaly (Ptol. iii. 13, 39). 

Milanion (MeiAaviW), husband of Atalanta. 
For details, see Atalanta. 

Miletopolis (Mi\r)T6irokis: Muhalich, or 
HamamU ? En.), a city of M/sia, in Asia 
Minor, at the confluence of the river Ehyn- 
dacus and Macestus, and somewhat E. of the 
lake which was named after it, Lacus Miletopo- 
litis (MiAtj7woA7tis Aifivri'. Lake of Maniyas). 
This lake, also called Aphnitis, lies some miles 
W. of the larger lake of Artynia (Abullionte). 
(Strab. pp. 575, 681; Plin. v. 123, 142.) 

Miletopolis. [Bobysthenes] 

Miletus (Mik-qros), son of Apollo and Aria of 
Crete. Being beloved by Minos and Sarpedon, 
he attached himself to the latter, and fled from 
Minos to Asia, where he built the city of 
Miletus (Apollod. iii. 1, 2; Paus. vii. 2, 3). 
Ovid (Met. ix. 442) calls him a son of Apollo 
and Dei'one, and hence Dei'onides. 

Miletus (Mi'ArjTos, Dor. MiAaros: Mi\r}<rios, 
and oninseriptions,MeiA7)<nos: Milesius). 1. One 
of tiie greatest cities of Asia Minor, belonged 
territorially to Caria and politically to Ionia, 
being the S.-most of the twelve cities of the 
Ionian confederacy. It is mentioned by Homer 
as a Carian city ; and one of its early names, 
Lelegei's, is a sign that the Leleges also formed 
a part of its population. (II. ii. 867 ; Hdt. i. 146 ; 
Strab. p. 664; Plin. v. 112.) Its first Greek 
colonists were said to have been Cretans who 
were expelled by Minos ; the next were led to 
it by Neleus at the time of the so-called Ionic 
migration. Its name was probably transferred 
from the Cretan Miletus (No. 2), though tra- 
ditionally taken from the leader of the colonists 

isee above]. It was in earlier times called 
'ityusa (niTuoO<ra),and Anactoria ('AvaKTop'ia), 
The city stood upon the S. headland of the 
Sinus Latmicus, opposite to the mouth of the 
Maeander, and possessed four distinct harbours, 
protected by a group of islets, called Lade, Dro- 
miscus, and Perne. The city wall enclosed two 
distinct towns, called the outer and inner ; the 
latter, which was also called Old Miletus, stood 
upon an eminence overhanging the sea, and was 
of great strength. Its territory extended on 
both sides of the Maeander, as far apparently 
as the promontories of Mycale on the N. and 



Posidium on the S. It was rich in flocks ; and 
the city was celebrated for its woollen fabrics, 
the Milesia vellera (Athen. pp. 28, 428, 691 ; 
Verg. Georg. iii. 306, iv. 335). At a very early 
period it became a great maritime state, ex- 
tending its commerce throughout the Mediter- 
ranean, and even beyond the Pillars of Her- 
cules, but more especially in the direction of 
the Euxinej, along the shore of which the 
Milesians planted several important colonies, 
such as Cyzicus, Sinope, Abydos, Istropolis, 
Tomi, Olbia or Borysthenes, Apollonia, Odessus, 
and Panticapaeum. Naucratis in Egypt was 
also a colony of Miletus. It also occupies a 
high place in the early history of Greek litera- 
ture as the birthplace of the philosophers 
Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, and of 
the historians Cadmus and Hecataeus. After the 
rise of the Lydian monarchy, Miletus, by its 
naval strength, resisted the attacks of Alyattes 
and Sadyattes for eleven years, but fell before 
Croesus, whose success may perhaps be ascribed 
to the intestine factions which for a long period 
weakened the city (Hdt. i. 17-20). With the 
rest of Ionia, it was conquered by Harpagus, 
the general of Cyrus, in B.C. 557 (Hdt. i. 141) ; 
and under the dominion of the Persians it still 
retained its prosperity till the great Ionian 
revolt, of which Miletus was the centre [Abista- 
gobas ; HiSTiAEUs], and after the suppression 
of which it was destroyed by the Persians (b.c. 
494). (Hdt. vi. 6 ; Strab. p. 635.) After the 
battle of Mycale it recovered its liberty and 




Coin of Miletus. 
Obv., head of Apollo, laureate; rev., lion standing and 
looking back at star ; in front, monogram, MI ; below, 
magistrate's name, MNA2EA2 (didrachma, B.C. 800-250). 

eventually gained sufficient importance to offer 
(though in vain) resistance to Alexander the 
Great, which brought upon it a second ruin 
(Arrian, An. i. 18). Under the Eoman empire it 
still appears as 3i place of some consequence, 
until its final destruction by the Turks. (Tac. 
Ann. iv. 63.) — Its ruins are difficult to discover, 
on account of the great change made in the coast 
and harbour by the river Maeander. [Maean- 
deb.] They are on the site of the village of 
Palatia, on the S. bank of the Mendereh. — 2. 
Miletus in Crete, on the NE. coast, mentioned 
by Homer (II. ii. 647), but not standing in 
Strabo's time (Strab. p. 479). 

Milichus (Mei'Aixos), a small river in Achaia, 
which flows by the town of Patrae, and is said 
to have been originally called A milichus ('Afid- 
Aixoy) on account of the human victims sacri- 
ficed on its banks to Artemis (Paus. vii. 19, 9). 

Mllo or Mllon (Mi'Awc). 1. Of Crotona, son 
of Diotimus, an athlete, famous for his 'extra- 
ordinary bodily strength. He was six times 
victor in wrestling at the Olympic games, and 
as often at the Pythian; but having entered 
the lists at Olymiia, a seventh time, he was 
worsted by the superior agility of his adversary. 
By these successes he obtained great distinc- 
tion among his countrymen, so that he was 
even appointed to command the army which 
defeated the Sybarites, B.C. 511. Many stories 
are related by ancient writers of Milo's extra- 



MILO 



MILTIADES 



563 



ordinary feats of strength : such as his carrying 
a heifer of four years old on his shoulders 
through the stadium at Olympia, and after- 
wards eating the whole of it in a single day. 
The mode of his death is thus related : as he 
was passing through a forest when enfeebled 
by age, he saw the trunk of a tree which had 
been partially split open by woodcutters, and 
attempted to rend it further, but the wood closed 
upon his hands, and thus held him fast, in wliich 
state he was attacked and devoured by wolves. 
(Hdt. hi. 137 ; Diod. xii. 9 ; Paus. vi. 14 ; Athen. 
p. 412; Gell. xv. 16; Cic. de Sen. 10.)— 2. A 
general in the service of Pyrrhus king of Epirus, 
who sent him forward with a body of troops to 
garrison the citadel of Tarentum, previous to 
his own arrival in Italy. When Pyrrhus finally 
quitted that country and withdrew into Epirus, 
he still left Milo in charge of the citadel of 
Tarentum, together with his son Helenus. 
(Zonar. viii. 2 ; Just. xxv. 3.) — 3. T. Annius 
Milo Papinianus, was the son of C. Papius 
Celsus and Annia, and was adopted by his 
maternal grandfather, T. Annius Luscus. He 
was born at Lanuvium, of which place he 
was in B.C. 53 dictator or chief magistrate. 
Milo was a man of a daring and unscrupulous 
character ; and as he was deeply in debt, he 
resolved to obtain a wealthy province. For 
this purpose he connected himself with the 
aristocracy. As tribune of the plebs, E.c. 57, 
he took an active part in obtaining Cicero's 
recall from exile, and from this time he carried 
on a fierce and memorable contest with P. 
Clodius. In 53 Milo was candidate for the 
consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship of 
the ensuing year, Milo supported the senate in 
opposition to the popular party, which favoured 
Pompey and Caesar, at present the joint rulers 
of the state ; and since Pompey wished to 
become temporary dictator, for reasons at this 
time approved by Caesar, he hoped to make 
the affray on the Appian road a handle for 
getting rid of Milo. [Pompeius.] Each of the 
candidates kept a gang of gladiators, and there 
were frequent combats between the rival ruffians 
in the streets of Rome. At length, on the 20th 
of January, 52, Milo and Clodius met apparently 
by accident at Bovillae on the Appian road. 
An affray ensued between their followers, in 
which Clodius was slain. At Rome such tumults 
followed upon the burial of Clodius that Pompey 
was appointed, not indeed dictator, but sole 
consul to restore order to the state. Pompey 
immediately brought forward various laws in 
connexion with the late disturbances. As soon 
as these were passed Milo was formally 
accused. All Pompey's influence was directed 
against him ; but Milo was not without hope, 
since the higher aristocracy, from jealousy of 
Pompey, supported him, and Cicero undertook 
his defence. His trial opened on the 4th of 
April, 52. He was impeached on three counts — 
de Vi,de Ambitu, or bribery, and de Sodtilitiis 
or ilk-gal interference with the freedom of elec- 
tions. L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, a consular, 
was appointed quaesitor by a special law of 
Pompey's, and all Rome and thousands of spec- 
tators from Italy thronged the forum and its 
avenues. But Milo's chances of acquittal were 
wholly marred by the virulence of his adver- 
saries, who insulted and obstructed the uit- 
neeses, the process, and the conductors of the 
defence. Pompey availed himself of these 
disorders to line the forum and its encompass- 
ing hills with soldiers. Cicero was intimidated, 
and Milo was condemned. Had he even been 



acquitted on the firsi count, de Vi, the two 
other charges of bribery and conspiracy awaited 
him. He therefore went into exile. Cicero, 
who could not deliver, re-wrote and expanded 
the defence of Milo — the extant oration — and 
sent it to him at Marseilles. Milo remarked, 
' I am glad this was not spoken, since I must 
have been acquitted, and then had never known 
the delicate flavour of these Marseilles mullets.' 
Caesar refused to recall Milo from exile in 49, 
when he permitted many of the other exiles to 
return. In the following year (48) M. Caelius, 
the praetor, had, during Caesar's absence, pro- 
mulgated a bill for the adjustment of debts, 
and needing desperate allies, invited Milo to 
Italy. At the head of a band of criminals 
and runaway slaves, Milo appeared in the S. 
of Italy, but was opposed by the praetor, 
Q. Pedius, and slain under the walls of an 
obscure fort in the district of Thurii. — Milo, in 
57, married Fausta, a daughter of the dictator 
Sulla. She proved a faithless wife, and Sailust, 
the historian, was soundly scourged by Milo for 
an intrigue with her. (See Index to Cicero ; 
Plutarch's Lives of Pompey, Cicero, and Caesar; 
Dio Cass, xxxix. 6-21 ; App. B. C. ii. 16-24, 48.) 

Miltiades (MtKridSris). 1. Son of Cypselus, 
was a man of considerable distinction in Athens 
in the time of Pisistratus. The Doloncians, a 
Thracian tribe dwelling in the Chersonesus, 
being hard pressed in war by the Absinthians, 
applied to the Delphic oracle for advice, and 
were directed to admit a colony led by the man 
who should be the first to entertain them after 
they left the temple. This was Miltiades, who, 
eager to escape from the rule of Pisistratus, 
gladly took the lead of a colony under the 
sanction of the oracle, and became tyrant of 
the Chersonesus, which he fortified by a wall 
built across its isthmus. In a war with the 
people of Lampsaeus he was taken prisoner, 
but was set at liberty on the demand of Croesus. 
He died without leaving any children, and his 
sovereignty passed into the hands of Stesagoras, 
the son of his half-brother Cimon. Sacrifices 
and games were instituted in his honour, in 
wliich no Lanipsacene was suffered to take 
part. (Hdt. vi. 34, 38, 103.)— 2. Son of Cimon 
and brother of Stesagoras, became tyrant of 
the Chersonesus on the death of the latter, being 
sent out by Pisistratus from Athens to take 
possession of the vacant inheritance. By a 
stratagem he got the chief men of the Cherso- 
nesus into his power and threw them into 
prison, and took a force of mercenaries into his 
pay. In order to strengthen his position still 
more, he married Hegesipyla, the daughter of 
a Thracian prince named Olorus. (Hdt. vi. 89.) 
He joined Darius Hystaspis on his expedition 
against the Scythians, and was left with the 
other Greeks in charge of the bridge over the 
Danube (Hdt. iv. 137). When the appointed 
time had expired, and Darius had not returned, 
Miltiades recommended the Greeks to destroy 
the bridge and leave Darius to his fate. Some 
time after the expedition of Darius an inroad of 
the Scythians drove Miltiades from his posses- 
sions; but after the enemy had retired, the 
Doloncians brought him back. It appears to 
have been between this period and his with- 
drawal to Athens that Miltiades conquered 
and expelled the Pelasgian inhabitants of 
LemiUM and Imbros, and subjected the islands 
to the dominion of Attica. Lemnos and Imbros 
belonged to the Persian dominions; and it is 
probable that this encroachment on the Persian 
possessions was the causo which drew upon 

o O 2 



564 



MILVIUS 



MINERVA 



Miltiades the hostility of Darius, and led him 
to fly from the Chersonesus, when the Phoeni- 
cian fleet approached, after the subjugation of 
Ionia. Miltiades reached Athens in safety, but 
his eldest son, Metiochus, fell into the hands of 
the Persians. At Athens Miltiades was ar- 
raigned, as being amenable to the penalties 
enacted against tyranny, but was acquitted. 
When Attica was threatened with invasion by 
the Persians under Datis and Artaphernes, I 
Miltiades was chosen one of the ten generals. 
Miltiades by his arguments induced the polem- 
arch Callimachus to give the casting vote in 
favour of risking a battle with the enemy, the 
opinions of the ten generals being equally di- 
vided. Miltiades waited till his turn came, 
and then drew his army up in battle array on 
the ever memorable field of Marathon. [Ma- 
rathon.] After the defeat of the Persians 
Miltiades endeavoured to urge the Athenians 
to measures of retaliation, and induced them 
to entrust to him an armament of seventy ships, 
without knowing the purpose for which they 
were designed. He proceeded to attack the 
island of Paros, for the purpose of gratifying a 
private enmity. His attacks, however, were 
unsuccessful ; and after receiving a dangerous 
hurt in the leg, while penetrating into a sacred 
enclosure on some superstitious errand, he was 
compelled to raise the siege and return to 
Athens, where he was impeached by Xanthippus 
for having deceived the people. His woimd 
had turned into a gangrene, and being unable 
to plead his cause in person, he was brought 
into court on a couch, his brother, Tisagoras, 
conducting his defence for him. He was con- 
demned, but on the ground of his services to 
the state the penalty was commuted to a fine 
of 50 talents, the cost of the equipment of the 
armament. Being unable to pay this, he was 
thrown into prison, where he died of his 
wound. The fine was paid by his son Cimon. 
(Hdt. vi. 132-136 ; Nep. Miltiades.) 
Milvrus Pons. [Roma.] 

Milyas (t) MiAvds : MiAuai, Milyae), was origi- 
nally the name of all Lycia (Hdt. i. 173) ; but 
it was afterwards applied to the high table-land 
in the N. of Lycia, between the Cadmus and the 
Taurus, and extending considerably into Pisidia. 
Its people seem to have been the descendants 
of the original inhabitants of Lycia (Hdt. vii. 
77 ; Strab. pp. 570, 573, 667). After the defeat 
of Antiochus the Great, the Romans gave it to 
Eumenes, king of Pergamus (Liv. xxxviii. 39), 
eventually it became part of the province called 
Lycia-Pamphylia or Parnphylia. 

Mimallones (MifidWoves), the Macedonian 
name of the Bacchantes, or, according to others, 
of Bacchic Amazons. Ovid (Ars Am. i. 541) 
uses the form Mimallonides. 

Mimas (Mifias), 1. A giant, said to have been 
killed by Ares, or by Zeus, with a flash of 
lightning. The island of Prochyte, near Sicily, 
was supposed to rest upon his body. (Eur. Ion, 
215; Hor. Od. iii. 4, 53; Sil. It. xii. 147; 
Gigantes.) — 2. Son of Amycus and Theano, 
companion of Aeneas (Verg. Aen. x. 702). — 3. 
A mountain in the peninsula of Erythrae 
on the coast of Ionia, which terminates in 
the promontory Melaena. Its spurs run also 
S. and W. to the promontories of Coryceum 
and Argennum, but its name belongs to the 
N. Bart of the range. (Od. iii. 172 ; Thuc. 
viii."34 ; Strab. pp. 613, 645 ; Ov. Met. ii. 222.) 

Mimnermus (Wlt/j.vep/j.os), a celebrated elegiac 
poet, generally called a Colophonian, but pro- 
perly a native of Smyrna, was descended from 



I those Colophonians who reconquered Smyrna 
i from the Aeolians. He flourished from about B.C. 
634 to 600. (Strab. p. 643 ; Athen. pp. 470, 597.) 
| He was a contemporary of Solon, who, in an ex- 
tant fragment of one of his poems, addresses 
him as still living. Only a few fragments of 
Mimnermus have come down to us. They 
! belong chiefly to a poem entitled Nanno, and 
are addressed to the flute-player of that name. 
The compositions of Mimnermus form an epoch 
in the history of elegiac poetry. Before his 
time the elegy had been devoted chiefly either 
to warlike or national, or to convivial and joy- 
ous subjects. Archilochus had, indeed, occa- 
sionally employed the elegy for lamentation, 
but Mimnermus was the first who systemati- 
cally made it the vehicle for plaintive, mournful, 
and erotic themes. A double motive for his 
strain of melancholy may be found in the con- 
dition of his country, at that time under Lydian 
dominion, and in his own disappointment in 
love. The instability of human happiness, the 
helplessness of man, the cares and miseries to 
which life is exposed, the brief season that man 
has to enjoy himself in, the wretchedness of 
old age, are plaintively dwelb upon by him, 
while love is held up as the only consolation 
that men possess. As an erotic poet he was 
held in high estimation in antiquity. (Hor. 
Epist. ii. 2, 100.) The fragments are published 
separately by Bach, Lips. 1826. 

Minaei (Mivaioi), one of the chief peoples of 
Arabia, dwelt on the W. coast of Arabia Felix, 
and in the interior of the peninsula, and carried 
on a large trade in spices, incense, &c s (Strab. 
pp. 768, 776 ; Plin. xii. 54). 

Minas Sabbatha (MeiW 2a/3aT0a), a fort in 
Babylonia, built in the time of the later Roman 
empire, on the site of Seleucia, which the 
Romans had destroyed (Zos. iii. 23). 

Minclus (Mincio), a river in Gallia Transpa- 
dana, flows through the lake Benacus [Lago 
di Garda), and falls into the Po, a little below 
Mantua (Verg. Eel. vii. 13, Georg. iii. 15, Aen. 
x. 286; Strab. p. 209 ; Liv. xxxii. 30). 

Mindarus (MiVSctpos), a Lacedaemonian, suc- 
ceeded Astyochus in the command of the 
Lacedaemonian fleet, B.C. 411. He was defeated 
and slain by the Athenians near Cyzicus in 
the following year. (Thuc. viii. 85, 104 ; Xen. 
Jlell. i. 1, 16; cf. Hippocbates, No. 5.) 

Minerva, a Roman goddess, afterwards iden- 
tified with Athene. The Greek goddess is 
spoken of in a separate article. [Athene.] 
Minerva was one of the great Roman divinities. 
Her name seems to be of the same root as 
memini, mentfo, iftoneo, comminisco?; (iivos, 
&c. ; and she is accordingly the thinking, calcu- 
lating, and inventive power personified. Her 
name takes practically the same form in Etrus- 
can, Menerfa or Menfra, but it would be diffi- 
cult to reconcile a theory that the Romans 
borrowed both the name and the personality 
of the goddess 'from the Etruscans with the 
fact (as it appears) that Minerva was an 
ancient Italian deity worshipped from early times 
in Sabine and Latin communities, e.g. at Reate 
(Dionys. i. 14 ; Varr. L.L. v. 74.) Accordingly, 
it is usually held that the worship of Minerva 
was established at Rome by the Latins and 
Sabines; and that Jupiter was the first, Juno 
the second, and Minerva the third in the number 
of the Capitoline divinities. Tarquin, the son 
of Demaratus, was believed to have united the 
three divinities in one common temple, and 
hence, when repasts were prepared for the gods, 
these three always went together. The Etrus- 



MINERVAE CASTRTJM 

cans regarded her as a goddess of lightning, and 
this was the origin of her being said to wield the 
thunderbolts of her father, Jupiter. In the 
genuine Italian view she was worshipped as 
the patroness of all the arts and trades, and at 
her Roman festival she was particularly invoked 
by all who desired to distinguish themselves in 
any art or craft, such as painting, poetry, the 
art of teaching, medicine, dyeing, spinning, 
weaving, and the like. fOv. Fast. iii. 809-834 ; 
August. C. D. vii. 16.) This character of the 
goddess may be perceived also from the pro- 
verbs ' to do a thing pingui Minerva,' i.e. to do 
a thing in an awkward or clumsy manner ; and 
sus Minervam (docet), of a stupid person who 
presumed to set right an intelligent one (Cic. 
Ac. i. 5, 18). The same characteristic was sup- 
posed to lie at the root of the old custom 
of driving a nail (davits annalis) on the Ides 
of September into that side of the temple of 
Jupiter on which stood the cella cf Minerva : 
the purpose was to preserve a record of years, 
and Minerva was thus designated as goddess of 
memory (Liv. vii. 3). As the Greek influence was 
felt and a resemblance was traced between 
Minerva the maiden goddess of arts and the 
Greek Athene, the Eomans began to regard her 
as also, like Athene, a goddess of war. Hence 
she was represented with a helmet, shield, and 
a coat of mail ; and the booty made in war was 
frequently dedicated to her. (Liv. xlv. 33 ; 
Plin. vii. 97.) Minerva was further believed 
to be the inventor of musical instruments, 
especially wind instruments, as used in war, 
which were accordingly subjected to a sort of 
purification every year on the last day of the 
festival of Minerva (Ov. Fast. vi. 654 ; Varr. 
L. L. vi. 17). There is reason, however, to 
think that the goddess honoured in this tubi- 
lustrium was Xerio, associated with Mars. 
This festival lasted five days, from the 19th to 
the 23rd of March, and was called Quinquatrus, 
because it began on the fifth day after the Ides 
of the month. [Diet, of Ant. art. Quinqua- 
trus.] Moreover, the schools, in honour of the 
goddess of learning, had a five days' holiday at 
the greater Quinquatrus in March, and at the 
end of the holidays the new boys brought their 
entrance fee, which was called Slinerval. [Diet, 
of Ant. art. Lucius Litterarius.j The most 
ancient temple of Minerva at Rome was prob- 
ably that on the Capitol ; another existed on 
the Aventine ; and she had a chapel at the foot 
of the Cuelian hill, where she bore the name of 
Capta, a name which was borrowed from 
Falerii (cf. Ov. Fast. iii. 843), and can only sig- 
nify ' The prisoner,' whatever its origin maybe. 
As goddess of wisdom, and from a comparison 
with 'AOrivu &ov\aia, Minerva was in later 
times regarded as watching over the Senate, 
and at Constantinople her statue stood before 
the Curia (Zos. v. 24). For the Greek myths 
and for representations in art, see Athene. 

Minervae Castrum or Minervium (Castro), 
a hill on the coast of Calabria, where Aeneas is 
said to have landed (Strab. p. 281). 

Minervae Promontorium (Punta delta 
Campanella or della Minerva), a rocky pro- 
montory in Campania, running out a long way 
into the sea, six miles SE. of Surrentom, on 
whose summit wus a temple of Minerva, which 
wag said to have been built by Odysseus, and 
which was still standing in the time of Seneca. 
Here the Sirens are reported to have dwelt. 
The Greeks regarded it us the N\V. boundary 
of Oenotria. (Strab. p. 217 ; Plin. iii. 62.) 

Minio i Migiwne), a small river in Etruriu, 



MINOS 



565 



I which rises near Satrium, and falls into the 
Tyrrhene sea between Graviscae and Centum 
Cellae (Verg. Aen. x. 185 ; Mel. ii. 4, 9). 

Minius (Minho), a river in the NW, of 
Spain, rising in the Cantabrian mountains, 
also called Baenis, derived its name from the 
minium or vermilion carried down by its 
waters. (Strab. p. 153 ; Plin. iv. 112.) 

Minoa (Mivda). 1. A small island in the 
Saronic gulf, off the coast of Megaris, and oppo- 
site a promontory of the same name, was 

\ united to the mainland by a bridge, and 
formed, with the promontory, the harbour of 

I Xisaea. [Megara.~ — 2. A town on the E. 

! coast of Laconia, and on a promontory of the 

' same name, XE. of Epidaurus Liniera. — 3. A 
town on the "W. part of the N. coast of Crete, 
between the promontories Drepanum and 
Psacum. (Ptol. iii. 17, 7.) — 4. A town on the 
E. part of the X. coast of Crete, belonging to 
the territory of Lyctus, and situated on the 

' naiTowest part of the island (Strab. p. 475 ; 
Ptol. iii. 17, 5). — 5. A town in Sicily. See 
Heraclea Mixoa. 

Minos (Mi'eois). 1. Son of Zeus and Europa, 
brother of Ehadamanthus, was the king and 
legislator of Crete, ruling especially at Cnossus, 
in friendly intercourse with Zeus. After his 
death he became one of the judges of the 
shades in Hades. He was the father of Deuca- 
lion and Ariadne, and, according to Apollo- 
dorus, the brother of Sarpedon. (II. xiii. 450 ; 
xiv. 322 ; Od. xi. 321, 567, xvii. 523. xix. 178 ; 
Hes. Th. 948 ; cf. Strab. p. 476.) Many other 
stories were added by later poets, or attached 
to Ins name from old local legends. He is 
described as the husband of Pasiphae, a 
daughter of Helios, by whom he was the father 
of Catreus, Deucalion, Glaucus, Androgeus, 
Acalle, Xenodice, Ariadne, and Phaedra. After 
the death of Asterius, king of Crete, who married 
Europa and adopted her children, Minos aimed 
at the supremacy of Crete, and declared that it 
was destined to him by the gods ; in proof of 
which, he asserted that the gods always 
answered his prayers. Accordingly, as he was 
offering up a sacrifice to Poseidon, he prayed 
that a bull might come forth from the sea, and 
promised to sacrifice the animal. The bull 
appeared, and Minos became king of Crete. 
(Others say that Minos disputed the govern- 

| ment with his brother, Sarpedon, and con- 
quered.) But Minos, who admired the beauty 
of the bull, did not sacrifice him, and substituted 
another in his place. Poseidon therefore ren- 
dered the bull furious, and made Pasiphae 
conceive a passion for the animal. Daedalus 
enabled Pasiphae' to gratify her passion, and 

i she became by the bull the mother of Mino- 
taurus, a monster with a human body and a 
bull's head, or, according to others, with a 
bull's body and a human head. The monster 
was kept in the labyrinth at Cnossus, con- 
structed by Daedalus. Daedalus fled from 
Crete to escape the wrath of Minos and took 
refuge in Sicily. Minos followed him to Sicily, 

1 and was there slain by Cocalus and his daugh- 

| ters. (Hdt. vii. 170 ; Diod. iv. 78 ; cf. Ar. Pol. 
ii. 10, 4 ; Cocalus.) — In another story, Minos, in 
order to avenge the wrong done to his son 
Androgens [Androgeus] at Athens, made war 
against the Athenians and Megarians. He 
subdued Megara, and compelled the Athenians 
either every year or every nine years to send 
him as a tribute seven youths and seven 
maidens, who were devoured in the labyrinth 
by the Minotaurus. The monster was slain by 



566 



MINOTAUEUS 



MINUCIUS 



Theseus. (Plut. Thes. 15-19 ; Diod. iv. 60 ; 
Paus. i. 17, 3 ; Ov. Ariadne, 104.) — Minos is 
further said to have divided Crete into three 
parts, and to have ruled nine years. The Cre- 
tans traced their legal and political institutions 




Theseus and Minotaur. (From a painted vase.) 



to Minos. He is said to have been instructed 
in the art of lawgiving by Zeus himself ; and 
the Spartan Lycurgus was believed to have 
taken the legislation of Minos as his model. In 
his time Crete was a powerful maritime state ; 
and Minos not only checked the piratical pur- 
suits of his contemporaries, but made himself 
master of the Greek islands of the Aegaean. In 
this connexion comes the story of his getting 
possession of Megara through the treachery of 
Scylla, daughter of king Nisus, who for love of 
Minos cut off the lock of her father's hair on 
which his power depended. [Nisus.] — The 
more philosophical historians accept the tradi- 
tions of an ancient king Minos of Crete, and 
regard him as a ruler of Crete considerably 
before the Dorian migration, and as the organiser 
of a powerful navy by means of which he put 
down piracy in the Aegaean, and extended his 
empire northwards along the coast of Greece 
and through the islands, from which he had 
driven out the Carians ; and who even at- 
tempted to conquer Sicily (Thuc. i. 4,8; Ar. 
Pol. ii. 10 = p. 1271, iv. 10 = p. 1329). It is not 
improbable that this account is mainl}' true, 
and that the legends of Cocalus conceal an old 
maritime invasion of Sicily by the Cretan king, 
and those of Nisus and of Androgeus a con- 
quest which made Megara and Attica at one 
time tributary to Crete. Later writers, at- 
tempting to reconcile contradictions in the 
legends, altered the genealogy, and made a 
Minos I. son of Zeus and lawgiver, who married 
Itone, daughter of Lyctius, by whom he had a 
son Lycastus. Lycastus by Ida was father of 
Minos II., who married Pasiphae, gathered a 
navy, and was connected with various legends 
mentioned above. (Diod. iv. 60 : Apollod. ii. 1, 3.) 
Herodotus (vii. 169) recounts a tradition that 
Minos after his translation from the world 
visited the Cretans with famine and pestilence, 
because they had aided the Greeks against 
Troy. 

Minotaurus. [Minos.] 

Mintha (MiVflrj), a daughter of Cocytus, 
beloved by Hades, was metamorphosed by 
Demeter or Persephone into a plant called after 
her mintha, or mint. In the neighbourhood of 
Pylos there was a hill called Minthe, and at its 



foot there was a temple of Pluto, and a grove 
of Demeter. (Ov. Met. x. 729 ; Strab. p. 344.) 

Minturnae (Minturnensis : Trajetta), an 
important town in Latium, on the frontiers of 
Campania, was situated on the Appia Via, and 
on both banks of the Liris, and near the mouth 
of this river. It was an ancient town of the 
Ausones or Aurunci, but surrendered to the 
Eomans of its own accord, and received a 
Eoman colony B.C. 296. It was subsequently 
recolonised by Julius Caesar. (Liv. viii. 10, ix. 
25, x. 21; Cic. ad Att. v. 1, xvi. 10.) Iivits 
neighbourhood was a grove sacred to the nymph 
Marica, and also extensive marshes (Paludes 
Minturnenses), formed by the overflowing of 
the river Liris, in which Marius was taken 
prisoner. [See p. 528, a.] The neighbourhood of 
Minturnae produced good wine. There are the 
ruins of an amphitheatre and of an aqueduct at 
the modern Trajetta. 

Minucianus [Ulvovkiov6s). 1. A Greek 
rhetorician, was a contemporary of the cele- 
brated rhetorician Hermogenes of Tarsus (fl. 
a.d. 170), with whom he was at variance. — 2. An 
Athenian, the son of Nicagoras, was also a 
Greek rhetorician, and lived in the reign of 
Gallienus (a.d. 260-263.) He was the author 
of several rhetorical works, and a portion of his 
Tex^i? pT)TopiK-i\ is extant, and is published in 
the ninth volume of Walz's JRhetores Oraeci. 

Minucius Augurinus. [Augukinus.] 

Minucius Basilus. [Basilus.] 

Minucius Felix. [Felix.] 

Minucius Rufus. 1. M., consul b.c. 221, 
when he carried on war against the Istrians. 
In 217 he was magister equitum to the dictator 
Q. Fabius Maximus. The cautious policy of 
Fabius displeased Minucius ; and accordingly,, 
when Fabius was called away to Eome, 
Minucius disobeyed the positive commands of 
the dictator, and risked a battle with a portion 
of Hannibal's troops. He was fortunate 
enough to gain a victory; in consequence of 
which he became so popular at Eome, that a 
bill was passed, giving him equal mihtary 
power with the dictator. The Eoman army 
was now divided, and each portion encamped 
separately under its own general. Anxious for 
distinction, Minucius eagerly accepted a battle- 
which was offered him by Hannibal, but was 
defeated, and his troops were only saved from 
total destruction by the timely arrival of Fabius, 
with all his forces. Thereupon Minucius 
generously acknowledged his error, gave up his- 
separate command, and placed himself again 
under the authority of the dictator. He fell at. 
the battle of Cannae in the following year. (Liv. 
xxii. 8, 22-30; Pol. iii. 101; Plut. Fab. 4-11.} 
— 2. Q., plebeian aedile 201, praetor 200, and 
consul 127, when he carried on war against the 
Boii with success. In 189 he was one of the 
ten commissioners sent into Asia after the 
conquest of Antiochus the Great ; and in 183 
he was one of the three ambassadors sent into 
Gaul. (Liv. xxxii. 27, xxxvii. 55.)— 3. M., praetor 
197 (Liv. xxxii. 27, xxxiv. 53). — 4. M., tribune 
of the plebs 121, brought forward a bill to 
repeal the laws of C. Gracchus (Flor. iii. 15). 
This Marcus Minucius and his brother Quintus. 
are mentioned as arbiters between the inhabi- 
tants of Genua and the Viturii, in a very 
interesting inscription, which was discovered in 
the year 1506, about ten miles from the modern 
city of Genoa (C. I. L. i. 199).— 5. Q., consul 
110, obtained Macedonia as his province, carried 
on war with success against the barbarians ire 
Thrace, and triumphed on his return to Eome. 



MINUCIUS 



MITHRIDATES 



567 



He perpetuated the memory of his triumph by 
building the Porticus Minueia, near the Circus 
Flaminius. (Cic. Phil. ii. 34, 84.)— The Minueia 
Via, leading from Rome to Brundusium (Cic. 
Att. ix. 6 ; Hor. Ep. i. 18, 20), was made by 
Minucius Augurinus, consul B.C. 305. 

Minucius Thermus. [Thebmus. 

Minyae (Mivvai), an ancient Greek race, 
who originally dwelt in Thessaly. Iolcos, in 
Thessaly, was one of their original seats. 
Their ancestral hero, Minyas, is said to have 
migrated from Thessaly into the N. of Boeotia, 
and there to have established the empire of 
the Minyae, with the capital Orchomenos. 
[Orchomenos.] When the Arnaeans were | 
pressed southwards by the Thesprotians, they 
drove out the Minyae from the south of Thes- 
saly and from Boeotia. Some of the Minyae 
colonised Lemnos and Imbros, some settled in 
Attica, and some in the valley of the Eurotas, 
where they seem to hare been joined by some 
of their kinsmen who were in turn driven from 
Lemnos and Attica. They withstood the Dorians 
in Sparta for some time, but eventually migrated 
again, some to Triphylia in the west of Pelo- 
ponnesus, and some to Melos and Thera. (Hdt. 
i. 146, iv. 145-148; Thuc. i. 12; Paus. ii. 29, 
iv. 27, vii. 9, ix. 36 ; Strab. p. 337.) The stories 
of the Argonauts (most of whom were tradi- 
tionally sprung from this race), sailing to 
various lands, probably to some extent grew 
out of these migrations of the Minyae. [See 
pp. 106, 107.] 

Minyas (Mtvvas), son of Chryses, and the 
ancestral hero of the races of the Minyae. 
The accounts of his genealogy vary very much 
in the different traditions, for some call him a 
son of Orchomenus or Eteocles, others of 
Poseidon, Aleus, Ares, Sisyphus, or Halmus. 
He is further called the husband of Tritogenia, 
Clytodora, or Phanosyra. Orchomenus, Pres- 
bon, Athamas, Diochthondas, Eteoclymene, 
Periclymene, Leucippe, Arsinoe, and Alcathoe 
or Alcithoe, are mentioned as his children. 
His tomb was shown at Orchomenos in Boeotia. 
(Paus. ix. 86, 38 ; Schol. ad Pind. 01. xiv. 4, Pijth. 

iv. 69.) A daughter of Minyas was Minijeias 
(-ddis) or Miniis (-idis). (Ov. Met. iv. 32.) 

Mirobriga. 1. A town of the Celtici in 
Lusitania, on the ocean (Ptol. ii. 5, 6). — 2. A 
Roman municipium in the territory of the 
Turduli, in Hispania Baetica, on the road 
from Emeritato Caesaraugusta (Ptol. ii. 4, 13). 

Misenum (Punta di Miseno), a promontory 
in Campania, S. of Cumae, said to have derived 
its name from Misenus, the companion and 
trumpeter of Aeneas, who was drowned and 
buried here (Verg. Aen. vi. 163, 212; Propert. 

v. 18, 8). The bay formed by this promontory 
was converted by Augustus into an excellent 
harbour, and was made the principal station of 
the Roman fleet on the Tyrrhene sea. A town 
sprang up around the harbour, and here the 
admiral of the fleet usually resided. (Tac. Ann. 
iv. 5, xiv. 3, xv. 51, Hi.it. ii. 100; Suet. Aug. 
49; Plin. Ep. vi. 16, 20). The inhabitants 
were called Misenates and Misenenses, but the 
name Misenates most frequently signifies the 
men of the fleet. The Roman nobles had pre- 
viously built villas on the coast. Here was the 
villa of C. Marius, purchased by LucuIIuk, 
which afterwards passed into the hands of the 
emperor Tiberius, who died at this place. (Plut. 
Mar. 84; Tac. Ann. vi. 50; Suet. Tib. 72.) 

Misitheus, the father-in-law of the emperor 
Qordian III., who married his daughter 
Sabinia Tranquillina in a.d. 241. He accom- 



panied Gordian in his expedition against the 
Persians, whom he defeated; but in the course 
of this war he was cut off either by disease or 
by the treachery of his successor Philippus, 243 
(Zos. i. 16). 

Mithra3 (MlBpas), the god of light and of the 
sun among the Persians (Strab. p. 7321, whose 
worship was widely spread over Asia Minor, 
and took root in many Greek towns of Asia 
and the islands after the wars of Alexander. 
It was first introduced to the Romans through 
the wars of Pompey with the Cilician pirates 
iPlut. Pomp. 24). Its influence in Italy was 
continually increased by Roman legionaries 
returning from Eastern service during the first 
and second centuries of our era. The first 
shrine of Mithras in Italy of which record is 
preserved is that at Ostia dating from the 
reign of Antoninus Pius. In the time of 
Septim. Severus the worship of Mithras was 
added to the observances of the Domus Augusta 
(C. I. L. vi. 2271). Mithras was spoken of as 
Sol Invictus, a style which Aurelian, the son of 
a priestess of Mithras, sometimes adopted. 
Though Mithras was thus adopted as sun-god 
by the Romans towards the decline of pagan- 
ism, his peculiar Oriental rites were retained. 
His sanctuary was a cave, real or artificial, 
explained as signifying that Mithras was born 
from a rock (Lyd. Mens. iii. 26) : it is more 
likely that it symbolises the world of darkness 
against which the sun-god fights. A bull was 
sacrificed in these caves and the blood purified 
the worshippers (Diet, of Ant. art. Taurobo- 
lium), who passed through various grades of 
initiation as Kdpaxes, Kpv<piot, AtovTts and 
\eatvai (the lion seems to mean the sun), 
'HA-ioSpouoi, and finally Palres or 'Ae-rot. The 
initiated were regarded as purified from the 
earth by these rites and by the fastings and 
penances which they endured. The god is 
commonly represented as a handsome youth, 
wearing the Phrygian cap and attire, and 
kneeling on a bull which is thrown on the 
ground, and whose throat he is cutting. Fre- 
quently (as in the complete relief from which 




Tho Sacrifice of Mithras. (From a relief now In the 

Louvre.) 



the engraving is tuken) the grotto in which the 
sacrifice is offered is shown. 

Mithride.tes oi Mithradates (yiiBpthar-ns or 
MtflpaSoTijs), a common name among the Modes 



568 



MITHRJD ATE S 



and Persians, probably connected with that of 
Mithras the god of light. 1. I., king, or, more 
properly, satrap of Pontus, was son of Ariobar- 
.janes I., and was succeeded by Ariobarzanes 

II. , about B.C. 363. The kings of Pontus 
claimed to be lineally descended from one of 
the seven Persians who had conspired against 
the Magi, and who was subsequently estab- 
lished by Darius Hystaspis in the government 
of the countries bordering on the Euxine sea. 
(Xen. Cyr. viii. 8, 4 ; Diod. xv. 90, xix. 40 ; Pol. 
v. 43.)— 2. II., king of Pontus (337-302), suc- 
ceeded his father Ariobarzanes II., and was the 
founder of the independent kingdom of Pontus. 
After the death of Alexander the Great, he was 
for a time subject to Antigonus; but during 
the war between the successors of Alexander, 
he succeeded in establishing his independence. 
He died at the age of 84. (Diod. xvi. 90, xx. 
Ill ; Appian, Mithr. 9, 112; Strab. p. 562.)— 3. 

III. , Icing of Pontus (302-266), son and succes- 
sor of the preceding. He enlarged his paternal 
dominions by the acquisition of great part of 
Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Ariobarzanes III. (Diod. xx. 
111.)— 4. IV., king of Pontus (about 240-190), 
son and successor of Ariobarzanes III. He 
gave his daughter Laodice in marriage to 
Antiochus III. He was succeeded by his son 
Pharnaees I. (Pol. iv. 56, v. 43, 90.)— 5. V., 
king of Pontus (about 156-120), surnamed 
Euergetes, son and successor of Pharnaees I. 
He was the first of the kings of Pontus who 
made an alliance with the Romans, whom he 




Stater of Mithridates VI., King of Pontus, B.C. 120- 
06c, head of Mithridates VI. ; rev., basiaeqs migpaaatoy 
EYIJATOP02 ; stag feeding; sun and crescent moon. The 
ivy "wreath is supposed to refer to the title ' New Dio- 
nysus ' which the Asiatic cities gave to Mithridates. 

assisted in the third Punic war and in the war 
against Aristonicus (131-129). He was assassi- 
nated at Sinope by a conspiracy among his 
own immediate attendants. (App. Mithr. 12, 
56 ; Just, xxxviii. 5 ; Strab. p. 477.)— 6. VI., 
king of Pontus (120-63), surnamed Eupator, 
also Dionysus, but more commonly the Great, 
was the son and successor of the preceding, 
and was only eleven years old at the period of his 
accession. We are told by Justin that on 
ascending the throne he found himself assailed 
by the designs of his guardians, but that he 
succeeded in eluding their machinations, partly 
by a courage and address beyond his years, 
partly by the use of antidotes against poison, to 
which he began thus early to accustom himself. 
For the same reasons he devoted much of his 
time to hunting, and took refuge in the remo- 
test and most unfrequented regions, under 
pretence of pursuing the pleasures of the chase. 
Whatever truth there may be in these accoimts, 
it is certain that when he attained to manhood, 
he not only had great skill in martial exercises 
and a frame inured to hardships, but his 
naturally vigorous intellect had been improved 
by careful culture. As a boy he had been 
brought up at Sinope, where he had probably 
received the elements of a Greek education ; 
and so powerful was his memory that he is 



said to have learnt the incredible number of 
twenty-two languages, and to have been able in 
the days of his greatest power to transact busi- 
ness with the deputies of every tribe subject to 
his rule in their own peculiar dialect (Just, 
xxxvii. 2 ; Strab. p. 545 ; Plin. xxv. 5 ; Gell. 
xvii. 17). The first steps of his career were 
marked by blood. He is said to have murdered 
his mother, to whom a share in the royal 
authority had been left by Mithridates Euer- 
getes ; and this was followed by the assassination 
of his brother (App. Mithr. 112 ; Memn. 30). 
In the early part of his reign he subdued the 
barbarian tribes between the Euxine and the 
confines of Armenia, including the whole of 
Colchis and the province called Lesser Armenia, 
and even extended his conquests beyond the 
Caucasus. He assisted Parisades, king of the 
Bosporus, against the Sarmatians and Roxo- 
lani, and rendered the whole of the Tauric 
Chersonese tributary to his kingdom. After 
the death of Parisades, the kingdom of Bosporus 
itself was incorporated with his dominions. 
He was now in possession of such great power 
that he began to deem himself equal to a con- 
test with Rome itself. Many causes of dissen- 
sion had already arisen between them, but 
Mithridates had hitherto submitted to the 
mandates of Rome. Even after expelling 
Ariobarzanes from Cappadocia, and Nicomedes 
from Bithynia in 90, he offered no resistance to 
the Romans when they restored these monarchs 
to their kingdom. But when Nicomedes, urged 
by the Roman legates, invaded the territories 
of Mithridates, the latter made preparations for 
immediate hostilities. His success was rapid 
and striking. In 88, he drove Ariobarzanes 
out of Cappadocia, and Nicomedes out of 
Bithynia, defeated the Roman generals who 
had supported the latter, made himself master of 
Phrygia and Galatia, and at last of the Roman 
province of Asia. During the winter he issued 
the sanguinary order to all the cities of Asia to 
put to death, on the same day, all the Roman 
and Italian citizens who were to be found 
within their walls. So hateful had the Romans 
rendered themselves, that these commands 
were obeyed with alacrity by almost all the 
cities of Asia, and 80,000 Romans and Italians 
are said to have perished in this fearful mass- 
acre. (App. Mithr. 22 ; Plut. Sull. 24 ; Cic. pro 
Ftacc. 24; Liv. Bp. 78; Tac. Ann. iv. 14.) 
Meantime Sulla had received the command of 
the war against Mithridates, and crossed over 
into Greece in 87. Mithridates, however, had 
resolved not to await the Romans in Asia, but 
had already sent his general, Archelaus, into 
Greece, at the head of a powerful army. Athens, 
Achaia, Boeotia and Laconia declared them- 
selves his supporters. The war proved un- 
favourable to the king. Archelaus was twice 
defeated by Sulla with immense loss, near 
Chaeronea and Orchomenos in Boeotia (86). 
About the same time Mithridates was himself 
defeated in Asia by Fimbria. [Fimbbia.] These 
disasters led him to sue for peace, which Sulla 
was willing to grant, because he was anxious to 
return to Italy, which was entirely in the 
hands of his enemies. Mithridates consented 
to abandon all his conquests in Asia, to pay a 
sum of 3000 talents, and to surrender to the 
Romans a fleet of seventy ships. Thus ended 
the first Mithridatic war (84). (App. Mithr. 
29-63 ; Plut. Sull. 11-25, Lucull. 4.)— Shortly 
afterwards Murena, who had been left in com- 
mand of Asia by Sulla, invaded the dominions 
of Mithridates (83), under the flimsy pretext 



MITHRIDATES 



569 



that the king had not yet evacuated the whole i 
of Cappadocia. In the following year (82 1 I 
Murena renewed his hostile incursions, but 
was defeated by Mithridates on the banks of ! 
the river Halys. But Murena received peremp- I 
tory orders from Sulla to desist from hostili- I 
ties, and peace was again restored. This is 
usually called the second Mithridatic war 
(App. Mithr. 64-67). — Mithridates, however, 
was well aware that the peace between him 
and Eome was in fact a mere suspension of 
hostilities ; and that the republic would never 
suffer the massacre of her citizens in Asia to 
remain ultimately unpunished. Xo formal 
treaty was ever concluded between Mithridates 
and the Roman senate ; and the king had in 
vain endeavoured to obtain the ratification of 
the terms agreed on between him and Sulla. 
The death of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia, 
at the beginning of 74, brought matters to a 
crisis. That monarch left his dominions by 
will to the Roman people ; and Bithynia was 
accordingly declared a Roman province : but 
Mithridates asserted that the late king had left 
a legitimate son by his wife Nysa, whose pre- 
tensions he immediately prepared to support 
by his arms. He had employed the last few 
years in forming a powerful army, armed and 
disciplined in the Roman manner ; and he now 
took the field with 120,000 foot soldiers, 16,000 
horse, and a vast number of barbarian auxili- 
aries. This was the beginning of the third 
Mithridatic war. The two Roman consuls, 
Lucullus and Cotta, were unable to oppose his 
first irruption. He traversed Bithynia without 
encountering any resistance ; and when at 
length Cotta ventured to give him battle under 
the walls of Chalcedon, the consul was totally 
defeated botli by sea and land. Mithridates 
then proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus both by 
sea and land. Lucullus marched to the relief 
of the city, cut off the king's supplies, and 
eventually compelled him to raise the siege, 
early in 73. On his retreat Mithridates suffered 
great loss, and eventually took refuge in Pontus. 
Hither Lucullus followed him in the next year. 
The new army, which the king had collected, 
was entirely defeated by the Roman general ; 
and Mithridates, despairing of opposing the 
further progress of Lucullus, took refuge in the 
dominions of his son-in-law Tigranes, the king 
of Armenia. Tigranes at first showed no dis- 
position to attempt the restoration of his father- 
in-law ; but being offended at the haughty 
conduct of Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus 
had sent to demand the surrender of Mitliri- 
dates, the Armenian king not only refused this 
request, but determined to prepare for war with 
the Romans. Accordingly, in 69, Lucullus 
marched into Armenia, defeated Tigranes and 
Mithridates near Tigranocerta, and in the next 
year (68) again defeated the allied monarchs 
near Artaxata. The Roman general then 
turned aside into Mesopotamia, and laid siege 
to Nisibis. Here the Roman soldiers broke 
out into open mutiny, and demanded to be led 
home ; and Lucullus was obliged to raise the 
siege, and return to Asia Minor. Meanwhile 
Mithridates had taken advantage of the absence 
of Lucullus to invade Pontus at the head of a 
large army. He defeated Fabius and TriariuB, 
to whom the defence of PontuB had been com- 
mitted ; and when Lucullus returned to Pontus, 
he was unable to resume the offensive in con- 
sequence of the mutinous spirit of his own 
soldiers. Mithridates was thus able before the 
close of 67 to regain possession of the greater 



part of his hereditary dominions. (App. Mithr. 
69-90 ; Plut. Lucull. 7-35 ; Cicero Leg. Manil. 
3.) In the following year (66) the conduct of 
the war was entrusted to Pompey. Hostilities 
were resumed with greater vigour than ever. 
Mithridates was obliged to retire before the 
Romans, but was surprised and defeated by 
Pompey ; and as Tigranes now refused to 
admit him into his dominions, he resolved to 
plunge with his small array into the heart of 
Colchis, and thence make his way to the Palus 
Maeotis and the Cimmerian Bosporus. Arduous 
as this enterprise appeared, it was successfully 
accomplished ; and he at length established 
himself without opposition at Panticapaeum, 
the capital of Bosporus. He had now nothing 
to fear from the pursuit of Pompey, who turned 
his arms first against Tigranes, and afterwards 
against Syria. Unable to obtain peace from 
Pompey, unless he would cane in person to 
make his submission, Mithridates conceived 
the daring project of marching round the N. 
and W. coasts of the Euxine, through the wild 
tribes of the Sanuatians and Getae, and having 
gathered round his standard all these barbarian 
nations, to penetrate into Italy itself. But 
meanwhile disaffection had made rapid progress 
among his followers. His son Pharnaces at 
length openly rebelled against him. He was 
joined both by the whole army and the citizens 
of Panticapaeum, who unanimously proclaimed 
him king ; and Mithridates, who had taken 
refuge in a strong tower, saw that no choice 
remained to him but death or captivity. Here- 
upon he took poison, which he constantly 
carried with him ; but his constitution had been 
so long inured to antidotes, that it did not pro- 
duce the desired effect, and he was compelled 
to call in the assistance of one of his Gau- 
lish mercenaries to despatch him with his 
sword. He died in 63. His body was sent by 
Pharnaces to Pompey at Amisus, as a token of 
his submission ; but the conqueror caused it to 
be interred with regal honours in the sepulchre 
of his forefathers at Sinope. He was 68 or 69 
years old at the time of his death, and had 
reigned fifty-seven years, of which twenty-five 
had been occupied, with only a few brief 
intervals, in one continued struggle against 
the Roman power. The estimation in which 
he was held by his adversaries is the strongest 
testimony to his great abilities : Cicero calls 
him the greatest of all kings after Alexander, 
and in another passage says that he was a 
more formidable opponent than any other mon- 
arch whom the Roman arms had yet encoun- 
tered. (App. Mithr. 97-111; Dio Cass, xxvii. 
3-13; Plut. Pomp. 32-41; Cicero Muren. 
15; Veil. Pat. ii. 18.)— 7. Kings of Parthia. 
[Arsaces, 6, 9, 1:1. — 8. Of Pergamum, son of 
Menodotus ; but his mother having had an 
amour with Mithridates the Great, he was 
generally looked upon as in reality the son of 
that monarch. The king himself bestowed 
great care on his education ; and he appears as 
early as 64 to have exercised the chief control 
over the affairs of his native city. At a subse- 
quent period he served under Julius Caesar in 
the Alexandrian war (48) ; and after the defeat 
of Pharnaces in tRe following year (47), Caesar 
bestowed upon Mithridates the kingdom of the 
Bosporus, and also the tetrarchy of the Gala- 
tians. But the kingdom of the Bosporus still 
remained to be won, for Asander, who had 
revolted against Pharnaces, was in fact master 
of the whole country, and Mithridates having 
attempted to expel Asander, was defeated and 



570 MITHEIDATIS REGIO 



MOESIA 



slain. {Bell. Alex. 26-32, 78 ; Strab. p. 625 ; 
Dio Cass. xlii. 41-43.) 

Mithridatis Eegio [MtdpiSdrov x<ipa), 
in Sarmatia Asiatica, on the W. side of the 
river Rha [Volga), so called because it was the 
place of refuge of the last Mithridates, in the 
reign of Claudius (Tac. Ann. xii. 15 ; Ptol. v. 
9, 19). 

Mitylene. [Mytilene.] 

Mnaseas (Mvcureas), of Patara in Lycia — not 
of Patrae in Achaia — was a pupil of Erato- 
sthenes, and a grammarian of considerable 
celebrity. He wrote two works, one of a 
chorographical description, entitled Periplus 
(Ylep'nrAovs), and the other a collection of oracles 
at Delphi. (Suid. s.v. ; Athen. pp. 158, 296, 530.) 

Mnasilochus (NIuclct'iAoxos), an Acarnanian 
leader, sided with Antiochus in 191, and sur- 
rendered to the Romans after the battle of Mag- 
nesia (Liv. xxxvi. 11, xxxviii. 38 ; Pol. xxii. 26). 

Mnasippus [MvacniTiros), a Lacedaemonian 
in command of the fleet at Corcyra in 373, was 
slain in a battle (Xen. Hell. vi. 2.) 

Mneme. [Mtjsae.J 

Mnemosyne. [Musae.] 

Mnesarchus [Mvrjaapxos). 1. [Pythagoras.] 
— 2. A Stoic philosopher, a disciple of Panaetius, 
flourished about B.C. 110, and taught at Athens. 
Among his pupils was Antiochus of Ascalon. 
(Cic. Fin. i. 2, 6, Acad. ii. 22, 69.) 

Mnesicles (Mcijo-ikA^s), one of the great 
Athenian artists of the age of Pericles, was the 
architect of the Propylaea of the Acropolis, 
[See pp. 11, 12 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Propylaea.} 

Mnesimachus (Wlvri'HT/j.axos), a poet of the 
Middle Comedy (Athen. pp. 301, 322, 329). 

Mnesitheus [Mvnaideos), a physician, was a 
native of Athens, and lived probably in the 
fourth century B.C., as he is quoted by the comic 
poet Alexis. He is frequently mentioned by 
Galen and others. 

Mnester (Mv^cTrjp), a celebrated pantomime 
actor in the reigns of Caligula and Claudius, 
was one of the lovers of Messallina, and was put 
to death on the ruiu of the latter (Tac. Ann. ix. 

4, 36; Suet. Cal. 36, 55, 57). 

Mnestheus, a Trojan, who accompanied 
Aeneas to Italy, and was the ancestral hero of 
the Memmii (Verg. Aen. v. 117)r 

Moabltis (Mcua,8n-is, Wl6/3a : MwafiTrai, Moa- 
bitae : O. T. Moab, for both country and people), 
a district of Arabia Petraea, E. of the Dead 
Sea, from the river Arnon [Wady-el-Mojib, the 
boundary between Palestine and Arabia) on the 
N., to Zoar, near the S. end of the Dead Sea, 
on the S., between the Amorites on the N., the 
Midianites on the E., and the Edomites on the 

5. — that is, before the Israelitish conquest of 
Canaan. [See Diet, of the Bible.} 

Modestinus, Herennius, a Roman jurist, and 
a pupil of Ulpian, flourished in the reigns of 
Alexander Severus, Maximinus and the Gordi- 
ans, a.d. 222-244. Though Modestinus is 
the latest of the great Roman jurists, he ranks 
among the most distinguished. There are 345 
excerpts in the Digest from his writings. 

Modestus, Julius, a grammarian who wrote 
early in the first century a.d. (Suet. Gr. 20 ; 
Gell. iii. 9, 1 ; Mart. x. 2i, 1). 

Modestus, a military writer, the author of a 
Libellus de Vocabulis Bei Militaris, addressed 
to the emperor Tacitus, a.d. 275 : brief, and 
presents no features of interest. Printed in 
all the collections of Scriptores de Be Militari. 

Modicia [Monza), a town in Gallia Transpa- 
dana, on the river Lambrus, N. of Mediolanum 
Milan), where Theodoric built a palace, and 



Theodolinda, queen of the Langobards, a splen- 
did church, which still contains many of the 
gifts of this queen (Paul. Langob. iv. 22, 49). 

Modin (MoSeiV, -eeiy, or -leifi), a village on a- 
mountain N. of Lydda or Diospolis, on the 
extreme NW. of Judaea, celebrated as the 
native place of the Maccabei (Jos. Ant. xii. 8, 1). 

Modra [to. M<(5pa : Mudurlu), a town of 
Bithynia near the source of the river Gallus 
(Strab. p. 543). 

Moenus, Moenis, Maenus, or Menus [Main), 
a river in Germany, which rises in the Sudeti 
Montes, flows through the territory of the Her. 
munduri and the Agri Decumates of the Romans, 
and falls into the Rhine opposite Mogontiacum 
[Mainz) (Tac. Germ. 28 ; Mel. iii. 3, 3). 

Moeris or Myris [Moipis, Wlipis), a king of 
Egypt, who, Herodotus tells us, reigned some 
900 years before his own visit to that country, 
which seems to have been about B.C. 450. The 
Greek writers state of Moeris that he formed 
the lake known by his name, and joined it by a 
canal to the Nile, in order to receive the waters 
of the river when they were superabundant, 
and to supply the defect when they did not rise 
sufficiently. In the lake he built two pyramids 
on each of which was a stone statue, seated on 
a throne, and intended to represent himself 
and his wif.e. (Hdt. ii. 13, 101, 149 ; Diod. i. 52; 
Strab. pp. 789, 809.) The real author of these 
works was Amenemhat III., who lived about 
2800 B.C. (1000 years earlier than the date given 
by Herodotus). He had the enormous basin 
formed in the Fayum for the storage of water 
protected by dykes and communicating with 
the river by a canal with locks to regulate the 
flow. He also built the Labyrinth [Diet, of 
Ant. s.v.]. The Egyptian word meri means 1 a 
basin,' and from this a confused account of a 
king of that name was adopted by the Greeks. 

Moeris (Moipis), commonly called Moeris 
Atticista, a distinguished grammarian of the 
time of Hadrian, the author of a work still 
extant, entitled Ae£eis 'Atti/ccu, though the 
title varies somewhat in different manuscripts. 
His treatise is a sort of comparison of the Attic 
with other Gi'eek dialects ; consisting of a list 
of Attic words and expressions, illustrated by 
those of other dialects, especially the common 
Greek. Edited by Pierson, 1759 ; Bekker, 1833. 

Moeris Lacus. [Moeris.] 

Moero [Wloipu), or Myro (Mupc6), a poetess of 
Byzantium, wife of Andromachus surnamed 
Philologus, and mother of the grammarian and 
tragic poet Homerus, lived about B.C. 300. She 
wrote epic, elegiac, and lyric poems. (Suid. s.v. ; 
Athen. p. 490.) 

Moerocles (Moipo/cArjs), an Athenian orator, a 
native of Salamis, was a contemporary of 
Demosthenes, and like him an opponent of 
Philip and Alexander (Dem. F.L. p. 435 ; Arrian, 
An. i. 10, 7). 

Moesia, called by the Greeks Mysia (Mv<rla, 
also M. 7} iv Evpdirri, to distingish it from Mysia 
in Asia), a country of Europe, was bounded on 
the S. by Haemus, which separated it from 
Thrace, and by M. Orbelus and Scordus, which 
separated it from Macedonia, on the W. by M. 
Scordus and the rivers Drinus and Savus, 
which separated it from Hlyricum and Pan- 
nonia, on the N. by the Danube, which sepa- 
rated it from Dacia, and on the E. by Pontus 
Euxinus, thus corresponding to the present 
Servia and Bulgaria (Dio Cass. Ii. 27 ; Ptol. 
iii. 9, 60). This country was subdued in the 
reign of Augustus, about 29 b.c. (Liv. Bp. 134, 
135; Dio Cass. Ii. 25; Flor. ii. 26), but does 



MOGOXTIACUM 



MOIRAE 



571 



not appear to have been formally constituted a makes them daughters of Night and sisters of 
Roman province till near the end of the reign, Kijpej and Death; whereas under the more 
about a.d. 6 (Dio Cass. lv. 29 ; Ov. Trist. ii. 197). ! orderly reign of Zeus they are daughters of 
Tacitus (Ann. i. 80) mentions a legatus Moesiae j Zeus himself and Themis (Hes. Th. 217, 904 ; cf. 
a.d. 14. It was originally only one province, Apollod. i. 3, 1), and three in number, viz. 
but in the reign of Domitian was formed into two Cloth.0, or the spinning fate; Lachesis, or the 
provinces, called Moesia Superior and Moesia one who assigns to man his fate ; and Atropos, 



Inferior, the former being the western and the 
latter the eastern half of the country, and 
separated from each other by the river Cebrus 
or Ciabrus, a tributary of the Danube. When 
Aurelian surrendered Dacia to the barbarians, 
and removed the inhabitants of that province 
to the S. of the Danube, the middle part of 
Moesia was called Dacia Aureliani ; and this 
new province was divided into Dacia Bipensis, 
the district along the Danube, and Dacia In- 
terior, the district S. of the latter as far as the 
frontiers of Macedonia. In the reign of 
Valens, some of the Goths crossed the Danube 
and settled in Moesia. These Goths are some- 
times called Moeso-Goths, and it was for their 
use that Ulphilas translated the Scriptures 
into Gothic about the middle of the fourth 
century. The original inhabitants of the 
country, called Moesi by the Romans, and Mysi 
(Vlvaot) by the Greeks, were a Thracian race, 
and were divided into several tribes, such as 
the Tbxbaxli, Peucixi, Sec. (Strab. p. 295). 

Mogontiacum, Moguntiacum or Magontia.- 
cuni (Mainz or Mayence), a town on the left 
bank of the Rhine, opposite the mouth of the 
river Moenus IMain), was situated in the terri- 
tory of the Vangiones, and was subsequently 
the capital of the province of Germania Prima. 
It was a Roman municipium, and was founded, 
or at least enlarged and fortified, by Drusus. 
It was occupied by a strong Roman garrison, 
and continued to the downfall of the empire 
to be one of the chief fortresses on the Rhine. 
(Tac. Hist. iv. 15, 24 ; Amm. Marc. xv. 11.) 

Moirae (MoTpai), called Parcae by the Romans, 
the Fates. Moira properly signifies ' a share,' 
and as a personifica- 
tion ' the deity who 
assigns to every man 
liis fate or his share.' 
Homer speaks of the 
Wloipcu. as personal 
deities once (II. xxiv. 
49), and again of a 
single Moipa who spins 
the thread of life (II. 
xxiv. 209) : in the 
Odyssey (vii. 197) there 
is once mention of 
the spinning deities 
(K\ud(s) who are pre- 
sent at the time of 
birth. Alaa is men- 
tioned there also, and 
it is possible that in 
this passage Aiira Aios 

may be regarded, like the Z* us Moipaytrris tions among them was not strictly observed, for 
at Delphi [see below j, as the third in com- we sometimes find all described as spinning, 
pany with two KAw9ts. In Homer Moira is although this should be the function of Clotho 
fate personified, which, at the birth of man, alone, who is moreover often mentioned alone 
spins out the thread of his future life, fol- as the representative of all. As goddesses of 
lows his steps, and directs the consequences of birth, who spin the thread of the beginning of 
his actions according to the counsel of the gods. , life, and prophesy the fate of the newly born, 



or the fate that cannot be avoided. Later 
writers give other genealogies : thus they are 
called children of Erebus and Night, of Cronos 
and Night, of Ge and Oceanus, or lastly of 
Ananke or Necessity (Cic. K.D. iii. 17 ; Tzetz. 
ad Lyc. 406 ; Plat. Sep. p. 617). In Homer 
the conception of the supreme rule of the 
Fates is as uncertain as is their personality : in 
some passages all the gods, even Zeus, observe 
the decree of Fate (II. xix. 87) ; in others the 
Fate is rather an attribute of Zeus signifying 
his predestined will (II. xvii. 321), and it is even 
hinted that fate may be altered by Zeus (II. 
xvi. 435), and that things may possibly happen 
v-rrhp fjunpav (II. xx. 30, 336). But the con- 
ception which prevailed was of an unalterable 
decree. The fate assigned to every being by 
eternal laws takes its course without obstruc- 
tion ; and Zeus, as well as the other gods and 
men, must submit to them. (Aesch. Pr. 516, 
Eum. 335, 962 ; cf . Verg. Aen. v. 798, xii. 147 ; 
Ov. Met. xv. 781.) They assign to the Erinnyes, 
who inflict the punishment for evil deeds, their 
proper functions ; and with them they direct 
fate according to the laws of necessity, whence 
they are sometimes called the sisters of the 
Erinnyes. — The Moirae, as the divinities of the 
duration of human life, which is determined by 
the two points of birth and of death, are con- 
ceived either as goddesses of birth or as god- 
desses of death, and hence their number was 
two, as at Delphi with Zeus as MoipoyeVrjs (Paus. 
x. 24, 4) ; but even here the number of three dei- 
ties is preserved, and the conception became uni- 
versal of three sister Fates (as of three Hours, 
three Graces, &c). The distribution of the func- 




The Moirae or 1'arcac ( Kutcto and Prometheus. (Vlacontl, Mut. I'io li. m. vol. lv. tav.M.) 



But the personification of his Moira is not 
complete; for he mentions no particular up- 
pearance of the goddess, no attributes, and no 
parentage. His Moira is therefore quite syn- 
onymous with Ainu (Al<ra). — In Hesiod the per 



they are mentioned along with Uithyia, with 
whom, and also with the Hours, they appear as 
helpers at the birth of a child (Pind. Ol. vi. 42, 
Nem. vii. 1 ; Eur. T. 207, Bacch. 99 ; Paus. 
viii. 21, 2 : see also Hon.AH and Ii.ithvia). As 



Bonification of the Moirae is more complete, ' goddesses of death, they appear also with the 
but in speaking of the darker Titan dynasty he \ Keres and the Erinnyes (Hes. Scut. 258 ; l'aus. 



572 



MOLIONE 



MONOECI PORTUS 



ii. 11, 4). In some ancient works of art they 
appear, not with their several attributes, but as 
three crowned deities with sceptres in token of 
their sovereignty (as on the altar of the Twelve 
Gods, now in the Louvre) ; but usually in works 
of art they are represented with different attri- 
butes : Clotho with a spindle or a roll (the book 
of fate) ; Lachesis pointing with a staff to the 
globe ; and Atropos with a pair of scales, or a 
sun-dial, or shears. The Parcae in Latin liter- 
ature received all the mythology and attributes 
of the Greek Moirae. Originally Parca was 
especially the goddess of birth, her name being 
probably derived a pariundo (though some take 
it to be from plecto, as weaving the thread) ; 
but with her were associated the deities Nona 
and Decima presiding over different months of 
the birth, and subsequently the name Parcae 
was applied to the three Pates collectively, of 
whom Nona and Decima were charged with the 
birth, and the third, Morta, with death (Varro, 
ap. Gell. iii. 16). The abstract noun fatum 
meant the spoken word or decree of Heaven, 
equivalent to the alaa Ai6s (Serv. ad Aen. x. 628, 
xii. 808), but though the neuter form prevailed in 
literature, the popular and ceremonial language 
retained Fati and Fatae. Fata Scribunda 
was the goddess who watched over the birth 
(included among the Carmentes as being pro- 
phetic) and wrote down the destiny of the child. 

Molione. [Moliones.] 

Moliones or Molionidae (MoAiWs, MoAi'oce, 
MoAioci'Sai), that is, Eurytus and Cteatus, so 
called after their mother Molione. They are 
also called Actoridae or Actorione ('A/cTopiWe) 
after their reputed father Actor, the husband of 
Molione, though they were generally regarded 
as the sons of Poseidon. The Moliones, when 
yet boys, took part in an expedition of the 
Epeans against Neleus and the Pylians (II. 
xi. 709, 750, xxiii. 638 ; Ov. Met. viii. 308). They 
are represented as nephews of Augeas, king of 
the Epeans. When Heracles marched against 
Augeas, the latter entrusted the conduct of the 
war to the Moliones ; but as Heracles was taken 
ill, he concluded peace with Augeas, whereupon 
his army was attacked and defeated by the 
Molionidae. In order to take vengeance, he 
afterwards slew them near Cleonae, on the fron- 
tiers of Argolis, when they had been sent from 
Elis to sacrifice at the Isthmian games, on 
behalf of the town. (Pind. 01. xi. 34 ; Paus. 
viii. 14, 6 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 2.) — The Moliones are 
mentioned as conquerors of Nestor in the 
chariot race, and as having taken part in the 
Calydonian hunt. Cteatus was the father of 
Amphimachus by Theronice ; and Eurytus, of 
Thalpius by Theraphone. Their sons Amphi- 
machus and Thalpius led the Epeans to Troy. 
(Paus. v. 3, 4.) Later traditions describe them 
as born out of an egg, and as having only one 
body, but two heads (Athen. ii. 58; Plut. de 
Fratr. Am. 1). 

Molo, surname of Apollonius, the rhetorician 
of Rhodes. [Apollonius, No. 2.] 

Molon (M6\wv), satrap of Media under Antio- 
chus the Great, against whom he revolted. He 
was defeated near Babylon B.C. 220, and put an 
end to his own life. (Pol. v. 40-54.) 

Molochath. [Mulucha.] 

Molossi (MoAocrcro/), a people in Epirus, who 
inhabited a narrow slip of country, called after 
them Molossia (MuAocrcrla) or Molossis, which 
extended from the Aous, along the W. bank of 
the Arachthus, as far as the Ambracian gulf. 
The Molossi were a Greek people, who claimed 
descent from Mjlossus, the son of Pyrrhus 



(Neoptolemus) and Andromache, and are said to 
have emigrated from Thessaly into Epirus, 
under the guidance of Pyrrhus (Plut. Pyrrh. 
1 ; Just. xvii. 3). In their new abodes they 
intermingled with the original inhabitants of 
the land and with the neighbouring Illyrian 
tribes, in consequence of which they were re- 
garded by the other Greeks as half barbarians. 
They were, however, by far the most powerful 
people in Epirus, and their kings gradually ex- 
tended their dominion over the whole of the 
country. (Hdt. vi. 127 ; Thuc. ii. 80 ; Liv. viii. 
24.) The first of their kings who took the title 
of king of Epirus was Alexander, who perished 
in Italy B.C. 326. [Epibus.] The ancient 
capital of the Molossi was Passabon, but Am- 
bkacia afterwards became their chief town, and 
the residence of their kings. (Plut. Pyrrh. 5 ; 
Liv. xlv. 26.) The Molossian hounds were cele- 
brated in antiquity, and much prized for hunt- 
ing (Verg. Georg. iii. 405 ; Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 114). 

Molus (M<SAos), son of Deucalion and father 
of Mebiones (II. x. 269, xiii. 279 ; Apollod. iii. 
3, 1). 

Molycrium (MoXvitpeiov, also MoAwfpeia, Mo- 
KvKpla: MoAwtpios, MoAu/cpi€us, MoAvKpcuos), a 
town in the most southerly part of Aetolia, at 
the entrance of the Corinthian gulf, gave the 
name of Rhium Molycrium ('Piov M.oXvKpioi/) to 
the neighbouring promontory of Antirrhium. 
It was founded by the Corinthians, but was 
afterwards taken possession of by the Aetolians. 
(Thuc. ii. 84 ; Strab. p. 336.) 

Momemphis (Ma/ie^u: Panouf-Khet, or 
Manouf-el-Seffli, i.e. Loiver Memphis), the 
capital of the Nomos Momemphites in Lower 
Egypt, stood on the E. side of the lake Mareotis 
(Strab. p. 803). 

Momus (Ma>fws), the god of cruel mockery 
and censure, is not mentioned by Homer, but is 
called in Hesiod the son of Night. He is said 
to have found fault with the man formed by 
Hephaestus, because a little door had not been 
left in his breast, so as to enable one to look 
into his secret thoughts. (Hes. Th. 214 ; Callim. 
Hymn. Apoll. 113 ; Lucian, Hermotim. 20.) 

Mona. 1. (Anglesey) An island off the coast of 
the Ordovices in Britain, one of the chief 
seats of the Druids, was invaded by Suetonius 
Paulinus, a.d. 61, and conquered by Agricola, 
78. (Tac. Agr. 15, 18, Ann. xiv. 29 ; Ptol. iii. 
412 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 7.)— 2. See Monapia. 

Monaeses. 1. A Parthian general mentioned 
by Horace (Od. iii. 6, 9) is probably the same 
as Surenas, the general of Orodes, who defeated 
Crassus. — 2. A Parthian noble, who deserted to 
Antony and urged him to invade Parthia, but 
soon afterwards returned to the Parthian king 
Phraates. — 3. A general of the Parthian king 
Vologeses I., in the reign of Nero. 

Monapia or Monarina (Isle of Man), an 
island between Britannia and Hibernia (Plin. 
iv. 103). It is probable that Caesar means 
this island when he speaks of Mona as half- 
way between Britain and Ireland (B.G. v. 13). 

Monda or Munda (Mondego), a river of 
Spain, flowing into the ocean between the Tagus 
and Durius (Plin. iv. 115 ; Mel. iii. 1, 7). 

Moneta. [Juno.] 

Monima (Mo^i'/xt)), a Greek woman, either of 
Stratonicea, in Ionia, or of Miletus, was the wife 
of Mithridates, but was put to death by order of 
this monarch, when he fled into Armenia, B.C. 
72 (App. Mithr. 21, 27, 48 ; Plut. Lucull. 18). , 

Monoeci Portus, also Herculis Monoeci 
Portus (Monaco), a port-town on the coast of 
Liguria, just within the province of Gallia Nar- 



MONTANUS 

bonensis (of which the boundary was the river 
Var), between Nicaea and Albium Intemelium, 
founded by tbe Massilians, was situated on a 
promontory (hence the arx Monoeci of Verg. 
Aen. vi. 801), and possessed a temple of Her- 
cules Monoecus, from whom the place derived 
its name (Strab. p. 202 ; Amm. Marc. xv. 10, 9j. 
The harbour, though small and exposed to the 
SE. wind (Lucan, i. 405), was of importance, as 
it was the only one on this part of the coast of 
Liguria (Tac. Hist. iii. 42 ; Val. Max. i. 6, 7). 
A little above Monoeci Portus Augustus marked 
the highest point of the difficult coast road 
which he had made there by a trophy (Tropaea 
Alpium ; Plin. iii. 136; Ptol. iii. 1,2) inscribed 
with the names of conquered Alpine tribes : 
hence the name of the modern Turbia. 

Montanus, Curtlus, was exiled by Nero, 
a.d. 67 ; but was soon afterwards recalled at 
his father's petition. On the accession of Ves- 
pasian, he vehemently attacked in the senate 
the notorious delator, Aquilius Regulus. (Tac. 
Ann. xvi. 28, 33, Hist. iv. 40-43.) If he is the 
same person as the Curtius Montanus satirised 
by Juvenal (iv. 107, 131, xi. 34), Montanus in later 
life sullied the fair reputation which, according 
to Tacitus, he enjoyed in youth ; for Juvenal 
describes him as a corpulent epicure, a parasite 
of Domitian, and a wind-bag (bucca). Hence 
some suggest that Juvenal alludes to a Junius 
Montanus, who appears in an inscription as 
consul suffectus in a.d. 81. 

Montanus Julius, a writer of elegiac and 
epic poetry, contemporary with Ovid (Ov. 
Pont. iv. 16,11; Sen. Contr. vii. 16,27; Sen. 
Ep. 122). 

Montanus, Votienus, til' Narbo, an orator and 
declaimer in the reign of Tiberius, was named 
the ' Ovid ' of the rhetorical schools. He 
was convicted on a charge of majestas, and 
died an exile in the Balearic islands, a.d. 25. 
(Tac. Ann. iv. 42 ; Sen. Contr. vii. 20, ix. 28.) 

Mopsla or Mopsopla, an ancient name of i 
Pamphylia, derived from Mopsus, the mythical 
leader of certain Greeks supposed to have 
settled in Pamphylia, as also in Cilicia and 
Syria, after the Trojan war, whose name appears 
more than once in the geographical names in 
Cilicia. (See Mopsucrene, Mopsuf.ktia.) 

Mopslum (Mdtyioi'), a town of Thessaly in 1 
Pelasgiotis, on a hill of the same name between 
Tempe and Larissa (Strab. p. 441 ; Liv. xlii. 61). 

Mopsucrene (Mctyov «pi)vr\ or Kpr\vun, i.e. the 
Sjrring of Moj>shs), a city of Cilicia Campestris, 
on the S. slope of the Taurus, and twelve Roman 
miles from Tarsus, the place where Constan- 
tine died, a.d. 864 (Ptol. v. 7, 7 ; Sozom. v. 1). 

Mopsuestia (Mityov taria, Moifoue aria, i.e. | 
the Hearth of Mopsus, also Mttyou tt/jKi? and 
Mctyos: Moi|<€aT7)s: Mampsista, in the middle 
ages : Messis), an important city of Cilicia 
Campestris, on both banks of the river Pyramus, 
twelve Roman miles from its mouth, on the 
road from Tarsus to Issus, in the beautiful 
plain called rl> 'Akifiov wfS'tov, was a civitas 
libera under the Romans. The two parts of the 
city were connected by a handsome bridge built 
by Constantius over tin- Pyramus. {Strab. p. 
676; Cic. ad Fain. iii. 8; Arrian, An. ii. 5.) In 
ecclesiastical history it is notable as the birth- 
place of Theodore of Mop-nest in 

Mopsus (Mo^os). 1. Si, ii of Ampyx or Am- 
pycus by the nymph Chloria (Hi s. Sent. lHl). 
He was one of the l,a|>ithue of Oi-chnlin or Ti- 
taeron (Tliessuly), and took part in the combat 
at the wedding of Pirithous. He was one of 
the Calydonian hunters, and also one of the 



MORS 573 
I Argonauts, and was a famous prophet among the 
I Argonauts. He was afterwards worshipped as 
I an oracular hero. (Pind. Pyth. iv. 336; Ap. 
Rh. i. 65 ; Paus. v. 17, 4 ; Strab. p. 443 ; Hvg. 
[ Fab. 14 ; Ov. Met. viii. 316, xii. 456.)— 2. Son 
of Apollo and Manto, the daughter of Tiresias, 
and also a celebrated seer. He contended in 
prophecy with Calchas at Colophon, and showed 
himself superior to the latter in prophetic 
power. [Caichas.] He founded Mallos in 
Cilicia, in conjunction with the seer Amphilo- 
chus. A dispute arose between the two seers 
respecting the possession of the town, and both 
fell in combat by each other's hand. Mopsus 
had an oracle at Mallos, which existed in the 
time of Strabo (Strab. p. 675 ; Plut. Def. Or. 45). 

Morgantium, Morgantina, Miirgantia, 
Morgentla I yiopydvTiou, Mopyavrivr] : Mopyav- 
rtvos, Murgentinus), a town in Sicily founded 
by the Morgetes, after they had been driven out 
of Italy by the Oenotrians. According to Livy 
(xxiv. 27) this city was situated on the E. coast ; 
but according to other writers it was situated in 
! the interior of the island, SE. of Agyrium, and 
' { near the Symaethus. The neighbouring country 
; produced good wine. (Strab. pp. 257, 270 > 
' Diod. xi. 78 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 18, 43.) 

Morgetes iMopy-qres), an ancient people in 
the S. of Italy. According to Strabo they dwelt 
in the neighbourhood of Rhegium, but being 
driven out of Italy by the Oenotrians crossed 
over to Sicily and there founded the town of 
Morgantium. According to Antiochus, Morges. 
was the successor of the Oenotrian king Italus, 
and hospitably received Siculus, who had been 
driven out of Latium by the Aborigines, in con- 
sequence of which the earlier Oenotrians were 
called Italictes, Morgetes and Siculi. (Strab. 
p. 257; Antioch. ap. Dionys. 1, 12.) 

Morimene ( yiopi^vit), "the NW. district of 
Cappadocia, on the banks of the Halys, assigned 
under the Romans to Galatia. Its meadows 
were entirely devoted to the feeding of cattle. 
(Strab. pp. 534, 540.) 

Morini, a people in Gallia Belgica, W. of the 
Nervii and Menapii, and the most northerly 
people in all Gaul, whence Virgil calls them 
rxtremi hominuin (Aen. viii. 727). They dwelt 
on the coast, opposite Britain, and at the nar- 
row est part of the channel between Gaul and 
Britain, which is hence sometimes called Fre- 
tilin Morinorum or Morinum. They were a 
warlike people (Caes. B.G. iv. 21 ; Dio Cass. 
Ii. 21). Their chief town was Gesoriacum. 

Morius l Miopios), a small river in Boeotia, a 
S. tributary of the Cephissus, at the foot of Mt. 
Thurion near Chaekonea. 

Mormo (Mop/ui, also HopfioKvicn, Mopfj.o- 
A.UK6I0P), a female spectre, witli which the 
Greeks used to frighten children (Aristoph. 
Ach. 582, Pax, 474 ; Theocr. xv. 40). 

Morpheus \Mop<ptvsj, the son of Sleep, and 
the god of dreams. The name signifies the 
fashioner or moulder, because lie shaped or 
formed the dreams which appeared to the 
sleeper (Ov. Met. xi. 635). 

Mors, called Thanatos (©apo-ros) by the 
Greeks, the god of death. In the Homeric 
poems Death does not appear as a distinct 
divinity, though he is described as the brother 
of Sleep, together with whom he curries the 
body of Sarpedon from the field of battle to the 
country of the Lycians (II. xiv. 281, xvi. 672). 
In Hcsiod he is a son of N-jght and a brother of 
Ker and Sleep, and Death and Sleep reside in 
the lower world (Hes. Th. 211, 756 ; cf. Verg. 
Acn. vi. 277). In the Alcestis of Euripides (75, 



574 



MOESIMUS 



MUGILLA 



843), where Death comes upon the stage, he 
appears as an austere priest of Hades in a dark 
robe (some propose fxeXaiATtTepos for ixeXa.fi- 
ireirXos, comparing Hor. Sat. ii. 1, 58), and with 
the sacrificial sword, with which he cuts off a 
lock of a dying person, and devotes it to the 
lower world. Many of the later poets describe 
Death as a sad or terrific being ; but the best 
artists of the Greeks, avoiding anything that 
might be displeasing, abandoned the idea sug- 
gested to them by the poets, and represented 
Death under a more peaceful aspect. On the 
chest of Cypselus, Night was represented with 
two boys, one black and the other white ; and 
at Sparta there were statues of both Death and 
Sleep (Paus. iii. 18, v. 18). Both were usually 
represented as slumbering youths, or as winged 
deities (Sai/xoves), and with torches turned upside 
down (cf. Verg. Aen. vi. 224). 

Morsimus (Wi6p<rifj.os), a tragic poet, son of 
Philocles and father of the elder Astydamas, 
ridiculed by Aristophanes (Ban. 181 ; Suid. 
s.v.). 

Morychus (M6puxos), a tragic poet, a con- 
temporary of Aristophanes, noted for his glut- 
tony (Aristoph. Ach. 887, Vesp. 504). 

Mosa (Maas or Meuse), a river in Gallia Bel- 
gica, rises in Mt. Vogesus, in the territory of the 
Lingones, and falls into the Vahalis or W. branch 
of the Bhine (Caes. B.G. iv. 10 ; Ptol. ii. 9, 3). 

Moscha (Mrfcrxa: Muscat), a seaport on the 
NE. coast of Arabia Felix, SW. of Syagrus, the 
easternmost promontory of the peninsula (Has 
el-Had) ; a chief emporium for the trade be- 
tween India and Arabia (Ptol. vi. 7). 

Moschi (M<S<rxoi), a people of Asia, whose ter- 
ritory (rj Tftocrxwh), formed originally the S. part 
of Colchis, but at the time of Augustus was 
divided between Colchis, Iberia, and Armenia 
(Hdt. iii. 94, vii. 78 ; Strab. p. 497). 

MoschiciMontes, or-icus Mons (to Mocrxi/ca 
upr\ : Mesjidi), a range of mountains extending 
S. and SW. from the main chain of the Caucasus 
to that of the Anti- Taurus, and forming the 
boundary between Colchis and Iberia : named 
after the Moschi, who dwelt among them 
(Strab. pp. 61, 492, 548 ; Ptol. v. 6, 13). 

Moscnion (Mocrxiw), a Greek physician, the 
author of a short Greek treatise 1 On Female 
Diseases,' is supposed to have lived in the be- 
ginning of the second century after Christ. 
The work is edited by Dewez, Vienn. 1793. 

Moschus (Wl6crxos),o{ Syracuse, a grammarian 
and bucolic poet, lived about B.C. 250, or a little 
later. He was a pupil of Bion. In genius he 
comes far behind Theocritus, whom he imitates. 
But his lament for Bion has great melody and 
pathos. His style labours under an excess of 
polish and ornament. For editions see Bion. 

Mosella (Mosel or Moselle), a river in Gallia 
Belgica, rises in Mt. Vogesus, and falls into the 
Bhine at Confluentes (Coblenz). This river 
forms the subject of a descriptive poem by 
Ausonius (cf. Flor. iii. 10). 

Mosteni (Ko(Tti)vo'i, Mocrnva, Wlovtrr-fivri, 
MutrrtjcT)), a city of Lydia, in the Hyrcanian 
plain, SE. of Thyatira, was one of the cities of 
Asia Minor destroyed by the great earthquake 
of a.d. 17. Its coins are numerous. (Tac. Ann. 
ii. 47 ; Ptol. v. 2, 16.) 

Mosychlus. [Lemnos.] 

Mosynoeci (Mo<tvvomoi, Moao-vvotKoi), or Mo- 
syni or Mossyni (tHoffvvo'i, Mo<T<rvvo'i), a people 
on the N. coast of Asia Minor, in Pontus, E. of 
the Chalybes and the city of Cerasus, celebrated 
for their warlike spirit and savage customs, 
• which are described by Xenophon (Anab. iv. 4, 



v. 4). Their name was derived from the conical 
wooden houses in which they dwelt. Their 
government was curious : a king chosen by 
them was strictly guarded in a house higher 
than the rest, and maintained at the public cost ; 
but as soon as he displeased the commons, they 
literally stopped the supplies, and starved him to 
death. (Hdt. vii. 78; Strab. p. 549 ; Diod. xiv. 30.) 

Mothone. [Methone.] 

Motuca or Motyca (MorovKa: Mutycensis: 
Modica), a town in the S. of Sicily, W. of the 
promontory Pachynus and near the sources of 
the river Motychanus (Fiume di Bagusa). 
Since both Cicero and Pliny call the inhabitants 
Mutycenses, it is probable that Mutyca is the 
more correct form of the name. (Cic. Verr. iii. 
43, 51 ;_Plin. iii. 91; Ptol. iii. 4, 14.) 

Motya (Motutj : Motvouos), an ancient town in 
the NW. of Sicily, situated on a small island 
(8. Pantaleo) only six stadia from the coast, 
with which it was connected by a mole. It was 
founded by the Phoenicians in the territory of 
the Elymi. It possessed a good harbour, and 
was in early times one of the most flourishing 
cities of Sicily. It afterwards passed into the 
hands of the Carthaginians, was taken from 
them by Dionysius of Syracuse, and was finally 
captured by the Carthaginian general Himilco, 
who transplanted all its inhabitants to the town 
of Lilybaeum, which he had founded in its 
neighbourhood, B.C. 397. (Thuc. vi. 2 ; Diod. 
xiv. 47, 55.) 

Motychanus, [Motuca.] 

Mucia, daughter of Q. Mucius Scaevola, the 
augur, consul B.C. 95, married Cn. Ponrpey, by 
whom she had two sons, Cneius and Sextus, and 
a daughter, Pompeia. She was divorced by 
Pompey in 62. She next married M. Aemilius 
Scaurus, a stepson of the dictator Sulla. In 39, 
Mucia went to Sicily to mediate between her 
son Sex. Pompey and Augustus. She was 
living at the time of the battle of Actium, 31. 
Augustus treated her with great respect. (Cic. 
ad Fain. v. 2 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 49, lvi. 38 ; 
Suet. Jul. 50.) 

Mucianus. 1. P. Licinius Crassus Dives 
Mucianus, was the son of P. Mucius Scaevola, 
and was adopted by P. Licinius Crassus Dives. 
He was consul B.C. 131, and carried on the war 
against Aristonicus in Asia, but was defeated 
and killed. He succeeded Scipio Nasica as 
pontifex maximus. He was distinguished both 
as an orator and a lawyer. (Gell. i. 13 ; Val. 
Max. viii. 7 ; Cic. de Or. i. 37, 216.)— 2. licinius 
Mucianus, three times consul, in a.d. 52, 70, and 
75. On Nero's death in 68, Mucianus had the 
command of the province of Syria ; and he ren- 
dered efficient aid to Vespasian when the latter 
resolved to seize the imperial throne. As soon 
as Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, Mucianus 
set out for Europe to oppose Vitellius : but the 
Vitellians were entirely defeated by Antonius 
Primus [Primus], before Mucianus entered 
Italy. Antonius, however, had to surrender all 
power into the hands of Mucianus, upon the 
arrival of the latter at Rome. Mucianus was 
an orator and a historian. His powers of ora- 
tory are greatly praised by Tacitus. He made 
a collection of the speeches of the republican 
period, which he published in eleven books of 
Acta and three of Epistolae. The subject of 
his history is not mentioned ; but it appears to 
have treated chiefly of the East. (Tac. Hist. i. 
10, ii. 76, iii. 53, iv. 80 ; Suet. Vesp. 6, 13.) He 
is often cited by Pliny. 
Mucius Scaevola. [Scaevola.] 
Mugilla (Mugillanus), a town in Latium from 



MCLCIBER 



MTJRENA 



575 



•which a family of the Papirii probably derived 
their name Mugillanus (Dionys. viii. 36). 

Mulciber. [Vitlcanus.] 

Muliicha, Malva, or Molochath (MoAoxafl : 
Muluwi), the largest river of Mauretania, rising 
in the Atlas, and flowing N. by E. into the 
Gulf of MeUllah, successively the boundary 
between the Mauri and the Massaesylii, 
Mauretania and Numidia, Mauretania Tingitana 
and Mauretania Caesariensis. (Strab. pp. 827, 
829 ; Ptol. iv. 1, 7.) [Mauretania.] 

Mummius. 1. L., tribune of the plebs, B.C. 
187, and praetor 177 (Liv. xxxvii. 54, xli. 8). — 
2. L., surnamed Achaicus, son of the last, was 
praetor 154, when he carried on the war suc- 
cessfully in Further Spain, against the Lusita- 
nians. He was consul in 146, when he won for 
himself the surname of Achaicus, by the con- 
quest of Greece, and the establishment of the 
Roman province of Achaia. After defeating 
the army of the Achaean League at the Istlimus 
of Corinth, he entered Corinth without oppo- 
sition. The city was burnt, rased, and aban- 
doned to pillage : the native Corinthians were 
sold for slaves, and the rarest specimens of 
Grecian art were given up to the rapacity of 
an ignorant conqueror. Polybius the historian 
saw Roman soldiers playing at draughts upon 
the far-famed picture of Dionysus by Aristides ; 
and Mummius himself was so unconscious of 
the real value of his prize, that he sold the 
rarer works of painting, sculpture, and carving, 
to the king of Pergamum, and exacted secu- 
rities from the masters of vessels who conveyed 
the remainder to Italy, to replace by equiva- 
lents any picture or statue lost or injured in 
the passage. (Pol. iii. 32, xl. 7-11 ; Veil. Pat. i. 
13.) He remained in Greece during the greater 
part of 145 with the title of proconsul. He 
arranged the fiscal and municipal constitution 
of the newly acquired province, and won the 
confidence and esteem of the provincials by 
his integrity, justice, and equanimity. He 
triumphed in 145. He was censor in 142 with 
Scipio Africanus the younger. The political 
opinions of Mummius inclined to the popular 
side. (Cic. Mur. 14, Off. ii. 22 ; Paus. vii. 12.) 
— 3. Sp., brother of the preceding, and his 
legatus at Corinth in 146-145, was an intimate 
friend of the younger Scipio Africanus. In 
political opinions Spurius was opposed to his 
brother Lucius, and was a high aristocrat. He 
composed ethical and satirical epistles, which 
were extant in Cicero's age, and were probably 
in the style which Horace afterwards cultivated 
so successfully. (Cic. de Hep. i. 12, ad Att. 
xiii. 6, de Amic. 19, 27.) 

Munatlus Plancus. [Pi, am i - 

Munda. 1. A Roman colony and an important 
town in Hispania Baetica, situated on a small 
river, and celebrated on account of two battles 
fought in its neighbourhood — the victory of Cn. 
Scipio over the Carthaginians in B.C. 216, and 
the important victory of Julius Caesar over the 
sons of Pompey in 45. The town had fallen 
into decay as early as the time of Pliny. The 
site of the ancient town is usually supposed 
to be the modern village of Munda, S\V. of 
Malaga ; but Munda was more probably in the 
neighbourhood of Cordova, and there are rains 
of ancient walls and towers between Martos, 
Alcandcte, Espcjo, and Baeno, which are con- 
jectured to be the remains of Munda. (Strab. 
p. Ill; Plin. iii. 12; Liv. xxiv. 12; Dio Cass, 
xliii. 39.) — 2. A river. Si c MoNDA. 

Munychia (Mawvx^), a hill in the peninsula 
of Piraeus, which formed the citadel of the 



ports of Athens. It was strongly fortified, and 
is frequently mentioned in Athenian history. 
At its foot lay the harbour of Munychia, one 
of the three harbours in the peninsula of Pi- 
raeus fortified by Themistocles. The names 
of these three harbours were Piraeus, Zea, and 
Munychia. [See map on p. 142.] The hill of 
Munychia contained several public buildings. 
Of these the most important were : — (1) a temple 
of Artemis Munychia, in which persons accused 
of crimes against the state took refuge ; (2) the 
Bendideum, the sanctuary of the Thracian 
Artemis Bendis, in whose honour the festival of 
the Bendidea was celebrated ; (3) the theatre 
on the NW. slope of the hill. (Strab. p. 395 ; 
Paus. i. 1, 4.) 
Murcia, Murtea, Murtia. [Venus.] 
Murcus, L. Statius, was Caesar's legatus B.C. 
48, and praetor 45. He went into Syria after his 
year of office expired ; and after Caesar's death 
became an active supporter of the republican 
party. Cassius appointed him prefect of the 

' fleet. After the ruin of the republican party at 
Philippi, in 42, Murcus went over to Sex. 

! Pompey in Sicily. Here he was assassinated 
by Pompey's order at the instigation of his 

! freedman Menas. to whom Murcus had borne 
himself loftily. (Caes. B. C. iii. 15 ; App. B. C. 

I iv. 58-86, 100-117, v. 15, 70 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 19 ; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 77.) 

Mureua, Licinius. The name Murena is 
said to have been given in consequence of P. 
Licinius, praetor in 104, having a great liking 
for the lamprey (murena), and building tanks 
(vivaria) for them (Plin. ix. 170 ; Macrob. ii. 
11). — 1. P., a man of some literary knowledge, 
lost his life in the wars of Marius and Sulla, 

\ B.C. 82 (Cic. Brut. 67, 90).— 2. L., brother of 
the preceding, served under Sulla in Greece, 
in the Mithridatic war. After Sulla had 
made peace with Mithiidates (84), Murena was 
left as propraetor in Asia. Anxious for dis- 
tinction, Murena sought a quarrel with Mithri- 
dates : and after carrying on the war for two 

' years, was at length compelled by the strict 
orders of Sulla to stop hostilities. Murena re- 
turned to Rome, and had a triumph in 81. 
(App. Mithr. 64 ; Cic. pro Leg. Manil. 3, 7.) — 
3. L., son of the last, served under his father 

I in the second Mithridatic war, and also under 
Lucullus in the third Mithridatic war. In 65 
he was praetor, in 64 propraetor of Gallia Cis- 
alpina, and in 63 was elected consul with D. 
Junius Silanus. Serv. Sulpicius, an unsuc- 
cessful candidate, instituted a prosecution 
against Murena for bribery (ambitus), and he 
was supported in the matter by M. Porcius 

' Cato, Cn. Postumius, and Serv. Sulpicius the 
younger. Murena was defended by Q. Horten- 

I sius, M. Tullius Cicero, who was then consul, 

' and M. Licinius Crassus. The speech of Cicero, 

, which is extant, was delivered in the latter pait 
of November. The orator handled his subject 
skilfully, by making merry with the formulae 
and the practice of the lawyers, to which class 
Sulpicius belonged, and with the paradoxes of 

I the Stoics, to which sect Cato had attached 

i himself. Murena was acquitted, and was consul 
in the following year, 62. (Plut. Lucult. 16-19, 
Cat. Min. 21; Cic. pro Murena; ad Att. xii. 
21, xiii. 6.1 — 4. A. Terentius Varro Murena, 

l probably the son of the preceding, was adopted 
by A. Terentius Varro, whose name he took, 
according to the custom in such cases. This 
is the common and on the whole most probable 
account, inferred from the mention of him in 
Dio Cass. v. 8, Suet. Tib. 8, and Veil. IV 



576 



MURGANTIA 



ii. 91. But there is no certain authority for his 
parentage, and there is some difference in the 
names given to him. Hence some believe that 
he was a real and not an adopted Varro. It is 
impossible to accept this view without rejecting 
the authority of Dio, who calls him Licinius 
Murena. If he was born a Licinius and adopted 
by Varro, he might be spoken of either as Lici- 
nius or as Terentius, and there is nothing im- 
possible in his sister also taking the name 
Terentia. Again, there is no authority for sup- 
posing that a Varro would take the cognomen 
Murena. In the civil wars he is said to have 
lost his property (Schol. ad Hor. Od. ii. 2), 
and C. Proculeius, a Roman eques, is said to 
have given him a share of his own property. 
This Proculeius is called the brother of Varro, 
but, if we take the words of Horace literally, 
Proculeius had more than one brother. The 
plural, however, may be merely generalising. 
Again, it is not necessary to suppose that he 
was a brother; for it was common enough 
among the Romans to call cousins by the name 
of brothers (frater patruelis and /rafer). That 
Proculeius was brother (or cousin) of Murena, 
and also of Terentia the wife of Maecenas, is 
stated by Dio Cassius (liv. 3). It is a further 
question whence Murena obtained wealth 
enough to fit him for the position of augur (see 
Hor. Od. iii. 19), for which the portion likely 
to have come from Proculeius would scarcely 
suffice ; and it has been conjectured with much 
probability that the great Varro (M. Terentius 
the scholar and antiquarian) who died about 28 
B.C., and was very wealthy, may have left his 
property, or much of it, to Murena. Horace 
mentions also a villa of Murena's at Formiae 
about 38 B.C. This, however, must have be- 
longed to him before any bequest from Varro 
(Hor. Sat. i. 5, 38). It is probable, though not 
absolutely certain, that Murena was the Teren- 
tius Varro who subdued the Salassi in the Alps, 
and founded the town of Augusta (Aosta) in 
their territory (Dio Cass. liii. 25 ; Strab. p. 206), 
and was consul suffectus in 23 (C. 1. L. p. 450). 
In 22 he was involved in the conspiracy of 
Fannius Caepio, and was condemned to death 
and executed, notwithstanding the intercession 
of Proculeius and Terentia, the sister of Mu- 
rena. Horace (Od. ii. 10) addresses Murena by 
the name of Licinius, and probably intended 
to give him some advice as to being more 
cautious in his speech and conduct (cf. Sen. 
Ep. 19). His execution is mentioned by Dio 
Cass. liv. 3, Suet. Tib. 8, Tac. Ann. i. 10. (For 
the consequences to his brother-in-law, see 
Maecenas.) 

Murgantia. 1. See Mokgantium. — 2. A 
town in Samnium, E. of Bovianum (Liv. x. 17). 

Murgis, a town in Hispania Baetica, on the 
frontiers of Tarraconensis, and on the road from 
Acci to Malaga (Ptol. ii. 4, 11). 

Mursa or Mursia (Esseck, capital of Slavo- 
nia), an important town in Pannonia Inferior, 
situated on the Dravus, not far from its junction 
with the Danube, was a Roman colony founded 
by the emperor Hadrian (hence Aelia Mursa), 
and was the residence of the governor of Lower 
Pannonia (Ptol. ii. 16, 8). Here Magnentius 
was defeated by Constantius II., A.D. 351, 

Mursella, or Mursa Minor, a town in Panno- 
nia Inferior, only ten miles W. of the great 
Mursa. 

Mus, Decius. [Decius.] 

Musa, Antonius, a celebrated physician at 
Rome about the beginning of the Christian era. 
He was brother to Euphorbus, the physician to 



MUSAE 

king Juba, and was himself the physician to 
the emperor Augustus. He had been originally 
a slave. When the emperor was seriously ill, 
and had been made worse by a hot regimen and 
treatment, B.C. 23, Antonius Musa succeeded in 
restoring him to health by means of cold bath- 
ing and cooling drinks, for which service he 
received from Augustus and the senate a large 
sum of money, and the permission to wear a 
gold ring, and also had a statue erected in his 
honour near that of Aesculapius by public 
subscription. He seems to have been attached 
to this mode of treatment, to which Horace 
alludes (Epist. i. 15, 3), but failed when he 
applied it to the case of M. Marcellus, who died 
under his care a few months after the recovery 
of Augustus, 23. (Dio Cass. liii. 30 ; Suet. Aug. 
59, 81 ; Plin. xix. 128, xxv. 77, xxx. 117.) He 
wrote several pharmaceutical works, which are 
frequently quoted by Galen, but of which 
nothing except a few fragments remain. There 
are, however, two short Latin medical works 
ascribed to Antonius Musa, but these are 
generally considered to be spurious. 

Musa or Muza (Wlovcra, Movfr: prob. Mou- 
shid, N. of Mokha), a port of Arabia Felix, on 
the W. coast, near the Straits of Bab-el- 
Mandeb (Ptol. vii. 15)*. 

Musae (Nlovaai), the Muses, were, according 
to the earliest writers, the inspiring goddesses 
of song, and, according to later notions, divini- 
ties presiding over the different kinds of poetry, 
and over the arts and sciences. They were 
originally nymphs of wells and springs, which 
were regarded as sacred and inspiring, and were 
in the earliest times honoured with choruses 
and dances. (Thus one of the altars of the 
Muses at Athens was sacred to The Muses of 
the Ilissus.) Hence the nymphs themselves 
were supposed to be the sources of song and 
poetry. Such wor- 
ship was common 
in Thracia and 
Boeotia, and it 
was especially 
important at the 
plenteoussprings 
of Mt. Heli- 
con, Aganippe 
and Hippocrene. 
They were thus 
brought into con- 
nexion with the 
great deities of 
that country,with 
Dionysus, and 
more especially 
with Apollo, who 
represented their 
characteristics as 
being the god at 
once of prophetic 
and of poeti- 
cal inspiration. 
Hence he is the 
leader of the 
Muses (Moucr- 
ay(Ti]S : cf. II. • 
i. 603 ; Pind. 
Nem. v. 23 ; Paus. v. 18, 4 ; p. 89, b). They not 
only taught the poet his art (Hes. Th. 11), but, 
as gifted with oracular power, they came to be 
regarded as teaching arts and knowledge in 
general. — 1. Geyiealogy of the Muses. The 
most common notion was that they were the 
daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, and born 
in Pieria, at the foot of Mt. Olympus (II. ii. 




Clio, the Muse of History. (From 
a statue now in Sweden.) 



MUSAE 



577 



491, Od. i. 10; Hes. Th. 52, 915; Apollod. i. 3, 
li. There were other traditions of their being 
daughters of Uranus and Ge fin allusion to the 
origin of springs), or of Pierus, from their 
worship ill Pieria and their names Pierides or 



in Hesioc f all the nine, 

and these nine names became the usual ones. 
They are Clio, Futerpe, Thalia, Melpomene, 
Terpsichore, Erato, Polymnia or Polyhymnia , 
Urania, and Calliope. In some local tradi- 




Pieriae nymphae (Cic. N.D. ii. 21, 54). — 2. 
XiDtiber of the Muses. That there were nine 
Muses instead of the usual three (according to 
the number of Graces, Hours, Sec.) was probably 
due to the form which the choruses took round 



tions the number three was asserted. Pausanias 
and Plutarch speak of three Muses at one time 
honoured on Helicon (where their names were 
said to be Melete, Mneme, and Aoide), at 
Delphi and at Sicyon (Paus. is. 29; Plut. 




fl. Tcrpnichoro. tho Muro of the Choral I inner 
(From (.he VpothooslH of Homer, In tin 
Urltltkh MuHruin.) 



■ Erato, the Muro of Erotic 
1'oetry. (From a Rtatuc in 
the \ iitieiinj 



'. Polymnln. tho Muse of the 
Sublime Hymn. (From ii 
Htatuc In the Louvro.) 



the sacred springs, in three rows of three Symp. ix. 14) ; and Cicero (I.e.) speaks of four 
maidens. In the Iliad the Muses an- spoken of Muses as belonging to one tradition; but these 
sometimes in the singular, sometimes in the is no sufficient reason for regarding the number 
plural, but without definite number. Nine nine, which eventually prevailed, as a more 
Muses are first mentioned in Oil. xxiv. lid, and recent trudition than t lie others. — 8. future 

V V 



578 



MUSAE 




and Character of the Muses. In Homer's 
poems they are the goddesses of song and 
poetry, and live in Olympus. There they sing 
the festive songs at the repasts of the immortals. 
They bring before the mind of the mortal poet 
the events which he has to relate, and confer 
upon him the gift of song. (II. i. 604, ii. 484, 
Od. i. 1, viii. 63 ; Hes. 
Th. 22.) There is no 
reason to doubt that the 
earliest poets in their 
invocation of the Muse 
or Muses were perfectly 
sincere, and actually 
believed in their being 
inspired by the god- 
desses ; though in later 
times the invocation of 
the Muses was conven- 
tional. There are traces 
of a contest between 
the worship of the 
Muses and other local 
myths; thus Thamyris, 
who presumed to excel 
the Muses, was deprived 
by them of the gift 
they had bestowed on 
him, and punished with 
blindness (II. ii. 594; 
Apollod. i. 3, 3) ; the 
Sirens, who likewise 
ventured upon a contest 
with them, were de- 
8. Ura.ua, the Muse of As- privedof the feathers of 
tronomy. (From a statue f , . . .-i-, . 
now in Sweden.) their wings (Paus. \x. 34, 

2). The nine daughters 
of Pierus, who presumed to rival the Muses, 
were changed into birds. The earliest worship 
of the Muses is perhaps correctly assigned to 
Thrace and Pieria about Mt. Olympus, whence 
it was introduced into Boeotia (Strab. pp. 410, 
471) ; and the names of mountains, grottoes, 
and wells, connected with their worship in the 
North, were 
likewise trans- 
ferred to the 
South. Pierus, 
a Macedonian, 
is said to have 
been the first 
who intro- 
duced the wor- 
ship of the 
nine Muses, 
from Thrace to 
Thespiae, at 
the foot of Mt. 
Helicon (Paus. 
xxix. 2). It is 
possible that 
in this story is 
concealed the 
fact that the 
Thracian wor- 
ship of nine 
Muses super- 
seded a Boeo- 
tian worship of 
three. Near 
Mt. Helicon, Ephialtes and Otus are said to have 
offered the first sacrifices to them. In the same 
place there was a sanctuary with their statues, the 
sacred wells Aganippe and Hippocrene, and on 
Mt. Libethrion, which is connected with Helicon, 
there was a sacred grotto of the Muses. At 
Thespiae they had a temple and statues, and the 




Calliope, the Muse of Epic Poetry. 
(From a statue in the Vatican.) 



MUSAEUS 

Thespians celebrated a solemn festival of the 
Muses on Mt. Helicon, called Musea (Paus. ix. 
29, 1, xxxi. 3 ; Plut. Amat. p. 748; G.I.G. 1585). 
Mt. Parnassus was likewise sacred to them, 
with the Castalian spring, near which they had 
a temple. At Athens there was an altar of the 
Muses in the Academy, besides that to the 
' Muses of the Ilissus ' near the river. At 
Sparta they had a temple at which sacrifices 
were offered before a war, because they inspired 
the martial music of the Spartans (Paus. iii. 
17). At Troezen (where they were called Ardal- 
ides, from a mythical Ardalus who introduced 
their worship), they shared an altar with 
Hypnus, the god of sleep (Paus,, ii. 31, 4). The 
sacrifices offered to the Muses consisted of 
libations of water or milk, and of honey (Schol. 
ad Oed. Col. 100 ; Serv. ad Eel. vii. 21). The 
various surnames by which they are designated 
by the poets are for the most part derived from 
the places which were sacred to them or in 
which they were worshipped, while some are 
descriptive of the sweetness of their songs. — 
4. Representations of the Muses in loorhs of 
art. In the most ancient works of art we find 
only three Muses, and their attributes are 
musical instruments, such as the flute, the lyre, 
or the barbiton. Later artists gave to each of 
the nine sisters different attributes as well as 
different attitudes. (1) Clio, the Muse of his- 
tory, appears in a sitting attitude, with an open 
roll of paper, or an open chest of books ; (2) 
Euterpe, the Muse of lyric poetry, with a flute ; 
(3) Thalia, the Muse of comedy and of merry 
or idyllic poetry, appears with a comic mask, a 
shepherd's staff, a wreath of ivy, and a tam- 
bourine ; (4) Melpomene, the Muse of tragedy, 
with a tragic mask, the club of Heracles, or a 
sword ; her head is surrounded with vine leaves, 
and she wears the cothurnus ; (5) Terpsichore, 
the Muse of choral dance and song, appears 
with the lyre and the plectrum ; (6) Erato, the 
Muse of erotic poetry and mimic imitation, 
sometimes also has the lyre ; (7) Polymnia, or 
Polyhymnia, the Muse of the sublime hymn, 
usually appears without any attribute, in a pen- 
sive attitude ; (8) Urania, the Muse of astro- 
nomy, with a staff pointing to a globe ; (9) 
Calliope, the Muse of epic poetry, appears with 
a tablet and stylus, and sometimes with a roll 
of paper.— The Italian Camenae or Casmenae 
were nymphs of springs and of prophecy, and 
were therefore identified with, the Greek Muses. 
When the worship of the Muses superseded 
that of the native Camenae, all the Greek 
attributes and legends were adopted by Roman 
poets, who used the names Musae and Camenae 
as synonyms. [Camenae.] 

Musaeus (Movcraios). 1. A semi-mythological 
personage, to be classed with Olen, Orpheus, 
and Pamphus. He was regarded as the author 
of various poetical compositions, especially 
connected with the mystic rites of Demeter at 
Eleusis, over which the legend represented him 
as presiding in the time of Heracles (Diod. iv. 
25). He was reputed to belong to the family 
of the Eumolpidae, being the son of Eumolpus 
and Selene (Philochorus, ap. Schol. ad Ar. 
Ban. 1065). In other variations of the myth 
he was less definitely called a Thracian. Accord- 
ing to other legends he was the son of Orpheus, 
of whom he was generally considered as the 
imitator and disciple. Some accounts gave him 
a wife, Deioce, and a son, Eumolpus (Suid. s.v. ; 
Serv. ad Aen, vi. 667 ; Diod. I.e.). There was a 
tradition that the Museum in Piraeus bore that 
name from having been the place where Musaeus 



MUSAGETES 



MYCENAE 



579 



was buried (Palis, i. 25, 8). Among the nume- i 
rous compositions attributed to him by the 
ancients the most celebrated were Iris Oracles. 
Onomacritus, in the time of the Pisistratidae. j 
made it his business to collect and arrange the 
oracles that passed under the name of Musaeus, 
and was banished by Hipparchus for interpo- 
lating in the collection oracles of his own 
making. (Hdt. vii. 6, viii. 96; Ar. Ban. 1031; 
Paus. i. 22, x. 9.) — 2. A grammarian, the author 
of the celebrated poem on the loves of Hero 
and Leander. Nothing is known of the writer ; 
but it is certain that the poem is a late pro- 
duction, perhaps not earlier than the fifth 
century of our era. Edited by Passow, Lips. 
1810; and by Schaefer, Lips. 1825. 

Musagetes. 'Apollo.] 

C. Musonius Rufus, a Stoic philosopher, was 
the son of a Roman eques, and was banished by 
Nero to the island of Gyaros, in a.d. 66, under 
the pretext of his having been privy to the con- 
spiracy of Piso. He returned from exile on 
the accession of Galba, and seems to have been 
held in high estimation by Vespasian, as he 
was allowed to remain at Rome when the other 
philosophers were banished from the city. (Tac. 
Ann. xv. 71 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 57, lxvi. 13.) 

Musti (Mou<7T7)i, a town in the Carthaginian 
territory (Zeugitana), near the river Bagradas, 
on the road from Carthage to Sicca Veneria 
<Ptol. iv. 3, 33). 

Muthul (Melleg), a river of Numidia, the 
boundary between the kingdoms of Jugurtha 
and Adherbal. It joins the Bagradas. (Sail. 
Jug. 48.) 

Mutilus, C. Papius, one of the principal 
Samnite generals in the Marsic war, B.C. 90-89 
fApp. B.C. i. 40-51). 

Mutina (Mutinensis : Modena), an important 
town in Gallia Cispadana, on the high road 
from Mediolanum to the S. of Italy, was ori- 
ginally a Celtic town, and was the first place 
which the Romans took away from the Boii. It 
is mentioned at the beginning of the second 
Punic war (B.C. 218) as a fortified place in- 
habited by the Romans |Liv. xxi. 25, xxvii. 21 ; 
Pol. iii. 40) ; but it was not till 183 that it was 
made a Roman colony (Liv. xxxix. 55). Mutina 
is celebrated in the history of the Civil war 
after Caesar's death. Deeimus Brutus was be- 
sieged here by M. Antonius from December, 44, 
to April, 43 ; and under its walls the battles were 
fought in which the consuls Hirtius and Pansa 
perished. Hence this war was called the Bellum 
Mutinetme. (App. B.C. iii. 49-72 ; Suet. Aug. 9.) 
The best wool in all Italy came from the neigh- 
bourhood of Mutina (Strab. p. 218). 

Mutunus Tutunus. an old Italian deity of 
fruitful marriage, worshipped by the symbol of 
the phallus, and compared by Roman writers with 
Prianus (Arnob. iv. 7; cf. Isdioetes, p. 443, a). 

Mycale (Mu»coA7) : Sam&un), a mountain in 
the S. of Ionia in Asia Minor, N. of the mouth 
■of the Moeander. It forms the W. extremity of 
M. Messogis, and runs far out into the seu, 
opposite to Samos, forming a sharp promontory, 
which was called Mycale or Trogilium ITpai-y- 
• AI..I-. TpwyvKiov : C. 8. Maria). This cape 
and the SE. promontory of Somos (Posidonium) 
overlap one another, and the two tongues of 
land are separated by a strait only seven stadia 
(little more than three-fourths of a mile) in 
width, which is renowned in Greek history as 
the scene of the victory gained over the Persian 
fleet by Leotychides and Xanthippus, B.C. 479. 
There seems to have been a city of the same 
name on or near the promontory. Ou the N. 



side of the promontory, near Priene, was the 
great temple of Poseidon, which was the place 
of meeting for the Panionic festival and Am- 
phictyony. (11. ii. 869; Hdt. i. 148; Thuc. i. 
14; Strab. p. 621; Paus. v. 7, 3.) 

Mycalessus (MvKa\j](ra6s : Mi//caA7j<nnos),an 
ancient and important city in Boeotia, men- 
tioned by Homer, was situated on the road from 
Aulis to Thebes. In B.C. 413 some Tliracian 
mercenaries in the pay of Athens surprised and 
sacked the town, and butchered the inhabitants. 
From this blow it never recovered, and was in 
ruins iu the time of Pausanias. It possessed a 
celebrated temple of Demeter, who was hence 
surnamed Mvcalessia. (17. ii. 498 ; Hymn. 
ApoU. 224 ; Thuc. vii. 29; Strab. p. 404; Paus. 
ix. 19.) The ruins of the walls and towers and 
the position of the gateways are still traceable. 

Mycenae, sometimes Mycene {Mv/cquat, Mu- 
kt)vt] : WivKTivaios : Karvata),tm ancient town in 
Argolis, about six miles NE. of Argos, and nine 
and a quarter miles inland from Tiryns, was 
situated on a spur rising from the valley of 
the Cephissus, at the NE. corner of the plain 
i hence described in Odyssey iii. 263 as fwxv 
" Ap-yeos)- Traditionally it was founded by Per- 
seus ; its massive walls were regarded as the 
work of the Cvclopes (Strab. p. 377 ; Paus. ii. 
15, 10; Eur. J.A. 1500); but there is little 
doubt that Mycenae was an offshoot from the 
older TlRYNS, which it eventually surpassed in 
importance. It was built in a secure position 
on the hillside commanding the passes 
through which several very ancient roads have 
been discovered leading to Corinth and the 
Corinthian gulf. It is therefore a reasonable 
conclusion that the princes of Tiryns [see 
Pelops ; TmYNS] built Mycenae as an outpost 
to give them the trade routes to the Corinthian 
gulf, and that this practical command of the 
commerce from both seas caused it to outstrip 
Tin ns in prosperity and to become the chief 
city of the Pelopidae; hence in the Homeric 
age and story it is regarded as the capital of 
Agamemnon and the first city in all Greece 
(//. ii. 509, iv. 52, vii. 180, xi. 46). After the 
conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, it 
ceased to be a place of importance, but is 
mentioned as sending a small contingent of 
troops to Thermopylae and to Plataeae (Hdt. 
\ii. 202, ix. 28). At length, in 468, Argos, having 
recovered from her former defeats by Sparta, 
began to strengthen her dominion and attacked 
Mycenae, angry, as some relate, because the 
Mycenaeans had helped the Greek armies 
against Persia (Paus. ii. 16, '<). The massive 
walls resisted all attacks, but the inhabitants 
were at length compelled by famine to abandon 
their town. They effected their escape without 
a surrender, ami took refuge, some at Cleonae, 
j some in Achaia, and others in Macedonia. 
iDiod. xi. 65; Strab. p. 377; Paus. vii. 25, 3. | 
The chief known remains of the ancient city 
were- until recent years part of the fortifications. 
I especially the 'Lion Gate,' and some 'bee- 
hive ' tombs, often called treasuries. The ex- 
I cavations carried out by Schliemann in 1876. 
and continued in later years, were of the utmost 
importance, not only for the history of Mycenae 
and of the Peloponnesus in pre-Dorian times, 
but also for the study of Greek archaeology, 
and for the light which is thrown on the 
Homeric poems. The walls of the citadel of 
Mycenae enclose a tringular space : the walls of 
I the lower city start from the SW. side of the 
citadel. The oldest part of the walls is of 
i Cyclo|)eiiii masonry resembling that at Tirvus, 

I' t 2 



530 



MYCENAE 



MYLAE 



and this occurs in the lower city also, though 
less thick. In the gates and towers part of the 
work is of more carefully hewn blocks, and in 
one part of the wall the masonry is polygonal 
[see Diet, of Ant. art. Murus]. The 'Lion' 
gate, which formed the chief entrance, was on 




Lion Gate of Mycenae. 



the east side, and was so contrived that, as at 
Tlryns, the invader had to pass through a 
narrow exposed passage before he reached the 
actual gate. The (now headless) lions carved on 
the triangular slab above the lintel form, with the 
column between them, are a style of decoration 
exactly resembling sculptures which have been 
found in Phrygia. On the summit of the citadel 
further excavations by the Greek Archaeo- 
logical Society, in 1886, revealed the palace of 
the kings, of which the ground-plan was like 
that of the palaces at Tiryns and Troy ; and 
near it, and partly overlapping, a Doric temple of 
about the sixth or seventh century B.C. Of the 
' beehive ' tombs (like those at Menidi, Orcho- 
menus, Pharis, and Volo) seven altogether 
have been found in the lower city, the largest 
being the falsely named ' Treasury of Atreus.' 
They consist of a long passage leading to a 
vaulted chamber or tholos, with a smaller 
square chamber adjoining [Diet, of Ant. art. 
Sepulcrimi\. They seem in their form to 
copy primitive Phrygian huts, as described by 
Vitruvius ; and this is another sign of con- 
nexion with Phrygia. Since these graves had 
been rifled, there was great importance in 
Schliemann's discovery of five graves within 
the citadel, not far from the Lion Gate, where 
a sixth has since been found. These are prob- 
ably the six graves traditionally said to be 
the graves of Agamemnon and his companions 
and Atreus, though Pausanias seems to have 
thought that the tradition referred to the 
beehive tombs (Paus. ii. 10). There is good 
reason to think that, whether Agamemnon is 
buried there or not, there is a considerable 
interval of time between the earlier and later 
graves. The real importance, however, lies in 
the discovery of the rich store of gold and 
silver works of art and pottery which tbese 
graves contained, the product of a civilisation 
which extended probably from about 1500 to 
1000 B.C. This ' Mycenaean ' art has been 
traced along the east coast of Greece from 
Amyclae to Thessaly, in the islands and part of 
the opposite Asiatic coast. It seems to point 
to an origin mainly Lydian and Phrygian, per- 
haps with some Carian admixture ; it is ap- 
parently the art described in the Iliad, con- 



taining, among other things, examples of the 
inlaid metal-work which appeared in the 
shield of Achilles. [For further account of the 
history of the pre-Dorian rulers at Mycenae see 
Pelopidae and Tiryns.] 

Mycene (WlvKrivni), daughter of Inachus and 
wife of Arestor, from whom the town of Myce- 
nae was believed to have derived its name (Od.. 
ii. 120; Paus. ii. 16, 3). 

Mycerinus (Mvicepivos ; the Egyptian Men- 
kau-Ba), son of Cheops (Chufu), king of Egypt, 
succeeded his uncle Chephren (Khaf-Ra) on 
the throne, in the fourth dynasty (Memphlte), 
about 3600 B.C. According to Herodotus his 
conduct formed a strong contrast to that of his 
father and uncle, being as mild and just as 
theirs had been tyrannical. On the death of 
his daughter, he placed her corpse within the 
hollow body of a wooden cow, which was 
covered with gold. Herodotus tells us that it 
was still to be seen at Sals in his time. We 
further hear that, being warned by an oracle- 
that he should die at the end of six years, 
because he had been a gentle ruler and had not 
wreaked the vengeance of the gods on Egypt, 
Mycerinus, indignant at this injustice, gave 
himself up to revelry, and strove to double his 
allotted time by turning night into day. (Hdt. 
ii. 129-134 ; Diod. i. 64 ; Athen. p. 438.) The 
pyramid of Mycerinus, or Men-kau-Ea, is in the 
SW. part of the plain of Gizeh. The coffin 
containing the body of the king is in the 
British Museum. 

Myconus (WIvkovos : Mu/coVioy : Mycono), a 
small island in the Aegaean sea, one of the 
Cyclades, SE. of Tenos and E. of Delos, never 
attained any importance in history, but is cele- 
brated in mythology as one of the places where 
the giants were defeated by Heracles. The 
island was poor and unproductive, and its in- 
habitants were rapacious, whence the proverb- 
Mvkovios yeiruv (Athen. p. 7 ; Suid. s.v.). It 
contained two towns, a promontory called 
Pliorbia, and a mountain named Dimastus. 
The lai'ge number of bald persons in this island, 
was considered worthy of record by several 
ancient writers (Strab. p. 487 ; Plin. xi. 130). 

Mygdon (MirvStw), son of Acmon, a Phry- 
gian king, who fought with Otreus and Priam 
against the Amazons, and from whom some of 
the Phrygians are said to have been called 
Mygdonians. He had a son Coroebus, hence 
called Mi/gdonides. (II. hi. 186; Paus. x. 27.) 

Mygdorria (MvySovia: MvySoves). 1. A dis- 
trict in the E. of Macedonia, bordering on the 
Thermaic gulf and the Chalcidic peninsula. 
Its people were of Thracian origin. (Hdt. vii. 
123; Thuc. i. 58.)— 2. A district in the N. oi 
Asia Minor, between M. Olympus and the coast, 
in the E. of Phrygia and Mysia and the W. oi 
Bithynia, named after the Thracian people 
Mygdones, who formed a settlement here, but 
were afterwards subdued by the Bithyni (Strab 
pp. 295, 550, 575). Hence Mygdonius is usee 
in the Latin poets for Phrygian (Hor. Od. ii. 12 
22).— 3. The NE. district of Mesopotamia 
between M. Masius and the Chaboras, whicl 
divided it from Osroene. From its great ferti 
lity, it was also called Anthemusia ('Avdeftovcr'ia) 
(Strab. p. 747 ; Pol. v. 31.) 

Myia (Mv7a), daughter of Pythagoras anc 
Theano, and wife of Milon of Crotona (Suid 
s.v.). A letter addressed to a certain Phyllis 
is extant under her name. 

Mylae (MuAai : MuAcuos, MuAa'iTijs). 1. (Me 
lazzo), a town on the E. part of the N. coast o 
Sicily, situated on a promontory running ou 



MYLASA 



MYROX 



581 



far into the sea, with a harbour and citadel. 
It was founded by Zancle (Messanaj, and con- 
tinued subject to the latter city. (Strab. p. 272.) 
It was off Mylae that C. Duilius won his victory 
in 200, and Agrippa defeated the Meet of Sex. 
Pompeius, B.C. 36 [Pol. i. 23; App. B.C. v. 
195). — 2. A town of Thessaly in Magnesia, of 
uncertain site. 

Mylasa or Mylassa Ira Mii\acra, MvKaaaa : 
Mv\a<revs : Melasso, Ru.), a very ancient inland 
city of Caria iHdt. i. 171), lay eighty stadia from 
-the coast at the Gulf of Iassus, in a fertile 
plain, on and at the foot of an isolated rock of 
white marble, which furnished the material for 
the temples and other public buildings of the 
■city. Among them were two temples of Zens, 
Zeus Osagos, and Zeus Labrandenus. (Strab. p. 
058 ; Paus. viii. 10.) Under the Romans it was 
made a free city iPol. xvi. 24; Liv. xxxviii. B9). 
In the civil wars, it was taken and partly de- 
stroyed by Labienns. Its remains are very ex- 
tensive, and include the ruins of one of the 
temples of Zeus on the rock which formed the 
Acropolis. 

Myndus (MwSos: MwSios: prob. Port Gu- 
mishlu, Ru.), a Dorian colony on the coast of 
Caria, in Asia Minor, founded by settlers from 
Troezene, probably on the site of an old town 
of the Leleges, which continued to exist under 
the name of Palaemyndus. Myndus stood at 
the W. end of the peninsula on which Halicar- 
nassus stood. (Paus. ii. 30 ; Strab. p. 058.) 

Mycin or Myonia (MiW, Muov'ta : Mvovevs), 
a town of the Locri Ozolae, situated on a con- 
siderable height thirty stadia from Amphissa, 
and in one of the passes which lead from Aetolia 
into Phocis (Thno. iii. 101 ; Paus. x. 38, 8). 

Myonnesus (Muowr/aos : C. Hijpsili) a pro- 
montory of Ionia, with a town and a little 
island of the same name, S. of Teos and W. of I 
Lebedus, and forming the N. headland of tlic j 
Gulf of Ephesus. Here the Romans, under the 
praetor L. Aemilius, gained a great naval vic- 
tory over Antiochus the Great. B.C. 100. iThuc. 
iii. 42; Strab. p. 043; Liv. XXX viii. 27.) 

Myos Hormos (6 Mvbs 'dp/ios, i.e. probably ] 
Muscle-port, rather than Mouse-port, for /x5s is 
also the Greek for muscle, and this shell-fish is 
very common on the W. coast of the Red Sea), 
aft. Veneris Portus ('A<ppo5iri)s opyaosi. an im- 
portant seaport town of Upper Egypt, built by 
Ptolemy II. Philadelphus on a promontory 
of the same name, six or seven days' journey 
from Coptos. (Diod. iii. 3!) ; Strab. pp. 700, 
815 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 14.) Its position is occupied by 
the modern Abou-Sltaar. 

Myra or Myron (to and r) Mvpa, i) Mvpuv: 
Mupeus: Myra, Grk., Dembre, Turk., Ru.), one 
of the chief cities of Lycia, and, under the later 
Roman empire, the capital of the province, was 
built on a rock twenty stadia from the sea, and 
had a port called Andriaca ('AvOpiaxT)) (Strab. 
p. 660). St. Paul touched hereon his voyage to 
Rome (Acts, xxvii. 5, 0). There are still magni- 
ficent ruins of the city, in great part hewn out 
of the rock. 

Myriandus (MvplavSos), a Phoenician colony 
in Syria, on the E. side of the Gulf of Issus, a 
day's journey from the Cilician Gates (Xen. 
An. i. 4,0; Arrian, An. ii. 0, 1). It probably 
stood a little S. of Alexandria, at a spot where 
there are ruins. Herodotus calls the Gulf of 
Issus A VlupiaiiSiKbs kuKttos (iv. 38). 

Hyrina (7; MupiVa, or Mvpiva, Mvpivva, Mvpivq: 
Mvptvaios). 1. (Sandarlik'!), a very ancient 
and strongly fortified city on the W. coast of 
Mysia, founded, according to mythical tradi- 



tion, by Myrinus or by the Amazon Myrina, and 
colonised by the Aeolians, of whose confederacy 
it formed a member (Hdt. i. 149 ; Strab. p. 505). 
Within its territory, at Gryneum, was an ancient 
oracle of Apollo. It was also called Smyrna, 
and, under the Roman empire, Sebastopolis : 
it was made by the Romans a civitas libera. 
It was destroyed by earthquakes under Tiberius 
and Trajan, but each time rebuilt. (Liv. xxxiii. 




Coin of Myrina (2nd cent. B.C.). 

Ohr.. head of Apollo; rev., MYPlN.UQN; Apollo with pa- 
ter*; before him omphalos and vase; laurel wreath 
surrounding. 

30 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 47 ; Oros. vii. 12.) It was the 
birthplace of the epigrammatic poet Agathias. 
— 2. [See Lemnos.J 

Myrlea (MupAeia: MvpAedvo's : Amapoli, Ru., 
a little distance inland from Mudauich), a city 
of Bithynia, not far from Prusa, founded by the 
Colophonians, and almost rebuilt by Prusias I., 
who called it Apamea after his wife. The 
Romans colonised it under Julius Caesar and 
Augustus. (Strab. pp. 503, 564 ; Plin. v. 149.) 

Myrmecides iMi/p/r/)(a8?js), a sculptor and 
engraver, of Miletus or Athens, is generally 
mentioned in connexion with Callicrates, like 
whom he was celebrated for the minuteness of 
his works. [Cali.ickates.J His works in ivory 
were so sm.Ul that they could scarcely be seen 
without placing them on black hair. (Varro, 
L. It. ix. 62 ; Cic. Acad. ii. 38 ; Suid. s.v.) 

Myrineclurn IMvppriKioi/j, a Milesian colony 
of the Chersonesus Taurica, situated on a pro- 
montory of the same name a little N. of Panti- 
capaeum (Strab. p. 310 ; Ptol. iii. 6, 4). 

MyTmidon (MvppiSuiv), son of Zeus and Eury- 
medusa, daughter of Clitos, whom Zeus deceived 
in the disguise of an ant. Her son was for this 
reason called Myrmidon (from pvppr)%, an ant), 
and was regarded as the ancestor of the Myr- 
midons in Thessaly. He was married to Pisi- 
dice, by whom he became the father of Antiphus 
and Actor. (Apollod. i. 7. 3 ; Ap. Rh. i. 56.) 

Myrmidones 1 Mvp/j.iS6i/t s), an Achaean race 
in Phthiotis in Thessaly, whom Achilles ruled 
over and who accompanied this hero to Troy. 
They are said to have inhabited originally the 
island of Aegina, and to have emigrated with 
Peleus into Thessaly; but modem critics on 
the contrary suppose that a colony of them 
emigrated from Thessaly into Aegina. In 
Homer's time they are Thessalians. (J I. ii. 681, 
xvi. 65, xix. 278; Strab. pp. 375, 483.) The 
Myrmidones disappear from history at a later 
period. The ancients derived their name either 
from a mythical ancestor Myhmidon, or from 
the ants (iivpprjKts) in Aegina, which were sup- 
posed to have been metamorphosed into men 
in the time of Aeacus. [Abacus.] 

My rem us {Mvp/twos), a town on the N. side 
of tlii! Strymon, near Mt. I'angaeus, founded 
by Hihtiaki si Hdt. v. 23, 07, 12 I ; Time. iv. 102i. 

Myron iJAvpwv). 1. Tyrant of Sicyon, tin' 
father of Aristonymus, and grandfather of ( li- 
rthfflflBtl, He gained the victory at Olympia in 
the chariot-race in 11. c 648. (Hdt. vi. 126; 



582 



MYRON 



MYSCELUS 



Paus. vi. 19.) — 2. One of the most celebrated of 
the Greek sculptors, was born at Eleutherae, 
in Boeotia, about 480. He is also called an 
Athenian, because Eleutherae had been ad- 
mitted to the Athenian franchise. He was the 
disciple of Ageladas, the fellow-disciple of Poly- 
cletus, and a younger contemporary of Phidias. 
He nourished about 431, the time of the begin- 
ning of the Peloponnesian war. The chief 
characteristic of Myron seems to have been his 
power of expressing a great variety of forms. 
Not content with the human figure in its most 
difficult and momentary attitudes, he directed 
his art towards various other animals, and he 
seems to have been the first great artist who 
did so. In some matters of detail he is said to 
have retained some of the roughness, or rather 
conventionalism, of earlier art, from which 
Phidias freed himself (Plin. xxxiv. 58). His 
great works were nearly all in bronze. The 
most celebrated of his statues were his Disco- 
bolus and his Cow. Of his Discobolus (see 
Lucian, Philopseud. 18 ; Quintil. ii. 13, 8) there 
are marble copies in existence. Of these copies 
- — one is in the 

ig^^N British Museum, 

|§»^i^r~'~~v^ which was found 

V^ = ^y"*""tvX. in the grounds of 

^VV\ \ xjBSfei Hadrian's Tibur- 
TJa \JjkmjM>m tine vi Ua, m 1791 ; 
sZ^M another in the 

f(' ' I Jg^r'^ Massimi palace 
Jl V /n Borne. The 

f ( A Cow of Myron 

jf^T ^/yV^TVy was celebrated in 
fV*^ Jr I 1 1 many popular 

|\ l fc- 1 verses, and the 

^Ss. \^ fj$ Greek Anthology 
\ f fj still contains no 
jE^wi^iv' / l ess than thirty- 

^JaK\§r f six epigrams 

Vild-fZ&W upon it (cf. Au- 

Wt/l/ / / son - Epigr. 58). 

Pjf^jl\ I The Cow was 

fyt^Xll I represented as 

V Ik lill 1/ I lowing, and the 

J*T\_ statue was placed 

*~~.^fijS,s pi on a marble base, 

I J/ in the centre of 

Copy of the Discobolus o£ Myron, the largest open 
place m Athens, 
where it still stood in the time of Cicero (Cic. 
Verr. iv. 60). In the time of Pausanias it was 
no longer there ; it must have been removed 
to Rome, where it was still to be seen in the 
temple of Peace in the time of Procopius (B. 
G. iv. 21). Myron was the author of a group 
representing the scene between Marsyas and 
Athene when she cast away the flute (Plin. 
xxxiv. 57 ; perhaps alluded to, but differently 
described, by Paus. i. 24, 1). It is now believed 
by many critics that the statue of Marsyas in 
the Lateran Museum at Rome is a marble 
copy from this group, of which a relief on a 
marble vase in the museum at Athens is doubt- 
less also a representation. — 3. Of Priene, the 
author of an account of the first Messenian 
war, probably lived not earlier than the third 
century B.C. (Paus. iv. 6; Athen. pp. 657). 

Myronides (Mvpa>i/L$rts) a skilful and success- 
ful Athenian general. In B.C. 457 the Corin- 
thians had invaded Megara in order to draw 
away the Athenian forces from the war with 
Aegina. The rest of the Athenian forces were 
in Egypt, but Myronides raised an army of 
boys and old men, defeated the Corinthians, 
and repulsed them from Megara. In 456 he I 



defeated the Boeotians at Oenophyta, and gave 
Athens the supremacy over Phocis and most 
of the Boeotian towns. (Thuc. i. 105, 106, 108 ; 
iv. 95 : Aristoph. Eccl. 303.) 

Myrrha (Mvppa) or Smyrna, daughter of 
Cinyras and mother of Adonis. For details see 
Adonis. 

Myrrhinus (Mvppivovs : tAvppwovaios), a de- 
mus on the E. coast of Attica, belonging to the 
tribe Pandionis, a little S. of the promontory 
Cynosura. It is said to have been built by a 
hero Colaenus, and it contained a temple of 
Artemis Colaenis. (Paus. i. 31, 4.) 

Myrsilus [MvpmAos). 1. [Candaules.]— 2. A 
Greek historical writer of uncertain date, a 
native of Lesbos, from whom Dionysius of Hali- 
carnassus borrowed a part of his account of 
the Pelasgians (Dionys. i. 23 ; Strab. pp. 60,. 
610). 

Myrsrnus. [Myrtuntium.] 

MyrtLUs, a town of the Turdetani on the 
Anas in Lusitania, possessing the Jus Latii. 

Myrtilus (MvpriAos), son of Hermes by Cleo- 
bule, Clytia, Phaetusa, or Myrto. He was the 
charioteer of Oenomaus king of EHs, whom he 
betrayed when Pelops contended with his 
master in the chariot-race. He was afterwards 
thrown into the sea by Pelops near Geraestus 
in Euboea ; and that part of the Aegaean is said 
to have thenceforth been called after him the 
Myrtoan sea. [Oenomaus ; Pelops.] At the 
moment he expired, he pronounced a curse upon 
the house of Pelops, which was henceforward 
tormented by the Erinnyes. His father placed 
him among the stars as Auriga. (Soph. El. 
509; Eur. Or. 993; Paus. ii. 18, v. 1, viii. 14; 
Tzetz. ad Lyc. 156 ; Hyg. Fab. 84, Astr. ii. 13.) 

Myrtis (Mvprts), a lyric poetess, a native of 
Anthedon, in Boeotia, said to have instructed 
Pindar, and to have contended with him for 
the palm of superiority. This is alluded to in 
an extant fragment of Corinna. There were 
statues in her honour in various parts of Greece. 
{Anth. Pal. ix. 26 ; Suid. s.v. UivSapos.) 

Myrtoum Mare (rb Mvprwov ir'4\ayos), the 
part of the Aegaean sea, S. of Euboea, Attica 
and Argolis, which derived its name from the 
small island Myrtus, though others suppose it 
to come from Myrtilus, whom Pelops threw into- 
this sea. [Myrtilus.] 

Myrtuntium (MupToiWioe : Mvprova-ios),. 
called Myrsinus (Mvpcrivos) in Homer, a town 
of the Epeans in Elis, on the road from Elis to- 
Dyme (II. ii. 616; Strab. p. 341). 

Myrtus. [Myetoum Mare.] 

Mys (MCj), an artist who engraved the battle 
of the Lapithae and the Centaurs and other 
figures on the shield of Phidias's colossal bronze 
statue of Athena Promachos, in the Acropolis 
of Athens (Paus. i. 28, 2). He is mentioned as- 
one of the most distinguished engravers (Plin. 
xxxiii. 154 ; Mart. xiv. 95). 

Myscelus (MwnceAos, or MiWeAAos), a native- 
of Achaia, and, according to Ovid (Metam. xv. 
1), a Heraclid, and the son of an Argive named 
Alemon. He founded Croton in Italy, B.C. 710, 
in accordance with the Delphic oracle. The 
oracle had commanded him to build a city 
where he should find rain with fine weather. 
For a long time he thought it impossible to- 
fulfil the command of the oracle, till at length 
he found in Italy a beautiful woman in tears ; 
whereupon he perceived that the oracle was. 
accomplished, and founded Croton on the spot. 
According to Antiochus he had so much better 
an opinion of the site of Sybaris that he begged 
the oracle to let him be founder of that city, but 



MYSI 

was bidden to be content with tlie directions 
given to him ( Antioch. ap. Strab. p. 2C2 ; Dionys. 
ii. 59 : Suid. s. v.). 

Mysi (Muo-of), a people akin to the tribes of 
Thrace, regarding whom the early traditions 
varied: some accounts representing them as 
having migrated in early times, before the Trojan 
war, from Thrace into Asia Minor, while others 
speak of a reflex migration, of Mysians and 
Teucrians occupying Thrace and the dispos- 
sessed Thracians crossing to Asia. The original 
Mysians are said to have come from Lydia, and 
to have spoken a language half Lydian, half 
Phrygian (Xanth. ap. Strab. p. 572 ; Hdt. vii. 
2U-75). It is probable that the Mysians really 
were a Lydian race and closely connected with 
the Teucri, and that, besides occupying the ter- 
ritory called Mysia, they sent a considerable 
horde across the Bosporus to Thrace, which 
may have resulted in some tribes from Thrace 
crossing into parts of Asia [cf. Bithynia]. The 
name of the Moesi on the Danube, called also 
yivaot (II. xiii. 5), pointed to the connexion of 
Thracians with Mysians (Strab. p. 295). They 
are mentioned in the Iliad as allies of the 
Trojans (ii. 858, x. 430). The Mysians are de- 
scribed by ancient writers as a hardy warlike 
race, and are contrasted with the effeminate 
Lydians and Phrygians (a0po5lairoi AvSot, 
aKovriarcu. Mucoi, Aesch. Pers. 40, 52 ; cf. Xen. 
An. iii. 2, 23, Mem. iii. 5, 26). Hence it is likely 
that the well-known proverb Mvawv A6ia = a 
helpless victim, or prev to the spoiler (Dem. de 
Cor. p. 248, § 72 ; PXnt.'Theaet. p. 209 ; Ar. Rliet. 
i. 12), was not. as is often said, derived from the 
character of the people, but rather from an old 
tradition that during the absence of Telephus 
and the Mysian warriors in the Trojan war their 
country was plundered by pirates (Harpocrat. 
8.V. Vivauv). But, if this was the origin of the 
proverb, it affixed a stigma on the Mysians, and 
Cicero (pro Flacc. 27, 65) cites it as a proof that 
the Mysians were regarded as contemptible. 

Mysia (ri Mvaia, poet. Muiris o/o : Mv<r<Ss, 
Mysus and Mysius: Chan Karasi, the NW. 
district of Anadoli), a district of Asia Minor, 
called also the Asiatic Mysia (Muaia 77 Auiai^), 
in contradistinction to Moesia on the banks of 
the Danube. Originally it meant of course the 
territory of the Mysi, but in the usual division 
of Asia Minor, as settled under Augustus, it 
occupied the whole of the X\V. corner of the 
peninsula, between the Hellespont on the NW. ; 
the Propontis on the N. ; the river Rhyndacus 
and M. Olympus on the E., which divided it 
from Bithynia and Phrygia ; M. Teninus, and 
an imaginary line drawn from Temnns to theS. 
side of the Elai'tic Gulf, on the S., where it 
bordered upon Lydia ; and the Aegaean sea on ! 
the W. It was subdivided into five parts : 
il) Mysia Minor (M. fi nixpdi, along the X. 
bos f c2) Mysia Major (M. 7/ /if/aArji, tlw si',, 
inland region, with a small portion of the coast 
between the Troad and the Aeolio settlements 
about the ElaTtic Gulf. 13) Troas (7; Tpaidsl, 
the NW. angle, between the Aegaean and Helles- 
pont and the S. coast along the foot of Ida. 1 
iii Aeolis or Aeolia (r; Alo\ls or fdoKia), the 
S. part of the W. coast, around the Elai'tic Gulf, j 
where thechief cities of the Aeolian confederacy 
were planted ; but applied in a wider sense to 
the W. coast in general; and 15; Teuthrania 
(r; TfvBpavia), the SW. angle, between Ternim* 
and the borders of Lydia, where, in very early 
times, Teuthras was said to have established a 
Mysian kingdom, which was early subdued by 
the kings of Lydia; this part was also called! 



MYTILENE 



683 



| Pergamene, from the celebrated city of Per- 
gamum, which stood in it (Strab. pp. 564, 615). 
I This account applies to the time of the early 
Roman empire ; the extent of Mysia, and its 
subdivisions, varied greatly at other times. In 
! the heroic ages we find the great Teucri an 
' monarchy of Troy in the NW. of the country, 
' and the Phrygians along the Hellespont. Forthe 
probable origin of the Mysians see Mysi. The 
Mysia of the legends respecting Telephus is the 
Teuthranian kingdom in the S., only with a 
wider extent than the later Teuthrania (Strab. 
p. 015). Under the Persian empire, the NW. 
portion, which was still occupied in part by 
Phrygians, but chiefly by Aeolian settlements, 
was called Phrygia Minor, and by the Greeks 
Heli.esponttjs. Mysia was the region S. of 
the chain of Ida, and both formed, with Lydia, 
the second satrapy (Hdt. iii. 90). In the division 
of the empire of Alexander the Great, Mysia 
fell, with Thrace, to the share of Lysimachus, 
B.C. 311, after whose defeat and death, in 281, it 
became a part of the Greco- Syrian kingdom, 
with the exception of the SW. portion, where 
Philetaerus founded the kingdom of Pergamum 
(2801, to which kingdom the whole of Mysia was 
assigned, together with Lydia, Phrygia, Caria, 
Lycia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia, after the defeat 
of Antiochus the Great by the Romans in 190. 
With the rest of the kingdom of Pergamum, 
Mysia fell to the Romans in 133, by the bequest 
of Attains III., and formed part of the province 
of Asia (Cic. pro Flac. 27, 65). Under the 
later empire, Mysia formed a separate procon- 
sular province, under the name of Hellespontus. 
The country was for the most part mountainous ; 
its chief chains being those of Ida, Olympus, 
and TEM NUS, which are terminal branches of 
the NW. part of the Taurus chain, and the 
union of which forms the elevated land of SE. 
Mysia. Their prolongations into the sea form 
several important bays and capes : namely, 
among the former, the great gulf of Adramyt- 
tium (Adramytti), which cuts off Lesbos from 
the continent, and the Sinus Elaiticus (G. of 
Chandeli) ; and, among the latter, Sigeum 
(C. Yenirhcri) and Lectum (G. Baba), at the 
NW. and SW. extremities of the Troad, and 
Cane (C. Coloni) and Hydria (Fokia), the N. 
and S. headlands of the Elai'tic Gulf. Its 
rivers are numerous — some of them consider- 
able, in proportion to the size of the country ; 
and some of first-rate importance in history and 
poetry: the chief of them, beginning on the E., 
were Rhyndacus and Macestus, Tarsius, 
Akskpis, Gkanicus, Rhodils, Simois and Sca- 
mandkk, Satnoi's, Events, and CaiODB. The 
peoples of the country, besides the general ap- 
pellations mentioned above, were known by the 
following distinctive names : the Olympieni or 
Olympeni ('OAu/u7ri7)eoi, OAu^iinji'oi'l, in the dis- 
trict of Olympene at the foot of M.Olympus; 
next to them, on the S. and W., and occupying 
the greater part of Mysia Proper, the Abretteni, 
who had a native divinity called by the Greeks 
Zfi;s 'A/9pfTT7ji'<is (Strab. p. 571); the Trimen- 
thuritae, the Pentademitae, and the Myso- 
macedoncB, all in the region of M. Temnus. 

Mysius l Bergamo), a tributary of the river 
Ca'iciiB in Mysia, or rather the upper part of the 
Caicus itself (Strab. p. 610). 

Myson (Mvawv), of Chenae, is enumerated by 
Plato as one of the seven sages, in place of Peri- 
andcr (Protag, p. 343). 

Mystia, a town in the BE. of Bruttium, a 
littlo above the l'rom. Cociiitum. 

Mytilene or Mitylene (MutiAtji/tj, MitiMtji/?) : 



584 



MYTTISTRATUM 



NABIS 



the former is the ancient form, and the one 
usually found on coins and inscriptions ; the 
latter is sometimes found on inscriptions, and 
is the commoner form in MSS. : MvTtArivcuos, 
Mitylenaeus : Mytilene or Metelin), the chief 
city of Lesbos, stood on the E. side of the 
island opposite the coast of Asia, upon a pro- 
montory which was once an island, and both 
sides of which formed excellent harbours. It 
was colonised by the first detachment of immi- 
grants in the Aeolian migration from Greece, 
traditionally under Penthilus, son of Orestes ; 
but they are said to have dispossessed people 
who are called Pelasgians (Strab. pp. 440, 582, 
(517). Important hints respecting its political 
history are furnished by the fragments of the 
poetry of Alcaeus, whence (and from other 
sources) it seems that, after the rule and over- 
throw of a series of tyrants, the city was nearly 
ruined by the bitter hatred and conflicts of the 
factions of the nobles and the people, till Pitta- 
eus was appointed to a sort of dictatorship, and 
the nobles were expelled. [Alcaeus ; Pitta- 
cus.] Meanwhile, the eity had grown to great 
importance as a naval power, and had founded 
colonies on the coasts of Mysia and Thrace. 




Coin of jtfytilene. 
Obv., female head, hair in sphendone ; rev., lyre with 

MYTI. 



At the beginning of the seventh century B.C., 
the possession of one of these colonies, Sigeum 
at the mouth of the Hellespont, was disputed in 
war between the Mytilenaeans and Athenians, 
and assigned to the latter by the award of 
Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Among the other 
colonies of Mytilene, were Achilleum, Assos, 
Antandrus, &c. Mytilene submitted to the 
Persians after the conquest of Ionia and Aeolis, 
and furnished contingents to the expeditions of 
Cambyses against Egypt and of Darius against 
Scythia (Hdt. iv. 97). It was active in the 
Ionian revolt, after the failure of which it again 
became subject to Persia, and took part in the 
expedition of Xerxes against Greece. After the 
Persian war it formed an alliance with Athens, 
and remained one of the most important mem- 
bers of the Athenian confederacy, retaining its 
independence till the fourth year of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, B.C. 428, when it headed a revolt 
of the greater part of Lesbos, the progress and 
suppression of which forms one of the most 
interesting episodes in the history of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. (Thuc. iii. 1-30 ; Diod. xii. 55.) 
This event destroyed the power of Mytilene. 
Its subsequent fortunes cannot be related in 
detail here. It fell under the power of the 
Romans after the Mithridatic war. Respecting 
its important position in Greek literary history 
see Lesbos. 

Myttistratum. [Amestbatus.] 

Myus {Wlvovs : Mvova-ws : Palatia, Ru.), the 
least city of the Ionian confederacy, stood in 
Caria, on the S. side of the Maeander, thirty 
stadia from its mouth, and very near Miletus. 
Its original site was probably at the mouth of 
the river ; but its site gradually became an 



unhealthy marsh ; and by the time of Augustus 
it was so deserted by its inhabitants that the 
few who remained were reckoned as citizens of 
Miletus. (Strab. pp. 632, 636.) 



N. 

Naarmalcha or Nahrmalcha (Naapfid\xas, 

Nap/itaAxaj, i.e. the King's Canal : 6 f3a<riAeios 
irora.iJ.6s, r] fiacrthiK^ 8ia>pv£, flumen regium : 
Nahr-al-Malk or Ne Gruel Melek), the greatest 
of the canals connecting the Euphrates and the 
Tigris, was situated near the N. limit of Baby- 
lonia, a little S. of the Median Wall, in lat. 
33° 5' about. Its formation was ascribed to a 
governor named Gobares. It was repaired upon 
the building of Seleucia at its junction with 
the Tigris by Seleucus Nicator, and again under 
the Roman emperors Trajan, Severus, and 
Julian. (Hdt. i. 193 ; Strab. p. 747 ; Plin. vi. 120.) 

Nabalia or Navalia (Yssel), a river flowing 
into L. Flevo (Zuyder Zee). The conference of 
Civilis and Cerealis took place on the bridge 
over it. (Tac. Hist. v. 26 ; Ptol. ii. 11, 28.) 

Nabarzanes (Na/SapfavT/s), a Persian, con- 
spired along with Bessus against Darius, the 
last king of Persia. He was pardoned, by 
Alexander. 

Nabataei, Nabathae (NaParcuoi, NajSaTai : 
O. T. Nebaioth), an Arabian people, descended 
from the eldest son of Ishmael, had their 
original abodes in the NW. part of the Arabian 
peninsula, E. and SE. of the Moabites and 
Edomites, who dwelt on the E. of the Dead 
Sea and in the mountains reaching from it to 
the Persian Gulf. In the changes effected 
among the peoples of these regions by the 
Babylonian conquest of Judaea, the Naba- 
thaeans extended W. into the Sina'itic peninsula 
and the territory of the Edomites, while the 
latter took possession of the S. of Judaea 
[Idumaei] ; and hence the Nabathaeans of 
Greek and Roman history occupied nearly the 
whole of Arabia Petraea, along the NE. coast 
of the Red Sea, on both sides of the Aelanitic 
Gulf, and in the Idumaean mountains (M. of 
Sen - ), where they had their celebrated rock- 
hewn capital, Petra. At first they were a 
roving pastoral people ; but, as their position 
gave them the command of the trade between 
Arabia and the W., they prosecuted that trade 
with great energy, establishing regular caravans 
between Leuce Come, a port of the Red Sea, 
in the NW. part of Arabia, and the port of 
Rhinocolura (El-Arish) on the Mediterranean, 
upon the frontiers of Palestine and Egypt. 
(Strab. pp. 760-779.) Sustained by this traffic, 
a powerful monarchy grew up, which resisted 
all the attacks of the Greek kings of Syria, and 
which, sometimes at least, extended its power 
as far N. as Syria. [Aretas.] Under Augustus 
the Nabathaeans are found, as nominal subjects 
of the Roman empire, assisting Aelius Gallus 
in his expedition into Arabia Felix, through 
which, and through the journey of Atbenodorus 
to Petra, Strabo derived important information 
(Strab. p. 780). Under Trajan the Nabathaeans 
were conquered by A. Cornelius Palma, and 
Arabia Petraea became a Roman province, A.D. 
105-107 (Dio Cass. lix. 2). In the fourth cen- 
tury it was considered a part of Palestine, and 
formed the diocese of a metropolitan, whose 
see was at Petra. The Mohamedan conquest 
finally overthrew the power of the Naba- 
thaeans, and their very name disappeared. 

Nabis (NtiySis), succeeded in making himself 



NABONASSAR 



NAE 



585 



tyrant of Lacedaemon on the death of Macha- 
nidas, B. c. 207. He earned the licence of 
tyranny to the furthest possible extent. All 
persons possessed of property were subjected to 
incessant exactions, and the most cruel tortures 
if they did not succeed in satisfying his rapa- 
city. One of his engines of torture resembled 
the maiden of more recent times ; it was a 
figure resembling his wife Apega, so constructed 
as to clasp the victim and pierce him to death 
with the nails with which the arms and bosom 
of the figure were studded (Pol. xiii. 7). The 
money which he got by these means and by the 
plunder of the temples enabled him to raise a 
large body of mercenaries, whom he selected 
from among the most abandoned and reckless 
villains. With these forces he was able to ex- 
tend his sway over a considerable part of Pelo- 
ponnesus ; but his further progress was checked 
t>y Flamininus, who after a short campaign com- 
pelled him to sue for peace (195). (Pol. xx. IS ; 
Liv. xxxiv. 33-43.) The tyrant, however, was 
allowed to retain the sovereignty of Sparta, and 
soon after the departure of Flamininus from 
Greece, he resumed hostilities. He was opposed 
by Philopoemen, the general of the Achaean 
League, and was soon afterwards assassinated 1 
by some Aetolians sent to his assistance (192). 
(Liv. xxxv. 12-35 ; Paus. viii. 50.) 

Nabonassar (Nat3ovd.cra.pos), king of Babylon, 
whose accession to the throne was fixed upon 
by the Babylonian astronomers as the era from 
which they began their calculations. This is 
called the Era of Nabonassar, and was dated 
on the 20th of February, B. c. 747. 

Nabrissa or Nebrissa, surnamed Veneria, a 
town of the Turdetani in Hispania Baetica, near 
the mouth of the Baetis. 

Nacolia (NaxSKeia, or -la, or Ncuc&jAeict : Sidi- 
ghasi), a town of Phrygia Epictetus, on the W. 
bank of the river Thymbrius, between Dory- 
loeuin and Cotyaeum, was the place where the 
emperor Valens defeated his rival Procopins. 
a. i). 300 (Strab. p. 570 ; Anna. Marc. xxvi. 0.) 

Naevius, Cn., an ancient Roman poet, of 
whose life few particulars have been recorded. 
He was probably a native of Campania, and was 
born Homewhere between B.C. 274 and 264. He 
appears to have come to Borne early, and he 
produced his first play in 235. He was attached 
to the plebeian party, and, with the licence of 
the Old Attic Comedy, he made the stage a 
vehicle for his attacks upon the aristocracy. He 
attacked Scipio and the Metelli, but he was 
indicted by Q. Metellus and thrown into prison, 
to which circumstance Plautus alludes in his 
Miles GloriosHS (ii. 2, 50). Whilst in prison he 
composed two plays, the Hariolus and Leon, in 
which he recanted his previous imputations, and 
thereby obtained his release through the tri- 
bunes of the people. (Cell. iii. 3 ; Ascon. in < 'ic. 
Verr. i. 29.) His repentance, however, did not 
last long, and he was soon compelled to expiate 
a new offence by exile. He retired to Utica, 
ind it was here, probably, that he wrote his 
poem on the first Punic war ; ami In n- it is cer- 
tain that he died, either in 204 or 202 (Cic. Brut. 
15, 00 ; Euseh. Vhron.). — Naevius was both 
in epic and a dramatic poet. Of his epic poem 
on the first Punic war a few fragments are still 
extant. It was written in the Saturnian metre, 
and was of the nature of a versified chronicle 
iCic. de Sen. 14, 40; Suet. Gramm. 2). The 
poem appears to have opened with the story of 
Aeneas's flight from Troy, his visit to Carthage 
and amour with Dido, together with other 
legends connected with the early history both of 



Carthage and of Rome. It was important as 
leading the way to Roman epic poetry, and was 
used both by Ennius and Virgil [see p. 24, b]. 
His dramatic writings comprised both tragedies 
and comedies, most of which were freely adapted 
from the Greek ; but his efforts to start a na- 
tional drama on Italian subjects (jpraetextae) 
was more important. Among these plays were 
Clastidium (on the victory of Marcellus, B. c. 
222) and Romulus. Even in the Augustan age 
Naevius was still a favourite with the admirers 
of the genuine old school of Roman poetry ; and 
the lines of Horace (Ep. ii. 1, 53) show that his 
works, if not so much read as formerly, were 
still fresh in the memories of men. His epitaph, 
preserved by Gellius, expresses Iris feeling for 
national, as opposed to Greek, literature : — 
* Mortales immortales flere si foret fas, 
Flerent Divae Camenae Xaevium poetam. 
Itaquc postquam est Orchio trailitus thesauro 
Obliti sunt Romani loquicr Latina lingua.' 

Fragments in Klussman, Jena, 1843 ; Vahlen, 
Lips. 1854; Ribbeck, Rom. Trag. 44. 
Naevius Sertorius Macro. [Macro.] 
Naharvali, a tribe of the Lygii in Germany, 
probably dwelt on the banks of the Vistula. In 
their country was a grove sacred to the worship 
of two divinities called Alces, whom Tacitus 
compares with Castor and Pollux (Germ. 43). 
Nahrmalcha. l Naak.ualcha.] 
Naiade3. [Nymphak. 1 
Naisus, Naissus,orNaesus (NaiWs.Nai'<ro-os, 
NaTcrtros : Nisch), an important town of Upper 
Moesia, situated on an E. tributary of the Mar- 
gus, and celebrated as the birthplace of Con- 
stantine the Great. It was enlarged and 
beautified by Constantine, was destroyed by 
Attila, but was rebuilt and fortified by Justinian. 

Namnetae or Namnetes, a people on the W. 
coast of Gallia, on the N. bank of the Liger, 
which separated them from Aquitania. Their 
chief town was Cbndivincum, afterwards Nam- 
nntes(Xaiites). (Caes. .B. (x. iii. 9; Strab. p. 190.) 

Namusa, Aufidius, a Roman jurist, one of 
the numerous pupils of Serv. Sulpicius. 

Nantuatae or Nantuates, a people in the 
SE. of Gallia Belgica, who lived on the Rhone 
valley a little above the beginning of the Lake 
of Geneva, i.e. between Villeneuve and Mar- 
tigny. An inscription places them at S. Mau- 
I rice. (Caes. B. G. iii. 1 ; Strab. p. 204.) The 
reading in Caes. B. G iv. 10, which gives their 
name, is faulty. 
Napaeae. Nymphae.] 

Naparis {Jalomitza), a northern tributary of 
the Danube. 

Napata iNairoTa: prob. El-Knb, Ru., at the 
great bend of the Nile to the SW., between the 
fourth and fifth cataracts), the capital of an 
, Aethiopian kingdom N. of that of Meroe, waB 
the southernmost point readied by Petronius. 
under Augustus (Strab. p. h-JOj. 

Napoca ox Napuca (Napocensis or Napucen- 
; sis ; Clausenbcrg), a Roman colony in Dacia, 
| on the high road between Patavissa and Opta- 
! tiana (O.J. L. iii. 800, 805). 

Nar (.Vera), a river in central Italy, rises in 
M. FiBCell UB, On the frontiers of Umbriaand Pice- 
num, flows in a south-westerly direction, forming 
the boundary between Umbria and the land of 
the Sabini, and after receiving the Velinus 
(Vclitio) and Tolenus (Titrano), and passing by 
i Interamna and Narnia, falls into the Tiber, not 
far from Ocriculum (Strab. p. 227 ; Tac. Ann. i. 
79). It was celebrated for its sulphureous 
waters and white colour [tulph/UTML Nar albus 
aipia, Virg. Acn. vii. 517). 



586 



NARAGGARA 



NARYX 



Naraggara (Napdyapa: Kassir Jebir, Ru.), 
one of the most important inland cities of 
Numidia, between Thagura and Sicca Venena, 
was the scene of Scipio's interview with Hanni- 
bal before the battle of Zama (Li v. xxx. 29). 

Narbo Martius, at a later time Narbona 
(Narbonensis : Narbonne), a town in the south 
of Gaul and the capital of the Roman province 
of Gallia Narbonensis, was situated on the river 
Atax (Aude), also called Narbo, and at the head 
of the lake Eubresus or Rubrensis (also called 
Narbonitis), which was connected with the sea 
by a canal. By this means the town, which was 
twelve miles from the coast, became a seaport. 
It was made a Roman colony in the consul- 
ship of Q. Marcius Rex, B. c. 218, and was the 
first colony founded by the Romans in Gaul. 
The actual founder was L. Licinius Crassus. 
(Veil. Pat. i. 15; Cic. pro Font. 5, 13, Brut. 43, 
160.) Julius Caesar also settled here the 
veterans of his tenth legion, whence it received 
the name of Colonia Decumanorum (Suet. Tib. 
4). It was a handsome and populous town, the 
residence of the Roman governor of the pro- 
vince, and a place of great commercial import- 
ance. The tin from the N. of Spain and from 
Britain was brought overland to Narbo as well 
as to Massilia (Diod.j. 38). 

Narbonensis Gallia. [Gallia.] 

Narcissus [NdpKiaaos) ■ 1. A beautiful youth, 
son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph 
Liriope of Thespiae. He was wholly inacces- 
sible to the feeling of love; and the nymph 
Echo, who was enamoured of him, died of grief. 
[Echo.] One of his rejected lovers, however, 
prayed to Nemesis to punish him for his unfeel- 
ing heart. Nemesis accordingly caused Nar- 
cissus to fall in love with his own image re- 
flected in a fountain. But as he could not 



Narcissus. (From a Pompeian painting. His death is 
signified by Eros with inverted torch.) 

approach it, he gradually pined away, and was 
changed into the flower which bears his name. 
(Ov. Met. iii. 341-510.) This is the most poeti- 
cal version of the story. Conon (Narrat. 24) 
makes Narcissus merely a hard-hearted lover 
who is driven by the gods to suicide, and from 
whose blood sprang up the flower. Pausanias 
(ix. 31), giving the more usual version, adds the 
rationalising account that Narcissus fell in love 
with his twin sister. It is easy to see how 
myths could arise in many countries of love 



inspired by a reflected image and of the re- 
flected image (as in other popular superstitions) 
being the presage of death. The narcissus 
flower was probably connected with the 
myth of the youth who thus wasted away, be- 
cause it was the symbol of early death as being 
the flower gathered by Persephone before she 
was carried off by Hades, and hence sacred to 
Demeter and Kore (Symn. ad Cer. 15; Soph. 
0. O. 682 ; Paus. ix. 31, 6). Possibly also, as 
some have thought, a narcotic fragrance per- 
ceived in the flower contributed to form the 
idea. — 2. A freedman and secretary of the em- 
peror Claudius, over whom he possessed un- 
bounded influence. He long connived at the 
irregularities of Messallina ; but fearing that the 
empress meditated his death, he betrayed to 
Claudius her marriage with C. Silius, and ob- 
tained the order for her execution, A. D. 48. 
After the murder of Claudius, Narcissus was 
put to death by command of Agrippina, 54. He 
had amassed an enormous fortune, amounting, 
it is said, to 400,000,000 sesterces, equivalent to 
3,125,000Z. of our money. (Tac. Ann. xi. 30-65, 
xiii. 1 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 15-34 Juv. xiv. 329.)— 3. 
A celebrated athlete, who strangled the emperor 
Commodus, 192. He was afterwards exposed 
to the lions bv the emperor Severus. (Dio Cass. 
Ixxii. 22, lxxiii. 16.) 

Narisci or Varisci, a small but brave people 
in the S. of Germany, of the Suevic race, dwelt 
"W. of the Marcomanni and E. of the Hermun- 
duri, and extended from the Sudeti Montes on 
the N. to the Danube on the S., thus inhabiting 
part of the Upper Palatinate and the Fichtel- 
gebirge (Tac. Germ. 42 ; Dio Cass. Ixxi. 21). 

Narmalcha. [Naabmalcha.] 

Narnia (Narniensis : Narni), a town in Um- 
bra, situated on a lofty hill, on the S. bank of 
the river Nar, originally called Nequinum, was 
made a Roman colony B. c. 299, when its name 
was changed into Narnia, after the river (Liv. 
x. 9; Plin. iii. 113). This town was strongly 
fortified by nature, being accessible only on the 
E. and W. sides. On the W. side it could only 
be approached by a very lofty bridge which 
Augustus built over the river. (Mart. vii. 93 ; 
Procop. B. G. i. 17.) 

Naro, sometimes Nar (Narenta), a river in 
Dalmatia, which rises in M. Albius, and falls 
into the Adriatic sea (Ptol. ii. 16, 5). 

Narona, a Roman colony in Dalmatia, situated 
on the river Naro, on the road to Dyrrhachium 
(Cic. ad Fam. v. 9, 10 ; Ptol. ii. 17, 12, viii. 7, 8). 

Narses, king of Persia. [Sassanidae.] 

Narses {Napa-rjs), a celebrated general and 
statesman in the reign of Justinian, was a 
eunuch. He put an end to the Gothic dominion 
in Italy by two brilliant campaigns, A. D. 552, 
553, and annexed Italy again to the Byzantine 
empire. He was rewarded by Justinian with 
the government of the country, which he held 
for many years. He was deprived of this office 
by Justin, the successor of Justinian, where- 
upon he invited the Lombards to invade Italy. 
His invitation was eagerly accepted by their 
king Alboin; but it is said that Narses soon 
after repented of his conduct, and died of grief 
at Rome shortly after the Lombards had crossed 
the Alps (568). Narses was 95 years of age at 
the time of his death (Procop. B. G. ii. 13, iii., iv.). 

Narthacium (NapBaKtov), a town in Thessaly, 
on M. Narthacius, SW. of Pharsalus (Xen. Hell. 
iv. 3 ; Ptol. iii. 13, 46). 

Naryx, also Narycus or Narycium (Nopu£ ? 
NdpvKos, Napviciov : NapvKtos, NapvKaios : Ta- 
landa or Talanti), a town of the Locri Opuntii 




NASAMONES 



NAUPLIUS 



587 



on the Euboean sea, the reputed birthplace of 
Ajax, son of Oileus, who is hence called Nary- 
cius lieros (Strab. p. 425 ; Or. Met. xiv. 46b). 
Since Locri Epizephyrii in the S. of Italy claimed 
to be a colony from Xaryx in Greece, the town 
of Locri is called Xarycia by the poets, and the 
pitch of Bruttinm Narycia l Verg. Aen. iii. 3'J9, 
Georg. ii. 438 ; Plin. xiv. 127, 128). 

Nasamones (Na<ra}i£>ves), a powerful but 
savage Libyan people, who dwelt originally on 
the shores of the Great Syrtis, but were driven 
inland by the Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and 
afterwards by the Romans. An interesting ac- 
count of their manners and customs, especially 
of their ancestor- worship, is given by Herodotus 
(it. 172), who also tells (ii. 32) a curious story 
respecting an expedition beyond the Libyan 
Desert, undertaken by five Xasamonian youths 
who reached a large river, possibly the Niger, 
and a country of dwarfs. [Nigeib.] 

Nasica, Sciplo. [Scrpio.] 

Nasldlenus, a wealthy (beaius) Roman, who 
gave a supper to Maecenas which Horace ridi- 
cules in the eighth Satire of his second book. 
It appears from v. 58, that Rufus was the cog- 
nomen of Nasidienus. 

Nasidlus, Q. or L., was sent by Pompey, in 
B. c. 49, with a fleet of sixteen ships to relieve 
Massilia, when it was besieged by D. Brutus 
(Caes. B. C. ii. 3-7). He was defeated by Brutus, 
and fled to Africa, where he had the command 
of the Pompeian fleet. He served in Sicily 
under Sex. Pompey, whom he deserted in 35. 
He joined Antony, and commanded part of his 
fleet in the war with Octavian, 31 (App. B. C. v. 
139 ; Dio Cass. L 13). 

Naso, Ovidlus. [Ovtdius.] 

Nasus or Nesus. [Oenudae.] 

Natlso [Natisone), a river in Venetia in the X. 
of Italy, flowing by Aquileia, and falling into the 
Sinus Tergestinus (Strab. p. 214; Plin. iii. 126). 

Natta or Nacca, ' a fuller,' the name of a 
family of the Pinariagens (Cic. Div. i. 12, ii. 20). 

Naucrates iNau/cpaTTjs), of Erythrae, a Greek 
rhetorician, and a pupil of Isocrates, is one of 
the orators who competed (b. c. 352) for the 
prize offered by Artemisia for the best funeral 
oration delivered over Mausolus (Gell. x. G8). 

Naucratis I NampsTis : NavKpaT'iTrjs : Ne- 
bireh, Ru.), a city in the Delta of Egypt, in the 
Nomus of Sals, near the W. bunk of the Canopic 
branch of the Nile, which was hence called also 
Naucraticum Ostium fHdt. ii. 97, 179 ; Ptol. iv. 
5, 9; Plin. v. 61; Strab. pp. 801, 803, 808). 
Strabo probably meant (p. 80S) that it lay on 
the E. side of the canal by which it was reached. 
It was a colony of the Milesians, and re- 
mained a pure Greek city, where Greeks were 
permitted to settle and trade. Naucratis was 
probably founded early in the seventh cen- 
tury B. c. From Herodotus it appears to have 
been in existence before the time of Amasis. 
It probably lost its prosperity in the time of 
Apries and regained it under Amasis. Its im- 
portance was much lessened by the foundation 
of Alexandria, though Ptolemy Philadelphus 
added to its buildings and fortifications. Under 
the Roman empire it fell into decay, and was 
revived before the end of the third century. All 
its remains belong to an earlier date. It wus 
the birthplace of Athenaeus and Julius Pollux. — 
The site of Naucratis was excavated by Mr. 
Petrie in 1886, 1888, with important results to 
archaeology and to the history of Greek life in 
Egypt. The temples of Apollo and of the 
Dioscuri were identified, but the most remark- 
able building was the Hellenion (cf. Hdt. ii. 178), 



' which served alike as a fortified storehouse and 
factory and as a place of refuge for the Greeks 
in Egypt in times of danger. The enclosure 
measured 870 feet by 746, with walls 50 feet 
| thick, and had within it two large buildings, one 
of them fitted to hold stores and scve as a keep 
or stronghold in extremity. A great number of 
Greek works in scarabs, in pottery, and in sta- 
tuettes has been found in these excavations. 

Naucydes (NavuvSris), anArgive sculptor, son 
of Mothon, and brother and teacher of Polycle- 
tus H. of Argos, flourished B.C. 420 (Paus. ii. 22). 

Naulochus (NauAoxos), that is, a place where 
ships can anchor. 1. A naval station on the E. 
part of the N. coast of Sicily between Mylae 
and the promontory Pelorus (Suet. Aug. 16 ; 
App. B. C'.t. 116).— 2. A small island off Crete, 
near the promontory Sammonium. — 3. A naval 
station belonging to Mesembria in Thrace. 

NaumacMus (Nau/taxios), a gnomic poet, of 
uncertain date, some of whose verses are pre- 
served by Stobaeus. 

NaupactUS (Nai/7ra>CT0s : Nainra/cTioj: Le- 
pantot, an ancient and strongly fortified town 
of the Locri Ozolae near the promontory Antir- 
rhium, possessing the largest and best harbour 
on the whole of the N. coast of the Corinthian 
gulf. It is said to have derived its name from 
the Heraclidae having here built the fleet with 
which they crossed over to the Peloponnesus 
(Strab. p. 428 ; Paus. x. 38, 10). After the Per- 
sian wars it fell into the power of the Athenians, 
who settled here the Messenians who had been 
compelled to leave their country at the end of 
the third Messenian war, B. c. 455 ; and during 
the Peloponnesian war it was the headquarters 
of the Athenians in all their operations against 
the W. of Greece (Thuc. i. 103, ii. 83). At the 
end of the Pelopounpsian war the Messenians 
were obliged to leave Naupactus, which passed 
into the hands first of the Locrians and after- 
wards of the Achaeans. It was given by Philip 
with the greater part of the Locrian territory 
to Aetolia. but it was again assigned to Locris 
by the Romans. (Liv. xxxvi. 30 ; Ptol. iii. 15, 3.) 

Nauplia [Hcanr\(a : Nairn A.ieus : Nawplia), the 
port of Argos, situated on the Saronic gulf, was 
never a place of importance in antiquity, and 
was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. The in- 
habitants had been expelled by the Argives as 
early as the second Messenian war on suspicion 
of favouring the Spartans, who in consequence 
settled them at Methone in Messenia. (Paus. 
ii. 38, iv. 35 ; Strab. p. 368.) At the present day 
Nauplia is a flourishing seaport. 

NaupllUS (NavirKiosj. t. Of Argos, son of 
Poseidon and Amymone, a famous navigator, 
and the founder of the town of Nauplia (Paus. 
ii. 38, 2). — 2. Son of Clytoneus, was one of the 
Argonauts and a descendant of the preceding 
l Ap. Kb.. i. 134). — 3. King of Euboea, and father 
of Palamedes, Oeax, and Nausimedon, by Cly- 
mene. Catreus had given his daughter Cly- 
mene and her sister Aerope to Nauplius, to be 
carried to a foreign land ; but Nauplius married 
Clymene, and gave Aerope to Plisthenes, who 
became by her (according to some accounts) the 
father of Agamemnon and Menelaus. His son 
Palamedes had been condemned to death by the 
Greeks during the siege of Troy ; and as Nau- 
plius considered his condemnation to be an act 
of injustice, he watched for the return of the 
Greeks, and as they approached the coast of 
Euboea he lighted torches on the dangerous 
promontory of Caphareus, The sailors thus 
misguided suffered shipwreck and perished in 
the sea or by the sword of Nauplius. (Apollod. 



NAUPORTUS 



NAZARETH 



ii. 1, 4 ; iii. 2, 2 ; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 384 ; Hyg. 
Fab. 116.) 

Nauportus (Ober or Upper Laibach), an an- 
cient and important commercial town of the 
Taurisci, situated on the river Nauportus (Lai- 
bach), a tributary of the Savus, in Pamionia 
Superior. The town fell into decay after the 
foundation of Aemona (Laibach), which was 
only fifteen miles from it. The name of Nau- 
portus is said to have been derived from the 
Argonauts having sailed up the Danube and the 
Savus to this place and here built the town ; 
and it is added that they afterwards carried 
their ships across the Alps to the Adriatic sea, 
where they again embarked. (Strab. pp. 207, 
314 ; Tac. Ann. i. 20 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 110.) 

Nausicaa (NuvaiKda), daughter of Alcinous, 
king of the Phaeacians, and Arete, who con- 
ducted Ulysses to the court of her father, when 
he was shipwrecked on the coast (Od. vi. 16). 

Nausithous (Navo-'tOoos), son of Poseidon and 
Periboea, the daughter of Eurymedon, was the 
father of Alcinous and Rhexenor, and king of 
-the Phaeacians, whom he led from Hyperia in 
Thrinacia to the island of Scheria, to escape j 
from the Cyclopes (Od. vi. 7, vii. 56, viii. 564). 

Nautaca (NavraKa : Nahsheb or Kesh), a city 
.of Sogdiana, near the Oxus, towards theE. part 
■of its course (Arrian, An. iii. 28). 

Nautes. [Nautia Gens.] 

Nautia Gens, an ancient patrician gens, 
.claimed descent from Nautes, a companion of 
Aeneas, who brought with him the Palladium 
from Troy, which was placed under the care of the 
Nautii at Rome. The Nautii, all of whom were 
surnamed Rutili, frequently held the liighest 
•offices of state in the early times of the republic, 
but, like many of the other ancient gentes, they 
disappear from history about the time of the 
Samnite wars. (Verg. Aen. v. 704; Dionys. vi. 4.) 

Nava (Nahe), a W. tributary of the Rhine in 
■Gaul, which falls into the Rhine at Bingen. 

Navalia. [Nab alia.] 

Navius, Attus, a renowned augur in the time 
of Tarquinius Priscus. This king proposed to 
double the number of the equestrian centuries, 
and to name the three new ones after himself 
and two of his friends, but was opposed by Na- 
vius, because Romulus had originally arranged 
the equites under the sanction of the auspices. 
The tale then goes on to say that Tarquinius 
thereupon commanded him to divine whether 
what he was thinking of could be done, and that 
when Navius, after consulting the heavens, de- 
clared that it could, the king held out a whet- 
stone and a razor to cut it with. Navius im- 
mediately cut it. His statue was placed in the 
comitium, on the steps of the senate-house, the 
place where the miracle had been wrought, and 
beside the statue the whetstone was preserved. 
(Liv. i. 36 ; Dionys. iii. 70 Cic. Div. i. 17, 
jV. D. ii. 3.) 

Naxos (Na|os : Na|ios). I. (Naxia), an island 
in the Aegaean sea, and the largest of the Cy- 
clades, is situated nearly half way between the 
coasts of Greece and Asia Minor. It is about 
eighteen miles in length and twelve in breadth. 
It was very fertile in antiquity, as it is in the 
present day, producing an abundance of corn, 
wine, oil, and fruit. It was especially celebrated 
for its wine, and hence plays a prominent part 
in the legends about Dionysus. Here the god 
is said to have found Ariadne after she had been 
deserted by Theseus. [Dionysus.] The marble 
of the island was also much prized, and was 
considered equal to the Parian. — Naxos is fre- 
quently called Dia (A/a) by the poets, which 



is said to have been the old name of the 
island (Ov. Met. iii. 690). It was likewise 
called Strongyle CS,rpoyyvKr]) on account of 
its round shape, and Lionysias (Aiouvatds) 
from its connexion with the worship of 




Coin of the island of Naxos (Gth cent. B.C.). 
Obv., cantharus wreathed -with grapes; rev., incuse 
square. 



Dionysus (Diod. v. 50). It is said to have been 
originally inhabited by Thracians and then by 
Carians, and to have derived its name from a 
Carian chief, Naxos. In the historical age it 
was inhabited by Ionians who had emigrated 
from Athens (Hdt. viii. 46). Naxos was con- 
quered by Pisistratus, who established Lygda- 
mis as tyrant of the island about B. c. 540 (Hdt. 
i. 61, 64). The Persians in 501 attempted, at the 
suggestion of Aristagoras, to subdue Naxos ; 
and upon the failure of their attempt, Arist- 
agoras, fearing punishment, induced the Ionian 
cities to revolt from Persia. In 490 the Per- 
sians, under Datis and Arlaphernes, conquered 
Naxos, and reduced the inhabitants to slavery 
(Hdt. v. 30). The Naxians recovered their in- 
dependence after the battle of Salamis (480). 
They were the first of the allied states whom 
the Athenians reduced to subjection (471), after 
which they are rarely mentioned in history 
(Thuc. i. 98, 137; Paus. i. 27, 6). The chief 
town of the island was also called Naxos ; and 
we also have mention of the small towns of 
Tragaea and Lestadae. — 2, A Greek city on the 
E. coast of Sicily, S. of Mt. Taurus, was founded 
B. c. 735 by the Chalcidians of Euboea, and was 
the first Greek colony established in the island 
(Thuc. vi. 3 ; Strab. p. 267 ; Diod. xiv. 88). It 
grew so rapidly in power that in only five or six 
years after its foundation it sent colonies to 
Catana and Leontini. It was for a time subject 




Coin of Naxos in Sicily (oth cent. B.C.). 
Obc.head of bearded Dionysus; rev., Silenus with wine 
cup and thyrsus ; ivy at his side. 



to Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, and afterwards 
to Hiero of Syracuse (Hdt. vii. 154 ; Diod. xi. 
49) ; but it soon recovered its independence, 
carried on a successful war against Messana. 
and was subsequently an ally of the Athenians 
against Syracuse. In 403 the town was taken 
by Dionysius of Syracuse and destroyed. Nearly 
fifty years afterwards (358) the remains of the 
Naxians scattered over Sicily were collected by 
Andromachus, and a new city was founded on 
Mt. Taurus, called Tauromenium. 

Naxuana (Nalovdva : NaJcshivari), a city of 
Armenia Major, on the Araxes (Ptol. v ; 13, 12). 

Nazareth, Nazara (Na(ap46, or -eV, or -d: 



NAZIANZUS 

Nafapdios, 'Nafapcuos, Nazarenus, Nazareus : en- 
Nasirah), a city of Palestine, in Galilee, S. of 
Cana, on a hill Is. of the plain of Esdra'e'lon. 
[See Diet, of Bible.] 

Nazianzus (Nafia^o's : Na.(iav(r)v6s : Nenizi), 
a city of Cappadocia, on the road from Arche- 
lais to Mazara, celebrated as the diocese of the 
Father of the Church, Gregory Nazianzen. 

Neaera (Niaipa), the name of several nymphs 
and maidens mentioned by the poets. 

Neaethns (Ne'aiOos : Nieto), a river in Brut- 
tium in the S. of Italy, falling into the Taren- 
tine gulf a little N. of Croton. Here the captive 
Trojan women are said to have burned the 
ships of the Greeks. (Strab. p. 262.) 

Nealces (NeaKKrjs), a painter who flourished 
in the time of Aratus, B.C. 245 (Plut. Arat. 13 ; 
Plin. xxxv. 142). 

Neandria (NedvSpeta : NeavSpels, pL), a 
town of the Troad, on the Hellespont, probably 
an Aeolian colony. By the time of Augustus 
it had disappeared. (Strab. pp. 604, 606.) 

Neanthes (HeavBris}, of Cyzicum, lived about 
B.C. 241, was a disciple of the Milesian Philiscus, 
who had been a disciple of Isocrates. He was 
a voluminous writer, principally of history. 
(C. Miiller, Fragm. Hist. Gra.ec.) 

Neapolis (N€airoA.is : NeairoAirjyy, Neapoli- 
tanus). I. In Europe. 1. (Napoli or Naples), 
a city in Campania in Italy, on the W. slope of 
Mt. Vesuvius and on the river Sebethus, was 
founded by the Chalcidians of Cumae, on the 
site of an ancient place called Parthenope 
(TlapBevoTrri), after the Siren of that name. 
Hence we find the town called Parthenope l>v 
Virgil and Ovid (Georg.iv. 564; Met. xv. 711). 
The year of the foundation of Neapolis is not 
recorded. It was called the ' New City,' accord- 
ing to Strabo, because it afterwards received 
additional Chalcidian and Athenian colonists 
(Strab. p. 246). It is likely that Palaeopolis 
mentioned by Livy (viii. 22) was the old quar- 
ter, also called Parthenope, and the original 
settlement, and that was afterwards superseded 



NEARCHUS 



58* 




Coin ol Ncapoli-i In Campania (about :K» B.C.). 

Obv., head of Parthenope : r- r.. NBOIIOA1TON ; man-headed 
bull crowned by victory. 

in importance by the more recent settlement. 
It is conjectured with probability that the site 
of the first settlement, Palaeopolis or Parthe- 
nope, was on the hill of Pausilypus (Posilippo). 
The new town was close to the river Sebethus, 
and occupied the site of the eastern part of 
Naples. In B.C. 327 the town was taken by the 
Hamnites, and in 2!)0 it passed into the hands 
of the Romans, who allowed it, however, to 
retain its Greek constitution. At a later period 
it became a municipium (Cic. ad Warn. xiii. 80), 
«nd under the empire, before the time of Clau- 
dius, a colony (Petrou. 44, 76). Under the 
Romans the two quarters of the city were 
united, and the name of Palaeopolis disap- 
peared. It continued to be a prosperous and 
flourishing place till the time of the empire ; 
and its beautiful scenery, and the luxurious life 
of its Greek population, made it a favourite 
residence with many of the Romans. In the 



' reign of Titus the city was destroyed by an 
earthquake, but was rebuilt by this emperor in 
the Roman style. The ancient city extended 
further E. than the modern city; but the 
modern city, on the other hand, extends further 
N. and W. than the ancient one, since the island 
' of Megaris, on which the Castel dei Ovo now 
; stands, was situated in ancient times between 
the hill of Pausilypus and Neapolis. In the 
neighbourhood of Neapolis there were warm 
baths, the celebrated villa of Lucullus, and 
the Villa Pausilypi or Pausilypum, bequeathed 
by Vedius Polho to Augustus, which has given 
its name to the celebrated grotto of Posilippo 
between Naples and Pozzuoli, at the entrance 
of which the tomb of Virgil is still shown. 
[Pausilypus.] — 2. A part of Syracuse. [Syea- 
cusae.] — 3. (Napoli), a town on the W. coast 
of the island of Sardinia, celebrated for its 
warm baths (Ptol. iii. 3, 7). — i. (Kavallo), a 
seaport town in Thrace, subsequently Mace- 
donia Adjecta, on the Strymonic gulf, be- 
tween the Strymon and Nessus (Strab. p. 
330). — II. In Asia and Africa. 1. (Scala 
Nuova, or near it), a small Ionian city on the 
coast of Lydia, N. of Mycale and SW. of 
Ephesus. The Ephesians, to whom it at first 
belonged, exchanged it with the Samians for 
Marathesium. — 2, 3. Two towns of Caria, the 
one near Harpasa, the other on the coast, per- 
haps the new town of Myndus. — i. (Tutinek ? 
Ru.), in Pisidia, S. of Antioch ; afterwards 
reckoned to Galatia. — 5. In Palestine, the 
Sychem or Sychar of Scripture (2uxy*i 2ux<*Pi 
2,iKl/ia, Joseph. : Nablous), one of the most 
ancient cities of Samaria, stood in the narrow 
valley between Mts. Ebal and Gerizim, and was 
the religious capital of the Samaritans, whose 
temple was built upon Mt. Gerizim. This 
temple was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, B.C. 
129. Its full name, under the Romans, was 
Flavia Neapolis. It was the birthplace of Jus- 
tin Martyr. — 6. A small town of Babylonia, on 
the W. bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the 
opening of the King's Canal. — 7. In Egypt. 
[CAENEJ. — 8. In N. Africa, on the W. coast of 
the Great Syrtis, by some identified with Leptis 
Magna, by others with the modern Tripoli. — 
9. {Xabal), a Phoenician colony, on the E. 
coast of Zeugitana, near the N. extremity of the 
great gulf which was called after it Sinus Nea- 
politanus (Gulf of Hammamet). Under the 
Romans it was a libera civitas, and, according 
to Ptolemy, a colony. (Ptol. iv. 3, 11.) 

Nearchus (Nc'apxos), a distinguished friend 
and officer of Alexander, was a native of Crete, 
but settled at Amphipolis (Arrian, Ind. 18 ; 
Diod. xix. 19). He was banished by Philip for 
participating in the intrigues of Alexander. 
After the death of Philip lie was recalled, and 
treated with the utmost distinction by Alex- 
ander. He accompanied the king to Asia; and 
in B.C. 325 he was entrusted by Alexander with 
the command of the fleet which he had caused 
to be constructed on the Hydaspes. Upon 
reaching the mouth of the Indus, Alexander 
sent round his ships by sea from thence to the 
Persian gulf, under the command of Nearchus, 
who set out on the 21st of September, 326, 
and arrived at Susa in safety in February, 825. 
(Arrian, Ind. 19—12, Aiuib. viL 4, 5; Strab. pp. 
721, 725; Plut. Ales. 68.) He was rewarded 
with a crown of gold for his distinguished ser 
vices, and at the same time obtained in marriage 
a daughter of the Rhodian Mentor and of Bar- 
sine, to whom Alexander himself had been pre- 
viously married. In the division of the provinces 



590 



NEBO 



after the death of Alexander, he received the 
government of Lycia and Pamphylia, which he 
held as subordinate to Antigonus. (Just. xiii. 
4 ; Diod. I. c.) — Nearchus left a history of the 
voyage, the substance of which has been pre- 
served to us by Arrian, who has derived from it 
the whole of the latter part of his Itidica. 

Nebo, a mountain of Palestine, on the E. side 
of the Jordan, opposite to Jericho. [Diet, of the 
Bible.} l J 

Nebr5des Montes (Monte di Madonia), a 
chain of mountains in Sicily, running through 
the island, and a continuation of the Apen- 
nines (Strab. p. 274 ; Sil. It. xiv. 236). 

Necessitas, called Ananke ('AvdyKr)) by the 
Greeks, is not personified by Homer, but appears 
subsequently as a 
powerful goddess, 
whom not even the 
gods could resist 
(Plat. Sijmp. p. 
195, Mep.x.-p. 616). 
On the Acrocorin- 
thus there was a 
temple of 'AvdyK-q 
and Bi'a, which no 
one could enter 
(Paus. ii. 4, 6). In 
Horace saeva Ne- 
cessitas precedes 
Fortuna, carrying 
in her brazen hand 
nails with which 
she fixes the de- 
crees of fate (Od. 
i. 35, 17, iii. 24, 5). 

Neco or Necho 
(Ne/cws, Ne'x<os, 
Ne/caOs, Nexawi, 
Nexa»)> the Egyp- 
tian Neku. 1. Son 
of Tefnekt, was 
defeated and im- 
prisoned by Sarda- 
napalus, but after- 
wards released and made king of Sais and 
Memphis. According to Hdt. ii. 152, he was 
put to death by Sabacon. He was grandfather 
of Psammetichus = Psamthek I. ' (Herodotus 
represents him as father of Psammetichus.) — 
2. Son of Psammetichus, whom he succeeded 
on the throne of Egypt in B.C. 612. His reign 
was marked by considerable energy and enter- 
prise. He began to dig the canal intended 
to connect the Nile with the Arabian gulf, 
which had been projected before by Seti I. and 
Eamses II. ; but he desisted from the work, 
according to Herodotus, on being warned by 
an oracle that he was constructing it only for 
the use of the barbarian invader. It started 
from the Pelusiac branch, a little north of 
Bubastis, and went towards the gulf of Suez. 
But the greatest and most interesting enter- 
prise with which his name is connected is the 
circumnavigation of Africa by the Phoenicians 
in his service, who set sail from the Arabian 
gulf and accomplished the voyage is somewhat 
more than two years, entered the Mediterranean, 
and returned to Egypt through the Straits of 
Gibraltar. His military expeditions were dis- 
tinguished at first by brilliant success, which 
was followed, however, by the most rapid and 
signal reverses. On his march against the 
Babylonians and Medes, whose joint forces had 
recently destroyed Nineveh, he was met at 
Magdolus (Megiddo) by Josiah, king of Judah, 
who waa a vassal of Babylon. In the battle 




KeceBsitas. (Causei, Museum 
Itomauum, vol. i. tav. 28.) 



NELEUS 

which ensued, Josiah was defeated and mortally 
wounded, and Necho advanced to the Euphrates, 
where he conquered the Babylonians and took 
Carchemish or Circesium, where he appears to 
have established a garrison. After the battle 
;it Megiddo, he took the town of Cadytis, prob- 
ably Jerusalem. In 606 Nebuchadnezzar 
attacked Carchemish, defeated Necho, and would 
appear also to have invaded Egypt itself. In 
596 Necho died, and was succeeded by his son 
Psammis or Psammuthis = Psamthek II. (Hdt. 

ii. 158, iv. 42 ; Diod. i. 33 ; Strab. p. 804.) , 
Nectanabis, Nectanebus, or Nectanebes 

(Ne/CTaea/3is, NeKTare/Sos, NeKTaveySrjs = Nekht- 
Hor-Heb). 1. King of Egypt, the first of the 
three sovereigns of the Sebennite dynasty, suc- 
ceeded Nepherites on the throne about B.C. 378, 
and in the following year successfully resisted 
the invasion of the Persian force under Phar- 
nabazus and Iphicrates, having won a victory 
near Mendes (Diod. xv. 41-43 ; Nep. Iph. 2). 
He died after a reign of fourteen years, and was 
succeeded by Tachos.— 2. = Nekht-Neb-Ef. The 
nephew of Tachos, deprived the latter of the 
sovereignty in 361, with, the assistance of Age- 
silaus. For some time he defeated all the 
attempts of Artaxerxes III. (Oehus) to recover 
Egypt, but he was at length defeated himself, 
and despairing of making any further resistance, 
he fled into Aethiopia, 350. Nectanabis was 
the third king of the Sebennite dynasty, and 
the last native sovereign who ever ruled in 
Egypt. (Plut. Ages. 37-40 ; Diod. xv. 92 ; Paus. 

iii. 10 ; Athen. pp. 150, 616.) 

Neda (Ne'5a: Buzi), a river in Peloponnesus, 
rises in Arcadia in Mt. Cerausion, a branch of 
Mt. Lycaeus, and falls into the Ionian sea after 
forming the boundary between Arcadia and 
Messenia, and between Messenia and Elis 
(Strab. p. 344 ; Paus. iv. 20, 1). 

Negra or Negrana (to Neypava : Bl-Noira, 
N. of Mareb), a city of Arabia Felix, destroyed 
by Aelius Gallus (Strab. p. 781). 

Neleus (NijA.evs). 1. Son of Tyro, the daughter 
of Salmoneus. Poseidon once visited Tyro in 
the form of the river-god Enipeus, and she be- 
came by him the mother of Pelias and Neleus 
(Od. xi. 234-255). To conceal her shame she 
exposed the two boys, but they were found and 
reared by some countrymen. They subse- 
quently learnt their parentage ; and after the 
death of Cretheus, king of Iolcos, who had 
married their mother, they seized the throne of 
Iolcos, excluding Aeson, the son of Cretheus 
and Tyro. But Pelias soon afterwards expelled 
his brother, and thus became sole king. (Apollod. 
i. 9, 8 ; Diod. iv. 68.) Thereupon Neleus went 
with Melampus and Bias to Pylos, which his 
uncle Aphareus gave to him, and of which he 
thus became king. Several towns of this name 
claimed the honour of being the city of Neleus 
or of his son Nestor, such as Pylos in Messenia, 
Pylos in Elis, and Pylos in Triphylia ; the first 
of which is probably the one mentioned by 
Homer in connexion with Neleus and Nestor 
[Pylos, No. 1.] . Neleus was married to Chloris, 
a daughter of Amphion of Orchomenos, accord- 
ing to Homer, and a Theban woman according 
to others. By her he became the father of 
Nestor, Chromius, Periclymenus, and Pero. 
He had in all twelve sons (II. xi. 692; Od. 
I.e.). When Heracles had killed Iphitus, he 
went to Neleus to be purified; but Neleus, 
who was a friend of Eurytus, the father of 
Iphitus, refused to grant the request. In order 
to take vengeance, Heracles afterwards marched 
against Pylos, and slew all the sons of Neleus, 



NELIDES 



NEMESIS 



591 



with, the exception of Nestor : some later cent aqueduct, now called Punt du Gard, some 
writers add that Neleus himself was also killed. ! miles from the town, consisting of three rows 
(II. xi. 690 ; Hyg. Fab. 10 ; Apollod. ii. 6, 2.) of arches, raised one above the other, and 180 
Neleus was now attacked, and his dominions I feet in height, 
plundered by Augeas, king of the Epeans : 



but the attacks of the latter were re- 
pelled by Nestor. The descendants of 
Neleus, the Nelidae, were eventually ex- 
pelled from their kingdom by the Hera- 
clidae, and migrated for the most part to 
Athens. — 2. The younger son of Codrus, 
disputed the right of his elder brother 
Medon to the crown on account of his 
lameness, and when the Delphic oracle 
declared in favour of Medon, hp placed 
himself at the head of the colonists who 
migrated to Ionia, and himself founded 
Miletus. His sou Aepytus headed the 
colonists who settled in Priene. Another 
son headed a body of settlers who re- 
inforced the inhabitants of Iasus, after 
they had lost a great number of their 
citizens in a war with the Carians (Hdt. 
ix. 97; Paus. vii. 2, 1). — 3. Of Scepsis, 
the son of Coriscus, was a disciple of 
Aristotle and Theophrastus, the latter of 
whom bequeathed to him his library, and 
appointed him one of his executors. The 
history of the writings of Aristotle as con- 
nected with Neleus and his heirs is related on 
p. 119, a. 

Nelides, Neleiades, and Neleius (N7ja.6i'8t;s, 




Bronze medal of Nemausus. 
hi-., heads, probably of Augustus and Agrippa, with IMP. P. P. 
J)IVI F. ; rcc, crocodile chained to a palm tree, probably 
commemorating the conquest of Egypt, with COL. NEM. 



Nemea (Ne/ite'a, Ion. Nc/uc'rjl a valley in Argo- 
lis between Cleonae and Phlius, celebrated in 
mythical story as the place where Heracles 
slew the Nemean lion. See p. 396.] In this 
N7jA7ji'a57js, N7)A<ji'oj), patronymics of Neleus, I valley there was a temple of Zeus Nemeus sur- 
by which either Nestor, the son of Neleus, or rounded by a sacred grove, in which the Nemean 
Antilochus, his grandson, is designated. j games were celebrated every other year. (See 

Nemausus (Nemausensis : Nismes), one of Diet, of Antiq, art. Nemea.) 
the most important towns of Gallia Narbo- Nemesianus, M. Aurelius Olympius, a 
nensis, was the capital of the Arecoruici and a Roman poet, probably a native of Africa, 
Roman colony. It was situated inland E. of flourished at the court of the emperor Carus 
the Rhone on the high road from Italy to Spain, (a.d. 283), carried off the prize in all the poetical 
and on the S. slope of M. Cevenna. (Strab. p. contests of the day, and was judged second to 
186 ; Ptol. ii. 10, 10 ; Plin. iii. 37.) It was | the youthful prince Numerianus alone, who 
celebrated as the place from which the family contended with him (Yopisc. Car. 11, 2). Ne- . 
of the Antonines came. Though rarely men- mesianus was the author of poems upon fishing, 
tioned by ancient writers, the Roman remains hunting, and aquatics ; all of which have 
at Nismes, which are some of the most perfect perished, with the exception of a fragment of 
N. of the Alps, prove that the ancient Nemansns the Cynegetica (extending to 325 hexameter 

lines), which, in so far 
as neatness and purity 
of expression are con- 
cerned, in some degree 
justifies the admira- 
tion of his contem- 
poraries. Edited, with 
the poem of Grattius. 
by Stem, 1832, and in 
Hahrens, Poet. Lat. 
Mhi. 1H79. 

Nemesis (Ne^tim . 
a Oreek goddess, is 
most commonly de- 
M-ribed as a daughter 
of Night, though some 
call her a daughter of 
Eivbun or of Oceanus 
(lbs. Th. 223). She 
is a personification of 
the moral reverenee 
for law, of the natural 
feai of committing a 

culpable action, and 

hence of conscience 
(//. xiii. 121). In later 




Aqueduct (/•< 



was a large and flourishing city. Of these 
remains the most important are the amphi- 
theatre, the liaison Carrie, a name given to a 
beautiful Corinthian temple, and the magnifi- 



writers, us Herodotus and Pindar, NemeHis 
measures out happiness and unhappiness to 
mortals; and he who is blessed witli too many 
or too frequent gifts of fortune-, is visited by 



592 



NEMESIUS 




Nemesis and Elpis. (From the 
Chigi Vase. ) 



her with losses and sufferings, in order that he 
may become humble. This notion arose from 
a belief that the gods were envious of excessive 
human happiness. (Hdt. i. 34 ; iii. 40 ; Pind. 01. 

viii. 86, x. 44.) 
Nemesis was 
thus a check 
upon extrava- 
gant favours 
conferred upon 
man by Tyche 
or Fortune ; and 
from this idea 
lastly arose that 
of her being an 
avenging and 
punishing fate, 
who, like Jus- 
tice (Dike) and 
the Brinnyes, 
sooner or later 
overtakes the 
reckless sinner. 
She is fre- 
quently mentioned under the surnames Adrastia 
[Adbastia, No. 2] and Ehamnusia orRhamnusis, 
the latter of which she derived from the town 
of Rhamnus in Attica, where she had a cele- 
brated sanctuary. For the tradition that Zeus be- 
got by Nemesis at Rhamnus an egg from which 
Helena and the Dioscuri sprang see p. 388, a. 

Nemesius (Ntfxtaios), the author of a Greek 
treatise On the Nature of Man, bishop of 
Emesa, in Syria, probably lived at the end of 
the fourth or beginning of the fifth century 
after Christ. Edited by Matthaei, Halae, 1802. 
Nemetacum. [Nemetocenna.] 
Nemetes or Nemetae, a people on the Rhine, 
whose chief town was Noviomagus, subsequently 
Nemetae (Speyer or Spi?-es). (Caes. B.G. i. 51, 
vi. 25 ; Tac. Germ. 28.) 

Nemetocenna or Nemetacum {Arras), the 
chief town of the Atrebates in Gallia Belgica, 
"subsequently Atrebates, whence its modern 
name (Caes. B.G. viii. 46). 
Nemorensis Lacus. [Aeicia.] 
Nemossns. [Abvebni.] 

Nenia (less correctly Naenia), i.e. a dirge or 
lamentation, chaunted at funerals, was personi- 
fied at Rome and worshipped as a goddess. 
She had a chapel outside the walls of the city, 
near the Porta Viminalis. [Indigetes, p. 443, b.] 

Neobule. [Abcidxochtjs.] 

Neocaesarea (NeoKataapeLa: TSIeoKaurapevs, 
Neocaesariensis : Niksar), the capital, under 
the Roman empire, of Pontus Polenioniacus, 
in Asia Minor, stood on the river Lycus, sixty- 
three Roman miles E. of Amasia (Plm. vi. 8). 

Neon (NeW : Nedvios, Newucuos : Velitza), an 
ancient town in Phocis at the E. foot of Mt. 
Tithorea, a branch of Mt. Parnassus, was 
eighty stadia from Delphi across the mountains. 
Neon was destroyed by the Persians under 
Xerxes, but was subsequently rebuilt and named 
Tithorea (TiSopea: Tidopevs) after the moun- 
tain on which it was situated. (Hdt. viii. 33 ; 
Strab. p. 439.) It was destroyed in the Sacred 
war, and was rebuilt, but remained. an unim- 
portant though fortified place (Paus. x. 2, 4). 

Neontichos (Niov rdxos, i.e. New Wall). 
1. (Ainadsjik), one of the twelve cities of Aeolis, 
on the coast of Mysia, in Asia Minor, stood on 
the N. side of the Hermus, on the slope of 
M. Sardene, 30 stadia from Larissa (Hdt. i. 149 ; 
Strab. p. 621). — 2. A fort on the coast of Thrace, 
near the Chersonesus (Xen. An. vii. 5, 8). 

Neoptolemus (NeoTTT($Ae,uos). 1. Also called 



NEOPTOLEMUS 

Pyrrhus, son of Achilles and Deidamla, the 
daughter of Lycomedes (Od. xi. 491 ; Apollod. 
iii. 13, 8) ; according to some he was a son of 
Achilles and Iphigenia, and after the sacrifice 
of his mother was carried by his father to the 
island of Scyros (Tzetz. ad Lyc. 133). The name 
of Pyrrhus is said to have been given to him 
by Lycomedes because he had fair (■Kvpp6s) hair, 
or because Achilles, while disguised as a girl, 
had borne the name of Pyrrha (Paus. x. 26 ; 
Serv. ad Aen. ii. 469). He was called Neopto- 
lemus — that is, young or late warrior — either 
because he had fought in early youth or because 
he had come late to Troy. From his father he 
is sometimes called Achillides, and from his 
grandfather or great-grandfather, Pelides and 
Aeactdes. Neoptolemus was brought up in 
Scyros in the palace of Lycomedes, and was 
fetched from thenee by Ulysses to join the 
Greeks in the war against Troy, because it had 
been prophesied by Helenus that Neoptolemus 
and Philoctetes were necessary for the capture of 
Troy (Soph. Phil. 115). At Troy Neoptolemus 
showed himself worthy of his great father. He 
was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden 
horse (Od. xi. 508-521). At the capture of 
the city he killed Priam at the sacred hearth of 
Zeus, and sacrificed Polyxena to the spirit of 
his father (Eur. Hec. 523 ; Verg. Aen. ii. 527). 
When the Trojan captives were distributed 
among the conquerors, Andromache, the widow 
of Hector, was given to Neoptolemus, and by 
her he became the father of Molossus, Pielus, 
Pergamus, and Amphialus (Paus. i. 11, 1). 
Respecting his return from Troy and the sub- 
sequent events of his life the traditions differ. 
It is related that Neoptolemus returned 
home by land, because he had been fore- 
warned by Helenus of the dangers which the 
Greeks would have to encounter at sea. Ac- 
cording to Homer, Neoptolemus lived in Phthia, 
the kingdom of his father, and here he married 
Hermione, whom her father Meuelaus sent to 
him from Sparta (Od. iv. 5). According to 
others, Neoptolemus himself went to Sparta to 
receive Hermione, because he had heard a 
report that she was betrothed to Orestes (Paus. 
iii. 25, 26). Most writers relate that he aban- 
doned his native kingdom of Phthia, and settled 
in Epirus, where he became the ancestor of the 
Molossian kings (Paus. i. 11 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 333 ; 
cf. Pind. Nem. iv. 51). Shortly after his mar- 
riage with Hermione, Neoptolemus went to 
Delphi, where he was murdered ; but the reason 
of his visiting Delphi as well as the person by 
whom he was slain are differently related. 
Some say he went to plunder the temple of 
Apollo ; others, to present part of the Trojan 
booty as an offering to the god ; and others 
again, to consult the god about the means 
of obtaining children by Hermione. Some 
relate that he was slain at the instigation of 
Orestes, who was angry at being deprived of 
Hermione ; and others, by the priest of the 
temple, or by Machaereus, the son of Daetas. 
His body was buried at Delphi ; and he was 
worshipped there as a hero (Paus. x. 24, 5). — 
2. I., King of Epirus, was son of Alcetas L, and 
father of Alexander I., and of Olympias, the 
mother of Alexander the Great. Neoptolemus 
reigned in con junction with his brother Arymbas 
or Arrybas till his death, about B.C. 360 (Paus. 
i. 11). — 3. II., King of Epirus, son of Alexander 
I., and grandson of the preceding. At his 
father's death in 326, he was probably a mere 
infant, and his pretensions to the throne were 
passed over in favour of Aeacides. It was not 



NEPETE 



NEREIS 



593 



till 302 that the Epirots. taking advantage of i that the style of the Bell. Africanum and Hispa- 
the absence of Pyrrhus, the son of Aeacides, j uiense and even of Varro differs quite as much 
rose in insurrection against him, and set up 1 from that of Cicero and Caesar. Nepos is clear 
Neoptolemus in his stead. The latter reigned and fair in his narration, but often inaccurate 
for the space of six years, but was obliged to , in history. Best edition by Nipperdey (revised 
share the throne with Pyrrhus in 296. He was i by Lupus, Berl. 1879) ; others by Macmichael. 
shortly afterwards assassinated by Pyrrhus. [ Lond. 1873 ; Lindsay, New York, 1889. 
(Plut. Pyrrh. 4, 5.) — 4. A Macedonian officer \ Nepos, Julius, last emperor but one of the 
of Alexander the Great, after whose death he West, a.d. 474-475, was raised to the throne by 
obtained the government of Armenia. In 321 Leo, the emperor of the East. Nepos deposed 
he revolted from Perdiccas, and joined Craterus, Glycerius, who was regarded at Constantinople 
but he was defeated by Eumenes, and was slain as a usurper [Glycebius] ; but he was in iiis 
in battle by the hands of the latter. (Arrian. turn deposed in the next year by Orestes, who 
An. ii. 27 ; Plut. Eum. 4-7.) — 5. A general of proclaimed his son Romulus. Nepos fled into 
Mithridates (App. Hithr. 17). Dalmatia, where he was killed in 480. 

Nepete, Nepe, or Nepet (Xepesinus: Nepi), , Nepotianus, Flavius Popillus, son of Eu- 
an ancient town of Etruria, but not one of the tropia. the half-sister of Constantine the Great, 
twelve cities, was situated near the Saltus was proclaimed emperor at Rome in a.d. 350, 
Ciminius and was regarded as one of the keys but was slain by Marcellinus, the general of 
and gates of Etruria tclaustra portaeque Magnextivs, after a reign of twenty-eight days. 
Etruriae, Liv. vi. 9). It appears as an ally of Neptunus, called Poseidon by the Greeks, 
the Romans at an early period, soon after the The Greek god is spoken of in a separate article. 
Capture of Rome by the Gauls, and was subse- Poseidon.] Neptunus was the chief sea- 
quently made a Roman colony (Liv. vi. 21 ; divinity of the Romans. As the earl}' Romans 
Veil. Pat. i. 14). There are still remains at were not a maritime people, they had little con- 
Nepi of the walls of the ancient city. j ception of the phenomena of the sea and few 

Nephele (N€<pe'A7j), wife of Athamas and myths about it. Hence nearly all the Italian 
mother of Phrixus and Helle. Hence Helle is mythology connected with water refers to deities 
called ±\ep)ielii3 by Ovid. For details see of rivers and springs. Some writers even think 
Athamas. that Neptunus was originally a god of rain, but 

Nephelis (NetpeAi's), a small town and pro- this theory rests on the uncertain etymology 
montory on the coast of Cilicia Aspera; between from ve<pos. The name in Etruscan is Nethuns 
Anemurium and Antiochia iPtol. v. 8, 1). and the Romans may possibly have borrowed 

Nepheris (N€0epis), a fortified town in the his worship from Etruria. That the Etruscans 
immediate neighbourhood of Carthage, on a regarded him as a sea-god is clear from the fact 
rock near the coast (Strab. p. 834). that they describe Poseidon by the name of 

Nepos, Cornelius, the contemporary and friend Nethuns. To Romans he was at any rate a god 
of Cicero, Atticus, and Catullus, was probably a of the sea before the introduction of the worship 
native of Verona, or of some neighbouring village, of Poseidon (under the name of Neptunus) in 
and died during the reign of Augustus. No the first lectisternium, B. c. 399 (Liv. v. 13). In 
other particulars with regard to his personal Roman mythology, too, his wife's name was 
history have been transmitted to us. He is Salacia, the goddess of the salt sea (Varro, 
known to have written the following pieces, all L.L. v. 72; Serv. ad Aen. i. 144) cf. Cic. Tim. 
of which are now lost, except a portion of jr. 11). Neptunus with all the other history 
No. 7. (1) Chronica, an Epitome of Universal and attributes of the Greek Poseidon received 
History, probably in three books, to which also the patronage of horses and equestrian 
Catullus appears to allude in dedicating his exercises and an altar in the Circus Flaminius. 
poems to Cornelius Nepos (Catnll. i. 5; Gell. His festival was on the 23rd of July. His temple 
xvii. 21). From the mention in Catullus they stood in the Campus Martius, not far from the 
seem to have been published not later than septa. At his festival the people formed tents 
03 B. c, before Varro and Atticus wrote Epitomes (umbrae) of the branches of trees, in which 
of the same kind. (2) Exemp/lorum Libri, they enjoyed themselves in feasting and drink- 
probably a collection of remarkable sayings and ing (Diet, of Ant. art. Neptunalia). When a 
doings. (3) he Viris Illustribiis, perhaps the Roman commander set sail with a fleet, he first 
same work as the preceding, quoted under a offered up a sacrifice to Neptunus, which was 
different title. (4) Vita Ciceronis. (5) Epittolae thrown into the sea. In the Roman poets Nep- 
ad Ciceronem. ((>) Vita Catonis, a larger work tunus is completely identified witli the Greek 
alluded to in Nep. Cat. 3, 5. (7) His greatest Poseidon, and accordingly all the attributes of 
work, De Viris Illustrious, in at least sixteen the latter are transferred by them to the former, 
books (Charis. G. L. i. 141; cf. Gell. xi. 8), in i Neratlus Priscus, a Roman jurist, who lived 
which Lives of Romans and foreigners were under Trajan and Hadrian. It is said that 
placed side by side. Of this work the part en- Trajan sometimes had the design of making 
titled Vitae Excellent i n m Imperatorum sur- Neratius his successor in place of Hadrian. He 
vives, and also the Lives of Atticus and Cato the enjoyed a high reputation under Hadrian, and 
Censor, which belonged to tin- section including w:>s one of his consiliarii. His works arc cited 
historians. The Vitar Es< < lU-ntium Imjitra- in the Digest. 

torum has erroneously been regarded as Nereis or Nereis (Nrjpus, in Horn. NTjprjts), 
spurious because the heading in the MSS. seems in Verg. Eel. vii. 87, Nerine, a sea-nymph, 
to name Aemilius Probus as the author. The and used especially in the plural, Nereides 
mistake arose from a dedicatory epigram written iN7)pri5fs, N7ip7)i3fj), to indicate the fifty 
by Probus to Theodosius, and inserted for some daughters of Nereus and Doris. The Ne- 
reason after the Life of Hannibal. Hence the rci<h n were the sea-nymphs of the Medi- 
copyists of the MS. derived their incorrect head- terraneau i = yi>fi(pai H\icu, Soph. Phil. 1470), 
ing. As regards the objection that the Latinity in contradistinction to the Naiades, or the 
is marked by colloquial idioms unsuited to a nymphs of fresh water, and the Oceanides, or 
learned contemporary of Cicero, and that the the nymphs of the great ocean. Their names 
whole style is inferior, it has been well remarked are not the same in all writers (II. xviii ; 

QQ 



594 



NEBEIUS 



Hes. Th. 240-263 ; Verg. Aen. v. 825 ; of. Pind. 
Isthm. vi. 6; Ov. Met. ii. 10; Apollod. i. 2, 7). 
One of the most celebrated was Thetis, the 
mother of Achilles. They are described as 
lovely divinities (Hes. Th. 240), imagined prob- 
ably from the play of the waves chasing each 




Nereid. {Musco Borbouico, vol. vi. tav. xxxiv.) 

other, and as dwelling with their father at the 
bottom of the sea, and were believed to be pro- 
pitious to all sailors, and especially to the Ar- 
gonauts (Ap. Eh. iv. 859, 930 ; Apollod. i. 9, 25) 
They were worshipped in several parts of 
Greece, but more especially in seaport towns 
(Paus. ii. 1, 7 ; iii. 26, 5). They are frequently 
represented in works of art : in the older black- 
figured vases as maidens fully clothed ; so also 
on the sculptures of the ' Nereid-monument ' 
from Xanthus, now in the British Museum, in 
which the drapery seems intended to suggest a 
rapid, flowing movement ; but most examples of 
fully-developed art show the Nereids as youth- 
ful, beautiful, and naked maidens ; and they are 
often grouped with Tritons, or riding on sea- 
monsters, as in the work of Scopas (Plin. xxxvi. 
26). But there was a different 
conception among the Romans, of 
maidens with fishes' tails, like 
mermaids, and sometimes with 
scales over all the body (Plin. 
ix. 9 ; of. Hor. A. P. 5). 

Nereius, a name given by the 
poets to a descendant of Nereus. 

Neretum or Neritum (Nereti- 
nus : Narbo), a town of the 
Salentini in Calabria. 

Nereus (N?jpeus),son of Pontus 
and Gaea, and husband of Doris, 
by whom he became the father 
of the fifty Nereides. He is de- 
scribed as the wise and unerring 
old man of the sea, at the bottom 
of which he dwelt (II. xviii. 141 ; 
Od. xxiv. 58; Hes. Th. 233). He 
was believed to have, like other 
deities of the sea, the power of 
prophesying the future and of 
appearing to mortals in different 
shapes. Heracles accordingly ob- 
tains his counsel as to what route 
will bring him to the Hesperides ; 
but he had first to subdue him in 
wrestling (Apollod. ii. 5, 11). The 
same account is given of Proteus 
in the story of Odysseus, and of 
Glaucus in that of the Argonauts. 
Horace makes him prophesy to Paris (Od. i. 15). 
Virgil (Aen. ii. 418) mentions the trident as his 
attribute, and the epithets given him by the 
poets refer to his old age, his kindliness, and 
his trustworthy knowledge of the future. In 



NEBO 

works of art, Nereus, like other sea-gods, is re- 
presented with pointed sea-weeds taking the 
place of hair in the eye-brows, the chin, and 
the breast. His body less frequently has partly 
the form of a fish ; or it ends in the coils of a 
serpent, as in the annexed cut. 
Nericus. [Leucas.] 
Nerine. [Nebeis.] 

Nerio, Neriene, or Nerienis. [Mabs.] 
Neritum, Neritus. [Ithaca.] 
Nerium, also called Celticum (C. Finis- 
terre), a promontory in the NW. corner of 
Spain, and in the territory of the Nerii r a 
tribe of the Celtic Artabri, whence the pro- 
montory is also called Artabrum (Strab. 
p. 137). 

Nerius, Cn., accused P. Sestius of bribery, 
b. c. 56 (Cic. ad Q. Fr. ii. 3, 5). 

Nero, Claudius. Nero is said to have 
signified 1 brave ' in the Sabine tongue (Suet. 
Tib. 1; Gell. xiii. 22). 1. Tib., one of the 
four sons of App. Claudius Caecus, censor 
B. c. 312, from whom all the Claudii Nerones 
were descended (Suet. Ner. 3). — 2. C, a 
celebrated general in the second Punic war. 
He was praetor 212, and was sent into Spain to 
oppose Hasdrubal, who eluded his attack, and 
he was succeeded by Scipio Africanus (Liv. 
xxvi. 17 ; Appian, Hisp. 17). Nero commanded 
one of the three armies which drew together 
round Capua in 212 ; he was legatus under 
Marcellus in 209 (Liv. xxvii. 14). In 207 he 
was consul with M. Livius Salinator, and 
marched into the S. of Italy against Hannibal, 
with whom he fought an indecisive battle at 
Grumentum, and then followed Hannibal into 
Apulia, and encamped opposite to him at 
Canusium. Having heard of Hasdrubal's arri- 
val, he secretly broke up his camp, marched 
into the N. of Italy, effected a junction with 
his colleague M. Livius in Picenum, and pro- 




So also 



Nereus. (Panofka, Jir«s<fe Blacas, pi. 20.) 

ceeded to crush Hasdrubal before his brother 
Hannibal could come to his assistance. Has- 
drubal was defeated and slain on the river 
Metaurus (Liv. xxvii. 41-51 ; App. Annib. 52). 
This great battle, which probably saved Borne, 
gave a lustre to the name of Nero, and con- 



secrated it among the recollections of 
Romans. 

Quid debeas, o Roma, Xeronibus, 
Testis iletaarum fiumen et Hasdrubal 
Devictus. Horat. Od. iv. 4. 

Nero was censor, 204, with M. Livius. — 3. Tib., 
praetor, 204, with Sardinia for his province ; 
and consul, 202, when he obtained Africa as 



NEBO 595 

the of the arts, and made verses ; but he was 
indolent and given to pleasure, and had no 
( inclination for laborious studies. On the death 
of Claudius (54), Agrippina secured the suc- 
| cession for her son, to the exclusion of Bri- 
tannicus, the son of Claudius. His mother 
wished to/ govern in the name of her son, and 
her ambition was the cause of Nero's first 



his province, but his fleet suffered so much at sea crime. J ealousy thus arose between Nero and 
that he was unable to join Scipio in Africa (Liv. bis mother, which soon broke out into a quarrel, 
xxx. 39). — 4. Tib., served under Pompey in the and Agrippina threatened to join Britannicus 
war against the pirates, B. c. 67. He is probably and raise him to his father' s place ; whereupon 
the Tib. Nero who recommended that the mem- Nero caused Britannicus to be poisoned, at an 
bers of the conspiracy of Catiline, who had been entertainment where Agrippina and Octavia 
seized, should be kept confined till Catiline was were present (55). During the early part of 
put down (Sail. Cat. 50 ; App. B. C. ii. 5).— 5. Nero's reign, the government of Rome was in 
Tib., father of the emperor Tiberius, was pro- the hands of Seneca and of Burrhus, the 
bably the son of the last. He served as quaes- praefect of the praetorians, who opposed the 
tor under Caesar (48) in the Alexandrine war ambitious designs of Agrippina, and exercised 
(Dio Cass. xlii. 40). He sided with L. Antonius 1 a better influence on the young emperor (Tac. 
in the war of Perusia (41) ; and when this town \ Ann. xiii. 12 ; Suet. Ner. 10). But he soon 
surrendered, he passed over to Sex. Pompey in indulged his licentious inclinations without 
Sicily, and subsequently to M. Antony in Achaea restraint. He neglected his wife for the 
(ib. xlviii. 15). On a reconciliation being effected beautiful but dissolute Poppaea Sabina, the 
between Antony and Octavian at the close of the wife of Otho. This abandoned woman aspired 
year (40), he returned with his wife to Rome. to become the emperor's wife ; but since she 
Livia, wbo possessed great beauty, excited the had no hopes of succeeding in her design while 
passion of Octavian, to whom she was surren- Agrippina lived, she used all her arts to urge 
dered by her husband, being then six months Nero to put his mother to death. Accordingly 
gone with child of her second son Drusus. in 59 Agrippina was assassinated by Nero's 
Nero died shortly after, and left Octavian the order, with the approbation at leabt of Seneca 
guardian of his two sons. (Tac. Ann. i. 10, v. 1 ; and Burrhus, who saw that the time was come 
Dio Cass, xlviii. 44.) ] for the destruction either of the mother or the 

Nero. 1. Roman emperor, a.d. 54-68, was son. (Tac. Ann. xiv. 7.) Though Nero had no 
the son of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus and of longer anyone to oppose him, he felt the 
Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus Caesar and punishment of his guilty conscience, and said 

that he was haunted by his mother's spectre 
(Suet. Ner. 34). He attempted to drown his 
reflections in fresli riot, in which he was en- 
| couraged by a band of flatterers. He did not, 
I however, immediately marry Poppaea, being 
probably restrained by fear of Burrhus aud 





Bast of Nero. 

Meter of Caligula. Nero's original name was 
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, but after the 
marriage of his mother with her uncle, the 
emperor Claudius, he was adopted by Claudius 
(a.d. 50), and was called Nero Claudius Caesar j 
Drusus Germanicus. Nero was born at 
Antium, on the 15th of December, a.d. 37. I 
Shortly after his adoption by Claudius, Nero, p 
being then sixteen years of age, married Oc- I 
tavia, the daughter of Claudius and Messallina 
(68). Among his early instructors wag Seneca. 
Nero had some talent and taste. He was fond . 



Coin of Nero. Roman Emperor, A.D. M-GS. 
Oi/r., head of Nero : NERO CAESAR AVG. IMP. ; rev., 
'DecurBlo' (see Diet, ul Ant. s.v.): DECVR. 

Seneca. But the death of Burrhus in 62, and 
the retirement of Seneca from public affairs, 
which immediately followed, left Nero more at 
liberty. Accordingly he divorced his wife 
Octavia, and in eighteen days married Poppaea. 
Not satisfied with putting away his wife, he 
falsely charged her with adultery, and banished 
her to the island of Pandataria, where she was 
shortly after put to death. (Tac. Ann. xiv. 64.) 
— In 64 the great fire at Rome happened. Its 
origin is uncertain, for it is hardly credible 
that the city was fired by Nero's order, as some 
ancient writers assert (Dio Cass. lxii. 17, 18; 
Suet. Ner. 38). Tacitus (Ann. xv. 38) does 
not supjiort the accusation of Nero. Out of 
the fourteen regiones into which Rome was 
divided, three were totally destroyed, and in 
seven others only a few half-burned houses 
remained. The emperor set about rebuilding 
the city on an improved plan, with wider 
streets. He found money for his purposes by 
acts of oppression and violence, and even 
temples were robbed of their wealth. With 
these means he begun to erect his sumptuous 

QQ9 



596 



NERO 



golden palace, on a scale of magnitude and 
splendour which almost surpasses belief. The 
vestibule contained a colossal statue of himself 
120 feet high. The odium of the conflagration 
which the emperor could not remove from 
himself, he tried to throw on the Christians, 
who were then numerous in Rome, and many 
of them were put to a cruel death. — The 
tyranny of Nero at last (65) led to the organi- 
sation of a formidable conspiracy against him, 
usually called Piso's conspiracy, from the name 
of one of the principal accomplices. The plot 
was discovered, and many distinguished per- 
sons were put to death, among whom were Piso 
himself, the poet Lucan, and the philosopher 
Seneca, though the latter appears to have 
taken no part in the plot. (Tac. Ann. xv. 72.) 
In the same year, Poppaea died of a kick 
which her brutal husband gave her in a fit of 
passion when she was with child. Nero now 
married Statilia Messallina. The history of 
the remainder of Nero's reign is a catalogue of 
his crimes. Virtue in any form was the object 
of his fear ; and almost every month was 
marked by the execution or banishment of 
some distinguished man. Among his other 
victims were Thrasea Paetus and Barea So- 
ranus, both men of high rank, but of spotless 
integrity. (Ib, xvi. 21.) In 67 Nero paid a 
visit to Greece, and took part in the contests 
of both the Olympic and Pythian games. He 
began a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, 
but the works were afterwards suspended by 
his own orders (Dio Cass, lxiii. 6-17.) While 
in Greece he sent orders to put to death his 
faithful general Domitius Corbulo, which the 
old soldier anticipated by stabbing himself. 
The Roman world had long been tired of its 
oppressor ; and the storm at length broke out 
in Gaul, where Julius Vindex, the governor, 
raised the standard of revolt. His example 
was followed by Galba, who was governor of 
Hispania Tarraconensis. Galba was pro- 
claimed emperor by his troops, but he only 
assumed the title of legatus of the senate and 
the Roman people. Soon after these news 
reached Rome, Nymphidius Sabinus, who was 
praefectus rjraetorio along with Tigellinus, per- 
suaded the troops to proclaim Galba. Nero 
was immediately deserted. He escaped from 
the palace with a few freedmen, and made his 
way to a house about four miles from Rome, 
which belonged to his freedman Phaon. Here 
lie gave himself a mortal wound, when he 
heard the trampling of the horses on which his 
pursuers were mounted. The centurion on 
entering attempted to stop the flow of blood, 
but Nero only said, 1 It is too late. Is this your 
fidelity ? ' and almost at the same moment 
expired (Suet. Ner. 49). — Nero's progress in 
crime is easily traced, and the lesson is worth 
reading. Without a good education, and with 
no talent for his high station, he was placed in 
a position of danger from the first. He was 
sensual, and fond of idle display, and then he 
became greedy of money to satisfy his ex- 
penses ; he was timid, and by consequence he 
became cruel when he anticipated danger ; 
and, like other murderers, his first crime, the 
poisoning of Britannicus, made him capable of 
another. But, contemptible and cruel as he 
was, there are many persons who, in the same 
situation, might run the same guilty career. 
He was only in his thirty- first year when he 
died, and he had held the supreme power for 
eighteen years and eight months. He was the 
last of the descendants of Julia, the sister of 



NERVA 

the dictator Caesar. — The most important ex- 
ternal events in the reign of Nero were the 
conquest of Armenia by Domitius Corbulo 
[Corbulo], and the insurrection of the Britons, 
which was quelled by Suetonius Paulinus. 
[Paulinus.] — 2. Eldest son of Germanicus and 
Agrippina, fell a victim to the ambition of 
Sejanus, who resolved to get rid of the sons of 
Germanicus in order to obtain the imperial 
throne for himself. Drusus, the brother of 
Nero, was persuaded to second the designs of 
Sejanus, in hopes that the death of his elder 
brother would secure him the succession to the 
throne. There was no difficulty in exciting the 
jealousy of Tiberius ; and accordingly in a.d. 
29, Nero was declared an enemy of the state, 
was removed to the island of Pontia, and was 
there either starved to death or perished by 
his own hands. (Tac. Ann. iii. 29, iv. 8, 59-67, 
v. 3 ; Dio Cass, lviii. 8.) 

Nertobriga. 1, (Valera la Viejd), a town in 
Hispania Baetica, with the surname Concordia 
Julia (Plin. iii. 14 ; Ptol. ii. 4, 13), probably the 
same place which Polybius calls (xxxv. 2) Erco- 
brica ('EpKoffpiKa). — 2. (Almuna) a town of the 
Celtiberi in Hispania Tarracon. (Ptol. ii. 6, 58). 

Nerulum, a fortified place in Lucania on 
the Via Popilia (Liv. ix. 20). 

Nerva, Cocceius. 1. M., consul b.o. 36^ 
brought about the reconciliation between M. 
Antonius and Octavianus, 40 (App. B.C. v. 60 ; 
Dio Cass, xlviii. 54), and is the same as the 
Cocceius mentioned by Horace (Sat. i. 5, 28). — 
2. "IS.., probably the son of the preceding, and 
grandfather of the emperor Nerva. He was 
consul in a.d. 22. In 33 he resolutely starved 
himself to death, notwithstanding the entreaties 
of Tiberius, whose constant companion he was 
(Tac. Ann. iv. 58, vi. 26 ; Dio Cass, lviii. 21). He 
was a celebrated jurist and is often mentioned 
in the Digest. He was notable also as having 
charge of public works under Tiberius, and 
especially of aqueducts (Frontin. Aquaed. 2). 
He was the originator of the tunnel (Grotta di 
Posilipo) on the road leading from Naples to 
Baiae [Pausilypus]. — 3. M., the son of the 
last, and probably father of the emperor, was 
also a celebrated jurist, and is often cited in the 
Digest under the name of Nerva Filius. — 
4. M., Roman emperor, a.d. 96-98, was born at 
Narnia, in Umbria, a.d. 32. He was consul 
with Vespasian, 71, and with Domitian, 90. On 
the assassination of Domitian, in September, 
96, Nerva, who had probably been privy to the 




Coin of Nerva, Roman Emperor, A.r>. 9G-98. 
Obr.. head of Nerva: IMP. NERVA CAES. AVG. P. M". 
TR. P. COS. II. P.P. ; rev., Justice seated : IVSTITIA 
AVG VST. 

conspiracy, was declared emperor at Rome 
by the people and the soldiers, and his ad- 
ministration at once restored tranquility to tin 
state. He stopped proceedings against those 
who had been accused of treason, and allowec 
many exiled persons to return to Rome. Th< 
informers were suppressed by penalties, and 
some were put to death. At the commence' 
ment of his reign, Nerva swore that h< 
would put no senator to death ; and he kept hii 
word, even when a conspiracy had been formec 




Bust of Xerva. 



NERVII 

against his life by Calpurnius Crassus. Though 
Nerva was virtuous and humane, lie did not pos- 
sess much energy and vigour, and his feeble- 
ness was shown by a mutiny of the Praetorian 
soldiers. The sol- 
diers demanded 
the punishment of 
the assassins of 
Domitian, which 
the emperor at first 
refused, but he was 
obliged to put Pe- 
tronius Secundus 
and Parthenius to 
death, or to permit 
them to be mas- 
sacred by the sol- 
diers. Nerva felt 
his weakness, and 
showed his noble 
character and his 
good sense by ap- 
pointing as his 
successor a man 
who possessed both 
vigour and ability 
to direct public 
affairs. He adopted 
as his son and suc- 
cessor, without any 
regard to his own 
kin, M. Ulpius 
Trajanus, who was 
then at the head of an army in Germany. 
Nerva died suddenly on January 27, a.d. 98, at 
the age of sixty-five years. (Dio Cass, lxviii.) 

Nervii, a powerful and warlike people in 
Gallia Belgica, whose territory extended from 
the river Sabis (Sambre) to the Ocean, and 
part of which was covered by the wood Ar- 
duenna. They were divided into several smaller 
tribes, the Centrones, Grudii, Levaci, Pleu- 
moxii and Geiduni. In B.C. 58 they were de- 
feated by Caesar witli such slaughter that out 
of 00,000 men capable of bearing arms only SOU 
were left. (Caes. li.G. ii. 15, v. 38, vi. 2.) 

Nesactium a town in Istria on the Arsia. 
taken by the Romans B.C. 177 (Liv. xli. 11}. 

Nesis (Nisita), a small island off the coast of 
Campania between Puteoli and Neapolis, and 
opposite Mount Pausilypus. It was a favourite 
residence of some of the Roman nobles (Cic. ad 
Att. xvi. 1-4 : Stat. Silo. iii. 1, 148). 

Nessonis INtaawvts), a lake in Thessaly, a 
little S. of the river Peneus, and NE. of Larissa, 
is in summer merely a swamp, but in winter is 
not only full of water, but even overflows its 
banks. Nessonis and the neighbouring lake 
Boebeis were regarded by the; ancients as 
remains of the vast lake, which was supposed 
to have covered the whole of Thessaly, till an 
outlet was made for its waters through the 
rocks of Tempe (Strab. p. 480). 

Nessus (NtViros), a centaur, who carried 
Deianira across the river Evenus, but, attempt- 
ing to run away with her, was shot by Heracles 
with a poisoned arrow, which afterwards be- 
came the cause of his own death. See p. 400, a. 

Nestor iN«VT<«jp),kingof Pylos, son ofNeleus 
and Chloris, husband of Eurydice and father of 
Pisidice, Polycaste, Perseus. Stratius. Aretus, 
Echephron, Pisistratus, Antilochus.and Tlirasv 
medes (Oil. iii. 418,462,464, xi. 285; Apollod. 
i. 9, 9). Some relate that, after the death of 
Eurydice, Nestor married Anaxibia, the daughter 
of Atreus, and sister of Agamemnon ; but this 
Anaxibia is elsewhere described as the wife of 



NICAEA 



597 



Strophius, and the mother of Pylades (Paus. 
ii. 29, 4 1. When Heracles invaded the country 
of Neleus. and slew his sons, Nestor alone was 
spared, either because he was absent from 
Pylos, or because he had taken no part in 
carrying off from Heracles the oxen of Gery- 
ones (27. xi. 092; Apollod. ii. 7, 3; Taus. iii. 
26,6). In his youth and early manhood, Nestor 
was a distinguished warrior. He defeated both 
the Arcadians and Eleans. He took part in 
the fight of the Lapithae against the Centaurs, 
and he is mentioned among the Calydonian 
hunters and the Argonauts (II. i. 260, iv. 319, 
vii. 133, xi. 706, xxiii. 630 ; Ov. Met. viii. 613 ; 
Val. Flacc. i. 380). Although far advanced in 
age, he sailed with the other Greek heroes 
against Troy. Having ruled over three gene- 
rations of men, his advice and authority were 
deemed equal to those of the immortal gods, and 
he was renowned for his wisdom, his justice, 
and his knowledge of war (II. i. 273, ii. 370, xi. 
627). After the fall of Troy lie returned home, 
and arrived safely in Pylos, where Zeus 
granted to him the full enjoyment of old age, 
surrounded by brave sons (Oil. iii. 165, iv. 209). 
j Various towns in Peloponnesus, of the name of 
Pylos, laid claim to being the city of Nestor. 
On this point see Neleus. 

Nestorides (Ne<rTopi'8?)s), i.e. a son of Nestor, 
as Antilochus and Pisistratus. 

Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople a.d. 
428. [See Diet, of Christian Biogi] 

Nestus, sometimes Nessus (N/<ttos : Mcsta 
by the Greeks, Karasu by the Turks), a river 
in Thrace, which rises in Mount Rhodope, flows 
SE., and falls into the Aegaean sea W. of Abdera 
and opposite the island of Thasos. The Nestus 
formed the E. boundary of Macedonia from 
the time of Philip and Alexander the Great. 
(Hes. Th. 341 ; Thuc. ii. 69; Strab. p. 331.) 

Nesus. [Oeniadae.] 

Netum (Xetinus: Koto Antique near Nolo), 

' a town in Sicily, S\V. of Syracuse, and a de- 
pendency of the latter. In Cicero's time it was 

j a foederata civitas, and afterwards held Latin 
rights (Cic. Verr. iv. 26, v. 22; Ptol. iii. 4, 13). 

Neuri (NeGpoi, Nti/poi), a people of Sarmatia 
Europaea, whom Herodotus describes as not of 
Scythian race, though they followed Scythian 
customs. Having been driven out from their 
earlier abodes by a plague of serpents, they 
settled to the N\V. of the sources of the Tyras 
(Dniester). They were skilful in enchant- 
ments. (Hdt. iv. 17, 51, 100, 125 ; Mel. ii. 1, 7.) 
Nevimum. [Noviodunum, No. 2.] 
Nicaea IKiKata: NtKaievs, Nixafus, Nicaeen- 
sis, Nicensis). 1. (Iznik, Ru.), one of the most 
celebrated cities of Asia, stood on the E. side 
of the lake Ascania (Iznik) in Bithynia (Strab. 

I p. 565). Its site appears to have been occupied 
in very ancient times by a town called Attaea, 
and afterwards by a settlement of the Bot- 
tiaeans, called Ancore or Helicore, which was 
destroyed by the Mysians (Steph. B. s.u.). Not 
long after the death of Alexander the (Ircat, 
Antigonus built on the same spot a city which 

■ he named after himself, Antigonea ; but Lysi- 
mnyVinq goon after changed the name into 
Nicaea, in honour of his wife. Under the kings 
of Bithynia it was often the royal residence, 
and it long disputed with Nicomedia the rank 
of capital of Bithynia. The Roman emperors 
bestowed upon it numerous honours and bene- 
fits, which are recorded on its coins. Its posi- 
tion, at the junction of several of the chief 

1 roads leading through Asia Minor to Constanti- 
nople, made it the centre of a large traffic. It 



598 NICANDER 

is famous in ecclesiastical history as the seat 
of the great Oecumenical Council which Con- 
stantine convoked in a.d. 325. In the very 
year of the great Council, Nicaea was over- 
thrown by an earthquake, but it was restored 
by the emperor Valens in 368. Under the later 
emperors of the East, Nicaea long served as 
the bulwark of Constantinople against the 
Arabs and Turks: it was taken by the Seljuks 
in 1078, and became the capital of the Sultan 
Soliman ; it was retaken by the First Crusaders 
in 1097. After the taking of Constantinople 
by the Venetians and the Franks, and the 
foundation of the Latin empire there in 1204, 
the Greek emperor Theodorus Lascaris made 
Nicaea the capital of a separate kingdom, in 
which his followers maintained themselves 
with various success against the Latins of Con- 
stantinople on the one side, and the Seljuks of 
Iconium on the other, and in 1261 regained 
Constantinople. At length, in 1330, Nicaea 
was finally taken by Orchan, the son of the 
founder of the Ottoman empire, Othman. Iznik, 
the modern Nicaea, is a poor village of about 
100 houses ; but the double walls of the ancient 
city still remain almost complete, exhibiting 
four large and two small gates. There are also 
the remains of the two moles which formed the 
harbour on the lake, of an aqueduct, of the 




Coin of Nicaea in Bithynia. 
Obv., head of Julius Caesar; nikaieqn; rev., Nike; Eni 
paiov o vibiov nANSA. (Struck B.C. 48-47.) 



theatre, and of the gymnasium. — 2. A city of 
India, on the river Hydaspes (Jelmn) built 
by Alexander to commemorate his victory 
over Porus (Arrian, v. 19; Strab. p. 698). — 
3. A fortress of the Epicnemidian Locrians 
on the sea, near the pass of Thermopylae, 
which it commanded. From its important 
position, it is often mentioned in the wars 
of Greece with Macedonia and with the Ro- 
mans. In the former, its betrayal to Philip 
by the Thracian dynast Phalaecus led to the 
Sacred War, b.c. 346 ; and after various 
changes, it is found, at the time of the wars 
with Rome, in the hands of the Aetolians. (Dem. 
Phil. ii. p. 153 ; Diod. xvi. 59 ; Strab. p. 426 ; 
Pol. x. 42; Liv. xxviii. 5.) — 4. In Illyria. 
[Nicia.] 5. (Nizza, Nice), a city on the coast 
of Liguria, a little E. of the river Var ; a colony 
of Massilia, and subject to that city ; hence it 
was considered as belonging to Gaul, though it 
was just beyond the frontier (Strnb. pp. 180, 
184 ; Pol. xxxiii. 4 ; Ammian. xv. 11). 

Nicander (NiWSpos). 1. King of Sparta, 
son of Charilaus, and father of Theopompus, 
reigned about B.C. 809-770. (Paus. iii. 7, 4.)— 
2. An Aetolian who sought for his country- 
men the alliance of Philip of Macedon and 
Antiochus. He was General of the Aetolian 
League in 190 B.C., and went afterwards as 
ambassador to Rome. (Liv. xxxv. 12, xxxvi. 
29, xxxviii. 4; Pol. xx. 10, xxii. 13.) — 3. A 
Greek poet, grammarian, and physician, was a 
native of Claros near Colophon in Ionia, 
whence he is frequently called a Colophonian. | 



NICEPHORUS 
He succeeded his father as one of the hereditary- 
priests of Apollo Clarius (Nicand. Alexvph. v. 
11). He appears to have lived about B.C. 185- 
135. Of the numerous works of Nicander only 
two poems are extant : one entitled Theriaca 
(07jpicuca), which consists of nearly 1000 hexa- 
meter lines, and treats of venomous animals 
and the wounds inflicted by them ; and another 
entitled Alexipharmaca ('AAe£i<pd.pfj.ctKa), which 
consists of more than 600 hexameter lines, and 
treats of poisons and their antidotes. Among 
the ancients his authority, in all matters rela- 
ting to toxicology seems to have been considered 
high. His works are frequently quoted by 
Pliny, Galen, and other ancient writers. Among 
his lost works was the 'Erepoiov/xeva, which was 
one of Ovid's sources for his Metamorphoses. His 
style is harsh and obscure ; and his works are 
now scarcely ever read as poems, and are only 
consulted by those who are interested in points 
of zoological and medical antiquities. Editions 
by Schneider, who published the Alexiphar- 
maca in 1792, Halae, and the Theriaca in 1816* 
Lips., revised by Keil, 1856. 

Nicanor (Nucdvcop). 1. Son of Parmenion, a 
distinguished officer in the service of Alexander, 
died during the king's advance into Bactria, 
b.c. 330 (Arr. An. i. 4, 14, iii. 21-25 ; Diod. 
xvii. 57). — 2. A Macedonian officer, who, in the 
division of the provinces after the death of 
Perdiccas (321), obtained the government of 
Cappadocia. He attached himself to the party 
of Antigonus, who made him governor of Media 
and the adjoining provinces, which he continued 
to hold until 312, when he was deprived of 
them by Seleucus. (Diod. xviii. 39, xix. 92, 100.) 
— 3. A Macedonian officer under Cassander, by 
whom he was secretly despatched, immediately 
on the death of Antipater, 319, to take the com- 
mand of the Macedonian garrison at Munychia. 
Nicanor arrived at Athens before the news of 
Antipater's death, and thus obtained possession 
of the fortress. Soon afterwards he surprised the 
Piraeus also, and placed both fortresses in the 
hands of Cassander in 318. Nicanor was after- 
wards despatched by Cassander with a fleet to 
the Hellespont, where he gained a victory over 
the admiral of Polysperchon. On his return to 
Athens he incurred the suspicion of Cassander, 
and was put to death. (Diod. xviii. 64-75; 
Plut. Phoc. 33.) 

Nicarchus (N'tKapxos), the author of thirty- 
eight epigrams in the Greek Anthology, ap- 
pears to have lived at Rome near the beginning 
of the second century of the Christian era. 

Nicator, Seleucus. [Seleucus.] 

Nice (Ni'kt)), Victory. [Nike.] 

Nicephorium (Nitci)<p6piov). 1. (Bakkah), g> 
fortified town of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, 
near the mouth of the river Bilecha (elBelikh), 
and due S. of Edessa, built by order of Alex- 
ander, and probably completed under Seleucus. 
It is doubtless the same place as the Callinicus 
or Callinlcum (VLaWiviKos or -ov), the fortifica- 
tions of which were repaired by Justinian. Its 
name was again changed to Leontopolis, when 
it was adorned with fresh buildings by the 
Emperor Leo. (Strab. p. 747; Ptol. vii. 1, 12'; 
Procop. Aed. ii. 7.) — 2. A fortress on the Pro- 
pontis, belonging to the territory of Pergamum. 

Nicephorius (NiKTjcpdptos), a river of Armenia 
Major, on which Tigranes built his residence 
Tigbanocerta. It was a tributary of the 
Upper Tigris; probably the Centrites, or & 
small tributary of it. (Tac. Ann. xv. 4.) 

Nicephorus {Nacri<p6pos). 1. Callistus Xan- 
thopulus, the author of the Ecclesiastical His- 



NICER 



NICIAS 



599 



fory, was born in the latter part of the thirteenth 
century, and died about 1350. Edited by 
Ducaeus, Paris, 1630,2 vols. fol. — 2. Gregoras. 
[Gregobas.] — 3. Patriarcha, originally the 
notary or chief secretary of state to the em- 
peror Constantine V., was raised to the patri- 
archate of Constantinople in 806. He was 
deposed in 815, and died in 828. Several of 
his works have come down to us, of which the 
most important is entitled Breviarium Histo- 
ricum, a Byzantine history, extending from 602 
to 770. Edited by Gedner, 1832. 

Nicer (Neckar), a river in Germany falling 
into the Rhine at the modern Mannheim 
(Amm. Marc, xxviii. 2 ; Auson. Mosell. 423). 

NiceratUS (Ni/ojpaTOS). 1. Father of Ni- 
cias, the celebrated Athenian general. — 2. Son of 
Nicias, put to death by the Thirty Tyrants, to 
whom his great wealth was no doubt a tempta- 
tion. — 3. A Greek writer on plants, one of the 
followers of Asclepiades of Bithynia. 

Nicetas (Ni/cvras). 1. Acominatus, also called 
Choniates. because he was a native of Chonae, 
formerly Colossae, in Phrygia, one of the most 
important Byzantine historians, lived in the 
latter half of the 12th, and the former half 
of the 13th centuries. He was present at the 
capture of the city by the Latins in 1204, of 
which he has given us a faithful description. 
He escaped to Nicaea, where he died about 
1216. The history of Nicetas consists of ten dis- 
tinct works, each of which contains one or more 
books, of which there are twenty-one, giving the 
history of the emperors from 1118 to 1206. 
Editions by Bekker, Bonn, 1835 ; by Migne, 
Paris, 1865. — 2. Eugenianus, lived probably 
towards the end of the 12th century, and wrote 
The History of the Lives of Drnsilla and 
Charicles, which is the worst of the Greek ro- 
mances that have come down to us. Published 
for the first time by Boissonade, Paris, 1819. 

Nicia (Enza), a tributary of the Po in Gallia 
Cisalpina. 

Nicias (Nt/ci'ar). 1. A celebrated Athenian 
general during the Peloponnesian war, was the 
son of Niceratus, from whom he inherited a 
large fortune. His property was valued at 100 
talents. (Xen. Mem. ii. 5, 2 ; Lys. Arist. Bon. 
47 ; Athen. p. 272.) From this cause, combined 
with his unambitious character, and his aver- 
sion to all dangerous innovations, he naturally 
belonged to the party of the aristocracy. He 
was several times associated with Pericles as 
strategus ; and his great prudence and high 
character gained for him considerable influence. 
On the death of Pericles he came forward more 
openly as the opponent of Cleon, and the other 
demagogues of Athens; but from his military 
reputation, the mildness of his character, his 
honesty and uprightness of character, and the 
literal use which he made of his great wealth, 
he was looked upon with respect by all classes 
of the citizens. He was a man of strong 
religious feeling, and Aristophanes ridicules him 
in the Eqttites for his timidity and superstition 
{Eq. 28, 80, 112, 858). His characteristic 
caution was the distinguishing feature of his 
military career ; and his military operations 
were almost always successful (Time. iii. 51, 
91, iv. 42, 130J. He frequently commanded the 
Athenian armies during the earlier years of 
the Peloponnesian war. After the death of 
Cleon (b.c. 422) he exerted all his influence to 
bring about a peace, which was concluded in 
the following year (121), (Thuc. v. 15-24). For 
the next few years Nicias used all his efforts to 
induce the Athenians to preserve the peace, 



and was constantly opposed by Aicibiades, 
who had now become the leader of the popular 
party. In 415, the Athenians resolved on 
sending their great expedition to Sicily, and 
appointed Nicias, Aicibiades and Lamachus to 
the command. Nicias disapproved of the ex- 
pedition altogether, and did all that he could to 
divert the Athenians from this course. But his 
representations produced no effect ; and he set 
sail for Sicily with his colleagues. Aicibiades 
was soon afterwards recalled [Alcibiades] ; and 
the sole command was thus virtually left in the 
hands of Nicias. His early operations were 
attended with success. He defeated the Syra- 
cusans in the autumn, and employed the winter 
in securing the co-operation of several of the 
Greek cities, and of the Sicel tribes in the 
island. In the spring of next year he re- 
newed his attacks, seized Epipolae, and com- 
menced the circumvallation of Syracuse. 
About this time Lamachus was slain, in a 
skirmish under the walls. All the attempts 
of the Syracusans to stop the circum- 
vallation failed. The works were nearly com- 
pleted, and the doom of Syracuse seemed 
sealed, when Gylippus, the Spartan, arrived in 
Sicily. [Gylippus.] The tide of success now 
turned ; and Nicias found himself obliged to 
send to Athens for reinforcements, and re- 
quested at the same time that another com- 
mander might be sent to supply his place, as 
lus feeble health rendered him unequal to the 
discharge of his duties. The Athenians voted 
reinforcements, which were placed under the 
command of Demosthenes and Eurymedon ; 
but they would not allow Nicias to resign his 
command. Demosthenes, upon his arrival in 
Sicily (413), made a vigorous effort to recover 
Epipolae, which the Athenians had lost. He 
was nearly successful, but was finally driven 
back with severe 1< ss. Demosthenes now 
deemed any further attempts against the city 
hopeless, and therefore proposed to abandon 
the siege and return to Athens. To this 
Nicias would not consent. He professed to 
stand in dread of the Athenians at home ; but 
he appears to have had reasons for believing 
that a party amongst the Syracusans them- 
selves were likely in no long time to facilitate 
the reduction of the city. But meantime 
fresh succours arrived for the Syracusans ; 
sickness was making ravages among the Athe- 
nian troops, and at length Nicias himself saw 
the necessity of retreating. Secret orders were 
given that everything should be in readiness 
for departure, when an eclipse of the moon 
happened. The credulous superstition of Nicias 
led to the total destruction of the Athenian 
armament. The soothsayers interpreted the 
event as an injunction from the gods that they 
should not retreat before the next full moon, 
and Nicias resolutely determined to abide by 
their decision. The Syracusans resolved to 
bring the enemy to an engagement, and in a 
decisive naval battle defeated the Athenians. 
They were now masters of the harbour, and the 
Athenian were reduced to the necessity of 
making a desperate effort to escape. The 
Athenians were again decisively defeated ; and 
having thus lost their fleet, they were obliged 
to retreat by land. They were pursued by the 
enemy, and were finally compelled to surrender. 
Both Nicias and Demosthenes were put to 
death by the Syracusans. iThuc. vi. vii. ; I'lut. 
NtcitU J Diod. xii. 83 ff.l — 2. The physician of 
I'yrrhus, king of Kpirus, who offered to tho 
Roman consul to poison the king, for a certaiu 



600 



NICOCHARES 



NICOMEDES 



reward. Fabricius not only rejected his base 
offer with indignation, but immediately sent 
him back to Pyrrhus with notice of his 
treachery. He is sometimes, but erroneously, 
called Cineas. (Gell. iii. 8 ; Zonar. ii. 48.) — 3. A 
Coan grammarian, who lived at Rome in the 
time of Cicero, with whom he was intimate 
(Cic. ad Att. vii. 3 ; Suet. Gramm. 14). — 4. A 
celebrated Athenian painter, nourished about 
B.C. 320. He was the most distinguished! 
disciple of Euphranor. His works seem to 
have been all painted in encaustic. One of his 
greatest paintings was a representation of the 
infernal regions as described by Homer. He 
refused to sell this picture to Ptolemy, although 
the price offered for it was 60 talents. (Plin. 
xxxv. 130-133 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Pictura.) 

Nicochares (Ni/coxapi?s), an Athenian poet of 
the Old Comedy, the son of Philonides, was 
contemporary with Aristophanes (Suid. s.v.). 

Nicocles (NikokATis). 1. King of Salamis 
in Cyprus, son of Evagoras, whom he suc- 
ceeded B.C. 374. Isocrates addressed him a 
long panegyric upon his father's virtues, for 
which Nicocles rewarded the orator with the 
magnificent present of twenty talents. Scarcely 
any particulars are known of the reign of 
Nicocles. He is said to have perished by a' 




Coin of Cyprus, struck by Nicocles about B.C. 374. 
Obv., BA, female head wearing the taenia ; rev., NX, head 
of Aphrodite, turreted. 

violent death, but neither the period nor 
circumstances of this event are recorded. (Isocr. 
Evagoras ; Diod. xv. 47.) — 2. Prince or ruler 
of Paphos, in Cyprus, during the period which 
followed the death of Alexander. He was at 
first one of those who took part with Ptolemy 
against Antigonus ; but having subsequently 
entered into secret negotiations with Anti- 
gonus, he was compelled by Ptolemy to put an 
end to his own life, 310. (Diod. xix. 59, xx. 21.) 
— 3. Tyrant of Sicyon, was deposed by Aratus, 
after a reign of only four months, 251 (Plut. 
Arat. 3; Paus. ii. 8, 3). 

Nicocreon (Ni/co/rpeW), king of Salamis in 
Cyprus, at the time of Alexander's expedition 
into Asia. After the death of Alexander he 
took part with Ptolemy against Antigonus, and 
was entrusted by Ptolemy with the chief com- 
mand over the whole island. Nicocreon is said 
to have ordered the philosopher Anaxarchus to 
be pounded to death in a stone mortar, in 
revenge for an insult which the latter had 
offered the king, when he visited Alexander at 
Tyre. (Diod. xix. 59-79 ; Cic. Tusc. ii. 22, 52 ; 
Diog. La'e'rt. ix. 59.) 

Nicolaus Chalcocondyles. [Chalcocondy- 

LES.] 

Nicolaus Damascenus, a Greek historian, 
and an intimate friend both- of Herod the 
Great and of Augustus. He was, as his name 
indicates, a native of Damascus, and a son of 
Antipater and Stratonice. He received an 
excellent education, and he carried on his 
philosophical studies in common with Herod, at 
whose court he resided. In B.C. 13 he accom- 
panied Herod on a visit to Augustus at Rome ; 
on which occasion Augustus made Nicolaus a 
present of the finest fruit of the palm-tree, 



winch the emperor called Nicolai — a name by 
which it continued to be known down to the 
Middle Ages. Nicolaus rose so high in the 
favour of Augustus, that he was on more than 
one occasion of great service to Herod, when 
the emperor was incensed against the latter. 
(Plut. Symp. viii. 4 ; Athen. p. 652 ; Suid. s.v.) 
Nicolaus wrote a large number of works, of 
which the most important were : (1) A Life of 
himself, of which a considerable portion is still 
extant. (2) A universal history, which consisted 
of 144 books, of which we have only a few frag- 
ments. (3) A Life of Augustus, from which we 
have some extracts made by command of Con- 
stantine Porphyrogenitus. He also wrote com- 
mentaries on Aristotle, and other philosophical 
works, and was the author of several tragedies 
and comedies : Stobaeus has preserved a 
fragment of one of his comedies, extending to 
forty-four lines. Edition of his fragments by 
Orelli, Lips. 1804 ; Dindorf, Hist. Gr. 1870. 

Nicomachus (NiKo/xaxos). 1. A ypa/x/uarevs 
at Athens employed to transcribe the laws 
of Solon, with which he tampered for his 
own gain by bribes. He was in exile 
during the rule of the Thirty, after which he 
returned, and was prosecuted for misconduct 
in his transcription of the laws. (Lys. c. 
Nicom.; Xen. Hell. i. 7, 35.)— 2. Father of 
Aristotle. [See p. 116, a.] — 3. Son of Aristotle 
by the slave Herpyllis. He was himself a 
philosopher, and wrote some philosophical 
works. A portion of Aristotle's writings bears 
the name of Nicomachean Ethics [p. 118]. — 4. 
Called Gerasenus, from his native place, 
Gerasa in Arabia, was a Pythagorean, and the 
writer of a Life of Pythagoras, now lost. His 
date is inferred from his mention of Thrasyllus, 
who lived under Tiberius. He wrote on arith- 
metic and music ; and two of his works on 
these subjects are still extant. The work on 
arithmetic is edited by Nobbe, Lips; 1828 ; 
Hoche, 1863. The work on music was printed 
by Meursius in his collection, Lugd. Bat. 1616, 
and in the collection of Meibomius, Amst. 
1652. — 5. Of Thebes, a celebrated painter, was 
the elder brother and teacher of the great 
painter Aristides. He flourished B.C. 360, and 
onwards. He was an elder contemporary of 
Apelles and Protogenes. He is frequently 
mentioned by the ancient writers in terms of 
the highest praise. Cicero says that in his 
works, as well as in those of Echion, Proto- 
genes and Apelles, a perfect method had been 
attained. (Cic. Brut. 18, 70 ; Plin. xxxv. 108.) 

Nicomedes (Niko^S-hs). 1. I., king of Bi- 
thynia, was the eldest son of Zipoetes, whom he 
succeeded B.C. 278. With the assistance of the 
Gauls, whom he invited into Asia, he defeated 
and put to death his brother Zipoetes, who had 
for some time held the independent sovereignty 
of a considerable part of Bithynia. The rest of 
his reign appears to have been undisturbed, 
and under his sway Bithynia rose to a high 
degree of power and prosperity. He founded 
the city of Nicomedia, which he made the 
capital of his kingdom. The length of his 
reign is uncertain, but he probably died about 
250. (Liv. xxxviii. 16 ; Memn. 16-22.) He was 
succeeded by his son Zielas. — 2. II., surnamed 
Epiphanes, king of Bithynia, reigned B.C. 
149-91. He was the son and successor of 
Prusias II., and fourth in descent from the 
preceding. He was brought up at Rome, where 
he succeeded in gaining the favour of the 
senate (Liv. xlv. 44). Prusias, in consequence, 
became jealous of his son, and sent secret 



NICOMEDLA. 



NICOPOLIS 



601 



instructions for his assassination. The plot 
was revealed to Nicomedes, who thereupon 
returned to Asia, and declared open war 
against his father. Prusias was deserted by 
his subjects, and was put to death by order of 
his son, 149. (App. Uithr. 4-7 ; Just, xxxiv. 4 ; 
Strab. p. 624.) Of the long and tranquil reign 
of Nicomedes few events have been transmitted 
to us. He courted the friendship of the Ro- 
mans, whom he assisted in the war against 
Aristonicus, 131. He subsequently obtained 
possession of Paphlagonia, and attempted to 
gain Cappadocia, by marrying Laodice, the 
widow of Ariarathes VI. He was, however, 
expelled from Cappadocia by Mithridates ; 
and he was also forced by the Romans to 
abandon Paphlagonia, when they deprived 
Mithridates of Cappadocia (Just, xxxviii. 1). 
— 3. III., surnamed Pkllopatok, king of 
Bithynia (91-74), son and successor of Nico- 
medes II. Immediately after his accession, he 
was expelled by Mithridates, who set up 
against him his brother Socrates ; but he was 
restored by the Romans in the following year 
(90). At the instigation of the Romans, 
Nicomedes now proceeded to attack the do- 
minions of Mithridates, who expelled him a 
second time from his kingdom (88). This was 
the immediate occasion of the first Mithridatic 



kings of Bithynia, and it soon became one of 
the most splendid cities of the then known 
world. Under the Romans it was a colony, 
and a favourite residence of several of the 
later emperors, especially of Diocletian and 
Constantine the Great. Though repeatedly 
injured by earthquakes, it was always restored 
bv the munificence of the emperors. (Strab. p. 
563; Paus. v. 12, 5; Vict. Caes. 39; Amni. 
Marc. xxii. 9, 12.) Like its neighbour and 
rival, Nicaea, it occupies an important place 
in the wars against the Turks ; it is also me- 
morable in history as the scene of Hannibal's 
death. It was the birthplace of Arrian. 

Nicon (Nikcuj'), a Tarentine, who put Taren- 
tnm in the hands of Hannibal, in B.C. 212, was 
killed when the Romans recovered the city, 209 
(Liv. xxv. 8, xxvi. 39, xxvii. 16 ; Pol. viii. 26). 

Nicoma or Niconrum, a town in Scythia on 
the Tyras (Dniester), (Strab. p. 306). 

Nicophon and Nicophron CNiKo<pS>v, Ni/cd- 
(ppcav), an Athenian comic poet, a contemporary 
of Aristophanes (Suid. s.v. ; Athen. p. 126). 

Nicopolis CNik6ito\is : NiKOTroA.n-7)s, Nicopo- 
litanus). 1. iPaleoprevyza, Ru.), a city at the 
SW. extremity of Epirus, on the point of land 
which forms the N. side of the entrance to the 
G-ulf of Ambracia, opposite to Actium. It was 
built by Augustus in memory of the battle of 
Actium, and was peopled from Ambracia, 
Anactorium, and other neighbouring cities, and 




NicomcdcB III., King of liithynia, B.C. 91-74. 
Obt., head of Nicomedes III.; rfr., bauaeqi Eni*ANOYI 
NIKOMHAOY; Zeus with bceptre, holding out wreath : 
eagle on thunderbolt. Date '214 of Bithynian and Pontic 
era, which began B.C. 297. Therefore date of coin B.C.68. 

war; at the conclusion of which (84 J Nicomedes 
was again reinstated in his kingdom. He 
reigned nearly ten years after this second re- 
storation. Caesar, as a young man, was sent to 
hiscourt by M. Minucius Thennus, it.c.81. (Plut. 
Caes. i. ; Suet. Jul. 2, 49 ; p. 181, b.) He died 
at the beginning of 74, and, having no children, 
by his will bequeathed his kingdom to the 
Roman people (App. Mithr. 7-19; Plut. Sull. 
22, 24 ; Eutrop. vi. 6). 

Nicomedia (NiKouTjSeia : NiKo,u7)5f us, fem.Ni- 
Kiiui,hin,ju. Izmid or Iznikmid, Ru.J, a cele- 




Coin of Nicomedia. 

Obr.. head of Sept. Severus; avt. v. CBN. CtvilPOI. n.C.j 
ret., garapls seated : NIKOMHaEON Alt NEOKUPON. 

brated city of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, built by 
king Nicomedes I. (h.c. 2B4), at the NE. comer 
of the Sinus Astacenus (Gulf of Izmid : comp. 
Astacus). It was the chief residence of the 



Coin of Nicopolis in Epirus. 

Ohr., head of Augustus ; [KJTIXMA KA1ZAP. A.; rev., Nike; 
IEPA MKuIIci \. 

also from Aetolia. Augustus also built a temple 
of Apollo on a neighbouring hill, and founded 
games in honour of the god, which were held 
every fifth year. [See map, p. 14.] The city was 
received into the Amphictyonic League in place 
of the Dolopes. It is spoken of both as a 
libera civitas and as a colony. (Dio Cass. li. 
12; Suet. Aug. 12, 18; Strab. p. 324; Paus. v. 
23, vi. 18, x. 38 ; Tac. Ann. v. 10.) It had a 
considerable commerce and extensive fisheries. 
It was made the capital of Epirus by Constan- 
tine, and its buildings were restored both by 
Julian and by Justinian. — 2. ( Xirojioli), a city 
of Moesia Inferior, on the Danube, built by 
Trajan in memory of a victory over the DacianB, 
and celebrated as the scene of the great defeat 
of the Hungarians and Franks by the sultan 
Bajazet, on Sept. 28, 1396 (Amm. Marc, xxxi 
5). — 3. ( Endrrrz), a city of Armenia Minor, on 
or near the Lycus, and not far from the sources 
of the Hulys, founded by Pompey on the spot 
where he gained his first victory over Mithri- 
dates : a flourishing place in the time of 
Augustus: restored by Justinian (Strab. p. 
555, App. tiUhr. 101, 105; Bell. Alex. 36). 
— 4. A city in the NE. corner of Cilicia, near 
the junction of the Taurus and Amanus. — 5. 
iKms, Kiussrni, or Cursnr's ('astir, Ru.), a 
city of Lower Egypt, about two or three miles 
H. of Alexandria, on the canal between Alexan- 
dria and Canopus, was built by Augustus in 
memory of the last victory over Antonius. 
Here ulso, as at Nicopolis opposite to Actium, 



602 



NICOSTEATUS 



Augustus founded a temple of Apollo, with 
games every fifth year. It seems to have be- 
come a mere suburb of Alexandria. (Strab. p. 
795 ; Dio Cass. li. 11.) — 6. (Nevrekup), a town 
in Thrace, at the mouth of tlie Nestus. 

Nicostratus (NucSarpaTos), the youngest of 
the three sons of Aristophanes, was himself a 
comic poet. His plays belonged both to the 
Middle and the New Comedy. (Athen. pp. 108, 
118, 230, 597.) 

Nigeir, Nigir, or Nigris (Niyeip, Ni'yip, a 
compounded form of the word Geir or Gir, which 
seems to be a native African term for a river in 
general), changed, by a confusion which was the 
more easily made on account of the colour of 
the people of the region, into the Latin word 
Niger, a great river, vaguely conceived by 
Greek and Roman geographers in the interior 
of Western Aethiopia from reports of river 
basins in that direction. They refer chiefly to 
the rivers called Joli-ba, Quorra, and Niger, 
though nothing can have been known of its 
actual course as far as the Atlantic. As early 
as the time of Herodotus, we find a statement 
concerning a river of the interior of Libya 
which seems identical with the Nigeir or 
Quorra [Nasamones.] Herodotus, like his 
informants, inferred from the course of the 
river, and from the crocodiles in it, that it was 
the Nile ; but it can hardly be any river but 
the Quorra. The opinion that the Niger was 
a W. branch of the Nile prevailed very gener- 
ally in ancient times ; but by no means univer- 
sally. Pliny gives the same account in a very 
confused manner, and makes the Nigris (as he 
calls it) the boundary between N. Africa and 
Aethiopia. This confusion probably arose from 
the name being used of more than one of the 
larger rivers flowing S. from the Atlas [cf. 
Geb]. Pliny, however, makes it join the Nile 
(v. 30, viii. 77). Ptolemy makes the Nigeir rise 
not far from its real source (allowing for the 
imperfect observations on which his numerical 
latitudes and longitudes are founded) and adds, 
what modern discoveries render a very remark- 
able statement, that a branch of the Nigeir 
communicates with the lake Libya (Ai#u7)), 
which he places in the position of lake 
Tchad. The Tchadda, therefore, represents the 
branch of the Nigeir spoken of by Ptolemy, 
whose informants, however, inverted the direc- 
tion of its stream. It is further remarkable 
that Ptolemy places on the Nigeir a city named 
Thamondocana in the exact position of Tim- 
buctoo, and that the length of the river com- 
puted from his position agrees very nearly with 
its real length. (Ptol. iv. 6, 14 ; cf . Strab. p. 826 ; 
Mel. iii. 19, 9.) The error of connecting the Niger 
and the Nile revived after the time of Ptolemy. 

Niger, C. Fescennius, was governor of Syria 
in the reign of Commodus, on whose death he 
was saluted emperor by the legions in the East, 
A.D. 193. But in the following year he was de- 
feated and put to death by Septimius Severus. 
(Dio Cass, lxxii. 8, lxxiii. 13, lxxiv. 6 ; Spart. 
Pesce?in. Niger.) 

Nigira {Nlyeipa, Ptol.), a city on the N. of the 
river Nigeir, and the capital of the Nigbitae. 
Nigir. [Nigeib.] 

Nigritae or -etes (Niyp7rai, NiYpiTai Aid'io- 
ir€S, Nlyprires), according to the meaning of the 
native word, was ' the river-people.' They 
dwelt in the basin of the upper Niger. (Strab. 
pp. 131, 826 ; Ptol. iv. 6, 16.) 

Nigritis Lacus (Ni7piT(j Kl^vrt), a lake in 
the interior of Africa, out of which Ptolemy 
represents the river Nigir as flowing. The 



NIKE 

lake Debu, S. of Timbuctoo, though not actu- 
ally the source of the Niger, is probably the lake, 
referred to. (Ptol. iv. 6, 27.) 

Nike (Ni'ktj), called Victoria by the Eomans, 
the goddess of victory, is described as a. 
daughter of the giant Pallas and Styx, and as 
a sister of Zelus (zeal), Cratos (strength], and 
Bia (force). (Hes. Th. 382.) It is probable 
that in earlier mythology she was rather an 
attribute of one or other of the greater deities 
than a separate personality : especially an 
attribute of Athene at Athens. In the develop- 
ment of the myth comes the story that when 
Zeus began the fight against the Titans, and 
called upon the gods for assistance, Nike and 
her two sisters were the first who came for- 
ward, and Zeus, as a reward for their zeal, 




Nike, Victory. (From an ancient gem.) 

caused them ever after to live with him in 
Olympus (Hes. I.e.; Apollod. i. 2, 2). She is 
often represented in ancient works of art, 
especially with other divinities, such as Zeus 
and Athene, and with conquering heroes, whose 
horses she guides. She is shown as a winged 
figure and often carries a palm or a wreath. 
Sometimes she is raising or decorating a trophy. 
A favourite attitude in the Boman period 
showed Nike holding a shield on which she is 
inscribing a record of victory. When she is 
represented as an attribute of a great deity, 
Zeus or Athene, she is a small winged figure 
supported in the hand of the god. On Greek 
vases it is common to denote the successful 
issue of any sort of contest by a winged figure 
of Victory hovering above. Among the famous 
statues of Nike were that of Paeonius at Olym- 
pia mentioned by Paus. v. 10, 26 — and the 
greater part of the figure is still extant there ; 
the statue from Samothrace, now in the 
Louvre, if the restoration (partly based on a 
coin of Demetrius) is right, formerly blowing 
a trumpet held in the right hand. For Athene- 
Nike see p. 139, a, and for her temple at Athens 
(Nike-Apteros) see p. 13, a. At Borne there was 
an ancient worship of Victoria (apparently 
equivalent to that of the Sabine goddess 
Vacuna) on the Palatine (Liv. xxix. 14 ; Dionys. 
i. 32). Moreover as one of the Indigetes, Vica- 
Pota ( = Victoria) was worshipped [p. 443, a]. 
Another temple of Victory was dedicated in 



NILUPOLIS 

the Samnite wars, b.c. 294 (Lay. x. 33). The 
great statue of Nike by Paeonius at Olympia 
has been in part recovered. [Paeonius.] A 
famous statue of Victory was set up by Augus- 
tus in the Curia Julia (Suet. Aug. 100; Dio 
Cass. li. 22). The figures of Victory repre- 



NINUS 



60S 




Victoria. (Bronze Victory in British Museum ; from 
Borne. A little over lull size.) 

sented in Greek fashion appear frequently on 
Roman coins, medals, and monuments. 

Nilupolis or Kilns (NelKov 7rd\(j, Ne?Aos), a 
city of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, in the 
Nomos Heracleopolites, was built on an island 
in the Nile, 20 geographical miles XE. of Hera- 
cleopolis. There was a temple here in which, 
as throughout Egypt, the river Nile was wor- 
shipped as a god. (Ptol. v. 5, 57.) 

Nilus (NeiAor : Kile), the great river of Egypt. 
The origin of the word is probably the Semitic 
Kahar or Nahal, meaning river. In Homer 
the river is called htyinrros (Oil. iii. 300, iv. 
477) ; but the name NfTAos occurs in Hesiod 
(Tli. 338), and Hecataeus (Fr. 279). This river, 
one of the most important in the world, flows 
through a channel which forms a sort of cleft 
extending N. and S. through the high rocky 
and sandy land of NE. Africa. After leaving 
the great lakes, the discovery of which belongs 
to recent years, the Nile has a course in the 
general direction of NNE. as far as Khartum, 
when this main branch, which is called the 
Bahr-el-Abiad, i.e. White River, receives 
another large river, the Bahr-el-Azrek, i.e. 
Blue River, the sources of which are in the 
highlands of Abyssinia: this is the middle 
branch of the Nile system, the Astapus of the 
ancients. The third, or E. branch, called 
Tacazze, the Astabobah of the ancients, rises 
also in the highlands of Abyssinia in about 1 1' 
40' N. lat., and 39' 40' E. long., and joins the 
Nile (i.e. the main stream formed by the union 
of the Abiad and the Azrek), in 17° 45' N. hit., 
and about 34° 5' E. long. : the point (if junction 
was the apex of the island of Mkbok.. Here 
the united river is about two miles broad. 
Hence it flows through Nubia, in a magnificent 
rocky valley, falling over six cataracts, the 
N. -most of which, called the First Cataract (i.e. 
to a person going up the river), is and lias 
always been the S. boundary of Egypt. Of its 
course from this point to its junction with the 
Mediterranean a sufficient general description 
has been given under Akoypths (p. 21). The 
branches into which it parted at the S. point of 



the Delta were, in ancient times, three in num- 
ber, and these again parted into seven (whence 
the epithets kirr&Topos, Mosch. ii. 51 ; septem- 
plex, Ov. Met. v. 187 ; septemgeminus, Catull. 
xi. 7), of which, Herodotus tells us, five were 
natural and two artificial. These seven mouths 
were nearly all named from cities which stood 
upon them : they were called, proceeding from 
E. to W., the Pelusiac, the Tanitic or Sai'tic, 
the Mendesian, the Phatnitic or Pathmetic or 
Bucolic, the Sebennytic, the Bolbitic or Bolbi- 
tine, and the Canobic or Canopic. (Hdt. ii. 17 ; 
Scylax, p. 43 ; Strab. p. 801 ; Diod. i. 33 ; Ptol. 
iv. 5, 10 ; Plin. v. 64 ; Mel. i. 9, 9.) Through 
the alterations caused by the alluvial depo- 
sits of the river, they have now all shifted 
their positions, or dwindled into little channels, 
except two, and these are much diminished, 
namely, the Damiat mouth on the E. and the 
Rosetta mouth on the W. Of the canals con- 
nected with the Nile in the Delta, the most 
celebrated were the Canobic, which connected 
the Canobic mouth with the lake Mareotis and 
with Alexandria, and that of Ptolemy (after- 
wards called that of Trajan) which connected 
the Nile at the beginning of the Delta with the 
bay of Herobpolis at the head of the Red Sea : 
the formation of the latter is ascribed to king 
Necho, and its repair and improvement succes- 
sively to Darius the son of Hystapes, Ptolemy 
Philadelphus and Trajan. [Seep. 21, b.] That 
the Delta (and indeed the whole alluvial soil of 
Egypt) has been created by the Nile cannot be 
doubted ; but the present small rate of deposit 
proves that the formation must have been 
made long before the historical period. From 
the dark alluvial soil came the native name of 
Egypt, Chemi or Kamit, 'the black land': 
whence, perhaps, the erroneous notion that the 
name NeiAos meant ' black.' The periodical rise 
of the river has been spoken of under Aegyp- 
tus. It has been ascertained from the ancient 
records on the rocks of Semneh of the inunda- 
tions that in the 12th dynasty (2300 B.C.), the 
rise of the Nile was twenty-seven feet above its 
highest point in our own time, and its average 
rise twelve feet above the present average. The 
difference seems to have been caused by the 
giving way of the rocks at Silsilis, and the result 
was to deprive the plains of Ethiopia above 
that point of much of their fertility. It was in 
the same dynasty that the great works for 
water-storage were carried out in the Fayum. 
[See Moebis Lacus.] The ancient theories 
concerning this periodic rise, caused by tropical 
rains in the interior, may be found in Hdt. ii. 
19-20 (cf . Plin. v. 58). It was not an uncommon 
error in later Greek and Roman geographers to 
describe the Nile as having its sources some- 
where in Western Africa (Plin. v. 51, viii. 77; 
Dio Cass. lxxv. 13; Solin. 35). But it was well 
known that the sources of the Nile were a pro- 
blem as insoluble as they have remained till 
quite recent years (Hor. Od. iv. 14, 45). 
Greek writers noted that the Egyptians deified 
the Nile, and took the utmost care to preserve 
its water from pollution (Hdt. ii. 101 ; Diod. i. 
f>-2(i). The famous statue (now in the Vatican) 
of the Nile as a river-god is a reclining figure of 
majestic appearance, pillowed on a sphvnx, and 
holding a cornucopia ; sixteen children, repre- 
senting branches and affluents, play around ; 
the sacred crocodile and the ichneumon are 
below. It is a design of the Hellenistic period. 

Ninus, or Minns, the reputed founder of the 
city of Ninus or Nineveh. An account is given 
under Skmiiiamis. (Cf. Assyria.) 



-604 



NINUS 



NIOBE 



Ninus or Ninus, Ninive (Hdt. i. 193, ii. 150, I 
Nivos ; Assyr. Ninua ; O. T. Nineveh ; LXX ] 
NtveuTj, Niveiu ; Tac. Ann. xii. 13, Ninus; Ptol. j 
viii. 21 Nwos t\ Kal Niveul; Amm. Marc, xviii. 7, 
Ninive ; Lucan, iii. 215, NInaus), the capital of 
the Assyrian monarchy, stood on the E. side of 
the Tigris, at the upper part of its course, in the 
district of Aturia. For the early history of the 
monarchy see Assyria. Nineveh became the 
capital of the Assyrian kings in the reign of 
Rimmon-mirari (known to the Greeks as Ninus) 
about 1330 B.C., replacing the older capital 
Assur on the Zab (which was called Kalakh in 
Hebrew and Larissa in Xenophon, and is now 
marked by the ruins of Nimrud). Nineveh is 
said by Strabo to have been larger than Baby- 
lon, and Diodorus (who incorrectly places it on 
the Euphrates), describes it as an oblong quad- 
rangle of 150 stadia by 90, making the circuit 
of the walls 480 stadia (more than 55 statute 
miles) ; if so, the city was twice as large as 
London together with its suburbs. (Strab- p. 
737 ; Diod. ii. 3, 7.) But the statements of 
Diodorus on this subject cannot have much 
weight. A more correct estimation gives about 
eight and a half miles for its circumference 
exclusive of suburbs. The walls of Nineveh are 
described as 100 feet high, and thick enough to 
allow three chariots to pass each other on them : 
witli 1500 towers, 200 feet in height. The city 
is said to have been entirely destroyed by fire 
when it was taken by the Medes and Babylo- 
nians, about B.C. 606. In the time of Xenophon 



tions in an almost unknown character, called, 
from its shape, cuneiform or arrow-headed. 
Since the year 1843 those shapeless mounds 
have been shown to contain the remains of 
great palaces, on the walls of which the scenes 
of Assyrian life and the records of Assyrian 
conquests are sculptured ; while the efforts 
which had long been made to decipher the 
cuneiform inscriptions found in Persia and 
Babylonia, as well as Assyria, have been 
crowned with remarkable success and have 
given the means of ascertaining the early 
history and the religion of Assyria. The excava- 
tions conducted by Sir H, Layard and M. Botta 
in 1843, 1845, brought to light the sculptured 
remains of immense palaces, not only at the 
traditional site of Nineveh — namely, Kouyunjik 
and Nebbi- Yunus, opposite to Mosul, and at 
Khorsabad, about ten miles to the NNE. — but 
also in a mound, 18 miles lower down the river, 
in the tongue of land between the Tigris and 
the Great Zab, which still bears the name of 
Nimrud [see above.] These excavations have 
been pursued at various times since, especially 
in 1876. Many pieces of sculpture obtained 
from the ruins may be seen in the British 
Museum. 

Ninyas (NiyiW), son of Ninus and Semiramis. 
See Semiramis. 

Niobe (Niofiri). 1. Daughter of Tantalus by 
the Pleiad Taygete or the Hyad Dione (Ov. 
Met. vi. 174 ; Hyg. Fab. 9). She was the sister 
of Pelops, and the wife of Amphion, king of 




The Group of Niobe. (Zarmoni, Gal. di Firenzc, serie 4, vol. 1.) 



the ruins, then completely desolate, were called 
Mesjjila. Xenophon (An. iii. 4, 10) describes 
the walls as of brick, built on a foundation of 
Xidos Koyxvhidrrts (apparently indusial lime- 
stone). He gives the circuit as six parasangs 
(about 20 miles), which probably included the 
ruined villages in the suburbs. The site is 
mentioned by Arrian (Ind. 42), and Nineveh is 
classed among old ruined cities by Pausanias 
(viii. 33, 2). A Roman colony, however, was 
established on or near its site, and called Ninus 
or Niniva Claudiopolis (see Tac. Ann. xii. 13 ; 
Amm. Marc, xviii. 7 ; and coins of Trajan, Maxi- 
minus, Severus, and Gordian). Of all the 
great cities of the world none was thought to 
have been more utterly lost than the capital of 
Assyria. Tradition pointed out a few shapeless 
mounds opposite Mosul on the Upper Tigris, as 
all that remained of Nineveh ; and a few frag- 
ments of masonry were occasionally dug up 
there and elsewhere in Assyria, bearing inscrip- 



Thebes, by whom she became the mother of six 
sons and six daughters. Being proud of the 
number of her children, she deemed herself 
superior to Leto, who had given birth to only 
two children. Apollo and Artemis, indignant 
at such presumption, slew all her children with 
their arrows. For nine days their bodies lay 
in their blood without anyone burying them, 
for Zeus had changed the people into stones ; 
but on the tenth day the gods themselves 
buried them. Niobe herself, who had gone to 
Mount Sipylus, was changed into stone, and 
still periodically wept for her children in streams 
which trickled down the rock. (II. xxiv. 602- 
617; cf. Apollod. iii. 5, 6; Soph. Ant. 824; 
Paus. viii. 2, 7 ; Ov. Met. vi. 155-342.) This is 
the Homeric story, which later writers have 
1 greatly modified and enlarged. The number 
and names of the children of Niobe vary very 
, much in the different accounts ; for while 
I Homer states that their number was 12, Hesiod 



NIOBE 



NISIBIS 



605 



and others mentioned 20, Alcman only 6, 
Sappho 18, and Herodotus 4 ; but the most 
commonly received number in later times ap- 
pears to have been 14 — namely, 7 sons and 
7 daughters (Apollod., Ov., II. cc. ; Ael. V. H. xii. 
36; Gell. xx. 6; Schol. ad Eur. Phoen. 156; 
Eustath. Horn. p. 1367; Hyg. Fab. 11; Tzetz. 
ad Lyc. 520). According to Homer all the 
children of Niobe fell by the arrows of Apollo 
and Artemis ; but later writers state that one of 
her sons, Amphion or Amyclas, and one of her 
daughters, Meliboea, were saved, but that ileli- 
boea, having turned pale with terror at the 
sight of her dying brothers and sisters, was 
afterwards called Chloris (Apollod. I.e. ; Paus. 
ii. 21, 9, v. 16, 3). The time and place at 
which the children of Niobe were destroyed are 
likewise stated differently. According to Homer, 
they perished in their mother's house. Accord- 
ing to Ovid, the sons were slain while they 
were engaged in gymnastic exercises in a plain 
near Thebes, and the daughters during the 
funeral of their brothers. This is owing to the 
fact that the story also belonged to Thebes, where 




Head of Niobe from the Florentine group. 



Amphion reigned, and the tombs of Niobe's 
children were shown at Thebes (Paus. ix. 16, 
17). Others make Niobe, after the death of 
her children, go from Thebes to Lydia, to her 
father Tantalus on Mount Sipylus, where Zeus, 
at her own request, changed her into a stone, 
which during the summer always shed tears. 
The idea of the slaughter of the children by 
Apollo is probably a poetical myth of streams 
flowing down a rock-face from the melted snow 
in spring and dried up by the heat of the 
summer sun ; but the localisation at Mount 
Sipylus has a more definite cause. Here were 
rock sculptures with the figures of the goddess 
Cybele, which the author of the description in 
the Iliad must have seen himself. Pausanias 
(i. 21, 5) says that he saw it ; but of coarse in 
his time, as in the time of the Iliad, it was 
connected with the legend of Niobe. It is 
likely that this was one of the two sculp- 
tured figures (probably Hittite) mentioned by 
Herodotus ii. 106, of which the other was the 
so-called Sesostris [see p. 216, a]. He cannot 
have visited them himself, since he places them 
together, whereas one is on the road from 
Phocaea to Sardin, the other on the road from 
Ephesus to Sardis. — The story of Niobe and 
her children was frequently taken as a subject 



' by ancient artists. It was carved in relief on. 
I the throne of Zeus at Olympia ; but the most 
famous representation was a work of which a 
copy is still extant : the group of Niobe and 
her children, which filled the pediment of the 
temple of Apollo Sosianus at Rome (Plm. 
xxxvi. 2b). There was a dispute even in Pliny's 
time whether the author of the original was 
Scopas or Praxiteles, which is continued at the 
present day. Most authorities believe that 
Scopas was the sculptor of the original, but 
some have traced a resemblance in type to 
that of the Hermes of Praxiteles. The copy of 
this group (which possibly follows a detailed 
description in the lost Niobe of Sophocles) is 
now at Florence, and consists of the mother, 
who holds her youngest daughter on her knees, 
and thirteen statues of her sons and daughters, 
besides a figure usually called the pedagogus of 
the children. The central figures of this group 
are given on p. 604. 

Niphates i<5 Ni^ottij, i.e. Snow-mountain : 
Balan), a mountain chain of Armenia, form- 
ing an E. prolongation of the Taurus from 
where it is crossed by the Euphrates towards 
the Lake of Van, before reaching which it 
! turns to the S., and approaches the Tigris 
| below Tigranocerta ; thus surrounding on the 
i N. and E. the basin of the highest course of 
the Tigris (which is enclosed on the S. and 
I SW. by Mount Masius), and dividing it from 
| the valley of the Arsanias (Murad) or S. 

branch of the Euphrates. The continuation of 
i Mount Niphates to the SE. along the E. margin 
of the Tigris valley is formed by the mountains 
of the Carduchi (Mountains of Kurdistan). 
(Strab. pp. 522, 529 ; Ptol. v. 13, 4 ; Verg. 
Gcorg. iii. 30 ; Hor. Od. ii. 9, 20.) Some Roman 
poets mistook it for a river (Lucas, iii. 245; 
Juv. vi. 409 ; Sil. xiii. 765). The geographers 
give no countenance for the idea that there, 
; was a river of the same name, and perhaps 
| the error may have grown out of a misunder- 
1 standing of the passages in Virgil and Horace, 
which might easily be supposed to refer to a 
river. 

Nireus (tiipeis), son of Charopus and Aglaia, 
was, next to Achilles, the handsomest among 
the Greeks at Troy. He came from the island 
' of Syme (between Rhodes and Cnidus). Later 
| writers relate that he was slain by Eurypylus 
or Aeneas. (II. ii. 671 ; Diod. v. 53 ; Oict. 
, Cret. iv. 17 ; Hyg. Fab. 113, 276.) 
Nisaea. [MeoakaJ 

Nisaea, Nisaei, Nisaeus Campus (Ni'o-oia, 
i Nio*aioi, to HltfltlQV ireSioi/). These names are 
, found in the Greek and Roman writers used for 
various places on the S. and SE. of the Cas- 
' pian : thus one writer mentions a city Nisaea 
in Margiana, and another a people Nisaei in 
the N. of Aria; but most apply the term 
, Nisaean Plain to a plain in the N. of Great 
Media, near Rhagae, the pasture-ground of a 
I great number of horses of the finest breed, 
which supplied the studs of the king and nobles 
of Persia. It seems not unlikely that this breed 
of horses was called Nisaean from their original 
home in Margiana (a district famous for its 
horses) and that the Nisaean plain received its 
name from the horses kept in it. (Strab. pp. 
529, 536 ; Suid. «.u.) 

NisibisiN/m/Su : Nio-i/Stj^s). 1. Al-nAntio- 
chia Mygdoniae (O.T. Aram Zoba? Bo. nr. 
Xisilrin), a celebrated city of Mesopotamia, 
and the capital of the district of Mygdonia, 
stood on the river Mygdoiiius (Xahr-alHuali) 
thirty-seven Roman miles SW. of Tigranocerta, 



U06 



NISUS 



NLXI 



in a very fertile district. It was the centre 
of a considerable trade, a metropolis of the 
province of Mesopotamia after the time of 
Alex. Severus, and was of great importance as 
a military post. In the successive wars between 
the Komans and Tigranes, the Parthians, and 
the Persians, it was several times taken and 
retaken, until at last it fell into the hands of 
the Persians in the reign of Jovian. (Strab. pp. 
522, 747; Plut. Lucu.ll. 32; Dio Cass, lxviii. 
23, lxxv. 2 ; Amm. Marc. xxv. 9.) — 2. A city of 
Aria, at the foot of Mount Paropamisus (Ptol. 
v. 18, 11). 

Nisus (Niiros) 1. King of Megara, was son 
of Pandion and Pylia, brother of Aegeus, Pallas, 
and Lycus, and husband of Abrote, by whom 
he became the father of Scylla. When Megara 
was besieged by Minos, Scylla, who had fallen 
in love with Minos, pulled out the purple or 
golden hair which grew on the top of her 
father's head, and on which his life depended. 
Nisus thereupon died, and Minos obtained pos- 
session of the city. Minos, however, was so 
horrified at the conduct of the unnatural 
daughter, that he ordered Scylla to be fastened 
to the poop of his ship, and afterwards drowned 
her in the Saronic gulf. (Apollod. iii. 15, 5-8 ; 
Paus. ii. 34, 7 ; Schol. ad Eur. Hix>pol. 1090.) 
According to others, Minos left Megara in 
disgust ; Scylla leapt into the sea, and swam 
after his ship ; but her father, who had been 
changed into a sea-eagle (haliaeetus), pounced 
down upon her, whereupon she was metamor- 
phosed into either a fish or a bird .called Ciris 
(Ov. Met. viii. 6-151 ; Verg. Georg. i. 404 ; Hyg. 
Fab. 198).— Scylla, the daughter of Nisus, is 
sometimes confounded by the poets with Scylla 
the daughter of Phorcus (Verg. Eel. vi. 74). 
Hence the latter is sometimes erroneously 
■called Niseia virgo, and Niseis. [Scylla.] — 
Nisaea, the port town of Megara, is supposed 
to have derived its name from Nisus, and the 
promontory of Scyllaeum from his daughter. 
The Megarian tradition (Paus. i. 39, 6) records a 
dispute for the sovereignty of Megara between 
Nisus and Sciron, decided by Aeacus, the 
arbitrator, in favour of Nisus, who was to be 
king while Sciron was to be general. In this 
tradition Nisus had a daughter Iphinoe, whose 
husband, Megareus, succeeded Nisus in the 
kingdom ; nothing is known in this Megarian 
account of the war with Minos. The story of 
Scylla and her treachery appears, therefore, to 
be mainly of Athenian origin, with an end very 
common in Attic stories (especially in those 
-which refer to the children of Pandion), the 
metamorphosis of the chief actors into birds. — 
2. Son of Hyrtacus, and a friend of Euryalus. 
The two friends accompanied Aeneas to Italy, 
and perished in a night attack against the 
Rutulian camp. (Verg. Aen. ix. 176 ff.) 

Nisyrus (Nlcrovpos : Nikero), a small island in 
the Carpathian Sea, a little distance off the 
promontory of Caria called Triopium, of a round 
form, eighty stadia (eight geographical miles) in 
circuit, and composed of lofty rocks, the highest 
Taeing 2271 feet high. Its volcanic nature gave 
rise to the fable respecting its origin, that 
Poseidon tore it off the neighbouring island of 
Cos to hurl it upon the giant Polybotes [p. 
365, a]. It was celebrated for its warm springs, 
wine, and mill-stones. Its capital, of the same 
name, stood on the NW. of the island, where 
considerable ruins of its Acropolis remain. 
(Strab. pp. 488, 650.) Its first inhabitants are 
said to have been Carians ; but already in the 
heroic age it had received a Dorian population, 



like other islands near it, with which it is men- 
tioned by Homer as sending troops to the 
Greeks. It received other Dorian settlements 
in the historical age (II. ii. 676 ; Diod. v. 54 ; 
Hdt. vii. 99). At the time of the Persian war, 
it belonged to the Carian queen Artemisia ; it 
next became a tributary ally of Athens ; though 
transferred to the Spartan alliance by the issue 
of the Peloponnesian war, it was recovered for 
Athens by the victory at Cnidus, B.C. 394 (Diod. 
xiv. 84). After the victory of the Romans over 
Antiochus the Great, it was assigned to Rhodes ; 
and, with the rest of the Rhodian republic, was 
united to the Roman empire about B.C. 70. 

Nitiobriges, a Celtic people in Gallia Aqui- 
tanica between the Garumna and the Liger, 
whose fighting force consisted of 5000 men 
(Caes. B.G. vii. 46 ; Strab. p. 190 ; Ptol. ii. 7, 4). 
Their chief town was Aginnum (Ageri). 

Nitocris (NiTooicpis). 1. A queen of Babylon, 
mentioned by Herodotus (i. 185-189), who 
ascribes to her many important works at 
Babylon and its vicinity. It is supposed that 
she was the wife of Nebuchadnezzar, who 
reigned B.C. 604-562 [Babylon].— 2. or Nit- 
aquest, a queen of Egypt, was elected to the 
sovereignty in place of her brother, Men-ka- 
Ra, of the sixth dynasty, whom the Egyptians 
had killed, about 3060 b.c. The story in Hero- 
dotus is that in order to take revenge upon the 
murderers of her brother, she built a very long 
chamber under ground, and when it was 
finished invited to a banquet in it those of the 
Egyptians who had had a principal share in 
the murder. While they were engaged in the 
banquet she let in upon them the waters of the 
Nile by means of a large concealed pipe, and 
drowned them all, and then, in order to escape 
punishment, threw herself into a chamber full 
of ashes (Hdt. ii. 100). Manetho describes her 
as the most beautiful woman in Egypt and the 
builder of the third pyramid, by which we 
are to understand that she finished the third 
pyramid, which had been begun by Men-ka- 
Ra, or Myceeinus, 600 years before. This 
agrees with the fact that the pyramid, which 
contains two sarcophagus chambers, has been 
enlarged since its first building. Nitocris was 
the last sovereign of the sixth dynasty, and her 
reign corresponds with a period of confusion 
which might be explained by the circumstances 
in her story. 

Nitriae, Nitrariae (Nirpiai, Nirpia, Nirpaiai : 
Wadi-en-Natrun), the celebrated natron lakes 
in Lower Egypt, which lay in a valley on the 
SW. margin of the Delta, and gave to the 
surrounding district the name of the Nofj.bs 
Nirpiuris or NiTpici)T7;s, and to the inhabitants, 
whose chief occupation was the extraction of 
the natron from the lakes, the names of 
NirpiaiTai (Plin. xxxi. Ill; Strab. p. 803; Ptol. 
iv. 5, 25). This district was (according to 
Strabo) the chief seat of the worship of Serapis, 
and the only place in Egypt where sheep were 
sacrificed. 

Nixi Dii, were (probably erroneously) sup- 
posed to be gods who, in conjunction with 
Lucina, aided in childbirth (Ov. Met. ix. 294 ; 
Pest. p. 174). Festus says that there were 
three statues in the Capitol before the cella of 
Minerva in a kneeling attitude which were said 
to have been brought by Acilius from Syria, 
and to represent deities aiding in childbirth. 
It is altogether contrary to ordinary mythology 
that male deities should preside over child- 
birth, and it is supposed that these statues were 
really only kneeling figures supporting a slab 



NOBILIOR 



NONIUS 



607 



{as telamones) which had formed part of the | 
spoils in the Syrian war and the significance of : 
which had been misinterpreted. 

NobUior, Fulvius. The Fulvii were a plebeian ■ 
family with the name Paetinus, and the name 
of Nobilior was first assumed for distinction by 
No. 1. — 1. Ser., consul B.C. 255, with M. Aemi- 
lius Paulus, about the middle of the first Punic i 
war. The two consuls were sent to Africa, to 
bring off the survivors of the army of Regulus. 
On their way to Africa they gained a naval 
victory over the Carthaginians; but on their 
return to Italy, they were wrecked off the coast 
of Sicily, and most of their ships were destroyed. 
(Pol. i. 36; Eutrop. ii. 22.) — 2. M., grandson of 
the preceding, curule aedile 195 ; praetor 193, 
when he defeated the Celtiberi in Spain, and 
took the town of Toletum (Liv. xxxv. 7, 22, 
xxxvi. 21, 39) ; and consul 1«9, when he received 
the conduct of the war against the Aetolians. 
He took the town of Ambracia, and compelled 
the Aetolians to sue for peace (Pol. xxii. 8-15 ; 
Liv. xxxviii. 3-35, xxxix. 22). On his return to 
Eome in 187, he celebrated a most splendid 
triumph. In 179 he was censor with M. 
Aemilius Lepidus, the pontifex maximus. 
Fulvius Nobilior had a taste for literature and 
art ; he was a patron of the poet Ennius, who 
accompanied him in his Aetolian campaign ; 
and he belonged to that party among the 
Roman nobles who were introducing into the 
city a taste for Greek literature and refinement 
(Cic. Tunc. 1, 2, de Orat. iii. 63). He was 
therefore attacked by Cato the censor, who 
made merry with his name, calling him mobilior 
instead of nobilior. Fulvius, in his censorship, 
erected a temple to Hercules and the Muses in 
the Circus Flaminius, as a proof that the state 
ought to cultivate the liberal arts ; and he 
adorned it with the paintings and statues 
which lie had brought from Greece upon his 
conquest of Aetolia (Cic. pro Arch. 11, 27 ; 
Plin. xxxv. 66; Macrob. i. 12). — 3. M., son of 
No. 2, tribune of the plebs 171 ; curule aedile 
166, the year in which the Andria of Terence 
was performed ; and consul 159 (Liv. xlii. 32). 
— 4. Q., also son of No. 2, consul 153, when he 
had the conduct of the war against the Celti- 
beri in Spain, by whom he was defeated. He 
was censor in 136. He inherited his father's 
love for literature : he presented the poet En- 
nius with the Roman franchise when he was 
a triumvir for founding a colony. (App. Hisp. 
45-47 ; Pol. xxxv. 4; Cic. Brut. 20, 79.) 

Nola (Nolanus : Nolo), one of the most 
ancient towns in Campania, twenty-one Roman 
miles SE. of Capua, on the road from that place 
to Nuceria. Its origin is doubtful. Hecataeus 
calls it an Ausonian city (Steph. Byz. s.v.), 
which merely means that he considered it very 
ancient. It seems to have received a colony 
from Cumae, since it is called Chalcidian (Just, 
xx. 1, Sil. It. xii. 161). Other writers asserted 
an Etruscan origin (Veil. Pat. i. 7). It is quite 
possible that there was an old Italian city on 
that spot ; occupied by Etruscan invaders and 
subsequently colonised from Cumae, if the 
statement of Justin and Silius is to be accepted. 
In B.C. 327 Nola was sufficiently powerful to 
send 2000 soldiers to the assistance of Neapolis. 
In 313 the town was taken by the Romans 
(Liv. viii. 23, ix. 28). It retained the Oscan 
language (in which its name wag Nuvia) till 
after the Punic wars, though on coins the Greek 
lettering appears earlier. It remained faithful 
to the Romans even after the battle of Cannae, 
when the other Campanian towns revolted to 



Hannibal ; and it was allowed in consequence 
to retain its own constitution as an ally of the 
Romans (Liv. xxiii. 14-46). In the Social war 
it fell into the hands of the confederates, and 
was taken by Sulla (Liv. Ep. 99), and probably 
received a military colony. It was again 
colonised by Augustus, and also by Vespasian. 
The emperor Augustus died at Nola (Plin. iii. 
63 ; Suet. Aug. 98 ; Tac. Ann. i. 5). It was 
still a wealthy city after Alaric invaded Italy 
(Aug. C. D. i. 10), but was destroyed by 
Genseric, a.d. 455). In the neighbourhood of 




Coin of Nola, about 320 B.C. 

06c, head of Pallas : the helmet has on it an olive -wreath 
and (probably) an owl; rev.. NQAAIDN ; man-headed bull. 
The coinage of Nola ceased after 811 B.C. 

the town some of the most beautiful Campanian 
vases have been found in modern times. 
According to an ecclesiastical tradition, church 
bells were invented at Nola, and were hence 
called Campanae. 

Nomentanus, mentioned by Horace, as pro- 
verbially noted for extravagance and a riotous 
mode of living. The Scholiasts tell us that his 
full name was L. Cassius Nomentanus (Hor. 
Sat. i. 1, 102, ii. 8, 23, 25, 60). 

Nomentum (Nomentanus : Mentana), ori- 
ginally a Latin town founded by Alba, but 
subsequently a Sabine town, fourteen (Roman) 
miles from Rome, from which the Via Nomen- 
tana (more anciently Via Ficulensis) and the 
Porta Nomentana at Rome derived their name. 
The neighbourhood of the town was celebrated 
for its wine. (Verg. Aen. vi. 773; Liv. i. 38, iv. 
22, viii.^14 ; Dionys. ii. 53, v. 61 ; Mart. x. 48.) 

Nomia (to No/iia), a mountain in Arcadia on 
the frontiers of Laconia, is said to have derived 
its name from a nymph Nomia. 

Nomius (n6/j.ios), a surname of divinities 
protecting the pastures and shepherds, such as 
Apollo, Pan, Hermes, and Aristaeus. 

Nonacris (NwcctKpis : NowaxpiaTris, NwvaKpi- 
€i/s), a town in the N. of Arcadia, NW. of Phe- 
I neus, was surrounded by lofty mountains, in 
l which the river Styx took its origin. The town 
is said to have derived its name from Nonacris, 
the wife of Lycaon. (Hdt. vi. 74 ; Paus. viii. 17, 
6.) From this town Hermes is called Nona- 
criates, Evander Nonacriuu, Atalanta Nona- 
cria, and Callisto Nonacrina viryo, as Arcadian 
(Ov. Met. ii. 409, viii. 426, Fast. v. 97). 

Nonius Marcellus, a Latin grammarian, a 
native of Thubursicum Numidarum in Africa 
(see subscriptions of his work, and C. I. L. viii. 
4878). He cannot be the Marcellus of Auson. 
! Prof. Jiurd. 19. He probably lived early in the 
fourth century a.d., since in one MS. there is a 
note of a commentary on his work by a certain 
Julius Tryphonionus, a.d. 402. His work en- 
titled De Compcndiosa Doctrina is in twenty 
books, of which the sixteenth is lost. It is 
intended as a book of reference to explain diffi- 
culties of words which occur in Latin authors, 
playing the parts both of a glossary und a 
manual of antiquities. His citations from 
books which have perished, especially those of 
! early writers, make his work extremely valuable, 



COS 



NONIUS 



NOVESIUM 



as giving a clue in many cases alike to the ! 
language and subject matter. 

Nonius Sufenas. [Sufenas.] 

Nonnus (N<Wos). 1. A Greek poet, was a 
native of Panopolis in Egypt, and lived in the 
fifth century of the Christian era. Eespecting 
his life nothing is known, except that he j 
became a Christian. He is the author of an 
enormous epic poem, which has come down to 
us under the name of Dionysiaca or Bassarica 
(Atovv&taKd or Ba<r<rapi/ca), and which consists of 
forty-eight books. The work is not without 
poetic spirit, though somewhat turgid in style. 
It supplies information on the growth and 
development of the myths of Dionysus. Edited 
by Graefe, Lips. 1826, and by A. Kb'chly, Lips. 
1858. Nonnus also made a paraphrase of the 
Gospel of St. John in hexameter verse, which 
is likewise extant. Edited by Heinsius, Lugd. 
Bat. 1627. — 2. Theophanes Nonnus, a Greek 
medical writer who lived in the tenth century 
after Christ. The work is entitled a 1 Compen- 
dium of the whole Medical Art,' and is com- 
piled from previous writers. Edited by Ber- 
nard, Gothae et Amstel. 1794, 1795, 2 vols. 

Nora (ra Nojpa: Nu>pau6s, Norensis). 1. 
(Pula), one of the oldest cities of Sardinia, 
founded by Iberian settlers under Norax (Paus. 
x. 17, 5), stood on a promontory now called 
C. di Pula, twenty miles S. of Cagliari (Cic. 
Scaur. 1, 2 ; Ptol. iii. 313). — 2. A mountain 
fortress of Cappadocia, on the borders of 
Lycaonia, on the N. side of the Taurus, noted 
for the siege sustained in it by Eumenes 
against Antigonus. Some modern travellers 
place it at Zeugibar Kalesi, others on the N. 
side of Hassan Dagh. In the time of Strabo, 
who calls it N-qpoaaffSs, it was the treasury of 
Sisinas, a pretender to the throne of Cappa- 
docia (Strab. p. 537 ; Plut. Bum. 10). 

Norba (Norbanensis, Norbanus). 1. (Norma), 
a strongly fortified town in Latium on the 
slope of the Volscian mountains midway be- 
tween Cora and Setia, originally belonged to 
the Latin and subsequently to the Volscian 
League (Dionys. v. 61, vii. 13). As early as 
B.C. 492 the Bomans founded a colony at Norba. 
In the Punic wars it was faithful to Borne. 
It espoused the cause of Marius in the Civil 
war, and was destroyed by fire by its own 
inhabitants, when it was taken by one of Sulla's 
generals. (Liv. ii. 34, xxvii. 10; App. B. C. 
i. 94.) There are still remains of polygonal 
walls, and a subterraneous passage at Norma. 
— 2. Sumamed Caesarea or Caesariana 
(Cacere), a Roman colony in Lusitania on 
the left bank of the Tagus, NW. of Augusta 
Emerita. The bridge built by order of Trajan 
over the Tagus at this place is still extant. It 
is 600 feet long by twenty-eight wide, and con- 
tains six arches. (Ptol. ii. 5, 8 ; Plin. iv. 117.) 
— 3. (Conversano), in Apulia, between Barium 
and Tarentum. 

Norbanus, C, tribune of the plebs, b.c. 95, 
when he accused Q. Servilius Caepio of 
majestas, but was himself accused of the same 
crime in the following year, on account of dis- 
turbances which took place at the trial of Caepio 
(Cic. de Or. ii. 48, 199, 200). In 90 or 89, 
Norbanus was praetor in Sicily during the 
Marsic war ; and in the civil wars he espoused 
the Marian party. He was consul in 83, when 
he was defeated by Sulla near Capua. In the 
following year, 82, he joined the consul Carbo in 
Cisalpine Gaul, but their united forces were 
entirely defeated by Metellus Pius. Norbanus 
escaped from Italy, and fled to Bhodes, where 



he put an end to his life, when his person was- 
demanded by Sulla. (App. B. C. i. 82-91 ; Veil. 
Pat. ii. 25 ; Plut. Sull. 27.) 

Norbanus Flaccus. [Flaccus.] 

Noreia (Nwprieta : Neumarkt in Styria), the- 
ancient capital of the Taurisci or Norici in 
Noricum, from which the whole country prob- 
ably derived its name. It was situated in the 
centre of Noricum, a little S. of the river 
Noarus, and on the road from Virunum to 
Ovilava. It is celebrated as the place where 
Carbo was defeated by the Cimbri, B.C. 113. 
It was besieged by the Boii in the time of 
Julius Caesar. (Caes. B. G. i. 5 ; Strab. p. 214.) 

Noricum (i.e. Noricum Begnum), a Boman 
province S. of the Danube, was bounded on the 
N. by the Danube, on the W. by Baetia and 
Vindelicia, on the E. by Pannonia, and on the 
S. by Pannonia and Italy. It was separated 
from Baetia and Vindelicia by the river Aenus 
(Inn), from Pannonia and the E. by M. Cetius, 
and from Pannonia and Italy on the S. by the 
river Savus, and the Alpes Carnicae. It thus 
corresponds to the greater part of Styria and 
Carinthia, and a part of Austria, Bavaria, and 
Salzburg. Noricum was a mountainous coun- 
try, for it was not only surrounded on the 
S. and E. by mountains, but a continuation of 
the Baetian Alps, sometimes called Alpes 
Noricae (in the neighbourhood of Salzburg), 
ran right through the province. In those 
mountains a large quantity of excellent iron- 
was found ; and the Noric swords were cele- 
brated in antiquity. Gold also is said to have 
been found in the mountains in ancient times. 
(Hor. Od. i. 16, 9, Bpod. xvii. 71 ; Mart. iv. 55 ; 
Ov. Met. xiv. 711 ; Strab. pp. 208, 214.) The 
dominant race in the country were Celts, 
divided into several tribes, of which the 
Taurisci, also called Norici, after their capital 
Noreia, were the most important. The bulk of 
the population was Illyrian, subordinate to the 
Celtic tribes ; the whole country was styled a 
kingdom, and the name Noricum Begnum was 
retained after its conquest by the Bomans (C. I. 
L. iii. 4828). They were conquered by the 
Bomans B.C. 16 (Dio Cass. liv. 20), after the 
subjugation of Baetia by Tiberius and Drusus, 
and their country was formed into a Boman 
province. In the later division of the Boman 
empire into smaller provinces, Noricum was 
formed into two provinces, N. Bipense, along 
the bank of the Danube, and N. Mediterra- 
nean, separated from the former by the moun- 
tains which divide Austria and Styria: they 
both belonged to the diocese of Illyricum and 
the prefecture of Italy. The Boman colonies 
and chief towns were Virunum and Ovilava: 
other important places were Celeia, Jovavum 
and Lauriacum. 

Nortia or Nurtia, an Etruscan divinity of 
Fortune, worshipped at Volsinii, where a nail 
was driven every year into the wall of her tem- 
ple, for the purpose of marking the number of 
years (Liv. vii. 3 ; Juv. x. 74). 

Nossis, a Greek poetess, of Locri in Italy, 
lived about B.C. 310, and is the author of twelve 
epigrams n the Greek Anthology. 

Notus. [Venti.] 

Novaria (Novarensis i Novara), a town in 
Gallia Transpadana, situated on a river of the 
same name (Gogna), subsequently a Boman 
I municipium (Ptol. iii. 1, 3; Tac. Hist. i. 70). 

Novensiles or Novensides Dii. [Tndigetes, 

' p. 442.] 

Novesium (Neuss), a fortified town of the 
Ubii on the Bhine, and on the road leading 



NOVIODUNUM 



NUMANTIA 



6C9 



from Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) to Castra 
Vetera (Xanten). The fortifications were re- 
stored by Julian, in a.d. 359. (Amm. Marc.xxvii.) 

Noviodunum, a name given to many Celtic 
places from their being situated on a hill (dun). 
1. (Nouari), a town of the Bituriges Cubi in 
Gallia Aquitanica, E. of their capital, Avaricum. 
(Caes. B. G. vii. 12.) — 2. (Nevers), a town of 
the Aedui in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the road 
from Augustodunum to Lutetia, and at the 
confluence of the Niveris and the Liger, whence 
it was subsequently called Nevirnum, and thus 
acquired its modern name (Caes. 5. G. vii. 55). 
—3. A town of the Suessones in Gallia Belgica, 
probably the same as Augusta Suessonum. 
[Augusta, No. 6.] — 4. (Nion), a town of the 
Helvetii in Gallia Belgica, on the X. bank of 
the Lacus Lemanus, was made a Roman colony 
by Julius Caesar, B.C. 45, under the name of 
Colonia Equestris [p. 391, b.] — 5. (Isaczi), a 
fortress in Moesia Inferior on the Danube, near 
which Valens built his bridge of boats across 
the Danube in his campaign against the Goths. 

Noviomagus. 1. (Castelnau cle Medoc), a 
town of the Bituriges Vivisci in Gallia Aqui- 
tanica, NW. of Burdigala (Ptol. ii. 7, 8).— 2. 
(Lisieux), a town of the Lexovii (Ptol. ii. 8, 
2). — 3. (Spires), the capital of the Nemetes. 
[Nemetes.] — 4. (Neumagen), a town of the 
Treviri in Gallia Belgica on the Mosella. — 5. 
(Nimwegen), a town of the Batavi. 

Novius, Q., a writer of Atellane plays, a con- 
temporary of the dictator Sulla (Macrob. i. 
10 ; Gell. xv. 13). 

Novum Comum. [Comum.] 

Nox. JNyx.] 

Nuba Palus (NoD/3ct \l)j.vy), a lake in Cen- 
tral Africa, receiving the great river Gir, 
according to Ptolemy (iv. 6, 14). 

Nubae, Nubaei (Nov/Scu, Novf}aiot), an African 
people, situated on the W. side of the Nile, S. 
of Meroe' — that is, in the N. central part of 
Nubia ; the Nubae were governed by princes 
of their own, independent of Meroe. By the 
reign of Diocletian they had advanced north- 
wards as far as the frontier of Egypt. (Strab. 
pp. 786, 819 ; Ptol. iv. 7, 80.) 

Nuceria (Nucerinus). 1. (Nocera), surnamed 
Alfaterna. probably from an Oscan tribe of 
which Nuceria was the chief town, a town in 
Campania on the Sarnus (Sarno), and on the 
Via Appia, SE. of Nola, and nine (Roman) 




Coin of Nuceria Alfaterna In Campania, about *>0 n.c. 

Obv., head with ram's horn : name of town In Oscan 
letters ; rev. t one of the Dioscuri standing besido his 
horse. 

miles from the coast, was taken by the Romans 
in the Samnite wars, and was again taken by 
Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, when it 
was burnt to the ground (Dind. xix. 65 ; Strab. 
p. 247; Liv. xxiii. 15, xxvii. 8). It was subse- 
quently rebuilt, and both Augustus and Nero 
planted here colonies of veterans (Tac. Ann. 
xiii.31). — 2. Surnamed Camellaria (Nocrrn\. a 
town in the interior of Umbria, on the Via Kla- 
minia (Strab. p. 2271. — 3. (Luzzara), a small 
town in Gallia Oispadana on the Po, NE. of 
Brixellum (Ptol. iii. 1, 46). — 4. A town of 



Bruttium, whose coins have a Greek inscrip- 
tion. Its site is fixed by the modern Nocera. 

Nuithones, a people of Germany, dwelling 
on the right bank of the Albis (Elbe), SW. of 
the Saxones, and N. of the Langobardi, in the 
modern Mecklenburg (Tac. Germ. 40.) 

Numa, Marcius. 1. A friend of Numa 
Pompilius, whom he is said to have accompanied 
to Rome, where Numa made him the first Pon- 

1 tifex Maximus. Marcius aspired to the kingly 
dignity on the death of Pompilius, and he 
starved himself to death on the election of 
Tullus Hostilius. (Plut. Num. 5 ; Liv. i. 20.) 
His name combines the two names of Numa 
and Ancus Marcius, and belongs to the tradi- 
tions of the origin of the Roman religious rites. 
— 2. Son of the preceding, is said to have mar- 

' ried Pompilia, the daughter of Numa Pom- 
pilius, and to have become by her the father'of 
Ancus Marcius. Numa Marcius was appointed 
by Tullus Hostilius praefectus urbi. (Pint. 
Num. 21, Coriol. 1 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 17.) 

Numa, Pompilius, the second king of Rome, 
who belongs to legend, and not to history. He 
was a native of Cures in the Sabine country, 
and was elected king one year after the death 
of Romulus, when the people became tired of 
the interregnum of the senate. He was re- 
nowned for his wisdom and his piety: and it 
was generally believed that he had derived his 
knowledge from Pythagoras. His reign was 
long and peaceful, and he devoted his chief 
care to the establishment of religion among his 

| rude subjects. He was instructed by the Ca- 
mena Egeria, who visited him in a grove near 

' Rome. [Egeria.] He wa9 revered by the 
Romans as the author of their whole religious 
worship. It was he who first appointed the 
pontiffs, the augurs, the flamens, the virgins of 
Vesta, and the Salii. He founded the temple 
of Janus, which remained always shut during his 
reign. The length of his reign is stated differently. 
Livy makes it forty-three years ; Polybius and 
Cicero, thirty-nine years. The sacred books of 
Numa, in which he prescribed all the religious 
rites and ceremonies, were said to have been 
buried near him in a separate tomb, and to have 
been discovered by accident, 500 years after- 
wards, in B.C. 181. They were carried to the city- 
praetor Petilius, and were found to consist of 
twelve or seven books in Latin on religious 
ordinances, and the same number of books in 

1 Greek on philosophy : the latter were burnt on 
the command of the senate, but the former 

! were carefully preserved. (Plut. Numa ; Liv. 
i. 18-21; Cic. dr. Htp. ii. 13-15; Dionys. ii. 58; 

j Val. Max. i. 1, 12.) The story of the discovery 

I of these books is evidently false ; and the 
books which were ascribed to Numa, and which 
were extant at a later time, were evidently 
nothing more than works containing an account 
of the ceremonial of the Roman religion. The 
story of the reign of Numa himself arose from 
the desire to ascribe the foundation of the 
Roman religion to a sacerdotal monarch, and 
Ancus was introduced to supply the military 
events belonging to the same period and to 
make Numa, the religious founder, an entirely 
peaceful king. 

Numana ( l/mana), a town in Picenum, on 
the road leading from Ancona to Atornuin, 
founded by the Sieuli, and subsequently a 
munieipium (Ptol. iii. 1, 21; BiL It. viii. 431). 

Numantla (NmhantlnnB': Gn array), the 
capital of the Pelendones, in Hispaniu Tarruco- 
nensis, and the most important town in all ( lelti- 
beria, was situated near the sources of the 

R B 



610 



NUMENIUS 



NYCTIMENE 



Durius, on a small tributary of this river, and 
on the road leading from Asturica to Caesar- 
augusta (Plin. iii. 26; Strab. p. 162). It was 
strongly fortified by nature, being built on a 
steep and precipitous, though not lofty, hill, and 
accessible by only one path, which was defended 
by ditches and palisades. It was twenty-four 
stadia in circumference, but was not surrounded 
by regular walls, which the natural strength of 
its position rendered unnecessary. It was long 
the head-quarters of the Celtiberians in their 
wars with the Romans ; and its protracted siege 
and final destruction by Scipio Africanus the 
younger (b.c. 133) is one of the most memorable 
events in the early history of Spain. (App. 
Eisp. 48-98 ; Eutrop. iv. 17 ; cf . Cic. Off. i. 11.) 

Numenius (Nou^ijc ios), of Apamea in Syria, a 
Pythagoreo-Platonie philosopher, about 150 
A.D., who was highly esteemed by Plotinus and 
his school, as well as by Origen. His object 
was to trace the doctrines of Plato up to Pytha- 
goras, and at the same time to show that they 
were not at variance with the dogmas and mys- 
teries of the Brahmins, Jews, Magi, and Egyp- 
tians. Considerable fragments of his works 
have been preserved by Eusebius, in his Prae- 
paratio Evangelica. 

Numerianus, M. Aurelius, the younger of the 
two sons of the emperor Carus, who accompanied 
his father in the expedition against the Persians, 
A. D. 283. After the death of his father, which 
happened in the same year, Numerianus was 
acknowledged as joint emperor with his brother 
Garinus. The army, alarmed by the fate of 
Carus, who was struck dead by lightning, com- 
pelled Numerianus to retreat towards Europe. 
During the greater part of the march, which 
lasted for eight months, he was supposed to be 
confined to his litter by an affection of the eyes ; 
but the suspicions of the soldiers having become 
excited, they forced their way into the imperial 
tent, and discovered the dead body of their 
prince (Vopis. Numer. ; Eutrop. ix. 12 ; Zonar. 
xii. 30). Arrius Aper, praefect of the praeto- 
rians, and father-in-law of the deceased, was 
arraigned of the murder in a military council, 
held at Chalcedon, and, without being permitted 
to speak in his own defence, was stabbed to the 
heart by Diocletian, whom the troops had already 
proclaimed emperor. [Diocletianus.] 

Numlcius or Numlcus (Bio Torto), a small 
river in Latium flowing into the Tyrrhene sea 
between Lavinium and Ardea. It was connected 
in legends with the deaths both of Aeneas and 
of Anna, and with the worship of Jupiter In- 
diges [see pp. 25, a ; 72, a ; 442, b]. 

Numidia (NovfiiSia, f) No,ua5ia and No/xaSiKT) : 
'Nofids, Numlda, pi. NofidSes or No^ictSes Aifives, 
Numidae : Algier), a country of N. Africa, which, 
in its original extent, was divided from Maure- 
tania on the W. by the river Malva or Moluc- 
hath (Wed Muluya), and on the E. from the 
territory of Carthage (aft. the Eoman province 
of Africa) by the river Tusca ; its N. boundary 
was the Mediterranean, and on the S. it extended 
indefinitely towards the chain of the Great Atlas 
and the country of the Gaetuli (App. Pun. 106 ; 
Sail. Jug. 19, 92). Intersected by the chain of 
the Lesser Atlas, and watered by the streams 
running down from it, it abounded in fine pas- 
tures, which were early taken possession of by 
wandering tribes of Asiatic origin, who from 
their occupation as herdsmen were called by the 
Greeks, here as elsewhere; No/xdSes, and this 
name was perpetuated in thai of the country. 
A sufficient account of these tribes, and of their 
connexion with their neighbours on the W., is 



given under Maubetania. The fertility of the 
country, inviting to agriculture, gradually gave 
a somewhat more settled character to the people ; 
and at their first appearance in Eoman history 
we find their two great tribes, the Massylians 
and the Massaesylians, forming two monarchies, 
which were united into one under Masinissa, 
b. c. 201. (For the historical details, see Masi- 
nissa). On Masinissa's death in 148, his king- 
dom was divided, by his dying directions, be- 
tween his three sons, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and 
Gulussa ; but it was soon reunited under 
Micipsa, in consequence of the death of both 
his brothers. His death, in 118, was speedily 
followed by the usurpation of Jugurtha, an ac- 
count of which and of the ensuing war witb the 
Romans is given under Jugubtha. On the 
defeat of Jugurtha in 106, the country became 
virtually subject to the Romans, but they per- 
mitted the family of Masinissa to govern it with 
the royal title (see Heempsal, No. 2; Juba, 
No. 1), until b. c. 46, when Juba, who had es- 
poused the cause of Pompey in the civil wars, 
was defeated and dethroned by Julius Caesar, 
and Numidia was made a Roman province. 
{Bell. Afr. 97 ; Dio Cass, xliii. 9 ; App. B. C. ii. 
100.) In b. c. 30 Augustus restored Juba II. to 
his father's kingdom of Numidia; but in B.C. 
25 he exchanged it for Mauretania, and Numidia 
was then contracted so as to retain only that 
part of the ancient Numidia which lay to the E. 
of the river Ampsaga and to extend as far as 
the borders of Cyrenaica. (Plin. v. 22 ; Ptol. iv. 
2, 1; Strab. p. 840.) It was again diminished 
by near a half, under Claudius (see Maube- 
tania) ; and henceforth, until the Arab conquest, 
the senatorial province of Numidia denotes the 
district between the river Ampsaga on the W. 
and the Tusca on the E. : its capital was Cirta 
(Constantineh). [Afbica, p. 32, a.] The country, 
in its later restricted limits, is often distinguished 
by the name of New Numidia or Numidia Pro- 
per. The Numidians furnished the best light 
cavalry to the armies, first of Carthage, and 
afterwards of Rome. 

Numidicus Sinus (Novfiidticbs k6\ttos : Bag 
of Storah), the great gulf E. of Pr. Tretum 
{Seve.ii Capes), on the N. of Numidia. 

Numistro (Numistranus), a town in Lucania 
near Apulia (Liv. xxvii. 2; Ptol. iii. 1, 74). 

Numltor. [Romulus.] 

Nursia (Nurslnus : Norcia), a town in the 
N. of the land of the Sabines, situated near the 
sources of the Nar and amidst the Apennines, 
whence it is called by Virgil (Aen. vii. 716) fri- 
gida Nursia (cf. Sil. It. viii. 417). It was the 
birthplace of Sertorius and of the mother of 
Vespasian (Suet. Vesp. 1 ; Plut. Sert. 2). 

Nycteis (Nu/cTTji'y), that is, Antiope, daughter 
of Nycteus, and mother of Amphion and Zethus. 
[Antiope ; Nycteus.] 

Nycteus (Nukteus), son of Hyrieus by the 
nymph Clonia, and husband of Polyxo, by whom 
he became the father of Antiope ; though, ac- 
cording to some, Antiope was the daughter of 
the river-god Asopus (Od. xi. 259 ; Apollod. 
iii. 10, 1 ; Ant. Lib. 25). Antiope was carried 
off by Epopeus, king of Sicyon; whereupon 
Nycteus, who governed Thebes, as the guardian 
of Labdacus, invaded Sicyon with a Theban 
army. Nycteus was defeated, and being severely 
wounded, he was carried back to Thebes, where, 
before his death, he appointed his brother Lycus 
guardian of Labdacus, and at the same time re- 
quired him to take vengeance on Epopeus. 
(Paus. ii. 6, 2 ; Hyg. Fab. 7 ; Lycus.) 

Nyctlmene, daughter of Epopeus, king of 



NYMPHAE 

Lesbos, or, according to some, of Nycteus. 
Pursued and dishonoured by her father, she 
concealed herself in the shade of forests, where 
she was metamorphosed bv Athene into an owl. 
(Ov. Met. ii. 590 ; Hyg. Fab. 204.) 

Nymphae (Nv/Mpai). The worship of the 
Nymphs was handed down among the most pri- 
mitive beliefs of the Greeks and Romans, and 
is illustrated by similar superstitions in almost 
every nation. The early Greeks and Romans, 
like other nations in an early stage of civilisa- 
tion, saw in all the phenomena of ordinary na- 
ture some manifestation of the deity : springs, 
rivers, grottoes, trees, and mountains, all seemed 
to them fraught witli life ; and all were only the 
visible embodiments of so many divine agents. 
Over these salutary and beneficent powers of 
nature watched so many divinities. But the 
conception of the nymphs (though, as divine, 
they are often called deed : II. xxiv. 616 ) differed 
from that of the great ' Nature ' deities in being 
strictly localised : each spring had its own 
nymph, or company of nymphs, who could give 
or refuse the fertilising st-eam — who might irri- 
gate the land or destroy it by a flood. This 
belief clearly belongs to an earlier stage than 
the conception of deities with wide provinces 
and varied functions, but it was firmly rooted 
in local traditions, and lasted on beside the later 
mythology, or in some cases was absorbed into 
it, so that the newer great deity assumed the 
character of the nymph of the spot, who there- 
upon was represented in myth as a friend or 
attendant of the goddess by whom she was 
superseded. Homer speaks of them as deities 
admitted to Olympus (II. xx. 8), but it is only 
on a special occasion when every divine being 
is called to the council. In the Odyssey (vi. 
123, be 154, xii. 218, xiii. 356, xvii. 240) they are 
the deities of special hills or fountains, honoured 
in their own abode ; and so Hesiod expresses 
the old belief in nymphs as guarding the 
powers of nature when he calls them the child- 
ren of the earth (Tli. 130, 187). When in 
Horner they are called 'children of Zeus'; 
(icoipai Aids : 11. vi. 420, Od xiii. 356), it is clear 
that nothing more definite is meant than that 
they partook of the divine nature. Already in 
Homer Artemis (who lias to do with woods and 
streams, having herself, as the Arcadian Artemis, 
Been partly developed from Arcadian stories of t 
nymphs) is the deity who is specially attended < 
by nymphs, now her subordinates, or com- 
panions in the dance (Od. vi. 105), just as at a 
later time Dionysus as god of trees has his at- 
tendant nymphs. While it is true that every 
hill and every tree might have its nymph as well 
as every spring, yet the water nymphs were 
those who were most regarded, and who had 
more distinctive personality, inasmuch as the 
scarcity or abundance of water wan more im- 
portant than anything else in nature to the 
herdsmen and agriculturists. Nymphs may, 
however, be classed under various headH, ac- 
cording to the different parts of nature of which 
they are the representatives. 1. Nymphs of 
the watery element. To these belong first the 
nymphs of the ocean, Oceanidea ('n.Kta r ivcu, 
'ClKtcwiSes, vvfi<pai aKtai), who were regarded as 
the daughters of OceanuR (Hes. Th. 846, 364 ; 
Aesch. Pr. 186; Soph. Phil. 1470); and next 
the nymphs of the Mediterranean or inner sea. 
[Nebeidkk.] The rivers were represented by 
the Potamcides (UoTafirjtSes), who, aH local 
divinities, were named after their rivers, as 
Acheloides, Anigrides, Ismenides, Ainnisiudes, 
Pactolides (Ap. Rh. 1219; Verg. Aen. viii. 70 j 



NYMPHAE UM 



611 



Ov. Met. vi. 16 ; Paus. i. 31, v. 5). The nymphs 
of fresh water, whether of rivers, lakes, brooks, 
or springs, were also designated by the general 
name Naiades (NijiSes), though they had, in 
addition, specific names {Kpi)vdiai, Tlrryouai, 
'EKetovOfWi, AifivariSes, or Aifj.vd.Ses). (Od. 
xvii. 240; Theocr. v. 17.) Even the rivers of 
the lower regions were described as having their 
nymphs ; hence we read of Nymphae infer nae 
paludis and Avernales (Ov. Met. v. 240, Fast. 
ii. 610). Many of these nymphs presided over 
waters or springs which were believed to inspire 
those who drank of them. The nymphs them- 
selves were therefore thought to be endowed 
with prophetic power, and to inspire men with 
the same, and to confer upon them the gift of 
poetry. [Camenae.] There was a belief among 
Greeks and Romans (analogous to much that 
appears in popular stories everywhere about 
water-fairies) that the mortal who saw the 
nymph was bereft of his senses : hence the ex- 
pression vvfi(p6\T)irTos = frenzied, and in Latin 
lymjihatus or lymphatic as, the names Lym- 
phae and Nymphae being originally the same 
and used interchangeablv (Hor. Sat. i. 5, 97 ; 
Vai-r.'i. L. vii. 87; C. I. L. v. 3106).— 2. 
Nymphs of mountains and grottoes, called 
Oreades ('OpeidSes, 'OpoSe/ifidSes), but some- 
times also by names derived from the particular 
mountains they inhabited (e.g. KiOaipoi >t8es, 
rirjAioSes, KopvKiai). (Od. ix. 154; Theocr. vii. 
137; Verg. Aen. i. 168, 500; Paus. ix. 3, x. 32; 
Ap. Rh. i. 550.1 — 3. Nymphs of forests, groves, 
and glens, were believed sometimes to appear 
to and frighten solitary travellers. They are 
designated by the names AXtrrji'St s, 'TKijaipot, 
Av\wi>id$es, and NairaTai. — 4. Nymphs of trees, 
were believed to die together with the trees 
which had been their abode, and with which 
they had come into existence. They were called 
Dryades and Hamadryades (ApvdSeS, 'Aixa- 
SpvdSes or 'ASpvdSes), from Spvs (cf. MeAiai, Hes. 
Th. 187). All these nymphs had their special 
haunts and abodes in watery glades, in groves, 
in caves and grottoes. Here sacrifices were 
offered of goats, lambs, milk, and oil, but never 
of wine. (Od. xvii. 240 ; Theocr. v. 12, 53, 139, 
140 ; Serv. ad Georg. iv. 380, ad Eel. v. 74.) 
From these local nymphs of springs and woods 
was developed another class with more definite 
history and personality, such as Circe and 
Calypso, who were divine in nature but differed 
from goddesses in being localised in some parti- 
cular place on the earth : a similar development 
was the conception of the nymph who presided 
over a particular town, e.g. Cyrene. It may be 
observed that the vvfuprt is sometimes called 
6e6s, though the Beds is never called vvfi<pr\. 
Nymphs were in archaic art represented (as 
were all goddesses) fully clothed ; but as art 
I progressed it was customary to show them less 
' and less clothed and at last wholly naked. 
| They appear as companions or attendants of 
country deities, such as Pan ; often also with 
Hermes, as a favourite deity of herdsmen; or 
, with Artemis, the goddess of woods and hills ; 
or in their prophetic character with Apollo. 

Nymphaeum ISvp.<pcuov, i.e. Nymphs' 
abode). 1. A mountain by the river Aous, near 
Apollonia, in Dlyricnm. — 2. A port and pro- 
montory on the const of Illyricum, three Roman 
mili s from Lissus (Caes. B. C. iii. 26). — 3. (('. 
Ohioryi), tin- S\V. promontory of Acte or Athos, 
in Choi oi dice. — 4. A seaport town of the 
Chcrsoncsus Taurica (('rimca) on the Cira- 
| merian Bosporus, 25 stadia (2| geographical 
| miles) from I'anticapaeum (Strab. p. 309 ; App. 

Ii B 2 



612 



NYMPHAETJS 



OASIS 



Mithr. 100 ; Ptol. iii. 6, 3). — 5. A place on the 
coast of Bithynia, thirty stadia (three geogra- 
phical miles) W. of the mouth of the river 
Oxines. — 6. A place in Cilicia, between Celen- 
deris and Soloe. 

Nymphaeus (Nv/j.<paios). 1. (Ninfa or 
Nimpa), a small river of Latium, falling into 
the sea above Astura ; of some note as contri- j 
buting to the formation of the Pomptine 
marshes (Plin. iii. 57). It now no longer 
reaches the sea, but falls into a little lake, 
called Lago di Monaci.—2. Also called Nym- 
phius [Basilimfa), a small river of Sophene in 
Armenia, a tributary of the upper Tigris, flow- \ 
ing from N. to S. past Martyropolis, in the 1 
valley between M. Niphates and M. Masius 
(Amm. Marc, xviii. 9 ; Procop. B. P. i. 8, 21). 

Nymphidius Sabinus, commander of the 
praetorian troops, together with Tigellinus, 
attempted, on the death of Nero, a.d. 68, to seize 
the throne, but was murdered by the friends of 
Galba (Tac. Ann. xv. 72, Hist. i. 5, 25, 37 ; 
Plut. Galb. 8-15). 

Nymphis (Nu^is), son of Xenagoras, a ! 
native of the Pontic Heraclea, lived about B.C. 
250, and wrote a work on Alexander and his 
successors, in twenty-four books, and a history 
of Heraclea in thirteen books (Suid. s. v.). 

Nymphodorus (Nv/x(p6Supos). 1. A native of 
Ahderaand brother-in-law of Sitalces, king of 
Thrace : the Athenians made him their pro- 
xenus in 431, and he negotiated a reconcili- 
ation between them and Perdiccas (Hdt. vii. 
137; Thuc. i. 29). — 2. A Greek historian of! 
Amphipolis, of uncertain date, the author of a j 
work on the Laws or Customs of Asia (Nd/xt/na 
'Acrias). — 3. Of Syracuse, likewise a historian, 
lived about the time of Philip and Alexander 
the Great. He wrote a Periplus of Asia, and a 
work on Sicily (Athen. pp. 19, 265). 

Nysa (Nvcra), was the name of the mountain 
on which Dionysus was supposed to have been 
nursed by the nymphs [see p. 291, a]. Hence 
the name was applied to several hills or towns 
where early culture of the vine gave rise to 
local traditions of the childhood of the wine- 
god ; or, conversely, the stories may have become 
attached to places which bore the same name 
as a Mount Nysa connected with the worship of 
Dionysus. It is, however, noticeable that most 
of the places of this name are supposed to have 
been early homes of the vine. Among the 
places so named whose position can be fairly 
determined are the following: — 1. (Sultan- 
Sisar), a town in Caria, on the southern slope of 
Mount Messogis (which was famed for wine), on 
a small stream which falls into the Maeander 
from the north (Strab. p. 650). It was said to 
have been formerly called Athymbra and to 
have taken its name from Nysa one of the 
wives of Antiochus (Steph. Byz. s. v. Avridxeia) ; 
but that may be only a later attempt to 
account for the name. — 2. A mountain and 
town in Thrace, which is the Nysa connected 
with Dionysus in the Iliad (vi. 133 ; cf. Plin. 
iv. 36 ; see p. 295, a). — 3. A village on the slopes 
of Helicon, in Boeotia (Strab. p. 405). — 1 A 
mountain and town in India, connected in 
myth with the journeys of Dionysus (p. 294), 
and in reality with the earliest culture of the 
vine (Arr. An. v. 1, 2, vi. 2, 3; Strab. p. 687). 
— 5. A town in Aethiopia near Meroe. The 
Homeric hymn xxxiv. speaks of Dionysus as 
being reared on a mountain in the uttermost 
parts of Phoenicia (i.e. far south), near the 
river Aegyptus. Herodotus, following the same 
tradition, speaks of Dionysus being carried to 



Nysa, beyond Egypt, in the cinnamon country 
(prob. Somaliland), and there, he says, were 
festivals of Dionysus (Hdt. iii. 97, 111). 

Nysaeus, Nysius, Nyseus, or Nysigena, a 
surname of Dionysus, derived from Nysa, a. 
mountain or city (see above) where the god 
was said to have been brought up by nymphs. 

Nyseides or Nysiades, the nymphs of Nysa,. 
who are said to have reared Dionysus, and. 
whose names are Cissei's, Nysa, Erato, Eriphia,. 
Bromia, and Polyhymno (Ov. Met. iii. 314, 
Fast. iii. 769 ; Apollod. iii. 4, 3). 

Nyssa (Nvcrcra), a city of Cappadocia, on the 
W. side of the Halys, not far from the river, on 
the road from Parnassus to Mazara. It was the 
bishopric of Gregory of Nyssa. (Ptol. v. 7, 8.) 

Nyx (Nvf), called Nox by the Romans, was a 
partial personification of Night, in which 
much of the abstract idea still remained and 
the allegory was to a great extent recognised as 
such. Homer calls her the subduer of gods and 
men, and relates that Zeus himself stood in awe 
of her (II. xiv. 259). In the ancient cosmo- 
gonies Night is one of the very first created 
beings, for she is described as the daughter of 
Chaos, and the sister of Erebus, by whom she 
became the mother of Aether and Hemera. 
She is further said to have given birth, without 
a husband, to Moros, the Keres, Thanatos, 
Hypnos, Dreams, Momus, Oizys, the Hespe- 
rides, Moerae, Nemesis, and similar beings 
(Hes. Th. 123, 211, 748 ; cf. Aesch. Bum. 321). 
In the later poets Night is sometimes described 
as a winged goddess, and sometimes as riding 
in a chariot, covered with a dark garment and 
and accompanied by the stars in her course. 



O. 

Oanus ("Clavos : Frascolari), a river on the S. 
coast of Sicily, near Camarina (Pind. 01. v. 25). 

Oarus ("Oapos), a considerable river men- 
tioned by Herodotus as rising in the country of 
the Thyssagetae, and falling into the Palus 
Maeotis (Sea of Azov) E. of the Tanai's (Don) 
(Hdt. iv. 123). As there is no river which very 
well answers this description, Herodotus prob- 
ably refers to one of the E. tributaries of the 
Don, such as the Sal or the Manyteh. 

Oasis ("Oaffis, Ailacris, and in later writers 
"'n.aais) is the Greek form of an Egyptian word 
TJah, an inhabited place, which was used to 
denote an island in the sea of sand of the 
great Libyan Desert : the word has been 
adopted into our language. The Oases are 
depressions in the great table-land of Libya, 
preserved from the inroad of the shifting 
sands by steep hills of limestone round them, 
and watered by springs, which make them 
fertile and habitable. With the substitution of 
these springs for the Nile, they closely resemble 
that greater depression in the Libyan table- 
land, the valley of Egypt. The chief specific 
applications of the word by the ancient writers 
are to the two Oases on the W. of Egypt, which 
were taken possession of by the Egyptians at 
an early period. — 1. Oasis Minor, the Lesser or 
Second Oasis ("Oaffis Mi/cpa, or i] Sevrepa : TJah 
el-Baliariye), lay W. of Oxyrynchus, and a 
good day's journey from the SW. end of the 
lake Moeris. It was reckoned as belonging to 
the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt ; and formed 
a separate Nomos. (Ptol. iv. 5, 37 ; Strab. p. 
814.) — 2. Oasis Major, the Greater, Upper, or 
First Oasis ("O. fieydA-q, fj xpdirv, y ava O., 
and, in Herodotus, n6\is "Octais and cfjiros 



OAXES 



OCEAN US 



613 



ttaKaptey, TJah el-Dakhel), is described by Lihellas, containing a record of the phenomena 
Strabo as seven days' journey W. of Abydos, classed by the Romans under the general 
-which applies to its X. end, as it extends over designation of Prodigia or Ostenta. The 
more than li c of latitude. It belonged to series extends in chronological order from the 
Upper Egypt, and, like the other, formed a consulship of Scipio and Laelius, B.C. 190, to 
distinct nome : these two nomes are mentioned the consulship of Eabius and Aelius, B.C. 11. 
together as 'Duo Oaeitae ' ial 5vo 'Oturlrcu) iHdt. The materials are derived from an abridgment 
iii. 26, iv. 152 ; Strab. /. c. ; Plin. v. 50). "When of Livy, whose very words are frequently em- • 
the ancient writers use the word Oasis alone, ployed. With regard to the compiler w e know 
the Greater Oasis must generally be under- ; nothing. He probably wrote in the fourth cen- 
stood. This Oasis contains considerable ruins tury a.d. — Editions by Scheffer, Anist. 1679, 
of the ancient Egyptian and Roman periods. It and by Oudendorp, Lugd. Bat. 1720. 
is about level with the valley of the Nile; the Obucola. Obucula, or Obulcula Olonclova), 
Lesser is about 200 feet higher than the Nile, in a town in Hispauia Baetica, on the road from 
nearly the same latitude. — 3. A still more cele- Hispalis to Emerita and Corduba (Ptol. ii. 4, 
brated Oasis than either of these was that called 4 ; Plin. iii. 12). 

Ammon, Hammon, Ammonium. Hammoiiis Obulco (Porcwna), sumamed Pontificense. a 
Oraculum, from its being a chief seat of the Roman municipium in Hispauia Baetica I Strab. 
worship and oracle of the god Ammox. It was pp. 141, 160 ; Ptol. ii. 4, 11). 
called by the Arabs in the middle ages Santa- Ocalea ['fiKaKea, 'fi.Ka\eri, also 'fiKoAeia, 
riah, and now Siwah. It is about six miles 'fl/caAeai : 'fivaXevs), a town in Boeotia, between 
long, and three wide : its chief town, Siwah, is Haliartus and Alalcomenae, situated on a river 
in 29° 12' N. lat., and 26° 17' E. long. : its of the same name falling into the lake Copais, 
distance from Cairo is twelve days, and from at the foot of the mountain Tilphusion (It. ii. 
the N. coast about 160 statute miles: the 501; Hymn. Ajioll. 242; Strab. p. 410). 
ancients reckoned it twelve days from Mem- Oceanides. [Xymphae.] 
phis, and five days from Paraetonium on the N. Oceanus {'fi.Kea.v6si. in the oldest Greek 
coast. It was inhabited by various Libyan poets is the god of the water which was 
tribes, but the ruling people were a race believed to surround the whole earth, and which 
kindred to the Aethiopians above Egypt, who, was supposed to be the source of all the rivers 
at a period of unknown antiquity, had intro- and other waters of the world. In the Honie- 
duced, probably from Meroe, the worship of ric mythology Ocean is the father of all tilings, 
Ammon : the government was monarchical, even of the gods ideuiv yeveais), and not only 
The Ammonians do not appear to have been the source from which heaven and earth alike 
subject to the old Egyptian monarchy. Cam- arose, and from which all streams were still 
byses, after conquering Egypt in B.C. 525, sent derived, but also the bounding limit of every- 
an army against them, which was overwhelmed | tiling (II. xiv. 200, 246, 302 ; cf. Aristot. Met. 
by the sands of the Desert. In B.C. 331, j A. p. 983), and he has his feminine counterpart, 
Alexander the Great visited the oracle, which | Tethys, who is the mother of all things. In 
hailed him as the son of Zeus Ammon (Arrian. Hesiod he is not, as in Homer, the primary source, 
An. iii. 4 ; Curt. iv. 33). The oracle was also but is the son of Heaven and Earth, the hus- 
visited by Cato of Utica. Under the Ptolemies band of Tethys, and the father of all the river- 
and the Romans, it was subject to Egypt, and gods and water-nymphs of the whole earth 
formed part of the Nomos Libya. The most (17/. 133, 337). Another difference in Hesiod 
remarkable objects in the Oasis, besides the i-; that, instead of all streams coming from 
temple of Ammon, were the palace of the Oceanus, and none flowing in, the Styx pours 
ancient kings, abundant springs of salt water 1 one-tenth of her water into the underworld, 
(as well as fresh) from which salt was made, ; but nine-tenths into the ocean ; yet Styx also 
and a well, called Fons Solis, tlie water of is pictured as originally deriving her water 
which was cold at noon, and warm in the from Ocean, since she is the chief of the 
morning and evening. Ruins of the temple of daughters of Oceanus and Tethys (Hes. Th. 
Ammon are still standing at Siwah. 361, 789). As to the physical idea attached by 

Oaxes "Oaxus.] I the early Greeks to the word, it seems that they 

Oaxus ("Oo^os : 'Oa^ioj), called Axus ("A|os) I regarded the earth as a flat circle, which was 
by Herodotus, a town in the interior of Crete encompassed by a river perpetually flowing 
on the river Oaxes (which flows into the sea in round it, and this river was Oceanus. Out of 
the centre of the N. coast of Crete) and near and into this river the sun and the stars were 
Eleuthema, is said to have derived its name supposed to rise and set ; and on its banks were 
from Oaxes or Oaxus, who was, according to the abodes of the dead (Ud. x. 508). Thecon- 
some accounts, a sou of Acacallis, the daughter j ception of Ocean as a stream appears in poetry 
of Minos, and, according to others, a son of long after Homer; but Herodotus rejects the 
Apollo by Anchiale (Hdt. iv. 154 ; Verg. Eel. i. i idea (ii. 23, iv. 8). From this notion it natur- 
60; Serv. ad loc). ally resulted that, as geographical knowledge 

Obila (Aoila), a town of the Vettones in advanced, the name was applied to the great 
Hispania Tarraconensis (Ptol. ii. 5, 9). (niter waters of the earth, in contradistinction . 

Oblivionis Flumen. [Limaea.] to the inner seas, and especially to the Atlantic, 

Obrimas (K<ija-Chai or Sandukli Chai). an ! or the sea without the Pillars of Hercules (r^l^w 
E. tributary of the Mneander, in Phrygia (Liv. 0oAotto, Mare Kxterius) as distinguished from 
xxxviii. 15 ;" Plin. v. 106). 1 he Mrditi rrnnvun. or the sea within that limit 

Obringa i'O&piyKat), a W. tributary of the (7; ivt6', BaKarra, Mare Internum); and thu.i 
Rhine, forming, according to Ptol. ii. 10, 17, the 1 the Atlantic is often simply called Oceanus. 
boundary between Germauia Superior and The epithet Atlantic It; Ar\avriKii 0d\cuTrra, 
Inferior. It is probably the small river Ahr, Herod, <5 'A. irwrns, Eurip. ; Atlanticum Mare) 
which joins the Rhine near lieniagen, between was applied to it from the mythical position of 
Bonn and Andernach. Atlah being on its shores. The othe" great 

ObsSquens, Julius, the name prefixed to ii waters which were denoted by the same term 
fragment entitled JJc Prudi'jiis or Prodigiurum \ are described under their specific names. 



614 



OCELIS 



OCTAVIUS 



Ocelis ("OktjAis : Ghela), a harbour and 
emporium, at the SW. point of Arabia Felix, 
at the entrance to the Red Sea (Ptol. i. 7, 4). 

Ocellus ("O/ceAAos), a Lucanian, and a Pytha- 
gorean, who wrote a work Ilepl tt/s tov iravTos 
<pv(rea>s (On the Nature of the Whole). Ed. 
by Mullach, 184G. 

Qcelum. 1. A town in the NE. of Lusitania 
between the Tagus and the Durius, whose 
inhabitants, the Ocelenses, also bore the name 
of Lancienses (Plin. iv. 118). — 2. (Oulx), a 
town in the Cottian Alps, was the last place in 
Cisalpine Gaul before entering the territories of 
kingCottius (Caes. B.G. i. 10; Strab. p. 179). 
It is on the route over the pass of Mt. Genevre, 
five miles from Scingomagus (Cesanne), and 
twelve from Brigantium (Briancon), on the 
Italian side of the pass. — 3. A promontory in 
Britain, probably Spurn Head (Ptol. ii. 3,6). 

Ocha ("0x17), the highest mountain in Euboea, 
in the S. of the island near Carystus, run- 
ning out into the promontory Caphareus. Eu- 
boea is said to have been once called Ocha. 
(Strab. pp. 445, 446.) 
Ochus. [Artaxerxes III.] 
Ochus ("Oxos, 7 nxos : Tedjend), a great river 
of Central Asia, flowing from the N. side of the 
Paropamisus (Hindoo Koosh), according to 
Strabo, through Hyrcania, into the Caspian ; ac- 
cording to Pliny and Ptolemy, through Bactria, 
parallel with the Oxus (Strab. p. 509 ; Ptol. vi. 
11, 2 ; Plin. vi. 48 ; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6). 

Ocilis COkiAij), a town of the Celtiberi, pro- 
bably Ocana (App. Hisp. 47). 

Ocriculum (Ocriculiinus : nr. Otricoli, Ru.), 
an important municipium in Umbria, situated 
on the Tiber near its confluence with the Nar, 
and on the Via Flaminia, leading from Rome 
to Narnia, &c. There are ruins of an aqueduct, 
an amphitheatre, and temples near the modern 
Otricoli. (Liv. ix. 41 ; xxii. 11 ; Strab. p. 226 ; 
Tac. Hist. iii. 78 ; Plin. Bp. vi. 25.) 

Ocrisia or Oclisia, mother of Servius Tullius. 
For details, see Tullius. 

Octavia. 1. Sister of the emperor Augustus, 
was married first to C. Marcellus, consul B.C. 
50, and subsequently, upon the death of the 
latter, to Antony, the triumvir, in 40. This 
marriage was regarded as the harbinger of a 
lasting peace. Augustus was warmly attached 
to his sister, and she possessed all the charms 
and virtues likely to secure a lasting influence 
over the mind of a husband. Her beauty was 
universally allowed to be superior to that of 
Cleopatra, and her virtue was such as to excite 
admiration in an age of growing licentiousness 
and corruption. For a time Antony seemed to 
forget Cleopatra ; but he soon became tired of 
his virtuous wife, and upon his return to the 
East, he forbade her to follow him. When at 
length the war broke out between Antony and 
Augustus, Octavia was divorced by her hus- 
band; but instead of resenting the insults she 
had received from him, she brought up with 
care his children by Fulvia and Cleopatra. She 
died B.C. 11. (App. B.G. v. 64, 67, 93, 95, 138 ; 
Dio Cass, xlvii. 7, xlviii. 31, li. 15. liv. 35 ; Plut. 
Ant. 31-87.) Octavia had five children, three 
by Marcellus, a son and two daughters, and 
two by Antony, both daughters. Her son, M. 
Marcellus, was adopted by Augustus, and was 
destined to be his successor, but died in 23. 
[Marcellus, No. 9.] The descendants of her 
two daughters by Antonius successively ruled 
the Roman world. The elder of them married 
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and became the 
grandmother of the emperor Nero ; the younger 



of them married Drusus, the brother of the em- 
peror Tiberius, and became the mother of the 
emperor Claudius, and the grandmother of the 




Octavia, the sister of Augustus, and wife of M. Antonius- 
Obv., head of M. Antonius: M. ANTONIVS M.F. M. N. 

AVGVR. IMP. TER. ; rev., head of Octavia : COS. 

DESIGN. ITER. ET TER. IIIVIR R. P. C (Aureus, 

struck at Alexandria B.C. 86-34.) 

emperor Caligula. [Antonia.] — 2. The daughter 
of the emperor Claudius, by his third wife, Valeria 
Messallina, was born about a.d. 42. She was at 
first betrothed by Claudius to L. Silanus, who 
put an end to his life, as Agrippina had destined 
Octavia to be the wife of her son, afterwards- 
the emperor Nero. She was married to Nero- 
in A.D. 53, but was soon deserted by her young 
and profligate husband for Poppaea Sabina. 
After living with the latter as his mistress for 
some time, he resolved to recognise her as his- 
legal wife ; and accordingly he divorced Octa- 
via on the alleged ground of sterility, and then 
married Poppaea, a.d. 62. Shortly afterwards 
Octavia was falsely accused of adultery, and 
was banished to the little island of Pandataria, 
where she was put to death. Her untimely end 
excited general commiseration. Octavia is. 
the heroine of a tragedy found among the 
works of Seneca. The author was more prob- 
ably Curiatius Maternus. [Nero.] 




Octavia. the wife of Nero. 



Obv. head of Nero, laureate ; [NkPu] kaay. kais. zeba. TEp t 
AY. ; rev., head of Octavia, draped : OKTAOYIA xebazt. 
l.a. (year 4=A.D. 57). (Struck at Alexandria.) 

Octavianus. [Augustus.] 

Octavius. 1. Cn., surnamed Rufus, questor 
about B.C. 230, may be regarded as the founder 
of the family. The Octavii originally came 
from the Volscian town of Velitrae, where a 
street and an altar bore the name of Octavius. 
(Suet. Aug. 2.) — 2. Cn., son of No. 1, plebeian 
aedile 206, and praetor 205, when he obtained 
Sardinia as his province. He was actively em- 
ployed during the remainder of the second 
Punic war, and he was present at the battle of 
Zama. (Liv. xxix. 36, xxx. 24, xxxi. 3, 11, 
xxxiv. 45, xxxvi. 16.) — 3. Cn., son of No. 2, was 
praetor 168, and had the command of the fleet- 
in the war against Perseus. He was consul 
165. In 162 he was one of the three ambassa- 
dors sent into Syria, but was assassinated at 
Laodicea, by a Greek of the name of Leptines, 
at the instigation, as was supposed, of Lysias, 
the guardian of the young king Antiochus V. 
A statue of Octavius was placed on the rostra 
at Rome, where it was in the time of Cicero. 
(Liv. xliv. 17-35, xlv. 33 ; Pol. xxviii. 3, 5 ; Veil. 
Pat. i. 9 ; Cic. Fin. i. 7.)— 4. Cn., son of No. 3, 
consul 128. — 5. M., perhaps younger son of 
No. 3, was the colleague of Tib. Gracchus in the 



OCTAVIUS 

tribunate of the plebs, 133, when he opposed 
his tribunitian veto to the passing of the agra- 
rian law. He was in consequence deposed from 
his office by Tib. Gracchus. (Plut. Tib. Gracch. 
10.) — 6. Cn., a supporter of the aristocratical 
party, was consul 87 with L. Cornelius Cinna. 
After Sulla's departure from Italy in order to 
carry on the war against Mithridates, a vehe- 
ment contest arose between the two consuls, 
which ended in the expulsion of Cinna from the 
city, and his being deprived of the consulship. 
Cinna soon afterwards returned at the head 
of a powerful army, accompanied by Marius. 
Rome was compelled to surrender, and Octa- 
vius was one of the first victims in the massa- 
cres that followed. His head was cut off and 
suspended on the rostra. (App. B.C. i. 64-71 ; 
Cic. Cat. iii. 10, N.D. ii. 5.)— 7. L., son of No. 
6, consul 75, died in 74, as proconsul of Cilicia, 
and was succeeded in the command of the pro- 
vince by L. Lucullus (Plut: Lucull. 6). — 8. 
Cn., son of No. 7, consul 76. — 9. M., son of No. 
8, was eurule aedile 50, along with M. Caelius. 
On the breaking out of the Civil war in 49, Oc- 
tavius espoused the aristocratical party, and 
served as legate to M. Bibulus, who had the 
supreme command of the Pompeian fleet. 
After the battle of Pharsalia, Octavius sailed to 
Illyricum; but having been driven out of this 
country (47J by Caesar's legates, he fled to 
Africa. He was present at the battle of Actium 
(31), when he commanded part of Antony's 
fleet. (Caes. B.C. iii. 5; Dio Cass. xlii. 11; 
Plut. Ant. 65.) — 10. C, younger son of No. 1, 
and the ancestor of Augustus, remained a sim- 
ple Eoman eques, without attempting to rise 
any higher in the state (Suet. Aug. 2). — 11. 
C, son of No. 10, and great-grandfather of 
Augustus, lived in the time of the second Punic 
war, in which he served as tribune of the sol- 
diers. He was present at the battle of Cannae 
(216), and was one of the few who survived the 
engagement. (Frontin. Strat. iv. 5, 7 ; Suet. 
Aug. 2.) — 12. C, son of No. 11, and grandfather 
of Augustus, lived quietly at his villa at Velitrae, 
without aspiring to the dignities of the Roman 
state (Suet. Aug. 2, 4, 6). — 13. C, son of No. 
12, and father of Augustus, was praetor 61, and 
in the following year succeeded C. Antoniusin 
the government of Macedonia, which he adminis- 
tered with equal integrity and energy. He 
returned to Italy in 59, and died the following 
year at Nola, in Campania, in the same room 
in which Augustus afterwards breathed his last. 
By his second wife Atia, Octavius had a daugh- 
ter and a son, the latter of whom was subse- 
quently the emperor Augustus. [Augustus.] 
— 14. L., a legate of Pompeyin the war against 
the pirates, 67, was sent by Pompey into Crete 
to supersede Q. Metellus in the command of 
the island ; but Metellus refused to surrender 
the command to him. [Metellus, No. 16.] 

Octavius Balbus. [Balbus.] 

Octodurus (Octodurensis : Martigny), a town 
of the Veragri in the country of the Helvetii, is 
situated at the point where the valley of the 
Drance joins the upper Rhone valley. Caesar 
put Galba there t c. 56 to keep open for the 
traders the pass of the Great St. Bernard, the 
approach to which by the valley of the Drance 
is completely commanded by Martigny. Galba 
was attacked by the natives and forced to re- 
treat. (Caes. li. G. iii. 1.) The ancient town, like 
the modern one, was divided by the Drance into 
two parts. The inhabitants had the Jus Lntii 
(Plin. iii. 135). Under Diocletian conjointly 
with Mouticrs it was the chief town of the 



ODRYSAE 



615 



division of the diocese Galliarum which was 
called Alpes Graiae et Poeninae and was the 
residence of a praeses. 

Octogesa, a town of the Hergetes in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, near the Iberus, probably S. of 
the Sicoris (Caes. B. C. i. 61). 

Octolophus. 1. A town of Lyncestis in Mace- 
donia (Liv. xxxi. 36). — 2. A town in Perrhaebia 
(Liv. xliv._3). 

Ocypete. [Hahpviae.] 

Ocyrhoe ('CLKvpo-ri). 1. One of the daughters 
of Oceanus and Tethys. — 2. Daughter of the 
centaur Chiron, possessed the gift of prophecy, 
and is said to have been changed into a mare. 

Odenathus, the ruler of Palmyra, checked 
the victorious career of the Persians after the 
defeat and capture of Valerian, A. D. 260, and 
drove Sapor out of Syria (Procop. Pers. ii. 5). 
In return for these services, Gallienus bestowed 
upon Odenathus the title of Augustus. He was 
soon afterwards murdered, not without the 
consent, it is said, of his wife Zenobia, 266. He 
was succeeded hy Zenobia. 

Odessus t'OSritraSs : 'OSriaaW-qs, 'OS-qatrevs) : 
{Varna), also called Odyssus and Odissus at a 
later time, a Greek town in Thracia (in the later 
Moesia Inferior) on the Pontus Euxinus nearly 
due E. of Marcianopolis, was founded by the 
Milesians in the territory of the Crobyzi in the. 




Coin of Odessus. 
Obv., head of Caracalla. laureate : ayt. k. M. avp. CEVH- 
poc ANTQNE1NOC; »vt'., figure of Serapis (according to 
others, of Pluto) with cornucopia and patera, standing 
at an altar : OiHCCElTuN. 

reign of Astyages, king of Media (b. c. 594-559). 
The town had a good harbour, and carried on 
an extensive commerce. (Strab. p. 319 ; Diod. 
xix. 73 ; Ov. Trist. i. 9, 37 ; C.I.L. iii. 762.) 

Odoacer, usually called king of the Heruli, 
was the leader of the barbarians who overthrew 
the Western empire A. D. 476. He took the title 
of king of Italy, and reigned till his power was 
overthrown by Theodoric, king of the Goths. 
Odoacer was defeated in three decisive battles 
by Theodoric (489-490J, and took refuge in Ra- 
venna, where he was besieged for three years. He 
capitulated on condition that he and Theodoric 
should be joint kings of Italy ; but Odoacer was 
soon afterwards murdered by his rival (Procop. 
B. G. i. 1, ii. 6 ; Jordan, lirb. Goth. pp. 128-141). 

Odomantlce COSo/xauTtK-fi), a district in the 
NE. of Macedonia between the Strymon and 
the Nestus, inhabited by the Thracian tribe of 
the Odomanti or Odonuintes (Hdt. vii. 112 ; 
Time. ii. 101). 

Odrysae COopuirai), the most powerful people 
in Thrace, dwelt, according to Herodotus, on 
both sides of the river Artiscus, a tributary cf 
the Hebrus, but also spread further W. over the 
whole plain of the Hebrus. Soon after the 
Persian wars Teres, king of the Odrysae, ob- 
tained the sovereignty over several of the other 
Thracian tribes, and extended his dominions as 
far as the Black Sea. He was succeeded by his 
son, Sitalces, who became the master of almost 
the whole of Thrace. His empire comprised all 



616 



ODYSSEA 



ODYSSEUS 



the territory from Abdera to the mouths of the 
Danube, and from Byzantium to the sources of 
the Strymon ; and it is described by Thucydides 
as the greatest of all the kingdoms between the 
Ionian gulf and the Euxine, both in revenue 
and opulence (Hdt. iv. 92 ; Thuc. ii. 96 ; Strab. 
p. 331, 38). Sitalces assisted the Athenians in 
the Peloponnesian war against Perdiccas, king 
of Macedonia. [Sitalces.] He died B. c. 424, 
and was succeeded by his nephew Seutlies I. 
On the death of the latter, about the end of the 
Peloponnesian war, the power of the Odrysae 
declined. For the subsequent history of the 
Odrysae see Thiiacia. 

Qdyssea ('OSiWeia), a town of Hispania 
Baetica, N. of Abdera amidst the mountains of 
Turdetania, with a temple of Athene, said to 
have been built by Odysseus (Strab. pp. 149, 157). 

Odysseus ('OSucraevs), called in Latin Ulixes 
(less correctly written Ulysses, though that is 
the form which has prevailed in modern times), 
one of the principal Greek heroes in the Trojan 
war. According to the Homeric account, he 
was a son of Laertes and Anticlea, the daughter 
of Autolycus, and was married to Penelope, the 
daughter of Icarius, by whom he became the 
father of Telemachus {II. iii. 201 ; Od. i. 329, 
xi. 85, xvi. 118). But according to a later tradi- 
tion he was a son of Sisyphus and Anticlea, 
who, being with child by Sisyphus, was married 
to Laertes, and thus gave birth to him either 
after her arrival in Ithaca or on her way thither 
(Soph. Phil 417, Aj. 190 ; Ov. Met. xiii. 32 ; 
Plut. Q. Gr. 43). Hesiod (Th. 1013, 1014) makes 
him by Circe father of Agrius, Latinus and (if 
1014 is genuine) of Telegonus. Later traditions 
state that besides Telemachus, Odysseus became 
by Penelope the father of Arcesilaus or Ptoli- 
porthus ; and by Circe the father of Agrius, 
Latinus, Telegonus, and Cassiphone ; by Calypso 
of Nausithous and Nausinous or Auson, Tele- 
gonus, and Teledamus ; and lastly, by Evippe 
qf Leontophron, Doryclus or Euryalus. (Paus. 
viii. 12, 3; Serv. ad Aen. iii. 171; Eustath. ad 
Horn. p. 1796 ; Schol. ad Lycophr. 795 ; Parthen. 
Erot. 3.) The name Odysseus = the angry 
(dM(r<ro/.iat) : in Od. xix. 407 it is said that his 
grandfather Autolycus gave the name because 
he himself was often at enmity with his fellow- 
men : in Od. i. 60 there seems to be connexion 
traced between his name and the anger of the 
gods which made him a wanderer. His wrath 
against the suitors is a reason not unfittingly 
suggested. The story ran as follows. As a 
young man, Odysseus went to see his grand- 
father Autolycus near Mt. Parnassus. There, 
in the chase, he was wounded by a boar in 
the knee, by the scar of which he was subse- 
quently recognised by Euryclia (Od. xix. 
413 ff.). Even at that age he was distinguished 
for courage, for knowledge of navigation, for 
eloquence and for skill as a negotiator ; and, 
on one occasion, when the Messenians had 
carried off some sheep from Ithaca, Laertes 
sent him to Messene to demand reparation. 
He there met with Iphitus, who was seeking 
the horses stolen from him, and who gave him 
the famous bow of Eurytus. This bow Odys- 
seus used only in Ithaca, regarding it as too 
great a treasure to be employed in the field, 
and it was so strong that none of the suitors 
was able to handle it [Od. xxi. 14 ff.). Accord- 
ing to some accounts he went to Sparta as one 
of the suitors for Helen ; and he is said to have 
advised Tyndareus to -make the suitors swear 
that they would defend the chosen bride- 
groom against anyone who should insult him 



on Helen's account. Tyndareus, to show him 
his gratitude, persuaded his brother Icarius to 
give Penelope in marriage to Odysseus ; or, 
according to others, Odysseus gained her by 
conquering his competitors in the foot-race 
(Apollod. iii. 10, 9 ; Paus. 12, 2). Homer, how- 
ever, mentions nothing of all this, and states 
that Agamemnon, who visited Odysseus in Ithaca, 
prevailed upon him only with great difficulty 
to join the Greeks in their expedition against 
Troy (Od. xxiv. 16). Other traditions relate 
that he was visited by Menelaus and Aga- 
memnon, and that Palamedes more especially 
induced him to join the Greeks. "When Pala- 
medes came to Ithaca, Odysseus pretended to 
be mad : he yoked an ass and an ox to a plough, 
and began to sow salt. Palamedes, to try 
him, placed the infant Telemachus before the 
plough, whereupon the father could not con- 
tinue to play his part. He stopped the plough, 
and was obliged to fulfil the promise he had 
made when he was one of the suitors of Helen. 
This occurrence is said to have been the cause 
of his hatred of Palamedes. (Tzetz. ad Lyc. 
818 ; Hyg. Fat. 95 ; cf. Aesch. Ag. 841.) Being 
now himself pledged to the undertaking, he 
contrived to discover Achilles, who was con- 
cealed among the daughters of king Lycomedes. 
[Achilles.] Before, however, the Greeks 
sailed from home, Odysseus in conjunction 
with Menelaus went to Troy for the purpose of 
inducing the Trojans to restore Helen and her 
treasures (II. iii. 206 ; Menelaus). When 
the Greeks were assembled at Aulis, Odysseus 
joined them with twelve ships and men from 
Cephallene, Ithaca, Neriton, Crocylia, Zacyn- 
thus, Samos, and the coast of Epirus (II. ii. 
303, 631). He it was who (according to post- 
Homeric tradition) persuaded Clytaenmestra to 
send Iphigenia to Aulis (Diet. Cret. i. 20 ; cf. 
Eur. I. A. 100). During the siege of Troy he 
distinguishedhimself as a valiant and undaunted 
warrior, but more particularly as a prudent and 
eloquent negotiator (II. ii. 139, iii. 202, iv. 
494, vii. 168, ix. 169, 225, x. 231-563, xiv. 82, 
xix. 155 ; Od. xiii. 295). After the death of 
Achilles, Odysseus contended for his armour 
with the Telamonian Ajax, and gained the 
prize (Philostr. Her. x. 12 ; Od. iv. 280, viii. 
494.) This story, which supplies the theme of 
the Ajax of Sophocles, appears first in Od. xi. 
545 ; cf. Ov. Met. xiii. 1. The statement in the 
Odyssey that the Trojans adjudged the arms is 
explained by the Aethiopis of Arctinus, where 
it is said that the captives were asked who had 
injured Troy most, and answered, Odysseus. In 
the Lesser Iliad the judgment is given without 
design by two Trojan women conversing. He is 
said by some to have devised the stratagem of 
the wooden horse, and he was one of the heroes 
concealed within it. He is also said to have 
taken part in carrying off the palladium. (Verg. 
Aen. ii. 164 ; Quint. Smyrn. x. 354.) But the 
most celebrated part of his story consists of 
his adventures after the destruction of Troy, 
which form the subject of the Homeric poem 
called after him, the Odyssey. After the cap- 
ture of Troy he set out on his voyage home, 
but was overtaken by a storm and thrown upon 
the coast of Ismarus, a town of the Cicones, in 
Thrace, N. of the island of Lemnos. He plun- 
dered the town, but several of his men were 
cut off by the Cicones. Thence he was driven 
by an N. wind towards Malea and to the Loto- 
phagi on the coast of Libya. Some of his com- 
panions were so much delighted with the taste 
of the lotus that they wanted to remain in the 



ODYSSEUS 



617 




Odysseus offering wine to the Cyclops. I From a statuette 
in the Vatican.) 



country, but Odysseus compelled them to em- I the sheep which the Cyclops let out of his 
bark again, and continued his voyage. In one cave. In this way he reached his ship. The 
day he reached the goat-island, situated N. of [ Cyclops implored his father, Poseidon, to avenge 
the country of the Lotophagi. He there left him, and henceforth the god of the sea pursued 
behind eleven ships, and with one he sailed to the wandering king with implacable enmity. 

(Od. i. 68, ix. 527.) Others represent the death 
of Palamedes as the cause of Poseidon's anger. 
[Palaieedes.] Odysseus next arrived at the 
island of Aeolus ; and the god on his departure 
gave him a bag of winds, which were to carry 
him home ; but the companions of Odysseus 
opened the bag, and the winds escaped, where- 
upon the ships were driven back to the island 
of Aeolus, who indignantly refused all further 
assistance. After a voyage of six days, Odysseus 
arrived at Telepylos, the city of Lamus, in 
which Antiphates ruled over the Laestkygones, 
a cannibal race. He escaped from them with 
only one ship; and his fate now carried him. 
to a western island, Aeaea, the laud of the 
sorceress Circe. Part of his people were sent 
to explore the island, but they were changed by 
Circe into swine. Eurylochus alone escaped, 
and brought the sad news to Odysseus, who was 
taught by Hermes how to resist the magic 
powers of Circe. He succeeded in liberating 
his companions, who were changed back again 
into men. When at length Odysseus begged 
for leave to depart, Circe desired him to descend 
into Hades and to consult the seer Tiresias. 
He now sailed W. across the river Oceanus, and 
having landed on the other side in the country 
of the Cimmerians, where Helios does not shine, 
he entered Hades, and asked Tiresias how he 
should reach his native land. Tiresias told 
him of the danger and difficulties arising from 
the anger of Poseidon, but gave liim hope that 
all would yet turn out well, if he and his com- 
the neighbouring island of the Cyclopes (the panions would leave the herds of Helios in 
western coast of Sicily), where with twelve Thrinacia unbanned. Odysseus now returned 
companions he entered the cave of the Cyclops to Aeaea, where Circe treated them kindly, told 
Polyphemus, a son of Poseidon and Thoosa. them of the dangers that yet awaited them, and 
This giant devoured one after another six of 1 of the means of escaping. The wind which she 
the companions, and kept the unfortunate sent with them carried them to the island of 
Odysseus and the six others as prisoners in his the Sirens, somewhere near the W. coast of 

Italy. The Sirens sat on the shore, and 
with their sweet voices attracted all that 
passed by, and then destroyed them. Odys- 
seus, to escape this danger, filled the ears 
of his companions with wax, and had him- 
self fastened to the mast of his ship, until 
he was out of reacli of the Sirens' song. 
His ship next sailed between Scylla and 
Charybdis, two rocks between Thrinacia 
and Italy. As the ship passed between 
them, Scylla, the monster inhabiting the 
rock of the same name, carried off and de- 
voured six of the crew. From thence he 
came to Thrinacia, the island of Helios, who 
there kept his sacred herds of oxen. Mind- 
ful of the advice of Tiresias and Circe, 
Odysseus wanted to sail past, but his com- 
panions urged him to land. He made them 
swear not to touch any of the cattle ; but 
as they were detained in the island by 
storms, and were hungry, they killed 
the finest of the oxen while Odysseus 
was asleep. After some days the storm 
abated, and they sailed away, but soon 
another storm came on, and their ship 
was destroyed by a thunderbolt. All 
were drowned with the exception of Odys- 
cave. Odysseus contrived to make the monster scus, who saved himself by means of the mast 
drunk with wine, and then with a burning pole and plunks, and after ten days reached the 
deprived him of his one eye. He now succeeded island of Ogygia, inhabited by the nymph 
in making his escape with his friends, by con- Calypso. She received him with kindness, and 
ceding himself and them under the bodies of i wished to marry him, promising immortality 




Odywcus and Tire&laa. (From u. relief of the Uoinan period, 
now In the Louvre.) 



618 



ODYSSEUS 



and eternal youth, if he would consent, and 
forget Ithaca. But his love of home was too 
strong. Athene, who had always protected 
him, induced Zeus to promise that her favourite 
hero, notwithstanding the anger of Poseidon, 
should one day return to his native island, and 
take vengeance on the suitors of Penelope. 
Hermes carried to Calypso the command of 
Zeus to dismiss Odysseus. The nymph 
obeyed, and taught him how to build a raft 
[Diet, of Ant. art. Batis], on which, after re- 
maining eight years with her, he left the 
island. In eighteen days he came in sight of 
Scheria, the island of the Phaeacians, when 
Poseidon sent a storm which cast him off the 
raft. By the assistance of Leucothea and 
Athene he reached Scheria by swimming. Here 
he slept on the shore, until he was awoke by 
the voices of maidens. He found Nausicaa, 
the daughter of king Alcinous, who conducted 
the hero to her father's court. He was there 
honoured with feasts, and the minstrel Demo- 
docus sang of the fall of Troy, which moved 
Odysseus to tears, and, being asked why he 




Odysseus and the Sirens. (From a vase in the British Museum.) 

wept, he related his whole history. At length 
he was sent home in a ship. One night as he 
had fallen asleep in his ship, it reached the 
coast of Ithaca ; the Phaeacians who had 
accompanied him carried him on shore, and 
left him. He had now been away from Ithaca 
for twenty years. During his absence his 
father Laertes, bowed down by grief and old 
age, had withdrawn into the country; his 
mother, Anticlea, had died of sorrow ; his son, 
Telemachus, had grown up to manhood, and his 
wife, Penelope, had rejected all the offers that 
had been made to her by the importunate 
suitors from the neighbouring islands. For 
the last few yeai's more than a hundred nobles 
of Ithaca, Same, Dulichium, and Zacynthus 
had been suing for the hand of Penelope, and 
in their visits to her house had treated all that 
it contained as if it had been their own. That 
Odysseus might be able to take vengeance upon 
them, it was necessary that he should not be 
recognised. Athene accordingly disguised him 
as a beggar. He was kindly received by Eu- 
maeus, the swineherd, a faithful servant of his 
house. Meanwhile his son, Telemachus, returned 
from Sparta and Pylos, whither he had gone to 



seek news of his father. Odysseus made himself 
known to him, and with him planned revenge. 
Still disguised as a beggar, he accompanied 
Telemachus and Eumaeus to the palace, where 
his dog Argus alone recognised him. The plan 
of revenge was now carried into effect. Penelope 
was persuaded to promise her hand to him who 
should conquer the others in shooting with the 
bow of Odysseus. As none of the suitors was 
able to bend this bow, Odysseus himself took it 
up and then began to attack the suitors. He 
was supported by Athene and his son, and all 
fell by his hands. He now made himself 
known to Penelope, and went to see his aged 
father. In the meantime the report of the 
death of the suitors was spread abroad, and their 
relatives rose in arms against their slayer ; but 
Athene, who assumed the appearance of Men- 
tor, brought about a reconciliation between the 
people and the king. — It has already been 
remarked that in the Homeric poems Odysseus 
is represented as a prudent, cunning, inventive, 
and eloquent man, but at the same time as a 
brave, bold, and persevering warrior, whose 
courage no misfor- 
tune or calamity 
could subdue ; but 
later poets describe 
him as deceitful, 
intriguing, and with- 
out personal cou- 
rage (Soph. Aj. 80 ; 
Verg. Aen. ii. 164 ; 
Ov. Met. xiii. 6 ff.). 
Of the close of his 
life the Homeric 
poems give no infor- 
mation, except the 
prophecy of Tiresias, 
who promised him 
a happy old ag 
in which a painless, 
death should come 
upon him ' from the 
sea.' (Od. xi. 135) ; 
but later writers 
give us different ac- 
counts. Telegonus, 
the son of Odysseus, 
by Circe, was sent 
out by his mother to 
seek his father. A storm cast him upon Ithaca, 
which he began to plunder in order to obtain 
provisions. Odysseus and Telemachus attacked 
him, but he slew Odysseus, and his body was 
afterwards carried to Aeaea. The c£ a\bs of 
the prophecy was thus interpreted to mean the 
arrival of Telegonus by sea, or the slaying of 
Odysseus by a weapon made from a fish. It is 
probable that in the original it only meant 
' away from the sea,' i.e. his wanderings being 
over. At the entreaty of the remorseful son, 
Circe made Telemachus and Penelope immor- 
tal. Telegonus was married to Penelope and 
Telemachus to Circe (see the argument, in 
Proclus, of the lost Telegonia by Eugamon ; 
cf. Diet. Cret. vi. 15 ; Hyg. Fab. 127 ; Hor. Od. 
iii. 29, 8). A Thesprotian legend made Odys- 
seus, before these events, go away to Thes- 
protia, to fight for that nation against the 
Brygians, and marry Callinice, their queen ; 
some time after which he returned to Ithaca 
and met his death there. — In works of art 
Odysseus is commonly represented as wear- 
ing a conical cap (ttiA.iSioj', pilleus), such as 
belonged to artisans (hence to Hephaestus and 
Daedalus) and to sailors (hence to Odysseus 



OEA 

and Charon). [See cut on p. 617.] It is asserted 
by Pliny (xxxv. 108) that Xicomachns, the 
painter of the fourth century B.C., was the first 
who gave Odysseus this distinguishing mark. 

Oea ('Ewu/Ptol. : Oeensis: Tripoli ? Ku.), a 
city on the N. coast of Africa, in the Regio 
Syrtica (i.e. between the Syrtes), was one of the 
three cities of the African Tripolis, and, under 
the Romans, a colony by the name of Aelia 
Augusta Felix. It had a mixed population of 
Libyans and Sicilians. ( Tac. Hist, i v. 50 ; Ptol. 
iv. 3, 12 ; Amm. Marc, xxviii. 6.) 

Oea (Ofa), a town in the island of Aegixa, 
twenty stadia from the capital. 

OeagTUS, or Oeager i OXaypos), king of Thrace, 
was the father, by the Muse Calliope, of Orpheus 
and Linus (Apollod. i. 3, 2 ; Ov. Ib. 484). Hence 
the sisters of Orpheus are called Oeagrides, in 
the sense of the Muses. The adjective Oea- 
grius is used by the poets as equivalent toThes- 
salian, Oeagrius Haemus, Oeagrius Hebrns. 

Oeanthe or Oeantbia (OiaeS??, Oldvdeia : 
Olavdevs : Galaxidhi), a town of the Locri 
Ozolae near the entrance of the Crissaean gulf 
(Thuc. hi. 101 ; Pol.iv. 57 ; Paus. x. 38, 9). 

Oeaso or Oeasso (Oyarzun), a town of the 
Vascones on the X. coast of Hispania Tarra- I 
conensis situated on a promontory of the same 
name, and on the river Magrada (Strab. p. 161). 

Oeax iOXag), son of Nauplius and Clymene, 
and brother of Palamedes and Nausimedon 
(Eur. Or. 432 ; Apollod. ii. 1 ; Palamedes). 

Oebalus (OXfiaKos). 1. Son of Cynortas, hus- I 
band of Gorgophone, and father of Tyndareus, ' 
Pirene, and Arene, was king of Sparta, where he 
was afterwards honoured with an heroum. Ac- 
cording to some he was son of Perieres and 
grandson of Cynortas, and was married to the 
nymph Batea, by whom he had several children 
(Paus.iii. 1, 5, ii. 2, 3, iv. 2,3; Apollod. ii. 10, 4). 
The patronymic Oebalides is not only applied to 
his descendants, but to the Spartans generally, as 
Hyacinthus, Castor, Pollux, &c. The feminine 
patronymic Oebalis and the adjective Oebalius 
are applied in the same way. Hence Helen is 
called by the poets Oebalis, and Oebalia pellex ; 
the city of Tarentum is termed Oebalia arx, 
because it was founded by the Lacedaemonians ; 
and since the Sabines were, according to one 
tradition, a Lacedaemonian colony, we find the 
Sabine king Titus Tatius named Oebalius Titus, 
and the Sabine women Oebalides matres. (Ov. 
Fast. i. 260, iii. 230.)— 2. Son of Telon by a 
nymph of the stream Sebethus, near Naples, 
ruled in Campania. 

Oechalla (Oi'xaAi'a : Oi'xaAieus, Oi'xa^iamjs). 
1. A town in Thessaly on the Peneus near Tricca 
(17. ii. 596, 780 ; Paus. iv. 2, 3, iv. 33, 4).— 2. A 
town in Thessaly, belonging to the territory of 
Trachis (Strab. p. 339). — 3. A town in Messenia 
on the frontier of Arcadia, identified by Pausa- j 
nias with Carnasium, by Strabo with Andania 
(Strab. pp. 339, 350, 360, 448; Paus. iv. 2, 83). 
— 4. A town of Euboea, in the district Eretria 
(Soph. Track. 74; Paus. I.e.). — The ancients 
were divided in opinion which of these places 
was the residence of Eurytus, whom Heracles 
slew. The original legend probably belonged to 
the Thessalian Oechalia, and was thence trans- 
ferred to the other towns [Heracles, p. 899, b]. 

Oedipus (Oi'SiVoi/s), son of Laius and Iocasta 
(in the Od. Epicaste) of Thebes. There is an 
allusion to Oedipus king of Thebes in the Iliad, 
but he is described as dying a violent death and 
being buried at Thebes (//. xxiii. 659). The 
outlines of his story as it afterwards prevailed, 
are known to the writer of the Odyssey, where 



OEDIPUS 



619 



there is mention of Epicaste wedding her son 
and hanging herself when the truth was known 
(Od. xi. 271), but as the banishment of Oedipus 
from Thebes is not suggested there is nothing 
in the Odyssey contradictory of the slight 
notice in the Iliad. The attack of Polynices 
upon Thebes is mentioned in 17. iv. 378. Li 
Hesiod there is no reference to the story except 
the mention of the Sphinx as the bane of 
Thebes (Th. 328), and of the war of the her«e> 
against the city who fell ' fighting for the flocks 
of Oedipus' (Op. 162). The story was more 
fully developed in later epics, the Oedipodeia, 
the Cypria and the Thebaid ; but in the first 
of the three (as cited by Paus. ix. 5, 11), the 
four children of Oedipus are not born from 
Iocasta, but by a second wife, Eurygameia. The 
Attic tragedians seem first to have introduced 
the birth of Antigone, Ismene and their two 
brothers from Iocasta to increase the tragic 
horror. Oedipus is mentioned by Pindar to ex- 
emplify an instance of reverse of fortune (07. ii. 
35 ; cf. Pyth. iv. 268). The story of Oedipus as 
it comes to us from the tragedians is as follows. 
Laius, son of Labdacus, was king of Thebes, 
and husband of Iocasta, a daughter of Menoe- 
ceus and sister of Creon. An oracle had in- 
formed Laius that he was destined to perish by 
the hands of his own son. Accordingly, when 
Iocasta gave birth to a son, they pierced his 
feet, bound them together, and exposed the 
child on Mount Cithaeron. There he was 
found by a shepherd of king Polybus of Corinth, 
and was called from his swollen feet Oedipus. 
He was carried to the palace, and the king 
and his wife Merope for Periboea) brought him 
up as their own child. Once, however, Oedi- 
pus was taunted by a Corinthian with not being 
the king's son, whereupon he proceeded to 
Delphi to consult the oracle. The oracle 
replied that he was destined to slay his father 
and commit incest with his mother. Thinking 
that Polybus was his father, he resolved not to 
return to Corinth ; but on his road between 
Delphi and Daulis he met his real father, Laius. 
Polyphontes, the charioteer of Laius, bade 
Oedipus make way for them; whereupon a 
scuffle ensued in which Oedipus slew both 
Laius and his charioteer. In the meantime 
the Sphinx had appeared in the neighbourhood 
of Thebes. Seated on a rock, she put a riddle 
to every Theban that passed by, and whoever 
was unable to solve it was killed by the monster. 
This calamity induced the Thebans to proclaim 
that whoever should deliver the country of the 
Sphinx, should be made king, and should 
receive Iocasta as his wife. Oedipus came 
forward, and when he approached the Sphinx 
she gave the riddle as follows : 'A being with 
four feet has two feet and three feet, and only 
one voice ; but its feet van - , and when it has 
most it is weakest.' Oedipus solved the riddle 
by saying that it was man, who in infancy 
crawls upon all fours, in manhood stands erect 
upon two feet, and in old uge supports his tot- 
tering legs with a staff. The Sphinx, enraged 
at the solution of the riddle, thereupon threw 
herself down from the rock. Oedipus now ob- 
tained the kingdom of Thebes, and married his 
mother, by whom he became the father of 
Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone, and Ismene. In 
consequence of this incestuous alliance, the 
country of Thebes was visited by a plague. 
The oracle ordered that the murderer of Laius 
should be expelled. Oedipus accordingly pro- 
nounced a solemn curse upon the unknown 
murderer, and declared him an exile ; but when 



620 



OEDANES 



OENOMAUS 



he endeavoured to discover him, he was told by 
the seer Tiresias that he himself was both the 
parricide and the husband of his mother. 
Ioeasta now hanged herself, and Oedipus put 
out his own eyes (Soph. Oedipus Tyra/tinus; 
Apollod. iii. 5, 8). An interval of several years 
is supposed to elapse between the events of the 
Oed. Tyr. and those of the Oed. Coloneus. From 
the allusions to what happened in this interval it 
appears that Oedipus lived on at Thebes, blind 
but not altogether unhappy, with Creon as 
regent. Then after long years the popular 
feeling began to regard his presence as a pollu- 
tion. Oedipus was banished : his sons did not 
interfere to save him, but his daughters volun- 
tarily went into exile with him : Antigone led 
him to Athens, and Ismene followed. Mean- 
time an oracle came from Delphi that the 
safety of Thebes depended on Oedipus remain- 
ing there and being buried there at his death ; 
the two sons no longer acquiesced in the rule 
of Creon and disputed the throne ; the citizens 
supported Eteocles, and Polynices was exiled. 
Creon attempted to take Oedipus by force 
back to Thebes, but Theseus gave his protection 
and to Theseus only the secret of his death and 
burial was known (Soph. Oed. Coloneus). The 
grave of Oedipus was in the precinct of the 
Eumenides on the SE. slope of the Areiopagus 
(Paus. i. 28, 7 ; Val. Max. v. 3) ; but there was 
also a chapel (rip^Sov) of Oedipus at Colonus 
(Paus. i. 30, 4). Pausanias prefers to accept 
the Homeric account of Oedipus as dying at 
Thebes, and imagines that his bones were 
removed to Athens. The Boeotian story makes 
Oedipus die at Thebes, but the Thebans re- 
fused him burial. His body was carried to 
Ceos in Boeotia, thence to the precincts of a 
sanctuary of Demeter at Eteonus, where the 
oracle declared that it might remain, and his 
tomb there was called the Oedipodeum (Schol. 
ad O. C. 91). Aristides (p. 284) speaks of his 
being buried, as a blessing to Attica, at Colonus. 
The story of Oedipus forms the subject of three 
celebrated plays of Sophocles, and was also 
taken by Aeschylus for the subject of a trilogy, of 
which tlie Septem c. Th. only remains. Seneca 
wrote a tragedy, the Oedipus, in which he fol- 
lows Sophocles closely. The chief difference 
is that Oedipus goes into voluntary exile after 
he has blinded himself. Corneille, Dryden and 
Voltaire wrote plays on the same subject. 

Oedanes. [Dyardanes.] 

Oeneon (Qlveuv : Oivewvtvs), a seaport town 
of the Locri Ozolae (Thuc. iii. 95). 

Oeneus (Oivevs), son of Portheus, husband of 
Althaea, by whom he became the father of 
Tydeus and Meleager, and was thus the grand- 
father of Diomedes. He was king of Pleuron 
and Calydon in Aetolia (II. v. 813, ix. 543, xiv. 
115). This is Homer's account ; but according 
to later authorities he was the son of Porthaon 
and Euryte, and the father of Toxeus, whom he 
killed ; also of Thyreus (Phereus), Clymenus, 
Periphas, Agelaus, Meleager, Gorge, Eury- 
mede, Melanippe, Mothone, and Deianira. 
His second wife was Melanippe, the daughter 
of Hipponous, by whom he had Tydeus accord- 
ing to some accounts, though according to 
others Tydeus was his son by his own daughter, 
Gorge. (Apollod. i. 7, 10, i. 8, 4 ; Diod. iv. 35 ; 
Ap. Rh. 192; Hyg. Fab. 14.) He is said to 
have been deprived of his kingdom by the sons 
of his brother Agrius, who imprisoned and ill 
used him. He was subsequently avenged by 
Diomedes, who slew Agrius and his sons, and 
restored the kingdom either to Oeneus himself 



or to his son-in-law Andraemon, as Oeneus was 
too old. Diomedes took his grandfather with 
him to Peloponnesus, but some of the sons, who 
lay in ambush, slew the old man, near the altar 
of Telephus in Arcadia. Diomedes buried his 
body at Argos, and named the town of Oenoe 
after him. According to others Oeneus lived to 
extreme old age with Diomedes at Argos, and 
died a natural death (Apollod. i. 8, 5 ; Ant. 
Lib. 37 ; Diod. iv. 65). Homer knows nothing 
of all this ; he merely relates that Oeneus once 
neglected to sacrifice to Artemis, in conse- 
quence of which she sent a monstrous boar 
into the territory of Calydon, which was hunted 
by Meleager. Bellerophon was hospitably en- 
tertained by Oeneus, and received from him a 
costly girdle as a present (II. vi. 216, ix. 532). 

Oeniadae (OlvidSai : Trigardon or Tri- 
khardo), an.ancient town of Acarnania, situated 
on the Achelous near its mouth, and surrounded 
by marshes caused by the overflowing of the 
river, which thus protected it from hostile 
attacks (Thuc. ii. 102). Unlike the other cities 
of Acarnania, Oeniadae espoused the cause of 
the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. At the 
time of Alexander the Great, the town was 




Coin of Oeniadae. 
Obi\, head of Zeus; rev., OINIAAAl ; head of river-god 
Achelous, partly human, partly bull. 



taken by the Aetolians, who expelled the in- 
habitants ; but the Aetolians were expelled in 
their turn by Philip V., king of Macedonia, who 
surrounded the place with strong fortifications. 
The Romans restored the towns to the Acarna- 
nians. The fortress Nesus or Nasus belonging 
to Oeniadae was situated on a small lake near 
it. (Diod. xviii. 8 ; Pol. iv. 65 ; Liv. xxxviii. 
11 ; Paus. iv. 25 ; Strab. p. 459.) 

Oenides, a patronymic from Oeneus given to 
Meleager, his son, and Diomedes, his grandson. 

Oenoanda or Oeneanda, a town of Asia 
Minor, in the district of Cabalia, subject to 
Cibyra (Strab. p. 631 ; Liv. xxxviii. 37). 

Oenobaras (Oiuofidpas), a tributary of the 
Orontes, flowing through the plain of Antioch, 
in Syria (Strab. p. 751). 

Oenoe (Olvoi) : Olvoaios). 1. A demus of 
Attica, belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, 
near Eleutherae on the frontiers of Boeotia, 
frequently mentioned in the Peloponnesian war 
(Hdt. v. 74 ; Thuc. ii. 18).— 2. A demus of 
Attica, near Marathon, belonging to the tribe 
Aiantis, and also to the Tetrapolis. — 3. A 
fortress of the Corinthians, on the Corinthian 
gulf, between the promontory Olmiae and the 
frontier of Megaris. — 4. A town in Argolis, W. 
of Argos, on the road to Blantinea. A battle 
was fought here in 388 B.C., in which the 
Argives and Athenians defeated the Lacedae- 
monians (Paus. i. 15, 1, ii. 15, 2, x. 10, 4). — 5. 
A town in Elis, near the mouth of the Selleis. 
— 6. A town in the island Icarus or Icaria. 

Oenomaus (Olu6fj.aos). 1. King of Pisa in 
Elis, was son of Ares and Harpinna, the 
daughter of Asopus, and husband of the Pleiad 
Sterope, by whom he became the father of 
Hippodamia (Apollod. iii. 10, 1 ; Paus. v. 10, 2, 



OENONE 



OETA 



621 



vi. 21, 6). An oracle had declared that he should 
perish by the hands of his son-in-law ; and as 
his horses were swifter than those of any other 
mortal, he declared that all who came forward 
as suitors for Hippodaniia's hand should con- 
tend with him in the chariot-race, that whoever 
conquered should receive her, and that whoever 
was conquered should suffer death. The race- 
course extended from Pisa to the altar of 
Poseidon, on the Corinthian isthmus. The 
suitor started with Hippodamia in a chariot, 
and Oenomaus then hastened with his swift 
horses after the lovers. He had overtaken and 
slain many a suitor, when Pelops, the son of 
Tantalus, came to Pisa. Pelops bribed Myrti- 
lus, the charioteer of Oenomaus, to take out 
the linch-pins from the wheels of his master's 
chariot, and he received from Poseidon a 
golden chariot and swift horses. In the race 
which followed, the chariot of Oenomaus broke 
down, and he fell out and was killed. Thus 
Pelops obtained Hippodamia and the kingdom 
of Pisa. (Soph. El. 504 ; Paus. vi. 21 ; Diod. 
iv. 73 ; Hyg. 1. c. ; Schol. ad Ap. Rh. i. 752 ; ad 
Pind. 01. i. 114 ; Ov. Ib. 365.) There are some 
variations in this story, such as, that Oeno- 
maus was himself in love with his daughter, 
and for this reason slew her lovers (Tzetz. ad 
Lyc. 156; Hyg. Fab. 253). Myrtilus also is 
said to have loved Hippodamia, and as she 
favoured the suit of Pelops, she persuaded 
Myrtilus to take the linch pins out of the 
wheels of her father's chariot. As Oenomaus 
was breathing his last he pronounced a curse 
upon Myrtilus. This curse had its desired 
effect, for as Pelops refused to give to Myrtilus 
the reward he had promised, or as Myrtilus had 
attempted to dishonour Hippodamia, Pelops 
thrust him down from Cape Geraestus. Myr- 
tilus, while dying, likewise pronounced a curse 
upon Pelops, which was the cause of all the 
calamities that afterwards befell his house. 
[Pelops.] The tomb of Oenomaus was shown 
on the river Cladeus in Elis. His house was 
destroyed by lightning, and only one pillar of it 
remained standing (Paus. v. 20, 3, vi. 21, 3). — 
2. Of Gadara, a Cynic philosopher, who flour- 
ished in the reign of Hadrian, or somewhat 
later, but before Porphyry. He wrote a work 
to expose the oracles. Considerable fragments 
are preserved by Eusebius (Praep.Ev. v. 18, vi. 
7). — 3. A tragic poet. [Diogenes, No. 5.] 

Oenone (Olvtivr)), daughter of the river-god 
Cebren, and wife of Paris, before he carried off 
Helen. [Paris.] 

Oenone or Oenopja, the ancient name of 
Aegina. 

Oenophyta (t£ Olv&tyvra: Inia), a town in 
Boeotia, on the left bank of the Asopus, and on 
the road from Tanagra to Oropus, memorable 
for the victory gained by the Athenians over 
the Boeotians, B.C. 456 (Tliuc. i. 108, iv. 95). 

Oenopides (OiVo7ri'87js) of Chios, a distin- 
guished astronomer and mathematician, per- 
haps a contemporary of Anaxagoras. Oeno- 
pides derived most of his astronomical know- 
ledge from the priests and astronomers of 
Egypt, with whom he lived for some time. He 
obtained from this source his knowledge of the 
obliquity of the ecliptic, the discovery of which 
he is said to have claimed. The length of the 
solar year was fixed by Oenopides at 365 days 
and somewhat less than nine hours. He is said 
to have discovered the 12th and 28rd proposi- 
tions of the 1st book of Euclid, and the quad- 
rature of the meniscus. (Diod. i. 98 ; Ael. V. H. 
x. 7 ; Censorin. 19.) 



Oenopion {Olvoirluv), son of Dionysus aud 
I husband of the nymph Helice, by whom he 
J became the father of Thalus, Euanthes, Melas, 
Salagus, Athamas, and Merope, Aerope or 
Haero. Some writers call Oenopion a son of 
; Rhadamanthus by Ariadne, and a brother of 
■ Staphylus. From Crete he migrated with his 
[ sons to Chios, which Ehadamanthus had assigned 
to him as his habitation. (Paus. vii. 4, 6; Diod. 
v. 79 ; Schol. ad Ap. Eh. iii. 895. 1 When he was 
king of Chios, the giant Orion sued for the hand 
of his daughter Merope. As Oenopion refused, 
Orion violated Merope, whereupon Oenopion put 
out his eyes, and expelled him from the island. 
Orion went to Lemnos; he was afterwards 
cured of his blindness, and returned to Chios 
to take vengeance on Oenopion. But the 
latter was not to be found in Chios, for his 
friends had concealed him in the earth, so that 
Orion, unable to discover him, went to Crete. 
(Apollod. i. 4, 3 ; Hyg. Astr. ii. 34 ; Orion.) 
Oenotri, Oenotria. [Italia.] 
Oenotrides, two islands in the Tyrrhene sea, 
off the coast of Lucania, and opposite the town 
of Elea or Velia (Strab. p. 252 ; Plin. iii. 85). 
Oenotropae. [Anils.] 

Oenotrus (Olvwrpos), youngest son of Lycaon, 
according to tradition, emigrated with a colony 
from Arcadia to Italy, and gave the name of 
Oenotria to the district in which he settled 
iPaus. viii. 3, 5; Verg. Aen. i. 532, iii. 165, vii. 
85; Strab. p. 253). [For the probable origin 
of the name Oenotria, see p. 453, a.] 

Oenus (OiVoOs : Kelesina), a river in Laconia, 
flowing into the Eurotas, N. of Sparta. There 
was a town of the same name upon this river, 
celebrated for its wine. (Pol. ii. 65 ; Liv. xxxiv. 
28 ; Athen. p. 31.) 

Oenussae (Olvovtrcrai, Oiuovcrai). 1. A group 
of islands lying off the S. point of Messenia, 
opposite to the port of Phoenicus : the two- 
largest of them are now called Sapienza and 
Cabrera (Plin. iv. 55). — 2. (Spahnadori or 
Ef/oniises, a group of five islands between 
Chios and the coast of Asia Minor (Hdt. i. 165 ; 
Time. viii. 24). 

Oeonus fOiWds), son of Licymnius of Midea 
in Argolis, first victor at Olympia, in the foot- 
race, was killed at Sparta by the sons of 
I Hippocoon, but was avenged by Heracles, whose 
j kinsman he was. He was honoured with a 
monument near the temple of Heracles. (Pind. 
i 01. xi. 66; Apollod. ii. 7, 3 ; Paus. iii. 15.) 
t Oeroe {'nepori), a stream which flows into the 
! Corinthian gulf at Creusis. It rises in Cithae- 
ron, and passes near Plataeae. (Paus. ix. 4, 3.) 
Oescus (Isker or EsJcer) called Osclus 

("Oaxios) by Thucydides, and Scius (2ki'os) by 
Herodotus, a river in Moesia, which rises in Mt. 
Scomius according to Thucydides,but in reality 
on the W. slope of Mt. Haemus, and flows into 
| the Danube near a town of the same name 
(Oreszovitz). (Hdt. iv. 49; Thuc. ii. 90.) 

Oesyma (OiVu/urj: OiVu^aTos) called Aesyma 
(Aiav/xri) by Homer (27. viii. 304), a town in 
Thrace between the Strymon and the Nestus, 
a colony of the Thasians (Thuc. iv. 107). 

Oeta (Oittj, raOiraioiv oCpea : Kntavuthra), 
a rugged pile of mountains in the S. of Thes- 
saly, an eastern branch of Mt. Pindus, extended 
S. of Mt. Othrys along the S. bank of the Sper- 
chius to the Maliac gulf at Thermopylae, thus 
forming the N. barrier of Greece. Strabo and 
Livy give the name of Callidromus to tin- 
eastern part of Oeta, an appellation which does 
not occur in Herodotus ami the earlier writer .. 
Respecting the pass of Mt. Oeta, see TiTEflHO- 



622 



OETYLUS 



OLEN 



pylae. Oeta was celebrated in mythology as 
the mountain on which Heracles was burnt [p. 
400]. From this mountain the S. of Thessaly 
towards Phocis was called Oetaea (Olraia) and 
its inhabitants Oetaei (Oiraioi). (Hdt. vii. 217 ; 
Thuc. iii. 92 ; Strab. p. 428 ; Liv. xxxvi. 15.) 

Oetylus (OfovAos : OfrvMos : Vitylo), also 
called Tylus (TuAos), an ancient town in La- 
conia, on the Messenian gulf, S. of Thalania, 
called after an Argive hero of this name (II. 
ii. 585; Strab. p. 360; Paus. iii. 21, 7). 

Ofella, a man of sound sense and of a straight- 
forward character, whom Horace contrasts with 
the Stoic quacks of his time (Sat. ii. 2, 3>). 

Ofella, Q. Lucretius, originally belonged to 
the Marian party, but deserted to Sulla, who 
appointed him to the command of the army 
employed in the blockade of Praeneste, B.C. 82. 
Ofella became a candidate for the consulship 
in the following year, although he had not yet 
been either quaestor or praetor, thus acting in 
defiance of one of Sulla's laws. He was in 
consequence put to death by Sulla's orders. 
{Dio Cass, xxxiv. 134 ; App. B.C. i. 88, 101 ; 
Plut. Sull. 29, 33 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 27.) 

Ofilius, a distinguished Roman jurist, was 
one of the pupils of Servius Sulpicius, and a 
friend of Cicero and Caesar (Cic. ad Ait. xiii. 
37, ad Fam. vii. 21). His works are often cited 
in the Digest. 

Oglasa (Monte Cristo), a small island off the 
coast of Etruria (Plin. iii. 80). 

Ogulnii, Q. and Cn., two brothers, tribunes 
of the plebs, B.C. 300, carried a law by which the 
number of the pontiffs was increased, from four 
to eight, and that of the augurs from four to 
nine, and which enacted that four of the pon- 
tiffs and five of the augurs should be taken 
from the plebs (Liv. x. 6-9). Q. Ogulnius was 
sent to Epidaurus B.C. 293 to bring Asclepius 
to Rome [p. 121, b]. 

Ogygia ('nyvy'ta), the mythical island of Ca- 
lypso, is placed by Homer in the navel or central 
point of the sea, far away from all lands. Later 
writers placed it in the Ionian sea, near the pro- 
montory of Lacinium, in Bruttium, or in the 
island of Gozo. (Od. i. 50, v. 55, 268, xii. 448 ; 
Strab. pp. 44, 299 ; Plin. iii. 96.) 

OgygUS or Ogyges (?CLyvyr)s), sometimes 
called a Boeotian autochthon, and sometimes 
son of Boeotus, and king of the Hectenes, is 
said to have been the first ruler of the territory 
of Thebes, which was called after him Ogygia. 
In his reign the waters of lake Copais rose above 
its banks, and inundated the whole valley of 
Boeotia. This flood is usually called after him 
the Ogygian. (Paus. ix. 5, 1 ; Ap. Rh. iii. 1177 ; 
Serv. ad Eel. vi. 41.) The name of Ogyges is 
also connected with Attic story, for in Attica 
an Ogygian flood, borrowed, apparently, from 
Thessalian tradition, is likewise mentioned, 
and he is described as the father of the Attic 
hero Eleusis and as the father of Daira, the 
daughter of Oceanus. In the Boeotian tradi- 
tion he was the father of Alalcomenia, Thelxi- 
noea, and Aulis. (Paus. i. 38, 7, ix. 33, 4 ; 
Strab. p. 384.) Bacchus is called Ogygius 
deus, because he was born at Thebes. 

Ogyris Cdyupis), an island of the Erythrean 
Sea (Indian Ocean), off the coast of Carmania, 
at a distance of 2000 stadia, noted as the alleged 
burial-place of the ancient king Erythras (Strab. 
p. 766 ; Mel. iii. 8, 6). 

O'icles or Oicleus ('Oi'/cAijs, 'Oi'/cAeus), son of 
Antiphates, grandson of Melampus and father 
of Amphiaraus, of Argos. He is also called a 
son of Amphiaraus or a son of Mantius, the 



brother of Antiphates. Oicles accompanied 
Heracles on his expedition against Laomedon 
of Troy, and was there slain in battle. Accord- 
ing to other traditions he returned home from 
the expedition, and dwelt in Arcadia, where he 
was visited by his grandson Alcmaeon, and 
where his tomb was shown. (Od. xv. 241 ; 
Diod. iv. 32 ; Apollod. ii. 6, 4 ; Paus. viii. 36, 4.) 

Oileus ('Oi'Aeus), son of Hodoedocus and Lao- 
nome, grandson of Cynus, and great-grandson 
of Opus, was a king of the Locrians, and mar- 
ried to Eriopis, by whom he became the father 
of Ajax, who is hence called Oilldes, Oiliades, 
and Ajax O'ilei. Oileus was the father of 
Medon by Rhene, and is mentioned among the 
Argonauts. (II. ii. 527, xiii. 697, 712 ; Ap. Rh. 
i. 74.) 

Olba or Olbe ("OA^St? : Uzendjaburdj), an 
ancient inland city of Cilicia, in the mountains 
above Soloe, and between the rivers Lamus 
and Calycadnus. Its foundation was ascribed 
to Ajax the son of Teucer, whose descendants, 
the priests of the ancient temple of Zeus, once 
ruled over all Cilicia Aspera (Strab. p. 672.). In 
later times it belonged to Isauria, and was 
the see of a bishop, and its name appears as 
OropL 

Olbasa (*'OA/3a<ra), a city in Pisidia, on the 
road from Seleucia to Laranda, N. of Lagoe 
and NW. of Isionda (Ptol. v. 5, 8). 

Olbe. [Olba.] 

Olbia ('OA/3i'a). 1. (Eoubes, near Hyeres), 
a colony of Massilia, on the coast of Gallia 
Narbonensis, on a hill called Olbianus, E. 
of Telo Martius (Toulon). (Strab. pp. 180, 
184.) — 2. (Terra Nova) a very ancient city, 
near the N. end of the E. side of the island 
of Sardinia, with the only good harbour 
on this coast, and therefore the usual land- 
ing-place for persons coming from Rome. A 
mythical tradition ascribes its foundation to the 
Thespiadae. (Paus. x. 17, 5 ; Diod. iv. 29 ; Cic. 
ad Q. Fr. ii. 3, 6 ; Claud. B. Gild. 519.)— 3. In 
Bithynia [Astacus.] The gulf of Astacus was 
also called from it Sinus Olbianus. — 4. A for- 
tress on the frontier of Pamphylia, on the coast, 
west of Attalia. — 5. [Bokysthenes.] 

Olcades, an ancient people in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, N. of Carthago Nova, near the 
sources of the Anas, in a part of the country 
afterwards inhabited by the Oretani. Hannibal 
transplanted some of the Olcades to Africa. 
Their chief town was Althaea. (Pol. iii. 14 ; 
Liv. xxi. 5.) 

Olcinium (Olciniatae : Dulcigno), an ancient 
town on the coast of Illyria, SW. of Scodra, 
belonging to the territory of Gentius (Ptol. ii. 
17, 5 ; Liv. xlv. 20). 

Olearus. [Oliarus.] 

Oleastrum. 1. A town of the Cosetani, in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Der- 
tosa to Tarraco, probably the place from which 
the plumbum Oleastrense derived its name 
(Plin. xxxiv. 164 ; Itin.). — 2. A town in His- 
pania Baetica, near Gades (Plin. iii. 15). 

Olen ('n.hijv), a mythical personage, said to 
be a Lycian, who is represented as the earliest 
Greek lyric poet, and the first author of sacred 
hymns in hexameter verse. He is closely con- 
nected with the worship of Apollo, of whom, in 
one legend, he was made the prophet, and the 
hymns sung at Delos from time immemorial 
were ascribed to him. His connexion with 
Apollo is also marked by his being called Hy- 
perborean. [See p. 434, b.] Of the hymns 
which went under his name Pausanias mentions 
those to Here, to Achaeia, and to Hithyia ; the 



OLENUS 

last was in celebration of the birth, of Apollo and 
Artemis. (Hdt. iv. 35 ; Paus. i. 18, 5, ii. 13, 3, 
v. 7, 8, ix. 27, 2, x. 7, 8; Callim. Del. 304.) 

Olenus ("nXevos : 'nxiuios). 1. An ancient 
town in Aetolia, near New Pleuron, and at the 
foot of Mt. Aracynthus, is mentioned by Homer, 
but was destroyed by the Aetolians at an early 
period. (II. ii. 638 ; Strab. pp. 451, 460.)— 2. A 
town in Achaia, between Patrae and Dyme, 
refused to join the Achaean League on its 
restoration, in B.C. 280. In the time of Strabo 
the town was deserted. (Strab. pp. 384, 386, 
388 ; Paus. vii. 18, 22.) 

Olenus ("nxwos), son of Hephaestus and 
father of the nymphs Aege and Helice, who 
brought up Zeus. Aege being really identical 
with Amalthea, the epithet Olenia Capella is 
given to the goat Ajialthea. (Hyg. Astr. 13.) 

Olgassys ('OXyaaavs : Al-GezDagh), a lofty, 
steep, and rugged mountain chain of Asia 
Minor, extending nearly W. and E. through the 
E. of Bithynia, and the centre of Paphlagonia 
to the river Halys, nearly parallel to the chain 
of Olympus, of which it may be considered as a 
branch. Numerous temples were built upon it 
by the Paphlagonians. (Strab. p. 562.) 

Oliarus or Olearus ('nxlapos, nxeapos : 'nxid- 
ptos : Antiparos), a small island in the Aeg- 
aean sea, one of the Cyclades, "W. of Paros, 
colonised by the Phoenicians, is celebrated in 
modern times for its stalactite grotto, which is 
not mentioned by ancient writers (Strab. p. 
485 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 126). 

Oligyrtus ('OXiyvpros), a fortress in the NE. 
of Arcadia on a mountain of the same name 
(Pol. iy. 11, 70). 

Olislpo (Lisbon), a town in Lusitania, on the 
right bank of the Tagus near its mouth, and a 
Roman municipium with the surname Felicitas 
Julia. It was celebrated for its swift horses. 
(Plin. iv. 113, viii. 166 ; Varr. JR. B. ii. 1, 19 ; 
Col. vi. 27.) Its name is sometimes written 
TJlyssippo (Mel. iii. 1, 6), because it was sup- 
posed to be the town which Ulysses founded 
in Spain ; but the town to which this legend 
referred was in the mountains of Turdetania. 
[Odyssea.] 

Olizon ('OXi(wv), a town of Thessaly, on the 
Pagasaean gulf (II. ii. 717 ; Strab. p. 436). 

OlllUB (Oglio), a river in Gallia Transpadana, 
falls into the Po (Plin. iii. 118). 

Olmlae COX/jLial), a promontory in the terri- 
tory of Corinth, which separated the Corinthian 
and Alcyonian gulfs (Strab. p. 380;. 

Oloosson ('OXooixawv : 'OXoo(T<t6vios : Elas- 
sona), a town of the Perrhaebi in Thessaly, in 
the district of Hestiaeotis. Homer (II. ii. 730) 
calls it ' white,' an epithet whicli it obtained, 
according to Strabo, from the whiteness of its 
soil. (Strab. p. 440; Procop. Aed. iv. 14.) 

Olophernes ('OXotytpv-nsu sometimes called 
Holophernes. 1. Son of Ariamncs and father 
of Ariarathes L, king of Cappadocia. — 2. Sup- 
posititious son of Ariarathes IV., got possession 
of the kingdom of Cappadocia for a time in B.C. 
157, and ruled oppressively (Ptol. xxxii. 20 ; 
Ann. Syr. 47 ; Diod. Eel. 3). 

Olorus ("OAopos). 1. King of Thrace, whose 
daughter married Mii.tiades. — 2. Apparently 
grandson of the above, and father of Thucy- 
dides (Thuc. iv. 104). 

Olophyxus ('Ox6cpv£os : 'O\o<pi(ios), a town 
of Macedonia, on the peninsula of Mt. Athos 
(Thuc. iv. 109; Hdt. vii. 22; Strab. p. 381). 

Olpae or Olpe COAirai, 'OXiri) : 'OAiraibi). 1. 
(Arapi), a town of the Amphilochi in Acurnania, 
on tho Ambracian gulf, NW. of Argos Amphi- 



OLYMPIA 



626 



I lochicum (Thuc. i. 107-113).— 2. A town of 

I the Locri Ozolae (Thuc. iii. 101). 

Olurus ("OXovpos . 'OXovptos). 1. A town in 

| Achaia, near Pellene, on the Sicyonian frontier 

! (Xen. Hell. vii. 4, 17).— 2. Also Oluris ("OXovpts), 
called Dorium (Adpiov) by Homer, a town in 
Messenia (II. ii. 594 ; Strab. p. 350). 

Olus ('OXovs : 'OXovvtios), a town and harbour 
on the E. coast of Crete, near the promontory 
of Zephyrium (Paus. ix. 40, 3 ; Ptol. iii. 17, 5). 

Olybrms, Anicius, Roman emperor a.d. 472, 
was raised to this dignity by Ricimer, who 
deposed Anthemius. He died in the course of 
the same year, after a reign of 3 months and 
13 days. His successor was Glycerius. 

Olympene, and Olympeni, or Olympieni 
( 'OXvfiTrqvi], 'OXv/j.tv7)uoI, 'OXvfiTnj]vo'i), the 
names of the district about the Mysian Olympus, 
and of its inhabitants (Strab. pp. 571, 576). 
Olympia ('OXvfnr'ia) the name of a small 

! plain in Elis, in which the Olympic games 
were celebrated. It was surrounded on the N. 
and NE. by the hill Cronus or Cronius, on the 
S. by the river Alpheus, and on the W. by the 
river Cladeus. In this plain was the sacred 
precinct of Zeus, called Altis ("AXtis, an old 
Elean form of &X<ros\, originally, no doubt, as 
its name signified, a sacred grove. This great 
enclosure, surrounded by a wall, was 750 feet 
long by 550 broad, stretching on the north up to 
the base of the hill Cronus, and situated at the 
angle formed by the confluence of the rivers 
Alpheus and Cladeus, 300 stadia distant from 
the town of Pisa. The Altis with its temples 
and statues and the public buildings in the im- 
mediate neighbourhood formed what was called 
Olympia ; but there was no town of this name. 
Since the beginning of the German excavations 
in 1875, it has become possible to trace the 
ground plans of nearly all the buildings as they 
were described by Pausanias (book vi.) ; and 
this alone, apart from the sculptures which have 
been recovered, has made the undertaking one 
of the highest interest and the results of the 
greatest archaeological value. Nearly the cen- 
tral point of the enclosure of the Altis was the 
great altar of Zeus, a large elliptical base of 
undressed stone, above which are layers of ashes 
of the victims. To the SW. of the altar is the 
great temple of Zeus, the plan of which is per- 
fectly established by the excavations. The 
foundations are complete, and many of the 
columns, overthrown by earthquakes, lie beside 
their bases. The temple was begun by the 
architect Libon of Elis in the sixth century B.C., 
and completed in the middle of the fifth cen- 
tury. It is a Doric peripteros (i.e. having a single 
row of columns both at the sides and ends), 
with six columns at each end (' hexastyle ') and 
thirteen at the sides. So much of the sculptures 
of the pediments and metopes has been dis- 
covered that they ran be fairly reconstructed. 
The S. pediment, ascribed by Pausanias to 
Paeonius, represents the chariot race between 
Pelops and Oenomaus ; the W. pediment, 
ascribed to Alcamenes, represents the fight of 
Centaurs and Lapithae. The labours of Heracles 
form the subject of the metopes. In the temple 
stood originally the great statue of the Olympian 

| Zens in gold and ivory by Phidias. Prominent 
among the statues in front of the temple through 
which the processions passed to reach the 
temple itself, and of which in many cases the 
inscribed verseH remain, were the Eretrian bull 
by Philesias to the NR., and the great statue of 
Nike by Paeonius to the SE. ThiB famous statue 
which, towered above those who approached 



624 



OLYMPIA 



the temple has been in part recovered. [Paeo- I mained such to the end; others were restored in 
Nius]. To the N. of the temple of Zeus was stone. The statue of Zeus by Phidias, the chief 
the sanctuary of Pelops, a grove with a ter- glory of the great temple, has perished, but 
raced wall and a chapel within it, of which i the chief ornament of the Heraeum, the Hermes 
some remains of masonry survive. NW. of the by Praxiteles, was found in situ, and is now 
Pelopion is the circular Philippeum, built by in the museum of Olympia [Praxiteles]. 
Philip of Macedon after the battle of Chaeronea; | The Prytaneumj altered at various periods,. 




and immediately N. of the Pelopion is the 
Heraeum or temple of Hera. This seems to 
be the most ancient temple at Olympia. Its 
plan is like that of the temple of Zeus, though 
it is much smaller as well as older. It has, 
however, sixteen columns at the sides. The 
columns were originally wooden : some re- 



stood NW. of the Heraeum; the plan can be 
partially reconstructed from the scanty remains. 
In it the Olympian victors were entertained. 
Very little remains of the Metroon or temple of 
the Mother of the Gods, to the E. of the 
Heraeum ; still further east are yet the bases 
of the statues of Zeus (called Zanes) erected 



OLYMPIAS 



OLYMPUS 



625 



from the proceeds of fines for breaches of rules ; 
and N. of these is the long line of Treasuries, 
twelve in number, belonging to various Greek 
states, built like miniature temples, in which 
were stored offerings of the different states and 
equipment for the games. The eastern front of 
the Altis was the great entrance Portico called 
the ' Echo Colonnade,' affording shelter to the 
spectators, built in the Macedonian period on 
the site of an older portico : the foundations of 
both can be distinguished. The sanctuary of 
Hippodamia seems to have stood in the SE. 
corner of the Altis. To the S. of the Altis is 
the Bouleuterium or senate-house, in which were 
the altars and statues of Zeus Horkios, before 
which the combatants took a solemn oath that 
they would observe the rules of the games. The 
oldest part of the Bouleuterium is an oblong 
hall of the sixth century with an apse to the 
west : a corresponding hall was built later 
parallel with it, and the two were afterwards 
connected by a square building. Later still and 
of the Roman period is the portico which fronts 
them. The other important buildings outside 
the Altis are the great Palaestra on the west 
(of which the ground plan is traceable) adjoining 
the Gymnasium, where those who aspired to con- 
tend went through a month's training before- 
hand. To the south another gymnasium has 
been discovered. Outside the NE. corner of 
the Altis was the Stadium, communicating with 
it by a covered way [Diet, of Ant. art. Stadium]. 
To the SE. of this was the Hippodrome. Outside 
the SW. corner are the remains of the building 
erected by Leonidas of Elis in the fourth 
century B.C., and enlarged in the Roman period. 
Near this the foundations of the heroum of 
Iamus have been found and the altar used in 
divination by the Iamidae. The Byzantine 
church, of which the remains are between the 
Leonideum and the Palaestra, was built over or 
adjoining older buildings whicli were possibly 
priests' houses. [For an account of the Olympic 
games, see Diet, of Antiq. art. Olympia, Hippo- 
dromes, Pancratium, Pentathlon.] 

Olympias ('OAi/^TnisI, wife of Philip II., king 
of Macedonia, and mother of Alexander the 
Great, was the daughter of Neoptolemus I., 
king of Epirus. She was married to Philip B.C. 
359. (Just. vii. 6, 10 ; Plut. Alex. 2; Diod. xix. 
51.) The numerous amours of Philip, and the 
passionate and jealous character of Olympias 
occasioned frequent disputes between them ; 
and when Philip married Cleopatra, the niece 
of Attalus (337), Olympias withdrew from Mace- 
donia, and took refuge at the court of her brother 
Alexander, king of Epirus. It was generally 
believed that she lent her support to the assas- 
sination of Philip, 336 ; but it is hardly credible 
that she evinced her approbation of that deed 
in the open manner asserted by some writers. 
(Just. ix. 5, 7 ; Plut. AUx. 9, 19 ; Athen. p. 557.) 
After the death of Philip she returned to Mace- 
donia, where she enjoyed great influence through 
the affection of Alexander. On the death of the 
latter (823), she withdrew from Macedonia, 
where her enemy Antipater had the undisputed 
control of affairs, and took refuge in Epirus. 
Here she continued to live, as it were, in exile, 
until the death of Antipater (319) presented a 
new opening to her ambition. She gave her 
support to the new regent, Polysperchon, in 
opposition to Cassander, who had formed an 
alliance with Eurydice the wife of Philip Arrhi- 
daeus, the nominal king of Macedonia. (Diod. 
xviii. 49-66.) In 317 Olympias, resolving to ob- 
tain the supreme power in Macedonia, invaded 



that country, along with Polysperehon, de- 
feated Eurydice in battle, and put both her and 
her husband to death. Olympias followed up 
her vengeance by the execution of Nicanor, the 
brother of Cassander, as well as of 100 of his 
leading partisans among the Macedonian nobles. 
Cassander, who was at that time in the Pelo- 
ponnesus, hastened to turn his arms against 
Macedonia. Olympias on his approach threw 
herself (together with Roxana and the young 
Alexander) into Pydna, where she was closely 
blockaded by Cassander throughout the winter. 
At length in the spring of 316, she was com- 
pelled to surrender to Cassander, who caused 
her to be put to death. (Diod. xix. 11-51 ; Just, 
xiv. 5, 6 ; Paus. ix. 7, 2.) Olympias was not 
without something of the grandeur and loftiness 
of spirit which distinguished her son, but her 
ungovernable passions led her to acts of sangui- 
nary cruelty that disgrace her name. 

Olympieum. [Athenae, p. 143.] 

Olympiodorus CO\v/j.Tri6Suipos). 1. A native 
of Thebes in Egypt, who lived in the fifth cen- 
tury after Christ. He wrote a work in twenty- 
two books (entitled 'laropiKol \6yoi), which 
comprised the history of the Western empire 
under the reign of Honorius, from A. D. 407 to 
October a.d. 425. Olympiodorus took up the 
history from about the point at which Eunapius 
had ended. [Eunapius.] The original work of 
Olympiodorus is lost, but an abridgment of it 
has been preserved by Photius. After the death 
of Honorius, Olympiodorus removed to Byzan- 
tium, to the court of the emperor Theodosius. 
Hieroeles dedicated to this Olympiodorus his 
work on Providence and Fate [Hierocles]. — 2. 
A Peripatetic philosopher, who taught at Alex- 
andria, where Pkoclus was one of his pupils. — 3 
The last philosopher of celebrity in the Neo- 
Platonic school of Alexandria. He lived in the 
first half of the sixth century after Christ, in 
the reign of the emperor Justinian. His Life ot 
Plato and commentaries on several of Plato's- 
dialogues are still extant. — 4. An Aristotelian 
philosopher, the author of a commentary on the 
Meteoroloyica of Aristotle, which is still ex- 
, tant, lived at Alexandria, in the latter half of 
1 the sixth century after Christ. Like Simplicius, 
to whom, however, he is inferior, he endeavours 
to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. — 5. An Athe- 
nian general, who opposed Cassander's attempts 
upon Athens, B.C. 298. In 288 he expelled the 
Macedonian troops of Demetrius from Athens. 
(Paus. i. 25, 2, i. 29, 13, x. 18, 7, x. 34. 3.) 

Olymplus fOAiWios), the Olympian, occurs 
as a surname of Zeus, and in general of all the 
gods who lived in Olympus, in contradistinction 
to the gods of the lower world. 

Olympias Nemesianus. [Nemesianus.] 

Olympus I'OAujtnros), the name of two Greek 
musicians, of whom one is mythical, and the 
other historical. — 1. The elder Olympus belongs 

I to the mythical genealogy of Mysian and Phry- 
gian fluteplayers — Hyagnis, Marsyas, Olympus 
— to each of whom the invention of the flute 

| was ascribed, under whose names we have the 
mythical representation of the rivalry between 
the Phrygian uuletic music, used in the worship 

l of Cybele, and the Greek citharoedic music-. 

( Olympus was said to have been a native of 

1 Mysia, and to have lived before the Trojan war. 
Olympus not unfrequently appears on works of 
art as a boy, sometimes instructed by Marsyas, 
and sometimes as witnessing and lumenting his 
fate. (Apollod. i. 4, 2 ; Hyg. Fab. 165, 273 ; Ov. 

; Met. vi. 893 ; Suid. s. v.)— 2. The true Olympus 

I was a Phrygian, and perhaps belonged to h 

S S 



62G 



OLYMPUS 



OMBI 



family of native musicians, since he was said to 
be descended from the first Olympus. He 
flourished about B. c. 660-620. Though a Phry- 
gian, Olympus must be reckoned among the 
Greek musicians, for all the accounts make 
Greece the scene of his artistic activity; and 
he may be considered as having naturalised in 
Greece the music of the flute, previously almost 
peculiar to Phrygia. (Plut. de Mus. pp. 1133- 
1140.) 

Olympus ("OKv/xiros). 1. (Grk. Elymbo, 
Turk. Semavat-Evi, i.e. Abode of the Celes- 
tials). The E. part of the great chain of 
mountains which extends W. and E. from the 
Acroceraunian promontory on the Adriatic to 
the Thermaic Gulf, and which formed the N. 
boundary of ancient Greece proper. In a wide 
sense, the name is sometimes applied to all that 
part of this chain which lies E. of the central 
range of Pindus, and which is usually called 
the Cambunian mountains ; but strictly speak- 
ing Mount Olympus is the extreme E. part of 
the chain, which, striking off from the Cam- 
bunian mountains to the SE., skirts the S, end 
of the slip of coast called Pieria, and forms at 
its termination the N. wall of the vale of Tempe. 
Its shape is that of a blunt cone, with its outline 
picturesquely broken by minor summits ; its 
height is about 9700 feet, and its chief summit 
is covered with perpetual snow. From its posi- 
tion as the boundary between Thessaly and 
Macedonia, it is sometimes reckoned in the 
former, sometimes in the latter (Hdt. vii. 128 ; 
Strab. p. 329). — In the Greek mythology, Olym- 
pus was the chief seat of the third dynasty of 
gods, of which Zeus was the head. It was a 
really local conception with the early poets, to 
be understood literally, that the gods dwelt on 
Olympus. Even the fable of the giants scaling 
heaven must be understood in this sense ; not 
that they placed Pelion and Ossa upon the top 
of Olympus to reach the still higher heaven, but 
that they piled Pelion on the top of Ossa, and 
both on the lower slopes of Olympus, to scale 
the summit of Olympus itself, the abode of the 
gods. Homer describes the gods as having 
their several palaces on Olympus (II. xi. 76 ; cf. 
Hes. Th. 62) ; on the summit is the council- 
chamber, where they meet in solemn conclave 
(II. viii. 3) ; the Muses entertain them with the 
lyre and song. They are shut in from the view 
of men upon the earth by a wall of clouds, the 
gates of which are kept by the Hours (II. v. 749, 
viii. 393). In the Odyssey it is described as a 
peaceful abode unshaken by storms (Od.vi.O). 
The same conceptions are found in Hesiod, and 
to a great extent in the later poets ; with whom, 
however, even as early as the lyric poets and the 
tragedians, the idea becomes less material, and 
the real abode of the gods is gradually trans- 
ferred from the summit of Olympus to the vault 
of heaven (i.e. the sky) itself. Since locally the 
same idea attached to certain other high moun- 
tains, the same name was given to them. Thus 
Lycaeus in Arcadia was sometimes called 
Olympus (Paus. viii. 38, 2), and especially this 
was the case with 2. The Mysian Olympus 
("O\v/j.iros 6 Mucrios : Keshish Dagh, Ala Dagh, 
IshiJc Dagh, and Eush Dagh), a ch^in of lofty 
mountains in the HW. of Asia Minor, forming, 
with Ida, the W. part of the northernmost line of 
the mountain system of that peninsula. It ex- 
tends from W. to E. through the NE. of Mysia 
and the SW. of Bithynia, and thence, inclining 
a little northwards, it first passes through the 
centre of Bithynia, then forms the boundary 
between Bithynia and Galatia, and then extends 



through the S. of Paphlagonia to the river Halys. 
Beyond the Halys, the mountains in the N. of 
Pontus form a continuation of the chain. (Strab. 
p. 574 ; Hdt. i. 36, vii. 74.)— 3. (Yanar Dagh), 
a volcano on the E. coast of Lycia, above the 
city of Phoenicus (Yanar). The names of the 
mountain and of the city are often interchanged. 
[Phoenicus.] — There were two mountains of the 
same name in Cyprus, and one in Lesbos. 

Olynthus ("O\vi>8os : 'O\vv0ios : Aio Mamas), 
a town of Macedonia in Chaleidice, at the head 
of the Toronaic gulf, and a little distance from 
the coast, between the peninsulas of Pallene 
and Sithonia (Strab. p. 330 ; Mel. ii. 2, 9). It 
was the most important of the Greek cities on 
the coast of Macedonia, though we have' nc 
record of its foundation. It afterwards fell 
into the hands of the Thracian Bottiaei, when 
they were expelled from their own country by 
the Macedonians (Hdt. vii. 122 ; Strab. p. 447). 
It was taken by Artabazus, one of the generals 
of Xerxes, who peopled it with Chalcidians 
from Torone ; but it owed its greatness to 
Perdiccas, who persuaded the inhabitants of 
many of the smaller towns in Chaleidice to 
abandon their own abodes and settle in Olyn- 
thus (Thuc. i. 58, 65, ii. 79). This happened 
about the commencement of the Peloponnesian 
war ; and from this time Olynthus appears as a 
prosperous and flourishing town, with a popula- 
tion of 5000 inhabitants capable of bearing 
arms. It became the head of a confederacy of 
all the Greek towns in this part of Macedonia, 
and it long maintained its independence against 
the attacks of the Athenians, Spartans and 
Macedonians ; but in B.C. 379 it was compelled 
to submit to Sparta, after carrying on war with 
this state for four years. When tbe supremacy 
of Sparta was destroyed by the Thebans, Olyn- 
thus recovered its independence, and even 
received an accession of power from Philip, who 
was anxious to make Olynthus a counterpoise 
to the influence of Athens in the N. of the 
Aegaean. With this view Philip gave Olynthus 
the territory of Potidaea, after he had wrested 
this town from the Athenians in 356. But 
when he had sufficiently consolidated his power 
to be able to set at defiance both Olynthus and 
Athens, he threw off the mask, and laid siege 
to the former city. The Olynthians earnestly 
besought Athens for assistance, and were 
warmly supported by Demosthenes in his Olyn- 
thiac orations ; but as the Athenians did not 
render the city any effectual assistance, it was 
taken and destroyed by Philip, and all its 
inhabitants sold as slaves (347). [Philippus.] 
Olynthus was never restored, and the rem- 
nants of its inhabitants were at a later time 
transferred by Cassander to Cassandrea. At 
the time of its prosperity Olynthus used the 
town of Mecybeena as its seaport. 

Omana or Omanum i^Ofxava, "O^avov). 1. A 
celebrated port on the NE. coast of Arabia 
Felix, a little above the easternmost point of the 
peninsula, Pr. Syagros (Mas el Had), on a large 
gulf of the same name. The people of this 
part of Arabia were called Omanitae ('Ofia- 
vlrai), or Omani, and the name is still preserved 
in that of the district, Oman. (Ptol. vi. 15.) — 2. 
(Prob. Schaina), a seaport town in the E. of 
Carmania; the chief emporium for the trade 
between India, Persia, and Arabia (Plin. vi. 149). 

Omanitae and Omanum. [Omana.] 

Ombi ("Ofifioi : '0/j.fiirat : Koum Ombou, i.e. 
Hill of Ombon, Eu.), the last great city of 
Upper Egypt, except Syene, from which it was 
I distant about thirty miles, stood on the E. 



OMPHALE 

bank of the Nile, in the Ombites Nomos, and 
was celebrated as one of the chief seats of the 
worship of the crocodile (the crocodile-headed 
god Sebek). Juvenal's 15th Satire mentions a 
religious fight between the people of Ombi and 
those of Tentyra, during a festival at Ombi 
(Juv. xv. 35 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 73 ; Ael. H. A. x. 21). 

Omphale ('O/MpaK-q), daughter of the Lydian 
king Iardanus, and wife of Tmolus, after whose 
death she undertook the government herself. 
When Heracles, in consequence of the murder 
of Iphitus, was afflicted with a serious disease, 
and was informed by the oracle that he could 
only be cured by serving some one for wages 
for the space of three years, Hermes sold 
Heracles to Omphale. The hero became 
enamoured of his mistress, and, to please her, 
he is said to have spun wool and put on the 
garments of a woman, while Omphale wore 



OXOMACRITU8 



027 




Omphale and Heracles. iFarne&e Group, now at Naples. 



his lion's skin. She bore Heracles several 
children. (Diod. iv. 31 ; Apollod. ii. 6, 3 ; Ov. 
Fatt. ii. 305, Her. ix. 53.J For possible ex- 
planations of this myth, see p. 400, b. 

Omphalium ('Ofi<pa\toi/ : 'OfHpaKirris), a town 
in Crete in the neighbourhood of Cnossus 
(Diod. v. 70). 

On. [Heliopolis.] 

Onatas COvdras), of Aegina, a famous 
sculptor of the later and best period of Aegine- 
tun art, which still preserved somewhat of the 
archaic stiffness or rigidity as compared with 
the Attic style of Phidias which succeeded it. 
The work of Onatas was in the earlier part of 
the fifth century B.C. His great statues were 
the 'Black Demeter' at Phigalia in bronze, a 
female figure in black drapery with a horse's 
head (Paus. viii. 42, 1), a bronze Apollo at 
Pergamnm (Paus. viii. 42, 7), and two groups 
of statues, described by Pausanias, at Olympia, 
which are held by modern critics to resemble in 
subject and arrangement the pediments of 
Aegina now at Munich : viz. the group of heroes 
at Troy casting lots for the fight with Hector, 
and the group of Tarentine warriors round 
the body of Opis the Peucetian king (Paus. v. 
27, 8). 

Oncac COyxai), a village in Boeotia near 



Thebes, from which one of the gates of Thebes 
derived its name ('OyKcuai), and which con- 
tained a sanctuary of Athene. 

Onceum ("OyKtiov) a town in Arcadia on the 
river Ladon with a temple of Demeter Erinnys 
(Paus. viii. 25, 4). 

Onchesmus or Onchismus (" Oy xvapos, "Oy- 
Xiffios: Orchido), a seaport town of Epirus in 
\ Chaonia, opposite the W. extremity of Corcyra. 
The ancients derived its name from Anchises, 
whence it is named by Dionysius the ' Harbour 
of Anchises' ('Ayx'tcov \lfnjv). From this 
place Cicero calls the wind blowing from Epirus 
towards Italy Onchesmites. (Strab. p. 324 ; Cic. 
ad Att. vii. 2.) 

Olichestus ('OyxricrSs : 'Oyxriwios). 1. 
An ancient town of Boeotia, said to have been 
founded by Onchestus, son of Poseidon, was 
situated a little S. of the lake Copais near 
Haliartus. It contained a celebrated temple 
and grove of Poseidon, and was the place of 
J meeting of the Boeotian Amphictyony. The 
ruins of this town are still to be seen on the 
SW. slope of the mountain Faga. (II. ii. 506 ; 
| Pind. Isthm. i. 44 ; Strab. p. 412; Paus. ix. 
I 26, 5.) — 2. A river in Thessaly winch rises in 
i the neighbourhood of Eretria, and flows by 
Cynoscephalae, and falls into the lake Boebeis 
| (Pol. xviii. 3 ; Liv. xxxii. 6). 

Onesicritus ('OvqaUpnos), a Greek historical 
writer, who accompanied Alexander on his 
campaigns in Asia, and wrote a history of them, 
which is frequently cited by later authors. He 
is called by some authorities a native of Asty- 
palaea, and by others of Aegina. (Diog. Laert. 
vi. 75; Arrian, Ind. 18.) When Alexander 
constructed his fleet on the Hydaspes, he 
appointed Onesicritus chief pilot of the fleet, a 
post which he held during the descent of the 
Indus and throughout the voyage to the Persian 
gulf, which was conducted under the command 
of Nearchus (Arrian, An. vi. 2, 6, vii. 5, 'J ; Plut. 
Alex. 60). Though an eye-witness of much 
(hat he described, it appears that he intermixed 
many fables and falsehoods with his narrative 
I Strab. pp. 70, 098). 

Oningis or Oringis. [Oringis.] 

Oniros ("Ovtipos), the Dream-God, was a 
personification of dreams. According to the 
Odyssey, Dreams dwell on the dark shores of 
the W. Oceanus, and the deceitful dreams come 
through an ivory gate, while the true ones 
issue from a gate made of horn ( Od. xix. 562, 
xxiv. 12). flesiod calls dreams the children 
of Night, Sleep and Death being their brothers 
(Th. 12). Similarly in Eur. Hec. 71 (rightly 
punctuated), the 'mother of dusky-winged 
dreams ' is Night, not Earth. Dreams were 
controlled by Hermes, since they were in some 
sense messages. Ovid calls them children of 
Sleep, and names three, who pervade the 
earth and appear in various forms to sleepers 
(Met. xi. 033) : Morpheus, Icelus or Phobetor, 
and Phantasus. [For dream-oracles see Diet, 
of Ant. art. Oraculum.'] 

Onoba, raxnamed Aestuaria (Huelva), a sea- 
port town of the Turdetani in Hispania Bavtica, 
between the mouths of the Baetis and Anas, 
on an aestuary formed by the river Luxia. 
There are remains of a Roman aqueduct at 
Huelva. (Strab p. 143 ; Ptol. ii. 4, 5.) 

Onochdnus ('Ov6x<mos: Sophaditikvs), a river 
of Thessaly which joins the Apidanus from the 
W. (Hdt. vii. 129). 

OnomacrltUB COvofiOKpiTos), an Athenian, 
who occupies an interesting position in the 
hiHtory of the early Greek religious poetry. 

s B 2 



C28 



ONOMARCHUS 



OPIS 



He lived about B.C. 520-485. He enjoyed the 
patronage of Hipparchus, until he was detected 
by Lasus of Hermione (the dithyrambic poet) in 
making an interpolation in an oracle of 
Musaeus, for which Hipparchus banished him. 
He seems to have gone into Persia, where the 
Pisistratids, after their expulsion from Athens, 
took him again into favour, and employed him 
to persuade Xerxes to engage in his expedition 
against Greece, by reciting to him all the 
ancient oracles which seemed to favour the 
attempt. (Hdt. vii. 6.) It appears that Ono- 
macritus had made a collection and arrange- 
ment of the oracles ascribed to Musaeus, and 
that he was the real author of some of the 
poems which went under the name of Orpheus 
(Paus. i. 22, viii. 31, 37, ix. 35). Tzetzes speaks 
of him as one of those who arranged the books 
of Homer under Pisistratus, and thus he has 
been set down by Wolf and others as one of the 
' Diasceuastae ' of Homer. 

Onomarchus ('OvSfxapxos), general of the 
Phocians in the Sacred war, succeeded his 
brother Philomelus in this command, B.C. 353. 
In the following year he was defeated in Thes- 
saly by Philip, and perished in attempting to 
reach by swimming the Athenian ships, which 
were lying off the shore, B.C. 352. His body fell 
into the hands of Philip, who caused it to be 
crucified, as a punishment for his sacrilege in 
the Sacred war. (Diod. xvi. 31-61 ; Paus. x. 2, 
5 ; Just. viii. 1.) 

Onosander ('Ov6crav'Spos), the author of a cele- 
brated work on military tactics (entitled SrpaTT)- 
yiKbs Koyos), which is still extant. All subse- 
quent Greek and Roman writers on the same 
subject made this work their text-book. He 
lived about a.d. 50. In his style he imitated Xe- 
nophon with some success. Edited by Schwebel, 
Niirnberg, 1761 ; and by Kb'chly, Lips. 1860. 

Onu-gnathus ("Ovov yvaQos : Flaphonisi), 
an island and a promontory on the S. coast of 
Laconia (Strab. p. 363 ; Paus. iii. 22, 23). 

OnuphlS ("Ovov<pis), the capital of the Nomos 
Onuphites in the Delta of Egypt (Hdt. ii. 166). 

Ophelion ('fl^eAi'we), an Athenian comic poet, 
of the Middle Comedy, B.C. 380 (Athen. pp. 
43, 66, 67, 106). 

Ophelias {'0<pe\\as), of Pella in Macedonia, 
was one of the generals of Alexander the Great, 
after whose death he followed the fortunes of 
Ptolemy. In B.C. 322, he conquered Cyrene, of 
which city he held the government on behalf 
of Ptolemy for some years. But soon after 
313 he threw off his allegiance to Ptolemy, and 
continued to govern Cyrene as an independent 
state for»early five years. In 308 he formed an 
alliance with Agathocles, and marched against 
Carthage ; but he was treacherously attacked 
by Agathocles near this city, and was slain. 
(Diod. xx. 40-42 ; Just. xxii. 7 ; Suid. s. v.) 

Opheltes ('0<p4\Tris). 1. Also called Arche- 
morus. [Archemorus.] — 2. One of the Tyr- 
rhenian pirates, who attempted to carry off 
Dionysus, and were therefore metamorphosed 
into dolphins [p. 294]. 

Ophion ('O0iW). 1. One of the oldest of the 
Titans, was married to Eurynome, with whom 
he ruled over Olympus, but being conquered 
by Cronos and Rhea, he and Eurynome were 
thrown into Oceanus or Tartarus (Ap. Rh. i. 
503 ; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 1191).— 2. Father of the 
centaur Amycus, who is hence called Opliio- 
nodes (Ov. Met. xii. 245). 

Ophionensesor OphiensesCo^ioi'eTy, 'otitis), 
a people of Aetolia (Strab. pp. 451, 465). 

Ophir. [See Diet, of the Bible.'] 



Optus ("0<p is), a river in Arcadia, which flowed 
by Mantinea (Paus. viii. 8, 4). 

Ophiusa or Ophiussa ('O<pi6eo-(ra, 'Otpiovaaa, 
'Ocpiovcra, i.e. abounding in snakes). 1. [Pity- 
usae.] — 2. Or Ophiussa (perhaps Palanea), a 
town of European Scythia, on the left bank of 
the Tyras (Dneister). (Strab. p. 306.) — 3. A 
little island near Crete. — 4. (Afsia or Babbi), 
a small island in the Propontis (Sea of Mar- 
mora), NW. of Cyzicus and SW. of Procon- 
nesus. — 5. [Rhodus.1 — 6. [Tenos.] 

Ophrynlum | 'Ocppweiov : prob. Fren-Kevi), a 
small town of the Troad, near the lake of 
Pteleos, between Dardanus and Rhoeteum, with 
a grove consecrated to Hector (Hdt. vii. 43 ; 
Strab. p. 595 : Xen. An. vii. 8, 5). 

Opici. [Osci.] 

Opilius Macrlnus. [Macrinus.] 
OpillUS, Aurelius, the freedman of an Epi- 
curean, taught at Rome, first philosophy, then 
rhetoric, and finally, grammar. He gave up 
his school upon the condemnation of Rutilius 
Rufus (b.c. 92), whom he accompanied to 
Smyrna. He composed several learned works, 
one of which, named Musae, is referred to by 
A. Gellius. (Suet. Gramm. 6 ; Gell. i. 25.) 

Opimius. 1. Q., consul b.c. 154, when he 
subdued some of the Ligurian tribes N. of the 
Alps, who had attacked Massilia. He was 
notorious in his youth for his riotous living, 
and was described by Lucilius as ' formosus et 
famosus.' (Pol. xxxiii. 5-8; Cic. de Or. ii. 68,. 
277 ; Non. s.v. Fama.) — 2. L., son of the pre- 
ceding, was praetor 125, in which year he took 
Fregellae, which had revolted against the 
Romans. He belonged to the high aristocratical 
party, and was a violent opponent of C. 
Gracchus. He was consul in 121, and took the 
leading part in the proceedings which ended in 
the murder of Gracchus. Opimius and his 
party abused their victory most savagely, and 
are said to have killed more than 3000 persons, 
For details see p. 371, b. In the following year 
(120), he was accused of having put Roman 
citizens to death without trial; but he was 
defended by the consul C Papirius Carbo, and 
was acquitted. (Liv. Ep. 61 ; Cic. de Or. ii. 25, 
106.) In 112 he was at the head of the com- 
mission which was sent into Africa in order to 
divide the dominions of Micipsa between Ju- 
gurtha and Adherbal, and was bribed by 
Jugurtha to assign to him the better part of 
the country. Three years after, he was con- 
demned under the law of the tribune C. 
Mamilius Limetanus, by which an inquiry was 
made into the conduct of all those who had re- 
ceived bribes from Jugurtha. (Sail. Jug. 16, 40 ; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 7.) Opimius went into exile to 
Dyrrhachium in Epirus, where he lived for 
some years, hated and insulted by the people, 
and where he eventually died in great poverty. 
He richly deserved his punishment, and met 
with a due recompense for his cruel and fero- 
cious conduct towards C. Gracchus and his 
party. Cicero, on the contrary, who, after his 
consulship, had identified himself with the 
aristocratical party, frequently laments the fate 
of Opimius. The year in which Opimius was 
consul (121) was remarkable for the extra- 
ordinary heat of the autumn, and thus the 
vintage of this year was of an unprecedented 
quality. This wine long remained celebrated 
as the Vinum Opimianum. (Cic. Brut. 83, 
287.) _ 

Opis ( T flir£y), an important commercial city 
of Assyria, in the district of Apolloniatis, at 
the confluence of the Physcus (Od-orneh) with 



OPITERGIUM 



ORCHOMENUS 



629 



the Tigris ; not mentioned after the Christian 
«ra (Hat. i. 189 ; Xen. An. vii. 7 ; Strab. pp. 80, 
529). 

Opitergium (Opiterglnus : Oderzo), a Roman 
colony in Venetia in the N. of Italy, on the river 
Liquentia, and on the high road from Aquileia 
to Verona. In the Mareomannic war it was de- 
stroyed by the Quadi, but it was rebuilt, and 
afterwards belonged to the Exarchate. Prom it 
the neighbouring mountains were called Montes 
Opitergini. (Strab. p. 214 ; Lucan, iv. 462 ; Tac. 
Hist. iii. 6; Amm. Marc. xxix. 6.) 

Oppianus ('Oirmavds), thename of the authors 
of two Greek hexameter poems still extant, one 
on fishing, entitled Halieutica ('AAievrtKa), 
and the other on hunting, entitled Cynegetica 
(Kwr)76T!/ca). Modem critics have shown that 
these two poems were written by two different 
persons of this name. 1. The author of the 
Halieutica was born either at Corycus or at 
Anazarba, in Cilicia, and flourished about a.d. 
180. The poem consists of about 3500 hexame- 
ter lines, divided into five books, of which the 
first two treat of the natural history of fishes, 
and the other three of the art of fishing. — 2. 
The author of the Cynegetica was a native of 
Apamea or Pella, in Syria, and flourished a 
little later than the other Oppianus, about a.d. 
206. His poem, which is addressed to the em- 
peror Caracalla, consists of about 2100 hexame- 
ter lines, divided into four books. Editions of 
the two poems by Schneider, Lips. 1813, and 
by P. Lehrs, 1846. There is also a prose para- 
phrase by Eutechnius of a poem on fowling 
('11-evTiica.) attributed to Oppianus, but the 
authorship of the original is doubtful. 

Opplus. 1. C, tribune of the plebs B. c. 213, 
carried a law, under pressure of the second Punic 
war, to curtail the expenses and luxuries of 
Roman women. This law was repealed in 195, 
notwithstanding the vehement opposition of the 
«lder Cato (Liv. xxxiv. 1-8; Val. Max. ix. 1, 3; 
Tac. Ann. iii. 33). — 2. Q., a Roman general in 
the Mithridatic war, B. c. 88, fell into the hands 
of Mithridates, but was subsequently surren- 
dered by the latter to Sulla (Liv. Ep. 78 ; App. 
Mithr. 17, 20, 112).— 3. P., quaestor to M. Aure- 
lius Cotta in Bithynia, B. c. 74, was accused of 
misappropriation of supplies and also of draw- 
ing his sword upon his commander; he was tried 
in 69 and defended by Cicero in a speech of which 
•only a few fragments remain (Dio Cass, xxxvi. 
23 ; Quintil. v. 13, 17). — 4. C, an intimate friend 
of C. Julius Caesar, whose private affairs he 
managed in conjunction with Cornelius Balbus 
(Cic. ad Ait. ix. 7, 13, xi. 17, xii. 19, ad Fam. 
ii. 16). Oppius wrote a Life of Caesar (Plut. 
Pomp. 10; Suet. Jul. 53), and of Scipio Afri- 
canus the elder (Gell. vi. J, 2). Some believed 
Oppius to have been the author of the continua- 
tion of Caesar's Commentaries (the Bell. Alex., 
Afr. and Hisp.). This is untenable as regards 
the two last and improbable as regards the first. 
The style of the African and Spanish Wars is 
too poor to be the work of a man with the re- 
putation of Oppius, and it is clear that the 
author was present in both wars, whereas Oppius 
at that time was at Rome. There is thought 
to be some indication in Hell. Alex. (8, 1 ; 19,6) 
that the author was present (which was not the 
case with either Hirtius or Oppius), but the 
evidence here is not conclusive |cf. Hiunrs . 

Ops, a Roman goddess of plenty and fertility, 
aa is indicated by her name, which is connected 
with opimutyOpulentus, inops, and copia. She 
was regarded as the wife of Saturnus, and the 
protectress of everything connected with agri- 



culture. (Varro, L. L. vi. 22 ; Macrob. i. 10, 18.) 
As goddess of the earth and its fruits, Ops was 
also a goddess of the underworld, which is in- 
dicated by the ancient custom that her wor- 
shippers paid their vows crouching down and 
touching the earth (Macrob. i. 10, 12, iii. 9, 12), 
which was the attitude of the Greeks in invok- 
ing Hades and Persephone (II. ix. 564). In the , 
three days' summer festival held by the Fratres 
Arvales, Ops was worshipped with offerings of 
first-fruits and sacrifices under the name of Dea 
Dia (who is identified with Ops). [For the ritual 
see Diet, of Ant. art. Fratres Arvales.] As 

| goddess of seed-time she was called Ops Con- 
siva, whence her August festivals are called 

; Opiconsivia. Her worship was intimately con- 
nected with that of Saturnus, and it is probable 
that the festival of the Opalia in the Forum on 
December 17, during the period of the Satur- 
nalia, were held in the temple of Saturn. The 

i temple of Ops was on the Capitol (Liv. xxxix. 

| 22 ; Plih. vi. 174 ; C. I. L. vi. 507). Here was 

; the treasury of which Cicero speaks (Phil. ii. 37, 
93). There was also a sacrarium of Ops in the 
Regia, which contained sacred vessels of the 

: most ancient form [Diet, of Ant. art. Praeferi- 
culum]. Her worship was intimately connected 
with that of her husband Saturnus, for she had 
both temples and festivals in common with him ; 
but she had likewise a separate sanctuary on 
the Capitol, and in the Vieus Jugarius, not far 
from the temple of Saturnus, she had an altar 
in common with Ceres. 

Opus ('Girots, cont. of '07rdeis : 'Oitovvtws). 
1. (Talanda or Talanti?), the capital of the 
Opuntian Locrians, was situated, according to 
Strabo (p. 425), fifteen stadia (two miles) from the 
sea, and sixty stadia from its harbour Cynos ; 
but, according to Livy (xxviii. 6), it was only one 

i mile from the coast. It was the birthplace of 
Patroclus (II. xviii. 326). The bay of the Eu- 

i boean sea near this town was called Opuntius 
Sinus. [Locbi.] — 2. A small town in Elis. 
Ora. 1. ( J Opa) a city of Carmania, near the 

, borders of Gedrosia (Ptol. vi. 8, 14). — 2. Cnpo). 
a city in the N.W. of India, near the source- . 

i the Indus (Arrian, An. iv. 27). 
Orae. [Oeitae.] 

Orbelus ("Op^Xos), a mountain in the NE. of 
Macedonia, on the borders of Thrace, extends 
from Mt. Rhodope along the Strymon to Mt. 
; Pangaeus (Hdt. v. 16 ; Strab. p. 329). 

Orbllius Pupillus, a Roman grammarian and 
schoolmaster, the teacher of Horace, who gives 
him the epithet of plagosus from the severe 
floggings which his pupils received from him. 
(Hor. Fp. ii. 1, 71). He was a native of Bene- 
ventum, and after serving as an apparitor of the 
magistrates, and also as a soldier in the army, 
| settled at Rome in the fiftieth year of his age, 
in the consulship of Cicero, B. c. 63. He lived 
nearly 100 years, but had lost his memory long 
before his death. (Suet. Gramm. 9.) 

Orbdna, an ancient Italian goddess who by 
slaying children rendered parents childless. 
She was invoked (to avert her wrath) in the 
Indioitamknta. (Tertull. ad Nat. ii. 15 ; Arnob. 
iv. 7.) Her sanctuary is mentioned by Cic. 
N. V. iii. 25, 68 (cf. Plin. ii. 16) as on the Via 
Sacra. 

Orcades Insulae (Orkney and Shetland 
I Isles), a group of several small islands off the 
N. coast of Britain, witli which the Romans 
first became acquainted when Agricola sailed 
round the N. of Britain (Tac. Ayr. 10; Ptol. ii. 
3, 81). 

Orchomenus t'Opx'W" 01 : 'Opx /"* 1 '"")' 1* 



630 



OBCHOMENUS 



OKESTES 



(Scripu), an ancient, wealthy, and powerful city 
of Boeotia, the capital of the Minyean empire 
in the prehistorical ages of Greece, and hence 
called by Homer the Minyean Orchomenos 
('Opx- WlivSeios, II. ii. 511). It was situated 
NW. of the lake Copais, on the river Cephissus, 
and was built on the slope of a hill on the 
summit of which stood the acropolis. It is said 
to have been originally called Andreis ('AvSprj'ts), 
from Andreus, the son of Peneus, who emigrated 
from the Peneus in Thessaly ; to have been 
afterwards called Phlegya (<b\eyva), from Phleg- 
yas, a son of Ares and Chryse ; and to have 
finally obtained its later name from Orchomenus, 
son of Zeus or Eteocles and the Danaid Hesione, 
and father of Minyas (Paus. ix. 34-36). This 
Orchomenus was regarded as the real founder 
of the Minyean empire, which before the time 
of the Trojan war extended over the whole of 
the W. of Boeotia. Orchomenus, the ruling 
town of all this district, is described as one of 
the wealthiest cities in Greece (II. ix. 381). 
According to the legends of Thebes it was 
Heracles who freed that city from its subjection 
to Orchomenus (Paus. ix. 37, 2 ; Strab. p. 414 ; 
Diod. iv. 18). After the Trojan war the power 
of the Minyae was overthrown by immigrants 
from Thessaly, and Orchomenus became merely 
a member of the Boeotian League, subordinate 
in power to Thebes. [Boeotia.] Orchomenus 
continued to exist as an independent town till 
B. c. 367, when it was taken and destroyed by 
the Thebans, and its inhabitants murdered or 
sold as slaves (Diod. xv. 79 ; Paus. ix. 15, 3). 
In order to weaken Thebes, it was rebuilt at the 
instigation of the Athenians, but was soon de- 
stroyed again by the Thebans, and, although it 
was again restored by Philip in 338, it never re- 
covered its former prosperity, and in the time 
of Strabo was in ruins. The most celebrated 
building in Orchomenus was the so-called trea- 
sury of Minyas, which, like the similar monu- 
ments at Mycenae, was really a tomb of the an- 
cient princes. It was completely excavated 
and explored by Schliemann in 1880. It had a 
passage, or dromos, leading to the vaulted or bee- 
hive chamber and another spare room, remark- 
able for its beautifully-decorated ceiling. The 
decorations, as well as the general form of the 
tombs, show the connexion of the Orchomenus 
of that date as regards art and civilisation with 
Mycenae [see p. 580, a]. Orchomenus possessed 
a very ancient temple of the Charites or Graces ; 
and here was celebrated in the most ancient 
times a musical festival which was frequented 
by poets and singers from all parts of the Hel- 
lenic world (Pind. Pyth. xii. 45 ; Theocr. xvi. 
104). There was a temple of Heracles seven 
stadia N. of the town, near the sources of the 
river Melas. Orchomenus is memorable on ac- 
count of the victory which Sulla gained in its 
neighbourhood over Archelaus, the general of 
Mithridates, B.C. 85. — 2. (Kalpahi), an ancient 
town of Arcadia, mentioned by Homer with the 
epithet -rro\v/xri\os, to distinguish it from the 
Minyean Orchomenus (II. ii. 605 ; cf. Ov. Met. 
vi. 413), is said to have been founded by Orcho- 
menus, son of Lycaon (Paus. viii. 3, 3). It was 
situated on a hill NW. of Mantinea, and its 
territory included the towns of Methydrium, 
Theisoa, Teuthis, and the Tripolis. In the 
Peloponnesian war Orchomenus sided with 
Sparta, and was taken by the Athenians (Thuc. 
v. 61). After the battle of Leuctra the Orcho- 
menians did not join the Arcadian confederacy, 
in consequence of its hatred against Mantinea. 
In the contests between the Achaeans and 



Aetolians, it was taken successively by Cleo- 
menes and Antigonus Doson ; but it eventually 
became a member of the Achaean League. (Pol. 
ii. 46, 54, iv. 6 ; Liv. xxxii. 5.) 
Orcus. [Hades.] 

Ordessus ('OpSijaffds), a tributary of thelster 
(Danube) in Scythia, but cannot be identified 
with any modern river (Hdt. iv. 48). 

Ordovices, a people of Britain, opposite the 
island Mona (Anglesey), occupying the N. por- 
tion of Wales (Tac. Ann. xii. 33, Agr. 18). 

Oreades. [Nymphae.] 

Orestae ('Op4crrat), a people in the N. of 
Epirus on the borders of Macedonia, inhabiting 
the district named after them, Orestis or Ores- 
tias. They were originally independent, but 
were afterwards subject to the Macedonian 
monarchs. They were declared free by the 
Bomans in their war with Philip. According 
to the legend, they derived their name from 
Orestes, who is said to have fled into this country 
after murdering his mother, and to have there 
founded the town of Argos Oresticum. (Thuc. 
ii. 80 ; Strab. pp. 326, 434 ; Pol. xviii. 30.) 

Orestes ('OpeVrTjs). 1. Son of Agamemnon 
and Clytaemnestra, and brother of Chrysothe- 
mis, Laodice (Electra), and Iphianassa (Iphi- 
genia). The Homeric account only tells us that, 
in the eighth year after his father's murder 
Orestes came from Athens to Mycenae and 
slew the murderer of his father (Od. iii. 
306 ; cf. i. 30, 298, iv. 546). From Od. xi. 542 
it appears that Orestes was not in Mycenae at 
the time of his father's murder. To this story 
much is added by later writers. Thus it is said 
that at the murder of Agamemnon it was in- 
tended to despatch Orestes also, but that by 
means of Electra he was secretly carried to. 
Strophius, king in Phocis, who was married to 
Anaxibia, the sister of Agamemnon. According 
to some, Orestes was saved by his nurse, who 
allowed Aegisthus to kill her own child, suppos- 
ing it to be Orestes (Pind. Pyth. xi. 25 ; Aesch. 
Cho. 732). In the house of Strophius, Orestes 
grew up with the king's son Pylades, with 
whom he formed that close and intimate friend- 
ship which has become proverbial. Being fre- 
quently reminded by messengers from Electra 
of the necessity of avenging his father's death, 
he consulted the oracle of Delphi, which 
strengthened him in his plan. He therefore re- 
paired in secret to Argos. Here he pretended 
to be a messenger of Strophius who had come 
to announce the death of Orestes and brought, 
the ashes of the deceased (Soph. El. 11, 35, 296, 
531, 1346 ; Eur. El. 1245, Orest. 162, 804). In 
Homer it is not said that Orestes slew Clytae- 
mnestra as well as Aegisthus, and the inference 
from the unqualified praise of his action in the 
Odyssey is that he did not kill his mother ; but 
in the tragedians, after visiting his father's 
tomb, and sacrificing upon it a lock of his hair, 
he made himself known to his sister Electra, 
and soon afterwards slew both Aegisthus and 
Clytaemnestra in the palace. Immediately 
after the murder of his mother he was seized 
with madness. He now fled from land to land, 
pursued by the Erinnyes of his mother. At 
lengin by Apollo's advice, he took refuge with 
Athene at Athens. The goddess affoided him 
protection, and appointed the court of the Areio- 
pagus to decide his fate. The Erinnyes brought 
forward their accusation, and Orestes made the 
command of the Delphic oracle his excuse. 
When the court voted, and was equally divided, 
Orestes was acquitted by the command of Athene 
(Aesch. Eumenides). According to another 



ORESTHEUS 



ORIBASIUS 



631 



modification of the legend, Orestes asked Apollo ! 
how he could be delivered from his mad- 
ness and incessant wandering. The god advised 
him to go to Tauris in Scythia, and to fetch 
from that country the image of Artemis, which 
was believed to have fallen there from heaven, 
and to carry it to Athens (Eur. Iph. Taur. 79, 
968 ; cf. Paus. iii. 16, 6). Orestes and Pylades 
accordingly went to Tauris, where Thoas was 
king. On their arrival they were seized by the 
natives, in order to be sacrificed to Artemis, ac- 
cording to the custom of the country. But 
Iphigenia, the priestess of Artemis, was the 
sister of Orestes, and, after recognising each 
other, all three escaped with the statue of the 
goddess. After his return to Peloponnesus 
Orestes took possession of his father's kingdom 
at Mycenae, which had been usurped by Aletes 
or Menelaus. When Cylarabes of Argos died 
without leaving any heir, Orestes also became 
king of Argos. The Lacedaemonians likewise 
made him their king of their own accord, be- 
cause they preferred him, the grandson of Tyn- 
dareus, to Nicostratus and Megapenthes, the 
sons of Menelaus by a slave. The Arcadians 
and Phocians increased his power by allying 
themselves with him (Paus. ii. 18, 5, iii. 1, 4 ; cf. 
Pind. Pyth. xi. 24). He married Hermione, the 
daughter of Menelaus, and became by her the 
father of Tisamen us. The story of his marriage 
with Hermione, who had previously been married 
to Neoptolemus, is related elsewhere. [Her- 
mionx ; Neoptolemus.] He died of the bite of 
a snake in Arcadia (Schol. ad Eur. Oreat. 1640), 
and his body, in accordance with an oracle, was 
afterwards carried from Tegea to Sparta, and 
there buried. His bones are said to have been 
found at a later time in a war between the 
Lacedaemonians and Tegeatans, and to have 
been conveyed to Sparta (Hdt. i. 67 ; Paus. iii. 
11, 8, viii. 54, 3). According to the Arcadian 
story Orestes had dwelt during his time of mad- 
ness in Arcadia having gone there from Mycenae 
in obedience to an oracle (Paus. viii. 5, 4). To 
this there is a further addition that in his frenzy 
he gnawed off one of his fingers, a story which 
seems to have originated in the name of a tomb 
near Megalopolis called AoktuAou \nrr\jxa (Paus. 
viii. 34, 2). — 2. Regent of Italy during the short 
reign of his infant son Romulus Augustulus, a.i>. 
475-476. He was born in Pannonia, and served 
for some years under Attila ; after whose death 
he rose to eminence at the Roman court. Hav- 
ing been entrusted with the command of an army 
by Julius Nepos, he deposed this emperor, and 
placed his own son Romulus Augustulus on the 
throne; but in the following year lie was defeated 
by Odoacer and put to death. [Odoacer.] — 3. 
L. Aurelius Orestes, consul b. c. 126, received 
Sardinia as his province, where he remained 
upwards of three years. C. Gracchus was 
quaestor to Orestes in Sardinia (Plut. C. Gracch. 
1, 2).— 4. Cn. Aufidius Orestes, consul b.c. 71, 
originally belonged to the Aurelia gens, whence 
his surname of Orestes, and was adopted by Cn. 
Aufidius, the historian. (Cic. Off. ii. 17 ; Eutrop. 
vi. 8). 

Oresteum, Orestheum, or Oresthaslum 
('OpttTTaov, 'OptaBdoy, 'Opeadaaiov), a town in 
the S. of Arcadia in the district Maenulia, near 
Megalopolis (Thuc. v. 64 ; Paus. viii. 44, 2). 

Orestheus ('OpurOfvs), a legendary king of 
the Locri Ozolae, son of Deucalion. His dog 
brought forth a log of wood, which Orestheus 
buried : from it sprang up the shoots (ufoi) of 
the vine. Hence tlie name of his people. (I'aus. 
z. 31, 1 ; Lociu.) 



Orestias. 1. The country of the Orestae. 
[Obestae.] — 2. A name frequently given by the 
Byzantine writers to Hadrianopolis in Thrace. 

Orestilla, Aurelia. [Aurelia.] 

Oretani. a powerful people in the SW. of 
Hispania Tarraconensis, bounded on the S. by 
Baetica, on the N. by the Carpetani, on the W. 
by Lusitania, and on the E. by the Bastetani 
(Plin. iii. 25). Their chief town was Castulo. 

Oreus ('fiperfs : 'npeirr/s : Orsi), a town in the 
N. of Euboea, on the river Callas, at the foot 
of the mountain Telethrium, and in the district 
Hestiaeotis, was itself originally called Hestiaea 
or Histiaea. According to some it was a colony 
from the Attic deme Histiaea (Strab. p. 445). 
After the Persian wars Oreus, with the rest of 
Euboea, became subject to the Athenians ; but 
on the revolt of the island, in B.C. 445, Oreus 
was taken by Pericles, its inhabitants expelled, 
and their place supplied by 2000 Athenians 
(Thuc. i. 114 ; Diod. xii. 7, 22). Oreus was an 
important place, and its name frequently occurs 
in the Grecian wars down to the dissolution of 
the Achaean League (Xen. Hell. v. 4, 56 ; Dem. 
de Cor. pp. 248, 252 ; Diod. xix. 75 ; Pol. xviii. 
30; Liv. xxxi. 46). 

Orfitus, 1. Ser. Cornelius, consul a.d. 51, 
was put to death in Nero's reign through the 
informer Regulus (Tac. Ann. xii. 41, Hist. iv. 
42). — 2. Paccius, a centurion of Corbulo's army 
(Tac. Ann. xiii. 36, xv. 12). 

Orgetorix, the noblest and richest among 
the Helvetii, formed a conspiracy to obtain the 
royal power B.C. 61, and persuaded his country- 
men to emigrate from their own country. 
Two years were devoted to making the neces- 
sary preparations ; but the real designs of 
Orgetorix having meantime become known, and 
the Helvetii having attempted to bring him to 
trial, he suddenly died, probably, as was sus- 
pected, by his own hands. (Caes. B. G. i. 2, 26 ; 
Dio Cass, xxxviii. 31.) 

Oribasius ('Opeifidtrios or 'Opifidcrios), an 
eminent Greek medical writer, born about a.d. 
325, either at Sardis in Lydia, or at Pergamum 
in Mysia. He was an intimate friend of the 
emperor Julian, and was almost the only 
person to whom Julian imparted the secret of 
his apostasy from Christianity. He accom- 
panied Julian in his expedition against Persia, 
and was with him at the time of his death, 363. 
The succeeding emperors, Valentinian and 
Valens, confiscated the property of Oribasius 
and banished him. He was afterwards recalled 
from exile, and was alive at least as late as 395. 
Of the personal character of Oribasius we know 
little or nothing, but it is clear that he was 
much attached to paganism and to the heathen 
philosophy. He was an intimate friend of 
Eunapius, who praises him very highly, and 
wrote an account of his life. We possess at 
present three works of Oribasius: (1) Collecta 
Medicinnlia (2vvayoiya\ 'larptKai), or some- 
times Hebdomecontabiblos ('E/35o/it7]KocTd- 
/9</3A.os), which was compiled at the command 
of Julian, when Oribasius was still a young 
man. It contains but little original matter, but 
is very valuable on account of the numerous 
extracts from writers whose works are no 
longer extant. More than half of this work is 
now lost, and what remains is in some confu 
sion. There is no complete edition of the work. 
(2) An abridgment ('Zvvotyis) of the former work, 
in nine books. It was written thirty years 
after the former. (8) Euporistu or De facile 
PardbUibuS (Evir6pi(TTa), in four books. Both 
this and the preceding work were intended as 



532 



MARTINIANUS 



MASINISSA 



measure restricted to denote a short poem, in 
■which all the thoughts and expressions converge 
to one sharp point, which forms the termination 
of the piece. Martial's epigrams are distin- 
guished by singular fertility of imagination, 
prodigious flow of wit, and delicate felicity of 
language ; and from no source do we derive more 
copious information on the national customs 
and social habits of the Romans during the first 
century of the empire. But, however much we 
admire the genius of the author, we feel no re- 
spect for the character of the man. The servile 
adulation with wlrich he loads Domitian proves 
that he was a courtier of the lowest class ; and, 
however much we may be attracted by the bril- 
liancy and grace of much of his poetry, it is 
impossible to condone the obscenity which is 
scattered broadcast over his writings, evidently 
with no idea of moral censure but rather from 
impurity of thought. — The best edition of Mar- 
tial is by Friedliinder (Lips. 1886), whose Sit- 
tengeschichte Poms provides also an excellent 
commentary on Martial and J uvenal ; select 
epigrams by Paley and Stone, 1881 ; Stephen- 
son, 1888 ; books i. and ii. by J. E. B. Mayor. 
— 2. Gargillus, a contemporary of Alexander 
Severus, who is cited by Vopiscus (Prob. ii. 7). 
He wrote on husbandry and medicinal herbs, 
and on veterinary art, following Pliny in many 
points. The fourth book of the Medicina PUnii 
(i.e. extracts on medicine from Pliny) was made 
up of excerpts from Gargilius Martialis. Part 
of his work on gardens was found by A. Mai on 
a palimpsest in the Eoyal Library at Naples. 

Martinianus, was elevated to the dignity of 
Caesar, by Licinius, when he was making pre- 
parations for the last struggle against Constan- 
tine. After the defeat of Licinius, Martinianus 
was put to death by Constantine, a.d. 323. (Vict. 
de Caes. 41.) 

Martius Campus. [Roma.] 

Martyropolis, or Maipheracta (Maprvp6- 
7roA.iy : Meia Farekin), a city of Sophene, in 
Armenia Major, on the river Nymphus, a tribu- 
tary of the Tigris; under Justinian, a strong 
fortress, and the residence of the first Dux 
Armeniae (Procop. de Aed. hi. 2). 

Marullus, C. Epidius, tribune of the plebs, 
B.C. 44, removed, in conjunction with his col- 
league L. Caesetius Flavus, the diadem which 
had been placed upon the statue of C. Julius 
Caesar, and attempted to bring to trial the 
persons who had saluted the dictator as king. 
Caesar, in consequence, deprived him of the 
tribunate, and expelled him from the senate. 
(Dio Cass. xliv. 9 ; Suet. Jul. 79 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 
68 ; Cic. Phil, xiii. 15, 31.) 

Maruvlum. [Maebuvidm.] 

Marus (Mareh), a river flowing into the 
Danube near Carnuntum (Tac. Ann. ii. 63). 

Mascas (MdaKas, Mamas: Wady-el-Seba), 
an E. tributary of the Euphrates, in Mesopo- 
tamia, mentioned only by Xenophon (Anab. i. 
5), who describes it as surrounding the city of 
Corsote, and as being 35 parasangs from the 
Chaboras. 

Mases (Maffris : Ma<rr)Tws), a town on the S. 
coast of Argolis, the harbour of Hermione (II. 
ii. 562 ; Strab. p. 376 ; Paus. ii. 36, 2). 

Masinissa (Maff<ravd<r<x7]s), king of the Nu- 
midians, was the son of Gala, king of the Mas- 
sylians, the easternmost of the two great tribes 
into which the Numidians were at that time 
divided ; but he was brought up at Carthage, 
where he appears to have received an education 
superior to that usual among his countrymen. 
In B.C. 212 the Carthaginians persuaded Gala 



to declare war against Syphax, king of the 
neighbouring tribe of the Massaesylians, who 
had lately entered into an alliance with Rome. 
Masinissa was appointed by his father to com- 
mand the invading force, with which he attacked 
and totally defeated Syphax. Li the next year 
(211) Masinissa crossed over into Spain, and 
supported the Carthaginian generals there with 
a large body- of Numidian horse. He fought on 
the side of the Carthaginians for some years ; 
but after their great defeat by Scipio in 206, he 
secretly promised the latter to support the Ro- 
mans as soon as they should send an army into 
Africa. (Liv. xxvii. 20, xxviii. 13, 16, 35 ; Pol. 
xi. 21 ; Appian, Hisp. 25, 27.) In his desertion 
of the Carthaginians he is said to have been 
also actuated by resentment against Hasdrubal, 
who had previously betrothed to him his beau- 
tiful daughter Sophonisba, but violated his en- 
gagement in order to bestow her hand upon 
Syphax, whose alliance the Carthaginians now 
preferred to that of Masinissa. — During the 
absence of Masinissa in Spain, his father Gala 
had died, and the throne had been seized by a 
usurper ; but Masinissa on his return soon ex- 
pelled the usurper and obtained possession of 
the kingdom (Liv. xxix. 29). He was now at- 
tacked by Syphax and the Carthaginians, who 
were anxious to crush him before he could 
receive assistance from Rome. He was re- 
peatedly defeated by Syphax and his generals, 
and with difficulty escaped falling into the 
hands of his enemies. But the arrival of Scipio 
in Africa (204) soon changed the posture of 
affairs. Masinissa instantly joined the Roman 
general, and rendered the most important ser- 
vices to him during the remainder of the war. 
He took a prominent part in the defeat of the 
combined forces of Syphax and Hasdrubal, and 
in conjunction with Laelius he reduced Cirta, 
the capital of Syphax. Among the captives 
that fell into their hands on this occasion was 
Sophonisba, the wife of Syphax, and the same 
who had been formerly promised in marriage 
to Masinissa himself. The story of his hasty 
marriage with her, and its tragical termination, 
is related elsewhere. [Sophonisba.] In the 
decisive battle of Zama (202), Masinissa com- 
manded the cavalry of the right wing, and con- 
tributed in no small degree to the successful 
result of the day. (Liv. xxx. 29-35 ; Pol. xv. 12.) 
On the conclusion of the final peace between 
Rome and Carthage, he was rewarded with the 
greater part of the territories which had be- 
longed to Syphax, in addition to his hereditary 
dominions (Liv. xxx. 44 ; Pol. xv. 18). From 
this time till the commencement of the third 
Punic war there elapsed an interval of more 
than 50 years, during the whole of which 
period Masinissa continued to reign with un- 
disputed authority over the countries thus 
subjected to his rule. At length, in 150, he 
declared open war against Carthage, and these 
hostilities led to the outbreak of the third Punic 
war. Masinissa died in the second year of the 
war, 148. On his death-bed he had sent for 
Scipio Africanus the younger, at that time 
serving in Africa as a military tribune, but 
he expired before his arrival, leaving it to the 
young officer to settle the affairs of his king- 
dom. He died at the advanced age of 90, 
having retained in an extraordinary degree his 
bodily strength and activity to the last, so that 
in the war against the Carthaginians, only two 
years before, he commanded his army in person. 
His character has been often assailed for his 
desertion of the Carthaginians, and it must be 



MASIUS 

admitted that he was not a man of scrupulous 
faith. But, on the other hand, it must be re- 
membered that as a native prince he had reason 
to hate Carthaginian oppression, and that per- 
sonally he had wrongs and want of faith on 
their part to resent. It is impossible to deny 
Lis claims to respect for the vigour and success 
of his rule and his unconquerable energy and 
fortitude. He was the father of a numerous 
family; but three only of his legitimate sons 
survived him, Micipsa, Mastanabal, and Gulussa. 
Between these three the kingdom was portioned 
out by Scipio, according to the dying directions 
of the old king. (Pol. xxxvii. 3 ; App. Pun. 
71, 106; Val. Max. viii. 13; Cic. de Sen. 10; 
Sail. Jug. 5.) 

Maslus Mons (jb Wiiaiov upos : Karajeh 
Dagh), a mountain chain in the N. of Mesopo- 
tamia, between the upper course of the Tigris 
and the Euphrates, running from the main 
chain of the Taurus SE. along the border of 
Mygdonia (Strab. p. 506). 

Maso, C. Papirius, consul b.c. 231, carried 
on war against the Corsicans, whom he sub- 
dued ; and from the booty obtained in this war 
he dedicated a temple to Eons. Maso was the 
maternal grandfather of Scipio Africanus the 
younger, his daughter Papiria marrying Aemi- 
lius Paulus. (Val. Max. iii. 6, 5.) 

Massa, Baebius, or Bebius, was accused by 
Pliny the younger and Herennius Senecio of 
plundering the province of Baetica, of which he 
had been governor, A.D. 93. He was condemned, 
but escaped punishment by the favour of Do- 
mitian, and from this time he became one of 
the informers and favourites of the tyrant. (Tac. 
Hist. iv. 50, Agr. 45 ; Juv. i. 34 ; Mart. xii. 29.) 
Massaesyli or -ii. [Mauretaxia : Numtdia.] 
Massaga (to. MeWo/ya), the capital city of 
the Indian people Assaceni. 

Massagetae (yiaaaayirai), a wild and warlike 
people of Central Asia, in Scythia intra Imaiim, 
N. of the Jaxartes (the Araxes of Herodotusj 
and the Sea of Aral, and on the peninsula be- 
tween tins lake and the Caspian. Their eountry 
corresponds to that of the Kirghiz Tartars in 
the N. of Independent Tartary. Some of the 
ancient geographers give them a greater extent 
towards the SE., and Herodotus appears to in- 
clude under the name all the nomad tribes of 
Asia E. of the Caspian. They appear to have 
been of the Turkoman race ; their manners and 
customs resembled those of the Scythians in 
general, except that they had a practice of 
killing and eating their aged people. (Hdt. 
i. 201-214 ; Strab. p. 512 ; Arrian, An. iv. 10.) 
Their chief appearance in ancient history is 
in connexion with the expedition undertaken 
against them by Cyru3 the Great, in which 
Cyrus was defeated and slain. [Cyrus.J 

Kissani {Wlaaaavoi), a people of India, on 
the lower Indus, near the Island of Pattalene 
(Diod. xv. 102). 

Masslcus Mons, a range of hills in the NW. 
of Campania near the frontiers of Latium, cele- 
brated for its excellent wine, the produce of the 
vineyards on the southern slope of the moun- 
tain, which have a volcanic soil. The celebrated 
Folernian wine came from the eastern side of 
this mountain. (Verg. Georg. ii. 143, Aen. vii. 
724 ; Hor. Od. i. 1, 19; Col. iii. 8.) 

M assicytus or Massicytes ( Moo-ctikuttjj), one 
of the principal mountain chains of Lycia. 

Massilia (MaoaaAia : MarriraAiwTns, Massili- 
ensis : Marseilles), a Greek city in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, on the coast of the Mediterranean, in 
the country of the Salyes. It was situated on 



MASSILLA. 



533 



a promontory, which was connected with the 
mainland by a narrow isthmus, and was washed 
on three sides by the sea. Its excellent harbour, 
called Lacydon (Mel. ii. 5), the old port, was 
formed by a small inlet of the sea, about half a 
mile long and a quarter of a mile broad. This 
harbour had only a narrow opening, and before 
it lay an island, where ships had good anchorage. 




Plan of the Neighbourhood of Marseilles. 
A. site of the modern town ; E, mount above the citadel,; 
C, modern port ; D, Pont Xeuf ; E. citadel ; F, Catalan 
village and harbour; G, Port l'Endoome ; H, I. d'lf; 
I, Rateneau I. ; K, Pomegues I. 

Massilia was founded by the Phocaeans of Asia 
Minor about B.C. 600, according to the tradi- 
tions, by friendly agreement with the natives, 
and soon became a very flourishing city. (Athen. 
p. 576 ; Justin, xliii. 3.) It extended its dominion 
over the barbarous tribes in its neighbourhood, 
and planted several colonies on the coast of 
Gaul and Spain, such as Antipolis, Nicaea, 
and Emporium. Its naval power and com- 
mercial greatness soon excited the jealousy of 
the Carthaginians, who made war upon the city, 
but the Massilians not only maintained their 
independence, but defeated the Carthaginians 
in a sea-fight (Thuc. i. 13 ; Paus. x. 8, 6). At ' 
an early period they cultivated the friendship 
of the Romans, to whom they always continued 
faithful allies. Accordingly when the SE. 
corner of Gaul was made a Boman province, 
the Romans allowed Massilia to retain its inde- 

j pendence and its own constitution. (Liv. xxi. 20 ; 
Pol. iii. 95 ; Cic. pro Font. 1 ; Caes. B. C. i. 35.) 

j This constitution was aristocratic. The city 
was governed by a senate of 600 persons called 

I Timuchi. From these were selected 15 presi- 
dents, who formed a sort of committee for 
carrying on the ordinary business of the govern- 
ment, and three of these were intrusted with 




Coin of Mii6sllia (4th cent. B.C.). 
Obv., head of Artemis, crowned with olive wreath ; rtft?., 
MA12A, Hon. 

the executive power. (Strab. p. 179 ; Cic. de Rep. 
i. 27, 43.) The inhabitants retained the religious 
rites of their mother country, and they honoured 
especially the Ephesian Artemis, whose statue 
was said to have been brought from Ephesus 
together with the shoot of the first olive planted 
at Massilia. Massilia was for many centuries 
one of the most important commercial cities in 
the ancient world. In the civil war between 
Caesar and Pompey (B.C. 49), it espoused the 



634 



OKPHEUS 



ORTOSPANA 



ment of their Bacchanalian orgies. After his 
death, the Muses collected the fragments of his 
body, and buried them at Libethra at the foot 
of Olympus, where the nightingale sang sweetly 
over his grave. His head was thrown into the 
Hebrus, down which it rolled into the sea, and 
was borne across to Lesbos, where the grave in 
which it was interred was shown at Antissa. 
His lyre was also said to have been carried to 
Lesbos ; and both traditions are simply poetical 
expressions of the historical fact that Lesbos 
was the first great seat of the music of the lyre : 
indeed Antissa itself was the birthplace of Terp- 
ander, the earliest historical musician. The 
astronomers taught that the lyre of Orpheus 
was placed by Zeus among the stars, at the 
intercession of Apollo and the Muses (Hyg. 
Astr. ii. 7). In these legends there are some 
points which are sufficiently clear. The inven- 
tion of music, in connexion with the services 
of Apollo and the Muses ; its first great applica- 
tion to the worship of the gods, which Orpheus 
is therefore said to have introduced ; its power 
over the passions, and the importance which 
the Greeks attached to the knowledge of it, as 
intimately allied with the very existence of all 




Orpheus. (From a mosaic.) 



social order — are probably the chief elementary 
ideas of the whole legend. But then comes in 
one of the dark features of the Greek religion, 
in which the gods envy the advancement of 
man in knowledge and civilisation, and punish 
anyone who transgresses the bounds assigned 
to humanity : or the conflict was viewed, not as 
between the gods and man, but between the 
worshippers of different divinities : between 
Apollo, the symbol of pure intellect, and Dio- 
nysus, the deity of the senses ; hence Orpheus, 
the servant of Apollo, falls a victim to the 
jealousy of Dionysus and the fury of his wor- 
shippers. — Orphic Societies and Mysteries. 
About the time of the first development of Greek 
philosophy, societies were formed, consisting of 
persons called the followers of Orpheus (oi 
'Op<piKoi), who, under the pretended guidance of 
Orpheus, dedicated themselves to the worship 
of Dionysus. They performed the rites of a 
mystical worship, but instead of confining their 
notions to the initiated, they published them to 
others, and committed them to literary works. 
Hence Orpheus is spoken of as the originator 
of mysteries (Eur. Hipp. 953, Bhes. 944 ; 
Aristoph. Ban. 1032). The Dionysus to whose 
worship the Orphic rites were annexed was 
Dionysus Zagreus, closely connected with 
Demeter and Core (Persephone) [see p. 296]. 
The Orphic legends and poems related in great 
part to this Dionysus, upon whom the Orphic 



mystics founded their hopes of the purification 
and ultimate immortality of the soul. But 
their mode of celebrating this worship was very 
different from the popular rites of Bacchus, 
The Orphic worshippers of Bacchus did not 
indulge in unrestrained pleasure and frantic 
enthusiasm, but rather aimed at an ascetic 
purity of life and manners. The Orpheus 
of this mythology has an Oriental and 
Egyptian character, differing altogether from 
Orpheus the servant of Apollo and the Muses. 
— Many poems ascribed to Orpheus were cur- 
rent as early as the time of the Pisistratids. 
[Onomacbitus.] They are often quoted by 
Plato, and the allusions to them in later writers 
are very frequent (Plat. Crat. p. 402, Phileb. 
p. 66, Rep. p. 364 ; Paus. ix. 30). The extant 
poems which bear the name of Orpheus are 
the forgeries of Christian grammarians and 
philosophers of the Alexandrian school ; but 
among the fragments, which form a part of the 
collection, are some genuine remains of that 
Orphic poetry which was known to Plato, and 
which must be assigned to the period of Ono- 
macritus, or perhaps a little earlier. The 
Orphic literature which in this sense may be 
called genuine seems to have included Hymns, 
a Theogony, Oracles, &c. The apocryphal 
productions which have come down to us are: 
(1) Argonautica, an epic poem in 1384 hexame- 
ters, giving an account of the expedition of the 
Argonauts. (2) Hymns, eighty-seven or eighty- 
eight in number, in hexameters, evidently the 
productions of the Neo-Platonic school. (3) 
Lithica (Aidi/cd), treats of properties of stones, 
both precious and common, and their uses in 
divination. (4) Fragments, chiefly of the Theo- 
gony. It is in this class that we find the 
genuine remains of the literature of the early 
Orphic theology, but intermingled with others 
of much later date. — Editions by Hermann, 
1805, Gesner, 1764 ; the Lithica by Abel, 1881. 

Orthia ('OpfWa), a name under which Artemis 
was worshipped at Limnaeum in Laconia, where 
boys were scourged at her altar. This rite is 
usually explained as having replaced human 
sacrifices of an earlier period [see p. 128J ; but 
some modern writers connect it with the severe 
ordeals through which boys are made to pass in 
many uncivilised tribes at the time of puberty. 

Orthosia ('Opdaxria). 1. A city of Caria, on 
the Maeander, with a mountain of the same 
name, where the Rhodians defeated the Carians, 
b. c! 167 (Strab. p. 650 ; Pol. xxx. 5 ; Liv. xlv. 25). 
— 2. A city of Phoenice, S. of the Eleutherus, 
12 Roman miles from Tripolis (Strab. p. 753). 

Orthrus ("OpBpos), the two-headed dog of 
Geryones, who was begotten by Typhon and 
Echidna, and was slain by Heracles. [See p. 
398, b.] 

Ortona Copriov). 1. An ancient town of La- 
tium, on the borders of the Aequi, not far from 
Mt. Algidus. It was taken by the Aequi in B.C. 
481 and 457. (Liv. ii. 43, iii. 30 ; Dionys. viii. 91, 
x. 26.) It was probably destroyed soon after- 
wards, as it is not mentioned again. — 2. (Ortona. 
a Mare), a town of the Prentani on the Adriatic 
coast between the rivers Aternus and Sagrus 
(Strab. p. 242 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 19). 

Ortospana or -um ('OpT6<rirava : probably 
Cabul), a considerable city of the Paropamisa- 
dae, at the sources of a W. tributary of the river 
Coes, and at the junction of three roads, one 
leading N. into Bactria, and the others S. and 
E. into India. It was also called Carura or 
Cabura. (Strab. pp. 514, 723; Ptol. vi. 18, 5; 
Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6.) 



ORTYGIA 



OSTIA 



635 



Ortygia ('Oprvyia). 1. The ancient name of 
Delos. Since Artemis (Diana) and Apollo were 
born at Delos, the poets sometimes call the 
goddess Ortygia, and give the name of Ortygiae 
boves to the oxen of Apollo. The ancients con- 
nected the name with Ortyx ("OpTu£) a quail. 
[See p. 485, b.] — 2. An island near Syracuse. 
[Sybacusae.] — 3. A grove near Ephesus, in 
which the Ephesians asserted that Apollo and 
Artemis were born. Hence Propertius calls the 
Cayster, which flowed near Ephesus, Ortygius 
Cayster. [Ephesus.] 

Orus. [Hobus ; Orion.] 

Osca. 1. (Huesca in Arragonia), an important 
town of the Ilergetes and a Roman colony in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Tar- 
raco to Ilerda, with silver mines ; whence Livy 
speaks of argentum Osciense, though these 
words may perhaps mean silver money coined 
at Osca (Ptol. ii. 6, 68 ; Liv. xxxiv. 10, 46, xl. 
43; Plut. Sert. 14.)— 2. (W. of Huescar in 
Granada), a town of the Turdetani in Hispania 
Baetica (Ptol. ii. 4, 12). 

Oscela. [Lepoxtii.] 

Osci or Oplci ('OiriKoi), appear in very early 
times to have inhabited a large part of central 
Italy, from which they had driven out the Siculi. 
The earliest Greek colonists of the Campanian 
coast found the people, whom they called 'Ottiko'i 
in possession of that country (Thuc. vi. 4 ; Ar. 
Pol. vii. 10). The Ausones seem to have been 
a branch of the Oscans. In language the Oscans 
(whose name means ' peasant labourers ') belong 
to the stock from which come the Samnites, but 
they were subdued by a later Samnite immigra- 
tion. By a strange mistake Strabo (p. 283) re- 
presents the Fabulae Atellanae as acted at 
Rome in the Oscan language. This language 
would have been unintelligible at Rome (Liv. x. 
10 ; Gell. xvii. 17 ; Macrob. vi. 4, 23), but the 
plays in question were called Osci ludi, because 
they had their origin in the Oscan town Atella, 
and the Oscan country was regarded as the 
scene of the play. 

Osi, a people in Germany, probably in the 
mountains between the sources of the Oder and 
the Gran, tributary to the Sarmatians, spoke 
the Pannonian language (Tac. Germ. 28, 43). 

Osicerda. [Ossigerda.] 

Osiris ("Oaripts), the great Egyptian divinity, 
and husband of Isis. His worship, witli that of 
Isis, was the most widely extended in Egypt 
(Hdt. ii. 42), and the most highly regarded, be- 
cause the mysteries of these deities contained 
the most important secrets of Egyptian wisdom. 
In Egyptian mythology Ra (Amen-Ra or Khem 
Ra), the Sun, was father of Shu, the Air ; Seb, 
the son of Shu (whom the Greeks called Cronus 
and the Latins Saturnus) was the Earth ; Osiris 
was the son of Seb and signified Water, and 
also in a mystic sense stood for the Past or 
completed existence. It was natural in Egypt 
above all countries that the god who was the 
son of the Earth-deity and himself the deity of 
Water should be the god of nil fruitfulness. On 
the other hand, as god of the past, Osiris repre- 
sented the deceased, as Ra represented the 
reigning, king. Moreover, from his connexion 
with the earth and its fruits, as well as from 
his being the deity of the past, lie was the chief 
deity of the underworld. According to the 
story of his life upon earth, he is said to have 
been originally king of Egypt, and to have re- 
claimed his subjects from a barbarous life by 
teaching them agriculture and enacting wise 
laws. He afterwards travelled into foreign 
lands, spreading, wherever he went, the bless- 



I ings of civilisation. On his return to Egypt, ho 
was murdered by his brother Typhon (Set), who 
shut him up in a chest, poured in molten lead, 
and then cut his body into pieces, and threw them 

! into the Nile. After a long search Isis dis- 
covered the mangled remains of her husband, 

: and buried them at Abydos, in Upper Egypt. 

I Then with the assistance of her son Horus, she 
defeated Typhon, and recovered the sovereign 
power, which Typhon had usurped. [See Isis ; 
Horus.] Osiris was thus regarded as the god 
of the dead and, through his son Horus, ot 
renewed life. This mythology finds its counter- 
part in the mysteries of Dionysus-Zagreus [see 
p. 296], whose story presents many similarities. 
Hence Osiris was identified with Dionysus by 
the Greeks. The ' voyage of Osiris,' when in his 
feast at Abydos he was launched in a sacred 
ship on the lake has also perhaps some remi- 
niscence in the myths of Dionysus [see p. 294]. 

Osismli, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, at 
the NW. extremity of the coast, and in the 
neighbourhood of the modern Quimper and 
Brest (Caes. B. G. iii. 9 ; Strab. p. 195). 

Osroene ('OcporjW) : 'Ocrporiuoi, pi. : Pashalik 
of Orfah), the W. of the two portions into which 
N. Mesopotamia was divided by the river Cha- 
boras (Khabour), which separated it from 
Mygdonia on the E. and from the rest of Meso- 
potamia on the S. : the Euphrates divided it, on 
the W. and NW., from the Syrian districts of 
Chalybonitis, Cyrrhestice, and Commagene : 
and on the N. it was separated by M. Masius 
from Armenia (Procop. Pers. i. 17 ; Dio Cass, 
xl. 19 ; Amm. Marc. xxi v. 1). Its name was said 
to be derived from Osroes, an Arabian chieftain, 
who, in the time of the Seleucidae, established 
over it a petty principality, with Edessa for its 
capital, which lasted till the reign of Caracalla. 
For its history see Abgarus. 

Ossa {"Oatra : Kissavo, i.e. ivy-dad), a cele- 
brated mountain in the N. of Magnesia, in 
Thessaly, connected with Pelion on the SE., and 
divided from Olympus on the NW. by the vale 
of Tempe. It is one of the highest mountains 
in Greece, but much less lofty than Olympus. 
(Od. xi. 312 ; Hdt. vii. 129 ; Strab. pp. 430, 442.) 
It is mentioned by Homer, in the legend of the 
war of the Giants ; respecting which see 
Olympus. 

Osset, with the surname Constantia Julia a 
town in Hispania Baetica, on the right bank of 
the Boetic opposite Hispahs (Plm in 11) 

Ossigerda or Osicerda (Ossigerdensis), a town 
of the Edetani in Hispania Tarraconensis, and 
a Roman mnnicipinm (Plin. iii. 24). 

Ossigi [Maquiz), a town of the Turduli in 
Hispania Baetica, on the spot where the Baetis 
first enters Baetica (Plin. iii. 10). 

Ossonoba (Estoy, N. of Faro), a town of the 
j Turdetani in Lusitania, between the Tagus and 
Anas (Ptol. ii. 5, 8). 

Osteodes, probably also Ustica ('Oo-TftiSijs 
vr\(Toi : Alicur), an island at some distance from 
the N. coast of Sicily, opposite the town of Soli, 
and west of the Aeolian islands (Diod. v. 11). 
Pliny and Ptolemy distinguish Osteodes from 
Ustica, but there is only one island to fit the 
; two names (Plin. iii. 92 ; Ptol. iii. 4, 17). 

Ostia (Ostiensis : Ostia), a town at the mouth 
of the river Tiber, and the harbour of Rome, 
from which it was distant sixteen miles by land, 
I was situated on the left bank of the left arm of 
the river. It was founded by Ancus Martius, 
J the fonrth king of Rome (who is said to have 
established the salt-works there), was a Roman 
I colony, and eventually became an important 



636 



OSTIA 



and flourishing town, and a permanent station 
of the Roman fleet. (Liv. i. 33, xxii. 11, xxv. 
20, xxvii. 22 ; Dionys. hi. 44 Cio. Bep. ii. 3, 18 ; 
Strab. p. 232.) In the civil wars it was destroyed 
hy Marius, but it was soon rebuilt with greater 
splendour than before (App. B. C. i. 67). The 
emperor Claudius constructed a new and better 
harbour on the right arm of the Tiber, which 
was enlarged and improved by Trajan (Dio Cass, 
lx. 11 ; Suet. Claud. 20 ; Juv. xii. 75). This new 
harbour was called simply Portus Bomanus or 
Portus Augusti, and around it there sprang up 
a flourishing town, also called Portus (which in 
the reign of Constantine was made an episcopal 
see) : the inhabitants Portuenses. The old town 
of Ostia remained for some time a populous city, 
and was adorned with a forum and other build- 
ings by Hadrian, Sept. Severus, Aurelian and 
Tacitus (Vopis. Aurel. 45, Tac. 10) ; but in the 
later empire Ostia gradually declined, and its 
harbour became choked with sand. The ruins 
of Ostia are between two and three miles from 
the coast, as the sea has gradually receded in 
consequence of the accumulation of sand de- 
posited by the Tiber. 

Ostia Nili. [Nilus.] 

Ostorius Scapula. [Scapula.] 

Ostra (Ostranus), a town in Umbria, in the 
territory of the Senones (Ptol. iii. 1, 51). 

Otacilius Crassus. 1. M., consul b. c. 263, 
when he besieged Syracuse and forced Hiero to 
make a treaty with Rome. He was again consul 
in 246. (Ptol.i. 16.)— 2. T., brother of the pre- 
ceding, consul in 261. — 3. T., a Roman general 
during the second Punic war, was praetor B. c. 
217, and subsequently propraetor in Sicily. In 
215 he crossed over to Africa, and laid waste the 
Carthaginian coast. He was praetor for the 
second time 214, and his command was pro- 
longed for three years. He died in Sicily, 211. 
(Liv. xxii. 10, 56, xxiv. 7, xxv. 31, xxvi. 22.) 

Otacilius Pilutus, L. [Voltacxlius.J 

Otanes ('OrafTjj). 1. A Persian, son of Phar- 
naspes, was the first who suspected the impos- 
ture of Smerdis the Magian, and took the chief 
part in organising the conspiracy against the 
pretender (b. c. 521). After the accession of 
Darius Hystaspis, he was placed in command of 
the Persian force which invaded Samos for the 
purpose of placing Syloson, brother of Poly- 
crates, in the government. (Hdt. iii. 68, 141 ; 
Strab. p. 638.) — 2. A Persian, son of Sisamnes, 
succeeded Megabyzus (b.c. 506) in the command 
of the forces on the sea-coast, and took Byzan- 
tium, Chalcedon, Antandrus, and Lamponiurn, 
as well as the islands of Lemnos and Imbros. 
He was probably the same Otanes who is men- 
tioned as a son-in-law of Darius Hystaspis, and 
as a general employed against the revolted 
Ionians in 499. (Hdt. v. 102, vi. 6.) 

Otho, L. Koscius, tribune of the plebs b.c. 
67, was a warm supporter of the aristocratical 
party. He opposed the proposal of Gabinius 
to bestow upon Pompey the command of the 
war against the pirates ; and in the same year 
he proposed and carried the law which gave to 
the equites a special place at the public spec- 
tacles, in fourteen rows or seats (in quattuor- 
decim gradibus sive ordinibus) next to the 
place of the senators, which was in the or- 
chestra. This law was very unpopular ; and in 
Cicero's consulship (63) there was such a riot 
occasioned by the obnoxious measure, that it 
required all his eloquence to allay the agitation. 
(Veil. Pat. ii. 32 ; Cic. pro Muren. 19, ad Att. 
ii. 1 ; Tac. Ann. xv. 32 ; Hor. Epod. iv. 15, Bp. 
i. 1, 62 ; Juv. iii. 159, xiv. 324.) 



OTHO 

Otho, Salvius. 1. EL, grandfather of the 
emperor Otho, was descended from an ancient 
and noble family of the town of Ferentinum, 
in Etruria. His father was a Roman eques; 
his mother was of low origin, perhaps even a 
freedwoman. Through the influence of Livia 
Augusta, in whose house he had been brought 
up, Otho was made a Roman senator, and 
eventually obtained the praetorship, but was 
not advanced to any higher honour (Suet. Oth. 
1 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 50). — 2. L., son of the pre- 
ceding, and father of the emperor Otho, stood 
so high in the favour of Tiberius and resembled 
this emperor so strongly in person, that it was 
supposed by most that he was his son. He was, 
consul suff ectus in a.d. 33 ; was afterwards pro- 
consul in Africa ; and in 42 was sent into Illy- 
ricum, where he restored discipline among the 
soldiers, who had lately rebelled against Clau- 
dius. At a later time he detected a conspiracy 
which had been formed against the life of 
Claudius. (Suet. Oth. 1, Galb. 6.)— 3. L., sur- 
named Titiartus, elder son of No. 2, was consul 
52, and proconsul in Asia 63, when he had 
Agricola for his quaestor. It is related to the 
honour of the latter that he was not corrupted 
by the example of his superior officer, who 
indulged in every kind of rapacity (Tac. Agr. 6). 
On the death of Galba in January 69, Titianus 
was a second time made consul, with his brother 
Otho, the emperor. On the death of the latter, 
he was pardoned by Vitellius (Tac. Hist. i. 75, 
ii. 23, 39, 60). — 4. M., Roman emperor from 
January loth to April 16th, a.d. 69, was the 




Coin of Otho, Roman Emperor, A.D. 69. 
I Obr.. head of Otho, IMP. M. OTHO CAESAR AVGVS. TR. 
P.; rev., Victory, VICTORIA OTHONIS. (Denarius.) 

younger son of No. 2. He was born in the 
early part of 32. He was of moderate stature, 
and had an effeminate appearance. He was 
one of the companions of Nero in his debauch- 
eries ; but when the emperor took possession 
of his wife, the beautiful but profligate Poppaea 
Sabina, Otho was sent as governor to Lusitania, 
which he administered with credit during the 
last ten years of Nero's life. Otho attached 
himself to Galba when he revolted against 
Nero, in the hope of being adopted by him and 
succeeding to the empire. But when Galba 
adopted L. Piso, on the 10th of January, 69, 
Otho formed a conspiracy against Galba, and 
was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers at 
Rome, who put Galba to death. Meantime 
Vitellius had been proclaimed emperor at 
Cologne by the German troops on the 3rd of 
January ; and his generals forthwith set out for 
Italy to place their master on the throne. 
When these news reached Otho, he marched 
into the north of Italy to oppose the generals 
of Vitellius. The fortune of war was at first in 
his favour. He defeated Caecina, the general 
of Vitellius, in more than one engagement ; but 
his army was subsequently defeated in a deci- 
sive battle near Bedriacum by the united forces 
of Caecina and Valens. He had sufficient 
forces to continue the contest, but declared that 
he desired not to involve his country in more 
bloodshed or to risk the lives of his friends, and 



OTHRYADES 
put an end to his own life at Brixelluin, in the 



OVIDIUS 



637 




East of Otho. 

thirty-seventh year of his age. (Suet. Otho ; 
Plut. Otho; Tac. Hist. i.,ii. ; Dio Cass.briv.) 

Othryades COBpvdSvs). 1. [Panthous.] — 2. 
A Spartan, one of the 300 selected to fight with 
an equal number of Argives for the possession 
of Thyrea. Othryades was the only Spartan 
who survived the battle, and was left for dead. 
He spoiled the dead bodies of the enemy, and 
remained at his post, while Alcenor and Chro- 
mius, the two survivors of the Argive party, 
hastened home with the news of victory, sup- 
posing that all their opponents had been slain. 
As the victory was claimed by both sides, a 
general battle ensued, in which the Argives 
were defeated. Othryades slew himself on the 
field, being ashamed to return to Sparta as the 
one survivor of her 300 cliampions. (Hdt. i. 82 ; 
Thuc. v. 41 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 663 ; Anth. Pal. i. 63.) 

Othrys (*O0pvs), a lofty range of mountains 
in the S. of Thessaly, which extended from Mt. 
Tymphrestus, or the most southerly part of 
Pindus, to the E. coast and the promontory 
between the Pagasaean gulf and the N. point 
of Euboea. It shut in the great Thessalian 
plain on the S. (Hdt. vii. 129; Strab. p. 432; 
Verg. Aen. vii. 675; Lucan, vi. 337.) 

Ottorocorra('OTTopo(coppor),amountain range 
of Serica at the east of the Emodi Montes 
(Ptol. vi. 16, 2), apparently the Pe-Ling Moun- 
tains of China. The name of the Attacori, 
who are compared to the Hyperborei, is another 
form of the same word (Plin. vi. 55). 

Otus, and his brother, Ephialtes, are better 
known by their name of the Aloidae. [Aloevs.] 

P. Ovldlus Naso, the Roman poet, was born 
at Sulmo, in the country of the Paeligni, on 
March 20, B.C. 43 (Ov. .4m. ii. 1, 1, iii. 15, 11, 
Pont. iv. 14, 19, Tritt. iv. 10, 5). He was 
descended from an ancient equestrian family, 
but possessing only moderate wealth (Trist. ii. 
113, iv. 10, 7). He, as well as his brother 
Lucius, who was exactly a year older than him- 
self, was destined to be a pleader, and received 
a careful education to qualify him for that 
calling. He studied rhetoric under Arellius 
Fuscus and Porcius Latro, and attained to con- 
siderable proficiency in the art of declamation. 
But the bent of his genius showed itadf very' 
early. The hours which should have boen spent 



I in the study of jurisprudence were employed 
I in cultivating his poetical talent. The elder 
I Seneca, who liad heard him declaim, tells us 
i that his oratory' resembled a solutum carmen, 
' and that anything in the way of argument was 
irksome to him (Sen. Controv. ii. 10, 8). His 
father denounced his favourite pursuit as lead- 
I ing to inevitable poverty ; but the death of his 
brother, at the early age of twenty, probably 
served in some degree to mitigate his father's 
opposition, for the patrimony which would have 
been scanty for two might amply suffice for one 
I Trist. iv. 10, 35). Ovid's education was com- 
pleted at Athens, where he made himself 
thoroughly master of the Greek language {Trist. 

i. 2, 77, Pont. ii. 10, 21). Afterwards he tra- 
velled with the poet Maeer, in Asia and Sicily. 
It is a disputed point whether he ever actually 
practised as an advocate after his return to 

, Rome. The picture Ovid himself draws of his 
i weak constitution and indolent temper prevents 
us from thinking that he ever followed his pro- 
fession with perseverance, if indeed at all. The 
same causes deterred him from entering the 
senate, though he had put on the latus claws 
when he assumed the toga virilis, as being by 
birth entitled to aspire to the senatorial dignity 
(Trist. iv. 10, 29). He became, however, one of 
the Triumviri Capitales ; and he was subse- 
quently' made one of the Centumviri, or judges 
who tried testamentary and even criminal 
causes ; and in due time he was promoted to be 
one of the Decemviri, who assembled and pre- 
sided over the court of the Centumviri (Trist. 

ii. 93, iv. 10, 33, Pont. iii. 5, 23, Fast. iv. 383). 
— Such is all the account that can be given of 
Ovid's business life. He married twice in early 
life at the desire of his parents, but he speedily 
divorced each of his wives in succession (Trist. 
iv. J.0, 69). The restraint of a wife was irksome 
to a man like Ovid, who was devoted to gal- 
lantry and licentious life. His third marriage 
was a happier one : he was sincerely attached 
to his wife (whose name is thought to have been 
Fabia), and she remained faithful to him in his 
exile. He had a legitimate daughter, who was 
twice married (Trist. iv. 10, 75). Her name is 
not mentioned ; for it is certain that she was 
not, as some have stated, the Perilla of whom 
he speaks in Trist. iii. 7. Ovid was a grand- 
father before he lost his father at the age of 
ninety ; soon after whose decease his mother 
also died. Till his fiftieth year Ovid continued 
to reside at Rome, where he had a house near 
the Capitol, occasionally taking a trip to his 
Pelignan farm. Much speculation has been 
wasted on the question who the Corinna cele- 

] brated in the Amores was. In Trist. iv. 10, 60, 
he says that it was not a real name, and long 
afterwards, in the fifth century A.D., Sidonius 
Apollinaris imagined the allusions to her to be 
designedly mysterious, and started the notion 
that she was Julia, the daughter of Augustus 
(Sid. Apoll. xxiii. 159). That this Julia should 
i have been the mistress of Ovid is improbable, 
and there is no evidence for it ; on the contrary 
' he speaks of Corinna in a way in which he 
certainly would not have ventured to speak of 
the emperor's daughter, even under a feigned 
name. The suggestion of Sidonius should 
therefore be absolutely rejected. It is not even 
certain that Corinna represents a real mistress 
of Ovid, and it is quite allowable to hold, as 
many modern critics do, that Corinna was only 
'a nuine round which Ovid grouped many ex- 
periences and memories, and something of a 
continuous story.' Ovid enjoyed not only the 



C38 



OVIDIUS 



friendship of a large circle of distinguished 
men, but the regard and favour of Augustus 
and the imperial family. But in a.d. 1 Ovid 
was suddenly commanded by an imperial edict 
to transport himself to Tomi (Kustindje), a 
town on the Euxine, near the mouths of the 
Danube, on the very border of the empire 
(Trist. iv. 8, 83, iv. 10, 97). He underwent no 
trial, and the sole reason for his banishment is 
stated by some writers to have been his having 
published his poem on the Art of Love (Sidon. 
xxiii. 157 ; Vict. Epit. i. 27). The real cause 
of his banishment has long exercised the inge- 
nuity of scholars. The publication of the Ars 
Amatoria may well have offended Augustus, 
who wished to advocate marriage and domestic 
life among his subjects (Trist. ii. 7, 112), but 
the poem had been published nearly ten years 
previously ; and, moreover, whenever Ovid 
alludes to that, the ostensible cause, he in- 
variably couples with it another which he 
mysteriously conceals, ' duo crimina carmen et 
error ' (Trist. ii. 207). He says repeatedly that 
it was error, not scelus or f acinus (Trist. i. 3, 
37, iii. 1, 52, iv. 10, 90). Hence it can scarcely 
have been owing to a guilty intrigue with the 
younger Julia, as some have supposed. The 
clue may possibly be given in his words .which 
blame his eyes as guilty for having witnessed a 
crime (Trist. ii. 103, iii. 5, 49, Pont. iii. 3, 74), 
and it is a probable explanation that he had 
become acquainted with Julia's profligacy by 
accident, and by concealing it had given offence 
to Livia, or Augustus, or both. Ovid draws an 
affecting picture of the miseries to which he 
was exposed in his place of exile (Trist. i. 3), 
which was a relegatio, not an exsilium pro- 
perly so called, i.e. he retained his civitas and 
his property, but could not, until the sentence 
was revoked, leave the place assigned for his 
residence (Trist. ii. 137, v. 11). He complains 
of the inhospitable soil, of the severity of the 
climate, and of the perils to which he was 
axposed when the barbarians plundered the 
surrounding country and insulted the very 
walls of Tomi. He supplicated Augustus to 
change his place of banishment, and besought 
his friends to use their influence in his behalf. 
In the midst of all his misfortunes, however, 
he sought some relief in the exercise of his 
poetical talents. Not only did he finish his 
Fasti in his exile, besides writing the Ibis, the 
Tristia, Ex Ponto, &c, but he likewise ac- 
quired the language of the Getae, in which he 
composed some poems in honour of Augustus. 
These he publicly recited, and they were received 
with tumultuous applause by the Tomitae. With 
his new fellow-citizens, indeed, he had succeeded 
in rendering himself highly popular, insomuch 
that they honoured him with a decree declaring 
him exempt from all public burdens. He died 
at Tomi in the sixtieth year of his age, a.d. 18. 
— The following is a list of Ovid's works, 
arranged, as far as possible, in chronological 
order : — (1) Amorum Libri III, the earliest of 
the poet's works. According to the epigram 
prefixed, the work, as we now possess it, is a 
second edition, revised and abridged, the former 
one having consisted of five books. (Ed. L. 
Miiller, 1867.) (2) Epistolae Heroidum, twenty- 
one in number. (Ed. by Palmer, 1874 ; Shuck- 
burgh, 1879.) Of these it is generally held with 
some reason that the epistle of Sappho, and the 
last six in pairs each of an epistle and an 
answer (viz. Paris, Helena, Leander, Hero, 
Acontius, Cydippe), are by an imitator, though 
some critics think that the last six may be a 



work of Ovid's later years. Most of the others 
(including also a Sappho) are mentioned by 
Ovid himself in Amor. ii. 18, 21-40 ; where he 
also says that answers were written by Sabinus. 
(3) Ars Amatoria, or De Arte Amandi, written 
about B.C. 2. At the time of Ovid's banish- 
ment this poem was ejected from the public 
libraries by command of Augustus. (Ed. by 
Williams, 1884.) (4) Bemedia Amoris, in one 
book. (5) To the poems of this period belongs 
the Medicamina Faciei, an advice to ladies on 
their toilet, of which only portions remain (cf. 
A. A. iii. 205). (6) Metamorphoseon Libri XV. 
This, the greatest of Ovid's poems in bulk and 
pretensions, appears to have been written be- , 
tween the age of forty and fifty, and for its 
matter is indebted to Alexandrian authors, 
especially to Nicander and Parthenius. It 
consists of such legends or fables as involved a 
transformation, from the Creation to the time 
of Julius Caesar, the last being that emperor's 
change into a star. It is thus a sort of cyclic 
poem, made up of distinct episodes, but con- 
nected into one narrative thread with much 
skill. (Ed. by Haupt, Korn, and H. J. Miiller 
1871-78, and Zingerle, Prague, 1885.) (7) Fasto- 
rum Libri XII, of which only the first six are 
extant. This work was incomplete at the time 
of Ovid's banishment. Indeed, he had perhaps 
done little more than collect the materials for 
it ; for that the fourth book was written in 
Pontus appears from ver. 88. The Fasti is a 
sort of poetical Roman calendar, with its appro- 
priate festivals and mythology, and the sub- 
stance was probably taken in a great measure 
from the old Roman annalists. The work shows 
a good deal of learning, but it has been observed 
that Ovid makes frequent mistakes in his astro- 
nomy, from not understanding the books from 
which he took it. (Ed. by Merkel, 1841, 1873 ; 
Peter, Lips. 1879 ; Paley, 1888 ; Hallam, 1881.) 
(8) Tristium Libri V, elegies written during 
the first four years of vid's banishment. They 
are chiefly made up of descriptions of his 
afflicted condition, and petitions for mercy. 
The tenth elegy of the fourth book is valuable, 
as containing many particulars of Ovid's life. 
(Ed. by Owen, 1889.) (9) Epistolarum ex Ponto 
Libri IV, are also in the elegiac metre, and 
much the same in substance as the Tristia, to 
which they were subsequent. It must be con- 
fessed that age and misfortune seem to have 
damped Ovid's genius both in this and the pre- 
ceding work. Even the versification is more 
slovenly, and some of the lines very prosaic. 
(10) Ibis, a satire of between 600 and 700 elegiac 
verses, also written in exile. The poet inveighs 
in it against an enemy who had traduced him. 
The title, Ibis, was taken from a poem of the 
same kind by Callimachus. Though the variety 
of Ovid's imprecations displays learning and 
fancy, the piece leaves the impression of an 
impotent explosion of rage. The title and plan 
were borrowed from Callimachus. (11) Of the 
Halieuticon, on fishes, written during his exile 
(Plin. xxxii. 11, 152), only fragments remain. Of 
his lost works, the most celebrated was his tra- 
gedy, Medea, of which only two lines remain. 
The Nux, or complaint of the walnut tree, is not 
Ovid's, but is of an early date under the empire. 
The Consolatio ad Liviam, or Epicedion Drusi, 
is also in late MSS. wrongly attributed to Ovid. 
It seems to be the work of an early imitator of 
Ovid, though some writers assign it to the 
fifteenth century a.d. since no earlier MS. of 
it has been discovered. It is not without poeti- 
cal merit. — That Ovid possessed a great poetical 



OXTA 

genius is unquestionable ; which makes it the 
more to be regretted that it was not always 
under the control of a sound judgment. He 
possessed great vigour of fancy, warmth of 
colouring, and marvellous facility of composi- 
tion, but it must not be supposed that this 
facility implies unstudied art. Ovid is a master 
of form and grace of diction. His verses and 
their subjects reflect the grace and polish, and 
the artificiality also, of the most polished society 
of the Augustan age ; indeed, he was the first 
to depart from that pure and correct taste 
which characterises the Gi-eek poets and their 
earlier Latin imitators. His writings abound 
with those conceits which we find so frequently 
in the Italian poets. — Editions of Ovid's com- 
plete works are by Burmann, Amsterdam, 1727 ; 
rjy llerkel, Lips. 1873 ; by Lindemann, 1867. 

Oxia Palus, or Ozianus Lacus (the Sea of 
Aral), the lake or inland sea formed by the 
rivers Jaxartes and Oxus (Amm. Marc, xxiii. 
6, 59). Ptolemy (vi. 12, 3) knows of it as 
■q 'nfeiaW; \'ifj.vri, but has been misinformed as 
to its size and importance. 

Oxli Montes ito "Cl^eia, or OSfeia, opi) : 
prob. Ak-tagh), a range of mountains between 
the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes : the N. boundary 
of Sogdiana towards Scythia (Ptol. vi. 12, 1). 

Oxus or Oaxus Cfifos, "Cla^os : Jihoun or 
Amou), a great river of Central Asia, rose, 
according to some of the ancient geographers, 
on the N. side of the Paropamisus M. (Hindoo 
Koosh), and, according to others, in the Emodi 
M., and flowed XW., forming the boundary 
between Sogdiana on the N. and Bactria and 
Margiana on the S., and then, skirting the N. 
of Hyrcania, it fell into the Oxia Palus (Sea of 
Aral). The Greek geographers wrongly repre- 
sented the principal arms of the Oxus as flow- 
ing into the Caspian. It is thought that they 
were misled by the deep bay at the south of the 
inland sea, and also by an old river bed trace- 
able for nearly 500 miles through the desert to 
the Caspian Sea. This no doubt was once a 
branch of the Oxus, but only in prehistoric 
times. (Strab. p. 509 ; Plin. vi. 52 ; cf. Pol. x. 
48 ; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6, 52 ; Ptol. vi. 9.) By 
a similar mistake they made the Ochus and 
even the Jaxartes reach the Caspian. 

OxyMi, a Ligurian people on the coast of 
Gallia Narbonensis, W. of the Alps, and be- 
tween the Flumen Argenteum (Argens) and 
Antipolis (Antibes). They were neighbours of 
the Salluvii and Deciates. (Strab. p. 185.) 

Oxylus ("O^vKos), the leader of the Heraclidae 
in their invasion of Peloponnesus, and subse- 
quently king of Elis. [See p. 302, b.] 

Oxyrhynchus ('OfupuTX 05 : Behneseh, Ru.), 
a city of Middle Egypt, on the W. bank of the 
canal which runs parallel to the Nile on its W. 
side (Bahr Yusguf) ; the capital of the Nomoa 
Oxyrhynchites, and chief seat of the worship of 
the fish called oxyrynchus (Strab. p. 812 ; Ptol. 
iv. 5, 59 ; Amm. Marc. xxii. 16 ; Ael. H. A. 46). 

Ozogardana, a city of Mesopotamia on the 
Euphrates, the people of which preserved a 
lofty throne or chair of stone, which they called 
Trajan's judgment-seat (Amm. Marc. xxiv. 2). 



PACUVIUS 



639 



P. 

Pacaris. [Hypacybib.] 

Pacatiana. [Phryoia.] 

Pacatus, Drepanius, a Roman rhetorician 
and a friend of Ausonius, wrote a panegyric on 
Theodosius. — E<1. Blibrens, 1874. 



Paccius or Paccius Antiochus, a physician 
about the beginning of the Christian era, who 
was a pupil of Philonides of Catana, and lived 
probably at Rome. He made a large fortune 
by the sale of a certain medicine of his own 
invention, the composition of which he kept a 
secret. At his death he left his prescription as 
a legacy to the emperor Tiberius, who ordered a 
copy of it to be placed in all the public libraries. 

Pach.es (nax^rl, an Athenian general in the 
Peloponnesian war, took Mytilene and reduced 
Lesbos, B.C. 427- On his return to Athens he 
was brought to trial, and, perceiving his con- 
demnation to be certain, drew his sword and 
stabbed himself in the presence of his judges. 
(Thuc. iii. 18-49 ; Diod. xii. 55 ; Plut. Nic. 6.) 

Pachymeres, Georgius, a Byzantine writer, 
was born about a.d. 1242 at Nicaea, but spent 
the greater part of his life at Constantinople. 
He wrote several works, the most important of 
which is a Byzantine History, containing an 
account of the emperors Michael Palaeologus 
and Andronicus Palaeologus the elder, in thir- 
teen books. — Edited by Bekker, Bonn, 1835. 

Pachynus or Pachyrrum {Capo Passaro), a 
promontory at the SE. extremity of Sicily, and 
one of the three promontories which gave to 
i Sicily its triangular figure, the other two being 
Pelorum and Lilybaeum. By the side of 
Pachynus was a bay, which was used as a har- 
I bour, and which is called by Cicero Portus 
Pachyni (Porto di Palo). (Strab. pp. 265, 272 ; 
Ov. Fast. iv. 479, Met. xiii. 725.) 

Pacllus, the name of a family of the patrician 
Furia gens, mentioned in the early history of 
| the republic (Liv. iv. 12, 22, ix. 33). 

Pacorus. 1. Son of Orodes I., king of Parthia. 
His history is given under Arsaces XIV. — 
2. King of Parthia. r Arsaces XXIV.] 

Pactolus (Uoktu\6s : Sarabat), a small but 
celebrated river of Lydia, rose on the N. side of 
Mt. Tmolus, and flowed N. past Sardis into the 
Hermus, which it joined thirty stadia below 
Sardis. The golden sands of Pactolus have 
passed into a proverb. Lydia was long the gold 
country of the ancient world to the Greeks, its 
streams forming so many gold ' washings ; ' and 
hence the wealth of the Lydian kings, and the 
alleged origin of gold money in that country. 
But the supply of gold was only on the surface, 
and by the beginning of our era it was so far ex- 
hausted as not to repay the trouble of collecting 
it. (Hdt. v. 101 ; Xen. Cyr. vi. 2, 1 ; Strab. p. 
554 ; Soph. Phil. 392 ; Verg. Aen. x. 142.) 

Pactyas (VlaKTvas), a Lydian, who on the 
conquest of Sardis (B.C. 546) was charged by 
Cyrus with the collection of the revenues of the 
province. When Cyrus lolt Sardis on his return 
to Ecbatana, Pactyas induced the Lydians to 
revolt against Cyrus ; but when an army was 
sent against him he first fled to Cyme, then to 
Mytilene, and eventually to Chios. He was 
surrendered by the Chians to the Persians. 

Pactye ina/cTw; : St. George), a town in the 
Thnuian Chcrsonesus, on the Propontis, thirty- 
six stadia from Cardia, to which Alcibiades 
retired when he was banished by the Athenians, 
B.O. 407 (Hdt. vi. 86; Nep. Ale. 7). 

Pactyica I no«Ti/iKT)), the country of the Pac 
tyes (Uoktu(s), in the NW. of India, W. of the 
Indus, and in the 13th satrapy of the Persian 
empire, is probably the NE. part of Afghan- 
istan, about Jellalabad (Hdt. iii. 98, vii. 67). 

M. PacuviUS, one of the early Roman tragi-, 
dians, was born about u.c. 220, at Brundisium, 
and is said to have been the son of the sister of 
Ennius (Euseb. Chron. 156, 3 ; Cic. Brut. 64, 



640 



PADUS 



PAEONBS 



229). Pacuvius appears to have been brought 
up at Brundisium, but he afterwards repaired 
to Borne. Here he devoted himself to painting 
and poetry, and obtained so much distinction 
in the former art that a painting of his in the 
temple of Hercules, in the Forum Boarium, was 
regarded as only inferior to the celebrated 
painting of Fabius Pictor (Plin. xxxv. 19 ; Gell. 
xiii. 2, 2). After living many years at Borne 
(for he was still there in his eightieth year), he 
returned to Brundisium, on account of the 
failure of his health, and died in his native 
town, in the ninetieth year of his age, B.C. 130 
(Gell. i. 24). "We have no further particulars of 
his life, save that his talents gained him the 
friendship of Laelius, and that he lived on the 
most intimate terms with his younger rival, 
Accius. Pacuvius was universally allowed by 
the ancient writers to have been one of the 
greatest of the Latin tragic poets. ("Varro, ap. 
Gell. vii. 14 ; Cic. Opt. Gen. Or. 1, 6, Brut. 74, 
258 ; Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 56 ; Pers. i. 77 ; Mart. xi. 
91 ; Quintil. x. 1, 97.) He is especially praised 
for the loftiness of his thoughts, the vigour of 
his language, and the extent of his knowledge. 
Hence we find the epithet doctus frequently 
applied to him. His tragedies were taken from 
the great Greek writers ; but he did not confine 
himself, like his predecessors, to a mere transla- 
tion of the latter, but worked up his materials 
with more freedom and independent judgment. 
Some of the plays of Pacuvius were not based 
upon the Greek tragedies, but belonged to the 
qlass called Praetextatae, in which the subjects 
were taken from Roman story. One of these 
was entitled Paulas, which had as its hero L. 
Aemilius Paulus, the conqueror of Perseus, 
king of Macedonia. — The fragments of Pacuvius 
are published by Bothe, Poet. Lat. Scenic. 
Fragm. Lips. 1834, and by Bibbeck, 1871. 

Padus (Po), the chief river of Italy, whose 
name (by a doubtful etymology) is said to have 
been of Celtic origin, and to have been given it 
on account of the pine trees (in Celtic padi) 
which grew on its banks (Plin. iii. 122). In the 
Ligurian language it was called Bodencus or 
Bodincus. Almost all later writers identified 
the Padus with the fabulous Eridanus, from 
which amber was obtained ; and hence the 
Soman poets frequently give the name of Eri- 
danus to the Padus. The reason of this identi- 
fication appears to have been that the Phoenician 
vessels received at the mouths of the Padus 
the amber which had been transported by land 
from the coasts of the Baltic to those of the 
Adriatic. The Padus rises from two springs on 
the E. side of Mt. Vesula (Monte Viso) in the 
Alps, and flows with a general easterly direction 
through the great plain of Cisalpine Gaul, which 
it divides into two parts, Gallia Cispadana and 
Gallia Transpadana. Its importance to N. 
Italy gained for it the title ' King of Bivers ' 
(Verg. Georg. i. 482), and Strabo believed it to 
be the largest river in Europe after the Danube 
(Strab. p. 204). It receives numerous affluents, 
which drain the whole of this vast plain, de- 
scending from the Alps on the N. and the 
Apennines on the S. These affluents, increased 
in the summer by the melting of the snow on 
the mountains, frequently bring down such a 
large body of water as to cause the Padus to 
overflow its banks. Hence through a long 
course of centuries the embankments of the 
river have been constantly raised to meet the 
silting up of the bed until it flows often high 
above the adjacent plain. Pliny states that 
works to relieve the overflow by cutting addi- 



i tional channels were made by the Etruscans 
during their occupation of that country (Plin. 
iii. 120). The whole course of the river, includ- 
ing its windings, is about 450 miles. About 
twenty miles from the sea the river divides 
itself into two main branches, of which the N. 
one was called Padoa (Maestra, Po Grande, 
or Po delle Fornaci) and the S. one Olana 
(Po d'Ariano) ; and each of these now falls 
into the Adriatic by several mouths. The 
ancient writers enumerate seven of these 
mouths, some of which were canals. They lay 
between Bavenna and Altinum, and bore the 
following names, according to Pliny, beginning 
with the S. and ending with the N. (1) Padusa, 
also called Augusta Fossa, was a canal dug by 
Augustus, which connected Bavenna with the 
Po. (2) Vatrenus, also called Eridanum Ostium 
or Spineticum Ostium (Po di Primaro), from 
the town of Spina at its mouth. (3) Ostium 
Caprasiae (Porto Interito di bell' Ochio). (4) 
Ostium Sagis (Porto di Magnavacca). . (5) 
Olane or Volane, the S. main branch of the 
river, mentioned above. (6) Padoa, the N. main 
branch, subdivided into several small branches 
called Ostia Carbonaria. (7) Fossae Philistinae, 
connecting the river, by means of the Tartarus, 
with the Athesis. (Plin. I.e.) 
Padusa. [Padus.] 

Paean (Xlaidy, naiiicov, riaiW), in Homer the 
physician of the gods (II. v. 401, 899) ; later a 
designation of Apollo and of Asclepius. 

Paeania (Xlaiavia: Tlaiavievs), a demus in 
Attica, on the E. slope of Mt. Hymettus, belong- 
ing to the tribe Pandionis. It was the demus 
of the orator Demosthenes. 

Paemani, a people of German origin in Gallia 
Belgica (Caes. B. G. ii. 4). 

Paeones (Ua'wyes), a powerful Thracian people, 
who in early times were srjread over a great part 
of Macedonia and Thrace. According to a legend 
preserved by Herodotus, they were of Teucrian 
origin ; and it is not impossible that they were 
a branch of the great Phrygian people, a portion 
of which seems to have settled in Europe [Phry- 
GIa]. In Homer the Paeonians appear as allies 
of the Trojans, and are represented as having 
come from the river Axius (II. ii. 848, xvi. 287, 
xxi. 139). In historical times they inhabited 
the whole of the N. of Macedonia, from the 
frontiers of Illyria to some little distance E. of 
the river Strymon. Their country was called 
Paeonia (Uawvia) ■ The Paeonians were divided 
into several tribes, independent of each other, 
and governed by their own chiefs ; though at a 
later period they appear to have owned the 
authority of one king. The Paeonian tribes on 
the lower course of the Strymon were subdued 
by the Persians, B. c. 513, and many of them 
were transplanted to Phrygia ; but the tribes in 
the N. of the country maintained their independ- 
ence. (Thuc. ii. 99 ; Pol. v. 97 ; Strab. pp. 313, 
318, 331.) They were long troublesome neigh- 
bours to the Macedonian monarchs, whose ter- 
ritories they frequently invaded and plundered ; 
but they were eventually subdued by Philip, 
the father of Alexander the Great, who allowed 
them nevertheless to retain their own monarchs 
(Diod. xix. 2, 4, 22, xvii. 8). They continued to 
be governed by their own kings till a much later 
period ; and these kings were often virtually in- 
dependent of the Macedonian monarchy. Thus 
we read of their king Audoleon, whose daughter 
Pyrrhus married. After the conquest of Mace- 
donia by the Bomans, 168, the part of Paeonia 
E. of the Axius formed the second, and the part 
of Paeonia W. of the Axius formed the third, 



PAEONITJS 



PAETUS 



611 



of the four districts into which Macedonia was 
divided by the Eomans. 

PaeoniilS {Ylaidivios). 1. Of Ephesus, an archi- 
tect, probably lived between B. c. 420 and 380. 
In conjunction with Demetrius, he finally com- 
pleted the great temple of Artemis, at Ephesus, 
which Chersiphron had begun ; and, with Daph- 
nis the Milesian, he began to build at Miletus 
a temple of Apollo, of the Ionic order. The 
latter was the famous Didymaeum, or temple 
of Apollo Didymus, the ruins of which are still 
to be seen near Miletus. The former temple, 
in which the Branchidae had an oracle of Apollo, 
was burnt at the capture of Miletus by the army 
of Darius, 498. The new temple, which was on 
a scale only inferior to that of Artemis, was 
never finished. (Hdt. vi. 19 ; Paus. vii. 5, 4 ; 
Strab. p. 634.} — 2. Of Mende, in Thrace. His 
fame rests on his sculptures at the temple of 
Zeus at Olympia about 436 B.C. He executed 
the statues and metopes of the east front, while 
Alcamenes executed those of the west (Paus. v. 
10, 6). According to an inscription found re- 
cently at Olympia on the base of his statue of 
Nike, the pediments of the east front were as- 
signed to Paeonius as being successful in a 
competition. Presumably he held the first place 
and Alcamenes the second in this competition 
of artists. The eastern pediment represented 
the chariot-race of Pelops. The German exca- 
vations have recovered his great statue of Nike 
dedicated by the Messenians (Paus. v. 26, 1), of 
which the head and arms only have perished. 

Paeoplae (Uai6n\ai), a Paeonian people on 
the lower course of the Strymon and the An- 
gites, who were subdued by the Persians, and 
transplanted to Phrygia by order of Darius, B.C. 
513. They returned to their native country 
with the help of Aristagoras, 500 ; and we find 
them settled N. of Mt. Pangaeus in the expedi- 
tion of Xerxes, 480. (Hdt. v. 15, vii. 113.) 

Paerisades or Parisades iriaip«ra57)sornapi- 
(ToStjs), the name of two kings of Bosporus. 
1. Son of Leucon, succeeded his brother Spar- 
tacus B. c. 349, and reigned thirty-eight years. 
He continued the same friendly relations with 
the Athenians which were begun by his father 
Leucon. (Diod. xvi. 52; Dem. Pliorm. p. 909; 
Strab. p. 310.) — 2. The last monarch of the first 
dynasty that ruled in Bosporus. The pressure 
of the Scythian tribes induced Paerisades to 
cede his sovereignty to Mithridates the Great. 
The date of this event cannot be placed earlier 
than 112, nor later than 88. (Strub. I. c.) 

Paestanus Sinus. FPajestum.] 

Paestum (PaeatanuB), originally called Posl- 
ddnla (Uoaahwvia : Xloaeihuiviarrisi, was a city 




Coin of Pncstum I'-.. 1 l ).. of nth cent. B.C. 
06c, MOC[=nn2]EiAA : Poseidon with trident; rev., 

noMEI4A ( = noZE!4A). 

in Lucania, situated between four and five miles) 
SE. of the mouth of the Silarus, and near the 
bay which derived its name from the town 
(rioo-f loWiaTTjs k/i\wos, PiK-stimns Sinus: G. of 
Salerno). It was colonised by the Sybarites, pro- 
bably during the time of their prosperity between 
650 and 510 B.C. (Strab. p. 251; Sybaris.) It 
soon became a powerful and flourishing city 



(Hdt. vi. 127) ; but after its capture by the Luca- 
nians (between 438 and 424), it gradually lost the 
characteristics of a Greek city, and its inhabit- 
ants at length ceased to speak the Greek lan- 
guage. Its ancient name of Posidonia was pro- 
bably changed into that of Paestum at this time. 
Under the supremacy of the Romans, who 
founded a Latin colony at Paestum about B. c. 
274, the town gradually sank in importance (Liv. 

j Ep. 14, xxii. 36, xxvi. 39 ; Veil. Pat. i. 14 ; Cic. 
ad Att. xi. 17) ; and in the time of Augustus it 
is only mentioned on account of the beautiful 

j roses grown in its neighbourhood (Verg. Georg. 

\ iv. 118 ; Propert. iv. 5, 59). The ruins of Paes- 
tum are magnificent, especially those of its two 
temples in the Doric style, among the most 

; perfect and beautiful in existence. For a de- 
scription of the larger temple of Paestum, see 
Diet, of Ant. art. Templum. 

Paesus iTlaia6s), a town in the Troad, men- 
tioned by Homer, but destroyed before the time 
of Strabo, its population having been trans- 
planted to Lampsacus. Its site was on a river 
of the same name (Beiram-Dere) between 

I Lampsacus and Parium. (II. ii. 828, v. 612 ; 
Hdt. v. 117.) 

Paetinus, the name of a family of the Fulvia 
Gens, which was eventually superseded by the 

j name of Nobilior. [Nobilior.] 

Paetus, a cognomen in many Roman gentes, 
signified a person with a slight cast in the eye. 

Paetus, Aelius. 1. P., probably the son of 
Q. Aelius Paetus, a pontifex, who fell in the 
battle of Cannae. He was plebeian aedile B. c. 
204 ; praetor 203 ; magister equitum 202 ; and 
consul 201. In his consulship he fought a battle 
with the Boii, and made a treaty with the In 
gauni Ligures. In 199, he was censor with P. 
Scipio Africanus. He afterwards became an 
augur, and died 174, during a pestilence at Rome. 
(Liv. xxix. 38, xxxi. 4, xli. 26.) He is mentioned 
as one of the Roman jurists. — 2. Sex., brother 
of the last, curule aedile 200 ; consul 198 ; and 
censor 193 with Cn. Cethegus. He was a jurist 
of eminence, and a prudent man, whence he got 
the cognomen Catus. He is described in a line 
of Ennius as ' Egregie cordatus homo Catus 
Aelius Sextus.' (Cic. de Or. i. 45, 212, Brut. 
20, 78 ; Liv. xxxii. 7, xxxiv. 44.) He is enume- 
rated among the old jurists who collected or 

I arranged the matter of law, which he did in a 
work entitled Tripartita or Jus Aelianum. 

, This was a work on the Twelve Tables, which 

| contained the original text, an interpretation, 

: and the Legis actio subjoined (Pompon. Dig. i. 
2, 2, 38). — 3. Q., son of No. 1, was elected augur 
174, and was consul 167, when he laid waste the 
territory of the Ligurians (Liv. xlv. 16). 

Paetus, P. Autronius, was elected consul for 

' B. c. 65 with P. Cornelius Sulla ; but he and 
Sulla were accused of bribery by L. Aurelius 
Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus, and con- 
demned. Their election was accordingly d< - 
clared void, and their accusers were chosen 
consuls in their stead. Enraged at his disaj - 
pointment, Paetus conspired with Catiline to 
murder the consuls Cotta and Torquatus ; ai;d 

[ this design is said to have been frustrated solely 
by the impatience of Catiline, who gave the 
signal prematurely before the whole of the con- 
spirators had assembled. [Catilina.] Paetus 
afterwards took an active part in the Catilinarinn 
conspiracy, which broke out in Cicero's consul- 
ship, 63 (Sail. Cat. 18; Dio Cass, xxxvi. 27). 
After the suppression of the conspiracy Paetus 
was brought to trial for the share he had had 
in it; he was condemned, and went into exile 

T T 



642 



PAETUS 



PALAESTINA 



to Epirus, where he was living when Cicero 
himself went into banishment in 58. Cicero 
was then much alarmed lest Paetus should make 
an attempt upon his life. (Sail. Cat. 47 ; Cic. pro 
Sail. 6, ad Att. hi. 2, 7.) 

Paetus, C, Caesennius, sometimes called 
Caesonlus, consul a. d. 61, was sent by Nero in 
63 to the assistance of Domitius Corbulo in 
Armenia. He was defeated by Vologeses, king 
of Parthia, and purchased peace of the Par- 
thians on the most disgraceful terms. (Tac. 
Ann. xv. 6-25 ; Dio Cass, lxxii. 21 ; Suet. Ner. 
39.) After the accession of Vespasian, he was 
appointed governor of Syria, and deprived 
Antiochus IV., king of Conxmagene, of his king- 
dom (Joseph. B. J. vii. 7). 

Paetus Thrasea. [Thrasea.] 

Pagae. [Pegae.] 

Pagasae, called by the Eomans Pagasa, -ae 
(Yla.ya.aad: Angistri, near Volo), a town of 
Thessaly, on the coast of Magnesia, and on the 
bay called after it Sinus Pagasaeus or Pagasi- 
CUS (TlayacrririKbs ko\itos : G. of Volo). It was 
the port of Iolcos, and afterwards of Pherae, 
and is celebrated in mythology as the place 
where Jason built the ship Argo. [Jason.] 
Hence some of the ancients derived its name 
from irrtyuvfxi ; but others connected the name 
with the fountains (irriyai) in the neighbourhood 
(Strab. p. 496 ; Diod. xvi. 31 ; Propert. i. 20, 17). 
— The adjective Pagasaeus is applied to Jason 
on account of his building the ship Argo, and 
to Apollo because he had a sanctuary at Pagasae. 
The adjective is also used in the general sense 
of Thessalian ; thus Alcestis, the wife of Ad- 
metus, is called by Ovid Pagasaea conjux. 

Pagrae (Tidy pat : Bagras), a city of Syria, on 
the E. side of Mt. Amanus, at the foot of the 
pass called by Ptolemy the Syrian Gates, on the 
road between Antioch and Alexandria : the 
scene of the battle between Alexander Balas 
and Demetrius Nicator, B.C. 145 (Strab. p. 751; 
Ptol. v. 15, 12). 

Pagus (ndyos), a remarkable conical hill, 
about 500-600 feet high, a little N. of Smyrna^ 
was crowned with a shrine of Nemesis, and had 
a celebrated spring. (Paus. v. 12, 1.) 

Palaemon (naXaifxajv). 1. In Greek legends 
son of Athamas and Ino, and originally called 
Melicertes. When his mother, who was driven 
mad by Hera, had thrown herself, with her 
boy, into the sea, both were changed into marine 
divinities, Ino becoming Leucothea, and Meli- 
certes Palaemon. (Eur. Iph. Taur. 271 ; 
Apollod. iii. 4, 3 ; Hyg. Fab. 2 ; Ov. Met. iv. 
520, xiii. 919.) [For details see Athamas.] 
According to some, Melicertes after his apo- 
theosis was called Glaucus, whereas according to 
another version Glaucus is said to have leaped 
into the sea from his love of Melicertes [see p. 
366, b]. The body of Melicertes, according to 
the common tradition, was washed by the waves, 
sr carried by dolphins into the port Schoenus 
on the Corinthian isthmus, or to that spot on the 
coast where the altar of Palaemon subsequently 
stood. There the body was found by his uncle, 
Sisyphus, who ordered it to be carried to 
Corinth, and on the command of the Nereides 
lie instituted the Isthmian games and sacrifices 
of black bulls in honour of the deified Palae- 
mon. (Paus. i. 44, 11, ii. 1, 3 ; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 
107, 229; Philostr. Her. 19, Icon. ii. 16.) In 
the island of Tenedos, it is said that children 
were sacrificed to him, and this strengthens 
the conclusion, which it is hard to resist, that 
in the name Melicertes we have the Phoenician 
.Melcart, whose worship was spread by Phoeni- 



cian traders over the coasts and islands of the 
Aegaean and Mediterranean. It is by no means 
improbable that the story of the death of the 
child Melicertes grew out of the Phoenician 
custom of sacrificing a child to their deity, and 
that when the worship of Poseidon ousted that 
of Melcart, as regards the province of the sea, 
the name of the Phoenician deity was retained 
in the myth which had thus grown up. The 
Romans identified Palaemon with their own 
god Portunus, or Portumnus. [Portunus.] — 
2. Q. Remmius Palaemon, a grammarian in 
the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius. 
He was a native of Vicentia (Vicenza), in the 
north of Italy, and was originally a slave ; but 
having been manumitted, he opened a school 
at Rome, where he became the most celebrated 
grammarian of his time, though his moral 
character was infamous. (Suet. Gramm. 23; 
Juv. vi. 451, vii. 215.) He was also success- 
ful in the cultivation of vines (Plin. xiv. 41). 

Palaeopolis. [Neapolis.] 

Palaephatus (naAaufxxTos). 1. Of Athens, a 
mythical epic poet of the pre-Homeric period. 
The time at which he lived is uncertain, but 
he appears to have been usually placed after 
Phemonoe [Phemonoe], though some writers 
assigned him even an earlier date. — 2. Of 
Abydus, a historian, lived in the time of Alex- 
ander the Great (Suid. s.v.). — 3. A Greek Peri- 
patetic philosopher and grammarian, probably 
i of Alexandria, in the fourth century a.d. His 
most celebrated work was entitled Troica 
(Tpcui'/ca), which is frequently referred to by the 
grammarians. — There is extant a small work 
in fifty-one sections, entitled Ua\ai<p aros irepl 
airlcrTwv, or On Incredible Tales, giving a 
brief account of some of the most celebrated 
Greek legends. It is an abstract of a much 
larger work, which is lost. The original work 
is referred to in Ciris, 88 : 1 Docta Palaephatia 
testatur voce papyrus.' He follows the Euhe- 
meristic method of trying to rationalise the 
myths into history. The best edition is by Wester- 
mann, in the Mythographi, Brunswick, 1843. 

Palaerus (YlaXaipos : YlaXaipzvs), a town on 
the coast of Acarnania near Leucas (Thuc. ii. 
30 ; Strab. p. 450). 

Palaeste (Palasa), a town of Epirus, a little 
S. of the Acroceraunian mountains : here Caesar 
landed his forces when he crossed over to Greece 
to carry on the war against Pompey (Lucan, 
Phars. v. 460). 

Palaestina (TlaXaiffTivri : Palestine). [For the 
geography and earlier history of Palestine see 
Diet, of the Bible.] From b.c. 63, when Pompey 
took Jerusalem, the country was subject to the 
Romans. At the death of Herod, his kingdom 
was divided between his sons as tetrarchs, under 
the sanction of Augustus, Archelaus receiving 
Judaea, Samaria, and Idumaea, Herod Antipas 
Galilee and Peraea, and Philip Batanaea, 
Gaulonitis, and Trachonitis ; all standing to 
the Roman empire in a relation of virtual sub- 
jection, which successive events converted into 
an integral union. First, a.d. 7, Archelaus was 
deposed by Augustus, and Judaea was placed 
under a Roman procurator: next, about 31, 
Philip died, and his government was united to 
the province of Syria, and was in 37 again con- 
ferred on Agrippa I., with the title of king, and 
with the addition of Abilene, the district round 
Damascus. In 39, Herod Antipas was banished 
to Gaul, and his tetrarchy was added to the 
kingdom of Herod Agrippa ; and two years 
later he received from Claudius the government 
of Judaea and Samaria, and thus Palestine was 



PALAMEDES 



PALINURUS 



643 



reunited under a nominal king. On his death, 
in 44, Palestine again became a part of the 
Roman province of Syria under the name of 
Judaea, which was governed by a procurator. 
The Jews were, however, most turbulent sub- 
jects of the Roman empire, and at last they 
broke out into a general rebellion, which, after 
a most sanguinary war, was crushed by Vespa- 
sian and Titus ; and the latter took and de- 
stroyed Jerusalem in a.d. 70. [Titus.] Under 
Constantine, Palestine was divided afresh into 
the three provinces of P. Prima in the centre, P. 
Secunda in the N., and P. Tertia the S. of 
Judaea, with Idumaea. [Arabia, p. 90, b.] 

Palamedes (TlaAa^vjSijs). 1. Son of Xauplius 
and Clymene, and brother of Oeax. He joined 
"the Greeks in the expedition against Troy ; but 
Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus, envious 
of his fame, caused a captive Phrygian to write 
to Palamedes a letter in the name of Priam, 
and bribed a servant of Palamedes to conceal 
the letter under his master's bed. They then 
accused Palamedes of treachery ; upon search- 
ing his tent they found the letter which they 
themselves had dictated; and thereupon they 
•caused him to be stoned to death. "When Pala- 
medes was led to death, he exclaimed, ' Truth, I 
lament thee, for thou hast died even before 
me.' (Eur. Orest. 432 ; Schol. ad loc. ; Philostr. 
Her. 10 ; Ov. Met. xiii. 56.) According to some 
traditions, it was Odysseus alone who hated 
and persecuted Palamedes (Xen. Mem. iv. 2, 
33; Hyg. Fab. 105). The cause of this hatred 
is also stated variously. According to the 
usual account, Odysseus hated him because he 
had been compelled by him to join the Greeks 
iigainst Troy [see p. 616, b.]. Another story is 
that Odysseus had been censured by Palamedes 
for returning with empty hands from a foraging 
excursion into Thrace (Serv. ad Aen. ii. 81). 
There are other versions also of his death be- 
sides the commonly received story stated above. 
Some say that Odj-sseus and Diomedes induced 
him to descend into a well, where they pre- 
tended they had discovered a treasure, and when 
he was below they cast stones upon him, and 
killed him (Diet. Cret. ii. 15;; others state that 
he was drowned by them while fislu'ng (Paus. 
x. 31, 2) ; and others, that he was killed by 
Paris with an arrow (Dar. Phryg.28). His brother 
Oeax wrote the news on an oar (ofaf), which 
floated to his father Nauplius (Eur. Orest. I.e. ; 
Apollod. ii. 1). For the vengeance taken upon 
the Greeks, see N.vuruus. The story of Pala- 
medes, which is not mentioned by Homer, 
seems to have been first related in the Cypria, 
and was afterwards developed by the tragic 
poets (fragments remain of plays by Aeschylus 
and Euripides entitled Palamedes, and of the 
Nauplius by Sophocles), and lastly by the 
sophists, who liked to look upon Palamedes as 
their pattern. The tragic poets and sophists 
describe him as a sage among the Greeks, and 
as a poet ; and he is said to have invented 
lighthouses, measures, scales, the discus, dice, 
the alphabet (Eur. Fragm. 581; Paus. ii. 20, 
8; Philostr. I.e.). — 2. A Greek grammarian, was 
a contemporary of Athenaeus, who introduces 
him as one of the speakers in his work. 

Palatinus Mons. Roma.] 

Palatlum. [Roma. J 

Pale (rioArj : llaAfls, Ion. rioA«s, Att. IloA^s, 
in Polyb. Zla\cutiS : nr. Lixuria, Ru.), one of 
the cities of Cephallenia, on a height opposite 
Zacjnthus (Hdt. ix. 28 ; Strab. p. 156 ; Pol. v. 8). 

Pules, an old Italian goddess of pastoral life, 
of flocks and shepherds, by the side of whom 



there seems to have been at one period a male 
deity of the same name (Serv. ad Georg. iii. 
1; Arnob. iii. 40), though the masculine form 
had certainly fallen early into disuse, and the 
goddess only was worshipped in the April festi- 

: val. Her name is connected with the root of 

,pasco, pabulum, and also with that of Pala- 
Hum. That is to say that while Pales was the 
deity whom shepherds regarded as their pro- 
tectress and the giver of increase to their 
flocks, the Palatine hill was originally the settle- 
ment and fortress of a pastoral community. 
Her festival on April 21, called properly Pari- 
lia (a word formed from Pales) and less cor- 
rectly Pa lilia, was a ceremony for the lustration 
or purification of flocks and herds at the open- 
ing of spring ; and as such it was always 
regarded in the country, though at Rome itself, 
owing to the tradition that Romulus began his 
city on that day, it was solemnised as the birth- 
day of the city. The special rites themselves 
of purification by passing through fires of 
lighted straw [see Diet, of Ant. art. Parilia], 
may be paralleled by similar observances in 
many countries (e.g. the ' St. John's Fires ' of 
more northern countries). 

Palicanus, Lollius. [Lollius.] 
Palice, a town of Sicily founded by Ducetius, 
leader of the Siculi, B.C. 453, near the sulphurous 
lake of the Palici [Lugo di NafHd], 15 miles W. 
of Leontini : destroyed soon after the death of 
Ducetius (Diod. xi. 88, 90 ; Palici). 

Palici (IlaAifcoi'), were Sicilian gods whom 
Aeschylus represents as the twin sons of Zeus 
and the nymph Thalia, the daughter of Heph- 
aestus. According to the legend thus adopted 
and transformed by the Greeks, Thalia, from 
fear of Hera, prayed to be swallowed up by the 

1 earth ; her prayer was granted ; but in due 
time she sent forth from the earth twin boys, 
who were called IIoAi/col, from tov Trdhiv 
licctrdai (see Fragments of Aesch. Aetneae, ap. 
Macrob. v. 19). It is clear, however, that these 
were really deities of the Sicel race and not of 
Greek introduction, nor can it reasonably be 

i doubted that the names Palici and Delli are 
Sicjh'an words of no Greek origin. Their sup- 
posed descent from Hephaestus (in another 
version they were sous of Hephaestus by Aetna) 
expresses probably the truth that the springs, 
of which they were the deities, were hot springs 
of volcanic origin. They were worshipped in 
the neighbourhood of Mt. Aetna, near Palice, 
and not far from the sources of the river Sym- 
aethus, and in the earliest times human sacri- 
fices were offered to them. Near their sanctuary 
there gushed forth from the earth two sulphu- 
reous fountains, called Delli, or brothers of the 
Palici, at which solemn oaths were taken. 
The oaths were written on tablets, and thrown 
into one of the fountains; if the tablet swam on 
the water, the oath was considered to lie true, 
but if it sank down, the oath was regarded as a 
perjury, and was believed to be punished 
instantaneously by blindness or death. This 
sanctuary was also oracular and was an asylum 
for runaway slaves. These twin deities whom 
native tradition seemed to regard as sons of the 
Sicilian deity Adranus, were protectors of 
agriculture and of sailors. (Diod. xi. 79 ; Strab. 

I p. 275 ; Cic. N.D. iii. 22 ; Verg. Aen. ix. 585 ; 
Ov. Met. v. 406 ; Macrob. I.e.) 

Palimbothra, a city on the Ganges, appa- 
rently the modern Patna (Strab. p. 70; Ar- 

| rian, hid. 10 ; Ptol. vii. 1, 78). 

Palinurus tC. Palinuru), a promontory on 
tin; W. coast of Lucania, said to huve derived its 

T r 2 



644 



PALLACOPAS 



PALLAS 



name from Palinurus, son of Jasus, and pilot 
of the ship of Aeneas, who fell into the sea, and 
was murdered on the coast by the natives (Verg. 
Aen. v. 833, vi. 337 ; Strab. p. 252). 

Pallacopas (UaWaKdiras), a canal in Baby- 
lonia, cut from the Euphrates, at a point 800 
stadia (eighty geog. miles) S. of Babylon, west- 
ward to the edge of the Arabian Desert, where 
it lost itself in marshes (Arrian, vii. 21, 1). 

Pallidas (XlaKAaSas), the author of a large 
number of epigrams in the Greek Anthology, 
was a pagan and an Alexandrian grammarian. 
He lived at the beginning of the fifth century a.d. , 
for in one of his epigrams (No. 115) he speaks 
of Hypatia, daughter of Theon, as still alive. 
Hypatia was murdered in a.d. 415. 

Palladium (UaWaSiov), properly any image 
of Pallas Athene, but generally applied to an 
image of this goddess which was kept hidden 
and secret and was revered as a pledge of the 
safety of the town where it existed. Among 
these ancient images of Pallas none is more 
celebrated than the Trojan Palladium, concern- 
ing which there was the following tradition, 
developed no doubt gradually by post- Homeric 
writers (nothing is said about the Palladium in 
the Iliad or the Odyssey). Athene was brought 
up by Triton ; and when his daughter, Pallas, 
and Athene were once wrestling together, Zeus 
interfered in the struggle, and suddenly held 
the aegis before the face of Pallas. Pallas, while 
looking up to Zeus, was wounded by Athene, 
and died. Athene in her sorrow caused an 
image of the maiden to be made, round which 
she hung the aegis. When Electra had come 
as a suppliant to the Palladium, Zeus hurled it 
down from heaven upon the earth, because it had 
been sullied by the hands of one who was no 
longer a pure maiden. The image fell upon 
the earth at Troy, when Ilus was just begin- 
ning to build the city. Ilus erected a sanctuary 
to it. According to some, the image was dedi- 
cated by Electra, and according to others it 
was given by Zeus to Dardanus. The image 
itself is said to have been three cubits in height, 
with its legs close together, and holding in its 
i: ight hand a spear, and in the left a spindle and 
a distaff. (Apollod. iii. 12, 3 ; Dionys. i. 6§ ; 
Bchol. ad Eur. Or est. 1129.) This Palladium 
remained at Troy until Odysseus and Diomedes 
contrived to carry it away, because the city could 
not be taken so long as it was in possession 
of that sacred treasure. The earliest men- 
tion of this robbery of the Palladium from 
Troy is preserved by Proclus from Lesches (cf. 
Conon, Narr. 34 ; Verg. Aen . ii. 164). It is quite 
possible that this story (Paus. i. 28, 9) arose 
from an attempt to explain the name of the 
law court for accidental homicide called Palla- 
dion. According to some accounts Troy con- 
tained two Palladia, one of which was carried 
off by Odysseus and Diomedes, while the other 
was conveyed by Aeneas to Italy, or the one 
taken by the Greeks was a mere imitation, 
while that which Aeneas brought to Italy was 
the genuine image (Dionys. I.e. ; Paus. ii. 23, 
5 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 421). But this twofold Palla- 
dium was probably a mere invention to account 
for its existence in more than one place. 
Several towns both in Greece and Italy claimed 
the honour of possessing the genuine Trojan 
Palladium : as, for example, Argos and Athens, 
where it was believed that Demophon took it 
from Diomedes on his return from Troy. 
[Demophon.] In Italy the cities of Koine, 
Lavinium, Luceria, and Siris likewise pretended 
to possess the Trojan Palladium. (Strab. p. 



264 ; Plut. Camill. 20 ; Tac. Ann. xv. 41 
Serv. ad Aen. ii. 166.) The story was not un- 
frequently a subject for vase paintings. It 
was also painted by Polygnotus at Athens 
(Paus. i. 22, 8). It appears among the scenes, 
in the Tabula Iliaca. 

Palladius (naAAaSios). 1. Rutilius Taurus- 
Aemilianus, lived some time in the fourth 
century a.d., and was the author of a treatise 
De Be Bustica, in the form of a Parmer's 
Calendar, the various operations connected with 
agriculture and a rural life being arranged in 
regular order, according to the seasons in which 
they ought to be performed. It is comprised 
in fourteen books : the first is introductory,, 
the twelve following contain the duties of the 
twelve months in succession, commencing with 
January ; the last is a poem, in eighty-five ele- 
giac couplets, upon the art of grafting {De Insi- 
tione). A considerable portion of the work is 
taken from Columella. The work was very 
popular in the middle ages. Edited in the 
Scriptores Bei Busticae by Schneider, Lips. 
1794, and by J. C. Schmitt, Wurtzb. 1876.— 2. 
Surnamed Iatrosophista, a Greek medical 
writer of Alexandria, who lived after Galen. — 
3. Of Methone, a sophist who lived in the 
reign of Constantine. — 4. A rhetorician and 
poet, who lived at the end of the fourth cen- 
tury A.D.. and apparently imitated Ausonius. — 

5. Bishop of Helenopolis, A.D. 400. (See Diet, 
of Christian Biography.) 

Pallantia (Pallantinus : Palencia), the chief 
town of the Vaccaei in the N. of Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, and on a tributary of the Durius 
(Ptol. ii. 6, 50). 

Pallantias and Pallantis = Aurora, the 
daughter of the giant Pallas. [Eos.] 

Pallantium (UaWavnov : TlaWavrteis), an 
ancient town of Arcadia, near Tegea, said to have 
been founded by Pallas, the son of Lycaon. 
Evander is said to have come from this place, 
and to have called the town which he founded on 
the banks of the Tiber Pallanteum (afterwards 
Palantium and Palatium), after the Arcadian 
town. (Paus. viii. 43, 44 ; Hes. ap. Steph. s.v. ; 
Liv. i. 5.) On the foundation of Megalopolis,, 
most of the inhabitants of Pallantium settled 
in the new city, and the town remained almost 
deserted, till it was restored by Antoninus Pius, 
and exempted from taxes on account of its sup- 
posed connexion with Borne (Paus. I. c. ; Strab. 
p. 485). 

Pallas. [Athene.] 

Pallas (ria'AAay). 1. One of the Titans, son 
of Crius and Eurybia, husband of Styx, and 
father of Zelus, Cratos, Bia, and Nice (Hes. T7j. 
376, 383 ; Apollod. i. 2, 2).— 2. A giant, slain by- 
Athene in the battle with the gods (Apollod. i. 

6, 2). — 3. According to some traditions, the 
father of Athene, who slew him when he at- 
tempted to violate her [p. 138, b]. — 4, Son of 
Lycaon, and grandfather of Evander, is said to- 
have founded the town of Pallantium in Arcadia 
(Paus. viii. 3, 44). Servius (ad Aen. viii. 44) 
calls him a son of Aegeus. Hence Evander is 
called by the poets Pallantius heros. — 5. Son 
of Evander, and an ally of Aeneas, was slain by 
the Butulian Turnus (Verg. Aen. viii. 104, xi. 
140). — 6. Son of the Athenian king Pandion, 
and father of Clytus and Butes. His two sons 
were sent with Cephalus to implore assistance 
of Aeacus against Minos. Pallas was slain by 
Theseus. The celebrated family of the Pallan- 
tidae at Athens traced their origin from this 
Pallas. (Paus. i. 22, 28 ; Apollod. iii. 15, 5 ; Eur. 
Hipp. 35; Plut. Thes. 3.) 



PALLAS 



PAMPHILUS 



645 



Pallas, a favourite freedman of the emperor 
Claudius. In conjunction with another freed- 
man, Narcissus, he administered the affairs of 
the empire. After the death of Messallina, 
Pallas persuaded the weak emperor to marry 
Agrippina, and as Narcissus had bean opposed 
to this marriage, he now lost his former power, 
and Pallas and Agrippina became the rulers of 
the Roman world. It was Pallas who persuaded 
Claudius to adopt the young Domitius (after- 
wards the emperor Nero), the son of Agrippina ; 
and it was doubtless with the assistance of 
Pallas that Agrippina poisoned her husband. 
Nero soon after his accession became tired of 
his mother's control, and as one step towards 
■emancipating himself from her authority, he 
deprived Pallas of all his public offices, and dis- 
missed him rrom the palace in 56. He was 
suffered to live unmolested for some years, till 
at length his immense wealth excited the rapa- 
city of Nero, who had him removed bv poison 
in 63. (Tac. Ann. xi. 29, xii. 2, 25, 65,'xiii. 23, 
xiv. 65; Dio Cass. lxi. 3, lxii. 14; Suet. Claud. 
28.) His wealth, which was acquired during the 
reign of Claudius, had become proverbial, as we 
see from the line in Juvenal (i. 107), ' ego pos- 
sideo plus Pallante et Licinis.' The brother of 
Pallas was Antonius or Claudius Felix, who was 
appointed by Claudius procurator of Judaea. 
[Felix, Antonius.] 

Pallas Lacus. [Triton.] 

Pallene (UaWrivri). 1. (noAATjraTos, naA.\7j- 
vtos : Kassandra), the most westerly of the 
three peninsulas running out from Chalcidice 
in Macedonia. It is said to have been formerly 
called Phlegra (4"\eypa), and on the narrow 
isthmus which connected it with the main-land, 
stood the important town of Potidaea. (Hdt. vii. 
123; Thuc. iv. 120; Pind. Nem. i. 100; Strab. 
p. 330.) — 2. ITlaWrivtiis, rarely YlaW-qvcuos), a 
demus in Attica belonging to the tribe Antiochis, 
was situated on one of the slopes of Pentelieus, 
a few miles SW. of Marathon. It possessed a 
temple of Athene surnamed Pallenis (Xlahhrivis ) 
from the place, and in its neighbourhood took 
place the contest between Pisistratus and the 
party opposed to him. (Hdt. i. 61.) 

Palma (Palma), a Roman colony on the SW. 
coast of the island Balearis Major (Majorca). 

Palmarla (Palmaruola), a small uninhabited 
island oft the coast of Latium and the promon- 
tory Circeium (Plin. iii. 81). 

Palmyra (nd\/j.vpa : Xla\nvpriv6s, Palmyre- 
nus: O. T. Tadmor : Tadmor, Ru.), a celebrated 
city of Syria, stood in an oasis of the great 
Syrian Desert, which from its position must have 
been in the earliest times a halting-place for 
the caravans between Syria and Mesopotamia. 
Here Solomon built the city which was called 
in Hebrew Tadmor. It lies in 34 c 18' N. lat. and 
88° 14' E. long., and was reckoned 237 Roman 
miles from the coast of Syria, 176 NE. of Da- 
mascus, 80 E. of Emesa, and 113 SE. of Apamea. 
With the exception of a tradition that it was 
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, we hear nothing 
of it till the time of the government of the East 
by M. Antonius, who marched to surprise it, but 
the inhabitants retreated with their moveable 
property beyond the Euphrates (Appian, li. C. 
v. 9). Under the early Roman emperors it was 
a free city and a great commercial emporium. 
Its position on the border between the Parthian 
and Roman dominions gave it the command of 
the trade of both, but also subjected it to the 
injuries of war. Undi'r Hadrian and the Anto- 
nines it was highly favoured and reached its 
greatest splendour (Plin. v. 88). The history 



of its temporary elevation to the rank of a 
capital, in the third century, is related under 
Odenathts and Zenobia. On its capture by 
Aurelian, in 270, it was plundered, and soon 
afterwards an insurrection of its inhabitants led 
I to its partial destruction. After that time it 
, was made a (ppovptov or frontier fortress, and 
was further fortified by Justinian (Steph. Byz. 
s. v. ; Procop. de Aed. ii. 11). In the Arabian 
conquest it was one of the first cities taken ; 
but it was still inhabited by a small population, 
chiefly of Jews, till it was taken and plundered 
by Timour (Tamerlane) in 1400. It has long 
been entirely deserted, except when a horde of 
Bedouins pitch their tents among its splendid 
I ruins. Those ruins, which form a most striking 
, object in the midst of the Desert, are of the 
Roman period, and decidedly inferior in the 
style of architecture, as well as in grandeur of 
effect, to those of Baalbek [Heliopolis], the 
sister deserted city of Syria. The finest remains 
are those of the temple of the Sun ; the most 
t interesting are the square sepulchral towers of 
from three to five stories. The streets and the 
foundations of the houses are traceable to some 
extent ; and there are several inscriptions in 
Greek and in the native Palmyrene dialect, be- 
sides one in Hebrew and one or two in Latin. 
The surrounding district of Palmyrene con- 
tained the Syrian Desert from the E. border of 
Coelesyria to the Euphrates (Ptol. v. 15, 24). 

Paltus (UdXros : Bel tie), a town on the coast 
of Syria between Aradus and Laodicea (Strab. 
pp. 728, 735 ; Cic. ad Fam. xii. 13). 

Pambotis Lacus ina^/3cDTis M/xfr] : Janina 
L.), a lake in Epirus not far from Dodona. 

Pamlsus (Ud/nKTos). 1. A southern tributary 
of the Peneus in Thessaly (Hdt. vii. 129).— 2. 
(Pirnatza), the chief river of Messenia, rises in 
the E. part of the country, forty stadia E. of 
Ithome, flows first SW., and then S. through the 
Messenian plain, and falls into the Messenian 
gulf (Strab. pp. 267, 366).— 3. A small river in 
Laconia, falls into the Messenian gulf near 
Leuctra. It was at one time the boundary be- 
tween Laconia and Messenia (Strab. p. 361). 

Pammenes ino.u/ieVrjs), a Theban general 
in whom Epaminondas placed confidence. He 
was entrusted by the Thebans with the defence 
of Megalopolis in 371 and in 352 B. c. (Paus. 
viii. 27, 2; Diod. xv. 14). When Philip was 
sent as a hostage to Thebes he was put under 
the charge of Pammenes (Plut. Pelop. 26). 

PampMa or Pamphrum (Ua.y.<pla, Udfi(piov\, 
a village of Aetolia, destroyed by the Macedo- 
nians (Pol. v. 8, 13). 

Pamphila (Tlafi<pi\ri), a female historian of 
considerable reputation, who lived in the reign 
of Nero. She is described by Suidas as a na- 
tive of Epidaurus, by Photius as an Egyptian. 
Her principal work, of which Photius has given 
some extracts, was a kind of Historical Miscel- 
lany (entitled 'S.vfj.ijLiKTuiv i(jTopiKwv inrofivrindTwv 
\6yoi). Modern scholars are best acquainted 
with the name of Pamphila from a statement 
in her work preserved by A. Gellius (xv. 23), 
by which is ascertained the year of the birth of 
Hellanicus, Herodotus, and Thucydides respec- 
tively. 

Pamphilus (Ud^<pi\os). 1. A disciple of 
Plato, who is only remembered by the circum- 
stance that Epicurus, when a young man, at- 
tended his lectures at Samos (Diog. Laert. x. 
14; Cic. N. D. i. 26, 70).— 2. An Alexandrian 
grammarian, of the school of Aristarchus, and 
the author of a lexicon, which is supposed by 
some scholars to have formed the foundation of 



646 



PAMPHOS 



PAN 



the lexicon of Hesyehius. He appears to have 
lived in the first century of our era. — 3. A phi- 
losopher or grammarian of Nicopolis, the author 
of a work on agriculture, of which there are 
considerable fragments in the Geoponica. — 4. 
Presbyter of Caesarea, in Palestine, celebrated 
for his friendship with Eusebius, who, as a me- 
morial of this intimacy, assumed the surname 
of PampJiilus. [Diet, of Christian Biogr.~] 
— 5. Of Amphipolis, one of the most distin- 
guished of the Greek painters, about b. c. 390- 
850. He was the disciple of Eupompus, the 
founder of the Sicyonian school of painting, or, 
rather, the artist from whose time Sieyonic 
painting began to take a high rank. Pamphilus 
evidently did much to extend this reputation. 
It is probable that his special distinction con- 
sisted in development of the encaustic method 
of painting (Plin. xxxv. 74, 123; cf. Diet, of 
Ant. art. Pcctura), Of his own works we have 
most scanty accounts ; but as a teacher of his 
art he was surpassed by none of the ancient 
masters. His course of accurate and compre- 
hensive instruction extended over ten years, and 
the fee was no less than a talent. Among those 
who paid this price for his tuition were Apelles, 
Melanthius, and Pausias (Plin. xxxv. 76). 

Pamphos (Tldfiipws), a mythical poet, placed 
by Pausanias later than Olen, and much earlier 
than Homer. His name is connected particu- 
larly with_Attica. (Paus. vii. 21, 9, ix. 27, 2.) 

Pamphylia (XlatMpvXia. : TldfupvKos, Xlafjitpv- 
Xios, Pamphyllus), in its original and more 
restricted sense, was a narrow strip of the S. 
coast of Asia Minor, extending in a sort of arch 
along the Sinus Pamphyllus {G. of Adalia), 
between Lycia on the W., and Cilicia oil the 
E., and on the N. bordering on Pisidia. Its 
boundaries, as commonly stated, were Mt. 
Climax on the W., the river Melas on the E., 
and the foot of Mt. Taurus on the N. ; but the 
statements are not very exact : Strabo gives to 
the coast of Pamphylia a length of 640 stadia, 
from Olbia on the W. to Ptolemai's, some dis- 
tance E. of the Melas, and he makes it a very 
narrow strip (p. 667). It was a belt of moun- 
tain coast land, intersected by rivers flowing 
down from the Taurus in a short course, but 
several of them with a considerable body of 
water; the chief of them, going from W. to E., 
were the Catabbhactes, Cestkus, Eubyme- 
don, and Melas [No. 6], all navigable for some 
distance from their mouths. The inhabitants 
were a mixture of races, whence their name 
TldficfivKoi, of all races (the genuine old form : 
the other in -101 is later). Besides the abori- 
ginal inhabitants, of the Semitic family, and 
Cilicians, there were very early Greek settlers 
and later Greek colonies in the land (Hdt. vii. 
91; Strab. p. 668). Tradition ascribed the first 
Greek settlements to Mopsus, after the Trojan 
war, from whom the country was in early times 
called Mopsopia (Plin. v. 96). It was suc- 
cessively a part of the Persian, Macedonian, 
Greco-Syrian, and Pergamene kingdoms, and 
passed by the will of Attalus III. to the Eomans 
(b.c. 130), under whom it was made a province 
(Dio Cass. liii. 26, liv. 34) ; but this province 
of Pamphylia was united with Lycia and called 
Lycia-Pamphylia under Claudius (Dio Cass, 
lx. 17). Under Galba Pamphylia was united to 
Galatia (Tac. Hist. ii. 9). 

Paniphyllum Mare, Pamphyllus Sinus (rb 
Xlap.cpvX.tou ircAayos, Tlap.<pv\ws k6\ttos : Gulf 
of Adalia), the great guif formed in the S. 
coast of Asia Minor by the Taurus chain and 
by Mt. Solyma, between the Pr. Sacrum or 



Chelidonium (C. Khelidonia), the SE. point of' 
Lycia, and Pr. Anemurium (G. Anemour), the S„ 
point of Cilicia. Its depth from N. to S., from 
Pr. Sacrum to Olbia, is reckoned by Strabo at 
367 stadia (36'7 geog. miles), which is too little 
(Strab. pp. 121, 125, 666). 

Pamphylus. [Doais, p. 302, b.] 

Pan (Ilac), the great god of flocks and shep- 
herds among the Greeks. In mythology he is 
usually described as the son of Hermes (a. 
shepherd deity in Arcadia ; see p. 406) by the 
daughter of Dryops (Horn. Hymn. vii. 34). 
Herodotus (ii. 145) speaks of him as born from 
Hermes and Penelope. He was perfectly de- 
veloped from his birth; and when his mother 
saw him, she ran away through fear; but 
Hermes carried him to Olympus, where all the^ 
gods were delighted witli him, and especially 
Dionysus. From his delighting all the gods,, 
the Homeric hymn derives his name. He was. 
originally only an Arcadian god ; and Arcadia, 
was always the principal seat of his worship.. 
From this country his name and worship after- 
wards spread over other parts of Greece ; but- 
at Athens Iris worship was not introduced till, 
the time of the battle of Marathon, when he 
is said to have appeared to the courier Pheid- 
ippides and promised aid if the Athenians, 
would worship him (Hdt. vi. 105 ; Paus. viii. 
54, 5). His grotto at Athens was in the rocks, 
on the NW. side of the Acropolis, and he had 
also a shrine near the Hissus. In Arcadia he 
was the god of forests, pastures, flocks, and 
shepherds, and dwelt in grottoes, wandered on 
the summits of mountains and rocks, and in 
valleys, either amusing himself with the chase, 
or leading the dances of the nymphs. As the 
god of flocks, both of wild and tame animals,, 
it was his province to increase and guard them ;, 
but he was also a hunter, and hunters owed. 
their success or failure to him. The Arcadian, 
hunters used to scourge the statue of the god 
if they had been disappointed in the chase 
(Theocr. vii. 107). During the heat of mid-day 
he used to slumber, and the peasants feared to- 
disturb his rest (Theocr. i. 16). He was espe- 
cially a god of Nature, and hence associated 
with the Great Mother, Cybele (Pind. Pyth. 
iii. 77). Hence in later times he was supposed 
to be the god of the universe, and that signifi- 
cation was given to his name. As the god of 
everything connected with pastoral life, he was 
fond of music, and the inventor of the syrinx 
or shepherd's flute, which he himself played in 
a masterly manner, and in which he instructed 
others also, such as Daphnis. He is thus said 
to have loved the poet Pindar, and to have sung- 
and danced his lyric songs, in return for which 
Pindar erected to him a sanctuary in front of 
his house. Pan, like other gods who dwelt in 
forests, was dreaded by travellers, to whom he 
sometimes appeared, and whom he startled with, 
sudden awe or terror. His supposed dreadful 
shout was doubtless imagined from the unex- 
plained sounds heard in the depths of forests. 
Hence sudden fright without any visible cause 
was ascribed to Pan, and was called a Panic 
fear (cf. Eur. Bhes. 36). He was at the same 
time believed to be possessed of prophetic 
powers, and to have even instructed Apollo 
in this art. While roaming in his forests he 
fell in love with Echo, by whom or by Pitho ha 
became the father of lynx [see p. 308]. _ The 
shepherd's pipe (crOpiy^) was a special attribute 
of Pan, and hence grew up the myth that he 
loved the Arcadian nymph Syrinx, that she was 
changed into a reed by the banks of Ladon, and 



PANACEA 

that the reed-pipe was named after her (Ov. 
Met. i. 691). Fir trees were sacred to him, as 
the god of mountain forests, and so arose the 
myth that the nymph Pitys, whom lie loved, 
had been changed into that tree. The sacri- 
fices offered to him consisted of cows, rams, 
lambs, milk, and honey (Theocr. v. 58 ; Anth. 
Pal. ii. 630, 697, vi. 96, 239, vii. 59). At Athens, 
in his grotto under the Acropolis, there was an 
annual festival with a torch- race, and the Arca- 
dian custom was to keep fire always burning 
on his altar iHdt. vi. 105 ; Paus. viii. 37, 11). 
From this some modern writers deduce that 
Pan was originally an Arcadian god of light ; 
but if he was regarded as a light-god at all it 
was probably a development of the Orphic- 
religion. The Arcadian custom may perhaps 
merely indicate that he was the god of the 
shepherd's home and hearth in Arcadia. Pan 
is often brought into connexion (as are other 
deities and nymphs of the country] with 
Dionysus, and is represented in his train. He 
was supposed to have accompanied him to 
India, and to have aided him in battle by the 
terrors of his voice. He was credited also with 



PANDION 



647 




Pan with syrinx. (From a bas-relief.' 

attendant deities or demons of the wood and 
country, called Panes or Panisci (Cic. N. D. iii. 
17, 43; Suet. Tib. 43). The Romans identified 
with Pan their own god Inuus or Faunus 
[Faunus ; Lupercus]. In works of art Pan is 
represented as a sensual being, with horns, 
puck-nose, and goat's feet, sometimes in the 
act of dancing, and sometimes playing on the 
syrinx. [See also cut on p. 308.] 

Panacea. [Asclepius.] 

Panachaicus Mons (rb XlavaxaZicbv bpos : 
Voidia), a mountain in Achaia, 6300 feet high, 
immediately behind Patrae. 

Panactum (UavaxTov), a town on the frontiers 
of Attica and Boeotia, originally belonged to 
Boeotia, and, after being a frequent object of 
contention between the Athenians and Boeo- 
tians, at length became permanently annexed 
to Attica (Paus. i. 25, 6). 

Panaenus (W&vaivos), a distinguished Athe- 
nian painter, who nourished B.C. 448. He was 
the nephew of Phidias, whom he assisted in 
decorating the temple of Zeus at Olympia. 
He was also the author of a scries of paintings 
of the battle of Marathon, in the Poecile at 
Athens (Paus. v. 11, 5 ; Plin. xxxv. 58). 

Panaetlus (TlavaWios). 1. A native of Rhodes 
(Strab. p. 655), and a celebrated Stoic philoso- 
pher, studied first at Pergamum under the 
grammarian Crates, and subsequently at Athens 
under the Stoic Diogenes of Babylon and his dis- 
ciple An tiputcroi Tarsus. He afterwards went 



to Rome, where he became an intimate friend 
of Laelius and of Scipio Africanus the younger 
(Cic. Div. i. 3, 6, Fin. iv. 9, 23, Tusc. iv. 2, 4). 
In B.C. 144 he accompanied Scipio on the em- 
bassy which he undertook to the kings of 
Egypt and Asia in alliance with Rome. 
Panaetius succeeded Antipater as head of the 
Stoic school, and died at Athens, at all events 
before 111 (Cic. de Or. i. 11, 45). The principal 
work of Panaetius was his treatise on the 
theory of moral obligation (Uepl tov kclBtikoi'tos ), 
in three books, from which Cicero took the 
greater part of his work De Officiis. Panaetius 
had softened down the harsh severity of the 
older Stoics, and, without giving up their 
fundamental definitions, had modified them so 
as to make them applicable to the conduct of 
life. — 2. Of Leontini, made himself tyrant of 
that city B.C. 608 (Polyaen. v. 47), and was the 
earliest of the tyrants in Sicilian towns. 

Panaetolrom, a mountain in Aetolia near 
Thermon, in which town the general assembly 
of the Aetolians was held. [Aetolia.] 

Panda, a river in the country of Siraces in 
Sarmatia Asiatica (Tac. Ann. xii. 16). 

Pandareos (Xlavbapews), son of Merops of 
Miletus, is said to have stolen from the temple 
of Zeus in Crete the golden dog which He- 
phaestus had made, and to have carried it to 
Tantalus. When Zeus sent Hermes to Tantalus 
to claim the dog back, Tantalus declared that 
it was not in his possession. The god, how- 
ever, took the animal by force, and threw 
Mount Sipylus upon Tantalus. Pandareos fled 
to Athens, and thence to Sicily, where he 
perished with his wife Harmothoe. The story 
of Pandareos derives more interest from that of 
his three daughters. For the story of the eldest 
and best known see Aedon ; the other daughters 
of Pandareos, Merope and Cleodora (according 
to Pausanias, Camira and Clytia), were, as is 
told in the Odyssey, deprived of their parents 
by the gods, and remained as helpless orphans 
in the palace. Aphrodite, however, fed them 
with milk, honey, and wine. Hera gave them 
beauty and understanding far above other 
women. Artemis gave them dignity, and 
Athene skill in the arts. But retribution was 
still due for their father's crime, and, when 
Aphrodite went up to Olympus to arrange the 
nuptials for her maidens, they were carried off 
by the Harpies, and given as servants to the 
Erinyes. (Od. xx. 65-78 ; Paus. x. 30, 1 ; Eu- 
stath. ad Horn. p. 1875.) 

Pandarus (ndnSapos). 1. A Lycian, son of 
Lycaon, commanded the inhabitants of Zelea 
on Mt. Ida in the Trojan war. He was dis- 
tinguished in the Trojan army as an archer, 
and was said to have received his bow from 
Apollo. He was slain by Diomedes, or, accord- 
ing to some, by Sthenelus. He was afterwards 
honoured as a hero at Pinara in Lycia. (II. ii. 
824, iv. 88, v. 290 ; Strab. p. 665 ; Philostr. Her. 
iv. 2.) — 2. Son of Alcanor, and twin-brother of 
Bitias, was a companion of Aeneas, and was 
slain by Turnus (Verg. Aen. ix. 672, 758). 

Pandataria (Vendutene), a small island off 
the coast of Campania, to which Julia, the 
daughter of Augustus, among other state pri- 
soners, was banished (Strab. pp. 123, 288 ; Tac. 
Ann. i. 53, xiv. 63; Suet. Tib. 58). 

PandemoB. [Aphrodite, p. 86, b.] 

Pandion {Wavhiuip). 1. I., king of Athens, 
son of Erichthonius, by the Naiad Pasithea, 
was married to Zeuxippe, by whom he became 
the father of Proem: and Philomela, and of the 
twins Ercchtheus and Butes. In awaragainst 



648 



PANDORA 



PANNONIA 



Labdacus, king of Thebes, he called upon 
Tereus of Daulis in Phocis, for assistance, and 
afterwards rewarded him by giving him his 
daughter Proene in marriage. [Tebeus.] It 
was in his reign that Dionysus and Demeter 
were said to have come to Attica. (Thuc. ii. 
29 ; Apollod. iii. 14, 6 ; Paus. i. 5, 3.)— 2. II., king 
of Athens, son of Cecrops and Metiadusa. 
Being expelled from Athens by the Metionidae, 
he fled to Megara, and there married Pylia, 
the daughter of king Pylas. When the latter, 
in consequence of a murder, migrated into 
Peloponnesus, Pandion obtained the govern, 
ment of Megara, where his grave and rjpuiov 
were shown (Paus. i. 43, 6). He became the 
father of Aegeus, Pallas, Nisus, Lycus, and a 
natural son, Oeneus, and also of a daughter, 
who was married to Sciron. After his death 
his four sons, called the Pandionidae (Xlav'Siovi- 
Sai), returned from Megara to Athens, and ex- 
pelled the Metionidae. Aegeus obtained 
Athens, Lycus the E. coast of Attica, Nisus 
Megaris, and Pallas the S. coast. His statue 
was placed at Athens among those of the 
eponymic heroes. (Eur. Med. 660 ; Apollod. 
iii. 15, 1 ; Paus. i. 5, 29.) 

Pandora (UavSdpa), the name of the first 
woman on earth. When Prometheus had 
stolen the fire from heaven, Zeus in revenge 
caused Hephaestus to make a woman out of 
earth, who by her charms and beauty should 
bring misery-upon the human race. Aphrodite 
adorned her with beauty ; Hermes bestowed 
upon her boldness and cunning ; and the gods 
called her Pandora, or Allgifted, as each of the 
gods had given her some power by which she 
was to work the ruin of man. Hermes took 
her to Epimetheus, who made her his wife, for- 
getting the advice of his brother Prometheus 
that he should not receive any gifts from Zeus. 
In the house of Epimetheus was a closed jar, 
which he had been forbidden to open. But the 
curiosity of a woman could not resist the temp- 
tation to know its contents ; and when she opened 
the lid all the evils incident to man poured out. 
She had only time to shut down the lid, and 
prevent the escape of hope. (Hes. Th. 571, 
Op. 50.) Later writers relate that the box con- 
tained all the blessings of the gods, which 
would have been preserved for the human race 
had not Pandora opened the vessel, so that the 
winged blessings escaped (Hyg. Fab. 142). 

Pandosia (YlavSoffia). 1. (Kastri), a town of 
Epirus, in the district Thesprotia, on the river 
Acheron, in the territory of the Cassopaei 
(Strab. pp. 256, 324).— 2. (Castel Franco ?), a 
town in Bruttium near the frontiers of Lucania, 
either upon or at the foot of three hills, was 
originally a residence of native Oenotrian 
chiefs. It was here that Alexander of Epirus 
fell, B.C. 326, in accordance with an oracle, for 
here also there was a stream called Acheron. 
(Strab. p. 256 ; Liv. viii. 24 ; Justin, xii. 2.) — 3. 
A town of Lucania, near Heraclea (Plut. Pyrrh. 
16). 

Pandrosos. [Aglaubus.] 

Paneas. [Caesabea, No. 2.] 

Paneum or -ium (ndveiov, Xldviov, i.e. Pan's- 
abode), the Greek name of the cave, in a moun- 
tain at the S. extremity of the range of Anti- 
libanus, out of which the river Jordan takes its 
rise, a little above the town of Paneas or 
Caesarea Philippi. The mountain, in whose S. 
side the cave is, was called by the same name ; 
and the surrounding district was called Paneas. 
(Jos. Ant. xv. 10). 

Pangaeum or Pangaeus (Jlayyaiov, ndy- 



yaios : Pangea), a celebrated range of moun- 
tains in Macedonia, between the Strymon and 
the Nestus, in the neighbourhood of Philippi, 
with gold and silver mines ; famous also for its 
roses (Hdt. v. 16 ; Thuc. ii. 99 ; Aesch. Pers. 494 ; 
Verg. Georg. iv. 462 ; Plin. iv. 42). 

Panhellenms. [Zeus.] 

Panionium. [Mycale : and Diet, of Ant. 
s.v. Panionia.] 

Pallium (riacio;'), a town on the coast of 
Thrace, near Heraclea (Suid. s.v.). 

Pannonia, one of the most important of the 
Roman provinces between the Danube and the 
Alps, was separated on the W. from Noricum 
by the Mons Cetius, and from Upper Italy by 
the Alpes Juliae, on the S. from Illyria by the 
Savus, of the E. from Dacia by the Danube, 
and on the N. from Germany by the same 
river. It thus corresponded to the eastern part 
of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the 
whole of Hungary between the Danube and 
the Save, Slavonia, and a part of Croatia and 
Bosnia. The mountains in the S. and W. of 
the country on the borders of Illyria, Italy, and 
Noricum, belonged to the Alps, and are there- 
fore called by the general name of the Alpes 
Pannonicae, of which the separate names are 
Ocra, Carvancas, Cetius, and Albii or Albani 
Montes. The principal rivers of Pannonia, 
besides the Danube, were the Dbavus (Drave), 
Savus (Save), and Arrabo (Baab), all of which 
flows into the Danube. — The Pannonians 
(Pannonii), sometimes called Paeonians by the 
Greek writers, were probably of Illyrian origin, 
and were divided into numerous tribes. They 
were a brave and warlike people, but are 
described by the Roman writers as cruel, faith- 
less, and treacherous. They maintained their 
independence of Rome, till Augustus, after his 
conquest of the Illyrians (b.c. 35), turned his 
arms against the Pannonians, who were shortly 
afterwards subdued by his general Vibius (Dio 
Cass. xlix. 35-38). Li a.d. 7 the Pannonians 
joined the Dalmatians and the other Illyrian 
tribes in their revolt from Rome, and were with 
difficulty conquered by Tiberius, after a desper- 
ate struggle, which lasted three years (a.d. 
7-9) (Dio Cass. Iv. 28-38; "Veil. Pat. ii. 110; 
Suet. Tib. 16). It was after the termination of 
this war that Pannonia appears to have been 
reduced to the form of a Roman province, and 
was garrisoned by several Roman legions. The 
dangerous mutiny of these troops after the 
death of Augustus (a.d. 14) was with difficulty 
quelled by Drusus. From this time to the end 
of the empire, Pannonia always contained a 
large number of Roman troops, on account of 
its bordering on the Quadi and other powerful 
barbarous nations. The towns Carnuntum, 
Siscia, and Poetovio stood near its border-line. 
We find at a later time that Pannonia was the 
regular quarters of seven legions (Tac. Ann. i. 
16 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 125). In consequence of this 
large number of troops always stationed in the 
country, several towns were founded and 
numerous fortresses were erected along the 
Danube. Pannonia originally formed only one 
province, but about 102 a.d. was divided into 
two provinces, called Pannonia Superior and 
Pannonia Inferior. These were separated 
from one another by a straight line drawn from 
the river Arrabo S. as far as the Savus, the 
country W. of this line being P. Superior, and 
the part E. P. Inferior. Each of the provinces 
was governed by a separate propraetor; but 
they were frequently spoken of in the plural 
under the name of Pannoniae. The Danube 



PAXOMPHAEUS 



PANTICAPAETJM 



649 



formed the limit and the colonies Mursia and 
Aquincum were founded as outposts by Ha- 
drian (C. I. L. iii. p. 415). The native settle- 
ments were villages (vici) grouped in cantons 
I pagi). The larger towns were of Roman 
origin, either colonies or monicipia, some of 
which were first established as outposts or 
fortresses, and afterwards increased. In the 
fourth century the part of P. Inferior between 
the Arrabo, the Danube, and the Dravus, was 
formed into a separate province with chief 
towns Sopianae (F'tinfkirchen) and Aquincum 
(Alt-Ofen), by Galerius, who gave it the name 
of Valeria in honour of his wife. But as P. 
Inferior had thus lost a great part of its terri- 
tory, Constantine added to it a portion of P. 
Superior, comprising the upper part of the 
course of the Dravus and the Savus. P. 
Superior was now called Pannonia I., with 
cliief towns Savaria and Siscia, and P. Inferior 
Pannonia II., with chief town Sirmium ; and 
all three Pannonian provinces (together with 
the two Noric provinces and Dalmatia) be- 
longed to the six Ulyrian provinces of the 
Western Empire. In the middle of the fifth 
century Pannonia was taken possession of by 
the Huns. After the death of Attila it passed 
into the hands of the Ostrogoths, and subse- 
quently into those of the Lombards. 

Panomphaeus (TlavonQcuos), i.e. the author of 
all signs and omens, a surname of Zeus, who 
had a sanctuary on the Hellespont between 
Capes Rhoeteum and Sigeum (11. viii. 250 ; Ov. 
Met. xi. 198). 

Panope (Havdirrj), a nymph of the sea, 
daughter of Nereus and Doris. 

Panopeus (navoirevs), son of Phocus and 
Asteropaea, accompanied Amphitryon on his 
expedition against the Taphians or Teleboans, 
and took an oath not to embezzle any part of 
the booty ; but having broken his oath, he was 
punished by his son Epeus becoming unwarlike. 
He was one of the Calydonian hunters. (II. 
xxiii. 866 ; Paus. ii. 29, 4 ; Ov. Met. viii. 312.) 

Panopeus or Phanoteus, (Uavoirtis, Horn.), 
Panopeae (Tlavoireai}, or Panope (naeoVn, 
Thuc; Uavoirevs : Agio Vlasi), an ancient town 
in Phocis on the Cephissus and near the frontiers 
of Boeotia, twenty stadia W. of Chaeronea, said 
to have been founded bv Panopeus, son of 
Phocus (Hes. ap. Strab. p. 424 ; Hdt. viii. 34 ; 
Ov. Met. iii. 19). 

Panopolis. [Chemmis.] 

Panoptes. [Argus.] 

Punormus (Uauopnos), that is, ' All-Port,' or 
a place always fit for landing, the name of 
several harbours. 1. (UavopiUTi)s, Panorinita, 
Panormitanus : Palermo), an important town 
on the N. coast of Sicily and at the mouth of 
the river Orethus, was founded by the Phoeni- 




Coin of Panormus In Sicily (beforu iVI B.C.). 
Ofcc, head of Persephone and dolphins; rev., horse's head ; 
name of town in Punic characters. 



cians, and at a later time received its Greek 
name from its excellent harbour (Thuc. vi. 2; 
Diod. xxii. 10). From the Phoenicians it 



passed into the hands of the Carthaginians, in 
whose power it remained for a long time, and 
who made it one of the chief stations for their 
fleet (Diod. xi. 20, xiii. 88, xv. 17). It was taken 
by the Romans in the first Punic war, B.C. 254 
(Pol. i. 21, 38). It became a municipium with 
immunities from taxation and considerable inde- 
pendence. Cicero notices its commercial pro- 
sperity ( Verr. ii. 26, iii. 6, v. 7) ; but after the war 
with Sextus Pompeius it lost its independence, 
and was made a Roman colony. (Strab. p. 272.) 
— 2. (Porto Baphti), the principal harbour on 
the E. coast of Attica, near the demus Prasiae, 
and opposite the S. extremity of Euboea. — 3. 
(Tekieh), a harbour in Achaia, fifteen stadia E. 
of the promontory Rliium (Thuc. ii. 86 ; Paus. 
viL 22, 10). — 4. A harbour in Epirus, in the 
middle of the Acroceraunian mountains (Strab. 
p. 324). — 5. (Nr. Mylopotamo, Ru.), a town and 
harbour on the N. coast of Crete. — 6. The outer 
harbour of Ephesus formed by the mouth of the 
river Cayster (Strab. p. 639 ; Ephesus). 

Pansa, C. Vibius, a friend and partisan of 
Caesar, was tribune of the plebs b.c. 51, and 
was appointed by Caesar in 46 to the govern- 
ment of Cisalpine Gaul as successor to M. 
Brutus. Caesar subsequently nominated liim 
and Hirtius consuls for 43. Pansa was consul 
in that year along with Hirtius, and fell before 
Mutina in the month of April. The details are 
' given under HmTirs. 

Pantacyas, Pantaglas, or Pantagies (nacT- 
aievas : Fiunie di Pocari), a small river on the 
E. coast of Sicily, flowing into the sea between 
Megara and Syracuse (Verg. Aen. iii. 689 ; Ov. 
Fast. iv. 471). 

Pantaleon (UavTa\eaiv). 1. Son of Omphalion, 
\ king or tyrant of Pisa in Elis at the period of 
the thirty-fourth Olympiad (b.c. 644), assembled 
an army, with which he made himself master 
of Olympia, and assumed by force the sole 
presidency of the Olympic games. The Eleans 
on this account would not reckon tliis as one of 
the regular Olympiads. 1 Pantaleon assisted the 
Messenians in the second Messenian war. 
(Paus. vi. 21, 22 ; Strab. p. 362.)— 2. A king of 
Bactria or the Indo-Caucasian provinces, whose 
date, from his coins, is put at about 120 B.C. 

Panthea. [Abradatas.] 

Pantheum. [Roma.] 

Panthous contr. Panthus (UavQoos, ndv8ovs), 
one of the elders at Troy, husband of Phrontis, 
and father of Euphorbus, Polydamas, and 
Hyperenor (II. iii. 146, xiv. 450, xvii. 24, 40, 81). 
Hence both Euphorbus and Polydamas are 
called Pantlwides. He was originally a priest 
of Apollo at Delphi, and was carried to Troy by 
An tenor, on account of his beauty. He continued 
to be a priest of Apollo, and is called by Virgil 
(Aen. ii. 319) Othryadea, or son of Othryas. 




Coin of Panticapacum In the Taurlc Chcrsonesus (about 

B.C. 860). 

Ottr., hood of Pan (the Greeks erroneously connected the 
namo. which is probably Scythian, with tho god Pan) ; 
reTg n an ; a griffin with spear In its mouth ; below, a 
stalk of corn, to signify the corn trade of tho town. 

Panticapacum (navTtKanaiov : UavTiKaircuos, 
navTiKaircutvs, na.vTtKairtd.Tris : Kertsch), a 
town in the Tauric Chersonesus, was situated 



650 



PANTICAPES 



PAPHUS 



on a hill twenty stadia in circumference, on the 
Cimmerian Bosporus, and opposite the town of 
Phanagoria in Asia (Strab. pp. 309-311 ; Appian, 
Mithr. 107). It was founded by the Milesians, 
about B.C. 541, and from its position and excel- 
lent harbour soon became a place of great 
commercial importance. It was the residence 
of the Greek kings of the Bosporus, and hence 
is sometimes called Bosporus. Justinian caused 
it to be surrounded with new walls. (Strab. p. 
495 ; Diod. xx. 24 ; Plin. iv. 78 ; Procop. Aed. 
iii. 7.) Remains of Greek art of the greatest 
value to archaeology have been found here, and 
are now for the most part at St. Petersburg. 

Panticapes (TlavTiKdirris : Samara"!) a river 
in European Sarmatia, which, according to 
Herodotus, rises in a lake, separates the agri- 
cultural and nomad Scythians, flows through 
the district Hylaea, and falls into the Bory- 
sthenes (Hdt. iv. 18, 47, 54 ; Plin. iv. 83). 

Panyasis (Uavvacris). 1. A Greek epic poet, 
was a native of Halicarnassus, and' a relation of 
the historian Herodotus, probably his uncle. 
Panyasis was put to death by Lygdamis, the 
tyrant of Halicarnassus, about B.C. 457. The 
most celebrated of his poems was Heraelea 
or Heracleas, which gave a detailed account 
of the exploits of Heracles. It consisted oE 
fourteen books and 9000 verses. Another poem 
bore the name of Ionica ('laviKa), and con- 
tained 7000 verses ; it related the history of 
Neleus, Codrus, and the Ionic colonies. In 
later times the works of Panyasis were exten- 
sively read, and much admired ; some Alexan- 
drine grammarians ranked him with Homer, 
Hesiod, Pisander, and Antimachus, as one of 
the five principal epic poets (Suid. s. v. ; Paus. 
x. 8, 5), The scanty fragments which remain 
give no means of determining the poetical merit 
of his work (ed. Gaisford, 1823 ; Diibner, 1840). 
— 2. A philosopher, also a native of Halicar- 
nassus, who wrote two books ' On Dreams ' 
(ITepl bveipujv), was perhaps a grandson of the 
poet (Suid. s. v.). 

Paphlagonia (YlacpKayovia : Tla<p\aywv, pi. 
-Sues, Paphlago), a district on the N. side of 
Asia Minor, between Bithynia on the W. and 
Pontus on the E., being separated from the 
former by the river Parthenius, and from the 
latter by the Halys ; on the S. it was divided by 
the chain of Mount Orminius (at some periods 
by Mount Olgassys) and the bend of the Halys 
from Phrygia, in the earlier times, but from 
Galatia afterwards ; and on the N. it bordered 
on the Euxine. These boundaries, however, 
are not always exactly observed. Xenophon 
brings the Paphlagonians as far E. as Themi- 
scyra and the Jasonian promontory (Xen. An. v. 
C, 1 ; cf. Strab. p. 548). It appears to have been 
known to the Greeks in the mythical period. 
The Argonautic legends mentioned Paphlagon, 
the son of Phineus, as the hero eponymus of 
the country. In the Homeric Catalogue, Pylae- 
menes leads the Paphlagonians, as allies of the 
Trojans, from the land of the Heneti, about 
the river Parthenius, a region famed for its 
mules : and from this Pylaemenes the later 
princes of Paphlagonia claimed their descent, 
and the country itself was sometimes called 
Fylaemenia (II. ii. 851, v. 577, xiii. 656 ; Plin. 
vi. 5). Herodotus twice mentions the Halys as 
the boundary between the Paphlagonians and 
the Syrians of Cappadocia ; but we learn also 
from him and from other authorities that the 
Paphlagonians were of the same race as the 
Cappadocians (i.e. the Semitic or Syro-Arabian) 
and quite distinct, in their language and their 



customs, from their Thracian neighbours on the 
W. (Hdt. i. 72, ii. 104; Plut. Lucull. 23.) 
They were good soldiers, especially as cavalry ; 
but uncivilised and superstitious. The country 
had also other inhabitants, probably of a 
different race : namely, the Heneti and the 
Caucones ; and Greek settlements were estab- 
lished on the coast at an early period. The 
Paphlagonians were first subdued by Croesus. 
(Hdt. i. 28, iii. 90.) Under the Persian empire 
they belonged to the third satrapy, but their 
satraps made themselves independent and 
assumed the regal title, maintaining them- 
selves in this position (with a brief interruption, 
during which Paphlagonia was subject -to 
Eumenes) until the conquest of the country by 
Mithridates, who added the E. part of his own 
kingdom, and made over the W. part to Nico- 
medes, king of Bithynia, who gave it to his son 
Pylaemenes (App. Mithr. 11, 12 ; Strab. p. 
540 ; Justin, xxxvii; 1-4). After the fall of 
Mithridates the part of Paphlagonia nearer the 
coast which had belonged to Mithridates was 
by Pompey's arrangement, B.C. 65, included in 
the province of Pontus ; the interior was left to 
the native princes, as tributaries to Rome ; but, 
the race of these princes becoming soon extinct, 
the whole of Paphlagonia was made Roman, and 
Augustus made it a part of the province of 
Galatia. (Strab. pp. 541, 544, 562 ; Ptol. v. 4, 
5.) Pompeiopolis was its fxrirpdiroXis. It was 
made a separate province under Constantine ; 
but the E. part, from Sinope to the Halys, was 
assigned to Pontus, under the name of Helles- 
pontus. Paphlagonia was a mountainous 
country, being intersected from ~W. to E. by 
three chains of the Olympus system : namely, 
the Olympus itself on the S. border, Olgassys in 
the centre, and a minor chain with no specific 
name nearer to the coast. The belt of land 
between this last chain and the sea was very 
fertile, and the Greek cities of Amastris and 
Sinope brought a considerable commerce to its 
shore ; but the inland parts were chiefly covered 
with forests, which were celebrated as hunting 
grounds. The country was famed for its horses 
and mules, and in some parts there were exten- 
sive sheepwalks; and its rivers were particularly 
famous for their fish (Strab. p. 547). 

Paphus (llanos), son of Pygmalion by the 
statue into which life had been breathed by 
Aphrodite. From him the town of Paphus de- 
rived its name ; and Pygmalion himself is called 
the Paphian hero. (Ov. Met. x. 290.) 

Paphus (Udipos : Tlx<pios), the name of two 
towns on the W. coast of Cyprus, near each- 
other, and called respectively ' Old Paphos,' 
(Tla\a'nra(pos) and ' New Paphos ' (Tld.<pos via). 
Old Paphos was situated near the promontory 
Zephyrium, ten stadia from the coast, where 
it had a good harbour ; while New Paphos 
lay more inland, in the midst of a fertile plain, 
sixty stadia from the former (Hes. Th. 192 ; 
Mel. ii. 7 ; Lucan, viii. 456 ; Strab. p. 683 ; 
Corunt. N. D. 24 ; Serv. ad Aen. x. 51). It has 
been said that there was a Paphian river Boca- 
l'us, but there is reason to think that this is a 
confusion with a river Bocarus in the island 
Salamis (Strab. p. 394). Old Paphos was the 
chief seat of the worship of Aphrodite, who is 
said to have landed at this place after her 
birth among the waves, and who is hence fre- 
quently called the Paphian goddess (Paphia). 
Here she had a celebrated temple, the high 
priest of which exercised a kind of religious 
; superintendence over the whole island. Every 
year there was a grand procession from New 



PAPIAS 



PAKAETONIUM 



651 



Paphos to the temple of the goddess in the old 
city. The foundation of Old Paphos and its 
temple and temple services are fully described 
by Tacitus (Hist. ii. 2). The founder was 
Cinybas, though Tacitus notices an ancient 
tradition of a mythical founder, Aerias, which, 
he says, others regard as a name of the god- 
dess. Originally there were two priestly fami- 
lies, the Cinyradae and the Tamiradae, but 
eventually the office belonged solely to the 
descendants of Cinyras. The image of the 
goddess was a conical stone (cf. Serv. ad Aen. 
i. 724 ; Philostr. Vit. Apoll. iii. 58). This cone 
appears in the Semitic fashion to have been 
anointed with oil, for a recently discovered 
inscription mentions a festival of the temple 
called ikaioxpiar iov . There can be no doubt 
of the Phoenician origin of Old Paphos, and 
that the worship of Aphrodite was introduced 
here from the East. Herodotus (i. 105J speaks 
of the temple of Aphrodite in Cyprus as estab- 
lished in imitation of the Syrian temple at 
Ascalon. New Paphos, on the other hand, was 
a different foundation, traditionally by Aga- 
penor on his return from Troy (Strab. p. 683 ; 
Paus. viii. 5, 2). When Paphos is mentioned 
by later writers without any epithet, they usu- 
ally mean the New City ; but when the name 
occurs in the poets, we are generally to under- 
stand the Old City, as the poets, for the most 
part, speak of the place in connexion with the 
worship of Aphrodite. Old Paphos was des- 
troyed by an earthquake in the reign of Augus- 
tus, but was rebuilt by order of the emperor, 
and called Augusta (Dio Cass. liv. 23 ; cf. Sen. 
Bp. 91). Under the Romans New Paphos 
was the capital of one of the four districts into 
which the island was divided. The excavations 
carried on by the English archaeologists in 
1887 and later years, and described in the Hel- 
lenic Journal, have shown that the temple had 
even the character not so much of a Greek or 
Roman as of a Phoenician temple with large 
open courts and several small chambers. It is 
w orthy of remark as supporting the statements 
of ancient writers, especially of Tacitus, that 
fragments of marble cones have been found, 
and that an altar (now in the British Museum) 
has been found, said to be suitable for the sacri- 
fice of small victims such as Tacitu? mentions. 
It is probable that there was another altar for 
incense (cf. Od. viii. 302; Hymn, ad Ven. 58; 
Verg. Aen. i. 4, 15). 

Papias, bishop of Hierapolis. [Did. of 
Christian Biography.] 

Papinianus, Aemilius, a celebrated Roman 
jurist, was praefectus praetorio under the em- 
peror Septimius Severus, whom he accompanied 
to Britain. The emperor died at York a.l>. 211, 
and is said to have commended his two sons 
Caracalla and Geta to the care of Papinian. 
(Spart. Carac. 8.) On the death of his father, 
Caracalla dismissed Papinian from his office, 
and shortly afterwards put him to death. There 
are 582 excerpts from Papinian's works in the 
Digest. These excerpts are from the thirty- 
seven books of Quaestiones (a work arranged 
according to the order of the Edict), the 
nineteen books of Besponsa, the two books of 
Definition's, the two books De Adulteriis, a 
single book Dr. Adulteriis, and a Greek work 
or fragment which probably treated of the office 
of Aedile both at Rome and in other towns. 
No Roman jurist had a higher reputation than 
Papinian. Nor is his reputation unmerited. It 
was not solely because of his high office, hi* 
penetration and his knowledge, that he left a 



great name ; his excellent understanding, guided 
by integrity of purpose, has made him the model 
of a true lawyer. 

Papinlus Statins. [Statius.J 

Papiria Gens, patrician and plebeian. The 
' patrician Papirii were divided into the families 
of Crassus, Cursor, Maso, and Mugillanus; 
and the plebeian Papirii into those of Carlo, 
Paetus, and T Urdus. Of these the families of 
Cakbo, Cursor, Maso, and Mugillanus, alone 
require mention. 

Papirianae Fossae, a village in Etruria on 
the Via Aemilia, between Luna and Pisa. 

Papirius, C. or Sex., the author of a supposed 
collection of the Leges Regiae, called Jus Papi- 
rianum, or Jus Civile Papirianum. He is 
said to have lived in the reign of Tarquinius 
Superbus. (Dionys. iii. 36 ; Liv. i. 20, 32.) 

Papius Mutilus. [Mutilus.] 

Pappua tUaTnrova), a lofty rugged mountain 
on the extreme border of Numidia, perhaps the 
same as the Thammes of Ptolemy, and as the 
mountain abounding with wild cats, near the 
city of Melitene, to which Diodorus Siculus 
refers (xx. 58), but without mentioning its name 
I'Procop. B. V. ii. 4, 7). 

Pappus Ultrmror), of Alexandria, one of the 
later Greek geometers, is said by Suidas to 
have lived under Theodosius (a.d. 379-395). 
Of the works of Pappus, the only one which has 
come down to us is his celebrated Mathe- 
matical Collections (MadripaTiK&v (TvvaywyGiv 
frifihia). What remains of the work is edited 
by F. Hultsch, Berl. 1875. 

Papremis (nd.Trprip.is), a city of Lower Egypt, 
capital of the Nomos Papremites, and sacred to- 
the Egyptian god whom the Greeks identified 
with Ares (Hdt. ii. 59, 71). 

Papus, Aemillus. 1. Iff., dictator B.C. 321 
(Liv. ix. 7). —2. Q., twice consul, 282 and 278 ; 
and censor 275. In both his consulships and 
in his censorship he had as colleague C. Fabvi- 
cius Luscinus. (Dionys. xviii. 5.)— 3. L., consul 
225, defeated the Cisalpine Gauls with great 
slaughter. He was censor 220 with C. Flami- 
nius. (Pol. ii. 23 ; Eutrop. iii. 5.) 

Paracheloltis (riapaxeA.£>«Tis), the name of 
the plain in Acarnania and Aetolia, through 
which the Achelous flows. 

Parachoathras (Ua.paxo6.9pas, to. Uapo.- 
X<ia6pa: Mts. of Louristan), a part of the 
chain of mountains forming the E. margin sf 
the Tigris and Euphrates valley, was the boun- 
dary between Susiana and Media. The same 
name is given to an E. branch of the chain, 
forming the boundary between Parthia and the 
desert of Carmania. Strabo places it too far N. 
(Ptol. vi. 2, 3 ; Strab. pp. 511, 511, 522.) 

Paraetacene (napaiTaKrjv!) : TlapuiTOKal, 
TlapatTaK-rivoi, Paraetacae, Paraetaceni), the 
name of various mountainous regions in the 
Persian empire, is the Greek form of a Persian 
word signifying mountainous. 1. The best 
known of those districts was on the borders of 
Media and Persis, and was inhabited by a people 
of Median origin, who are mentioned several 
times by the historians of Alexander and his 
successors (Strab. p. 786 ; Arrian, iii. 19 ; cf. 
| Hdt. i. 101). — 2. A district between the rivers 
' Oxus and Jaxartes, on the borders of Bactria 
and Sogdiana (Arrian, iv. 21 ; Curt. viii. 14). 

Paraetonium or Ammonia mapatrSviov, r) 
1 'Appxuv'ta : El-Barcton or Marsa-Labeil), an 
important city on the N. coast of Africa, be- 
longed to Mannarica in its widest sense, but 
politically to Egypt — namely, to the Nomos 
Libya: hence this city on the W. and IVlusium 



652 



PARAGON 



on the E. are called ' cornua Aegypti.' It 
stood near the promontory Artos or Pythis 
(Ras-el-Hazeit), and was reckoned 200 Roman 
miles W. of Alexandria, and 1300 stadia N. 
of Ammonium in the Desert (Siwah), which 
Alexander the Great visited by the way of 
Paraetonium (Strab. p. 709 ; Arrian, An. iv. 3, 
3 ; Ov. Met. ix. 772 ; Lucan, hi. 295). The city 
was forty stadia in circuit. It was an important 
seaport, a strong fortress, and a seat of the wor- 
ship of Isis. It was restored by Justinian, and 
continued a place of some consequence till its 
destruction by Mehmet Ali, in 1820. 

Paragon Sinus (Tlapdywv koAttos : Gulf of 
Oman), a gulf of the Indicus Oceanus, on the 
coast of Gedrosia (Ptol. vi. 8, 7). 

Paralia. [Attica, p. 148.] 

Paralus (UapaAos), the younger of the two 
legitimate sons of Pericles. He and his brother 
Xanthippus were educated by their father with 
the greatest care, but they both appear to have 
been of inferior capacity, which was not compen- 
sated by worth of character, though Paralus 
seems to have been better than his brother. 
They both fell victims to the plague, B.C. 429. 
(Plut. Pericl. 24, 36 ; Plat. Ale. i. p. 118, Protag. 
p. 319 ; Athen. p. 505.) 

Parapotanrii or -ia (YlapawoTa.fj.ioi, -a/xia : Be- 
Ussi), an ancient town in Phocis, situated on a 
steep hill, and on the left bank of the river 
Cephissus, from which it derives its name (ef. 
II. ii. 522). It was near the frontiers of Boeotia, 
being only forty stadia from Chaeronea and 
sixty stadia from Orchomenus. It was de- 
stroyed by Xerxes, but was rebuilt, and was 
destroyed a second time in the Sacred war. 
(Hdt. viii. 33 ; Paus. x. 3, 1 ; Strab. p. 424.) 

Paravaei (Tlapavaioi), an Epirot tribe on the 
banks of the Aous (Thuc. ii. 80 ; Arrian, An. 
1, 7). 

Parcae. [Moirae.] 

Parentlum (Parenzo), a town in Istria, with 
a good harbour, inhabited by Roman citizens, 



PARIS 

she-bear. Thereupon he carried the boy home, 
and brought him up along with his own child, 
and called him Paris (Eur. Troacl. 921). When 
Paris had grown up, he distinguished himself 
as a valiant defender of the flocks and shep- 
herds, and hence received the name of Alex- 
ander, i.e. the defender of men. He also 
succeeded in discovering his real origin, and 
was received by Priam as his son. It was said 
that Priam was holding funeral games for Paris, 
whom he believed to be dead. The king's 
servants seized a bull for the prize from the 
herds of Paris, who therefore took part in the 
games and conquered his brothers. They were 
about to attack him in anger, when Cassandra 
declared that he was really Paris, the son of 
Priam (Apollod. iii. 12, 5). He now married 
Oenone, the daughter of the river-god Cebren, 
by whom, according to some, he became the 
father of Corythus. The most celebrated event 
in the life of Paris was his abduction of Helen. 
This came to pass in the following way. Once 
upon a time, when Peleus and Thetis solem- 
nised their nuptials, all the gods were invited 
to the marriage, with the exception of Eris, or 
Strife. Enraged at her exclusion, the goddess 
threw a golden apple among the guests, with 
the inscription, ' To the fairest ' (Tzetz. ad Lyc. 
93). Thereupon Hera, Aphrodite and Athene 
each claimed, the apple for herself. Zeus 
ordered Hermes to take the goddesses to Mount 
Gargarus, a portion of Ida, to the beautiful 
shepherd Paris, who was there tending his 
flocks, and who was to decide the dispute. The 
goddesses accordingly appeared before him. 
Hera promised him the sovereignty of Asia and 
great riches, Athene great glory and renown in 
war, and Aphrodite the fairest of women for 
his wife. Paris decided in favour of Aphrodite, 
and gave her the golden apple. (17. xxiv. 29 ; 
Schol. ad Eur.Hec. 642, Troad. 925, Hel. 23; 
Hyg. Fab. 92.) This judgment called forth in 
Hera and Athene fierce hatred against Troy. 




Judgment ol Paris. From a vase (Overbeck, x. S). Hermes is leading up the three goddesses, who offer 
respectively Eros (love), a helmet (warlike fame), and a lion (sovereignty). 



Tmt not a Roman colony, thirty-one miles from 
Pola (Ptol. iii. 1, 27). 

Paris (ndpts), also called Alexander ('AAe£av- 
Spos), was the second son of Priam and Hecuba. 
Before his birth Hecuba dreamed that she had 
brought forth a firebrand, the flames of which 
spread over the whole city (Eur. Andr. 298 ; 
Cic. Div. i. 21 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 320 ; Paus. x. 
12, 1). Accordingly as soon as the child was 
born, he was given to a shepherd, who was to 
expose him on Mount Ida. After the lapse of 
five days, the shepherd, on returning to Mount 
Ida found the child still alive, and fed by a 



Under the protection of Aphrodite, Paris now 
sailed to Greece, and was hospitably received 
in the palace of Menelaus at Sparta. Here he 
succeeded in carrying off Helen, the wife of 
Menelaus, who was the most beautiful woman 
in the world. [For the various accounts of the 
abduction and the voyage to Troy see Helena.] 
The abduction of Helen gave rise to the Trojan 
war. Before her marriage with Menelaus, she 
had been wooed by the noblest chiefs in all 
parts of Greece. Her former suitors now re- 
solved to revenge her abduction, and sailed 
against Troy. [Agamemnon.] — Homer describes 



PARIS 



PARMENIDES 



653 



Paris as a handsome man, fond of music, and a 
skilful archer, even showing courage in war 
sometimes, but often dilatory and cowardly, 
and detested by his own friends for having 
brought upon them the fatal war with the 
Greeks (II. iii. 16, 37, vi. 326, vii. 2, 400). He 
fought with Menelaus before the walls of Troy, 
and was defeated, but was carried off by Aphro- 
dite (U. iii. 58). He is said to have killed Achilles, 
either by one of his arrows or by treachery in 
the temple of the Thynibraean Apollo ill. xxii. 
359 ; Diet. Cret. iv. 11 ; Serv. ad Aen. iii. 85, 322 ; 
Achilles). On the capture of Troy, Paris was 
wounded by Phlloctetes with an arrow of 
Heracles, and then returned to his long aban- 
doned wife Oenone. But she, remembering the 
wrongs she had suffered, or being prevented 
by her father, refused to heal the wound. He 
then went back to Troy and died. Oenone 
quickly repented, and hastened after him with 
remedies, but came too late, and in her grief 
hanged herself (Soph. Phil. 1426; Apollod. 
iii. 12, 6 ; Diet. Cret. iv. 19). According to 
others she tfirew herself from a tower, or (as 
in the account followed by Tennyson) rushed 
into the flames of the funeral pile on which 
the body of Paris was burning (Lycophr. 65 ; 
Tzetz. ad Lyc. 61; Quint. Smyrn. x. 467). — 
Paris is represented in works of art as a beauti- 
ful youth, sometimes with a Phrygian cap, as 
in the JEgina marbles, and usually so distin- 




Parls. (Aegina Marbles.! 



guished in reliefs of the Gvaeco-Roman period 
and in Pompeian paintings. 

Paris, the name of two celebrated panto- 
mimes. 1. The elder Paris lived in the reign 
of the emperor Nero, with whom he was a great 
favourite. He was originally a slave of Domitia, 
the aunt of the emperor, and he purchased his 
freedom by paying her a large sum of money. 
Paris was afterwards declared, by order of the 
emperor, to have been free-born (higenuus), 
and Domitia was compelled to restore to him 
the sum which she had received for his free- 
dom. When Nero attempted to become a panto- 
mime, he put Paris to death as a dangerous 
rival. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 19-27; Dio Cass, lxiii. 
18; Suet. Ner. 54.) — 2. The younger Paris, 
and tlve more celebrated of tin- two, was a 
native of Egypt, and lived in the reign of 
Domitian, with whom, and also with the popu- 
lace, he was a great favourite. He was put to 
death by Domitian, because he had an intrigue 
with Domitia, the wife of the emperor. (Dio 
Cans, lxvii. 8; Suet. Dom. 3, 10; Mart. xi. 13.) 

Parish. [Lutetia Paiusioucm.J 



Parium irb Tlapiov : Wapiavos, Hapir)i>6s, U.a- 
piauevs : Kemer, Ru.), a city of Mysia, on the 
N. coast of the Troad, on the Propontis, be- 
tween Lampsacus and Priapus, was founded by 
a colony from Miletus, mingled with natives of 
Paros and Erythrae, and became a flourishing 
seaport, having a better harbour than that of 

I Priapus iStrab. p. 588; Paus. ix. 27, 1; cf. 
Hdt. v. 117 ; Xen. An. vii. 2, 7). Under Au- 
gustus it was made a Roman colony, by the 
name of Colonia Pariana Julia Augusta. It 
was a renowned seat of the worship of Eros, 
Dionysus, and Apollo. The surrounding dis- 
trict was called t) Tlapiain). 

Parma f Parmensis : Parma), a town in 
Gallia Cispadana, situated on a river of the 
same name and on the Via Aemilia, between 
Placentia and Mutina, was originally a town of 
the Boii, but was made a Roman colony B.C. 
183, along with Mutina, and from that time 
became a place of considerab'j importance 
(Liv. xxxix. 55). It suffered som: injury in the 
Civil war after Caesar's death, but was enlarged 
and embellished by Augustus, and received the 
name of Colonia Julia Augusta (Plin. iv. 48, 
v. 141). The country around Parma was origin- 
ally marshy ; but the marshes were drained by 
the consul Scaurus, and converted into fertile 
land. Tire wool of Parma was particularly 
good (Mart. xiv. 155 ; Colum. vii. 2, 3). 

Parmenides iTlapfitviSris), a distinguished 
Greek philosopher, was a native of Elea in 
Italy. According to Plato, Parmenides, at the 
age of sixty-five, came to Athens to the Pan- 
athenaea, accompanied by Zeno, then forty 
years old, and became acquainted with Socrates, 
who at that time was quite young. Supposing 
Socrates to have been nineteen or twenty years 
of age at the time, we may place the visit of 
Parmenides to Athens in B.C. 448, and conse- 
quently his birth in 513. (Plat. Paruien. p. 
127, Soph. p. 217, Theaet. p. 183 ; Diog. Laert. 
ix. 21-25, where the chronology is not quite the 
same : cf. Athen. p. 505 ; Macrob. i. 1.) Parme- 

| nides was regarded with great esteem by Plato 

| and Aristotle ; and his fellow-citizens thought 
so highly of him that, it is said, they bound 

| their magistrates to render obedience to the 
laws which he had enacted for them (Plat. ll.c. ; 
Arist. Metaph. a, 5 = p. 986, b ; Diog. Laert. 
ix. 23). Xexophaxes had already taught his 
views of the unity of Being in opposition to the 
dualism and motion of Heraclitus and the Ionian 
school. Parmenides, his pupil and successor 
in the Eleatic school, pursued the same line. 
The philosophical opinions of Parmenides were 
developed in a didactic poem, in hexameter 
verse, entitled On Nature, of which only frag- 
ments remain. In this poem he maintained 
that the phenomena of sense were delusive ; 
and that it was only by mental abstraction that 
a person could attain to the knowledge of the 
only reality, a One and All, a continuous and 
self-existent substance, which could not be per- 
ceived by the senses. But although he believed 
the phenomena of sense to be delusive, never- 
theless he sought to arrive at an explanation 
of the world of sense, and in his theory, which 
formed the second part of his poem, he pro- 
pounded two elements or principles of origin — 
one that which belongs to light and heat, the 
other that of darkness and cold. The bright 
or warm was analogous to fire, the cold or dark 
to earth. The world as perceived by our 
senses arose from a union of these two princi- 
ples under a power analogous to Love. 

I Yet such a world as this has not the real being 



654 



PARMENION 



PAROPAMISUS 



of absolute unity, and practically human know- 
ledge of real existence is unattainable. — Edition 
of the fragments of Parmenides is by Ka*sten, 
in Philosophorum Graec. Veterwm Oper. Reli- 
quiae, Amstelod. 1835. 

Parmemon (Uap/xeu'taiv). 1. Son of Philotas, 
a distinguished Macedonian general in the ser- 
vice of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the 
Great. In 346 he was employed by Philip in 
the siege of Halus (Dem. F.L. p. 392). Philip 
held him in high esteem, and used to say of 
him, that he had never been able to find more 
than one general, and that was Parmenion 
(Plut. Apophth. p. 177). In Alexander's in- 
vasion of Asia, Parmenion was regarded as 
second in command. At the three great battles 
of the Granicus, Issus and Arbela, while the 
king commanded the right wing of the army, 
Parmenion was placed at the head of the left, 
and contributed essentially to the victory on 
all those memorable occasions. The confidence 
reposed in him by Alexander appears to have 
been unbounded, and he is continually spoken 
of as the most attached of the king's friends, 
and as holding, beyond all question, the second 
place in the state. But when Philotas, the 
only surviving son of Parmenion, was accused 
in Drangiana (b.c. 330) of being privy to the 
plot against the king's life, he not only con- 
fessed his own guilt, when put to the torture, 
but involved his father also in the plot. 
Whether the king really believed in the guilt 
of Parmenion, or deemed his life a necessary 
sacrifice to policy after the execution of his 
son, he caused his aged friend to be assassi- 
nated in Media before he could receive the 
tidings of his son's death (Arrian, Anab. iii. 
26 ; Curt. vii. 2, 11 ; Diod. xvii. 80 ; Plut. Alex. 
49 ; Justin, xii. 5). The death of Parmenion, 
at the age of seventy years, will ever remain 
one of the darkest stains upon the character of 
Alexander. It is questionable whether even 
Philotas was really concerned in the conspi- 
racy, and we may safely pronounce that Par- 
menion had no connexion with it. — 2. Of Mace- 
donia, an epigrammatic poet, whose verses 
were included in the collection of Philip of 
Thessalonica ; whence it is probable that he 
flourished in, or shortly before, the time of 
Augustus. 

Parnassus (JlapvaaaSs, YIapva<r6s, Ion. riap- 
vrjffds), the name, in its widest signification, of 
a range of mountains which extends from Oeta 
and Corax SE. through Doris and Phocis, and 
under the name of Cirphis (Kipcpis) terminates 
at the Corinthian gulf between Cirrha and 
Anticyra. But in its narrower sense, Parnassus 
indicates the highest part of the range (about 
8000 feet above the sea) a few miles N. of 
Delphi. Its two highest summits were called 
Tithorea (Tidopza : Velitza), and Lycorea 
(AvKiopeia : Liakura), the former being NW. 
and the latter NE. of Delphi ; and hence Par- 
nassus Is frequently described by the poets as 
double-headed. Immediately above Delphi the 
mountain forms a semicircular range of lofty 
rocks, at the foot of which the town was built. 
These rocks were called Phaedriadcs (QaiBpidSts) 
or the ' Resplendent,' from their facing the S., 
and thus receiving the full rays of the sun 
during the most brilliant part of the day. The 
sides of Parnassus were well wooded : at its 
foot grew myrtle, laurel and olive-trees, and 
higher up firs ; and its summit was covered 
with snow during the greater part of the year. 
It contained numerous caves, glens, and ro- 
mantic ravines. It is celebrated as one of the 



chief seats of Apollo and the Muse 
inspiring source of poetry and song [ . 
On Mount Lycorea was the Corycian c 
which the Muses are sometimes c 
Corycian nymphs. Just above Delpl 
far-famed Castalian spring, which is; 
between two cliffs, called Nauplia 
amplia [Delphi]. The mountain 
sacred to Dionysus [p. 295]. Betw 
nassus proper and Mt. Cirphis was 1 
of the Plistus, through which the sn.i 
ran from Delphi to Daulis and bt 
at the point where the road branch 
these two places (called (rx^rr)) Oeui 
his father Laius [p. 619, b]. — 2. A 't&* i 
NW. of Cappadocia, on the road 
Ancyra and Archelais. Its position h 
fixed with some probability close to th 
at some fords a little above the modern 
Aghyl. The road at this point brand: 1 
Archelais, and along the river to Nys? • 
to Megara. (Pol. xxv. 4, 8, 9.) 

Parnes (lidpi/ris, gen. Tldpv-qdos : Ozi . 
zia), a mountain in the NE. of Attica, 
parts nearly as high as 5000 feet, we - ■ 
tinuation of Mount Cithaeron, from 
extended eastwards as far as the 
Rhamnus. It was well wooded, abc : 
game, and on its lower slopes produced is 
wine. It formed part of the boundary • 
Boeotia and Attica ; and the pass tl 
between these two countries was easy ( 
and was therefore strongly fortified i. 
Athenians. On the summit of the r 
there was a statue of Zeus Parneth 
there were likewise altars of Zeus Sema 
Zeus Ombrius or Apemius. (Strab. p. 40-! 1 
i. 32, 1.) 

Parnon (udpyuv. Malevo), amount; 
feet high, forming the boundary betv i 
conia and Tegeatis in Arcadia [p. 468, 

Paropamisadae (Ylapoirajxiffdiai) or 
nisadae, the collective name of severa p 
dwelling in the S. slopes of Mount Pan. 
[see next article], and the country 
habited (Ptolemy mentions among the 
this district the Bolitae, Ambautae, Pi 
Pargyetae). It was divided on the 
Bactria by the Paropamisus ; on the 
Aria, and on the S., from Drangiana : 
chosia, by indefinite boundaries ; and < 
from India by the river Indus : thus coi 
ing to the E. part of Afghanistan and 
of the Punjab W. of the Indus. U 
Persian empire it was the north-eas 
district of Ariana. It was conquered 
ander, when he passed through it on h 
to India; but the people soon regaii 
independence, though parts of the com 
nominally included in the limits ox the 
Syrian and Bactrian kingdoms. It is 
mountain region, intersected by brand 
Paropamisus. In the N. the clima 
severe that, according to the ancien 
confirmed by modern travellers, the sn( 
buries the houses ; but in the S. the 1 
the lower mountain slopes yield all 
ducts of the warmer regions of Asia, 
was the considerable river Cophes oi 
(Cabul), flowing into the Indus, and 
tributary, Choiis, Choe's, or Choaspe: 
The chief cities were Ortospana and A 
the latter founded by Alexander t 
(Strab. pp. 691, 725 ; Ptol. vi. 18 ; 1 • 
82 ; Arrian, An. v. 3 ; Curt. vii. 3, 15.] 

Paropamisus {napovdfwros, and sei 
forms, of which the truest is proba 



PAROPUS 



PARSICI 



655 



niviaos : Hindoo-Koosh), is the name of a part 
of the great mountain-chain which runs from 
W. to E. through the centre of the S. portion 
of the highlands of Central Asia, and divides 
the part of the continent which slopes down to 
the Indian Ocean from the great central table- 
land of Tartary and Thibet. It is a prolonga- 
tion of the chain of Anti-Taurus. The name 
was applied to that part of the chain between 
the Sariphi M. (M. of Kohistan) on the W. and 
M. Imaus (Himalaya) on the E., or from about 
the sources of the river Margus on the W. to 
the point wher" the Indus breaks through the 
chain on the E. They were, rightly, believed by 
the ancients tr be among the highest moun- 
tains in the world, and, wrongly, to contain the 
sources of the Oxus and the Indus : the last 
statement being an error which naturally arose 
from confounding the cleft by which the Indus 
breaks through the chain with its unknown 
source. (Strab. p. 689; Ptol. vi. 11, 17; Plin. 
vi. 60.; When Alexander the Great crossed 
these mountains, his followers, regarding the 
achievement as equivalent to what a Greek 
considered as the highest geographical adven- 
ture — namely, the passage of the Caucasus — 
conferred this glory on their chief by simply 
applying the name of Caucasus to the mountain 
chain which he had thus passed (Arrian, An. 
v. b) ; and then, for the sake of distinction, this 
chain was called Caucasus Indicus, and this 
name has come down to our times in the native 



< Plin. xxxvi. 62 ; Diod. ii, 52 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 471 ; 
Hor. Od. i. 19, ii). The Parian figs were also 
highly prized. The chief town of Paros was 
situated on the W. coast, and bore the same 
name as the island. The ruins of it are still to 
seen at the modern Paroikia. Paros was the 
birthplace of the poet Archilochus. — In Paros 




Coin of Paros. 

Obr., head of Demeter : rev., n.\pi, and magistrate's name ; 
figure of a goat. 

was discovered the celebrated inscription called 
the Parian Chronicle, which is now preserved 
at Oxford. The inscription is cut on a block of 
marble, and in its perfect state contained a 
chronological account of the principal events in 
Greek history from Cecrops, B.C. 1582, to the 
archonship of Diognetus, 204 (C. I. G. ii. p. 293). 

Parrhasia (Tlappacria ; Ylappdaioi), a district in 
the S. of Arcadia, in which the towns Lycosura, 
Trapezus, and Phigalia were situated. The 
Parrhasii are said to have been one of the 
most ancient of the Arcadian tribes. At the 
time of the Peloponnesian war they were under 
the supremacy of Mantinea, but were rendered 
independent of that city by the Lacedaemonians. 
(Thuc. v. 33; Xen. Hell. vii. 1, 28; Strab. p. 
388 ; Paus. vi. 8, 3, viii. 27, 4.) Homer (II. ii. 
008) mentions a town Parrhasia, said to have 
been founded by Parrhasus, son of Lycaon, or 
by Pelasgus, son of Arestor. — The adjective 
Parrhasius is frequently used by the poets as 
equivalent to Arcadian. 

Parrhasius (Tlappdvios), one of the most cele- 
brated Greek painters, was a native of Ephesus, 
the son and pupil of Evenor. He practised his 
ixt chiefly at Athens, and by some writers he 
!S called an Athenian, probably because the 
\thenians had bestowed upon him the right of 
citizenship. He lived about B.C. 400. Parrha- 
lius did for painting, at least in pictures of gods 
md heroes, what had been done for sculpture 
5V Phidias in divine subjects, and byPolyclitus 
n the human figure : he established a canon of 
>roportion, which was followed by all the artists 
,hat came after him (Plin. xxxv. 67; Cie. Prut. 
LB, 70; Diod. xxvi. 1; Diet, of Ant. art. Pic- 
ura). Several interesting observations on the 
)rinciples of art which he followed are made in 
dialogue with Socrates, as reported by Xcno- 
ihon (Meni. iii. 10;. The character of Parrha- 
ius was marked in the highest degree by that 
i-lf-consciousness which often accompanies 
reat artistic genius. In epigrams inscribed on 
is works he not only made a boast of his 
l.xurious habits, but he also claimed the honour 
f having assigned with his own hand the 
recise limits of the art, and fixed a boundary 
Inch never was to be transgressed. Respect- 
ig the story of his contest with Zeuxis, seo 
EUXIS. Among the works of Parrhasius was 
picture of the Athenian Demos ko drawn as 
) show the prevailing characteristics of the 
eople (Plin. xxxv. CH). 
Parsici Montes (ra UapaiKa upnj, Bu.ihlcu.rd 
I. in the W. of Beloochistnn), a chain of 
lountains running NE. from the Paragon 
linus (G. of Oman) and forming the boundary 



656 



PAKSII 



between Carmania and Gedrosia. At the foot 
of these mountains, in the W. of Gedrosia, were 
a people called Parsidae, with a capital Parsis 
{perhaps Serbah). (Ptol. vi. 21, 5.) 

Parsri. [Paropamisadae.] 

Parsyetae or Pargyetae (napa-vrjrai), a 
people on the borders of Arachosia and the 
Paropamisadae, with a mountain of the same 
name, which is probably identical with the 
Paryeti M. and with the Soliman mountains 
(Ptol. vi. 18, 3). 

Parthalis, or Pertalis, the chief city of the 
Calingae, a tribe of the Gangaridae, in India 
intra Gangem, at the head of the Sinus Gange- 
ticus (Sea of Bengal). (Plin. vi. 65.) 

Parthanum (Partenkirchen), a town of 
Raetia between Augusta Vindelicorum and 
Veldidena. 

Partheni. [Parthini.] 

Parthenias (TlapQevias), also called Par- 
thenla, a small river in Elis, flowing into the 
Alpheus E. of Olympia (Paus. vi. 21, 7). 

Parthenlum (YlapBiviov). 1. A town in Mysia, 
S. of Pergamum (Xen. An. vii. 8, 15 ; Plin. v. 
126). — 2. (Feleyik-burun), a promontory in the 
Chersonesus Taurica, on which stood a temple 
of the Tauric Artemis, from 
its name. In this temple ■ 
were offered to the goddess. 

Parthenium Mare (rb Ua 
the SE. part of the Medite 
Egypt and Cyprus (Amm. Ma iv 

Parthenius (napdevios), o 
brated grammarian, is said 1 
been taken prisoner by China, &i\ 
war, to have been manumitt 1 
his learning, and to have live 
Tiberius. If this statement i 
must have attained a great 
were 77 years from the death ' • 
the accession of Tiberius. ] 
Virgil Greek ; and he seems 
popular among the distinguis 



PARTHENON 

nius wrote many poems, but the only one of his. 
works which has come down to us is in prose, 
and entitled Ilepi ipairiKwv iraBrifmTwv. It con- 
tains thirty-six brief love-stories which ended in 
an unfortunate manner. It is dedicated to Cor- 
nelius Gallus, and was compiled for his use. — 
Editions by Westermann, in the Mythographi, 
Brunswick, 1843 ; Hercher, 1858. 

Parthenius, chamberlain of Domitian, assas- 
sinated a.d. 97 (Dio Cass, lxvii. 15; Suet. 
Bom. 16), was one of the lesser poets of the time 
(Mart. v. 6, 2, ix. 50, 3). 

Parthenius (Uapdivios). 1. A mountain on 
the frontiers of Argolis and Arcadia, through 
which was an important pass leading frpm 
Argolis to Tegea. This pass is still called Par- 
theni, but the mountain itself, which rises to 
the height of 3993 feet, bears the name of Boino. 
It was on this mountain that Telephus, the son 
of Heracles and Auge, was said to have been 
suckled by a hind ; and it was here also that the 
god Pan is said to have appeared to Phidip- 
pides, the Athenian courier, shortly before the 
battle of Marathon. (Hdt. vi. 105 ; Paus. i. 28, 
4, viii. 6, 4 ; Strab. p. 376.)— 2. (also Hap64vris : 
Chati-Su or Bartan-Su), the chief river of 
Pa h] > : ■'«>>-- in Mt. Olgasays and flows 
! NW. Hto the Euxiu«: ninety stadia V7. of Arna*- 
\ wis, forming in the lower pari of its coarse the 
' boundary between Bitlwua ftbd PnpWa«ronia 
i ill, ii. 854 : Ties. Th. 341 ; Htft. ii. 104 ;- Sta'«b 




time. The emperor Tiberius 
and placed his works and si 
libraries along with the mos 
writers. Parthenius exercii 
fluence on the poets of the 
who is said to have transla 
Moreticm from a poem o 
Ambros.) — and still more up 



PASAEGADA 

Pasargada or -ae (TlaiTapydSa, TlatrapydSai : 
Murghab), the older of the two capitals of 
Persis (the other and later being Persepolis), is 
said to have been founded by Cyrus the Great, 
on the spot where he gained his great victory 
over Astyages (Strab. p. 730). The tomb of 
Cyrus stood here in the midst of a beautiful 
park. Strabo describes it as lying in the hollow 
part of Persis, on the river Cyrus, SE. of Perse- 
polis, and near the borders of Carmania (Strab. 
/. c. ; Arrian, vi. 29). It has been identified with 
the great sepulchral monument at Murghab, 
NE. of Persepolis. [See p. 265, b.] 

Pasargadae (TlaaapydSai), the most noble of 
the three chief tribes of the ancient Persians, 
the other two being the Maraphii and Maspii. 
The royal house of the Achaemenidae were of 
the race of the Pasargadae (Hdt. i. 125 ; Ptol. 
vi. 8, 12). They had their residence chiefly in 
and about the city of Pasargada. 

Pasias, a Greek painter, belonging to the 
Sicyonian school (Plin. xxxv. 145). 

Pasion (Xlaaiuv), a wealthy banker at Athens, 
was originally a slave of Antisthenes and 
Archestratus, who were also bankers. In their 
service he displayed great fidelity as well as 
aptitude for business, and was manumitted as 
a reward (Dem. pro Phorm. p. 957). He after- 
wards set up a banking concern on his own 
account, by which, together with a shield manu- 
factory, he greatly enriched himself, while he 
continued all along to preserve his old character 
for integrity, and his credit stood high through- 
out Greece. He did not, however, escape an 
accusation of fraudulently keeping back some 
money which had been entrusted to him by a 
foreigner from the Euxine. The plaintiff's case 
is stated in an oration of Isocrates(Tpa7re£iTi/c(is), 
still extant. Pasion did good service to Athens 
with his money on several occasions. He was 
rewarded with the freedom of the city, and was 
enrolled in the demus of Acharnae. He died at 
Athens in B.C. 870, after a lingering illness, 
accompanied with failure of sight. Towards 
the end of his life his affairs were administered 
to a great extent by his freedman Phormion, to 
whom he let his banking shop and shield manu- 
factory, and settled in his will that he should 
marry his widow Archippe, with a handsome 
dowry, and undertake the guardianship of his 
younger son Pasicles. His elder son, Apollo- 
dorus, grievously diminished his patrimony 
by extravagance and lawsuits. (Dem. pro 
Phorm. p. 958, c. Aphob. i. p. 816.) 

Pasiphae iUaaupdr)), daughter of Helios (the 
Sun) and Perseis, and a sister of Circe and 
Aeetes, was the wife of Minos, by whom she 
became the mother of Androgeos, Catreus, 
Deucalion, Glaucus, Acalle, Xenodice, Ariadne, 
and Phaedra (Ap. Rh. iii. 999 ; Pans. v. 25, 9 ; 
Ov. Met. xv. 501). Hence Phaedra is called 
Pasiphaeia (Ov. Met. xv. 500). Respecting 
the passion of Pasiphaii for the bull, and the 
birth of the Minotanrus, see Minos. 

Pasiteles (UatTiTf Arjs). 1. A statuary, who 
flourished about B.C. 468, and was the teacher 
of Colotes, the contemporary of Phidias (Paus. 
i. 20, 2). — 2. A sculptor of the highest distinc- 
tion, was a native of Magna Graecia, and ob- 
tained the Roman franchise with his country- 
men in B.C. 90. He worked at Rome from 
about 60 to 80. Among his most famous pupils 
were Stephanus and Menelaus (Plin. xxxv. 
156). Pasiteles also wrote a treatise in five 
books upon celebrated works of sculpture and 
chasing. 

PasithSa (IIwriCMa). 1. One of the Charites, 



r 




PATERCULUS 659 

or Graces, also called Aglaia (77. xiv. 268). — 
2. One of the Nereids. 

Pasitigris (Uaairtypris or Tlaairiypis : prob. 
Karoon), a considerable river of Asia, rising in 
the mountains E. of Mesobatene, on the eon- 
fines of Media and Persis, and flowing first W. 
by N. to M. Zagros or Parachoathras ; then, 
breaking through this chain, it turns to the S., 
and flows through Susiana into the head of the 
Persian Gulf, after receiving the Eulaeus on its 
W. side (Strab. p. 729). 

Passaron (newo-opcoi/ : near Dhramisius, SW. 
of Joannina), a town of Epirus in Molossia, 
and the ancient capital of the Molossian kings 
(Plut. Pyrrh. 5). It was destroyed by the 
Romans, together with seventy other towns of 
Epirus, after the conquest of Macedonia, B.C. 
168 (Liv. xlv. 26-34). 
Passienus Crispus. [Crispus.] 
Passienus Paulus. [Paulus.] 
Pataeci (ndraiKoi), Phoenician tutelary di- 
vinities whose dwarfish figures were attached 
to Phoenician ships, either at the prow or stern 
(Hdt. iii. 37 ; Hesych. and Suid. s.v.). 
Patala, Patalene. [Pattala, Pattaxene.] 
Patara (to ndrapa : Tlarapevs : Patara, Ru.j, 
I a chief city of Lycia, was a flourishing seaport, 
on a promontory of the same name (rj nardpwf 
aKpa), 60 stadia E. of the mouth of the Xanthus 
(Strab. p. 606). It was early colonised by Do- 
rians from Crete, and became a chief seat of the 
worship of Apollo, who had here a celebrated 
oracle, which uttered responses in the winter 
only, and from whose son Patarus the name of 
the city was mythically derived (Hdt. i. 182: 
Serv. ad Aen. iv. 143; Hor. Od. iii. 4, 64 ; Ov. 
Met. i. 515). It was restored and enlarged by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, who called it Arsinoe, 
but it remained better known by its old name. 

Patavium (Patavlnus: Padova or Padua). 
an ancient town of the Veneti in the N. of 
Italy on the Medoacus Minor, and on the road 
from Mutina to Altinum, was said to have been 
founded by the Trojan Antenor (Strab. p. 212; 
Tac. Ann. xvi. 21 ; cf. Liv. i. 1; Verg. Aen. i. 
247 ; Mel. ii. 4, 2). It became a flourishing and 
important town in early times, and was powerful 
enough in B.C. 302 to drive back the Spartan 
prince Cleonymus with great loss, when he at- 
tempted to plunder the surrounding country 
(Liv. x. 2). Under the Romans Patavium was 
the most important city in the N. of Italy, and 
by its commerce and manufactures (of which 
its woollen stuffs were the most celebrated) it 
attained great opulence. According to Strabo 
it possessed 500 citizens whose fortune entitled 
them to the equestrian rank. It was plundered 
by Attila ; and, in consequence of a revolt of 
it)S citizens, it was subsequently destroyed by 
Agilolf, king of the Lombards, and razed to the 
ground ; hence the modern town contains few 
remains of antiquity. — Patavium was the birth- 
place of the historian Livy. — In its neighbour- 
hood were the Aquae Patauinae, also called 
A'poni Pons, respecting which see p. 92, b. 

Paterculus, C. Velleius, a Roman historian, 
was probably born about u.c. 19, and was 
descended from u distinguished Caiupanian 
family. He adopted the profession of arms, 
and, soon after he had entered the army, he 
accompanied C. Caesar in his expedition to the 
East, and was present with the latter at his 
interview with the Parthian king, in a.d. 2. 
Two years afterwards, A.n. 4, he served under 
Tiberius in Germany, succeeding his father in 
the rank of Praefectus Kquitum, having pre- 
viously filled in succession the offices of tribnin: 

tt ti 2 



660 



PATERNUS 



PATROCLUS 



of the soldiers and tribune of the camp. For 
the next eight years Paterculus served under 
Tiberius, either as praefectus or legatus, in the 
various campaigns of the latter in Germany, 
Pannonia, and Dalmatia, and, by his activity 
and ability, gained the favour of the future 
emperor. His name, with the praenomen C, 
occurs as 'legatus Augusti legionis III. Au- 
gustae' on an African milestone (C. I. L. viii. 
10311). He was quaestor a.d. 7, but he con- 
tinued to serve as legatus under Tiberius. He 
accompanied his commander on his return to 
Rome in 12, and took a prominent part in the 
triumphal procession of Tiberius, along with 
his brother, Magius Celer. The two brothers 
were praetors in 15. (Veil. Pat. ii. 101, 104, 
111, 113, 114, 121, 124.) Paterculus was alive 
in 30, as he drew up his history in that year for 
the use of M. Vinicius, who was then consul ; 
and it is conjectured, with much probability, 
that he perished in the following year (31), 
along with the other friends of Sejanus. The 
favourable manner in which he had spoken in 
his history of this minister would be sufficient 
to involve him in his ruin. The work of Pater- 
culus, which has come down to us, is a brief 
historical compendium in two books, and bears 
the title C. Velleii Paterculi Historiae Bo- 
nnanae ad M. Yinicium Cos. Libri II. The 
beginning of the work is wanting, and there is 
also a portion lost after the eighth chapter of 
the first book. The object of this compendium 
was to give a brief view of universal history, 
but more especially of the events connected 
with Rome, the history of which occupies the 
main portion of the book. It begins with the 
colonisation of Magna Graecia, and brings the 
history of Rome to the end of the Punic wars 
in the first book ; but as he nears his own times 
he grows more diffuse. His authorities seem 
to be Cato's Origines, the Annals of Hortensius, 
Atticus, Nepos, Trogus, Sallust, and Livy, from 
whom, however, he often dissents. He does not 
attempt to give a consecutive account of all the 
events of history ; he seizes only upon a few of 
the more prominent facts, which he describes 
at length. He is generally trustworthy in his 
account of isolated facts, but lacks judgment, 
and is an annalist rather than a historian. 
His work is valuable for confirmatory evidence, 
and particularly for its account of the Greek 
colonies in Italy. The worst feature is his 
wholesale and indiscriminate praise of Tiberius, 
which makes his court history of no authority. 
His style has not literary finish, and is often 
too ornate and pretentious, reflecting partly 
haste, partly some tendency to affectation. 
Only one manuscript of Paterculus has come 
down to us ; and the text is in a very corrupt 
state. — Editions by Orelli, Lips. 1835 ; Kritz, 
1840 ; Halm, 1876. 

Paternus, Tarruntenus, a jurist, is probably 
the same person who was praefectus praetorio 
under Commodus, and was put to death by the 
emperor on a charge of treason. He was the 
author of a work in four books, entitled De He 
Militari or Militarivm, from which there are 
two excerpts in the Digest. (Lamprid. Comm. 
4 ; Veget. B. M. i. 8.) 

Patmos (ndrfios : Patmo), one of the islands 
called Sporades, in the Icarian Sea, at about 
equal distances S. of Samos, and W. of the 
Prom. Posidium on the coast of Caria, cele- 
brated as the place to which the Apostle John 
was banished, and in which he wrote the Apo- 
calypse. The natives still affect to show the 
cave where St. John saw the apocalyptic visions 



(rb fftrfiKawu rijs airoKaX-vipeoos). On the E. 
side of the island was a city with a harbour. 
(Strab. p. 488 ; Plin. iv. 69.) 

Patrae (Yldrpai, Tlarpees Herod. : Harpevs : 
Patras), one of the twelve cities of Achaia, was 
situated W. of Rhium, near the opening of the 
Corinthian gulf. It is said to have been origi- 
nally called Aroe ('Ap6n), and to have been 
founded by the autochthon Eumelus ; and after 
the expulsion of the Ionians to have been taken 
possession of by Patreus, from whom it derived 
its name. (Hdt. i. 145; Strab. pp. 337, 386; 
Paus. vii. 18, 2.) The town is rarely mentioned 
in early Greek history, and was chiefly of im- 
portance as the place from which the Pelopon- 
nesians directed their attacks against the 
opposite coast of Aetolia. It was the only 
Achaean city which took the side of Athens 
(Thuc. v. 52; Plut. Ale. 15). Patrae was one 
of the four towns which took the leading part in 
founding the second Achaean League. In con- 
sequence of assisting the Aetolians against the 
Gauls in B.C. 279, Patrae became so weakened 
that most of the inhabitants deserted the town 
and took up their abodes in the neighbouring 
villages (Pol. v. 2, 3, 28; Paus. vii. 18, 6). 
Under the Romans it continued to be an in- 
significant place till the time of Augustus, who 
rebuilt the town after the battle of Actium, 
again collected its inhabitants, and added to 
them those of Rhypae (Paus. vii. 18, 7 ; Plin. 
iv. 11). Augustus further gave Patrae dominion 
over the neighbouring towns, and even over 
Locris, and also bestowed upon it the privileges 
of a Roman colony : hence we find it called 
Colonia Augusta Aroe Patrensis (C. I. L. iii. 
498). Strabo describes Patrae in his time as a 
flourishing and populous town with a good 
harbour; and it was a common landing-place 
for persons sailing from Italy to Greece. Pau- 
sanias (vii. 21, 14) mentions its trade in cotton 
stuffs, and also its worship of Aphrodite ; both 
may perhaps be remains of an old Phoenician 
admixture in the population. He also says that 
the women were twice as numerous as the men. 
The modern Patras is still an important place, 
but contains few remains of antiquity. 

Patrocles (TiarpoKkris), a Macedonian general 
in the service of Seleucus I. and Antiochus I, 
kings of Syria. Patrocles held, both under 
Seleucus and Antiochus, an important govern- 
ment over some of the E. provinces of the 
Syrian empire. During the period of his hold- 
ing this position, he collected accurate geo- 
graphical information, which he afterwards 
published to the world ; but though he is fre- 
quently cited by Strabo, who placed the utmost 
reliance on his accuracy, neither the title nor 
exact subject of his work is mentioned. It 
seems clear, however, that it included a general 
account of India, as well as of the countries on 
the banks of the Oxus and the Caspian Sea. 
Patrocles regarded the Caspian Sea as a gulf 
or inlet of the ocean, and maintained the possi- 
bility of sailing thither by sea from the Indian 
Ocean. (Diod. xix. 100; Plut. Demetr. 47; 
Strab. pp. 68, 74, 508, 689.) 

Patrocli Insula (Uarp6K\ov vriaos : Gadaro- 
nesi or Gaidronisi), an island off the coast of 
Attica, near Senium (Paus. i. 1 ; Strab. p. 398). 

Patroclus {TldrpoKkos or naTpo/cATjj), the 
friend of Achilles, was son of Menoetius of 
Opus, and grandson of Actor and Aegina, 
whence he is called Actorides (II. xi. 608 ; 
Ov. Her. i. 17, Met. xiii. 273). Aeacus, the 
grandfather of Achilles, was a brother of Menoe- 
tius, so that Achilles and Patroclus were kins- 



PATRON 

men as well as friends (II. xvi. 14). While still 
a boy Patroclus involuntarily slew Clysonymus, 
son of Amphidamas. In consequence of this 
accident he was taken by his father to Peleus 
at Phthia, where he was educated together 
with Achilles. ( II. xxiii. 85 ; Apollod. iii. 13, 8 ; 
Ov. Pont. i. 3, 73.) He is said to have taken 
part in the expedition against Troy on account 
of his attachment to Achilles. He fought 
bravely against the Trojans, until his friend 
withdrew from the scene of action, when Pa- 
troclus followed his example. But when the 
Greeks were hard pressed, he begged Achilles 
to allow him to put on his armour, and with his 
men to hasten to the assistance of the Greeks. 
Achilles granted the request, and Patroclus 
succeeded in driving back the Trojans and ex- 
tinguishing the fire which was raging among 
the ships. He slew many enemies, and thrice 
made an assault upon the walls of Troy ; but 
on a sudden he was struck by Apollo, and be- 
came senseless. In this state Euphorbus ran 
him through with his lance from behind, and 
Hector gave him the last and fatal blow (II. 
xvi.). Hector also took possession of his armour. 
A long struggle now ensued between the Greeks 
and Trojans for the body of Patroclus ; but the 
former obtained possession of it, and brought it 
to Achilles, who vowed to avenge the death of 
his friend. Thetis protected the body with 
ambrosia against decomposition, until Achilles 
could burn it with funeral sacrifices (II. xix. 38). 
His ashes were collected in a golden urn which 
Dionysus had once given to Thetis, and were 
deposited under a mound, where the remains 
of Achilles were afterwards buried. Funeral 
games were celebrated in his honour (//. xxiii. ; 
Od. xxiv. 74 ; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 273). Achilles 
and Patroclus met again in the lower world ; 
or, according to the tradition given by Pau- 
sanias, they continued after their death to live 
together in the island of Leuce (Od. xxiv. 15 ; 
Pans. iii. 19, 11). 

Patron, an Epicurean philosopher, lived for 
some time in Rome, where he became acquainted 
with Cicero and others. From Rome he re- 
moved to Athens, and there succeeded Phaedms 
as president of the Epicurean school, B.C. 52. 
(Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 1, ad Att. v. 11, 19.) 

Pattala. [Pattalene.] 

Pattalene or Pataleue (Xlarra\r)vi), Tiara- 
AjjWj : Lower Scinde), the name of the great 
delta formed by the two principal arms by 
which the Indus falls into the sea (Strab. pp. 
«1, 701 ; Ptol. vii. 1, 55 ; Plin. vi. 80). At the 
apex of the delta stood the city Pattala or 
Patala (prob. Brahmanabad). 

Patulclus. [Janus.] 

Patumus (ndrov/ws : O. T. Pithom : the 
Egyptian Pa-Thmu), on the E. margin of the 
Egyptian Delta, between Bubastes and Succoth, 
hot nearer the latter and not far from the com- 
mencement of Necho's canal from the Nile to 
the Red Sea. It was built by the Israelites 
during their captivity (Exod. i. 11), and either 
for that reason, or because it stood on the edge 
of the desert, is called by Herodotus (ii. 158) 
ri 'ApajSi'n wdhis. 

Paulina or Paullina. 1. Lollia. PLollia.] 
— 2. Pompeia, wife of Seneca the philosopher, 
and probably the daughter of Pompeius Paul- 
inns, who commanded in Germany in the reign 

of Nero. When her husband was rnndci d to 

death, she opened her veins, wishing to die with 
him After the blood had flowed some time, 
Nero commanded her veins to be bound up ; she 
lived a few years longer, but with a paleness I 



PAULUS 



661 



which testified how near she had been to death. 
(Tac. Ann. xv. 63, 64; cf. Dio Cass. Ixi. 10, 
lxii. 25.) 

Paulinas. 1. Pompeius, commanded in 
Germany along with L. Antistius Vetus in a.d. 
58, and completed the dam to restrain the 
inundations of the Rhine which Drusus had 
commenced 63 years before. Seneca dedicated 
to him his treatise De Brevitate Vitae ; and 
the Pompeia Paulina whom the philosopher 
married was probably the daughter of this 
Paulinus. (Tac. Aim. xiii. 53, xv. 18; Sen. 
Brev. Vit. 18.) — 2. C. Suetonius, propraetor in 
Mauretania in the reign of the emperor Claudius, 
a.d. 42, when he conquered the Moors who had 
revolted, and advanced as far as Mt. Atlas (Dio 
Cass. lx. 9). He had the command of Britain 
in the reign of Nero, from 59 to 62. For the 

1 first two years all his undertakings were suc- 
cessful ; but during his absence on an expedition 

| against the island of Mona (Anglesey), the 

■ Britons rose in rebellion (61). They at first 
! met with great success, but were conquered by 
I Suetonius on his return from Mona. [Bou- 
! dicca.] In 66 he was consul ; and in 68 he 

■ was one of Otho's generals in the war against 
Vitellius. It was against his advice that 

! Otho fought the battle at Bedriacum. He 
was pardoned by Vitellius after Otho's death, 
1 by a plea which did not redound to his honour. 
(Tac. Hint. i. 87, 90, ii. 23-41, 44, 60.) 

Paullus or Paulus, a Roman cognomen in 
many gentes, but best known as the name of a 
family of the Aemilia gens. The name was 
originally written with a double /, but subse- 
quently with only one /. 

Paulus (UaiiXos), Greek writers. 1. Aegi- 
neta, a celebrated medical writer, of whose 
personal history nothing is known except that 
he was born in Aegina, and that he travelled a 
good deal, visiting, among other places, Alexan- 
dria. He probably lived in the latter half of 
the seventh century after Christ. He wrote 
several works in Greek, of which the principal 
one is still extant, with no exact title, but com- 
monly called Be Be Medico. Libri Septem. 
This work is chiefly a compilation from former 
writers. Edited by Brian, Paris, 1855. There 
| is an excellent English translation by Adams, 
London, 1834, seq. — 2. Of Alexandria, wrote 
in a.d. 278, an Introduction to Astrology 
i (Zlaa-yaiyr) eh tt\v (nroTe\(rTnaTtKr)v), which has 
come down to us : edited by Schatus or Schato, 
1 Wittenberg, 1586. — 3. Of Samosata, bishop of 
Antioch, about a.d. 260. [Diet, of Christian 
Biogr. — 4. Silentiarius, so called because he 
was one of the silentiarii (ushers who kept 
order in the palace) under the emperor Jus- 
tinian. He wrote various poems, of which the 
following are extant : — (1) A Description of 
the Church of St. Sojihia C¥.Kippa<Tis rov vauv 
ttjs 071'as 2o(pi'as), consisting partly of iambics, 
partly of hexameters. This poem gives a descrip- 
tion of the magnificent building which forms 
its subject, and was recited by its author at 
the second dedication of the church (a.d. 562), 
after the restoration of the dome, which had 
fallen in. Edited by Graefe, Lips. 1822, and 
by Bekker, Bonn, 1837, in the Bonn edition of 
the Byzantine historians. (2) A Description 
of the Pulpit (*Zi«ppa<Tts rov &p.&wi/os), and 
printed with it a supplement to the former 
poem. (8) Epigrams, eighty-three in all, 
given in the Anthologia. 

Paulus, Aemillus. 1. M., consul k.<\ 302, 
and magister equitnm to the dictator Q. Fabius 
Maximus RullianuB, 801 (Liv. x. lj. — 2. M., 



662 



PAULUS 



PAUSANIAS 



consul 255 with Ser. Fulvius Paetinus Nobilior, 
about the middle of the first Punic war. See 
Nobiliob, No. 1. — 3. L., son of No. 2., consul 
219, when he conquered Demetrius of Pharos, 
and compelled him to fly for refuge to Philip, 
king of Macedonia (Pol. iii. 16, iv. 37 ; Appian, 
Illyr. 8). He was consul a second time in 216 
with C. Terentius Varro. This was the year of 
the memorable defeat at Cannae. [Hannibal.] 
The battle Was fought against the advice of 
Paulus ; and he was one of the many distin- 
guished Komans who perished in the en- 
gagement, refusing to fly from the field when 
a tribune of his soldiers offered him his horse. 
Hence we find in Horace (Od. i. 12) : ' ani- 
maeque magnae prodigum Paulum superante 
Poeno ' (Liv. xxii. 35-49 ; Pol. iii. 107-116). 
Paulus was a staunch adherent of the aristo- 
cracy, and was raised to the consulship by the 
latter party to counterbalance the influence of ! 
the plebeian Terentius Varro. — 4. L., after- • 
wards surnamed Macedonicus, son of No. 3, 
was born about 230 or 229, since at the time of j 
his second consulship, 168, he was upwards of 
sixty yearB of age. He was one of the best 
specimens of the Roman nobles. He would 
not condescend to flatter the people for the 
offices of the state, maintained with strictness 
severe discipline in the army, was deeply 
skilled in the law of the augurs, to whose col- 
lege he belonged, and maintained throughout 
life a pure and unspotted character. He was 
elected curule aedile 192 ; was praetor 191, and 
obtained Further Spain as his province, where 
he carried on war with the Lusitani ; and was 
consul 181, when he conquered the Ingauni, a 
Ligurian people. For the next thirteen years 
he lived quietly at Eome, devoting most of his 
time to the education of his children. He was 
consul a second time in 168, and brought the 
war against Perseus to a conclusion by the 
defeat of the Macedonian monarch near Pydna, 
on the 22nd of June. Perseus shortly after- 
wards surrendered himself to Paulus. [Per- 
seus.] Paulus remained in Macedonia during 
the greater part of the following year as pro- 
consul, and arranged the affairs of Macedonia, 
in conjunction with ten Roman commissioners, 
whom the senate had despatched for the pur- 
pose. Before leaving Greece, he marched into 
Epirus, where, in accordance with a cruel com- 
mand of the senate, he gave to his s oldiers seventy 
towns to be pillaged, because they had been in 
alliance with Perseus, The triumph of Paulus, 
which was celebrated at the end of November, 
167, was the most splendid that Rome had yet 
seen. It lasted three days. Before the 
triumphal car of Aemilius walked the captive 
monarch of Macedonia and his children, and 
behind it were two sons of Aemilius, Q. Fabius 
Maximus and P. Scipio Airicanus the younger, 
both of whom had been adopted into other 
families. But the glory of the conqueror was 
clouded by family misfortune. At this very 
time he lost his two younger sons : one, twelve 
years of age, died only five days before his 
triumph, and the other, fourteen years of age, 
only three days after his triumph. The loss 
was all the severer, since he had no son left to 
carry his name down to posterity. In 164 
Paulus was censor with Q. Marcius Philippus, 
and died in 160, after a long and tedious illness. 
The fortune he left behind him was so small as 
scarcely to be sufficient to pay his wife's dowry. 
The Adelphi of Terence was brought out at 
the funeral games exhibited in his honour. 
Aemilius Paulus was married twice. By his 



first wife, Papiria, the daughter of C. Papirius- 
Maso, consul 231, he had four children, two 
sons, one of whom was adopted by Fabius 
Maximus and the other by P. Scipio, and two 
daughters, one of whom was married to Q. 
Aelius Tubero, and the other to M. Cato, son 
of Cato the censor. He afterwards divorced 
Papiria ; and by his second wife, whose name 
is not mentioned, he had two sons, whose death 
has been mentioned above, and a daughter, 
who was a child at the time that her father was 
elected to his second consulship. (Plut. Life of 
Aem. Paul. ; Pol. xxix.-xxxii. ; Liv. xliv. 17— 
xlvi. 41.) 

Paulus Diaconus (Paul Warnifrid), a Lom- 
bard by birth, deacon of the church of Aquileia. 
Some time after the conquest of the Lombards 
by Charles the Great, a.d. 774, he became a 
monk at Mte. Cassino. Besides ecclesiastical 
works, he wrote (1) a History of the Lombards 
which, though uncritical in its acceptance of 
strange legends, is of considerable value ; (2) a 
Roman history mostly from Eutropius ; (3) an 
abridgment of the glossary which Festus made 
as an epitome of Verrius Flaccus. Since a 
great part of Festus is lost, this work of Paulus 
is of great value, and is edited by K. O. Miiller, 
1880, together with the text of Festus. [See p. 
342, a.] 

Paulus, Julius. 1. One of the most distin- 
guished of the Roman jurists, has been sup- 
posed, without any good reason, to be of Greek 
origin. He was in the auditorium of Papinian, 
and consequently was acting as a jurist in the 
reign of Septimius Severus. He was exiled by 
Elagabalus, but he was recalled by Alexander 
Severus when the latter became emperor, and 
was made a member of his consilium. Paulus 
also held the office of praefectus praetorio : he 
survived his contemporary Ulpian. Paulus 
was perhaps the most fertile of all the Roman 
law writers, and there is more excerpted from 
him in the Digest than from any other jurist, 
except Ulpian. Upwards of seventy separate 
works by Paulus are quoted in the Digest. Of 
these his greatest work was Ad Ediction, in 
eighty books (Diet, of Antiq. art. Pandectae). 
— 2. A poet in the reign of Hadrian (Gell. v. 4,. 
xvi. 10, xix. 7). 

Paulus, Passienus, a contemporary and 
friend of the younger Pliny, was a distinguished 
Roman eques, and was celebrated for his 
elegiac and lyric poems. He belonged to the 
same municipium (Mevania in Umbria) as Pro- 
pertius, whom he numbered among his ances- 
tors. (Plm. Ep. vi. 15, vii. 6, ix. 22.) 

Pausanias (Ylava-avias). 1. A Spartan of the 
Agid branch of the royal family, the son of 
Cleombrotus and nephew of Leonidas. Several 
writers incorrectly call him king, but he only suc- 
ceeded his father Cleombrotus in the guardian- 
ship of his cousin Plistarchus, the son of Leo- 
nidas, for whom he exercised the functions of 
royalty from B.C. 479 to the period of his death. 
(Hdt. ix. 10 ; Thuc. i. 94, 132.) In 479 when the 
Athenians called upon the Lacedaemonians for 
aid against the Persians, the Spartans sent a 
body of 5000 Spartans, each attended by seven 
Helots, under the command of Pausanias. At 
the Isthmus Pausanias was joined by the other 
Peloponnesian allies, and at Eleusis by the 
Athenians, and forthwith took the command of 
the combined forces, the other Greek generals 
forming a sort of council of war. The allied 
forces amounted to nearly 110,000 men. Near 
Plataeae in Boeotia, Pausanias defeated the 
Persian army under the command of Mardo- 



PAUSANIAS 



683 



nius. This decisive victor}- secured the inde- 
pendence of Greece. Pausanias received as his 
reward a tenth of the Persian spoils. (Hdt. ix. 
10-85 ; Diod. xi. 29-33.) In 477 the confederate 
Greeks sent out a fleet under the command of 
Pausanias, to follow up their success by driving 
the Persians completely out of Europe and the 
islands. Cyprus was first attacked, and the 
greater part of it subdued. From Cyprus Pau- 
sanias sailed to Byzantium, and captured the 
city (Thuc. i. 94). The capture of this city 
afforded Pausanias an opportunity for the 
execution of the design which he» had appa- 
rently formed even before leaving Greece. 
Already he had shown his arrogant spirit in 
putting his own name as the author of the 
victory at Plataeae on the tripod dedicated at 
Delphi (Thuc. i. 132). Dazzled by his success 
and reputation, his station as a Spartan citizen 
had become too restricted for his ambition. His 
position as regent was one whicb must terminate 
when the king became of age. He therefore 
aimed at becoming tyrant over the whole of 
Greece, with the assistance of the Persian king. 
(Hdt. v. 32 ; Thuc. i. 128.) Among the prisoners 
taken at Byzantium were some Persians con- 
nected with the royal family. These he sent to 
the king, with a letter, in which he offered to 
bring Sparta and the rest of Greece under his 
power, and proposed to marry his daughter. His 
offers were gladly accepted, and whatever amount 
of troops and money he required for accomplish- 
ing his designs was promised. Pausanias now 
set no bounds to his arrogant and domineering 
temper. The allies were so disgusted by his 
conduct that they all, except the Pelopon- 
nesians and Aeginetans, voluntarily offered to 
transfer to the Athenians that pre-eminence of 
rank which Sparta had hitherto enjoyed. In 
this way the Athenian confederacy first took its 
rise. Reports of the conduct and designs of 
Pausanias reached Sparta, and he was recalled 
and put upon his trial : but the evidence re- 
specting his meditated treachery was not yet 
thought sufficiently strong. Shortly afterwards 
he returned to Byzantium, without the orders 
of the ephors, and renewed his treasonable 
intrigues. He was again recalled to Sparta, was 
again put on his trial, and again acquitted. But 
even after this second escape he still continued 
to carry on his intrigues with Persia. At length 
a man who was charged with a letter to Persia, 
having his suspicions awakened by noticing that 
none of those sent previously on similar errands 
had returned, counterfeited the seal of Pau- 
sanias and opened the letter, in which he found 
directions for his own death. He carried the 
letter to the ephors, who prepared to arrest 
Pausanias ; but he took refuge in the temple of 
Athene Chalcioecus. The ephors stripped off 
the roof of the temple and built up the door: 
the aged mother of Pausanias is said to have 
been among the first who laid a stone for this 
purpose. When lie was on the point of expiring, 
the ephors took him out lest his death should 
pollute the sanctuary. He died as soon as lie 
got outside, B.C. 469. He left three sons behind 
him, Plistoanax (afterwards king), Cleonienes 
and Aristocles. (Thuc. i. 94-134 ; Diod. xi. 44 ; 
Nepos, Pausanias.) — 2. Son of Plistoanax, and 
grandson of the preceding, was king of Sparta 
from B.C. 408 to 894. In 403 he was sent with 
an army into Attica, and favoured the cause of 
Thrasybulus and the Athenian exileH, in order 
to counteract the tyrannical plans of Lysander, 
and restore peace to Athens, (Xen. Hell. ii. 4, 
38 ; Plut. Lys. 21 ; Arist. 'A0. iroK. 88.) He 



had with him Spartan commissioners, whose 
numbers are variously stated by Xenophon and 
Aristotle as ten or fifteen. In 395 Pausanias 
was sent with an army against the Thebans ; 
but in consequence of the death of Lysander, 
who was slain under the walls of Haliartus, on 
the day before Pausanias reached the spot, the 
king agreed to withdraw his forces from Boeotia. 
On his return to Sparta he was impeached, and 
seeing that a fair trial was not to be hoped for, 
went into voluntary exile, and was condemned 
to death. He was living in Tegea in 385, when 
Mantinea was besieged by his son Agesipolis, 
who succeeded him on the throne. (Xen. Hell. 
iii. 5, 17-25, v. 2, 3-6.)— 3. King of Macedonia, 
the son and successor of Aeropus. He was 
assassinated in the year of his accession by 
Amyntas II., 394. (Diod. xiv. 84.)— 4. A pre- 
tender to the throne of Macedonia, made his 
appearance in 367, after Alexander EL had been 

I assassinated by Ptolemaeus. Eurydice, the 

[ mother of Alexander, sent to request the aid of 
the Athenian general, Iphicrates, who expelled 

[ Pausanias from the kingdom (Nep. Iphicr. 3). — 

[ 5. A Blacedonian youth of distinguished family, 
from the province of Orestis. Having been 
shamefully treated by Attalus, he complained 
of the outrage to Philip ; but as Philip took no 
notice of his complaints, he directed his venge- 
ance against the king himself. He shortly 
afterwards murdered Philip at the festival held 

i at Aegae, 336, but was slain oil the spot by some 
officers of the king's guard. Suspicion rested 
on Olympias and Alexander of having been 
privy to the deed ; but with regard to Alexander 
at anj T rate the suspicion is probably totally 
unfounded. There was a story that Pausanias, 
while meditating revenge, having asked the 
sophist Hemiocrates which was the shortest 
way to fame, the latter replied, that it was by 
killing the man who had performed the greatest 
achievements. ( Diod. xvi. 93 ; Justin, ix. 6 ; 
Plut. Ale x. 9.) — 6. The traveller and geographer, 
was perhaps a native of Lydia. He lived under 
Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius, and wrote his 
celebrated work in the reign of the latter em- 

1 peror. This work, entitled 'EAAoSos UepiriyriiTis, 
a Periegesis for Itinerary) of Greece, is in ten 
books, and contains a description of Attica and 
Megaris (i.), Corinthia, Sicyonia, Phliasia, and 
Argolis (ii.), Laconica (iii.), Messenia (iv.), Elis 
(v vi.), Achaea (vii.), Arcadia (viii.), Boeotia (ix.), 
Phocis (x.). The work shows that Pausanias 

' visited most of the places in these divisions of 
Greece, a fact which is clearly demonstrated by 
the minuteness and particularity of his descrip- 

I tion. The work is an Itinerary, and has no 

j merits either of style or composition. Pausa- 
nias gives no general description of a country 
or even of a place, but he describes the things 
as he conies to them. He is above all things an 

I antiquarian, and dwells with most pleasure on 
objects of antiquity and works of art, such as 
buildings, temples, statues, and pictures. He 

| also mentions mountains, rivers, and fountains, 
and the mythological stories connected with 
them, which, indeed, ure his chief inducements 
to speak of them. He records all the traditions 

! he hears simply, with little sifting or criticism. 

i Hence his work, of very great value for the 
study of Greek art, is no less indispensable for 
the history of Greek religion and folk-lore. 
With the exception of Herodotus, there is no 
writer of antiquity who has comprehended so 
many valuable facts in a small volume.— Edi- 
tions ure by Siebclis, Lips. 1822-1828, 5 vols. 
8vo, and by Schubart and Walz, Lips. 1888-40, 



664 



PAUSIAS 



PEGASUS 



3 vols. 8vo, revised 1881 ; translation of that 
part which refers to Athens, with an excellent 
commentary, by Harrison and Verrall, 1890. 

Pauslas (Uauaias), one of the most distin- 
guished Greek painters, was a contemporary of 
Aristides, Melanthius, and Apelles (about B.C. 
360-330), and a disciple of Pamphilus. He had 
previously been instructed by his father Brietes, 
who lived at Sicyon, where also Pausias passed 
his life. The department of the art which 
Pausias most practised was painting in en- 
caustic with the oestrum. His favourite 
subjects were small panel-pictures, chiefly of 
boys. One of his most celebrated pictures was 
the portrait of Glycera, a flower-girl of his 
native city, of whom he was enamoured when a 
young man. Most of his paintings were prob- 
ably transported to Rome with the other trea- 
sures of Sicyonian art, in the aedileship of 
Scaurus, when the state of Sicyon was com- 
pelled to sell all the pictures which were public 
property, in order to pay its debts. (Plin. xxxv. 
123-128 ; Paus. ii. 27, 3.) 

Pausilypus Mons (Posilipo), the western 
part of the ridge behind Na]jles, which formed 
a barrier between Neapolis and Puteoli. To 
facilitate the communication with Puteoli and 
Baiae the ridge was pierced by a tunnel called 
Crypta Neapolitana (Sen. Ep. 57), now Grotta 
di Posilipo, 2244 feet long, twenty-one broad, 
and in some places seventy feet high. Its con- 
struction is assigned to M. Cocceius Nerva, the 
superintendent of aqueducts under Tiberius 
(Strab. p. 245 ; Nerva, p. 596, b). The name of 
the hill (Ylava'iKvnov = ' grief-assuaging ') was de- 
rived from a villa so called which Vedius Pollio 
possessed in the neighbourhood and which he 
bequeathed to Augustus. (Dio Cass. liv. 23 ; 
Plin. ix. 167.) Its ruins are probably those now 
seen on Capo di Posilipo. On the hills above 
the E. entrance of the tunnel there is a tomb 
which tradition declares to be the tomb of 
Virgil. [Vekgilius.] 

Pauson (Ylav<roiv), a Greek painter, who ap- 
pears from the description of Aristotle {Poet. 
2, § 2) to have lived somewhat earlier than the 
time of this philosopher. The statement of the 
scholiast that he is the Pauson mentioned by 
Aristophanes (Ach. 854, Plut. 602) does not 
seem very probable. 

Pausulae (Pausulanus : Monte dell' Olmo), 
a town in the interior of Picenum between 
Urbs Salvia and Auximum, on the river Cluen- 
tus (Plin. iii. 111). 

Pax. [Irene.] 

Pax Julia or Pax Augusta (Beja), a Roman 
colony in Lusitania, and the seat of a Conventus 
juridicus (Ptol. ii. 5, 5 ; Plin. iv. 117). 

Paxi (Paxo and Antipaxo), the name of two 
small islands off the W. coast of Greece, 
between Corcyra and Leucas (Pol. ii. 10). 

Pedaeum or Pedaeus (n^Saiov), a town of 
the Troad (II. xiii. 172). 

Pedallum (FbjSaAioi/). 1. (C. Greco), a pro- 
montory of Caria, on the W. side of the Sinus 
Glaucus, called also Artemisium from a temple 
of Artemis upon it (Mel. i. 16 ; Plin. v. 103 ; 
Strab. p. 651). — 2. (Capo della Grega), a pro- 
montory on the E. side of Cyprus. 

Pedasa (ITr)5a(ra : U-qSatrevs), a very ancient 
city of Caria, was originally a chief abode of the 
Leleges. Alexander assigned it to Halicar- 
nassus. At the time of the Roman empire it 
had entirely vanished, though its name was pre- 
served in that of the district around its site — 
namely, Pedasis (rb;5a<m). (Hdt. v. 121, vi. 
20 ; Plin. v. 107 ; Strab. p. 651.) Its site was 



probably a little ENE. of Theangela, some 
distance E. of Halicarnassus. 

Pediaeus (neSmios : Pidias), a river of Cyprus 
which flows into the sea near Salamis. 

Pedasus (n-qSairos), a town of Mysia on the 
Satnioi's, mentioned by Homer. It was de- 
stroyed by the time of Strabo, who says that it 
was a settlement of the Leleges on M. Ida. (II. 
vi. 35, xx. 92, xxi. 87 ; Strab. pp. 584, 605.) 

Pedianus, Asconius. [Asconius.] 

Pedius. 1. Q., the great-nephew of the 
dictator C. Julius Caesar, being the grandson of 
Julia, Caesar's eldest sister (Suet. Jul. 83). He 
served under Caesar in Gaul as his legatus, 
b.c. 57 (Caes. B. G. ii. 1). In 55 he was a 
candidate for the curule aedileship with Cn. 
Plancius and others, but he lost his election 
(Cic. pro Plane. 7, 22). In the Civil war he 
fought on Caesar's side. He was praetor in 48, 
and in that year he defeated and slew Milo in 
the neighbourhood of Thurii. In 45, he served 
against the Pompeian party in Spain. In 
Caesar's will Pedius was named one of his heirs 
along with his two other great-nephews, C. Octa- 
vius and L. Pinarius, Octavius obtaining three- 
fourths of the property, and the remaining one- 
fourth being divided between Pinarius and 
Pedius : the latter resigned his share of the 
inheritance to Octavius. After the fall of the 
consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, at the battle of 
Mutina in April, 43, Octavius marched upon 
Rome at the head of an army, and in the month 
of August he was elected consul along with 
Pedius. The latter forthwith proposed a law, 
known by the name of the Lex Pedia, by 
which all the murderers of Julius Caesar were 
punished with aquae et ignis interdictio 
Pedius was left in charge of the city, while 
Octavius marched into the N. of Italy. He 
died towards the end of the year shortly after the 
news of the proscription had reached Rome. 
(Caes. B. C. iii. 22 ; App. B. C. iii. 94, iv. 6 ; 
Cic. ad Att. ix. 14.) — 2. Sextus, a Roman 
jurist, frequently cited by Paulus and Ulpian, 
lived before the time of Hadrian. 

Pednelissus (T\shvr)XitT(r6s : Ru. near Syrt), 
a city in the interior of Pisidia, on the Eury- 
medon. It formed an independent state, but was 
almost constantly at war with Selge. (Strab. 
pp. 570, 667 ; Pol. v. 72.) 

Pedo Albinovanus. [Albinovanus.] 

Peducaeus, Sex. 1. Propraetor in Sicily, 
B.C. 76 and 75, in the latter of which years 
Cicero served under him as quaestor (Cic. Verr. 
ii. 64, iii. 93). — 2. Son of the preceding, and an 
intimate friend of Atticus and Cicero. In the 
Civil war Peducaeus sided with Caesar, by 
whom he was appointed in 48 to the govern- 
ment of Sardinia. In 39, he was propraetor 
in Spain. (Cic. ad Att. vii. 14, ix. 10, xiii. 1, 
xvi. 11 ; App. B._ C. ii. 48, v. 54.) 

Pedum (Pedanus: Gallicano), an ancient 
town of Latium on the Via Labicana, which 
fell into decay soon after the Latin war (Liv. ii. 
39, vii. 12, viii. 12-14 ; Dionys. 61). 

Pegae or Pagae (nrjyai : Psatho), a town of 
Megaris on the Corinthian gulf (Strab. p. 334 ; 
Thuc. i. 103, 114). 

Pegasis (U.r)ya<ris), i.e. sprung from Pegasus, 
was applied to the fountain Hippocrene, which 
was called forth by the hoof of Pegasus (Ov. 
Trist. iii. 7, 15). The Muses are also called 
Pegasid.es, because the fountain Hippocrene was 
sacred to them (Propert. iii. 1, 19). 

Pegasus (U-qyaffos). 1. The winged horse, 
whose origin is thus related. When Perseus 
struck off the head of Medusa, with whom 



PEGASUS 



PELASGI 



665 



Poseidon had had intercourse, there sprang 
from her Chrysaor and the horse Pegasus. 
According to Hesiod, Pegasus was so named 
because he was bom near the sources (71-7)701) of 
Oceanus : it is more likely to mean ' the 
horse of springs or fountains' [see below]. 
He ascended to the seat of the immortals, 
and afterwards lived in the palace of Zeus, 
for whom he carried thunder and lightning 
(Hes. Th. 281-286 ; Apollod. ii. 3, 4 ; Ov. Met. 
iv. 783). According to the story at Corinth, 
where Pegasus was particularly noted and 
was represented on the coins of the state (see 
p. 251), Pegasus in his flight after his birth 
rested at Acrocorinthus und drank at the well 
Pirene. Since, in order to kill the Chimaera, 
it was necessary for Bellerophon to obtain 
possession of Pegasus, the soothsa}"er Polyidus 
advised him to spend a night in the temple 
of Athene at Corinth. As Bellerophon was 
asleep in the temple, the goddess appeared to 
him in a dream, commanding him to sacrifice 
to Poseidon, and gave him a golden bridle. 
"When he awoke he found the bridle, offered 
the sacrifice, and caught Pegasus while he 
was drinking at the well (Pind. 01. xiii. 63-92). 
According to Pausanias, Athene herself tamed 
and bridled Pegasus, and surrendered h im to 
Bellerophon (Paus. ii. 4, 1). After he had 
conquered the Chimaera, he endeavoured to 
rise up to heaven upon his winged horse, but fell 
down upon the earth. [Bellerophon.] Pe- 
gasus, however, continued his flight to heaven. — 
The connexion of Pegasus with the Pluses in 
Greek mythology was simply that he produced 
with his hoof the inspiring fountain Hippo- 
crene. The story about this fountain runs as 
follows. When the Muses engaged in a contest 
with the daughters of Pierus on Mount Heli- 
con, all became darkness when the daughters of 
Pierus began to sing ; whereas during the song 
of the Muses, heaven, the sea, and all the 
rivers stood still to listen, and Helicon rose 
heavenward with delight, until Pegasus, by 
command of Poseidon, stopped its ascent by 
kicking it with his hoof. From this kick there 
arose Hippocrene, the inspiring well of the 
Muses, on Mount Helicon, which, for this 
reason, Persius calls fons caballinus (Pers. 
Prol. 1; cf. Ov. Met. v. 256; Strab. p. 379; 
Paus. ix. 81,3; Ant. Lib. 9). In later myths 
Pegasus is described as the horse of Eos; and 
in the legends of the stars lie is placed among 




Pegoeosand Pollcrophon at the fountain of Hlppocronc 
(From a relief In the Npa<la Palace.) 

them as the heavenly horse (Tzetz. ad Lvc. 
17 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 457 ; Hyg. Astr. ii. 18). The 
myths of Pegasus are explained by many 
modern writers as originating from ideas of the 
thundercloud, the clouds being supposed to be 



connected with Poseidon [see p. 162, b], and so 
far this agrees with the idea of Hesiod, who 
makes him the thunder-bringing horse of Zeus; 
but it is possible that the true origin may have 
been simpler. Poseidon was specially wor- 
shipped in Thessaly as the god of horses and also 
as the god who (as water-god) caused springs 
to break forth on the earth. It is far from 
unlikely that the first beginning of the myth 
may have been the hoof-marks of Thessa- 
lian horses trampling round a sacred spring of 
Poseidon, and that the story may have travelled 
with the Dorians southwards, and may have 
become localised at the various places. There 
was a well Hippocrene created in the same way 
by the hoof of Pegasus at Troezen as well as on 
Helicon and at Corinth (Paus. ii. 31, 9). The 
idea of Pegasus being the horse of the Muses, 
upon which poets soar aloft, is modem. It has 
not been traced to any earlier poem than the 
Orlando In namorato of Boiardo in the fifteenth 
century. In ancient sculptures and paintings 
Pegasus was a favourite subject, especially his 
bridling by Bellerophon and the combat with 
the Chimaera [seep. 162]. — 2. A Roman jurist, 
one of the followers or pupils of Proculus and 
praefectus urbi under Domitian (Juv. iv. 76). 
The Senatusconsultuin Pegasianum, which was 
passed in the time of Vespasian, when Pegasus 
was consul suffectus with Pusio, probably took 
its name from him. 

Peiso Lacus. [Pelso Lacus.] 

Pelagonia (ntAa-yovla : ne\dyov£S, pi.), a 
district in Macedonia. The Pelagones were an 
ancient people, probably of Pelasgic origin, and 
seem originally to have inhabited the valley of 
the Axius, since Homer calls Pelagon, a son of 
Axius (II. xxi. HO). The Pelagones afterwards 
migrated westwards to the Erigon, the country 
around which received the name of Pelagonia, 
1 which thus lay S. of Paeonia (Strab. pp. 327, 
331, 434; Ptol. iii. 13, 34). The chief town of 
this district was also called Pelagonia (now 
Vitolia or Monastir), which was under the 
Romans the capital of the 4th division of 
Macedonia. It was situated on the Via Egnatia, 
not far from the narrow passes leading into 
Illvria (Liv. xlv. 29). 

Pelasgi (neAao-701) : the earliest inhabitants 
of Greece are distinguished by this name ; but 
the accounts of them vary in ancient writers, 
and have been variously interpreted by modem 
historians. In the Iliad they are known as 
dwelling in Asia Minor, allied to the Trojans, 
with a town called Larissa (11. ii. 840) ; Argosis 
called Pelasgian (ii. 681), and in the Odyssey 
(xix. 177) Pelasgians are found in Crete. Above 
all, the Zeus who is worshipped in the groves of 
Dodona is the Pelasgian Zeus (II. xvi. 238), 
with which Hesiod agrees in calling Dodona 
Pelasgian (Hes. ap. Strab. p. 827). Herodotus 
supports the view that they were the most 
ancient inhabitants of Greece when he says 
that XliXaayia was the original name of Hellas 
(ii. 56) : he assigns a Pelasgian origin to the 
Arcadians, the Athenians, the Aeolians and the 
j Ionian people of ancient Achaea (i. 146, vii. 94, 
!'."<. viii. 44). He distinguishes sharply between 
Pelasgi and Hellenes as different races with 
different languuges (i. 57, 58), and he mentions 
them as dwelling in historical times at Crestone 
in Thrace and at Antandrus in the NW, of 
Asia Minor. Thucydides agrees with Herodotus 
US making Pelasgia the old name of most of 
Hellus (i. 8) : like Hellanicus (Fr. 1), lie identi- 
fleB them with the Tyrrhenians and speaks of 
Pelasgians in Lemnos (iv. 109). Some have 



666 



PELASGIOTIS 



PELEUS 



thought that the name Larissa is a mark of Pel- 
asgian settlement, and that, since towns of that 
name are found in Thessaly, at Argos, Elis, 
Ephesus, and in Crete (Strab. pp. 440, 620) it 
would follow that Pelasgi once spread over 
these various parts of the Aegaean coast. The 
most probable explanation of all this is that 
the term Pelasgi expresses a period rather than 
a race : i.e. that the Greeks called by this name 
generally all the prehistoric races of Greece 
and the Aegaean coasts, and ascribed to them 
buildings and towns which belonged to a time 
before the Achaean age. Hence also forms of 
religion inherited from prehistoric tribes are 
oalled Pelasgian, as that of Zeus at Dodona, of 
the Cabiri in Thrace [p. 177], and some part of 
the Thesmophoria at Athens. It is not neces- 
sary to suppose, nor is it probable, that all these 
peoples belonged to the same race. Some may 
have been Semitic, to which race some modern 
writers have assigned the Pelasgi ; but others 
may have been akin to the Hellenes, though an 
earlier immigration, and differing widely in 
dialect. The races called Pelasgian who 
existed in historic times were apparently relics 
of earlier races who dwelt on side by side with 
Hellenic states speaking what was to them a 
barbarian tongue. To ascribe a Pelasgian 
origin to Athenians or Arcadians merely 
expresses that they were an ancient race, and 
the Tie KarryiKbv at Athens implies the admixture 
of the later dominant people with an earlier 
race of whose origin nothing was known. It 
was natural also that the Greek settlers in Italy 
should regard those ' Aboriginal ' peoples whose 
buildings resembled the so-called Pelasgian 
stone walls of Greece as belonging to the ' Pe- 
lasgi ' of their own country. 

Pelasglotis (XltKaayiSirts), a district in 
Thessaly, between Hestiaeotis and Magnesia. 
[Thessalia.] 

Pelasgus, the mythical ancestor of the 
Pelasgi, who was regarded in Arcadia as 
autochthonous, or as a son of Zeus (Paus. ii. 
14, 3 ; Apollod. ii. 1, 1) ; at Argos as founder 
and king of Argos, and son of Phoroneus 
(Aesch. Suppl. 251 ; Paus. 1, 14, 2), and in 
Thessaly as son of Poseidon and Larissa (Dionys. 

i. 17). [Pelasgi]. 

Pelendones, a Celtiberian people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, between the sources of the 
Durius and the Iberus (Ptol. ii. 6, 54). 

Pelethronium (Tle\<:6p6>/ioi>), a mountainous 
district in Thessaly, part of Mt. Pelion, where 
the Lapithae dwelt, and which is said to have 
derived its name from Pelethronius, king of 
the Lapithae, who invented the use of the 
bridle and the saddle (Strab. p. 299 ; Verg. 
Georg. iii. 115 ; Hyg. Fab. 274 ; Plin. vii. 202). 

Peleus (IlTjAeus), son of Aeacus and Endeis, 
was king of the Myrmidons at Phthia in Thes- 
saly. He was a brother of Telamon, and step- 
brother of Phocus, the son of Aeacus by the 
Nereid Psamathe. (II. xvi. 15, xxi. 189, xxiv. 
535 ; cf. Ov. Met. vii. 477, xii. 365 ; Ap. Eh. ii. 
869.) Peleus and Telamon resolved to get rid 
of Phocus, because he excelled them in their 
military games, and Telamon, or, according to 
some, Peleus, murdered their step-brother. 
The two brothers concealed their crime by 
removing the body of Phocus, but were never- 
theless found out, and expelled by Aeacus from 
Aegina. (Apollod. iii. 12, 6 ; Diod. iv. 72 ; Paus. 

ii. 29, 7.) Peleus went to Phthia in Thessaly, 
where he was purified from the murder by 
Eurytion, the son of Actor, married his daugh- 
ter Antigone, and received with her a third of 



Eurytion's kingdom. Others relate that he 
went to Ceyx at Trachis ; and as he had come 
to Thessaly without companions, he prayed to 
Zeus for an army, and the god, to please 
Peleus, changed the ants ([ivp/xT)Kes) into 
men, who were accordingly called Myrmi- 
dons. (Apollod. iii. 13, 1; Ov. Met. xi. 266; 
Tzetz. ad Lyc. 175). Peleus accompanied 
Eurytion to the Calydonian hunt, and involun- 
tarily killed him with his spear, in consequence 
of which he fled from Phthia to Iolcus, where he 
was again purified by Acastus, the king of the 
place. While residing at Iolcus, Astydamia,. 
the wife of Acastus, fell in love with him ; but. 
as her proposals were rejected by Peleus, she 
accused him to her husband of having' at- 
tempted her virtue. Acastus, unwilling to 
stain his hand with the blood of the man whom 
he had hospitably received, and whom he had 
purified from his guilt, took him to Mt. Pelion, 
where they hunted wild beasts; and when 
Peleus, overcome with fatigue, had fallen 
asleep, Acastus left him alone, and concealed 
his sword, that he might be destroyed by the 
wild beasts. When Peleus awoke and sought 
his sword, he was attacked by the Centaurs, 
but was saved by Chiron, who also restored to 
him his sword. (Hes. Fragm. 31 ; Pind. Nem. 
iv. 55, v. 25 ; Apollod. iii. 13, 3.) In some ac- 
counts the temptress, instead of Astydamia, is 
Hippolyte, daughter of Cretheus (Pind. I.e. ; 
Hor. Od. iii. 7, 18). While on Mt. Pelion, 
Peleus married the Nereid Thetis, by whom he 
became the father of Achilles. He won her 
with the aid of Chiron after she had tried to 
escape by changing into various shapes. The 
gods took part in the marriage solemnity ; 
Chiron presented Peleus with a lance, Poseidon 




Peleus and Thetis. (From a painted vase.) 



with the immortal horses Balius and Xanthus, 
and the other gods with arms (II. xvi. 143, 
xviii. 84 ; Apollod. iii. 13, 5). Eris or Strife 
was the only goddess who was not invited to 
the nuptials, and she revenged herself by 
throwing an apple among the guests, with the 
inscription ' To the fairest.' [Pabis.] Homer 
mentions Achilles as the only son of Peleus 
and Thetis, but later writers state that she had 
already destroyed by fire six children of whom 
she was the mother by Peleus, and that as she 
attempted to make away with Achilles, her 
seventh child, she was prevented by Peleus 
(Ap. Rh. iv. 816; Lycophr. 178). After this 
Peleus, who is also mentioned among the 
Argonauts, in conjunction with Jason and the 
Dioscuri, besieged Acastus and Iolcus, slew 
Astydamia, and over the scattered limbs of her 
body led his warriors into the city (Ap. Eh. i. 



PELIADES 



PELLENE 



667 



91 ; Apollod. iii. 13, 7). The flocks of Peleus 
were at one time worried by a wolf, which 
Psamathe had sent to avenge the murder of 
her son Phocus, but she herself afterwards, on 
the request of Thetis, turned the animal into 
stone (Ov. Met. xi. 391 ; Ant. Lib. 38). Peleus, 
who had in former times joined Heracles in his 
expedition against Troy, was too old to accom- 
pany his son Achilles against that city ; he 
remained at home and survived the death of 
his son (27. xviii. 431; Od. xi. 495,1. 

Peliades (IleAi'aSesj, the daughters of Pelias. 
See Pelias. 

Pelias [HeXiasj, son of Poseidon and Tyro, 
a daughter of Salmoneus. Poseidon once 
visited Tyro in the form of the river-god Eni- 
peus, with whom she was in love, and she be- 
came by him the mother of Pelias and Neleus. 
(Od. xi. 234; Apollod. i. 9, 8). To conceal her 
shame, the mother exposed the two boys, but 
they were found aDd reared by some country- 
men. They subsequently learnt their parent- 
age ; and after the death of Cretheus, king of 
Iolcus, who had married their mother, they 
seized the throne of Iolcus, to the exclusion of 
Aeson, the son of Cretheus and Tyro. Pelias 
soon afterwards expelled his own brother Ne- 
leus, and thus became sole ruler of Iolcus. 
After Pelias had long reigned over Iolcus, J ason, 
the son of Aeson, came to Iolcus and claimed 
the kingdom as his right. In order to get rid 
of him, Pelias sent him to Colchis to fetch the 
golden fleece. Hence arose the celebrated ex- 
pedition of the Argonauts. After the return of 
Jason, Pelias was cut to pieces and boiled by 
his own daughters (the Peliades), who had been 
told by Medea that in this manner they might 
restore their father to vigour and youth. [See 
cut, p. 458.] His sou Acastus held funeral games 
in his honour at Iolcus, and expelled Jason 
and Medea from the country. [For details, see 
Jason ; Medea; Argonautae.j The names of 
several of the daughters of Pelias are recorded. 
The most celebrated of them was Alcestis, the 
wife of Admetus. [Alcestis.] 

Pelides (ri7)A6i'5?)s : ITrjAeiW), a patronymic 
from Peleus, generally given to his son Achilles, 
more rarely to his grandson Neoptolemus. 

Peligni, or Paeligni, a brave and warlike 
people of Sabine origin in central Italy, bounded 
SE. by the Marsi, N. by the Marrucini, S. by 
Samnium and the Frentani, and E. by the 
Frentani likewise. [See p. 453, b.] The climate 
of their country was cold (Hor. Od. iii. 19, 8.), 
but it produced a considerable quantity of 
flax and was celebrated for its honey. The 
Peligni, like their neighbours, the Marsi, were 
regarded as magicians. Their principal towns 
were Corfinium and Sl'lmo. They offered a 
brave resistance to the Romans, but concluded 
a peace with the republic along with their 
neighbours the Marsi, Marrucini and Frentani 
in B.C. 304 (Liv. viii. 6, 29, ix. 41, 45). They 
took an active part in the Social war (90, 89), 
and their chief town, Corfinium, u:is <li-»tiiifd by 
the allies to be the new capital of Italy in place 
of Rome. They were subdued by Pompeius 
Strabo (Liv. Ep. 73, 76). They are mentioned 
by Tacitus as siding with Vespasian against 
Vitellius (Hist. iii. 59). 

Pelinaeus Mons (rb Tlfhivaiov Spot, or 
{IiWtjvcuov '. M. Elias), the highest mountain 
of the island of Chios, a little N. of the city of 
Chios, with a celebrated temple of Zfi/s 
ricAifaToj (Strab. p. 465). 

Pelinna, or more commonly Pelinnaeum 
(TltKtyva, nehivvauov ; Uardhiki), a town of 



| Thessaly in Hestiaeotis, on the left bank of the 
Peneus, was taken b}' the Romans in the war 
with Antiochus (Pind. Pyth. x. 4 ; Strab. p. 437 
Liv. xxxvi. 10, 14). 

Pelion, more rarely Pelios (t2> TU]Xiov opos : 
Plessidhi or Zagord), a lofty range of moun- 
tains of Thessaly in the district of Magnesia, 
was situated between the lake Boebeis and the 
1 Pagasaean gulf, and formed the promontories of 
' Sepias and Aeantium (Hdt. vii. 129 ; II. ii. 
l 744). Its sides were covered with wood, and on 
I its summit was a temple of Zeus Actaeus, where 
! the cold was so severe that the persons who 
I went in procession to this temple once a year 
wore thick skins to protect themselves. Mt. 
Pelion was celebrated in mythology. The 
giants in their war with the gods are said t8 
j have attempted to heap Ossa and Olympus on 
Pelion, or Pelion and Ossa on Olympus in order 
to scale heaven. [Olympus.] Near the summit 
J of this mountain was the cave of the Centaur 
I Chiron, who was fitly represented as dwelling 
; here, because abundance of medicinal plants 
grew upon the mountain, and he was celebrated 
for his skill in medicine. (II. ii. 743, xvi. 143 ; 
Chiron.) On Pelion also the timber was felled 
with which the ship Argo was built. [Argo- 
nautab.] 

Pella (Ile'AAa : TleXAaios, Pellaeus). 1. (Ala- 
klisi), an ancient town of Macedonia in the dis- 
trict Bottiaea, was situated upon a hill, and 
upon a lake formed by the river Lydias, 120 
stadia from its mouth (Hdt. vii. 123 ; Thuc. ii. 
94). It continued to be a place of small im- 
portance till the time of Philip, who made it his 
residence and the capital of the Macedonian 
monarch}', and adorned it with many public 
buildings. It is frequently mentioned by sub- 
sequent writers on account of its being the 
birthplace of Alexander the Great (Strab. pp. 
320,323,330; Juv. x. 168; Lucan, x. 20). It 
was the capital of one of the four districts into 
which the Romans divided Macedonia [see p. 
512, b ), and was subsequently made a Roman 
colony under the name of Col. Jul. Aug. Pella 
(Liv. xlv. 29; C. I. G. 1997).— 2. (Fahil), the 
southernmost of the ten cities which composed 
the Decapolis inPeraea — that is, in Palestine E. 
of the Jordan— stood five Roman miles SE. of 
Scythopolis, and was also called Bovtis (Plin. 
v. 74 ; Joseph. B. J. iii. 3, 3). It was taken by 
Antiochus the Great, in the wars between 
Syria and Egypt, and was held by a Macedonian 
colony, till it was destroyed by Alexander Jan- 
naeus on account of the refusal of its inhabi- 
tants to embrace the Jewish religion. It was 

1 restored ami given back to its old inhabitants 
by Pompey (Pol. v. 70; Jos. B. J. i. 4, 8, Ant. 
xiv. 4, 4). It was the place of refuge of the 
Christians who fled from Jerusalem before its 
capture by the Romans. — 3. A city of Syria on 
the Orontes, formerly called Pharnace, was 
namedPellaby the Macedonians, and afterwards 
Apamea (No. 1). — 4. In Phrygia. [Peltae.] 
Pellana. [Pellene, No. 2.1 
Pellene (rUAAVli Dor. TUWdva: TlekKri- 
vtvs). 1. A city in Achaia bordering on Sicyo- 
nia, the most easterly of the twelve Achaean 
cities, was situated on a hill sixty stadia from 

j the city, and was strongly fortified. Its port- 
town was Aristonautae. The ancients derived 
its name from the giant Pallas, or from the 
Argive Pellen, the son of Phorbas. (Hdt. i. 
145 ; Strab. p. 886 ; Paus. vii. 26. 12.) It is 
mentioned in Homer; and the inhabitants of 
of Scione in the peninsula of Pallene in Muce- 

, donia professed to be descended from the Pel- 



668 



PELODES 



PELOPS 



lenaeans in Achaia, who were shipwrecked on 
the Macedonian coast on their return from 
Troy (11. ii. 574 ; Thuc. iv. 120). In the Pelo- 
poimesian war Pellene sided with Sparta. In 
the later wars of Greece between the Achaean 
and Aetolian Leagues, the town was several 
times taken by the contending parties. — Be- 
tween Pellene and Aegae there was a smaller 
town of the same name, where the celebrated 
Pelle nian cloaks (TleWriviaKai x^- a ' val ) were 
made, which were given as prizes to the victors 
in the games at this place (Pind. 01. ix. 98 ; 
Strab. I. c.)—2. Usually called Pellana, a 
town in Laconia on the Eurotas, about fifty 
stadia NW. of Sparta, on the road to Megalo- 
polis, belonging to the Spartan Tripolis (Strab. 
p. 386 ; Xen. Hell. vii. 5, 9 ; Pol. iv. 81). 

Pelodes (rfajAoiSrjs Kifxiiv, in App. Ua\6as : 
Armyro), a port-town belonging to Buthrotum 
in Epirus, and on a bay which probably bore the 
same name (Strab. p. 324). 

Pelopia. [Aegisthtjs ; Thyestes.] 
Pelopidas (TleXo-n-lSas), the Theban general 
and statesman, son of Hippoclus, was descended 
from a noble family and inherited a large 
estate, of which he made a liberal use. He 
lived always in the closest friendship with 
Epaminondas, to whose simple frugality, as he 
could not persuade him to share his riches, he is 
said to have assimilated his own mode of life. 
He took a leading part in expelling the Spar- 
tans from Thebes, B.C. 379 ; and from this time 
until his death there was not a year in which 
he was not entrusted with some important 
command. He was noted as a brilliant leader 
of cavalry. In 371 he was one of the Theban 
commanders at the battle of Leuctra, so fatal to 
the Lacedaemonians, and j oined Epaminondas in 
urging the expediency of immediate action. In 
369, he was also one of the generals in the first 
invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans. 
Respecting his accusation on his return from 
this campaign see p. 316, b. In 368 Pelopidas 
was sent again to Thessaly, on two separate 
occasions, in consequence of complaints against 
Alexander of Pherae. On his first expedition 
Alexander of Pherae sought safety in flight; 
and Pelopidas advanced into Macedonia to 
arbitrate between Alexander II. and Ptolemy 
of Alorus. Among the hostages whom he took 
with him from Macedonia was Philip, the 
father of Alexander the Great. On his second 
visit to Thessaly, Pelopidas went simply as an 
ambassador, not expecting any opposition, and 
unprovided with a military force. He was 
seized by Alexander of Pherae, and was kept 
in confinement at Pherae till his liberation in 
367, by a Theban force under Epaminondas. 
In the same year in which he was released he 
was sent as ambassador to Susa, to counteract 
the Lacedaemonian and Athenian negotiations 
at the Persian court. In 364, the Thessalian 
towns again applied to Thebes for protection 
against Alexander, and Pelopidas was appointed 
to aid them. His forces, however, were dis- 
mayed by an eclipse of the sun (June 13), and 
therefore, leaving them behind, he took with 
him into Thessaly only 300 horse. On his 
arrival at Pharsalus he collected a force which 
he deemed sufficient, and marched against 
Alexander, treating lightly the great disparity 
of numbers, and remarking that t was better 
as it was, since there would be more for him to 
conquer. At Cynoscephalae a battle ensued, 
in which Pelopidas drove the enemy from their 
ground, but he himself was slain as, burning 
with resentment, he pressed rashly to attack 



Alexander in person. The Thebans and Thes- 
salians made great lamentations for his death, 
and the latter, having earnestly requested 
leave to bury him, celebrated his funeral with 
splendour. (Plut. Pelopidas ; Nep. Pelopidas ; 
Xen. Hell. vii. ; Diod. xv. 62-81.) 

Peloponnesus (^ U.e\oir6wi)iyos : Morea), the 
S. part of Greece or the peninsula which was 
connected with Hellas proper by the isthmus of 
Corinth. It is said to have derived its name 
Peloponnesus or the ' island of Pelops,' from 
the mythical Pelops. [Pelops.] This name 
does not occur in Homer. In his time the 
peninsula was sometimes called Apia, from 
Apis, son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, and 
sometimes Argos ; which names were given to 
it on account of Argos being the chief power in 
Peloponnesus at that period. Peloponnesus 
was bounded on the N. by the Corinthian gulf, 
on the W. by the Ionian or Sicilian sea, on the 
S. by the Libyan, and on the W. by the Cretan 
and Myrtoan seas. On the E. and S. there are 
three great gulfs, the Argolic, Laconian, and 
Messenian. Peloponnesus was divided into 
various provinces, all of which were bounded 
on one side by the sea, with the exception of 
Arcadia, which was in the centre of the country. 
The political divisions of post- Homeric times 
were decided in great measure by the mountain 
system — a great range of which the summits 
are Erymanthus, Aroanius, and Cyllene, run- 
ning from "West to East and separating the up- 
land of Arcadia from Achaia ; from this range 
run others to the S. and SE. : from the E. 
extremity the mountains of Argolis ending in 
the prom, of Scyllaeum, and the more impor- 
tant Parnon running more nearly S. through 
Laconia : from the central Aroanius a range 
of which Taygetus is the most important part 
runs S. and ends in Taenarum. From the west 
comes down the range through which Alpheus, 
the only river navigable for boats, cuts its 
way : this range bends round so as to join Tay- 
getus and form the S. limit of Arcadia. The 
provinces thus parted off were Achaia in the 
N., Elis in the W., Messenia in the W. and 
S., Laconia in the S. and E., and Cobinthia in 
the E. and N. A detailed account of the geo- 
graphy of the peninsula is given under these 
names. The area of Peloponnesus is computed 
to be 7779 English miles ; and it probably con- 
tained a population of upwards of a million in 
the flourishing period of Greek history. — Pelo- 
ponnesus was to some extent united under the 
early Achaean princes : it again had a period 
of union under the Achaean League until its 
conquest by the Romans. [For its earlier his- 
tory see Achaei ; Dobes ; Pelops : for its later 
history see the account of the various states.] 

Pelops (rieAoi)/), grandson of Zeus, and son 
of Tantalus and Dione, the daughter of Atlas 
and the favourite of Poseidon. Some writers 
call his mother Euryanassa or Clytia. He was 
married to Hippodamia, by whom he became 
the father of Atreus, Thyestes, Dias, Cynos- 
urus, Corinthius, Hippalmus (Hippalcmus or 
Hippalcimus), Hippasus, Cleon, Arglus, Alca- 
thous, Aelius, Pittheus, Troezen, Nicippe, and 
Lysidice. (Pind. 01. i. 70 ; Eur. Or. 1 ; Apollod. 
ii. 4, 5 ; Paus. vi. 22, 5 ; Hyg. Fab. 83.) Chrys- 
ippus was his son by Axioche. Pelops was 
king of Pisa in Elis, and from him the great 
southern peninsula of Greece was believed to 
have derived its name Peloponnesus. Accord- 
ing to a tradition which became very general in 
later times, Pelops was a Phrygian, who was 
expelled by Ilus from Phrygia (hence called by 



PELOPS 



PELTAE 



66S 



Ovid, Met. viii. 622, Pelope'ia arva), and there- 
upon migrated with his great wealth to Pisa. 
(Pind. 01. i. 24, ix. 9 ; Thue. i. 9 ; Soph. Aj. 
1292 ; Paus. ii. 22, 4, v. 1, 5.) Others describe 
him as a Paphlagonian, and call the Paphlago- 
nians themselves rieA.o7riji'oi (Ap. Rh. ii. 358 ; 
Diod. iv. 74). Homer (11. ii. 101J, speaking of 
the transmission of the sceptre to Agamemnon, 
makes Pelops the first recipient of it from the 
gods, but does not mention his native country. 
The legends about Pelops consist mainly of the 
story of his being cut to pieces and boiled ; of 
his contest with Oenomaus and Hippodamia, 
and of his relation to his sons. (1) Pelops cut 
to pieces and boiled (Kpeovpyla IleAoirosJ. 
Tantalus, the favourite of the gods, once invited 
them to a repast, and on that occasion killed 
his own son, and having boiled him set the 
flesh before them that they might eat it. But 
the immortal gods, knowing what it was, did 
not touch it ; Demeter alone, being absorbed by 
grief for her lost daughter, consumed the 
shoulder of Pelops. Hereuiion the gods ordered 
Hermes to put the limbs of Pelops into a 
cauldron, and thereby restore him to life. 
When this was done, Clotho took liim out of 
the cauldron, and as the shoulder consumed by 
Demeter was wanting, the goddess supplied its 
place by one made of ivory ; his descendants 
(the Pelopidae), as a mark of their origin, were 
believed to have one shoulder as white as ivory. 
(Pind. 01. i. 25; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 152; Hyg. 
Fab. 83 ; Verg. Georg. hi. 7 ; Ov. Met. vi. 404.) 
[For this myth see further under Tantalus." 
(2) Contest with Oenomaus and Hippodamia. 
As an oracle had declared to Oenomaus that 
he should be killed by his son-in-law, he re- 
fused to give his fair daughter Hippodamia in 
marriage to anyone. But since many suitors 
appeared, Oenomaus declared that he would 
bestow her hand upon the man who should 
conquer him in the chariot-race, but that he 
should kill all who were defeated by him (Pind. 
01. i. 70). Among other suitors Pelops also 
presented himself, but when he saw the heads 
of his conquered predecessors stuck up above 
the door of Oenomaus, he was seized with fear, 
and endeavoured to gain the favour of Myrtilus, 
the charioteer of Oenomaus, promising him 
half the kingdom if he would assist him in 
conquering his master. Myrtilus agreed, and 
left out the linch-pins of the chariot of Oeno- 
maus. In the race the chariot of Oenomaus 
broke down, and he was thrown out and killed. 
Thus Hippodamia became the wife of Pelops. 
But as Pelops had now gained his object, he 
was unwilling to keep faith with Myrtilus ; and 
accordingly as they were driving along a cliff he 
threw Myrtilus into the sea. As Myrtilus sank, 
he cursed Pelops and his whole race. (Soph. El. 
504 ; Paus. v. 17, 4 ; Hyg. Fab. 84 ; Myrtilus.) 
Pelops returned with Hippodamia to Pisa in 
Elis, and soon also made himself master of 
Olympia, where he restored the Olympian 
games with greater splendour thun they had 
ever been celebrated before (Pind. 01. ix. 10; 
Paus. v. 8, 2). (3) The sons of Pelops. Chrys- 
ippus was the favourite of his father, und was 
in consequence envied by his brothers. The 
two eldest among them, Atreus and Thyestes, 
with the connivance of Hippodamia, accord- 
ingly murdered Chrysippus, and threw his body 
into a well. Pelops, who suspected his sons of 
the murder, expelled them from the country. 
Hippodamia, dreading the anger of her husband, 
fled to Midea in Argolis, from whence her 
remains were afterwards conveyed by Pelops to 



Olympia. (Schol. ad Eur. Or. 800, ad Eur. 

■ Phoen. 1760 ; Paus. v. 8, 1, vi. 20, 4 ; Hyg. 
Fab. 85, 243.) Pelops, after his death, was 
honoured at Olympia above all other heroes. 
His tomb with an iron sarcophagus existed on 
the banks of the Alpheus, not far from the 
temple of Artemis near Pisa. The spot on 
which his sanctuary (X\e\6iriov) stood in the 
Altis was said to have been dedicated by 
Heracles, who also offered to him the first 
sacrifices. The magistrates of the Eleans 
likewise offered to him there an annual sacri- 

: fice, consisting of a black ram, with special 
ceremonies (Paus. v. 13 ; Apollod. ii. 7, 2). The 

I name of Pelops was so celebrated that it was 

J constantly used by the poets in connexion with 
his descendants and the cities they inhabited. 
Hence we find Atreus, the son of Pelops, called 
Pelopeius Atreus, and Agamemnon, the grand- 
son or great-grandson of Atreus, called Pelo- 
peius Agamemnon. In the same way Iphi- 
genia, the daughter of Agamemnon, and Her- 
mione, the wife of Menelaus, are each called by 
Ovid Pelopeia virgo. Virgil (Aen. ii. 193) uses 
the phrase Pelopea moenia to signify the cities 
in Peloponnesus which Pelops and his descend- 
ants ruled over ; and in like manner Mycenae 
is called by Ovid Pelope'iades Mycenae. — To 
these traditional accounts of Pelops must be 
added the evidence from archaeological dis- 
coveries, especially those of recent years at 
Mycenae and Teryns. These discoveries tend 
to confirm the tradition of a Lydian or Phry- 
gian origin for the dynasty which reigned in 
those cities (resemblances in art and architec- 
ture which have been traced between the 
remains found in these cities and in Asia Minor 
have been noticed under Mycenae). On the 
whole there is good ground for the story that 
the founder of the Pelopid dynasty came from 
Asia Minor : possibly, as tradition stated, from 
the country of Mount Sipylus ; and that the 
civilisation of the Achaean princes (perhaps 
also their gold) was brought from that country. 
The traces of Egyptian and Phoenician in- 
fluence on their works of art may be ascribed 
to commercial intercourse. 

Peloris, Pelorias, or Pelorus (Tle\wpls, 
neAcupios, Ti4\upos : C. Faro), the NE. point 
of Sicily, was NE. of Messana on the Fretum 
Siculum, and one of the three promontories 
which formed the triangular figure of the island. 
According to the usual story it derived its name 
from Pelorus, the pilot of Hannibal's ship, who 
was buried here after being killed by Hannibal 
in a fit of anger (Mel. ii. 7, 17 ; Val. Max. ix. 
8, 1) ; but the name was more ancient than 
Hannibal's time, being mentioned by Thucy- 
dides (iv. 25). On the promontory there was a 

i temple of Poseidon, and a tower, probably a 

I lighthouse, from which the modern name of the 

i Cape (Faro) has come. 

Pelorus (TleKupos : prob. Lori or Luri), a. 
river of Iberia in Asia, probably a S. tributary 
of the Cyrus (Kour). (Dio Cass, xxxvii. 2.) 

Pelso or Peiso (Plattensee), a great lake in 
Ponnonia, the waters of which were conducted 
into the Danube by the emperor Galerius, who 
thus gained a great quantity of fertile lund for 
his newly formed province of Valeria (Aurel. 
Vict. Caes. 40 ; Plin. iii. 146). 

Peltae (T\(Krai : Ut\TJ\i>6s), an ancient and 
flourishing city of Asia Minor, in the N. of 
Phrygia, ten parasangs from Celaenae (Xeno- 
phon), and the fame place as the Pella of the 
Peutinger Table, twenty-six Roman miles N. or 

i NE. of Apamea Cibotus, to the conventus of 



670 PELTUIttUM 

which it belonged. The Surrounding district 
is called by Strabo'TO TleMipvbu irtb'iov. (Xen. 
An. i. 2, 10 ; Strab. p. 576.) Nits site is between 
Kara Agatchlar and Yaka JBeni. 

Peltuinum (Peltumas, -atisi: Ansedonia), a 
town of the Vestini in Italy (Plin. iii. 107). 

Pelusrum (TlTjAovffiov : Egypt. Per^moun or 
Peremai ; O. T. Sin : all the§« names are 
derived from nouns meaning muar. Tli]Xova- 
twrns ; Pelusiota : Tineh, Eu.), a celebrated 
city of Lower Egypt, stood on the E. side of the 
easternmost mouth of the Nile, which was 
called after it the Pelusiac mouth, twenty stadia 
(two geogr. miles) from the sea, in the midst of 
morasses, from which it obtained its name 
(Strab. p. 802 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 11, viii. 15, 11). As 
the key of Egypt on the NE., and the frontier 
city towards Syria and Arabia, it was strongly 
fortified, and was the scene of many battles and 
sieges in the wars of Egypt with Assyria, 
Persia, Syria, and Rome, from the defeat of 
Sennacherib near it by Sethon down to its 
capture by Octavianus after the battle of 
Actium (Strab. p. 604 ; Hdt. ii. 10 ; Diod. xv. 
42, xvi. 43 ; Val. Max. ix. 1). Later it was the 
capital of the district of Augustamnica. It was 
the birthplace of the geographer Ptolemy. 

Penates (strictly Dii Penates), the household 
gods in the old Italian religion, both those of a 
private family and those of the state, as the 
great family of citizens. Hence we have to dis- 
tinguish between private and public Penates. 
The name is connected with penus, the house- 
hold store of food, and cella penaria, the 
store-room, which they protected and blessed 
with increase. They were two in number, 
and their images stood in old Roman houses 
in the atrium (Varro, L. L. v. 162), the hearth 
being for them, as for Vesta, their altar (Serv. 
ad Aeii. xi. 211). In later times they were 
placed in the hinder part or penetrale of the 
house, whence Cicero, while he gives the true 
etymology from penus, suggests also a false 
one from penetrate (Cic. N. D. ii. 27, 68 ; cf. 
Pest. p. 208 ; Serv. ad Aen. iii. 12). A pecu- 
liar sanctity attached to the place where their 
images stood ; those who tended it or even 
stepped into it should be chaste and pure 
(Colum. xii. 4, 3 ; cf. Verg. Aen. i. 703). The 
two state Penates of Rome had a temple in 
the Velia, in which their images stood — 
according to Dionysius i. 67, figures of two 
young men with spears in their hands. Accord- 
ing to a tradition which probably started after 
the legends from Greek cities of Italy began 
to have their influence, the Penates were 
brought from Troy to Lanuvium (where, no 
doubt, as in a religious centre of the Latin 
religion, there was a specially ancient wor- 
ship of those true Italian deities), and it was 
further imagined that the Penates had reached 
Troy from Samothrace and were the deol 
fj.iya.Aoi or Cabiri (Dionys. i. 67 ; Macrob. iii. 
4, 7, 9). To this should probably be referred 
the expression of Virgil ' Cum patribus popu- 
loque, Penatibus et Magnis Dis ' {Aen. viii. 
679). For the private worship of the Penates 
on the hearth a perpetual fire was kept up in 
their honour, and the table always contained 
the salt-cellar and the firstlings of fruit for 
these divinities. Every meal that was taken in 
the house thus resembled a sacrifice offered to 
the Penates, beginning with a purification and 
ending with a libation which was poured either 
on the table or upon the hearth. [Compare 
Lakes.] 

Peneis. [Daphne.] 



PENEUS 

Peneleos (UrjviAews), son of Hippalcmus and 

Asterope, and one of the Argonauts. He was 
the father of Opheltes, and is also mentioned 
among the suitors of Helen. (Apollod. i. 9, 16 ; 
Paus. ix. 5, 8.) He was one of the leaders of 
the Boeotians in the war against Troy, where he 
slew Ilioneus and Lycon, and was wounded by 
Polydamas. (II. ii. 494, xix. 487.) He is said 
to have been slain by Eurypylus, the son of 
Telephus. 

Penelope (UriveXSirri, Tl(ve\6irri, TIr)veA6ireia.), 
daughter of Icarius and Periboea of Sparta, 
married Odysseus, king of Ithaca. [Respecting 
her marriage, see Icabius, No. 2.] By Odysseus 
she had an only child, Telemachus, who was an 
infant when her husband sailed against Troy. 
During the long absence of her husband she 
was beleaguered by numerous and importunate 
suitors, whom she deceived by declaring that 
she must finish a large robe which she was 
making for Laertes, her father-in-law, before 
she could make up her mind. During the day- 
time she accordingly worked at the robe, and 




Penelope. (British Museum.) 



in the night she undid the work of the day. 
By this means she succeeded in putting off the 
suitors. But at length her stratagem was 
betrayed by her servants ; and when, in conse- 
quence, the faithful Penelope was pressed more 
and more by the impatient suitors, Odysseus at 
length arrived in Ithaca, after an absence of 
twenty years. [For details see Odysseus.] 
While the Odyssey describes Penelope as the 
type of a faithful wife, some later writers repre- 
sent her as the reverse, and relate that by 
Hermes or by the suitors she became the 
mother of Pan (Lycophr. 772 ; Schol. ad 
Hdt. ii. 145 ; Cic. N.D. iii. 22, 55). They add 
that Odysseus on his return repudiated her, 
whereupon she went to Sparta, and thence to 
Mantinea, where her tomb was shown in after- 
times (Paus. viii. 12, 3). According to another 
tradition, she married Telegonus, after he had 
killed his father (Hyg. Fab. 127). 

Peneus (nrjeeids). 1. (Salambria or Sal- 
amria), the chief river of Thessaly, and one 
of the most important in all Greece, rises near 
Alalcomenae in Mt. Lacmon, a branch of Mt. 
Pindus, flows first SE. and then NE. and after 
receiving many affluents, of which the chief 
were the Enipeus, the Lethaeus, and the Tita- 
resius, forces its way through the vale of Tempo 



PENIUS 

between Mts. Ossa and Olympus into the sea. 
, Tempe.] As a god Peneus was called a son of 
Oceanus and Tethys (Hes. Th. 343). By the 
Naiad Creusa he became the father of Hypseus, 
Stilbe, and Daphne. Cyrene also is called by 
some his wife, and by others his daughter ; and 
hence Peneus is described as the genitor of 
Abistaeus (Verg. Georg. iv. 355). — 2. (Gas- 
tuni), a river in Elis, which rises on the frontiers 
of Arcadia, flows by the town of Elis, and falls 
into the sea between the promontory Chelonatas 
and Ichthys (Strab. p. 338). 

Penius, a little river of Pontus falling into 
the Euxine (Ovid, Pont. iv. 10, 47). 

Pennlnae Alpes. [Alpes.] 

Pennus, Junius. 1. M., praetor B.C. 201 
(Liv. xxix. 11, xxxi. 4). — 2. M., son of No. 1, 
praetor in Nearer Spain 172, consul 167 (Liv. 
xlii. 9, xlv. 16). — 3. M., son of No. 2, tribune in 
126, carried, in opposition to C. Gracchus, a 
law expelling aliens (peregrini) from Eome 
(Cic. 0$. iii. 11, 47, Brut. 28, 109). 

Peiltapolis (YlevraTroKis), the name for any 



PEOS 



671 



sequence killed by the hero. Thereupon Dio- 
medes, a relative of Thersites, threw the body 
of Penthesilea into the river Scamander ; but, 
according to other accounts, Achilles himself 
buried it on the banks of the Xanthus. (Tzetz. 
ad Lyc. 997 ; Amazones.) 

Pentheus (Uevdevs), son of Echion and 
Agave, the daughter of Cadmus. He suc- 
ceeded Cadmus as king of Thebes ; and having 
resisted the introduction of the worship of 
Dionysus into his kingdom, he was driven mad 
bj" the god, his palace was hurled to the ground, 
and he himself was torn to pieces by his own 
mother and her two sisters, Ino and Autonoe, 
who in their Bacchic frenzy believed him to 
be a wild beast. The place where Pentheus 
suffered death is said to have been Mt. Cithae- 
ron or Mt. Parnassus. It is related that Pentheus 
got upon a tree, for the purpose of witnessing 
in secret the revelry of the Bacchic women, 
but on being discovered by them was torn to 
' pieces. (Eur. Bacckae; Ov. Met. iii. 513; 
Apollod. iii. 5, 2; Hyg. Fab. 184: Norm. Dionys. 




The dying Penthesilea supported by Achilles. (From a sarcophagus found at Salonica.and now in Paris. 



association of five cities, was applied specifically 
to the five chief cities of Cyrenalca in N. 
Africa, Cyrene, Berenice, Arsinoe, Ptolemais, 
and Apollonia, from which, under the Ptole- 
mies, CyrenaTca received the name of Penta- 
polis, or Pentapolis Libyae, or, in the Roman 
writers, Pentapolitana Regio. [Cyrenaica.] 
When the name occurs alone, this is its usual 
meaning ; the other applications of it are rare. I 

Penteleum (TlevreKttoi'), a fortified place in 1 
the N. of Arcadia near Pheneus (Plut. Cleom. 
17, Arat. 39). 

PenteHcus Mons (t6 nfureKtKbv ijpos : Pen- 1 
teli), a mountain in Attica, celebrated for its 
marble, which derived its name from the demus 
of Pentele (rifeTfAr)), lying on its S. slope. It \ 
is a branch of Mt. Parries, from which it runs 
in a SE.-ly direction between Athens and Mara- 
thon to the coast. It was also called Brilessus 
{Bpt\T)<r(r6i). (Thuc. ii. 28; Strab. p. 399.) 

Penthesilea {T\<v9t<ri\tia), daughter of Ares 
and Otrera, and queen of the Amazons (Hyg. i 
Fab. 112; Just. ii. 4). After the death of 
Hector, she came to the assistance of the Tro- 1 
jans, but was slain by Achilles who mourned 
over the dying queen on account of her beauty, 1 
youth, and valour (Diet. Cret. iii. 15, iv. 2 ; j 
Paus. v. 11, 2 ; Quint. Smyrn. i. 40). Thersites 
ridiculed the grief of Achilles, and was in con- 



xlv. 46.) According to a Corinthian tradition, 
the women were afterwards commanded by an 
oracle to discover that tree, and to worship it 
like the god Dionysus ; and accordingly out of 
the tree two carved images of the god were 
made. (Paus. ii. 2, 6.) This gives some sup- 
port to a theory advocated by some modern 
writers, that Pentheus was originally Dionysus 
himself," the god of trees, and especially of 
vine-trees, torn by winter storms. It is simpler 
to explain the myth as signifying the resistance 
offered in certain districts to the worship of 
Dionysus, when it was first introduced, of which 
resistance Damascus, Lycurgus and Pentheus 
are the types [see p. 294, b]. 

Penthilus (ncVSiAos), son of Orestes and 
Erigone, is said to have led a colony of Aeoliana 
to Thrace. He was the father of Echelatus 
and Damasias. (Paus. ii. 18, 5 ; Strab. p. 582.) 

Pentri, one of the most important of the 
tribes in Samnium, were conquered by the 
Romans along with the other Samnites, and 
were the only one of the Samnite tribes who 
remained faithful to the Romans when the rest 
of the nation revolted to Hannibal in the second 
Punic war (Liv. ix. 81, xxii. 61). Their chief 
town was Bovianum. 

Peos Artemldos (Uios, probably corrupted 
from Sjre'oi, cave, 'Aot«^i'5oj : Beni Hassan, 



672 



PEPABETHUS 



PERDIX 



Ru.), a city of the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt, 
on the E. bank of the Nile, nearly opposite to 
Hermopolis the Great on the W. bank. It is 
remarkable as the site of rock-hewn catacombs, 
the walls of which are covered with sculptures 
and paintings of importance for elucidating 
Egyptian antiquities. 

Peparethus(rieirap'>70os: UenapriQios: Piperi), 
a small island in the Aegaean sea, off the coast 
of Thessaly, and of Halonesus, with a town of 
the same name upon it and two other small 
places (Thuc. iii. 89 ; Strab. p. 436). It pro- 
duced a quantity of wine. It is mentioned in 
connexion with Halonesus in the war between 
Philip and the Athenians. [Halonesus.] 

Pephnu3 (Ylecpvos), a town of Laconia, on the 
E. coast of the Messenian gulf, some way N. 
of Oetylus (Paus. iii. 26, 2). 

Pephredo (ne<ppr)8w). [Graeae.] 

Pepuza (n<ETrov(a : Eu. near Yannik Euren), 
a city in the W. of Phrygia, on the road be- 
tween Eumeneia and Stektorion. 

Peraea (rj riepcua, sc. 777 or x^pa, the country 
on the opposite side), a general name for any 
district belonging to or closely connected with a 
country, from the main part of which it was sepa- 
rated by a sea or river, was used specifically for— 
1. The part of Palestine E. of the Jordan in gene- 
ral, but usually in a more restricted sense, for a 
part of the region — namely, the district between 
the rivers Hieromax on the N., and Arnon 
on the S. — 2. Peraea Rhodiorum (•>; llepala 
tuv 'PoS'icdv), also called the Rhodian Cherso- 
nese a district in the S. of Caria, opposite to 
the island of Rhodes, from Mt. Phoenix on the 
W. to the frontier of Lycia on the E. (Strab. p. 
651 ; Pol. xvii. 2, 6 ; Liv. xxxii. 33). This strip 
of coast, which was reckoned 1500 stadia in 
length (by sea), and was regarded as one of the 
finest spots on the earth, was colonised by the 
Rhodians at an early period, and was always in 
close political connexion with Rhodes even 
.under the successive rulers of Caria ; and after 
the victory of the Romans over Antiochus the 
Great, B.C. 190, it was assigned, with the whole 
of Carian Doris, to the independent republic of 
the Rhodians. [Rhodus.] — 3. P. Tenediorum 
(Tlepaia TeveSiW), a strip of the W. coast of 
Mysia, opposite to the island of Tenedos, be- 
tween C. Sigeum on the N. and Alexandria 
Troas on the 8. (Strab. p. 596). 

Perc5te (YlepKcim), formerly nepKiiirr), accord- 
ing to Strabo : Borgas or Burgus, Turk., and 
Percate, Grk.), a very ancient city of Mysia, 
between Abydos and Lampsacus, near the 
Hellespont, on a river called Percotes, in a 
beautiful situation (II. ii. 835, xi. 229 ; Xen. 
Hell. v. 1, 23 ; Strab. p. 590). 

Perdiccas (riepSi'/c/cas) 1. I., the founder of 
the Macedonian monarchy, according to Hero- 
dotus, though later writers represent Caranus 
as the first king of Macedonia, and make Per- 
diccas only the fourth. [Cabanus.] According 
to Herodotus, Perdiccas and his two brothers, 
Gauanes and Aeropus, were Argives of the race 
of Temenus, who settled near Bit. Bermius, 
from whence they subdued the rest of Mace- 
donia (Herod, viii. 137, 138). It is clear, how- 
ever, that the dominions of Perdiccas and his 
immediate successors comprised but a very 
small part of the country subsequently known 
under that name (Thuc. ii. 99). Perdiccas 
was succeeded by his son Argaeus. — 2, II., 
king of Macedonia, from about B.C. 454 to 413, 
was the son and successor of Alexander I. 
Shortly before the beginning of the Pelopon- 
nesian war Perdiccas was at war with the 



Athenians, who sent a force to support his 
brother Philip and Derdas, a Macedonian 
chieftain, against the king, while the latter es- 
poused the cause of Potidaea, which had 
shaken off the Athenian yoke, B.C. 432 (Thuc. 
i. 57-63; Diod. xii. 34). In the following year 
peace was concluded between Perdiccas and 
the Athenians, but it did not last long, and he 
was during the greater part of his reign on 
hostile terms with the Athenians. In 429 his 
dominions were invaded by Sitalces, king of 
the powerful Thracian tribe of the Odrysians, 
but the enemy was compelled, by want of pro- 
visions, to return home. (Thuc. ii. 95-101 ; Diod. 
xii. 50.) It was in great part at his instigation 
that Brasidas in 424 set out on his celebrated 
expedition to Macedonia and Thrace. In the fol- 
lowing year (423), however, a misunderstanding 
arose between him and Brasidas, in consequence 
of which he abandoned the Spartan alliance, 
and concluded peace with Athens. (Thuc. iv. 82, 
103, 124-132.) Subsequently we find him at 
one time in alliance with the Spartans, and at 
another time with the Athenians ; and it is 
evident that he joined one or other of the 
belligerent parties according to the dictates of 
his own interest at the moment (Thuc. v. 80, 
vi. 7, vii. 9). — 3. III., king of Macedonia, B.C. 
364-359, was the second son of Amyntas II., by 
his wife Eurydice. On the assassination of 
his brother Alexander II. by Ptolemy of Alorus, 
367, the crown of Macedonia devolved upon 
him by hereditary right, but Ptolemy virtually 
enjoyed the sovereign power as guardian of 
Perdiccas till 364, when the latter caused 
Ptolemy to be put to death, and took the 
government into his own hands (Just. vii. 4 ; 
Diod. xv. 77, xvi. 2). Of the reign of Perdiccas 
we have very little information. We learn only 
that he was at one time engaged in hostilities 
with Athens on account of Amphipolis, and 
that he was distinguished for his patronage of 
men of letters (Aesch. F.L. 29). He fell in 
battle against the Illyrians, 359. — 4. Son of 
Orontes, a Macedonian of the province of 
Orestis, was one of the most distinguished of 
the generals of Alexander the Great. He ac- 
companied Alexander throughout his campaigns 
in Asia ; and the king on his death-bed is said 
to have taken the royal signet ring from his 
finger and given it to Perdiccas (Curt. x. 5, 4 ; 
Just. xii. 15). After the death of the king 
(323), Perdiccas had the chief authority en- 
trusted to him under the command of the new 
king Arrhidaeus, who was a mere puppet in his 
hands, and he still further strengthened his 
power by the assassination of his rival Me- 
leager. [Meleageb.] The other generals of 
Alexander regarded him with fear and sus- 
picion ; and at length his ambitious schemes 
induced Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, to 
unite in a league and declare open war against 
Perdiccas. Thus assailed on all sides, Per- 
diccas determined to leave Eumenes in Asia 
Minor, to make head against their common 
enemies in that quarter, while he himself 
marched into Egypt against Ptolemy. He ad- 
vanced without opposition as far as Pelusium, 
but found the banks of the Nile strongly forti- 
fied and guarded by Ptolemy, and was repulsed 
in repeated attempts to force the passage of 
the river ; in the last of which, near Memphis, 
he lost great numbers of men. Thereupon his 
troops, who had long been discontented with 
Perdiccas, rose in mutiny and put him to death. 
(Diod. xviii. 14-36 ; Just. xii. 6, 8.) 
Perdix (riep5i|), the sister of Daedalus and 



PEREGRINUS 

mother of Talos, the legends of whose death 
appear to have grown out of an attempt to 
explain the presence of Daedalus, as type of 
primitive art, in Crete as well as Attica. [Dae- 
dalus.] For the story, see Talos. Perdix her- 
self probably formed some part of the myths 
about birds, prevalent especially at Athens and 
generally connected with something in the notes 
or habits of birds. It was probably a misinter- 
pretation of the legend which made Perdix the 
nephew of Daedalus with the same story as 
Talos (Ov. Met. viii. 241). 

Peregrinus Proteus, a Cynic philosopher, 
born at Parium, on the Hellespont, in the reign 
of the Antonines. After a youth spent in debau- j 
chery and crimes, he visited Palestine, where 1 
he turned Christian, and by dint of hypocrisy ' 
attained to some authority in the Church. He . 
next assumed the Cynic garb, and returned to • 
his own native town, where, to obliterate the j 
memory of his crimes, he divided his inheri- 
tance among the populace. He again set out 
on his travels, and after visiting many places, 
and adopting every method to make himself 
conspicuous, he at length resolved on publicly 
burning himself at the Olympic games, and 
carried his resolution into effect in the 236th 
Olympiad, a.d. 165. Lucian, who was present , 
at the strange self-immolation of Peregrinus, 
has left us an account of his life. Gellius, who 
attended hia lectures at Athens, commends the 1 
sincerity of his character and teaching. (Gell. 
xi. 12; Lucian, de Mort. Peregrin.) 

Perenna, Anna. [Anna.] 

Perennis, succeeded Paternus in a.d. 183, as 
sole praefect of the praetorians, and, Commo- j 
dus being completely sunk in debauchery and 
sloth, virtually ruled the empire. Having, how- 
ever, rendered himself obnoxious to the soldiery, 1 
he was put to death by them in 186 or 187. 
Dio Cassius represents Perennis as a man of 
pure and upright life ; but the other historians 
charge him with having encouraged the emperor 
in his career of profligacy. (Dio Cass, lxxii. 9 ; 
Vit. Commod. 5, 6.) 

Perga [n4pyr) : IXepycuos : Mwrtana, Ru.),an 
ancient and important city of Pamphylia, lay a 
little inland, NE. of Attalia, between the rivers 
Catarrhactes and Cestrus, sixty stadia (six geog. 
miles) from the mouth of the former. It was 
a celebrated seat of the worship of Artemis 
iStrab. p. 667 ; Callin. Hymn, in Dian. 187). 
On an eminence near the city stood a very 
ancient and renowned temple of the goddess, 
at which a yearly festival was celebrated ; and 
the coins of Perga bear image3 of the goddess 
and her temple. Under the later Roman em- 
pire, it was the capital of Pamphylia Secunda. ! 
It was the first place in Asia Minor visited by 
the apostle Paul on his first missionary jour- 
ney (Acts, xiii. IS ; see also xiv. 25j. There are 
considerable ruins of the city about sixteen 1 
miles NE. of Ado lift. 

Pergama, Pergamla, Pergamon = Emm 
[Tiioja]. 

Pergamum, 1. Iessu anally Pergamus (ruVya- 
fUjv in Polybius, Strabo, Appian, Josephus, 
Aelian and Plutarch ; v; Ufpyafim in Dio Cas- 
sius and Ptolemy : Brrqnma),a. celebrated city j 
of Asia Minor, tho capital of the kingdom of 
PergamuH, and afterwards of the Roman pro- 
vince of Asia, was situated in the district of S. 
Mytia called Teutlirania, in one of the most j 
beautiful and fertile valleys in the world. It 
stood on the N. bank of the river CaTcus, at a j 
not where that river receives the united waters 
of two small tributaries, the Selinus, which 



PERGAMUM 



678 



flowed through the city, and the Cetius, which 
washed its walls. The navigable river Caicus 
connected it with the sea, at the Elai'tic Gulf, 
from which its distance was somewhat less 
than twenty miles. (Strab. pp. 619, 624 ; Plin. v. 
126 ; Pans. vi. 16, 1 ; Liv. xxxvii. 18.) It was 
built at the foot, and on the lowest slopes, of 
two steep hills, spurs of Mt. Pindasus (Paus. 

ii. 26, 8 ; Plin. v. 126), on one of which stood 
the upper town, or acropolis, the highest por- 
tion of which was the original settlement with 
a wall of its own. The upper town was en- 
larged after the kingdom was established, 
and spread under Eumenes II. still further. 
Under the Roman dominion the town extended 
over a large area in the plain. In this upper 
town the most noticeable buildings were the 
central Agora with the great altar of Zeus, the 
temple of Dionysus to the south, and to the 
north the great temple of Athene, beyond 
which was the famous library. North of this 
was the Augusteum or temple of Augustus and 
Rome, later known as the Trojaneum, a vast 
building on a terrace 300 yards long. N. of this, 
and on the highest point, was the smaller Julian 
temple. The theatre stood on the western 
slope below the library and the temple of 
Athene, and to the west of it was a great ter- 
race running all along the slope from the 
temple of Dionysus to that of Augustus. Much 
further down the south slope was the gym- 
nasium, which belonged to the lower town. 
This lower town occupied much of the ground 
now covered by the modern town and conse- 
quently not excavated, and it extended across 
the river Selinus, on the W. side of which were 
an amphitheatre, circus, Roman theatre, and 
still further west the temple of Asclepius. — The 
origin of the city is lost in mythical traditions, 
which ascribed its foundation to a colony from 
Arcadia under the Heracleid Telephus, and its 
name to Pergamus, a son of Pyrrhus and 
Andromache, who made himself king of Teu- 
thrania by killing the king Arius in single com- 
bat (Paus. i. 4, 5, i. 11, 2). At all events, it wi« 
already in the time of Xenophon a very 
ancient city, with a mixed population of Teu- 
thranians and Greeks (Xen. An. vii. 8, 8, Hell. 

iii. 1, 6) ; but it was not a place of much im- 
portance until the time of the successors of 
Alexander. After the defeat of Antigonus at 
Ipsus, in 301, the NW. part of Asia Minor was 
united to the Thracian kingdom of Lysimachus, 
who enlarged and beautified the city of Pcrga- 
mum, and used the acropolis as a treasury on 
account of its strength as a fortress. The 
command of the fortress was entrusted to 
Phtletaerus, who, towards the end of the 
reign of Lysimachus, revolted to Seleu- 
cus, king of Syria, retaining, however, the 
fortress of Pergamum in Iub own hands; and 
upon the death of Seleucus, in 280, Philetaerus, 
established himself as an independent ruler. 
This is the date of the commencement of the 
kingdom of Pergamus, though the royal title 
was only assumed by the second successor of 
Philetaerus, Attalus L, after his great victory 
over the Gauls. The successive kings of 
Pergamum were : PinLETAr.nus, 280-263 ; Eu- 

• 3 L, 268-241; Attalus I., 241-197; Etr- 
jtjsnes EL, 197-159 ; Attalus II.Phii.adf.lpmur, 
169-188; Attalus LTL Philomktor, 138-133. 
For the outline of their history see the articles. 
The kingdom reached its greatest extent after 
tho defeat of Antiochus the Great by the 
Romans, in B.C. 190, when the Romans be- 
stowed upon Eumenes II. the whole of Mvsia, 

X X' 



674 



PERGAMUS 



PERICLES 



Lydia, bofcli Phrygias, Lycaonia, Pisidia and 
Pamphylia. It was under the same king that 
Pergamum reached the height of its splendour, 
and that the celebrated library was founded, 
which for a long time rivalled that of Alexan- 
dria, and the formation of which occasioned 
the invention of parchment, charta Perga- 
mena. This library was afterwards united to 
that of Alexandria, having been presented by 
Antony to Cleopatra. During its existence at 
Pergamum, it formed the centre of a great 
school of literature, which rivalled that of 
Alexandria. On the death of Attalus III. in 
B.C. 133, the kingdom, by a bequest in his will, 
passed to the Romans, who took possession of 
it in 130 after a contest with the usurper Ari- 
stonicus, and erected it into the province of 
Asia, with the city of Pergamum for its capital, 
which continued in such prosperity that Pliny 
calls it 'longe clarissimum Asiae.' The temple 
■of Augustus at Pergamum was the chief 
sanctuary of the imperial worship in the pro- 
vince of Asia : the people of Pergamum were 
the chief temple-servants or vewfcopoi of the 
emperors (Tac. Ann. iv. 37; Dio Cass. li. 20; 
G.I.G. 1720, 2810). The city was an early seat 
ijl Christianity, and is one of the Seven 
Churches of Asia. Under the Byzantine em- 
perors, the capital of the province of Asia was 
transferred to Ephesus, and Pergamum lost 
much of its importance. Among the celebrated 
natives of the city were the rhetorician Apollo- 
dorus and the rjhysician Galen. But the most 
important proofs of the ancient splendour of 
Pergamum and of the magnificence of Attalus 
and Eumenes as patrons of art have been 
afforded by the excavations undertaken by the 
Prussian Government and carried out by 
Hamann, Conze, and others in 1871-1878. 
These excavations have established the sites of 
the buildings mentioned above, and have re- 
covered in great measure their dimensions and 
plans, so that a reconstruction of the archi- 
tecture can be made with tolerable certainty. 
Besides this, important sculptures of the Per- 
gamene school have been recovered : especially 
the splendid colossal sculptures in high relief, 
now at Berlin, from the platform of the great 
altar of Zeus built by Eumenes II. They repre- 
sent the battle of the gods and giants [see cut on 
p. 364]. In these, as also in the statues of 
vanquished Gauls dedicated by Attalus (of 
which the best known are the ' Dying Gaul ' in 
the Capitol of Rome, often called the ' Dying 
Gladiator,' and another at Venice), the tendency 
of the Pergamene school to portray dramatically 
pathos, passion and excitement is evident 
[Diet, of Ant. art. Statuaria Ars]. — 2. A very 
ancient city of Crete, the foundation of which 
was ascribed to the Trojans who survived their 
city. The legislator Lycurgus was said to have 
died here, and his grave was shown. The site 
of the city is doubtful. Some place it at 
Perama. others at Platania. ("Verg. Aen. iii. 
133 ; Veil. Pat. i. 1 : Plut. Lyc. 32.) 

Pergamus. [Peiigamum.] 

Perge. [Pebga.] 

Periander {lie piavSpos). 1. Son of Cypselus, 
whom he succeeded as tyrant of Corinth, 33. c. 
625, and reigned forty years, to B.C. 585. His 
rule was mild and beneficent at first, but after- 
wards became oppressive. According to the 
common story this change was owing to the 
advice of Tlirasybulus, tyrant of Miletus, 
whom Periander had consulted on the best 
mode of maintaining his power, and who is 
said to have taken the messenger through a 



corn-field, cutting off, as he went, the tallest 
ears, and then to have dismissed him without 
committing himself to a verbal answer (Hdt. v. 
92). The action, however, was rightly inter- 
preted by Periander, who proceeded to rid him- 
self of the most powerful nobles in the state. 
He made his power dreaded abroad as well as 
at home ; and besides his conquest of Epi- 
daurus, mentioned below, he kept Corcyra in 
subjection, and he planted a colony at Poti- 
daea. He was, like many of the other Greek 
tyrants, a patron of literature and philosophy ; 
and Arion and Anacharsis were in favour at 
his court. He was very commonly reckoned 
among the Seven Sages, though by some he 
was excluded from their number, and Myson of 
Chenae in Laconia was substituted in his room. 
The private life of Periander was marked by 
misfortune and cruelty. He married Melissa, 
daughter of Procles, tyrant of Epidaurus. 
She bore him two sons, Cypselus and Lyco- 
phron, and was passionately beloved by him; 
but he is said to have killed her by a blow 
during her pregnancy, having been roused to a 
i fit of anger by a false accusation brought 
I against her. His wife's death embittered the 
I remainder of his days, partly through the re- 
i morse which he felt for the deed, partly through 
the alienation of his younger son, Lycophron, 
inexorably exasperated by his mother's fate. 
The young man's anger had been chiefly ex- 
cited by Procles, and Periander in revenge 
attacked Epidaurus, and, having reduced it, 
took his father-in-law prisoner. Periander sent 
Lycophron to Corcyra ; but when he was him- 
self advanced in years, he summoned Lyco- 
phron back to Corinth to succeed to the ty- 
ranny, seeing that Cypselus, his elder son, was 
unfit to hold it, from deficiency of understand- 
ing. Lycophron refused to return to Corinth, 
| as long as his father was there. Thereupon 
Periander offered to withdraw to Corcyra, if 
Lycophron would come home and take the 
government. To this he assented; but the 
I Corcyraeans, not wishing to have Periander 
! among them, put Lycophron to death. Perian- 
der shortly afterwards died of despondency, at 
the age of eighty, and after a reign of forty 
years, according to Diogenes Laertius. He was 
succeeded by a relative, Psammetichus, son of 
Gordias. (Hdt. iii. 48-53, v. 92 ; Ar. Pol. v. 12.) 
— 2. Tyrant of Ambracia, was contemporary 
with his more famous namesake of Corinth, to 
whom he was also related, being the son of 
Gorgus, who was son or brother to Cypselus. 
! Periander was deposed by the rjeople, probably 
L after the death of the Corinthian tyrant (585). 

(Ar. Pol. v. 4, 10 ; Ael. V.H. xii. 35.) 
I Periboea (nep'i&oia). 1. Wife of Icarius, and 
j mother of Penelope. [Icabius, No. 2.] — 
2. Daughter of Alcathous, and wife of Telamon, 
I by whom she became the mother of Ajax and 
Teucer. Some writers call her Eriboea. (Paus. 
i. 42, 1.) — 3, Daughter of Hipponous, and wife 
j of Oeneus, by whom she became the mother of 
j Tydeus. [Oeneus.] — 4. Wife of king Polybus 

of Corinth (Apollod. iii. 5, 7). " 

! Pericles (nepiKATjs). 1. The greatest of Athe- 
| nian statesmen, was the son of Xanthippus, and 
Agariste, both of whom belonged to the noblest 
families of Athens. The fortune of his parents 
: procured for him a careful education, which his 
j extraordinary abilities and diligence turned to 
I the best account. He received instruction from 
i Damon, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras. With 
! Anaxagoras he lived on terms of the most inti- 
! mate friendship, till the philosopher was com- 



PERICLES 



675 



pelled to retire from Athens. From this great dating her empire over the islands of the 
and original thinker Pericles was believed to Aegaean. He strengthened the hold of Athens 
have derived not only the cast of his mind, but | in various districts by establishing the settle- 
the character of his eloquence, which, in the j ments of citizens called Cleruchies, in Euboea 
elevation of its sentiments and the purity and } and in Thracian Chersonese, and by planting 
loftiness of its style, was the fitting expression ( colonies at Arnphipolis, Sinope, and even in 
of the force and dignity of his character and i Italy at Thurii. The funds derived from the 
the grandeur of his conceptions. Of the oratory ! tribute of the allies and from other sources were 
of Pericles no specimens remain to us, but it is-> to a large extent devoted by him to the erection 
described by ancient writers as characterised ' of those magnificent temples and public build- 
by singular force and energy. He was described ings which rendered Athens the wonder and 
as thundering and lightning when he spoke, and admiration of Greece. Under his adminis- 
as carrying the weajions of Zeus upon his ■ tration the Propylaea, and the Parthenon, and 
tongue. (Aristoph. Ach. 503 ; Cic. do Or. iii. the Odeum were erected, as well as numerous 
34 ; Plut. Moral, p. 118 ; Quintil. x. 1, 82.) In | other temples and public buildings. With the 
B.C. 469, Pericles began to take part in public j stimulus afforded by these works architecture 
affairs, forty years before his death, and was soon i and sculpture reached their highest perfection, 
regarded as the head of the more democratical j and some of the greatest artists of antiquity 
party in the state, in opposition to Cimon ! were employed in erecting or adorning the 
(Aristot. 'Ad. tto\. 27). He gained the favour of i buildings. The chief direction of the public 
the people by the laws which he got passed for j edifices was entrusted to Phidias. [Phidias.] 
their benefit. It was at his instigation that his ; These works, calling into activity almost every 
friend Ephialtes proposed in 461 the measure | branch of industry and commerce at Athens, 
by which the Areopagus was deprived of those ■, diffused universal prosperity while they pro- 
functions which rendered it formidable as an ceeded, and thus contributed in this, as well as 
antagonist to the democratical party. This in other ways, to maintain the popularity and 
success was followed by the ostracism of Cimon, i influence of Pericles. But he still had many 
who was charged with Laconism; and Pericles , enemies, who were not slow to impute to him 
was thus placed at the head of public affairs at base and unworthy motives. From the comic 
Athens. His other chief democratic measures poets Pericles had to sustain numerous attacks, 
were the opening of the archonship to the They exaggerated his power, spoke of his party 
Zeugitae as well as to the wealthier classes, : us Pisistratids, and called upon him to swear 
and even to men below the Zeugitae, the pay- i that he was not about to assume the tyranny, 
mentof Dicasteries in order toattractall citizens ! His high character and strict probity, however, 
to take part in legal business, and a system of ' rendered all these attacks harmless. But as his 
state doles (analogous to those which were ! enemies were unable to ruin his reputation by 
pushed to an extreme in a later age at Rome) by i these means, they attacked him through hiB 
grants of money at festivals sufficient to provide I friends. Thus at the beginning of the Pelo- 
the poorer citizens with seats in the theatre and ponnesian war his friends Phidias and Anaxa- 
with food for the festal days. Pericles was dis- ! goras, and his mistress Aspasia, were all accused 
tinguished as a general as well as a statesman, | before the people. Phidias was condemned and 
and frequently commanded the Athenian ar- cast into prison [Phidias]; Anaxagoras was 
mies in their wars with the neighbouring states. ! also sentenced to pay a fine and quit Athens 
In 454 he commanded the Athenians in their [Anaxaoohas] ; and Aspasia was only acquitted 
campaigns against the Sicyonians and Acama- through the entreaties and tears of Pericles. 
nian8i_in 448 he led the army which assisted I Plut. Pericl. 24; Diod. xii. 3'J ; Athen. p. 589.) 
the Phocians in the Sacred war ; and in 445 he ! The Peloponnesian war has been falsely as- 
rendered the most signal service to the state by ( cribed to the ambitious schemes of Pericles, 
recovering the island of Euboea, which had ! It is true that he counselled the Athenians not 
revolted from Athens. Cimon had been pre- I to yield to the demands of the Lacedaemonians, 
viously recalled from exile, without any oppo- i and lie pointed out the immense advantages 
sition from Pericles, but had died in 440. On which the Athenians possessed in carrying on 
his death the aristocratical party was headed ' the war ; but he did this because he Baw that 
by Thucydides, the son of Melesias, but on the 1 war was inevitable, and that as long as Athens 
ostracism of the latter in 444, the organised retained the great power which she then 
opposition of the aristocratical party was broken possessed. Sparta would never rest contented, 
up, and Pericles was left without a rival. On the outbreak of the war in 431 a Pelopon- 
Tliroughout the remainder of his political course nesian army under Archidamus invaded Attica; 
no one appeared to contest his supremacy ; but and upon his advice the Athenians convoyed 
the boundless influence which he possessed was their moveable property into the city, aud their 
never perverted by him to sinister or unworthy cattle and beasts of burden to Euboea, and 
purposes. So far from being a mere selfish allowed the Peloponncsiaus to desolate Attica 
demagogue, he neither indulged nor courted the without opposition. Next year (430), when the 
multitude. The next important event in which i'eloponnesians again invaded Attica, PeVicles 
Pericles was engaged wan the war against pursued the same policy as before. In this 
Samoa, which had revolted from Athens, and Hummer tin- plague made its appearance in 
which he subdued after an arduous cnmp iisn, Athens. The Athenians, being exposed to the 
440. The poet Sophocles was one of the devastation of the war and the plague at the 
generals who fonght with Pericles against same time, began to turn their thoughts to 
Samoa. (Tliuc. i. 115-117; Diod. xii. 27.) For peace, and looked upon Pericles as the author 
the next ten yenrs (ill the outbreak of the of all Uieir distresses, inasmuch as he had per 
Peloponnesian war, the Athenians were not minded them to go to war. Pericles attempted 
engaged in any considerable military operations, to calm the public ferment; but such was the 
During this period Pericles devoted especial irritation against him that he was sentenced to 
attention to tho Athenian navy, as her strpre pay a fine. (Thuc. ii. 64 ; Plut. I.e.) The ill 
macy rested on her nmritime superiority. »nd -ling of the people having found this vent, 
lie adopted various judicious means lor oonsoli- Pericles soon resumed his accustomed sway, 

x x U 



676 PEBICLYMENTJS 



PEEPEENA 



and was again elected one of the generals for 
the ensuing year (429). Meantime Pericles 
had suffered in common with his fellow-citizens. 
The plague carried off most of his near con- 
nexions. His son Xanthippus, a profligate and 
undutiful youth, his sister, and most of his 
intimate friends died of it. Still he maintained 
unmoved his calm bearing and philosophic com- 
posure. At last his only surviving legitimate 
son, Paralus, a youth of greater promise than 
his brother, fell a victim. The firmness of 
Pericles then at last gave way ; as' he placed 
the funeral garland on the head of the lifeless 
youth he burst into tears and sobbed aloud. 
He had one son remaining, his child by Aspasia ; 
and he was allowed to enrol this son in his own 
tribe and give him his own name. In the 
autumn of 429 Pericles himself died of a linger- 
ing sickness. When at the point of death, as 
his friends were gathered round his bed, recall- 
ing his virtues and enumerating his triumphs, 
Pericles overhearing their remarks, said that 
they had forgotten his greatest praise : that no 
Athenian through his means had been made to 
put on mourning. He survived the commence- 
ment of the war two years and six months. 
(Thuc. ii. 65.) The name of the wife of Pericles is 
not mentioned. She had been the wife of Hip- 
ponicus, by whom she was the mother of Callias. 
She bore two sons to Pericles, Xanthippus and 
Paralus. She lived unhappily with Pericles, 
and a divorce took place by mutual consent, 
when Pericles connected himself with Aspasia. 
Of his strict probity he left the decisive proof 
in the fact that at his death he was found not 
to have added a single drachma to his heredi- 
tary property. The people by a revulsion of 
feeling showed their honour for his memory by 
a decree which legitimatised his son by Aspasia. 
— 2. Son of the preceding, by Aspasia, was one 
of the generals at the battle of Arginusae, and 
was put to death by the Athenians with the 
other generals, 406. — ~ 

Perlclymenus (n^piK^v/j-evos). 1. One of the 
Argonauts, was son of Neleus and Chloris, and 
brother of Nestor (Od. xi. 285). Poseidon gave 
him the power of changing himself into different 
forms, and conferred upon him great strength, 
but he was nevertheless slain by Heracles at 
the capture of Pylos. (Apollod. i. 9, 9 ; Ov. 
Met. xii. 556-576; Ap. Eh. i. 156.)— 2. Son of 
Poseidon and Cliloris, the daughter of Tiresias, 
of Thebes. In the war of the Seven against 
Thebes he was believed to have killed Parthe- 
nopaeus ; and when he pursued Amphiaraus, the 
latter by the command of Zeus was swallowed 
up by the earth. (Eur. Phoen. 1157 ; Paus. ix. 
18, 6 ; Amphiaraus.) 

Perieres (Tlepirtpris), son of Aeolus and 
Enarete, king of Messene, was the father of 
Aphareus and Leucippus by Gorgophone. In 
some traditions Perieres was called a son of 
Cynortas, and besides the sons above mentioned 
he is also the father of Tyndareos and Icarius. 
(Apollod. i. 7, 3, iii. 10, 3 ; Paus. iv. 2, 2.) 

Perilaus (XlepiXaos), son of Icarius, and 
brother of Penelope (Paus. viii. 34, 2). 

Perillus (TlepiWos), a statuary, was the maker 
of the bronze bull of the tyrant Phalaris, re- 
specting which see further under Phalaris. 
Like the makers of other instruments of death, 
Perillus is said to have become one of the vic- 
tims of his own handiwork. (Ov. A. A. i. 653.) 

Perinthn.3 (XlepivOos : XlspivBios : Eregli), an 
important town in Thrace on the Propontis, 
was founded by the Samians about B.C. 559 (Plut. 
Q. G. 56). It was situated twenty-two miles 



W. of Selymbria on a small peninsula, and was 
built on the slope of a hill with rows of houses 
rising above each other like seats in an amphi- 
theatre. It is celebrated for the obstinate 
resistance which it offered to Philip of Macedon, 
at which time it was a more powerful place than 
Byzantium. (Diod. xvi. 74 ; Plut. Phoc. 14 ; 
Procop. Aecl. iv. 9.) Under the Eomans it still 
continued to be a flourishing town, being the 
point at which most of the roads met leading to 
Byzantium. The commercial importance of 
the town is attested by the number of its coins 
which are still extant. At a later time, but not 
earlier than the fourth century of the Christian 
era, we find it called Meraclea, which occurs 
sometimes alone without any addition and some- 
times in the form of Heraclea Thraciae or 
Heraclea Perinthus. 

Perlphas (Tlepicpas), an Attic autochthon, pre- 
vious to the time of Cecrops, was a priest of 
Apollo, and on account of his virtues was made 
king of the country. In consequence of the 
honours paid to him, Zeus wished to destroy 
him, but at the request of Apollo he was 
changed by Zeus into an eagle, and his wife 
into a bird. (Ant. Lib. 6 ; Ov. Met. vii. 400.) 

Periphetes (nepKpTjrrjs), son of Hephaestus 
and Anticlea, surnamed Corynetes — that is, 
Club-bearer — was a robber at Epidaurus, who 
slew travellers with an iron club. Theseus at 
last killed him and took his club for his own 
use. [Theseus.] 

PermeSBUS (Ylep/i-qcra-Ss : Kefalari), a river in 
Boeotia, which descends from Mt. Helicon, 
unites with the Olmius, and falls into the lake 
Copais near Haliartus (Strab. pp. 407, 411). 

Perne (Xlipvt)), a little island off the coast of 
Ionia, opposite to the territory of Miletus, to 
which an earthquake united it(Plin. ii. 204). 

Pero (Irrjpcu), daughter of Neleus and Chloris, 
was married to Bias, and celebrated for her 
beauty (Od. xi. 286; Paus. x. 31, 9). 

Perorsi (llepoparoi), a people on the coast of 
Africa, opposite the Ins. Fortunatae (Ptol. iv. 6, 
16). 

Perperena (nepxepVa, and other forms), a 
small town of Mysia, S. of Adramyttium, near 
which were copper-mines and celebrated vine- 
yards. Said to be the place at which Thu- 
cydides died. (Strab. p. 607 ; Plin. v. 122.) 

Perperna or Perpenna. 1. M., praetor B.C. 
135, when he carried on war against the slaves 
in Sicily ; and consul 130, when he defeated 
Aristonicus in Asia, and took him prisoner. 
He died near Pergamum on his return to Eome 
in 129. (Liv. Ep. 59 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 4 ; Just, 
xxxvi. 4.) — 2. M., son of the last, consul 92, 
and censor 86. He is mentioned by ancient 
writers as an instance of longevity. He attained 
the age of 98 years, and died in 49, the year in 
which the Civil war broke out between Caesar 
and Pompey. (Val. Blax. viii. 13 ; Dio Cass, 
xli. 14 : Plin. vii. 156.) He took no prominent 
part in the agitated times in which he lived. — 
3. M. Perperna Vento, son of the last, joined 
the Marian party in the Civil war, and was 
raised to the praetorship. After the conquest 
of Italy by Sulla, in 82, Perperna fled to Sicily, 
which he quitted, however, upon the arrival of 
Pompey shortly afterwards. On the death of 
Sulla, in 78, Perperna joined the consul M. 
Lepidus in his attempt to overthrow the new 
aristocratical constitution, and retired with him 
to Sardinia on the failure of this attempt. 
Lepidus died in Sardinia in the following year, 
77, and Perperna with the remains of his army 
crossed over to Spain and joined Sertorius 



PERRHAEBI 



PERSEPHONE 



677 



Perperna was jealous of the ascendency of : when the city was taken by Aratus, B.C. 248. 
Sertorius, and after serving under him some 1 (Paus. ii. 3, 4, vii. 8, 3 ; Athen. pp. 162, 607.) 
years he and his friends assassinated Sertorius J Perse (nepcrrj), daughter of Oceanus, and wife 
at a banquet in 72. His death brought the war , of Helios (the Sun), by whom she became the 
to a close. Perperna was defeated by Pompey, I mother of Aeetes and Circe (Od. ix. 139; 
taken prisoner, and put to death. (App. B. C. ' Hes. Th. 356, 956). Also called the mother 
i. 107-115 ; Plut. Pomp. 10, 20, Sert. 15-27.) j of Pasiphae and Perses (Apollod. i. 9, 1). 

Perrhaebi (neppai/3oi or nepai/3oi), a powerful 1 Perseis. [Hecate.] 
and warlike people, who from prehistoric times j Persephone (nepaecpovri), called Proserpina 
occupied a part of Thessaly. According to by the Romans, the daughter of Zeus and 
Strabo they had been driven to the more j Demeter. In Homer she is called Persephonia 
mountainous north of Thessaly from the south <nepcre<p6veia) ; the form Persephone first 
by the Lapithae 1 Strab. pp. 61, 439, 440) ; occurs in Hesiod. But besides these forms of 
migrated from Euboea to the mainland, and j the name, we also find Persephassa, Pherse- 
6ettled in the districts of Hestiaeotis and. ■ phassa, Persepliatta, Phersephatta, Pherre- 
Pelasgiotis. Hence the northern part of this , phassa, Pherephatta, and Phersephonia. The 
country is frequently called Perrhaebia (Ilep- Latin Proserpina is probably only a corruption 
pai/3ia, Ilepai/Si'a), though it never formed one of the Greek, for which later etymologists 
of the regular Ihessalian provinces. (Thuc. iv. sought an explanation in the word proserpo, 
78 ; Liv. xxxi. 43.) Homer places the Perrhaebi signifying the germination of the seed (August, 
in the neighbourhood of the Thessalian Dodona C. D. iv. 8, vii. 20 ; Arnob. iii. 33). The name 
and the river Titaresius (II. ii. 749); and at a Kore (Kop-q, Ion. KoiipTj), that is, the Daughter, 
later time the name of Perrhaebia was applied namely, of Demeter, was adopted in Attica 
to the district bounded by Macedonia and the when the Eleusinian mysteries were introduced, 
Cambunian mountains on the N., by Pindus on I and the two were frequently called The Mother 
the W., by the Peneus on the S. and SE., and I and the Daughter (f] Mrfrrjp Kal t] Koprj). 
by the Peneus and Ossa on the E. The Per- Homer describes her as the wife of Hades, and 
vhaebi were members of the Amphictyonic the dread and terrible queen of the Shades. 
League. At an early period they were subdued who rules over the souls of the dead, along with 
by the Lapithae ; at the time of the Pelopon- her husband (II. ix. 457, 565 ; Od. x. 494, xi. 
nesian war they were subject to the Thessalians, 634). Her epithets in the Hiad are iiraiini 
and subsequently to Philip of Macedon; but at (which is best explained as meaning ' awful '), 
the time of the Roman wars in Greece they and in the Odyssey iiraivri and ayav-q (by which 
appear independent of Macedonia. the same idea is intended), and once ayvq. 

Perrhidae iYleppibai), an Attic demus near Hence she is called by later writers Juno In- 
Aphidna, belonging to the tribe Antiochis. ferna, Averna, and Stygia : and the Erinnyesare 




J'cr&cphone, enthroned. 'Gcrhurd, A rchiioloy. ZtlU tuv. U*J 



Persabora or Perisabora (ritpaa&wpa : , said to have been her daughters by Pluto. In 
Anbar), a fortified city of Babylonia, on the \V. ! this account Homer probably follows the older 
side of the Euphrates, where the canal called conception of the goddess, whoso very name is 
Blaarsares left the river (Zob. iii. 17). I by some writers connected with death. There is 

Persae. [Pkbsis.] no trace in the Homeric poems of her being 

Persae..S (rifprraioj), a Stoic philosopher, regarded as the daughter of Demeter ; stilllesB 
was a native of Cittium in Crete, and a disciple of her being in any sense a beneficent deity, 
of Zeno. He lived for some years at the court Homer speaks of her us the daughter of Zeus 
of Antigonus Gonatas, witli whom he was in (Od. xi. 217), and it is possible that he regarded 
high favour. Antigonus appointed him to the ! her as the daughter of Zeus and Styx, um some 
chief command in Corinth, where he was slain traditions did (Apollod. i. 3, 1). Her grim 



678 



PERSEPOLIS 



PERSEUS 



character appears also in the ancient Arcadian 
worship, where she was called Aeairoiva, and 
was described as the daughter of Demeter 
Erinys and Poseidon (Paus. viii. 37). Her 
abode, the realm of the dead, is described in 
the Iliad as beneath the earth ; in the Odyssey 
the entrance to it seems to be placed at the 
western extremity of the earth, on the frontiers 
of the lower world. The story of her being 
carried off by Hades or Pluto against her will 
is not mentioned by Homer, unless those are 
right who believe that the Homeric epithet 
k\vt6tt(i>\os, applied to Hades, has this refer- 
ence (II. v. 654 ; Schol. ad toe). The earliest 
definite mention of it is in Hesiod (Th. 912). The 
manner in which she was carried off while she 
was gathering flowers (traditionally the narcissus 
as the flower of death: see p. 586, b), the scene 
of this event, the wanderings of her mother in 
search of her, and the worship of the two god- 
desses in Attica at the festival of the'Eleusinia, 
are related under Demeter. In the mystical 
theories of the Orphics, Persephone is described 
as the all-pervading goddess of nature, who 
both produces and destroys everything ; and 
she is therefore connected, or identified with, 
other mystic divinities, such as Isis, Rhea, 
Ge, Hestia, Pandora, Artemis, Hecate. This 
mystic Persephone is further said to have be- 
come by Zeus the mother of Dionysus, Iacchus, 
Zagreus or Sabazius. (Schol. ad Aristoph. 
Ban. 326 ; Nonn. Dionys. xxxi. 67 ; Cic. N. D. 
iii. 23, 58; Diod. iv. 4). The Romans adopted 
the legends of Persephone, whom they called 
Proserpina [see above], but compared her with 
their own deity Libera [see p. 488, a]. The 
myth of Persephone, as fully developed in the 
Hymn to Demeter, and in later poems, ex- 
pressed the renewal of vegetation in spring, 
especially of the corn, after it has been buried 
underground in the winter, and this again in 
the mysteries vas probably carried further so 
as to symbolise a future life [see more fully on 
pp. 277, b ; 375, b]. It was natural, therefore, 
that the festivals of the goddess sliould be in 
the autumn seed-time, at the Greater Eleusinia, 
and in the spring at the Anfhespkoria and at 
the Lesser Eleusinia [see Diet, of , Ant. s.vv.]. 
The death of the vegetation was symbolised by 
the marriage of Persephone, or Kore, with 
Hades or Pluto, a marriage which preserved in 
its story the old form of marriage by capture. 
Persephone is often represented enthroned with 
Hades [see cuts on pp. 375, 376] ; often she is 
distinguished by a diadem or a calathus on her 
head : often she has a torch or crossed torches 
in her hand ; her symbols are also a cornucopia, 
ears of corn, the pomegranate, or a cock (proba- 
bly as the herald of the dawn, i.e. of a new life). 

Persepolis (TlepaeiroMs, UepiratTroKis : in the 
middle ages, IstaJchar : now T alihti-Jernshid, 
i.e. Throne of Jemshid, is the Greek name of 
the great city which succeeded Pasargada as 
the capital of Persis and of the Persian empire 
(Strab. p. 729 ; Diod. xvii. 70 ; Curt. v. 4, 6 ; 
Ptol. vi. 4, 4). It is not mentioned by the 
earlier Greek historians who wrote before the 
Macedonian conquest. Neither Herodotus, 
Xenophon, nor Ctesias speaks of Persepolis, 
though they mention Babylon, Susa, and Ecba- 
tana, as the capitals of the empire. The most 
probable explanation of this silence is that 
ambassadors or refugees from foreign states 
were received by the Great King either at his 
winter quarters in Susa, or at his summer 
residence in Ecbatana ; and that he came to 
Pi-rsepolis, a temperate region, in spring, partly 



j for religious ceremonies and partly to receive 
tribute and offerings of first-fruits, and to con- 
; sider the reports of his chief officials. Its 
foundation is sometimes ascribed to Cyrus the 
Great, but more generally to his son Cambyses. 
I On the great platform stood the vast range of 
! palaces and halls, in which the kings received 
their officers and deputations in state, and 
i sacrificed at the fire-altars. Here were stored 
the treasures accumulated from long years of 
tribute which Alexander found, and also the 
Avesta, which Darius is said to have placed 
there written in gold letters on 12,000 ox-hidas. 
Over the plain below the palace-platform jbx- 
tended the city itself, occupied by traders and 
artisans. Persepolis was also a royal burial- 
place. It was greatly enlarged and adorned by 
Darius I. and Xerxes, and preserved its splen- 
dour till after the Macedonian conquest, when 
it was burnt; Alexander, as the story goes, 
setting fire to the palace with his own hand, at 
| the end of a revel, at the instigation of the 
i courtesan Thai's, B.C. 331. It was situated in 
| the heart of Persis, in the part called Hollow 
Persis (koi'At) IIep<ris),notfar from the border of 
the Carmanian Desert, in a beautiful and healthy 
valley, watered by the river Araxes (Bend- 
Emir), and its tributaries the Medus and the 
Cyrus. Its wealth and importance were nearly, 
though not entirely, destroyed by Alexander's 
: occupation ; but it was plundered again by 
i Antiochus, 164 B.C., and in later times under 
. the name of Istakhar was for some centuries 
j the residence of a Parthian viceroy. Its ruins 
are in the highest degree striking and full of 
1 interest, and are important for the history of 
ancient Persian art. The numerous sculptured 
figures represent the kings of Persia, but do 
not, like the sculptures of Egypt and Assyria, 
describe historical events. An examination of 
the ruins has shown that the citadel with a 
triple wall, which Diodorus mentions, had no 
real existence. 

Perses (nepoT/s). 1. Son of the Titan Crius 
and Eurybia, and husband of Asteria, by whom 
he became the father of Hecate (Hes. 2'h. 409 ; 
Apollod. i. 2, 2). — 2. Son of Perseus and 
Andromeda, described by the Greeks as the 
founder of the Persian nation (Hdt. vii. 61 ; 
Apollod. ii. 4, 5).— 3. Son of Helios (the Sun) 
and Perse, and brother of Aeetes and Circe 
(Apollod. ii. 4, 5). 

Perseus (riep<reus), the famous Argive hero 
(perhaps, as some think, originally a deity of 
light or of the sun), was a son of Zeus and 
Danae, and a grandson of Acrisius (II. xiv. 
320). An oracle had told Acrisius that he was 
doomed to perish by the hands of Dana'e's son ; 
and he therefore shut up his daughter in 
an apartment made of brass or stone. But 
Zeus having changed himself into a shower 
of gold, came down through the 1 roof of the 
prison, and became by her the father of Per- 
seus. Prom this tradition, which is commonly 
held to signify the rays of the sun streaming 
into a chamber, Perseus is sometimes called 1 
axtrigena (Soph. Ant. 944 ; Lycophr. 838 ; Ov~ 
Met. v. 250; Hor. Od. iii. 16). As soon as 
Acrisius discovered that Danae had given birth 
to a son, he put both mother and son into a 
chest, and threw them into the sea (Simonid. 
Fr. 7) ; but Zeus caused the chest to land in 
the island of Seriphos, one of the Cyclades, 
where Dictys, a fisherman, found them, and 
carried them to Polydectes, the king of the 
t country. They were treated with kindness; 
I but Polydectes having afterwards fallen tnlova 



PEKSEUS 



679 



with Danae, and wishing to get rid of Perseus, 
who had meantime grown up to manhood, sent 
him away to fetch the head of Medusa, one of 
the Gorgons. Guided by Hermes and Athene, 
Perseus first went to the Graeae, the sisters ot 
the Gorgons, took from them their one tooth 
and their one eye [see p. 371, b] and would not 
restore them until they showed him the way to 
the nymphs who possessed the winged sandals, 
the magic wallet, and the helmet of Hades, 
which rendered the wearer invisible. Having 
received from the Nymphs these gifts, from 
Hermes a sickle, and from Athene a mirror, he 
mounted into the air, and came to the Gorgons, 
who dwelt near Tartessus on the coast of the 
Ocean. [Gobgones.] He found them asleep, 
and cut off the head of Medusa, looking at her 
reflection in the mirror, for a sight of the 
monster herself would have changed him into 
stone. Perseus put her head into the wallet 
which he carried on his back, and as he went 
away he was pursued by the other Gorgons ; 
but his helmet, which rendered him invisible, 
enabled him to escape in safety. (Hes. Scut. 
220-230 ; Eur. El. 460 ; Hyg. Aslr. ii. 12 ; Paus. 
v. 18. 1.) Perseus then proceeded to Aethiopia, 
where he saved and married Andromeda. 
[Andromeda.] Perseus is also said to have 
come to the Hyperboreans, by whom he was 
hospitably received, and to Atlas, whom he 
changed by means of the Gorgon's head into 
the mountain of the same name. On his re- 
turn to Seriphos, he found his mother with 
Dictye in a temple, whither they had fled from 
the violence of Polydectes. Perseus then 
went to the palace of Polydectes, and changed 
him and all his guests into stone. (Pmd.Pyth. 
xii. 10 ; Strab. p. 487.) Dictys was made king. 
Perseus gave the winged sandals and the hel- 
met to Hermes, who restored them to the 
nymphs and to Hades, and the head of Gorgon 




Persons and M ■ 

(From a Torra-cotta In thu British Msboum.) 



to Athene, who placed it in the middle of her 
shield or breastplate. He then went to Argos, 
accompanied by Danae and Andromeda. Acri- 
sius, remembering thu oracle, escaped to 
LoriBBa, in the country of the Pelasgians ; but 
Perseus followed him in order to persuade him 
to return. Some writers state that Perseus, on 
his return to Argos, found Proetus, who hud 
nxpelled his brother Acrisius, in possession of 
the kingdom ; and that Perseus slew Proetus, 
and was afterwards killed by MegiipenthcH, the 
son of Proetus (Ov. Met. v. 23<i ; Hyg. Fab. 
244). The more common tradition, however, 
relates that when Teutaniidus, king of Larissa, 



celebrated games in honour of his guest 
Acrisius, Perseus, who took part in them, acci- 
dentally hit the foot of Acrisius with the 
discus, and thus killed him (Paus. ii. 16, 2). 
Acrisius was buried outside the city of Larissa, 
and Perseus, leaving the kingdom of Argos to 
Megapenthes, the son of Proetus, received 
from him in exchange the government of 
Tiryns. According to another account, Per- 
seus remained in Argos, and successfully op- 
posed the introduction of the Bacchic orgies 
(Paus. ii. 20, 4). An Italian tradition made the 
chest with Danae and her son float to the coast of 
Italy, where king Pilunmus married Danae and 
founded Ardea (Verg. Aen. vii. 410 ; Serv. ad Aen. 
vii. 372, viii. 84oj. Perseus is said to have founded 
the towns of Midea and Mycenae. By Andro- 
meda he became the father of Perses, Alcaeus, 
Sthenelus, Heleus, Mestor, Electryon, Gorgo- 
phone, and Autochthe. Perseus was worshipped 
as a hero in several places. Herodotus speaks 
of a temple and statue of Perseus at Chemmis 
in Egypt (ii. 91). 

Perseus or Perses (nepo-euj), the last king of 
Macedonia, was the eldest son of Philip V., and 
reigned eleven years, from B.C. 178 to 168. 
Before his accession he persuaded his father to 
put to death his younger brother Demetrius, 
whom he suspected that the Roman senate in- 
tended to set up as a competitor for the throne 
on the death of Philip. Immediately after his 
accession he began to make preparations for 
war with the Romans, which he knew to be 
inevitable, though seven years elapsed before 
actual hostilities commenced. The war broke 
out in 171. The first year of the war was 
marked by no striking action. The consul P. 
Licinius Crassus first suffered a defeat in Thes- 
saly in an engagement between the cavalry of 
the two armies, but subsequently gained a 
slight advantage over* the king's troops. — The 
second year of the war (170), in which the con- 
sul A. Hostilius Manciniis commanded, also 
passed over without any important battle, but 
was on the whole favourable to Perseus.— The 
third year (109), in which the consul Q. Mar- 
cius Philippus commanded, again produced no 
important results. The length to which the 
\ war had been unexpectedly protracted, and the 
ill success of the Roman arms, had by this 
time excited a general feeling in favour of the 
Macedonian monarch; but the ill-timed awarice 
of Perseus, who refused to advance the sum of 
money which Eumenes, king of Pergamus, 
demanded, deprived him of this valuable ally ; 
and the same unseasonable niggardliness like- 
wise deprived him of the services of 20,000 
Gaulish mercenaries, who had actually ad- 
vanced into Macedonia to his support, hut 
retired on failing to obtain their stipulated pay. 
He was thus obliged to carry on the contest 
against Rome single-handed. — The fourth year 
of the war (1H8) was also the lust. The new 
consul, L. Aemilius Paulus, defuuted Perseus 
with great loss in a decisive battle fought near 
Pydna on June 22, 108. Perseus took refuge 
in the island of Samothrace, where he shortly 
j afterwards surrendered with his children to 
i the praetor Cn. Octavius. When brought be- 
fore Aemilius, he is said to have degraded 
himBelf by the most abject supplications: bub 
j he was treated with kindness by the Roman 
I general. The following year he was carried to 
Italy, where he was compelled to adorn the 
splendid triumph of his conqueror (Nov. 30, 
' 107), and afterwar la cast into a dungeon, from 
i whence, however, the intercession of Aemilius 



G80 



PERSIA 



PERSIS 



procured his release, and he was permitted to 
end his days in an honourable captivity at Alba. 
He survived his removal thither a few years, 
and died, according to some accounts, by volun- 
tary starvation, while others — fortunately with 
less probability — represent him as falling a 
victim to the cruelty of his guards, who de- 
prived him of sleep. Perseus had been twice 
married : the name of his first wife, whom he 
is said to have killed with his own hand in a fit 
of passion, is not recorded ; his second, Lao- 
dice, was the daughter of Seleucus IV. Philo- 




Perseus, King of Macedonia. 
Obv., head of Perseus; rev., baziaeqs nEPSEQS; eagle on 
thunderbolt, surrounded by oak-wreath. 



pator. He left two children : a son, Alexander, 
and a daughter, both apparently by his second 
marriage, as they were mere children when 
carried to Rome. Besides these, he had 
adopted his younger brother Philip, who was 
regarded by him as the heir to his throne, 
and became the partner of his captivity. (Liv. 
xl.-xliv. ; Pol. xxiv., xxvk, xxvii., xxix.) 
Persia. [Persis.] 

Persici Montes. [Parsict Montes.] 

Perslcus Sinus, Persic um Mare (6 Tlep<riKbs 
ko^ttos, i) XlepaiKT) daAaacra, and other forms : 
the Persian Crulf), is the name given by the 
latar geographers to the great gulf of the 
Mare Erythraeum [Indian Ocean), extending 
in a SE. direction from the mouths of the 
Tigris, between the NE. coast of Arabia and 
the opposite coast of Susiana, Persis, and Car- 
mania, to the narrow strait formed by the 
long tongue of land which projects from the 
N. side of Oman in Arabia, by which strait it 
is connected with the open gulf of the Indian 
Ocean called Paragon Sinus (Gulf of Oman). 
The earlier Greek writers know nothing of it. 
Herodotus does not distinguish it from the 
Erythraean Sea. The voyage of Alexander's 
admiral Nearchus from the Indus to the Tigris 
made it better known, but still the ancient 
geographers in general give inaccurate state- 
ments of its form. (Strab. pp. 78, 727, 765; 
Ptol. vi. 3, 1, vi. 19, 1 ; Plin. vi. 41 ; Mel. iii. 8.) 

Pei'Sldes (nepo"<=i'5T)s, nepenjiaSrjs), a patrony- 
mic given to the descendants of Perses. 

Persis, and very rarely Persia (r) Xl4p<ris, 
and 7] TlepffiK-i), sc. 77), the fern, adjectives, the 
masc. being ntpaticSs, from the ethnic noun 
nepcTis, pi. Tlepcrcu, fern. Tlepais, Latin Persa 
and Perses, pi. Persae, Persia), originally a 
small mountainous district of W. Asia, lying 
on the NE. side of the Persian Gulf, and sur- 
rounded on the other sides by mountains and 
deserts. On the NW. and N. it was separated 
from Susiana, Media and Parthia by the little 
river Oroatis, or Orosis, and by M. Parachoa- 
thras ; and on the E. from Carmania by no 
definite boundaries in the Desert. The only 
level part of the country was the strip of sea- 
coast called Persis Paralia : the rest was 
intersected with branches of M. Parachoathras, 
the valleys between which were watered by 
several rivers, the chief of which were the 



Abaxes, Cyprus, and Medus : in this part ot 
the country, which was called Koile Persis, 
stood the capital cities Pasakgada and Perse- 
polis. The country lias a remarkable variety 
of climate and of products : the N. moun- 
tainous regions being comparatively cold, but 
with good pastures, especially for camels ; the 
middle slopes having a temperate climate and 
producing abundance of fruit and wine ; and 
the S. strip of coast being intensely hot and 
sandy, with little vegetation except the palm- 
tree (Strab. p. 727 ; Arrian, Incl. 39 ; Plin. vi. 
115). The inhabitants were a collection of 
nomad peoples of the Indo-European stock, who 
called themselves by a name which is given-in 
Greek as Artaei (Hdt. vii. 61) and which, like the 
kindred Median name of Arii ("Apioi), signifies 
noble or honourable, and is applied especially 
to the true worshippers of Ormuzd and fol- 
lowers of Zoroaster : it was, in fact, rather a 
title of honour than a proper name ; the true 
collective name of the people seems to have 
been Paraca. According to Herodotus, they 
were divided into three classes or castes : first, 
the nobles or warriors, containing the three 
tribes of the Pasamgadae, who were the most 
noble, and to whom the royal family of the 
Achaemenidae belonged, the Maraphii and the 
Maspii ; secondly, the agricultural and other 
settled tribes — namely, the Panthialaei, Deru- 
siaei, and Germanii ; thirdly, the tribes which 
remained nomadic — namely, the Daae, Mardi, 
Dropici, and Sagartii, names common to other 
parts of W. and Central Asia. The Persians 
had a close ethnical affinity to the Medes, and 
followed the same customs and religion [Magi ; 
ZoroasterJ. The simple and warlike habits 
which they cultivated in their native moun- 
tains, preserved them from the corrupting 
influences which enervated their Median 
brethren ; so that from being, as we find them 
at the beginning of their recorded history, the 
subject member of the Medo-Persian kingdom, 
they obtained the supremacy under Cyrus, the 
founder of the great Persian Empire, B.C. 559. 
An account of the revolution by which the 
supremacy was transferred from the Medes to 
the Persians is given under Cyrus. At this 
time there existed in W. Asia two other great 
kingdoms : the Lydian, which comprised nearly 
the whole of Asia Minor, W. of the river Halys, 
which separated it from the Medo-Persian 
territories ; and the Babylonian, which, besides 
the Tigris and Euphrates valley, embraced 
Syria and Palestine. By the successive con- 
quest of these kingdoms, the dominions of 
Cyrus were extended 011 the W. as far as the 
coast of the Euxine, the Aegaean, and the 
Mediterranean, and to the frontier of Egypt. 
Turning his arms in the opposite direction, he 
subdued Bactria, and effected some conquests 
beyond the Oxus, but fell in battle with the 
Massagetae. [Cyrus.] His son Cambyses 
added Egypt to the empire. [Cambyses.] 
Upon his death the Magian priesthood made 
an effort to restore the supremacy to the Medes 
[Magi ; Smerdis], which was defeated by the 
conspiracy of the seven Persian chieftains, 
whose success conferred the crown upon 
Darius, the son of Hystaspes. This king was 
at first occupied with crushing rebellions in 
every part of the empire, and with the two 
expeditions against Scythia and Cyrenai'ca, of 
which the former entirely failed, and the latter 
was only partially successful. He conquered 
Thrace ; and on the E. he added the valley of 
the Indus to the kingdom ; but in this quarter 



PEESIUS 



PERUSIA 



681 



the power of Persia seems never to have been 
much more than nominal. The Persian em- 
pire had now reached its greatest extent, from 
Thrace and Cyrenaica on the W. to the Indus 
on the E., and from the Euxine, the Caucasus 
(or rather a little below it), the Caspian, and 
the Oxus and Jaxartes on the M . to Aethiopia, | 
Arabia, and the Erythraean Sea on the S., and 
it embraced, in Europe, Thrace and some of ; 
the Greek cities N. of the Euxiue ; in Africa, ! 
Egypt and Cyrenaica ; in Asia, on the W., 
Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria, the several districts 
of Asia Minor, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, 
Babylonia, Susiana, Atropatene, Great Media ; 
on the N., Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactriana, and 
Sogdiana ; on the E., the Paropamisus, Ara- 
chosia, and India (i.e. part of the Punjab and 
Scinde) ; on the S., Persis, Carmania and Ged- 
rosia ; and in the centre of the E. part, Par- 
thia, Aria, and Drangiana. The capital cities 
of the empire were Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana 
in Media, and — though these were seldom, if 
ever, used as residences — Pasargada and Per- 
sepolis in Persis. (See the several articles.) 
Of this vast empire Darius undertook the 
organisation, and divided it into twenty satra- 
pies, of which a full account is given by Hero- 
dotus. For the other details of his reign, and 
especially the commencement of the wars with 
Greece, see Darius. Of the remaining period 
of the ancient Persian history, till the Mace- 
donian conquest, a sufficient abstract will be 
found under the names of the several kings, a 
list of whom is now subjoined : — (lj Cyrus, 
B.C. 559-529: (2) Camevses, 529-522 : (3) Usur- 
pation of the pseudo-SMEKDis, seven months, 
522-521 : (4) Darius I . son of Hystaspes, 521- 
486 : (5) Xerxes I., 485-465 : (6) Usurpation of 
Artabanus, seven months, 465-404 : (7| Arta- 
xerxes I. Losgimanus, 464-425 : (8) Xerxes 
II., two months: (9; Sogdianus, seven months, 
425-424: (10) Ochus, or DaBIUS II. Nothus, j 
424-405 : (11) Artaxerxes II. Mnemon, 405 
359 : (12) Ochus, or Artaxerxes III., 359-338 : 
(13) Arses, 338-336: (14) Darius III. Codo- 
mannus, 336-331 [Alexander]. Here the 
ancient history of Persia ends, as a kingdom ; 
but, as a people, the Persians proper, under 
the influence especially of their religion, pre- 
served their existence, and at length regained i 
their independence on the downfall of the 
Parthian Empire [Sassanidae]. — In reading 
the Roman poets it must be remembered that 
they constantly use Persac; as well as Medi, 
as a general term for the peoples E. of the 
Euphrates and Tigris, and especially for the 
Parthians. 

A. Persius Flaccus, the poet, was a Roman 
knight connected by blood and marriage witli 
persons of the highest rank, and was born at 
Volaterrae in Etruria on the 4th of December, 
a.d. 34. The particulars of his life are derived 
from the Vita A. Persii Flacci by Valerius 
Probus, probably prefixed to his edition of 
Persius. There is no ground for the statement 
sometimes made that the Life was by Suetonius. 
He received the first rudiments of education in 
his native town, remaining there until the age 
of 12, and then removed to Rome, where lie 
studied grammar under the celebrated Remmius 
Paloemon, and rhetoric under Verginius Fla- 
vins. He was afterwards the pupil of Cornutus 
the Stoic, who became the guide, philosopher 
and friend of his future life. While yet a youtli 
he was on familiar terms with Lnoan, with 
Caesius Bassua the lyric poet, and with other 
men of literary eminence (V it. Vers. ; (Juint. x. 



1, 9 ; Mart. iv. 29, 7). He was tenderly beloved 
by the high-minded Paetus Thrasea, and seems 
to have been well worthy of such affection. He 
died on the 24th of November, a.d. 62, before 
he had completed his 28th year. [Vita Persii, 
ascribed to Probus.) The extant works of 
Persius, who, we are told, wrote seldom and 
slowly, consist of six short Satires, extending in 
all to 650 hexameter lines, and were left in an 
unfinished state. They were slightly corrected 
after his death by Cornutus, while Caesius 
Bassus was permitted, at his own earnest re- 
quest, to be the editor. In boyhood Persius had 
written some other poems, which were destroyed 
by the advice of Cornutus. Few productions 
have ever enjoyed more popularity than the 
Satires, especially in the middle ages ; but it 
would seem that Persius owes not a little of his 
fame to a cause which naturally might have 
produced an effect directly the reverse — to the 
multitude of strange terms, proverbial phrases, 
far-fetched metaphors, and abrupt transitions 
which everywhere embarrass cur progi-ess. The 
difficulty experienced in removing these impedi- 
ments necessarily impresses both the words and 
the ideas upon everyone who has carefully 
studied his pages, and hence no author clings 
more closely to the memory. In judging of the 
ability of Persius it must be recollected that 
the writings which he has left are what would 
have been regarded as the poems of his imma- 
turity if his life had been of an average length. 
He is an imitator of Horace, whose influence 
appears throughout the six Satires, and it is an 
imitation marked by stiffness, with none of the 
grace and ease of the original. But there are 
signs of power in the arrangement of his sub- 
ject, and in the success with which he some- 
times concentrates a number of thoughts in a 
few telling words. Here and there are short 
passages of real force and merit : for instance, 
a promise of really powerful poetry seems to be 
given by the single line — 
' Virtutem vidcant intabescantque relicta.' (iii. 38.) 

The best editions are by O. Jahn, 1844 ; Coning- 
ton and Nettleship, 1874 and 1893. 

Pertinax, Helvius, Roman emperor from 
January 1st to March 28th, a. d. 193, was of 
humble origin, born at Alba Pompeia, in Ligu- 
ria, at first a schoolmaster, afterwards, through 
the interest of his father's friend Lollius Avitus, 
obtained the post of centurion, and, having dis- 
tinguished himself in the Parthian wars, in 
Britain and in Moesia, rose to the highest mili- 
tary and civil commands in the reigns of M. 
Aurelius and Commodus. On the murder of 
Commodus on the last day of December, 192, 
Pertinax, who was then sixty-six years of age, was 
reluctantly persuaded to accept the empire. He 
commenced his reign by introducing extensive 
reforms into the civil and military administra- 
tion of the empire; but the troops, who had 
been accustomed both to ease and licence under 
Commodus, were disgusted with the discipline 
which he attempted to enforce upon them, and 
murdered their new sovereign after a reign of 
two months and twenty-seven days. (Capitol. 
Pertinax; Dio Cass. Ixxi. 3-lxxiii. 10.) On his 
death the praetorian troops put up the empire 
to sale, which was purchased by M. Didius Sal- 
vius Juliunus. [See p. 280, a.] 

Ferusia (Perusinus : Perugia), an ancient 
city in the E. part of Etruria between the lake 
Trasimenus and the Tiber, and one of the twelve 
cities of the Etruscan confederacy. There is 
no improbability in the statement of Servius 



682 



PESCENNIUS 



PETRA 



that it was an Umbrian city which fell into the 
hands of the Etruscans (Serv. ad Aen. x. 201). 
It was situated on a hill, and was strongly 
fortified by nature and by art. In conjunction 
with the other cities of Etruria, it long resisted 
the power of the Romans, and at a later period 
it was made a Roman colony (Liv. ix. 37, x. 30, 
xxiii. 17). It is memorable in the civil wars as 
the place in which L. Antonius. the brother of 
the triumvir took refuge, when he was no longer 
able to oppose Octavianus in the field, and where 
he was kept closely blockaded by Octavianus 
for some months, from the end of B. c. 41 to the 
spring of 40. Famine compelled it to surren- 
der ; but one of its citizens having set fire to his 
own house, the flames spread, and the whole 
city was burnt to the ground. The war between 
L. Antonius and Octavianus is known, from the 
long siege of this town, by the name of the 
Bellum Perusinum. (App. B. G. v. 32-49; 
Dio Cass, xlviii. 14 ; Lucan, i. 41 ; Propert. i. 
22, 3.) It was rebuilt and colonised anew by 
Augustus, from whom it received the surname 
of Augusta. In the later time of the empire it 
was the most important city in all Etruria, and ! 
long resisted the Goths. (Dio Cass. I.e. ; Strab. 1 
p. 226 ; Procop. B. G. i. 16, iv. 33.) Part of the 
walls and some of the gates of Perusia still re- 
main. The best preserved of the gates is now 
called Arco d" Augusta, from the inscription 
Avgvsta Pebvsia over the arch : the whole 
structure is at least sixty or seventy feet high. 
Several interesting tombs with valuable re- 
mains of Etruscan art have been discovered in 
the neighbourhood of the city. 

Pescennius Niger. [Nigeb.] 

Pessmus or Pesurus {Xlecawovs, Uccrivovs : 
TleffaivovvTtos, fem. Tleffaivovvris : Bala Hissar, 
twelve miles SSE. of Sivri Hissar), a city of 
Asia Minor, in the SW. corner of Galatia, on the 
S. slope of M. Dindymus, was celebrated as a 
chief seat of the worship of Cybele, under the 
surname of Agdistis, whose temple, crowded 
with riches, stood on a hill outside the city 
(Paus. i. 4, 5 ; Strab. p. 567). In this temple 
was a wooden (Livy says, stone) image of the 
goddess, which was removed to Rome, to satisfy 
an oracle in the Sibylline books (Liv. xxix. 10). 
The worship of the goddess was still continued 
by the priestly order called Galli, who were 
rulers of the state (Liv. xxxviii. 18 ; Pol. xx. 4). 
Under Constantine the city was made the capital 
of the province of Galatia Salutaris, but it 
declined, as its neighbour, Justinianopolis [Sivri 
Hissar), grew in importance, until the sixth 
century, after which it is not mentioned. 

Petalia or Petaliae [Petalius), a rocky island 
off the SW. coast of Euboea at the entrance 
into the Euripus (Strab. p. 444). 

Petelia or Petllia (neTTjAia : Petelinus : 
Strongoli), an ancient Greek town on the E. 
coast of Bruttium, founded, according to tradi- 
tion, by Philoctetes (Strab. p. 254 ; Virg. Aen. 
iii. 402). It was situated N. of Croton, to whose 
territory it originally belonged, but it was 
afterwards conquered by the Lucanians. It re- 
mained faithful to the Romans when the other 
cities of Bruttium revolted to Hannibal, and it 
was not till after a long and desperate resistance 
that it was taken by one of Hannibal's generals 
(Liv. xxiii. 20, 30; Pol. vii. 1 ; Sil. It. xii. 431). 
It was repeopled by Hannibal with Bruttians ; 
but the Romans subsequently collected the re- 
mains of the former population, and put them 
in possession of the town (App. Ann. 29, 57). 

Peteon (TltTedv : Tiereiiirios), a small town in 
Boeotia, between Thebes and Anthedon, de- 



pendent upon Haliartus, according to some, and 
upon Thebes, according to others [II. ii. 500 ; 
Strab.ja. 410). 

Peteos (FUrews), son of Orneus, and father of 
Menestheus, was expelled from Athens by 
Aegeus, and went to Phocis, where he founded 
Stiris [II. ii. 552; Paus. ii. 25, 5; Plut. Thes. 32). 

Petilius or Petillius. 1. Capitolmus. [Ca- 
pitolinxjs.] — 2. Cerealis. [Cebealis.] — 3. Spu- 
nnus, [Spubinus.] 

Petosiris (neroaipis), an Egyptian priest and 
astrologer, generally named along with Nech- 
epsos, an Egyptian king. The two are said to 
be the founders of astrology. Some works on 
astrology were extant under his name. Like our 
own Lilly, Petosiris became the common name 
for an astrologer. (Juv. vi. 580.) 

Petovio, [Poetovio.] 

Petra (j) Tlerpa : Uerpaios, Petraeus, later 
Petrensis), the name of several cities built on 
rocks, or in rocky places. — 1. A place in Elis, 
not far from the city of Elis. The sepulchral 
monument of the philosopher Pyrrho was shown 
here (Paus. vi. 24, 5). — 2. [Casa* (Leila Pietra) T 
also called Petraea and Petrlne (the people 
Ylerptvoi and Petrlni), an inland town of Sicily, 
on the road from Agrigentum to Panormus (Cic. 
Verr. iii. 39 ; Plin. iii. 91 ; Diod. xxiii. 18). It 
is probable that its site is marked by Petralia, 
eight miles W. of Gangi, the ancient Engyum. 
— 3, A town on the coast of Illyricum, with a 
bad harbour (Caes. B. G. iii. 42).— 4. A city of 
Pieria in Macedonia, in the passes between 
Pydna and Pythium in Thessaly (Liv. xxxix. 26, 
xlv. 41). — 5. A fortress of the Maedi, in Thrace 
(Liv. xl. 22). — 6. (PI. neut.), a place in Dacia, 
on one of the three great roads which crossed 
the Danube. — 7. In Sogdiana, near the Oxus 
(Q. Curt. vii. 11). — 8. By far the most celebrated 
of all the places of this name was Petra or 
Petrae [Waily-Musa), in Arabia Petraea, the 
capital, first of the Idumaeans, and afterwards 
of the Nabathaeans. It lies in the E. of Arabia 
Petraea, in the district called under the empire 
Palaestina Tertia, in the midst of the moun- 
tains of Seir, at the foot of Mt. Hor, just half- 
way between the Dead Sea and the head of the 
Aelanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, in a valley, or 
rather ravine, surrounded by almost inaccessible 
precipices, which is entered by a narrow gorge 
on the E., the rocky walls of which approach 
so closely as sometimes hardly to permit two 
horsemen to ride abreast. On the banks of the 
river which runs through this ravine stood the 
city itself, a mile in length, and half a mile in 
breadth between the sides of the valley, and 
some fine ruins of its public buildings still re- 
main. But this is not all : the rocks which sur- 
round, not only the main valley, but all its lateral 
ravines, are completely honeycombed with ex- 
cavations, some of which were tombs, some 
temples, and some private houses, at the en- 
trances to which the surface of the rock is sculp- 
tured into magnificent architectural facades 
and other figures, whose details are often so well 
preserved as to appear but just chiselled, while 
the effect is wonderfully heightened by the bril- 
liant variegated colours of the rock, where red, 
purple, yellow, sky-blue, black, and white are 
seen in distinct layers. (Diod. ii. 48, xix. 97 ; 
Strab. p. 779 ; Plin. vi. 144.) These ruins are 
chiefly of the Roman period, when Petra had 
become an important city as a centre of the 
caravan traffic of the Nabathaeans. At the 
time of Augustus, as Strabo learnt from a friend 
who had resided there, it contained many- 
Romans and other foreigners, and was governed 



PETREIUS 



PHAEAX 



683 



by a native prince. It had maintained its in- 
dependence against the Greek kings of S3 ria, 
and retained it under the Romans, till the time j 
of Trajan, by whose lieutenant, A. Cornelius 
Palma, it was taken (Dio Cass, lxviii. 14). It 
was the chief city of Arabia Petraea, and under 
the later empire it was the capital of Palaestina 
Tertia. [See p. 9G, b.] 

M. Petreius, a man of great military experi- j 
ence, is first mentioned in B. c. 62, when he 
served as legatus to the proconsul C. Antonius, j 
and commanded the army in the battle in which j 
Catiline perished (Sail. Cat. 59, 60). He be- 
longed to the aristocratical party, and in 55 he I 
was sent into Spain along with L. Afranius as 
legatus of Pompey, to whom the provinces of 
the two Spains had been granted. Soon after 1 
the commencement of the Civil war in 49, Caesar j 
defeated Afranius and Petreius in Spain, where- I 
upon the latter joined Pompey in Greece. After 
the loss of the battle of Pharsalia (48) Petreius ! 
crossed over to Africa, and took an active part 
in the campaign in 46, which was brought to an 
end by the defeat of the Pompeian army at the 
battle of Thapsus. Petreius then fled with ■ 
Juba, and, despairing of safety, they fell by each 
other's hands. (Caes. B. C. i. 38, 63 ; Bell. Afr. 
18, 91 ; App. B. C. ii. 42, 95, 100 ; Suet. Jul. 75.) 

Petrocorii, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, in 
the modern Pirigord. Their country contained 
iron-mines, and their chief town was Vesunna 
i Perigueux). (Caes. B. G. vii. 75 ; Plin. iv. 109.) 

Petronlus, C, or T., surnamed Arbiter, an 
accomplished voluptuary at the court of Nero, j 
He was one of the chosen companions of Nero, ! 
and was regarded as director-in-chief of the 
imperial pleasures, the judge whose decision 
upon the merits of any proposed scheme ' 
of enjoyment was held as final (Elegant iae 
arbiter). The influence thus acquired excited 
the jealous suspicions of Tigellinus : he was 
accused of treason, and, believing that de- 
struction was inevitable, he resolved to die 
as he had lived, and to excite admiration by 
the frivolous eccentricity of his end. Having ] 
caused his veins to be opened, he from time to 
time arrested the flow of blood by the applica- 
tion of bandages. During the intervals he con- 
versed with his friends, and even showed him- 
self in the public streets of Cumae, where these 
events took place ; so that at last, when he sank 
from exhaustion, his death (a. i>. 66), although 
compulsory, appeared to be the result of natural 
and gradual decay. He is said to have des- 
patched in his last moments a sealed document 
to the emperor, taunting him with his brutal ex- 
cesses. (Tac. Ann. xvi. 18, 19; Plin. xxxvii. 20.) — 
There is little reason to doubt (though some 
critics have disputed it) that this Petronius was 
the author of a work bearing the title Petronii 
Arbitri Satyrir.on, which is a sort of charac- 
ter-novel, composed of a Beries of fragments, I 
chiefly in prose, but interspered with numerous 
pieces of poetry, and therefore in form is a 
Satira Menippea [Diet, of Ant. art. Satira]. It 
was originally in twenty books, of which parts' 
of books xv. and xvi. remain, in which the adven- 
tures of a certain Encolpiua and bis companions 
in the S. of Italy, chiefly in Naples or its envi- 
rons, are made a vehicle for exposing the false 
taste and vices of the ago. Unfortunately the 
vices of the personages introduced are depicted 
with such fidelity that wo are perpetually dis- | 
gnsted by the obscenity of the descriptions, i 
The longest section is generally known as the 
Supper of Trimalchio, presenting us with a 
detailed account of a fantastic banquet, »uch as . 



the gourmands of the empire were wont to ex- 
hibit, given by a rich parvenu. The great lite- 
rary ability of the author is seen in his skilful 
drawing of the characters, who preserve their 
appropriate manner of speech ; in the wit and 
humour of the dialogue, and in his power of 
giving a vivid, though generally most unattrac- 
tive, picture of the manners of the age. The 
metrical parts are intended as parodies. The 
best edition is by Biicheler, Berl. 1862 (a smaller 
edition, 1882). The Supper of Trimalchio is 
edited separately, with a German translation, 
by Friedlander, 1892. 

Peuce lUfvKi} : Piczina), an island in Moesia 
Inferior formed by the two southern mouths of 
the Danube, of which the most southernly was 
also called Peuce, but more commonly the Sacred 
Mouth. This island was said by the ancients 
to be as large as Rhodes. It was inhabited by 
the Peucini, who were a tribe of the Bastamae, 
and took their name from the island. (Strab. p. 
105 ; Ptol. iii. 10, 2.) 

Peucela, reucelaotisdlcuKe'Ao, UevxeAcuiTis : 
Pekheli or Pakholi), a city and district in the 
NW. of India intra Gaugem, between the rivers 
Indus and Suastus (Strab. p. 698 ; Arrian, Iiul. I): 

Peucestas (HevKetPras), a Macedonian, and n 
distinguished officer of Alexander the Great. 
He had the chief share in saving the life of 
Alexander in the assault on the city of the Malli 
in India, and was afterwards appointed by the 
king to the satrapy of Persia. In the division 
of the provinces after the death of Alexander 
(b.c. 323) he obtained the renewal of his govern- 
ment of Persia. He fought on the side of Eu- 
menes against Antigonus (317-316), but dis- 
played insubordination in these campaigns 
Upon the surrender of Eumenes by the Argyr- 
aspids, Peucestas fell into the hands of Anti- 
gonus, who deprived him of his satrapy. (Arrian, 
An. vi. 9-30, vii. 23; Diod. xix. 44-48.) 

Peucetia. Ai<l\lia.] 

Peucini. [Peuce.] 

Phaclum t4>dKLov : "fruK-ieiis : Alifaka), a moun- 
tain fortress of Thessaly in the d.st.ict Hesti- 
aeotis on the right bank of the Pencils, NE. of 
Limnaea (Thuc. iv. 78; Liv. xxxii. 13). 

Phacusa (Kesem or Pa-kesem, in O. T. 
Goshen ; i'akoos) was a sacred town of the god 
Kupt = Horns, and therefore called Pe-Supt. 
Under the Ptolemies it was an emporium lor 
Asiatic trade (Strab. p. 805). 

Phacussa IQctKovtrrra : Fecussa), one of the 
Sporades (Plin. iv. 68). 

Phaea l+am), the name of the sow of Crom- 
myon in Megaris, which ravaged the neighbour- 
hood, and was slain by Theseus (Plut. Tiies. 9). 

Phaeaces i<i>ai'aiccs, <t>al-qK(i), n fabulous people 
immortalised by the Odyssey, who inhabited the 
inland Scheria iSy-pia), situated at the extreme 
western part of the earth, and who were go- 
verned by king Alcinous. [Alcinoijs.] They 
are described by Homer as a people fond of the 
feast, the lyre, and the dance, and hence their 
name passed into a proverb to indicate persons 
of luxurious and sensual habits. Thus a glutton 
is called Phaeax by Horace (JSp. I. 15, 21). — 
The ancients identified the Homeric beheria 
with Corcyra. [See p. 249, b]. 

Phaeax (•Palat), an Athenian orator and 
statesman, a contemporary and rival of Nicias 
and Alcibiades (Plut. Ale. 13). In 422 B. c. he 
Went on an embassy to Sicily and Italy (Thuc 
v. 4, 6). Some critics maintain that the extant 
speech against Alcibiades, commonly attributed 
to Andncides, was written by Phaeax. The 
internal evidence is, however, against its being 



PHAEDON 



PHAETHON 



the work of any contemporary author, whether 
Phaeax or Andocides, and it is held with prob- 
ability by recent critics that it was the work of 
a later sophist. 

Phaedon. (QaiScw), a Greek philosopher, was 
a native of Elis, and of high birth, but was 
taken prisoner, probably about B.C. 400, and was 
brought to Athens. It is said that he ran away 
from his master to Socrates, and was ransomed 1 
by one of the friends of the latter. Phaedon 
was present at the death of Socrates, while he 
was still quite a youth. He appears to have 
lived in Athens some time after the death of 
Socrates, and then returned to Elis, where he 
became the founder of a school of philosophy. 
He was succeeded by Plistanus, after whom the 
Elean school was merged in theEretrian (Diog. 
Laert. ii. 105 ; Gell. ii. 18). The dialogue of 
Plato which contains an account of the death 
of Socrates bears the name of Phaedon. 

Phaedra (QaiSpa), daughter of Minos by Pasi- 
phae or Crete, and the wife of Theseus. She 
was the stepmother of Hippolytus, the son of 
Theseus, with whom she fell in love ; but having 
been repulsed by Hippolytus, she accused him 
to Theseus of having attempted her dishonour. 
After the death of Hippolytus, his innocence 
became known to his father, and Phaedra made 
away with herself. For details see Hippolytus. 

Phaedriades. [Parnassus.] 

Phaedrias (QaiSplas), a town in the S. of Ar- 
cadia, SW. of Megalopolis, fifteen stadia from 
the Messenian frontier. 

Phaedrus (QcuSpos). 1. An Epicurean phi- 
losopher, and the president of the Epicurean 
school during Cicero's residence in Athens, B. c. 
80. He died in 70, and was succeeded by Patron. 
(Cic. de Fin. i. 5, 16, ad Fa?ri. xiii. 1, ad Att. 
xiii. 39.) He was the author of a work on the 
gods (Hepl 0euv), of which an interesting frag- 
ment was discovered at Herculaneum in 1806, 
and published by Petersen, Hamb. 1833. Cicero 
was largely indebted to this work for the mate- 
rials of the first book of the De Natura Deorwm. 
— 2. The Latin Fabulist, of whom we know 
nothing but what is collected or inferred from 
his fables. He was originally a slave, and was 
brought from Thrace, apparently from Pieria 
(iii. Prol. 17), to Rome, where he learned the 
Latin language. As the title of his work is 
Phaedri Aug. Liberti Fabulae Aesopiae, we 
must conclude that he had belonged to Augustus, 
who manumitted him. Under Tiberius he ap- 
pears to have undergone some persecution from 
Sejanus (ib. 34). The fables extant under the 
name of Phaedrus are ninety-seven in number, 
written in iambic verse, and distributed into five 
books, and probably an abridgment of a larger 
collection. Most of the fables are, no doubt, 
renderings of old fables from Greek or other 
sources, known as ' Aesopian.' [Aesopus ; 
Babbius.] Many of the fables, however, refer 
to contemporary events and names (e.g. iii. 10) ; 
and Phaedrus himself, in the prologue to the 
fifth book, intimates that he had often used the 
name of Aesop only to recommend his verses. 
The expression is generally clear and concise, 
and the language, with some few exceptions, 
pure and correct, as we should expect from a 
Roman writer of the Augustan age. — There is 
also another collection of thirty-two fables, en- 
titled Epitome Fabularum, which was first 
published at Naples, in 1809, by Cassitti. This 
appears to have been another abridgment of 
the original collection, and adds thirty fables 
which are not transmitted in the MSS. which 
give the five books of Phaedrus. They are 



printed as an appendix to the Fables of Phaedrus. 
It cannot be asserted positively that they aie 
by Phaedrus, but they are in his manner. A 
prose version of the fables of Phaedrus by a 
writer of the tenth century who called himself 
Romulus supplies paraphrases of several fables 
which appear in neither of the above-mentioned 
collections. — Editions of Phaedrus by Pithoeus, 
Autun, 1596 ; Bentley, 1726 ; L. Miiller, 1868 ; 
Riese, 1885. 

Phaenarete. [Sockates.] 

Phaernas. [Phanias.] 

PhaestUS (&cu<tt6s : #<uotios). 1. A town in 
the S. of Crete near Gortyna, twenty stadia 
from the sea, with a port-town Matala or 
Matalia, said to have been built by Phaestus, 




Coin of Phaestus in Crete (about 400 B.C.). 
Obv., Heracles fighting the hydra: the crab at his feet; 
rev., 4-AI2TION ; the bull of the story of Europa. 



son of Heracles, who came from Sicyon to 
Crete (Paus. ii. 6, 7). It is mentioned by 
Homer (II. ii. 648). According to other ac- 
counts Minos formed the town from a collection 
of villages (Diod. v. 78 ; Strab. p. 479). It was 
destroyed by Gortyna. It was the birthplace 
of Epimenides, and its inhabitants were cele- 
brated for their wit and sarcasm (Athen. p. 
261). — 2. A town of Thessaly in the district 
Thessaliotis (Liv. xxxvi. 16). 

Phaethon (QaiQuiv), that is, 'the shining,' 
occurs in Homer as an epithet of Helios (the 
Sun), and is used by iater writers as a proper 
name for Helios (II. xi. 734 ; Ap. Rh. iv. 1236 ; 
Verg. Aen. v. 105) ; but it is more commonly 
known as the name of a son of Helios by 
the Oceanid Clymene, the wife of Merops, 
or a son of Helios by Prote, or, lastly, 
a son of Helios by the nymph Rhode or 
Rhodos (Hyg. Fab. 134 ; Tzetz. Chil. iv. 137). 
The story of Phaethon is most fully described 
by Ovid (Met. i. 751— ii. 400) and by Nonnus 
(Dionys. xxxviii. 98), but it is earlier than the 
great Attic tragedians, for it formed the subject 
of the Heliades of Aeschylus and the Phaethon 
of Euripides, of both which plays some frag- 
ments remain. He received the significant 
name of Phaethon from his father, and was 
afterwards presumptuous enough to re- 
quest his father to allow him for one day 
to drive the chariot of the sun across the 
heavens. Helios was induced by the entreaties 
of his son and of Clymene to yield, but the 
youth being too weak to check the horses, they 
rushed out of their usual track, and came so 
near the earth as almost to set it on fire. 
Thereupon Zeus killed him with a flash of 
lightning, and hurled him down into the river 
Eridanus. His kinsman Cycnus became a 
swan ; his sisters, the Heliadae or Phaethon- 
tiades, who had yoked the horses to the 
chariot, were changed into poplars and their 
tears into amber. THeliadae.] In the original 
mythology Phaethon was the sun himself and 
the myth probably grew from th» observation 
! of the hot noon-day sun sinking rapidly to the 



PHAETHONTIADES 



PHALAEIS 



685 



Eridanus, the river of the extreme west, and I Phthiotis in Thessaly on the Sinus Maliacus, 
from an attempt also to explain the difference ; served as the harbour of Lama. 
between the white races and the Aethiopians. Phalaris (<f>aAapis), ruler of Agrigentum in 
The fall of Phaethon from his quadriga is | Sicily, has obtained a proverbial celebrity as a 




Phaethon. (From a relief on a sarcophagus. Zannoni. Cnt. di Fircvzt', Eerie 4, vol. ii.) 



represented in more than one ancient relief : 
the figures of his guide Phosphorus, of his 
mother Clymene, of the river-god Eridanus 
and of Cycnus are introduced. 

Phaetnontiades. [Heliadae.j 

Phaethusa. Heliadae.] 

PhagTes (<payprjs : Or/an or Or/ana), an 
ancient and fortified town of the Pierians in 
Macedonia at the foot of Mount Pangaeon 
(Hdt. vii. 112 ; Thuc. ii. 99 ; Strab. p. 331). 

Phalaecus (<f>a\atKos). 1. Son of Onom- 
archus, succeeded his uncle Phayllus as leader 
of the Phocians in the Sacred war, B.C. 351. In 
order to secure his own safety, he concluded a 
treaty with Philip, by which he was allowed to 
withdraw into the Peloponnesus with a body of 
8000 mercenaries, leaving the unhappy Pho- 
cians to their fate, 346. (Diod. xvi. 38-5'J ; Paus. 
x. 2, 7.) Phalaecus now assumed the part of a 
mere leader of mercenary troops, in which 
character we find him engaging in various 
enterprises. He was slain at the siege of 
Cydonia in Crete (Diod. xvi. 63). — 2. A lyric 
and epigrammatic poet of Alexandria, some of 
whose epigrams are preserved in the Greek 
Anthology. The hendecasyllabic metre which 
he especially used is sometimes called Phalae- 
cian. (Athen. p. 440 ; Terentian. p. 2440.) 

Phalaesiae (<i>aAa«riai), a town in Arcadia, S. 
of Megalopolis on the road to Sparta, twenty 
stadia from the Laconian frontier (Paus. viii. 
85, 3). 

Phalanna (GaAavya : $a\avva~os : Karad- 
joli), a town of the Perrhaebi in the Thessalian 
district of Hestiaeotis on the left bank of the 
Peneus, not far from Tempe (Strab. p. 440; 
Liv. xlii. 54). 

Phalanthus (•t>a\av9os), son of Aracus, was 
one of the Lacedaemonian Pai'thcniae, or the 
offspring of some marriages with slaves, which 
the necessity of the first Messenian war 
had induced the Spartans to permit. [See 
Diet, of Antiq. art. Partheniae^ As the 
Partheniae were looked down upon by their 
fellow-citizens, they formed a conspiracy under 
Phalanthus, against the government. Their 
design having been detected, they went to 
Italy under the guidance of Phalanthus, and 
founded the city of Tarentum, about B.C. 708. 
Phalanthus was afterwards driven out from 
Tarentum by a sedition, and ended his days at 
Brundisium. (Strab. pp. 278, 282 ; Ar. Pol. v. 
7 ; Pans. x. 10 ; Hor. Oil. ii. 6.) 

Phalara (to 4>d\apa: 4>aAapf t/s), a town of 



cruel and inhuman tyrant ; but we have little 
real knowledge of his life and history. His 
reign probably began about B.C. 570, and is said 
to have lasted sixteen years. He was a native 
of Agrigentum, and appears to have been 
raised by his fellow-citizens to some high office 
in the state, of which he afterwards availed 
himself to assume a despotic authority (Ar. 
Uliet. ii. 20, Pol. v. 10). He was engaged in 
frequent wars with his neighbours, and ex- 
tended his power and dominion on all sides, 
though more frequently by stratagem than by 
open force. He perished by a sudden outbreak 
of the popular fury, in which it appears that 
Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron, must have 
borne a conspicuous part (Diod. Fr. p. 25 ; Cic. 
Off. ii. 7, 26 ; Tzetz. Chil. v. 956). No circum- 
stance connected with Phalaris is more cele- 
brated than the brazen bull in which he is said 
to have burnt alive the victims of his cruelty, 
and of which we are told that he made the first 
experiment upon its inventor Perillus. This 
latter story has much the air of an invention of 
later times ; but the fame of this celebrated 
engine of torture was inseparably associated 
with the name of Phalaris as early as the time 
of Pindar. (Pind. Pijth. i. 185 ; cf. Diod. xiii. 
90 ; Pol. xii. 25.) Pindar also speaks of 
Phalaris himself in terms which clearly prove 
that his reputation as a barbarous tyrant was 
then already fully established, and all subse- 
quent writers, until a very late period, allude to 
him in terms of similar import. But in the 
later ages of Greek literature, there appears to 
have existed or arisen a totally different tradi- 
tion concerning Phalaris, which represented 
I him as a man of a naturally mild and humane 
disposition, and only forced into acts of severity 
or occasional cruelty by the pressure of cir- 
cumstances and the machinationsof his enemies. 
He appears at the same time as an admirer of 
literature and philosophy, and the patron of 
men of letters. Such is the aspect under 
which his character is presented to us in two 
declamations ascribed to Lucian, and still more 
strikingly in the well-known epistles which 
bear the name of Phalaris himself. These 
epistles are now remembered chiefly on account 
of the literary controversy to which they gave 
rise, and the masterly dissertation in which 
Bentley exposed their spuriousness. They 
are evidently the composition of some sophist ; 
though the period at which this forgery was 
composed cannot be determined. The first 



686 



PHALABIUM 



author who refers to them is Stobaeus. Edited 
by Schaefer, Lips. 1823 ; Hercher, 1873. 

Phalarlum ($akdpioi>), a fortress named 
after Phalaris near the S. coast of Sicily, 
situated on a hill forty stadia E. of the river 
Himera (Diod. xix. 118). 

Phalasarna (to. $akdcrapva), a town on the 
NW. coast of Crete (Strab. p. 574). 

Phalerum ($dhf)pov: 4>a\7ipevs), the most 
easterly of the harbours of Athens, and the one 
chiefly used by the Athenians before the Persian 
wars. [See Piraeus, and plan on p. 142.] 

Phaloria {$a.\cop'ia), a fortified town of 
Thessaly in Hestiaeotis, N. of Tricca on the 
left bank of the Peneus (Liv. xxxii. 15). 

Phanae (Wren, rj Zavala aicpa : C. Mastico), 
the S. point of the island of Chios, celebrated 
for its temple of Apollo, and for its excellent 
wine (Strab. p. 645). 

Phanagoria (QavaySpeia, and other forms : 
Phanagori, Eu., near Taman, on the E. side of 
the Straits of Kaffa), a Greek city, founded by 
a colony of Teians under Phanagoras, on the 
Asiatic coast of the Cimmerian Bosporus. It 
became the great emporium for all the traffic 
between the coasts of the Palus Maeotis and 
the countries on the S. side of the Caucasus, 
and was chosen by the kings of Bosporus as 
their capital in Asia. (Strab. p. 495 ; Ptol. v. 9, 
6 ; App. Mithr. 108.) It had a temple of 
Aphrodite, and its neighbourhood was rich in 
olive yards. In the sixth century of our era, it 
was destroyed by the surrounding barbarians. 
(Procop. B. G. iv. 5.) 

Phanaroea (<&a.vdpoia), a great plain of 
Pontus in Asia Minor, enclosed by the moun- 
tain chains of Paryadres on the E., and Lithrus 
and Ophlimus on the W., was the most fertile 
part of Pontus (Strab. pp. 73, 547, 556). 

Phanias or Phaenias (Qavlas, Qaivias), of 
Eresos in Lesbos, a distinguished Peripatetic 
philosopher, the immediate disciple of Aristotle, 
and the contemporary, fellow-citizen, and 
friend of Theophrastus. He flourished about 
B.C. 336. Phanias does not seem to have 
founded a distinct school of his own, but he 
was a most diligent writer upon every depart- 
ment of philosophy, as it was studied by the 
Peripatetics, especially logic, physics, history, 
and literature. His works, all of which are 
lost, are quoted by later writers. One of his 
works most frequently cited was a sort of 
chronicle of his native city, bearing the title of 
Tlpuriveis 'Epeffioi. (Steab. p. 018 ; Plut. Sol. 
14, 32, Them. 7, 73 ; Athen. p. 333 ; Suid. s. v.) 

Phanocles (4>apo/cA.?}s), one of the best of the 
later Greek elegiac poets, probably lived in the 
time of Philip and Alexander the Great. He 
seems only to have written one poem, which 
was entitled "Epwres 3) Ka\ol (Plut. Symp. p. 
671 ; Athen. p. 603). The work was upon 
paederastia ; but the subject was so treated 
as to exhibit the retribution which fell upon 
those who addicted themselves to the practice. 
We still possess a considerable fragment from 
the opening of the poem, which describes the 
love of Orpheus for Calai's, and the vengeance 
taken upon him by the Thracian women. — The 
fragments of Phanocles are edited by Bach, 
with those of Hermesianax and Philetas, Halis 
Sax. 1829; and by Schneidewin, Delect. Poes. 
Graec. p. 158. 

Phamdesrms (^avSSrifios), the author of one 
of those works on the legends and antiquities 
of Attica known under the name of Atthides. 
His age and birthplace are uncertain, but we 
know that he lived before the time of Augustus, 



PHABNACES 

as he is cited by Dionysius of Halicarnassus 
(Dionys. i. 01 ; Plut. Them. 13, Cim. 12.) 

Phanote (Gardhihi), a fortified town of 
Epirus in Chaonia near the Illyrian frontier 
(Liv. xliii. 23 ; Pol. xxvii. 14). 

Phaon (4>a«y), a boatman at Mytilene, is said 
to have been originally an ugly old man ; but 
in consequence of his carrying Aphrodite across 
the sea without accepting payment, the goddess 
gave him youth and beauty (Ael. V.H. xii. 18 ; 
Palaeph. 49; Lucian, Dial. Mart. 9). After 
this Sappho is said to have fallen in love with 
him, and to have leaped from the Leucadian 
rock when he slighted her. [Sappho.] For the 
possible origin of this story, see Leucas. 

Pharae ($aoa.'i or "trjpai). 1. (<$apaievs jor 
frapevs), an ancient town in the W. part of 
Achaea, and one of the twelve Achaean cities, 
was situated on the river Pierus, seventy stadia 
from the sea and 150 from Patrae. It was one 
i of the states which took an active part in reviv- 
ing the Achaean League in B.C. 281. Augustus 
included it in the territory of Patrae. (Hdt. i. 
145 ; Strab. p. 388 ; Paus. vii. 22, l.)~2. (4>apa't- 
tt]S, "PapaiaTTjy, Qapdrris : Kalamata), an' an- 
cient town in Messenia mentioned by Homer, 
on the river Nedon, near the frontiers of La- 
conia, and about six miles from the sea. In 
B.C. 180 Pharae joined the Achaean League 
together with the towns of Thuria and Abia. 
It was annexed by Augustus to Laconia. (II. 
v. 543, ix. 151; Strab. p. 388; Paus. iv. 30, 
2.) — 3. Originally Pharis (#apis : Qapirris, 
<i>ap(aTj)s), a town in Laconia in the valley of 
the Eurotas, S. of Sparta (Paus. hi. 20, 3). 

Pb.arbaeth.us ($dpf}ai0os : Horbeyt ? Bu.). 
the capital of the Nomos Pharbaethites in 
Lower Egypt, lay S. of Tanis, on the W. side 
of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile (Hdt. ii. 
166; Strab. p. 802). 

Pharcadon (QapKaSuv), a town of Thessaly, 
in the E. part of Hestiaeotis (Strab. p. 438). 
Pharis. [Phabae, No. 3.] 
Pharmacussae (•bapfj.aicovffcrai). 1. Two small 
islands off the coast of Attica, near Salamis, in 
the bay of Eleusis (Strab. p. 395), now called 
Kyradhes or Megali and Mikri Kyra : on one 
of them wajs shown the tomb of Circe. — 2. 
Pharmacusa (4>apKfj.a.Kov<ra : PharmaJconisi), 
an island off the coast of Asia Minor, 120 
stadia from Miletus, where king Attalus died, 
and where Julius Caesar was taken prisoner by 
pirates (Suet. Jul. 4 ; Plut. Gaes.). 

Pharnabazus (4>apca/3a£bs),son of Pharnaces, 
succeeded his father as satrap of the Persian 
provinces near the Hellespont. In B.C. 411 and 
the following years, he rendered active assist- 
ance to the Lacedaemonians in their war 
against the Athenians. (Thuc. viii. 6, 8, 39, 99- 
109 ; Xen. Hell. i. 1-3 ; Diod. xiii. 49-63.) When 
Dercyllidas, and subsequently Agesilaus, passed 
over into Asia to protect the Asiatic Greeks 
against the Persian power, we find Pharnabazus 
connecting himself with Conon to resist the 
Lacedaemonians. In 374 Pharnabazus invaded 
Egypt in conjunction with Iphicrates, but the 
expedition failed, chiefly through the dilatory 
proceedings and the excessive caution of Phar- 
nabazus. [Iphicrates.] The character of 
Pharnabazus is distinguished by generosity and 
openness. He has been charged with the 
murder of Alcibiades ; but the latter probably 
fell by the hands of others. [Alcibiades.] 

Pharnaces (4>apca(crjs). 1. King of Pontus, 
was the son of Mithridates IV., whom he suc- 
ceeded on the throne, about B.C. 190. He 
carried on war for some years with Eumenes, 



PHARNACIA 



PHASIS 



687 



king of Pergamus, and Ariarathes, king of 
Cappadocia, but was obliged to conclude with 
them a disadvantageous peace in 179. The 
year of his death is uncertain ; it is placed by 
conjecture in 156. (Pol. xxv. 2, xxvi. 6, xxvii. 
15 ; Strab. p. 545.) — 2. King of Pontus, or more 
properly of the Bosporus, was the son of Mith- 
ridates the Great, whom he compelled to put 
an end to his life in 63. [Mithkidates VI.] 
After the death of liis lather, Pharnaces has- i 
tened to make his submission to Pompey, who 
granted him the kingdom of the Bosporus, with 
the titles of friend and ally of the Roman 
people. In the Civil war between Caesar and 
Pompey, Pharnaces seized the opportunity to 
reinstate himself in his father's dominions, and 
made himself master of the whole of Colchis 
and the lesser Armenia. He defeated Domi- 
tius Calviuus, the lieutenant of Caesar in Asia, 
but was shortly afterwards defeated by Caesar 
himself in a decisive action near Zela (47). The 
battle was gained with such ease by Caesar 
that he informed the senate of his victory by 
the words, Veni, vidi, vici (App. Mithr. 110- 
120 ; Dio Cass. xlii. 45 ; Bell. Alex. 65-77). In 
the course of the same 3 r ear, Pharnaces was 
again defeated, and was slain by Asander, one 
of his generals. [Asandeb. 

Pharnacia (<papvava'a : Kheresoun or Kera- 
sunda), a flourishing city of Asia Minor, on the 
coast of Pontus Polemoniacus, was built near 
(some think, on) the site of Cerasus, probably 
by Pharnaces, the grandfather of Mithridatee 
the Great, and peopled by the transference to 
it of the inhabitants of Cotyora. It had a large 
commerce and extensive fisheries ; and in its 
neighbourhood were the iron mines of the 
Chalybes. It was strongly fortified, and was 
used by Mithridates, in the war with Rome, for 
the place of refuge of his harem. (Strab. pp. 
548-551; Plut. Lucull. 18; Arrian, Peripl. 
Pont. Eux. p. 17.) 

PharsaltLS {fyapoaXos, Ion. 'i>dp(TT]\os ■ <f>ap<ra- 
Ktos : Pharsa or Fersala), a town in Thessaly 
in the district Thessaliotis, not far from the 
frontiers of Phthiotis, W. of the river Enipens, 
and on the N. slope of Mt. Narthacius. It was 
divided into an old and a new city, and contained 




Coin of Pharsolus if ii cent. B.C.). 
Cbv.. head of Athono; rev., ♦apz; ThoRsaliun horseman: 
below, TEAR4ANTO (backwards), probably the engraver s 
name. 

a strongly fortified acropolis (Strab. pp. 431- 
434; Liv. xliv. 1). In its neighbourhood, NE. 
of the town and on the other side of the 
Enipens, was a celebrated temple of Thetis, 
called Thetidium. Near Pharsalus was fought 
the decisive battle between Caesar and Pompey, 
B.C. 48, which made Caesar master of the Ro- 
man world. It is frequently called the battle 
of Pharsalla, which was the name of the terri- 
tory of the town. 

Pharus l+opoj). 1. [Pharos or liaiulhat i 
tin, i.e. Fii)-(jarden), a small island off the 
Mediterranean coast of Egypt, mentioned by 
Homer, who describes it as a whole day's sail 
distant from Aegyptus, meaning, prob- 
ably, not Egypt itstelf, but the river Nile. 



(Uu. iv. 355.) When Alexander the Great 
planned the city of Alexandria, on the coast 
opposite to Pharos, he caused the island to 
be united to the coast by a mole seven stadia 
in length, thus forming the two harbours 
of the city. [Alexanmsja.] The island was 
chiefly famous for the lofty tower built upon it 
by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, for a lighthouse, 
whence the name of pharus was applied to all 
similar structures. The island was well peo- 
pled, according to Julius Caesar, but soon after- 
wards Strabo tells us that it was inhabited only 
by a few fishermen (Strab. p. 791). — 2. (Lesina 
or Hvar), an island of the Adriatic, off the 
coast of Dalmatia, E. of Issa, with a Greek 
city of the same name (Civita Vecchia, Eu.), 
which was taken and destroyed by the Romans 
under Aemilius Paulus, but probably rebuilt, 
as it is mentioned by Ptolemv under the name 
of Pharia (Pol. ii. 11, iii. 16 ; Strab. p. 315). 

PharuS-i ($apovaioi), a people in the interior 
(probably near the W. coast) of N. Africa, who 
carried on a considerable traffic with Mauretania 
(Strab. pp. 131, 828; Ptol. iv. 6, 17). 

Phasaelis (<pac-av)Ai's : prob. Ain-el-Fusail), 
a city of Palestine, in the valley of the Jordan. 
N. of Jericho, built by Herod the Great (Jos. 
Ant. xvi. 5, 2). 

Pha3§lis [4>a(Tr]\ls, $a.a-r)\'iTi\s : Tekrova, 
Ru.), an important seaport town of Lycia, near 
the borders of Pamphylia, stood on the gulf of 
Pamphylia, at the foot of Mt. Solyma, in a 
narrow pass between the mountains and the 
sea. It was founded by Dorian colonists, and 
from its position, and its command of three 
fine harbours, it soon gained an extensive com- 
merce (Hdt. ii. 178 ; Strab. p. 667). It did not 
belong to the Lycian confederacy, but had an 
independent government of its own. It became 





Coin of l'hasclis in Lycia (fith cent. B.C.). 
obv., prow ol galley in tho ehapo ol a boar's head; rw., 
tAS, stem of galley in incase square. 

afterwards the head-quarters of the pirates who 
infested the S. coasts of Asia Minor, and was 
therefore destroyed by P. Servilius Isauricus 
(Oic. Vert. iv. 10, 21 ; Eutrop. vi. 3) ; and though 
the city was restored, it never recovered its 
importance. Phaselis is said to have been the 
place at which the light quick vessels called 
<\>aar)Xoi were first built, and the figure of such 
,i ship appears on its coins. 

Phasis ('Pat/is). 1. (Faz or Iiioni), a re- 
nowned river of the ancient world, rose in the 
Moschici M. (or according to some in the Cau- 
I casus, where, in fact, its chief tributaries rise I, 
] and flowed westward through the plain ol 
i Colchis into the E. end of the Pontus Euxinus 
[Black Sea), after receiving several affluents, 
the chief of which were the Glaucus and the 
Rion : the name of the latter waB sometimes 
transferred, as it now is, to the main river. It 
was navigable about thirty-eight miles above 
its mouth for large vessels, and for small ones 
further lip, as far as Sarapana (Sharapan), 
whence goods were conveyed in four daysacrosB 
the Moschici M. to the rivrr Cyrus, and so to 
the Caspian. It was spanned by 120 bridges. 



688 PHAVOKINUS 

and had many towns upon its banks. Its 
waters were celebrated for their purity and for 
various other supposed qualities, some of a very 
marvellous nature ; but it was most famous in 
connexion with the story of the Argonautic 
expedition. [ Argon actae.] Some of the early 
geographers made it the boundary between 
Europe and Asia (Strab. p. 497 ; Hdt. iv. 40) ; 
it was afterwards the NE. limit of the kingdom 
of Pontus, and under the Romans it was re- 
garded as the N. frontier of their empire in W. 
Asia. Another notable circumstance connected 
with it is that it has given name to the pheasant 
(phasianus, (j>a<nav6s, (patriaviKbs bpvis), which 
is said to have been first brought to Greece 
from its banks, where the bird is still found in 
great numbers (Mart. iii. 57, 16 Plin. x. 132). 
—When the geography of these regions was 
comparatively unknown, it was natural that 
there should be a doubt as to the identification 
of certain celebrated names ; and thus the name 
Phasis, like Araxes, is applied to different rivers. 
The most important of these variations is Xeno- 
phon's application of the name Phasis to the 
river Araxes in Armenia (Anab. iv. 6). — 2. 
Near the mouth of the river, on its S. side, was 
a town of the same name, founded and fortified 
by the Milesians as an emporium for their com- 
merce, and used under the kings of Pontus, 
and under the Romans, as a frontier fort, and 
now a Russian fortified station, under the name 
of Pati. Some identify it with Sebastopolis, 
but most likely incorrectly. (Strab. pp. 498, 
500 ; Ptol. v. 10, 2.) 

Phavorlnus. [Favoeinus.] 

Phayllus ($dv\\os). 1. A celebrated athlete 
of Crotona, who had thrice gained the victory 
at the Pythian games. He fought at the battle 
of Salamis, B.C. 480, in a ship fitted out at his 
own expense. (Hdt. viii. 47 ; Paus. x. 9, 2 ; 
Plut. Alex. 34.) He is said to have cleared 
fifty-five feet in jumping (Anth. Pal. ii. p. 851 ; 
Suid. s.v.). It is suggested that (if true at all) 
it may have been by the ' hop, step, and jump.' 
[Diet, of Ant. art. Pentathlum.] — 2. A Pho- 
cian, brother of Onomarchus, whom he suc- 
ceeded as general of the Phocians in the Sacred 
war, 352. He died in the following year, after 
a long and painful illness. Phayllus made use 
of the sacred treasures of Delphi with a far 
more lavish hand than either of his brothers, 
and he is accused of bestowing the consecrated 
ornaments upon his wife and mistresses. (Diod. 
xvi. 35-38,_ 61 ; Paus. x. 2, 6.) 

Phazania (Fezzan), a district of Libya In- 
terior. [Garamantes.] 

Phazemon (baQtifxuiv : prob. Marsiwan), a 
city of Pontus in Asia Blinor, NW. of Amasia, 
and the capital of the W. district of Pontus, 
called Phazemonltis (^aQ^f-iovlris), which lay 
on the E. side of the Halys, S. of Gazelonitis, 
and was celebrated for its warm mineral springs. 
Pompey changed the name of the city to Nea- 
polis, and the district was called Neapolltis : 
but these names seem to have been soon 
dropped. (Strab. pp. 553, 560.) 

Phea (<&eict, <!>ea, $ecu : 4>6aios), a town on 
the frontiers of Elis and Pisatis, with a harbour 
situated on a promontory of the same name, 
and on the river Iardanus. In front of the 
harbour was a small island called Pheas (^si'as). 
(II. vii. 135 ; Od. xi. 297 ; Strab. p. 350.) 

Pheca or Phecadum, a fortress in Thessaly in 
the district Hestiaeotis (Liv. xxxi. 41, xxxii. 14). 

Phegeus (Qriyevs), king of Psophis in Arcadia, 
father of Alphesiboea or Arsinoe, of Pronous and 
Agenor, or of Temenus and Axion. He purified 



PHERECRATES 
Alcmaeon after he had killed his mother, and 
gave him his daughter Alphesiboea in marriage. 
Alcmaeon presented Alphesiboea with the cele- 
brated necklace and peplus of Harmonia ; but 
when Alcmaeon afterwards wished to obtain 
them again for his new wife Callirrhoe, he was 
murdered by the sons of Phegeus, by their 
father's command. Phegeus was himself subse- 
quently put to death by the sons of Alcmaeon. 
For details see Alcmaeon. 

PhelhlS (4>eAAos or *e/\A(Js : ^eAAiVijs : Ru. 
near Saaret), an inland city of Lycia, on a 
mountainbetween Xanthus and Antiphellus ; the 
latter having been at first the port of Phellus, 
but afterwards eclipsing it (Strab. p. 666), 

Phellusa, a small island near Lesbos. 

PhemiUS (■fr-fi/.uos), a celebrated minstrel, son 
of Terpius, who entertained with his song the 
suitors in the palace of Odysseus in Ithaca 
{Od. i. 154). 

Pheraonoe (<brjfiov6i)) , a mythical Greek poetess 
of«the ante-Homeric period, was said to have 
been the daughter of Apollo, and his first 
priestess at Delphi, and the inventor of the 
hexameter verse. There were poems which 
went under the name of Phemonoe, like the old 
'■ religious poems which were ascribed to Orpheus, 
Musaeus, and the other mythological bards. 
(Paus. x. 5, 7, x. 6, 7 ; Strab. p. 419.) 

Pheneus(<l>€Veosor<I>ej'e((s: Qevedrris: Fonia), 
a town in the NE. of Arcadia, at the foot of Mt. 
Cyllene, and on the river Aroanius. Its territory 
was called Pheneatis (fyevearis). There were 
extensive marshes in the neighbourhood, the 
waters of which were partly carried off by a 
subterraneous channel, which was supposed to 
have been made by Heracles. (Paus. viii. 14, 
3 ; Catull. 68, 109 ; Plin. xxxi. 54 ; cf. p. 400, b.) 
The town was of great antiquity. It is mentioned 
by Homer, and was said to have been built by 
an autochthon Pheneus. It contained a strongly 
fortified acropolis with a temple of Athene Tri- 
tonia ; and in the town itself were the tombs of 
Iphicles and Myrtilus, and temples of Hermes 
and Demeter. (II. ii. 605 ; Paus. viii. 14, 15 ; 
Verg. Aen. viii. 165.) 

Pherae (fepat: Qzpcuos: Valestino), an ancient 
town of Thessaly, in the SE. of the Pelasgian 
plain, W. of Mt. Pelion, SW. of the lake Boebeis, 
and ninety stadia from its port-town, Pagasae on 
the Pagasaean gulf. Pherae is celebrated in 
mythology as the residence of Admetus, and in 
history on account of its tyrants, who extended 
their power over nearly the whole of Thessaly. 
(II. ii. 711 ; Thuc. ii. 22 ; Strab. pp. 403, 439.) 
Of these the most powerful was Jason, who was 
made Tagus or generalissimo of Thessaly about 
B.C. 374. Jason was succeeded in 370 by his 
two brothers Polydorus and Polyphron. The 
former was soon after assassinated by Poly- 
phron. The latter was murdered in his turn, 
in 369, by his nephew Alexander, who was 
notorious for his cruelty, and who was put to 
death in 367 by his wife Thebe and her three 
brothers. [Jason ; Alexander, p. 47, b.] In 
B.C. 191 Pherae was taken by Antiochus, and 
shortly afterwards surrendered to the Romans 
under Acilius Glabrio (Liv. xxxvi. 9, 14). 

Pherae. [Phabae.] 

Pherecrates (<pepe/cpaT7js), of Athens, one of 
the best poets of the Old Comedy, was contempo- 
rary with the comic poets Cratinus, Crates, Eu- 
polis, Plato, and Aristophanes, being somewhat 
younger than the first two, and somewhat older 
than the others. He gained his first victory 
B.C. 438, and he imitated the style of Crates, 
whose actor he had been. Crates and Phere- 



PHERECYDES 

crates, like Epichamius, very much modified J 
the coarse satire and vituperation of which this 
sort of poetry had previous^' been the vehicle, 
and constructed their comedies on the basis of 
a regular plot, and with more dramatic action, 
satirising types of character, not actual persons. 
Pherecrates did not, however, abstain altogether 
from personal satire, for we see by the frag- 
ments of his plays that he attacked Alcibiades, 
the tragic poet Melanthius, and others (Athen. 
pp. 343, 538). He forestalled in the Crapatali 
the idea, which Aristophanes expressed in the 
Frogs, of laying the scene of his play in the 
underworld. Pherecrates invented a new metre, 
which was named, after him, the Pherecratean, 

The system of the verse is C. _ '/ „ w i. _ 

which may be best explained as a choriambus, 
with a spondee for its base, and a long syllable 
for its termination. The metre is very frequent 
in the choruses of the Greek tragedians, and in 
Horace, as, for example — Grato Pyrrlia sub 
untro. The extant titles of the plays of Phere- 
crates are eighteen. (Fragments in Meineke, 
Fr. Com. Or.) 

Pherecydes (<j>ep€/cu5ijs). 1. Of Syros, an 
island in the Aegaean, an early Greek philo- 
sopher or rather theologian. He lived in the 
sixth century B.C. He is said to have obtained 
his knowledge from the secret books of the 
Phoenicians, and to have travelled in Egypt. 
Almost all the ancient writers who speak of him 
state that he was the teacher of Pythagoras. 
The most important subject which he is said to 
have taught was the doctrine of the Metempsy- 
chosis adopted by Pythagoras. He gave an 
account of his views in a work dlepi <pv<jeuis Kai 
xfpl which was extant in the Alexandrian 

period. It was written in prose, which he is 
said to have been the first to employ in the 
explanation of philosophical questions. (Diog. I 
Laert. i. 116-12-2; Arist. Met. xiii. 4 = p. 1092, B ; ' 
Cic. Tusc. i. 16, 38 ; Plut. Sull. 36.)— 2. Of 
Leros, one of the most celebrated of the early 
Greek logographers. He lived in the former ' 
half of the fifth century B.C., and was a con- 
temporary of Hellanicus and Herodotus. Most 
of his life was spent at Athens, whence he is 
called indifferently the Lerian or the Athenian. 
His principal work was a history of the mytho- 
logy and antiquities of Attica, in ten books. It 
began with a theogony, and then proceeded to | 
give an account of the heroic age and of the 
great families of that time. — His fragments have 
been collected by Sturtz, Pherecydis Frag- 
menta, Lips. 1824, 2nd ed. ; and by C. and T. 
Miiller, in Fragm. Hist. Grace, vol. i. 

Pheres (<l>e'p?;s). 1. Son of Cretheus and Tyro, 
and brother of Aeson and Amythaon ; he was 
married to Periclymene, by whom he became the 
father of Admetus, Lycurgus, Idomene, and Pe- 
riapis. He was believed to have founded the 
town of Pherae in Thessaly. tOd. xi. 250 ; 
Apollod. i. 9, 11.) — 2. Son of Jason and Medea 
iPaus. ii. 3, 6). 

Pheretiades (<t>fpr)Tid87is), i.e. a son of Pheres, 
is especially used as the name of Admetus (//. 
ii. 763). 

Pheretima (4>cpe-n7*a), wife of Battus III., and 
mother of Arcesilaus III., successive kings of 
Cyrene. After the murder of her son by the 
Barcaeans [Battiadae, No. 6], Pheretima fled 
into Egypt to Aryandes, the viceroy of Darius 
Hystaspis, and representing that the death of 
Arcesilaus had been the consequence of liis sub- 
mission to the Persians, she induced him to 
avenge it. Oji the capture of Barca by the 



PHIDIAS 



68S 



Persian army, she caused those who had the 
principal share in her son's murder to be 
impaled, and ordered the breasts of their 
wives to be cut off. Pheretima then returned 
to Egypt, where she died. (Hdt. iv. 162, 200- 
205.) _ 

Pheron or Pheros (<&epuv, $ep£>s), the Greek 
name for the son of Sesostris ( = Ramses II.). 
This king of Egypt was really Meneptah II., 
who succeeded on the death of Ramses (or 
Sesostris), about 1300 B.C., and won great vic- 
tories over the Libyans and their allies the 
Aquasha and Shardana, whom some believe to 
be the Achaeans and Sardinians. By some 
authorities he is thought to be the Pharaoh oi 
the Exodus. The Greek name $£poiv seems to 
be a misconception of the title Pharaoh. 
Herodotus has a story, which is not confirmed 
by the Egyptian monuments, that he was visited 
with blindness as a punishment for his impiety 
in throwing a spear into the waters of the Nile 
when it had overflowed the fields. By attend- 
ing to the directions of an oracle he was cured, 
and he dedicated an obelisk at Heliopolis in 
gratitude for his recovery (Hdt. ii. 111). Pliny 
tells us that this obelisk, together with another, 
also made by him but broken in its removal, 
was to be seen at Rome in the Circus of Cali- 
gula and Nero at the foot of the Vatican hill. 
Pliny calls the Pheron of Herodotus Nen- 
coreus : Diodorus gives him his father's name, 
Sesostris (Plin. xxxvi. 74 ; Diod. i. 59). 

Phidias foeitilas), the great Greek sculptor. 
Of his personal history -we possess but few 
details. He was a native of Athens, and the 
son of Charmides, and was bom about the time 
of the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490. He began 
to work as a sculptor about 464, and one of his 
first great works was the statue of Athene 
Promachos, which may be assigned to about 
460. This work must have established his re- 
putation ; but it was surpassed by the splendid 
productions of his own hand, and of others 
working under his direction, during the admini- 
stration of Pericles. That statesman not only 
chose Phidias to execute the principal statues 
which were to be set up, but gave liim the 
direction of all the works of art which were to 
be erected. Of these works the chief were the 
Propylaea of the Acropolis (built by the archi- 
tect Mnesicles), and, above all, the temple of 
Athene on the Acropolis, called the Parthe- 
non (of which Ictinus and Callierates were the 
architects), on which, as the central point of 
the Athenian polity and religion, the highest 
efforts of the best of artists were employed. 
There can be no doubt that the sculptured 
ornaments of this temple, the remains of which 
form the glory of the British Museum, were 
executed under the immediate superintendence 
of Phidias ; but the colossal statue of the 
divinity made of ivory and gold, which was en- 
closed within that magnificent shrine, was the 
work of the artist's own hand. The statue 
was dedicated in 438. Having finished his 
great work at Athens, he went to Elis and 
Olympia, which he was now invited to adorn. 
' He was there engaged for about four or five 
years from 437 to 434 or 433, during which time 
he finished his statue of the Olympian Zeus, 
the greatest of all his works. On his return 
to Athens, he fell a victim to the jealousy 
ugainst his great patron, Pericles, which was 
then at its height. The party opposed to 
Pericles, thinking him too powerful to be over- 
thrown by a direct attack, aimed nl him in the 
persons of his most cherished friends, Phidias, 

Y Y 



G90 



PHIDIAS 



PHIDON 



Anaxagoras, and Aspasia. [Pebicles.] Phi- 
dias was first accused of peculation, but this 
charge was at once refuted, as, by the advice of 
Pericles, the gold had been affixed to the statue 
of Athene in such a manner that it could be 
removed and the weight of it examined. The 
accusers then charged Phidias with impiety, in 
having introduced into the battle of the Ama- 
zons, on the shield of the goddess, his own 
likeness and that of Pericles. On this latter 
charge Phidias was thrown into prison, where 
he died, in 432 (Plut. Pericl. 31). Phidias had 
executed a statue of Athene for Pallene in 
Achaia (Paus. vii. 27, 1) ; and the colossal statue 
of Athene Promachos on the Acropolis of 
Athens [see p. 11] ; but more famous than 
these was the statue of Athene in the Parthe- 
non, to which reference has already been made. 
The statue was of that kind of work which the 
GreeTts called chryselephantine : that is, the 
statue was formed of plates of ivory laid upon 
a core of wood or stone, for the flesh parts, 
while the drapery and other ornaments were of 
solid gold. The statue stood in the foremost 
and larger chamber of the temple (prodomus). 
It represented the goddess standing, clothed 
with a tunic reaching to the ancles, with her 
spear in her left hand and an image of Victory 
four cubits high in her right : she was girded 
with the aegis, and had a helmet on her head, 
and her shield rested on the ground by her 
side. The height of the statue was twenty-six 
cubits, or nearly forty feet, including the base 
(Pans. i. 24; Plin. xxxvi. 18). The eyes were 
of a kind of marble, nearly resembling ivory, 
perhaps painted to imitate the iris and pupil 
(Plat. Hipp. Maj. p. 290, b). The weight of the 
gold upon the statue, which, as above stated, 
was removable at pleasure, is said by Thucy- 
dides to have been forty talents (ii. 13). — Still 
more celebrated than his statue of Athene was 
the colossal ivory and gold statue of Zeus 
which Phidias made for the great temple of 
this god in the Altis or sacred grove at Olym- 
pia. This statue was regarded as the master- 
piece, not only of Phidias, but of the whole 
range of Grecian art ; and was looked upon 
not so much as a statue, but rather as if it 
were the actual manifestation of the present 
deity. It was placed in the prodomus or front 
chamber of the temple, directly facing the en- 
trance. It was only visible, however, on great 
festivals ; at other times it was concealed by a 
magnificent curtain. The god was represented 
as seated on a throne of cedar wood, adorned 
with gold, ivory, ebony, stones, and colours, 
crowned with a wreath of olive, holding in his 
right hand an ivory and gold statue of Victory, 
and in his left hand supporting a sceptre, 
which was ornamented with all sorts of metals, 
and surmounted by an eagle. The throne was 
brilliant both with gold and stones, and with 
ebony and ivory, and was ornamented with 
figures both painted and sculptured. The 
statue almost reached to the roof, which was 
about sixty feet in height. The idea which 
Phidias essayed to embody in this his greatest 
work was that of the supreme deity of the 
Hellenic nation, no longer engaged in conflicts 
with the Titans and the Giants, but having laid 
aside his thunderbolt, and enthroned as a con- 
queror, in perfect majesty and repose, ruling 
with a nod the subject world. It is related 
(Strab. p. 534 ; Val. Max. iii. 7) that when 
Phidias was asked what model he meant to 
follow in making his statue, lie replied, that of 
Homer (II. i. 528-530) : 



T H, kcu Kvaverjcriv eV btypvai vevffe Kpov'iaiv. 
afifipStricu 5' apa xaiTai ineppdxravro avctKros 
Kparbs d-K adava/roio' fiiyav 5' €\4\i^v"Okv/j.Trov. 

The statue was removed by the emperor Theo- 
dosius I.to Constantinople,where it was destroyed 
by a fire in a.d. 475. — The distinguishing 
character of the art of Phidias was beauty of 
the sublimest order, especially in the represen- 
tation of divinities, and of subjects connected 
with their worship. While on the one hand he 
set himself free from the stiff and unnatural 
forms which, by a sort of religious precedent, 
had fettered his predecessors of the archaic 
school, on the other hand he did not aim. at 
representing the typical beauty of face and 
form which is seen in the works of Polyclitus, 
and still more in those of Praxiteles. In dignity 
and largeness of style he stood pre-eminent. 
[See further in Diet, of Ant. art. Statuaria Ars.~] 
Phidippides or PMlippides (4>ei8iir7ri'8ijs, 
«J>tAt7r-7riS7js), a courier, was sent by the Athe- 
nians to Sparta in B.C. 490, to ask for aid against 
the Persians, and arrived there on the second 
day from his leaving Athens, On his return to 
Athens, he related that on his way to Sparta 
the god Pan had met him on Mt. Parthenium, 
near Tegea, and calling him loudly by name 
had bidden him ask the Athenians why they 
paid him no worship, though he had been hither- 
to their friend, and ever would be so. (Hdt. vi. 
105 ; Paus. i. 28, 4, viii. 54, 6 ; Nep. Milt. 4.) 
In consequence of this revelation, they dedi- 
cated a temple to Pan after the battle of 
Marathon, and honoured him thenceforth with 
annual sacrifices and a torch-race. [Pan.] 

Phidon (QeiSwv). 1. Son of Aristodamidas, 
and king of Argos, restored the supremacy of 
Argos over Cleonae, Phlius, Sicyon, Epidaurus, 
Troezen, and Aegina, and aimed at extending 
his dominions over the greater part of the Pelo- 
ponnesus. Plutarch tells a story of his trying 
(though unsuccessfully) to obtain 1000 picked 
youths from Corinth, whom he intended to put 
to death, and so reduce the power of the Corin- 
thians. The story is improbable in its details, 
but seems to indicate some claim to supremacy 
over Corinth also (Plut. Am. 2). ThePisatanB 
invited him, according to the received text of 
Pausanias, in the 8th Olympiad (B.C. 748), to aid 
them in excluding the Eleans from their usurped 
presidency at the Olympic games, and to cele- 
brate them jointly with themselves. The invi- 
tation quite fell in with the ambitious pretensions 
of Phidon, who succeeded in dispossessing the 
Eleans and celebrating the games along with 
the Pisatans ; but the Eleans not long after 
defeated him, with the aid of Sparta, and re- 
covered their privilege. Thus apparently fell 
the power of Phidon ; but as to the details of 
the struggle we have no information. The most 
memorable act of Phidon was his introduction 
of copper and silver coinage, and a new scale of 
weights and measures, which, through his in- 
fluence, became prevalent in the Peloponnesus, 
and ultimately throughout the greater portion 
of Greece. (Hdt. vi. 127 ; Ephorus, ap. Strab. 
p. 358 ; Ar. Pol. v. 10, p. 1310 ; Paus. vi. 22, 2 ; 
Diog. Laert. viii. 14 ; Ael. V. H. xii. 10.) The 
coinage of Phidon is said to have been struck in 
Aegina, with the type of a tortoise (a symbol of 
the Phoenician Astarte). [Diet, of Ant. art. 
Pondera.] There is considerable doubt about 
the date of Phidon. The date assigned to the 
earliest Greek coins is the seventh cent. B.C., 
which agrees with Hdt. vi. 127, where Phidon 
I the tyrant of Argos who regulated measures in 



PHIGALIA 

the Peloponnesus and interfered at Olympia is 
said to be the father of one of the suitors of 
Agariste. This would bring Phidon near to the 
time of Clisthenes of Sicyon, and would pre- 
clude an earlier date for his reign than the 
middle of the seventh cent. B.C. It has been 
suggested that the text of Pausanias is corrupt 
and that 01. 28, instead of 8 (i. e. 658 B.C.), should 
be read. The suggestion that there was an 
earlier Phidon also is not satisfactory. — 2. An 
ancient Corinthian legislator of uncertain date. 

Phigalia (QiyaKia, <Piyd\eia, •biya.Kea : <&iya- 
\evs : Pavlitza), at a later time called Phialia, 
a town in the SW. corner of Arcadia on the 
frontiers of Messenia and Elis, and upon the 
river Lymax. It is said to have derived its 
name from Phigalus, son of Lycaon, its founder 
(Paus. viii. 39, 2 ; Steph. B. s. v.). It was taken 
by the Spartans B.C. 559, but was afterwards 
recovered by the Phigalians with the help of 



PHILA 



691 



are standing. The temple is 125 feet long by 
46 broad. In 1812 the frieze round the interior 
of the inner cella was discovered, containing a 
series of sculptures in alto-rilievo, representing 
the combat of the Centaurs and the Lapithae, 
and of the Greeks and the Amazons "see cut on 
p. 59]. The height of the frieze was a little 
more than two feet, and the total length about 
100 feet. The sculptures were found on the 
ground under the spot which they originally 
occupied, and were much injured by their fall, 
and by the weight of the ruins lying upon them. 
They were purchased for the British Museum 
in 1814, where they are preserved. About 3j 
miles from Phigalia (according to Paus. viii. 
42, 1) under the hill Elaeum was the ancient 
sanctuary of the ' Black ' Demeter, a cave in 
which was an image of the goddess with a 
horse's head [see p. 277, b]. A natural tunnel 
through which the river Neda (Vvntziko) runs, 




Bemalns of the Temple of Apollo at Bassac, near Phigalia. 



the Oresthasians. It is frequently mentioned 
in the later wars of the Achaean and Aetolian i 
Leagues (Paus. viii. 89, 4 ; Diod. xv. 40 ; Pol. 
iv. 3, 79). — Phigalia, however, owes its celebrity 
in modern times to the remains of a splendid 
temple in its territory, situate about six miles 
NE. of the town at Baesae on Mt. C'otylum. 
This temple was built by Ictinus, the contem- 
porary of Pericles and Phidias, and the archi- 
tect, along with Callicrates, of the Parthenon 
at Athena. It was dedicated to Apollo Epi- 
curius, or the Deliverer, because the god had 
•delivered the country from the pestilence 
during the Peloponnesian war. Pausanias de- 
scribes this temple as the most beautiful one in 
all Peloponnesus after the temple of Athene at 1 
Tegea. It is a Doric hexastyle [see Diet, of 
Ant. art. Templum], but with fifteen columns i 
at the sides, and therefore thirty-eight columns 
in the whole outer circuit, of which all but three 



now called Stomion tes Panurjias, is shown as 
the site of this sanctuary, it is about three 
miles W. of Phigalia. 

Phila (<f>i'Aa), daughter of Antipater, the 
regent of Macedonia, was married to Craterus 
in B.C. 322, and after the death of Craterus, who 
survived his marriage with her scarcely a year, 
she was again married to the young Demetrius, 
the son of Antigonus. When Demetrius was 
expelled from Macedonia in 287, she put an end 
to her own life at Cassandrea. She showed 
nobility of character in her endeavours to pro- 
mote peace and to check oppression. She left 
two children by Demetrius : Antigonus, sur- 
namedGonatas,and a daughter, Stratonice, mar- 
ried first to Seleucus, and afterwards to his son 
Antiochus. (Plut. JDemetV. 14-45; Diod.xx. 98.) 

Phila (•p'iKa: ♦iAai'<<r, -piAaTTjs). A town of 
Macedonia in the province Pieria, situated on a 
steep hill on the Peneus between Dium and 

y y 2 



692 PHILADELPHIA 



PHILEMON 



Tempe and at the entrance into Thessaly, built 
by Demetrius II. and named after bis mother 
Phila (Liv. xlii. 67 ; Steph. B. s. v.). 

Philadelphia (<&iAa5eA<t>Ha : *(Aa5eA4>eus). 
1. (Allah S/iehr, Eu.), a city of Lydia, at the foot 
of M. Tmolus, on the little river Cogamus, SE. 
of Sardis. It was built by Attalus Philadel- 
phus, king of Pergamus. It suffered severely 
from earthquakes ; so that in Strabo's time 
(under Augustus) it had greatly declined. In 
the reign of Tiberius, it was almost destroyed 
by one of these visitations. (Strab. p. 628 ; Tac. 
Ann. ii. 47 ; Steph. B. s. v.) It was an early 
seat of Christianity, and its church is one of 
the seven to which the Apocalypse is addressed 
(Rev. iii. 7). — 2. A city of Cilicia Aspera, N. of 
Claudiopolis (Ptol. v. 8, 5). — 3. In Palestine, 
[Rabbatamana.] 

Philadelphus (•biAdBeAcpos), a surname of 
Ptolemaeus II. king of Egypt [Ptolemaeus] 
and of Attalus II. king of Pergamum [Attalus]. 

Philae (4>iAcu: Jesiret-el-Birbeh, i.e. the 
Island of Temples), an island in the Nile, just 
above the First Cataract (of Syene),on the S. 
boundary of the country towards Aethiopia. 
It was inhabited by Egyptians and Ethiopians 
jointly, and was covered with magnificent 
temples, whose splendid ruins still remain. It 
was celebrated in Egyptian mythology as the 
burial-place of Osiris and Isis. (Strab. pp. 40, 
803, 818, 820 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 74 ; Diod. i. 22 ; Sen. 
Q. IV. iv. 1 j Plin. v. 59.) 

Philaeni (<t>'iAaivoi), two brothers, citizens of 
Carthage, of whom the following story is told. 
A dispute having arisen between the Cartha- 
ginians and Cyrenaeans about their boundaries, 
it was agreed that deputies should start at a 
fixed time from each of the cities, and that the 
place of their meeting, wherever it might be, 
should thenceforth form the limit of the two 
territories. The Philaeni were appointed for 
this service on the part of the Carthaginians, 
and advanced much further than the Cyrenaean 
party. The Cyrenaeans accused them of having 
set forth before the time agreed upon, but at 
length consented to accept the spot which they 
had reached as a boundary-line, if the Philaeni 
would submit to be buried alive there in the 
sand. Should they decline the offer, they were 
willing, they said, on their side, if permitted to 
advance as far as they pleased, to purchase for 
Cyrene an extension of territory by a similar 
death. The Philaeni accordingly then and 
there devoted themselves for their country, in 
the way proposed. The Carthaginians paid 
high honours to their memory, and erected 
altars to them where they had died ; and from 
these, even long after all traces of them had 
vanished, the place still continued to be called 
' The Altars of the Philaeni.' (Sail. lug. 75 ; 
cf. Val. Max. v. 6, 4 ; Strab. pp. 171, 836 ; Sil. 
It. xv. 701.) Our main authority for this story 
is Sallust, who probably derived his information 
from African traditions during the time that he 
was proconsul of Numidia. The Greek name 
by which the heroic brothers have become 
known to us — $'i\cuvoi, or lovers of praise — may 
have been framed to suit the tale, or the tale to 
explain the name. 

Phllagrius (QiAdypios), a Greek medical 
writer, born in Epirus, lived after Galen and 
before Oribasius, and therefore probably in the 
third century after Christ. He wrote several 
works, of which only a few fragments remain. 

Phllammon {QiAdfiniav), a mythical poet and 
musician of the pre-Homeric period, was said 
to have been the son, of Apollo and the nymph 



Chione, or Philonis, or Leuconoe. (Theocr. 
xxiv. 118 ; Hyg. Fab. 161 ; Ov. Met. xi. 317.) 
By the nymph Agriope, who dwelt on Par- 
nassus, he became the father of Thamyris and 
Eumolpus (Eur. Bhes. 916; Apollod. i. 3,3; 
Paus. iv. 33, 3). He is closely associated with 
the worship of Apollo at Delphi, and with the 
music of the cithara. He is said to have 
established the choruses of girls, who, in the 
Delphian worship of Apollo, sang hymns in 
which they celebrated the births of Latona, 
Artemis, and Apollo. Pausanias relates that 
in the most ancient musical contests at Delphi, 
the first who conquered was Chrysothemis of 
Crete, the second was Philammon, and the next 
after him his son Thamyris. (Paus. x. 7,2; 
Plut. Mm. pp. 1132, 1133.) 

Phllargyrius Junius, or Philargyrus, or 
Junilius Plagrius, an early commentator upon 
Virgil, who wrote upon the Bucolics and 
Georgics. His observations are less elaborate 
than those of Servius, and have descended to 
us in a mutilated condition. The period when 
he flourished is altogether uncertain. They are 
printed in the edition of Virgil by Burmann. 

Phile or Philes, Manuel (MavovrjA 6 <t>iA.r)s), 
a Byzantine poet, and a native of Ephesus, was 
born about a.d. 1275, and died about 1340. His 
poem, Be Animalium Proprietate, chiefly ex- 
tracted from Aelian, is edited by De Paw, 
Traj. Bhen. 1739, and his other poems on 
various subjects by Wernsdorf, Lips. 1768. 

Phileas ($iAe'as), a Greek geographer of 
Athens, whose time cannot be determined with 
certainty, but who probably belonged to the 
older period of Athenian literature (Macrob. 
v. 20 ; Avien. Or. Mar. 42). He was the author 
of a Periplus, which was divided into two parts, 
one on Asia, and the other on Europe. 

Philemon ($i\r)ixaiv). 1. An aged Phrygian 
and husband of Baucis. Once upon a time, 
Zeus and Hermes, assuming the appearance of 
ordinary mortals, visited Phrygia ; but no one 
was willing to receive the strangers, until the 
hospitable hut of Philemon and Baucis was 
opened to them, where the two gods were kindly 
treated. Zeus rewarded the good old couple 
by taking them to an eminence, while all the 
neighbouring district was visited with a sudden 
inundation. On that eminence Zeus appointed 
them the guardians of his temple, and allowed 
them both to die at the same moment, and then 
changed them into trees (Ov. Met. viii. 620- 
724). — 2. An Athenian poet of the New Comedy, 
was the son of Damon, and a native of Soli in 
Cilicia, but at an early age went to Athens, and 
there received the citizenship (Strab. p. 671). 
He was born about 360 B.C., a little earlier than 
Menander, whom, however, he long survived. 
He began to exhibit about b.c. 330. He was 
the first poet of the New Comedy in order of 
time, and the second in celebrity; and he 
shares with Menander the honour of its inven- 
tion, or rather of reducing it to a regular form. 
Philemon lived nearly 100 years. (Diod. xxiii. 
7; Lucian, Macrob. 25; Val. Max. ix. 12, 6; 
Suid. s. v.) The manner of his death is dif- 
ferently related : some ascribing it to excessive 
laughter at a ludicrous incident ; others to joy 
at obtaining a victory in a dramatic contest; 
while another story represents him as quietly 
called away by the goddesses whom he served, 
in the midst of the composition or representa- 
tion of his last and best work. Although there 
can be no doubt that Philemon was inferior to 
Menander as a' poet, yet he was a greater 
favourite with the Athenians, and often con- 



PHILETAEEUS 

quered his rival in the dramatic contests. 
[Menander.] The extant fragments of Phile- 
mon display much liveliness, wit and practical 
knowledge of life. His favourite subjects seem 
to have been love intrigues, and his characters 
were the standing ones of the New Comedy, 
with which Plautus and Terence have made us 
familiar. The Mercator and Trinummus of 
Plautus are adapted from Philemon's plays 
v E^7ropos and Qricravpos. The number of his 
plays was ninety-seven ; the number of extant 
titles, after tbe doubtful and spurious are re- 
jected, amounts to about fifty-three ; but it is 
very probable that some of these should be 
assigned to the younger Philemon. The frag- 
ments of Philemon are printed with those of 
Menander by Meineke, in his Fragmenta 
Comicorum Graecoru m . — 3. The younger Phile- 
mon, also a poet of the New Comedy, was a son 
of the former, in whose fame nearly all that 
belongs to him has been absorbed ; so that, al- 
though he was the author of fifty-four dramas, 
there are only two short fragments, and not one 
title, quoted expressly under his name. — 4. The 
author of a Ae£inbv rexvoKoyiKov, the extant 
portion of which was first edited by Burney. 
Lond. 1812, and afterwards by Osann, Berlin, 
1821. The author informs us that his work was 
intended to take the place of a similar Lexicon 
by the grammarian Hyperechius. The work of 
Hyperechius was arranged in eight books, ac- 
cording to the eight different parts of speech. 
Philemon's lexicon was a meagre epitome of 
this work ; and the part of it which is extant 
consists of the first book and the beginning of 
the second. Hyperechius lived about the 
middle of the fifth century of our era, and Phi- 
lemon may probably be placed in the seventh. 

PhUetaerus (*iA€VaiposJ. 1. Founder of the 
kingdom of Pergamus, was a native of Tieium 
in Paphlagonia (Strab. pp. 543, 023). He is 
first mentioned in the service of Docimus, the 
general of Antigonus, from which he passed 
into that of Lysimachus, who entrusted him 
with the charge of the treasures which he had 
deposited in the strong fortress of Pergamum. 
Towards the end of the reign of Lysimachus he 
declared in favour of Seleucus ; and, after the 
death of the latter (b.c. 280), he took advantage 
of the disorders in Asia to establish himself in 
virtual independence. At his death he trans- 
mitted the government to his nephew Eumenes. 
He lived to the age of 80, and died apparently 
in 203 (Lucian, Macrob. 12). — 2. An Athenian 
poet of the so-called Middle Comedy. He wrote 
twenty-one plays (Suid. s. v.). 

Philetas (♦i"\7)t5s), of Cos, the son of Tele- 
phus, a distinguished Alexandrian poet and 
grammarian, flourished during the reign of the 
first Ptolemy, who appointed him tutor of his 
his son, Ptolemy II. Philadelphia. His death 
may be placed about B.C. 280. Philetas seems 
to huve been naturally of a very' weak consti- 
tution, which at last broke down under exces- 
sive study. He was so remarkably thin as to 
become an object for the ridicule of the comic 
poets, who represented him as wearing leaden 
soles to his shoes, to prevent his being blown 
away by a strong wind. (Athen. pp. 401, 552 ; 
Plut. An Seni sit ger. Iiesj). p. 791 ; Ael. V.I1. 
ix. 14.) His poetry was chiefly elegiac. Of all 
the writers in that department he was esteemed 
the beat after Callimachus, to whom a taste 
leHs pedantic than that of the Alexandrian 
critics would probably have preferred him, for, 
to judge by his fragments, he escaped the 
snare of learned affectation. These two poets 



PHILIPPINES 693 
formed the chief models for the Roman elegy ; 
and Propertius expressly states in one passage 
that he im i tated Philetas in preference to 
Callimachus (Propert. iv. 1, 1). The elegies of 
Philetas were chiefly amatory, and a large por- 
tion of them was devoted to the praises of his 
mistress Bittis, or, as the Latin poets give the 
name, Battis. Besides poems, Philetas wrote 
in prose on grammar and criticism. His most 
important grammatical work was entitled 
"AraKra. The fragments of Philetas have 
been collected by Bach, with those of Her- 
mesianax and Phanocles, Halis Sax. 1829. 
Phlleus. [Pythtus.] 

Philinus (*i\iVor). 1. A Greek of Agrigen- 
tum, accompanied Hannibal in his campaigns 
against Rome, and wrote a history of the Punic 
wars, in which he exhibited much partiality 
towards Carthage (Nep. Sann. 13; Pol. i. 14, 
iii. 26). — 2. An Attic orator, a contemporary of 
Demosthenes and Lycurgus. He is mentioned 
by Demosthenes in his oration against Midias, 
who calls him the son of Nicostratus, and says 
that he was trierareh with him (Dem. Meid. p. 
566, § 161). Three orations of Philinus are 
mentioned by the grammarians (Harpocrat. s. v.). 
— 3. A Greek physician, born in the island of 
Cos, and the reputed founder of the sect of 
the Empirici, probably lived in the third cen- 
tury b.c. He wrote a work on part of the 
Hippocratic collection, and also one on botany. 

Philippi (<Pi'A.i7nn)i : 4>(Ai7T7rei;j, 4>i\(7T7rij(Tioj, 
<&i\LTrirriv6s : Filibali or Felibejik), a celebrated 
city in Macedonia Adjecta [see p. 512, b], was 
situated on a steep height of Mt. Pangaeus, and 




Coin of Philippi (4th cent. B.C.). 
Obv., head of Heracles in lion-skin ; at., i i.unnnN, tripod, 
and palm above it. 

on the river Gangas or Gangites, between the 
rivers Nestus and Strymon. It was founded by 
Philip on the site of an ancient town Crenides 
(Kpijei'Ser), a colony of the Thasians, who 
settled here on account of the valuable gold 
mines in the neighbourhood. (Strab. p. 331 ; 
App. B.C. iv. 105, 107.) Philippi is celebrated 
in history in consequence of the victory gained 
here by Octavianus and Antony over Brutus 
and Cassius, B.C. 42, and as the place where 
the Apostle Paul first preached in Europe, a.d. 
53. [For its importance in the history of the 
Church, see Diet, of the Bible.] It was made a 
Roman colony by Octavianus after the victory 
over Brutus and Cassius, under the name of 
| Col. Augusta Julia Phiuppentis J and it was 
[ under the empire a flourishing city (Dio Cass, 
li. I ; C.I.L. iii. 600). Its seaport was Datum 
or Datus on the Strymonic gulf. 

Philippides (+iAi7r7ri'57)i). 1. See Pmnir- 
PIDEB. — 2. Of Athens, the son of PhilocleB, is 
mentioned as one of the six principal comic 
poets of the New Comedy by the grammarians. 
He wrote about B.C. 323. Philippides seems 
to have deserved the rank assigned to him, as 
one of the best poets of the New Comedy. 
He attacked the luxury and corruptions of his 
age, defended the privileges of his art, and 
made use of personal satire with a spirit ap- 
proaching to that of the Old Comedy (Plut. 



694 



PHILIPPOPOLIS 



PHILIPPUS 



Demetr. 12, 26, Amat. p. 730). His death is 
said to have been caused by excessive joy at 
an unexpected victory (Gell. hi. 15) : similar 
tales are told of the deaths of other poets, as, 
for example, Sophocles, Alexis, and Philemon. 
The number of his dramas is stated at forty- 
five. (Suid. s.v.) 

Philippopolis (#iA.!7nr<$7roAis). 1. (Philippo- 
poli), an important town in Thrace founded by 
Philip of Macedon on the site of a place 
previously called Eumolpias or Poneropolis. 
It was situated in a large plain SE. of the 
Hebrus on a hill with three summits, whence 
it was sometimes called Trimontium. (Am, 
Marc. xxvi. 10, 4 ; Ptol. hi. 11, 12 ; Tac. Ann. 
iii. 38.) Under the Roman empire it was the 
capital of the province of Thracia in its nar- 
rower sense, and one of the most important 
towns in the country. — 2. A city of Arabia, near 
Bostra, found by the Roman emperor Philippus 
(Aurel. Vict. Caes. 28). 

Philippus (4>i'A.i7T7ros). I. Minor historical 
persons. 1. Son of Alexander I. of Macedonia, 
and brother of Perdiccas II., against whom he 
rebelled in conjunction with Derdas. The rebels 
were aided by the Athenians, B.C. 432. (Thuc. i. 
57, ii. 95, 100.)— 2. Son of Herod the Great, 
King of Judaea, by his wife Cleopatra, was 
appointed by his father's will tetrarch of 
Ituraea and Trachonitis, the sovereignty of 
which was confirmed to him by the decision of 
Augustus (Jos. Ant. xvii. 8, xviii. 2). He con- 
tinued to reign over the dominions thus en- 
trusted to his charge for thirty-seven years 
(b.c. 4-a.d. 34). He founded the city of Cae- 
sarea, surnamed Paneas, but more commonly 
known as Caesarea Philippi, near the sources 
of the Jordan, which he named in honour of 
Augustus. [Caesabea, No. 2.] — 3. Son of 
Herod the Great, by Mariamne, whose proper 
name was Herodes Philippus. [See Diet, of 
the Bible.] 

II. Kings of Macedonia. 
I., son of Argaeus, was the third king, ac- 
cording to Herodotus and Thucydides, who, not 
reckoning Cabanus and his two immediate 
successors (Coenus and Thurimas or Turim- 
mas), look upon Perdiccas I. as the founder of 
the monarchy. Philip left a son, named Aero- 
,pus, who succeeded him (Hdt. viii. 137 ; Thuc. 
ii. 100; Just. vii. 2). — II., youngest son of 
Amyntas II. and Eurydice, reigned b.c. 359- 
336. He was born in 382, and was brought up 
at Thebes, whither he had been carried as a 
hostage by Pelopidas, and where he received 
a most careful education. He thus became ac- 
quainted with Greek literature and philosophy, 
with Greek politics, and with the Greek method 
of war. (Diod. xvi. 2 ; Plut. Pelop. 26 ; Just, 
vii. 5.) According to some accounts he was for 
a time a hostage with the Illyrians before he 
went to Thebes. Upon the death of his 
brother Perdiccas III., who was slain in battle 
against the Illyrians, Philip obtained the 
government of Macedonia, at first merely as 
regent and guardian to his infant nephew, 
Amyntas ; but within two years he was enabled 
to set aside the claims of the young prince, 
and to assume for himself the title of king, 
B.C. 358. Macedonia was beset by dangers on 
every side. Its territory was ravaged by the 
Illyrians on the W., and the Paeonians on the 
N., while Pausanias and Argaeus took advantage 
of the crisis to put forward their pretensions 
to the throne. Philip was fully equal to the 
emergency. By his tact and eloquence he 



sustained the failing spirits of the Macedonians, 
while at the same time he introduced among 
them a stricter military discipline, and orga- 
nised their army on the plan of the phalanx. 
He first turned his arms against Argaeus, the 
most formidable of the pretenders, since he 
was supported by the Athenians. He defeated 
Argaeus in battle, and then concluded a peace 
with the Athenians. He next attacked the 
Paeonians, whom he reduced to subjection, 
and immediately afterwards defeated the Illy- 
rians in a decisive battle, and compelled them 
to accept a peace, by which they lost a portion 
of their territory (Diod. xvi. 4). Thus in the 
short period of one year, and at the age of 
twenty-four, had Philip delivered himself from 
his dangerous position, and provided for the 
security of his kingdom. But energy and 
talents such as his were not satisfied with 
mere security, and henceforth his views were 
directed, not to defence, but to aggrandise- 
ment. He first sought to obtain possession 
of the various Greek cities upon the Mace- 
donian coast. Soon after his accession he 
had withdrawn his garrison from Amphipolis, 
and had declared it a free city, because the 
Athenians had supported Argaeus with the 
hope of recovering Amphipolis, and his con- 
tinuing to hold the place would have inter- 
posed difficulties in the way of a peace with 
Athens, which was at that time an object of 
great importance to him. But he had never 
meant seriously to abandon this important 
town ; and accordingly, having obtained pre- 
texts for war with the Amphipolitans, he laid 
siege to the town and gained possession of it 
in 357. (Dem. Olynth. ii. pp. 11, 19, Phil. p. 70 ; 
Aristocr. p. 659; [Dem.] Hal. p. 83.) The 
Athenians had sent no assistance to Amphi- 
polis, because Philip in a secret negotiation 
with the Athenians, led them to believe that 
he was willing to restore the city to them when 
he had taken it, and would do so on condition 
of their making him master of, Pydna. After 
the capture of Amphipolis, he proceeded at 
once to Pydna, which seems to have yielded to 
him without a struggle, and the acquisition of 
which, by his own arms, and not through the 
Athenians, gave him a pretext for declining to 
stand by his secret engagement with them. 
The hostile feeling which such conduct neces- 
sarily excited against him at Athens, made it 
most important for him to secure the good will 
of the powerful town of Olynthus, and to de- 
tach the Olynthians from the Athenians. Ac- 
cordingly he gave to the Olynthians the town of 
Potidaea, which he took from the Athenians in 
356. Soon after this, he attacked and took a 
settlement of the Thasians, called Crenides, 
and, having introduced into the place a num- 
ber of new colonists, he named it Philippi after 
himself. One great advantage of this acquisition 
was, that it put him in possession of the gold 
mines of the district, from which he is said to 
have derived annually a thousand talents (Diod. 
xvi. 8 ; Strab. p. 323). Prom this point there 
is for some time a pause in the active opera- 
tions of Philip. In 354 he took Methone after 
a lengthened siege, in the course of which he 
himself lost an eye (Diod. xvi. 31, 34 ; Dem. 
Olynth. i. p. 12). The capture of this place 
was a necessary preliminary in any movement 
towards the S., lying as it did between him and 
the Thessalian border. He now marched into 
Thessaly to aid the Aleuadae against Lyco- 
phron, the tyrant of Pherae. The Phocians 
sent a force to support Lycophron, but they 



PHILIPPUS 



69j 



were defeated by Philip, at Pagasae, B.C. 352, 
and their general Onomarchus slain. This 
victory gave Philip the ascendency in Thessaly. j 
He established at Pherae what he wished the j 
Greeks to consider a free government, and 
then advanced southward to Thermopylae, j 
The pass, however, he found guarded by a 
strong Athenian force, and he was compelled, j 
or at least thought it expedient, to retire. He | 
now turned his arms against Thrace, and sue- | 
ceeded in establishing his ascendency in that 
country also. Meanwhile Philip's movements 
in Thessaly had opened the eyes of Demo- 
sthenes to the real danger of Athens and Greece, 
and his first Philippic (delivered in 352) was 
his earliest attempt to rouse his countrymen 
to energetic efforts against their enemy ; but 
he did not produce much effect upon the 
Athenians. In 349 Philip commenced his 
attacks on the Chalcidian cities. Olynthus, in 
alarm, applied to Athens for aid, and Demo- 
sthenes, in his three Olynthiac orations, roused 
the people to efforts against the common 
enemy, not very vigorous at first and fruitless 
in the end. In the course of three years Philip 
gained possession of all the Chalcidian cities, 
and the war was brought to a conclusion by the 
capture of Olynthus itself in 3-48. In the fol- 
lowing year he concluded peace with the 
Athenians on the basis that he kept all that he 
had gained, and that the Phocians were ex- 
cluded from the alliance. The consent of the 
Athenians to this treaty was obtained by the 




Gold stater of Philippus II.. King of Macedonia, 
B.C. 359-836. 

Obv.. head of Apollo with laorel wreath; rw. t •JAinnOY; 
charioteer in blga. (These coins were the lafmrctot, called 
by Horace ' regale nomisma, Phillppl,' Ep. ii. 1. 234.) 

assurances of Philocrates and Aeschines, their 
ambassadors, who had been bribed by Philip 
(Dem. FJj. p. 439). In 346 he marched into 
Phocis, and brought the Phocian war to an end. 
The Phocian cities were destroyed, and their 
place in the Amphictyonic council was made 
over to the king of Macedonia, who was ap- 
pointed also, jointly with the Thebans and 
Thessaliang, to the presidency of the Pythian 
games. Ruling us he did over a barbaric na- 
tion, such a recognition of his Hellenic charac- 
ter wus of the greatest value to him, especially 
as he looked forward to an invasion of the 
Persian empire in the name of Greece, united 
under him in a great national confederacy. 
During the next few years Philip steadily 
pursued his ambitious projects. He was en- 
gaged in war with Thrace and with Illyria : 
and he pushed his influence into the Pelopon- 
nese by lending troops to aid the Argives in 
driving back the Spartuns (Dem. tie Pac. 61 ; 
Phil. ii. p. 69). From 342 to 340 he was en- 
gaged in an expedition in Thrace, and attempted 
to bring under his power all the Greek cities 
in that country (Diotl. xvi. 74, 75). In the last 
of these years he laid siege to Perinthus and 
Byzantium; but the Athenians, who hud long 
viewed Philip's aggrandisement with fear and 
alarm, now resolved to send assistance to these 
cities. Phocion was appointed to the com- 
mand of the armament destined for this 



service, and succeeded in compelling Philip to 
raise the siege of both the cities (339). Philip 
now proceeded to carry on war against his 
northern neighbours, and seemed to give him- 
self no further concern about the affairs of 
Greece. Against the Triballi he was unsuc- 
cessful, and received a wound in the tlugh 
(Just. ix. 2). But meanwhile his hirelings were 
treacherously promoting his designs against 
the liberties of Greece. In 339 the Amphic- 
tyons declared war against the Locrians of 
Ampliissa for having taken possession of a 
district of the sacred land ; but as the general 
they had appointed to the command of the 
Amphictyonic army was unable to effect any- 
thing against the enemy, the Amphictyons at 
their next meeting in 338 conferred upon 
Philip the command of their army. Philip 
straightway marched through Thermopylae and 
seized Elatea. The Athenians heard of his 
approach with alarm ; they succeeded, mainly 
through the influence of Demosthenes, in 
forming an alliance with the Thebans ; but 
their united arrny was defeated by Philip in 
the month of August, 338, in the decisive battle 
of Chaeronea, which put an end to the inde- 
pendence of Greece. He used his victory, as 
before in the defeat of the Phocians, with 
moderation. Thebes was forced to acknowledge 
the independence of other Boeotian cities and 
to receive a Macedonian garrison, but escaped 
destruction : Athens had merely to acknowledge 
his hegemony in Greece, and received the town 
of Oropus as a present. Philip now seemed to 
have within his reach the accomplishment of 
of the great object of his ambition, the invasion 
and conquest of the Persian empire. In a 
congress held at Corinth, which was attended 
by deputies from every Grecian state with the 
exception of Sparta, war with Persia was deter- 
mined on, and the king of Macedonia was 
appointed to command the forces of the national 
confederacy. In 337 Philip's marriage with 
Cleopatra, the daughter of Attalus, one of his 
generals, led to the most serious disturbances 
in his family. Olympias and Alexander with- 
drew in great indignation from Macedonia ; 
and though they returned home soon after- 
wards, they continued to be on hostile terms 
with Philip. Meanwhile, his preparations for 
his Asiatic expedition were not neglected, and 
early in 336 he sent forces into Asia, under 
Parmenion, to draw over the Greek cities to his 
cause (Diod. xvi. 91 ; Just. ix. 5). But in the 
summer of this year he was murdered at a 
grand festival which he held at Aegae, to 
solemnise the nuptials of his daughter with 
Alexander of Epirus. His murderer was a 
youth of noble blood, named Pausanias, who 
stabbed him as he was walking in the pro- 
cession. The assassin was immediately pur- 
sued and slain by some of the royal guards. 
His motive for the deed is stated by Aristotle 
to have been private resentment against Philip, 
to whom he hud coinpluined in vain of a gross 
outrage offered to him by Attalus. Olympias 
and Alexander were suspected (probably un- 
justly) of being implicated in the plot. [Olym- 
pias. J Philip died in the forty-seventh year of his 
age and the twenty-fourth of his reign, and was 
succeeded by Alexander the Great. Philip hud 
a great number of wives and concubines. Be- 
sides Olympias and Cleopatra, we may mention, 
(1) his first wife, Audatu, an Illyriun princess, 
and the mother of Oynune ; (2) Phila, Bister of 
Derdus and Maehutas, a princess of Elymiotinj 
(3) Nicesipolis of Pherae, the mother of Thessa- 



G96 



PHILIPPUS 



lonica ; (4) Philinna of Larissa, the mother of 
Arrhidaeus ; (5) Meda, daughter of Cithelas, 
king of Thrace ; (6) Arsinoe, the mother of 
Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, with whom she was 
pregnant when she married Lagus. To these 
numerous connexions temperament as well as 
policy seems to have inclined him. He yvas 
strongly addicted, indeed, to sensual enjoy- 
ment of every kind. ; but his passions, however 
strong, were always kept in subjection to his 
interests and ambitious views. He was fond 
of science and literature, in the patronage of 
which he appears to have been liberal ; and his 
appreciation of great minds is shown by his 
connexion with Aristotle. In the pursuit of 
his political objects he was, as we have seen, 
unscrupulous, and ever ready to resort to du- 
plicity and corruption ; but when we consider 
the numerous instances of his humanity and 
clemency, we may admit that he does not 
appear to disadvantage by the side of other 
conquerors. (For authorities see the public 
orations of Demosthenes ; Aesch. F. L. and 
c. Ctes. ; Isocr. Phil. ; Diod. xvi. ; Just, vii.-ix. ; 
Plut. jDera., Phoc, Alex.) — III., the name of 
Philip was bestowed by the Macedonian army 
upon Arrhidaeus, the bastard son of Philip II., 
when he was raised to the throne after the 
death of Alexander the Great. He accordingly 
appears in the list of Macedonian kings as 
Philip III. For his life and reign see Arrhi- 
daeus. — IV., eldest son of Cassander, whom 
he succeeded on the throne, B.C. 296. He 
reigned only a few months, and was carried off 
by a consumptive disorder (Paus. ix. 7 ; Just, 
xv. 4, xvi. 1). — V., son of Demetrius II., reigned 
B.C. 220-178. He was only eight years old at 




Coin of Philippus V., King of Macedonia, B.C. 220-178. 
Obv., head of Philip ; rev., baiiaeos iiAinnoY; club, sur- 
rounded by oak-wreath. 

the death of his father, Demetrius (229) ; and 
the sovereign power was consequently assumed 
by his uncle Antigonus Doson, who, though he 
certainly ruled as king rather than merely as 
guardian of his nephew, was faithful to the 
interests of Philip, to whom he transferred 
the sovereignty at his death in 220, to the 
exclusion of his own children. (Pol. ii. 45, 70, 
iv. 2 ; Just, xxviii. 4.) Philip was only seven- 
teen years old at the time of his accession, but 
he soon showed that he possessed ability and 
wisdom superior to his years. In consequence 
of the defeat of the Achaeans and Aratus by 
the Aetolians, the former applied for aid to 
Philip. This was granted ; and for the next 
tliree years Philip conducted with distinguished 
success the war against the Aetolians. This 
war, usually called the Social war, was brought 
to a conclusion in 217, and at once gained for 
Philip a distinguished reputation throughout 
Greece, while his clemency and moderation 
secured him an equal measure of popularity. 
(Pol. iv., v.) But a change came over his 
character soon after the close of the Social 
war. He became suspicious and cruel ; and 
having become jealous of his former friend and 



counsellor, Aratus, he caused him to be re- 
moved by a slow and secret poison in 213. (Pol. 
viii. 10-14 ; Plut. Arat. 52.) Meantime he had 
become engaged in war with the Romans. In 
215 he concluded an alliance with Hannibal ; 
but he did not prosecute the war with any 
activity against the Romans, who on their part 
were too much engaged with their formidable 
adversary in Italy to send any powerful arma- 
ment against the Macedonian king. (Liv. xxiii. 
83-39 ; Pol. vii. 9.) In 211 the war assumed a 
new character in consequenee of the alliance 
entered into by the Romans with the Aetolians. 
It was now carried on with greater vigour and 
alternate success ; but as Philip gained several 
advantages over the Aetolians, the latter people 
made peace with Philip in 205. In the course 
of the same year the Romans likewise con- 
cluded a peace with Philip, as they were 
desirous to give their undivided attention to 
the war in Africa. It is probable that both 
parties looked upon this peace as little more 
than a suspension of hostilities. Such was 
clearly the view with which the Romans had 
accepted it ; and Philip not only proceeded to 
carry out his views for his own aggrandisement 
in Greece, without any regard to the Roman 
alliances in that country, but he even sent a 
body of auxiliaries to the Carthaginians in 
Africa, who fought at Zama under Hannibal. 
As soon as the Romans had brought the second 
Punic war to an end, they again declared war 
against Philip, 200. This war lasted between 
three and four years, and was brought to an 
end by the defeat of Philip by the consul 
Flamininus at the battle of Cynoscephalae in 
the autumn of 197. [Flamininus.] By the 
peace finally granted to Philip (196) the king 
was compelled to abandon all his conquests, 
both in Europe and Asia, surrender his whole 
fleet to the Romans, and limit his standing 
army to 5000 men, besides paying a sum of 
1000 talents. (Pol. xviii. 27 ; Liv. xxxiii. 30.) 
Philip was now effectually humbled, and en- 
deavoured to cultivate the friendship of the all- 
powerful republic. But towards the end of his 
reign he determined to try once more the 
fortune of war, and began to make active pre- 
parations for this purpose. His declining years 
were embittered by the disputes between his 
sons Perseus and Demetrius ; and the former 
by forged letters at length persuaded the king 
that Demetrius was plotting against his life, 
and induced him to consent to the execution of 
the unhappy prince. Philip was struck with 
the deepest grief and remorse when he after- 
wards discovered the deceit that had been 
practised upon him. He believed himself to be 
haunted by the avenging spirit of Demetrius, 
and died shortly after, imprecating curses upon 
Perseus. (Liv. xl. 6, 21, 54 ; Pol. xxiv. 7, 8.) 
His death took place in 179, in the fifty-ninth 
year of his age, after a reign of nearly forty-two 
years. 

III. Family of the Marcii Philippi. 
1. Q. Marcius Philippus, praetor 188, with 
Sicily as his province, and consul 186, when he 
carried on war in Liguria with his colleague Sp. 
Postumius Albinus. He was defeated by the 
enemy in the country of the Apuani, and the 
recollection of his defeat was preserved by the 
name of the Saltus Marcius. In 169, Philippus 
was consul a second time, and carried on the war 
in Macedonia against Perseus, but accomplished 
nothing of importance. [Perseus.] In 164, 
Philippus was censor with L. Aemilius Paulus, 



PHILIPPUS 

and in his censorship he set up in the city a 
new sun-dial. (Liv. xxxviii. 35, xxxix. 20, xlii. 37, 
xliv. 1-16; Plin. vii. 214.)— 2. L. Marcius 
Philippus, was a tribune of the plehs, 104, 
when he brought forward an agrarian law, and 
was consul in 91 with Sex. Julius Caesar. In 
this year Philippus, who belonged to the popu- 
lar party, opposed with the greatest vigour the 
measures of the tribune Drusus, who at first 
enjoyed the full confidence of the senate. But 
his opposition was all in vain ; the laws of the 
tribune were carried. Soon afterwards Drusus 
began to be regarded with mistrust and sus- 
picion; Philippus became reconciled to the 
senate, and on his proposition a senatus con- 
sultum was passed, declaring all the laws of 
Drusus to be null and void, as having been 
carried against the auspices. [Drusus.] In the 
civil wars between Marius and Sulla, Philippus 
took no part. He survived the death of Sulla ; 
and he is mentioned afterwards as one of those 
who advocated sending Pompey to conduct the 
war in Spain against Sertorius (Plut. Pomp. 
17). Philippus was one of the most distin- 
guished orators of his time (Hor. Epist. i. 7, 
46 ; Cic. de Or. ii. 78). In this respect he was 
reckoned only inferior toCrassus and Antonius. 
He was a man of luxurious habits, which his 
wealth enabled him to gratify : his fish-ponds 
were particularly celebrated for their magnifi- 
cence and extent, and are mentioned by the 
ancients along with those of Lucullus and 
Hortensius (Varr. JR. B. iii. 3, 10). Besides his 
son, L. Philippus, who is spoken of below, he 
had a stepson, Gellius Publicola [Publicola]. 
— 3. L. Marcius Philippus, son of the preced- 
ing, was consul in 56. Upon the death of C. 
Octavius, the father of Augustus, Philippus 
married his widow Atia, and thus became the 
stepfather of Augustus. Philippus was a 
timid man. Notwithstanding his close connex- 
ion with Caesar's family, he remained neutral 
in the civil wars ; and after the assassination 
of Caesar, he endeavoured to dissuade his step- 
son, the young Octavius, from accepting the 
inheritance which the dictator had left him. 
(Veil. Pat. ii. 60; Suet. Aug. 8 ; App. B. C. iii. 
10, 13.) He lived till his stepson had acquired 
the supremacy of the Roman world. He 
restored the temple of Hercules and the Muses, 
and surrounded it with a colonnade, which is 
frequently mentioned under the name of 
Porticus Philippi (Clari monimenta Philipjii, 
Ov. Fast. vi. 801 ; cf. Suet. Aug. 29). 

IV. Emperors of Borne. 
1. M. Julius Philippus I., Roman emperor 
a.d. 244-249, was an Arabian by birth, and 
entered the Roman army, in which he rose to 
high rank. He accompanied Gordianus III. in 
his expedition against the Persians ; and upon 
the death of the excellent Misitheus [Misi- 
theus] he was promoted to the vacant office of 
praetorian praefect. He availed himself of the 
influence of his high office to excite discontent 
among the soldiers, who at length assassinated 
Gordian, and proclaimed Philippus emperor, 
244. Philippus proclaimed his son Caesai, 
concluded a disgraceful pence with Sapor 
founded the city of Philippopolis, and then 
returned to Rome. In 245 he was engaged in 
prosecuting a successful war against the Carpi, 
on the Danube. In 248, rebellions, headed by 
Iotapinus and Marinus, broke out simultane- 
ously in the East and in Moesia. Both preten- 
ders speedily perished, but Decius having been 
despatched to recall the legions on the Danube 



PHILISCIJS 697 
1 to their duty, was himself forcibly invested 
I with the purple by the troops, and compelled by 
them to march upon Italy. Philippus having 
gone forth to encounter his rival, was slain near 
Verona either in battle or by his own soldiers. 
The great domestic event of the reign of 
Philippus was the exhibition of the Secular 
Games, which were celebrated with even more 
than the ordinary degree of splendour, since 
Rome had now, according to the received tradi- 
tion, attained the thousandth year of her exist- 
ence (a.d. 248). (Aurel. Vict. Caes. xxviii. ; 
! Eutrop. ix. 3 ; Zonar. xii. 19.) — 2. M. Julius 
Philippus II., son of the foregoing, was a boy 
of seven at the accession (244) of his father, by 
| whom he was proclaimed Caesar, and three 
years afterwards (247) received the title of 
Augustus. In 249 he was slain, according to 
Zosimus, at the battle of Verona, or murdered, 
according to Victor, at Rome by the praetorians 
when intelligence arrived of the defeat and 
death of the emperor. (Aur. Vict. Caes. xxviii. ; 
Zos. i. 22.) 

V. Literary. 

1. Of Medma, in the S. of Italy, a Greek 
astronomer, and a disciple of Plato. His obser- 

' vations, which were made in the Peloponnesus 
and in Locris, were used by the astronomers 
Hipparchus, Geminus the Rhodian, and Ptol- 
emy. (Plin. xviii. 312; Vitruv. ix. 7.)— 2. Of 
Thessalonica, an epigrammatic poet, who, 
besides composing a large number of epigrams 
himself, compiled one of the ancient Greek 
Anthologies. The whole number of epigrams 
ascribed to him in the Greek Anthology is 

' nearly ninety ; but of these six (Nos. 36-41) 
ought to be ascribed to Lucilius, and a few 
others are manifestly borrowed from earlier 

■ poets, while others are mere imitations. The 

1 Anthology ('Avdohoyia) of Philip, in imitation 
of that of Meleager, and as a sort of supplement 
to it, contains chiefly the epigrams of poets who 
lived in, or shortly before, the time of Philip. 

j The earliest of these poets seems to be Philo- 

i demus, the contemporary of Cicero, and the 

| latest Automedon, who probably flourished 
under Nerva. Hence it is inferred tliat Philip 
flourished under Trajan. 

Philiscus (4>iA.iVkos). 1. Of Abydos, was 
sent by Ariobarzanes, satrap of Phrygia, B.C. 

j 368, as envoy to mediate between the Thebans 
and Spartans. A congress was held at Delphi 
which led to nothing. Philiscus seems to have 
made the mission a pretext for levying merce- 
naries for Ariobarzanes, who was meditating a 
revolt. Philiscus afterwards exercised a 
tyranny over Greeks in Asia Minor, and was 

I assassinated at Lampsacus. (Xen. Hell. vii. 1 ; 
Diod. xv. 70.) — 2. An Athenian poet of the 
Middle Comedy, of whom little is known. He 
must have flourished about B.C. 400, or a little 
later, as liis portrait was painted by Parrha- 
sius (Plin. xxxv. 70). — 3. Of Miletus, an orator 
or rhetorician, and the disciple of Isocrates, 
wrote a Life of the orator Lycurgus, and an 
epitaph on Lysias (Suid. s. v.) — 4. Of Aegina, 
a Cynic philosopher, was the disciple of Dio- 
genes the Cynic, and the teacher of Alexander 
in grammar (Diog. Laert. vi. 78). — 5. Of Cor- 
eyra, a distinguished tragic poet, and one of the 

: seven who formed the Tragic Pleiad at Alex- 
andria, was also a priest of Dionysus, and in 
that character he was present at the coronation 

j procession of Ptolemy Philadelphus in B.C. 
284. He wrote forty-two dramas. (Atben. 

I p. 198; Plin. xxxv. 106.)— Q. Of Rhodes, a 



698 PHILISTINAE FOSSAE 



PHILO 



sculptor, several of whose works were placed in 
the temple of Apollo, adjoining the portico of 
Octavia at Rome. One of these statues was 
that of the god himself : the others were Latona 
and Diana, the nine Muses, and another statue 
of Apollo, without drapery (Plin. xxxvi. 34). 
He probably lived about B.C. 146. 

Philistmae Fossae. [Padus.] 

PMlistion (#iAicrTiW). 1. Of Nicaea or 
Magnesia, a mimographer, who flourished in 
the time of Augustus, about a.d. 7 (Suid. s.v.). 
— 2. A physician, bom either at one of the 
Greek towns in Sicily, or at Locri Epizephyrii 
in Italy, was tutor to the physician Chrysippus 
of Cnidos and the astronomer and physician 
Eudoxus, and therefore must have lived in the 
fourth century B.C. (Diog. Laert. viii. 8, 89 ; 
Gell. xvii. 11). 

PMlistus ($>'i\tffTos), a Syracusan, son of Ar- 
chonides or Archomenides, was born probably 
about b.c. 435 (Suid. s.v. ; Paus. v. 23, 6). He 
assisted Dionysius in obtaining the supreme 
power, and stood so high in the favour of the 
tyrant that the latter entrusted him with the 
charge of the citadel of Syracuse. But at a 
later period he excited the jealousy of the 
tyrant by marrying, without his consent, one of 
the daughters of his brother Leptines, and was 
in consequence banished from Sicily. He at 
first retired to Thurii, but afterwards estab- 
lished himself at Adria, where he composed his 
history (Diod. xv. 7). He was recalled from 
exile by the younger Dionysius soon after his 
accession, and quickly succeeded in establishing 
his influence over the mind of the latter. He 
exerted all his efforts to alienate Dionysius 
from his former friends, and not only caused 
Plato to be sent back to Athens, but ultimately 
succeeded in effecting the banishment of Dion 
also. Philistus was unfortunately absent from 
Sicily when Dion first landed in the island 
and made himself master of Syracuse, B.C. 356. 
He afterwards raised a powerful fleet, with 
which he gave battle to the Syracusans, but 
having been defeated, and finding himself cut 
off from all hopes of escape, he put an end to 
his own life (Plut. Dion, 11-35 ; Diod. xvi. 11, 
16). Philistus wrote a History of Sicily, which 
was one of the most celebrated historical works 
of antiquity, though unfortunately only a few 
fragments of it have come down to us, He is 
accused of an inclination to favour tyranny and 
palliate the injustice of princes (Plut. Dion, 
36 ; Nep. Dion, 3). It consisted of two por- 
tions, which might be regarded either as two 
separate works, or as parts of one great whole, 
a circumstance which explains the discrepancies 
in the statements of the number of books of 
which it was composed. The first seven books 
comprised the general history of Sicily, com- 
mencing from the earliest times, and ending 
with the capture of Agrigentnm by the Cartha- 
ginians, B.C. 406. The second part, which 
formed a sequel to the first, contained the his- 
tory of the elder Dionysius in four books, and 
that of the younger in two : the latter was 
necessarily imperfect. In point of style Philis- 
tus is represented by the concurrent testimony 
of antiquity as imitating and even closely 
resembling Thucydides, though still falling far 
short of his great model (Cic. ad Q. Fr. ii. 13 ; 
Quintil. x. 1, 74). — The fragments of Philistus 
have been collected by Goeller in an appendix 
to his work De Situet Oriqine Syraciisarum, 
Lips. 1818, and by C. Miiller, in the Fragm. 
Hist. Oraec. Paris, 1841. 

Phllo (<i>i'Aa>e). 1. An Academic philosopher, 



was a native of Larissa and a disciple of Clito- 
machus. After the conquest of Athens by 
Mithridates he removed to Rome, where he 
settled as a teacher of philosophy and rhetoric, 
and had Cicero as one of his hearers (Cic. ad 
Fain. xiii. 1, Brut. 89, 306). His works sup- 
plied Cicero with materials for his account of 
the New Academy in the Academiea (cf. Cic. 
Ac. i. 4, 13, ii. 4, 11).— 2. Byblius, also called 
Hebennius Byblius, a Roman grammarian, 
and a native of Byblus in Phoenicia, lived in 
the time of Vespasian. He wrote many works, 
which are cited by Suidas and others ; but his 
name is chiefly connected with a translation of 
the writings of the Phoenician Sanchuniathon 
which was ascribed to him. [Sanchuniathon.] 
— 3. Of Byzantium, a celebrated mechanician, 
and a contemporary of Ctesibius, . flourished 
about B.C. 146. He wrote a work on military 
engineering, of which the fourth and fifth books 
have come down to us. (Ed. Kb'chly and 
Riistow, 1853.) There is also attributed to this 
Philo a work On the Seven Wonders of the 
World: i.e. the Hanging Gardens, the Pyra- 
mids, the statue of Jupiter Olympius, the Walls 
of Babylon, the Colossus of Rhodes, the Temple 
of Artemis at Ephesus, and, we may presume 
from the prooemium, the Mausoleum ; but the 
last is entirely wanting, and we have only a 
fragment of the Ephesian temple. The work, 
however, is probably by a different, and later, 
writer. Edited by Orelli, Lips. 1816.— 4. Ju- 
daeus, the Jew, was born at Alexandria, and 
was descended from a priestly family of dis- 
tinction. He had already reached an advanced 
age, when he went to Rome (a.d. 40) on. an 
embassy to the emperor Caligula, in order to 
procure the revocation of the decree which 
exacted from the Jews divine homage to the 
statue of the emperor. We have no . other 
particulars of the life of Philo worthy of record. 
His most important works treat of the books of 
Moses, and are generally cited under different 
titles. His great object was to reconcile the 
Sacred Scriptures with the doctrines of the 
Greek philosophy, and to point out the con- 
formity between the two. He maintained that 
the fundamental truths of Greek philosophy 
were derived from the Mosaic revelation ; and 
in order to make the latter agree more per- 
fectly with the former, he had recourse to an 
allegorical interpretation of the books of Moses. 
Philo adopted Eastern views of emanation, and 
his doctrines on the emanation of the forces of 
the world from the Logos, or creative wisdom 
of God, influenced on the one hand the Gno- 
stics, on the other the later school of Neo- 
Platonists. The best edition of his works is by 
Mangey, Lond. 1742, two vols. fo. — 5. A Mega- 
rian philosopher, was a disciple of Diodorus 
Cronus, and a friend of Zeno. — 6. Of Tarsus 
in Cilicia, a celebrated physician, frequently 
quoted by Galen and others. — 7. Artists. (1) 
Son of Antipater, a statuary who lived in the 
time of Alexander the Great, and made the 
statue of Hephaestion, and also the statue of 
Zeus Ourios, which stood on the shore of the 
Black Sea, at the entrance of the Bosporus, 
near Chalcedon, and formed an important land- 
mark for sailors. It was still perfect in the 
time of Cicero {in Verr. iv. 58, 129), and the 
base has been preserved to modern times, bear- 
ing an inscription of eight elegiac verses. 
Other works are alluded to by Pliny (xxxiv. 91). — 
(2) A great architect at Athens in the time of 
the immediate successors of Alexander. He 
built for Demetrius Phalereus, about B.C. 318, 



PHILO 

the portico of twelve Doric columns to the 
great temple at Eleusis. [See pp. 311, 312.] He 
also constructed for the Athenians, under the 
administration of Lycurgus, a basin (arma- 
mentarium) in the Piraeus in which 1000 ships 
could he (Plin. vii. 125 ; C.I.L. ii. 1054). This 
work, which excited the greatest admiration, 
was destroyed in the taking of Athens by Sulla, 
but afterwards restored. (Plut. Sull. 14; Val. 
Max. viii. 12, 2 ; Strab. p. 395.) 

Philo, Q. Publilius, a distinguished general 
in the Samnite wars, and the author of one of 
the great reforms in the Roman constitution. 
He was consul B.C. 339, with Ti. Aemilius 
Mamercinus, and defeated the Latins, over 
whom he triumphed. In the same year he was 
appointed dictator by his colleague Aemilius 
Mamercinus, and, as such, proposed the cele- 
brated Publiliae Leges, which were a most 
important step in equalising the patrician and 
plebeian orders, by ordaining that one of the 
censors must be a plebeian, and by making the 
decrees of the plebs binding. (Diet, of Antiq. 
art. Publiliae Leges.) In 337 Philo was the 
first plebeian praetor, and in 332 he was censor 
with Sp. Postumius Albinus. In 327 he was 
consul a second time, and carried on war in the 
S. of Italy. He was continued in the command 
for the following year with the title of procon- 
sul, the first instance in Roman history in 
which a person was invested with proconsular 
power. He took Palaepolis in 32G. In 320 he 
was consul a third time, with L. Papirius Cur- 
sor, and carried on the war against the Sam- 
nites. (Liv. viii. 15-20, ix. 7-15 ; Diod. xix. 56.) 

Philo, L. Veturius. 1. L., consul b.c. 220, 
with C. Lutatius Catulus ; dictator 217 for the 
purpose of holding the comitia ; and censor 210 
with P. Licinius Crassus Dives, and died wliile 
holding this office (Liv. xxii. 33, xxvii. 6). — 2. 
L., praetor 209, with Cisalpine Gaul as his pro- 
vince. In 207 he served under Claudius Nero 
and Livius Salinator in the campaign against 
Hasdrubal. In 206 he was consul with Q. 
Caecilius Metellus, and in conjunction with his 
colleague carried on the war against Hannibal 
in Bruttium. He accompanied Scipio to Africa, 
and after the battle of Zama, 202, was sent to 
Rome to announce the news of Hannibal's de- 
feat. (Liv. xxviii. 9-11, xxx. 38, 40.) 

PMlochares (<t>t\oxdpns), & painter, men- 
tioned by Pliny (xxxv. 28), is supposed by some 
to be the same as the brother of Aeschines 
of whose artistic performances Demosthenes 
speaks contemptuously (F. L. p. 329). 

Philochorus (<t>i\6xopo$), a celebrated Athe- 
nian writer, chiefly known by his Atthis, or 
work on the legends, antiquities, and history of 
Attica. Ho was a person of considerable im- 
portance in his native city, and was put to death 
by Antigonus Gonatas when the latter obtained 
possession of Athens, about B.C. 260. (Suidas 
s.v.) His most important work, the Atthis, 
consisted of seventeen books, and related the 
history of Attica, from the earliest times to the 
reign of Antiochus Theos, B.C. 261. The work 
is frequently quoted by the scholiasts, lexico- 
graphers, and other later authors. — The frag- 
ments have been published by Siebelis, Lips. 
1811, and by Miiller, Fragm. Hist. Graec. 

Philocles (<1>iAokAt)s). 1. An Athenian tragic 
poet, the sister's son of Aeschylus ; his father's 
name was Philopithes. He is said to have 
composed 100 tragedies. In the general cha- 
racter of his plays ho was an imitator of 
Aeschylus, and that he was not unworthy of 
his great master may be inferred from the fact 



PHILOCTETES 



699 



that he gained a victory over Sophocles when 
the latter exhibited his Oedipus Tyranuus, B.C. 
429. Philocles was frequently ridiculed by the 
comic poets. One of his plays, called Tereus, 
on the story of Philomela, is alluded to in 
Aristoph. Av. 281 ; in Ar. Vesp. 462 it is 
insinuated that his lyrics were unmusical, and 
the scholiast says that he was nicknamed XoAi';. 
— 2. Joined with Conon in command of the 
Athenian fleet after the battle of Arginusae. 
He was cruel to his prisoners, for which Lys- 
ander put him to death after Aegospotami. 
(Xen. Hell. i. 7, 1, ii. 1, 30 ; Plut. Lijs. 13.) 

PMlocrates (QiAotcpotTris). 1. Son of Ephi- 
altes, went in 390 with ships to aid Evagoras 
of Cyprus. His squadron was captured by 
Teleutias, the Spartan admiral. (Xen. Hell. iv. 
8, 24.) — 2. An Athenian orator, was one of the 
venal supporters of Philip in opposition to 
Demosthenes (Dem. de Cor. p. 230). 

Philoctetes (4>iAo/cTTjT7js), a son of Poeas 
(whence he is called Poeantiades, Ov. Met. 
xiii. 313) and Demonassa, the most celebrated 
archer in the Trojan war. He led the warriors 
from Methone, Thaumacia, Meliboea, and Oli- 
zon, against Troy, in seven ships. But on his 
voyage thither he was left behind by his men 
in the island of Lemnos, because he was ill of 
a wound which he had received from the bite of 
a snake ; and Medon, the son of Oileus and 
Rhene, undertook the command of his troops. 
(II. ii. 716 ; Od. hi. 190, viii. 219.) This is all 
that the Homeric poems relate of Philoctetes. 
with the addition that he returned home in 
safety ; but the cyclic and tragic poets have 
added numerous details to the story. Thus 
they relate that he was the friend and armour- 
bearer of Heracles, who instructed him in the 
use of the bow, and who bequeathed to him his 
bow, with the poisoned arrows. These presents 
were a reward for his having erected and set 
fire to the pile on Mt. Oeta, where Heracles 
burnt himself. (Diod. iv. 38; Hyg. Fab. 36; 
Philostr. Her. 5 ; Ov. Met. ix. 232.) Philoctetes 
was also one of the suitors of Helen, and thus 
took part in the Trojan war. On his voyage to 
Troy, while staying in the island of Chryse, he 
was bitten by a snake. This misfortune hap- 
pened to him when he was showing to the 
Greeks the altar of Athene Chryse, or while he 
was looking at the tomb of Troilus in the temple 
of Apollo Thymbraeus, or as he was pointing 
out to his companions the altar of Heracles. 
(Soph. Phil. 1327; Philostr. Int. 17; Diet. Cret. 
ii. 14.) According to some accounts, the wound 
in his foot was not inflicted by a serpent, but 
by his own poisoned arrows (Sen - , ad Aen. iii. 
402). The wound is said to have become ulcer- 
ated, and to have produced such an intolerable 
stench that the Greeks, on the advice of 
Odysseus, abandoned Philoctetes, and left him 
alone on the solitary coast of Lemnos, or (ac- 
cording to the account which Proclus cites 
from the Cijpria, and which Euripides followed 
in his Philoctetes) on the island of Tenedos. 
He remained in this island till the tenth year 
of the Trojan war, when Odysseus and Diomedes 
came to fetch him to Troy, as an oracle had 
declared that the city could not be taken with- 
out the arrows of Heracles. Ho accompanied 
these heroes to Troy, and on his arrival Apollo 
sent him into a deep sleep, during which Ma- 
chaon (or Podalirius, or both, or Asclepius 
himself) cut out the wound, washed it with 
wine, and applied healing herbH to it. (Quint. 
Smyrn. x. 180; Soph. Phil. 1126; Propert. ii. 
1, 61.) Philoctetes was thus cured, and soon 



700 



PHILODEMUS 



PHILOPOEMEN 



after slew Paris, whereupon Troy fell into the 
hands of the Greeks (Apollod. iii. 12, 6). On 
his return from Troy he is said to have been 
cast upon the coast of Italy, where he settled, 
and built Petelis and Crimissa. In the latter 
place he founded a sanctuary of Apollo Alaeus, 
to whom he dedicated his bow. (Strab. p. 254.) 

PMlodemus (4>iAo'Sr)^os), of Gadara,in Pales- 
tine, an Epicurean philosopher and epigram- 
matic poet, contemporary with Cicero. The 
Greek Anthology contains thirty-four of his 
epigrams, which are chiefly of a light and 
amatory character, and which quite bear out 
Cicero's statements concerning the licentious- 
ness of his matter and the elegance of his 
manner. (Cic. in Pis. 28, 29.) Philodemus is 
also mentioned by Horace (Sat. i. 2, 121). 

Phllolaus ($i\AAa.os), a distinguished Pytha- 
gorean philosopher, was a native of Croton or 
Tarentum. He was a contemporary of Socrates, 
and the instructor of Simmias and Cebes at 
Thebes, where he appears to have lived many 
years. (Plat. Phaed. p. 61 ; Diog. Laert. viii. 
84.) Pythagoras and his earliest successors 
did not commit any of their doctrines to 
writing, and the first publication of the Pytha- 
gorean doctrines is pretty uniformly attributed 
to Philolaus. He composed a work on the 
Pythagorean philosophy in three books, which 
Plato is said to have procured at the cost of 
100 minae through Dion of Syracuse, who pur- 
chased it from Philolaus, who was at the time 
in deep poverty. (Diog. Laert. I.e. ; Gell. iii. 
17.) Plato is said to have derived from this 
work the greater part of his Timaeus. Some 
fragments have been collected by Bb'ckh of 
which those from the work riepi i|/t'X') s are 
generally considered to be spurious. 

Philomela (^lAo/iTjAa), daughter of king Pan- 
dion in Attica, who, being dishonoured by her 
brother-in-law, Tereus, was metamorphosed into 
a nightingale. The story is given under Tekeus. 

Philomelium or Philomelum. (<bi\oixT)\iov, or 
in the Pisidian dialect ^i\ofiij5i] : &iAo[ir]Aeus, 
Philomelensis or Philomeliensis : prob. Ak- 
Shehr, Ru.), a city of Phrygia Parorios, on the 
borders of Lycaonia and Pisidia, mentioned by 
Cicero (ad Fain. iii. 8, xv. 4), said to have been 
named from the numbers of nightingales in its 
neighbourhood. In the division of the provinces 
under Constantine, it belonged to Pisidia. 
(Strab. p. 663 ; Procop. Hist. Arc. 18.) 

Philomelus ($i\6,un\os), a general of the 
Phocians in the Phocian or Sacred war, per- 
suaded his countrymen to seize the temple of 
Delphi, and to apply its riches to the purpose of 
defending themselves against the Amphictyonic 
forces, b.c. 357. He commanded the Phocians 
during the early years of the war, but was slain 
in battle in 353. He was succeeded in the com- 
mand by his brother Onomarchus. (Diod. xvi. 
23; Paus. x. 2, 8.) 

Philonides (^tKoiviS-qs), an Athenian poet of 
the Old Comedy, who is, however, better known 
on account of his connexion with the literary 
history of Aristophanes. Several of the plays of 
Aristophanes were brought out in the names of 
Callistratus and Philonides [cf. p. 115]. It 
appears that Aristophanes used the name of 
Philonides for the Banqueters and the Frogs. 

Philonome. [Tenes.] 

Philopoemen ($iAoTrot/j.Tiv), of Megalopolis in 
Arcadia, one of the few great men that Greece 
produced in the decline of her political inde- 
pendence, who is called by Roman admirers ' the 
last of the Greeks' (Plut. Philop. 1, Arat. 24). 
The great object of his life was to infuse into 



the Achaeans a military spirit, and thereby to 
establish their independence on a firm and 
lasting basis. He was the son of Craugis, a 
distinguished man at Megalopolis, and was 
born about B.C. 252. He lost his father at an 
early age, and was brought up by Oleander, an 
illustrious citizen of Mantinea, who had been 
obliged to leave his native city, and had taken 
refuge at Megalopolis. He received instruction 
from Ecdemus and Demophanes, both of whom 
had studied the Academic philosophy under 
Arcesilaus. At an early age he became dis- 
tinguished by his love of arms and his bravery 
in war, showing a remarkable capacity for 
strategy (Liv. xxxv. 28 ; Plut. Philop. 7). He 
is said to have studied especially the Tactics 
of Evangelus and the histories of Alexander's 
campaigns (Plut. ib. 4). His name first 
occurs in history in B.C. 222, when Megalopolis 
was taken by Cleomenes (Plut. ib. 5), and 
in the following year (221) he fought with con- 
spicuous valour at the battle of Sellasia, in 
which Cleomenes was completely defeated. In 
order to gain additional military experience, he 
soon afterwards sailed to Crete, and served for 
some years in the wars between the cities of 
that island. On his return to his native 
country, in 210, he was appointed commander 
of the Achaean cavalry : and in 203 he was 
elected strategus or general of the Achaean 
League, and laboured successfully at military 
reforms which brought the army into an ex- 
cellent state of efficiency (Pol. x. 24). In this 
year he defeated Machanidas, tyrant of Lace- 
daemon, and slew him in battle with his own 
hand (Pol. xi. 13). In 201 he was again elected 
general of the league, when he defeated Nabis, 
who bad succeeded Machanidas as tyrant of 
Lacedaemon. Soon afterwards. Philopoemen 
took another voyage to Crete, and assumed the 
command of the forces of Gortyna. He did not 
return to Peloponnesus till 194. He was made 
general of the league in 192, when he again 
defeated Nabis, who was slain in the course of 
the year by some Aetolian mercenaries. It is 
said that when Diophanes, the Achaean general, 
and Plamininus were marching to Sparta in 
191 to crush some attempt at revolt, Philopoe- 
men hurried thither in advance, and, having 
quieted the city, induced the Roman and Achaean 
troops to pass it by ; and that when the 
Spartans in gratitude offered him 120 talents 
(the proceeds of the estate of Nabis) he refused 
the present, as unbecoming a man of honour. 
Philopoemen was re-elected general of the 
league several times afterwards ; but the state 
of Greece did not afford him much further 
opportunity for the display of his military 
abilities. The Romans were now in fact the 
masters of Greece, and Philopoemen clearly 
saw that it would be an act of madness to offer 
open resistance to their authority. At the 
same time, as the Romans still recognised in 
words the independence of the league, Philo- 
poemen offered a resolute resistance to all their 
encroachments upon the liberties of his country, 
whenever he could do so without affording 
them any pretext for war. In 188, when he 
was general of the league, he took Sparta, 
whose troops had attacked Las, a town which 
had joined the league. He demanded the sur- 
render of the instigators, and failing to obtain 
them treated Sparta with great severity. He 
razed the walls and fortifications of the city, 
abolished the institutions of Lycurgus, and 
compelled the citizens to adopt the Achaean 
laws in their stead. In 183 the Messenians 



PHILOSTEPHANUS 

revolted from the Achaean League. Philo- 
poemen, who was general of the league for the 
eighth time, hastily collected a body of cavalry, 
and pressed forward to Messene. He fell in 
with a large body of Messenian troops, by 
whom he was taken prisoner, and carried to 
Messene. Here he was thrown into a dungeon, 
and was compelled by Dinocrates to drink 
poison. The news of his death filled the whole 
of Peloponnesus with grief and rage. An 
assembly was immediately held at Megalopolis ; 
Lycortas was chosen general, and in the follow- 
ing year he invaded Messenia, which was laid 
waste far and wide ; Dinocrates and the chiefs 
of his party were obliged to put an end to their 
lives. The remains of Philopoemen were con- 
veyed to Megalopolis in solemn procession ; and 
the urn which contained the ashes was carried 
by the historian Polybius. (Plut. Philop. 21 ; 
Liv. xxxix. 49 ; Pol. xxiv. 9, 12.) His remains 
were then interred at Megalopolis with heroic 
honours; and soon afterwards statues of him 
were erected in most of the towns belonging to 
the Achaean League. It does not detract from 
the nobility of Philopoemen's character and 
the purity of his aims, that in much of his 
military success he was really playing the game 
of the Romans. His true policy, if it had been 
possible, would have been to combine with the 
Spartans and Messenians instead of fighting 
against them, and to oppose a united Greece to 
the Romans. But the opportunity for this had 
probably been irretrievably lost long before 
when Aratus rejected the overtures of Cleomenes 
[see p. 97, a]. The contest with Sparta in the 
time of Machanidas and Xabis was unavoid- 
able. (Life by Plutarch ; Paus. viii. 49-52 ; 
references to Polybius and Livy, as above.) 

Philostephanus (<Pt\ocrT(<papos), of Cyrene, 
an Alexandrian writer of history and geography, 
the friend and disciple of Callimachus, flourished 
under Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, about B.C. 
249 (Athen. pp. 293, 297, 331). 

PMlostorglus (*tKocrr6pyios), a native of Bo- 
rissus in Cappadocia, was born about a.d. 358. 
He wrote an ecclesiastical history, from the 
heresy of Arius in 300, down to 425. Philo- 
storgius was an Arian, which is probably the 
reason why his work lias not come down to us. 
It was originally in twelve books ; and we still 
possess an abstract of it, made by PnoTrus. 

Philostratus \'\n\6<TTpa.Tos), the name of a 
distinguished family of Lemnos, of which there 
are mentioned three persons in the history 
of Greek literature. 1. Son of Verus, taught 
at Athens ; but we know nothing about him, 
with the exception of the titles of his works, 
given by Suidas. He could not, however, have 
lived in the reign of Nero, according to the 
statement of Saidas, since his son was not born 
till the latter part of the second century. — 2. 
Flavins Philostratus, son of the preceding, 
and the most eminent of the three, was born 
about a.d. 182. He studied and taught at 
Athens, and is usually called the Athenian, to 
distinguish him from the younger Philostratus 
[No. 8], who more usually bears the surname 
of the Lemnian. Flavins afterwards removed to 
Rome, where we find him a member of the 
circle of literary men whom tlx- philosophic 
Julia Domna, the wife of Severus, had drawn 
around her. It was at her desire that he wrote 
thi! Life of Apollonius. He was alive in the 
reign of the emperor Philippns (244-249). The 
following works of Philostratus have come down 
tons: — (1) The Life of Apollonius of Tyana 
(to ii rhv Tvavia ' kirohhwviov), in eight books. 



PHILOXEXUS 



701 



[See Apollonius, No. 7.] (2) Lives of the 
Sophists (Bioi 'ZotpiaToiv), in two books, contains 
the history of philosophers who had the charac- 
ter of being sophists, and of those who were in 
reality sophists. It began with the Life of Gor- 
gias, and comes down to the contemporaries of 
Philostratus in the reign of Philippus. (3) 
Heroica or Hero'icus ("Hpwacd, 'Hpoiifcos), is in 
the form of a dialogue, and gives an account of 
the heroes engaged in the Trojan war. (4) 
Imagines (E'iK6ues), in two books, contains an 
account of various paintings. This is the 
author's most pleasing work, exhibiting great 
richness of fancy, power and variety of delinea- 
tion, and a rich exuberance of style ; but there 
is doubt whether he is describing real or imagi- 
nary works of art. (5) Epistolae ('^.TnaroKai), 
seventy-three in number, chiefly amatory. The 
best editions of the collected works of Philo- 
stratus are by Olearius, Lips. 1709, and by 
Kayser, Lips. 1870, 1871. — 3. Philostratus, 
the younger, usually called the Lemnian, as 
mentioned above, was a son of Nervianus and of 
a daughter of Flavius Philostratus, but is erro- 
neously called by Suidas a son-in-law of the 
latter. He enjoyed the instructions of his 
grandfather and of the sophist Hippodromus. 
He visited Rome, but he taught at Athens, and 
died in Lemnos. He wrote several works, and 
among others one entitled Imagines, in imita- 
tion of his grandfather's work, of which a portion 
is still extant (printed in Kayser's edition of 
Philostratus No. 2). 

Phllotas (<piA.a>Tas), son of Pannenion, enjoyed 
a high place in the friendship of Alexander, 
and in the invasion of Asia obtained the chief 
command of the iraipoi, or native Macedoniai. 
cavalry. He served with distinction in the 
battles of the Granicus and Arbela, and also on 
other occasions ; but in B.C. 330, while the army 
was in Drangiana, he was accused of being privy 
to a plot which had been formed by a Macedo- 
nian, named Dimnus, against the king'3 life. 
There was no proof of his guilt ; but a confession 
was wrung from him by the torture, and he was 
stoned to death by the troops after the Macedo- 
nian fashion. [Parmenion.] 

Phllotlmus (<j>iA(iTi/iOj), an eminent Greek 
physician, pupil of Praxagoras, and fellow-pupil 
of Herophilus, lived in the fourth and third 
centuries B.C. 

PMloxenus (4>i\6£evos). 1. A Macedonian 
officer of Alexander the Great, received the 
government of Cilicia from Perdiccas in 321 
(Arrian, An. iii. 6, 6; Diod. xviii. 39).— 2. Of 
Cythera, one of the most distinguished dithv- 
rambic poets of Greece, was born B.C. 435 and 
died 380, at the age of fifty-five. He was 
reduced to slavery in his youth, and was 
bought by the lyric poet Mehuiippides, by 
whom he was educated in dithyrambic poetry. 
After residing some years at Athens, he went to 
Syrr.cnse, where he speedily obtained the favour 
of Dionysius, and took up his abode at his 
court. But soon afterwards he offended Dion- 
ysius, and was cast into prison (Cic. ad Alt. iv. 
0) ; an act of oppression which most writers 
ascribe to the wounded vanity of the tyrant, 
whose poems Philoxenus not only refused to 
praise, but, on being asked to revise one of 
them, said that the best way of correcting it 
would be to draw a black line through the whole 
paper. Another account ascribes his disgrace 
to too close an intimacy with the tyrant's mis- 
tress, Galatea; but this looks like a fiction 
arising out of a in:sunder>tM ruling of the object 
of his poem entitled Cyclops or Galatea, which 



702 



PHILUS 



PHINTIAS 



was written after his departure from Sicily, and 
intended as a literary revenge upon Dionysius, 
who was wholly or partially blind of one eye. 
After some time he was released from prison, 
and restored outwardly to the favour of Diony- 
sius ; but he finally left his court, and is said 
to have spent the latter part of his life in Ephe- 
sus. — Of the dithyrambs of Philoxenus by far 
the most important was his Cyclops or Galatea, 
the loss of which is greatly to be lamented. 
Philoxenus also wrote another poem, entitled 
Deipnon (Acin-cov) or the Banquet, which 
appears to have been the most popular of his 
works, and of which we have more fragments 
than of any other. This poem was a most 
minute and satirical description of a banquet, 
and the subject of it was furnished by the 
luxury of the court of Dionysius. Philoxenus 
was included in the attacks which the comic 
poets made on all the musicians of the day, 
for their corruptions of the simplicity of the 
ancient music ; but we have abundant testi- 
mony to the high esteem in which he was held 
both during his life and after his death. (Suid. 
s.v. ; Diod. xiv. 46.) Fragments of his poems 
by Bippart, Lips. 1843, and in Bergk's Poet. Lyr. 
Graec. — 3. The Leucadian, lived at Athens 
about the same time as Philoxenus of Cythera, 
with whom he is frequently confounded by the 
grammarians. He was the son of Eryxis, and 
his son also bore that name. Like his more 
celebrated namesake, the Leucadian was ridi- 
culed by the poets of the Old Comedy, and 
seems to have spent a part of his life in Sicily. 
The Leucadian was a most notorious parasite, 
glutton, and effeminate debauchee ; but he 
seems also to have had great wit and good- 
humour, which made him a favourite at the 
tables which he frequented. (Aristoph. Ban. 
'J34 ; Schol. ad loc.) — 4. A celebrated Alexan- 
drian grammarian, who taught at Rome (Suid. 
s. v.), and wrote on Homer, on the Ionic and 
Laconian dialects, and several other grammati- 
cal works, among which was a Glossary, which 
was edited by H. Stephanus, Paris, 1573. — 5. 
An Aegyptian surgeon, who wrote several 
valuable volumes on surgery. He must have 
lived in or before the first century after Christ. 
— 6. A painter of Eretria, the disciple of Nico- 
machus, who painted for Cassander a battle of 
Alexander with Darius (Plin. xxxv. 110). 

Philus, Furius. 1. P., was consul B.C. 223 
with C. Plaminius, and accompanied his col- 
league in his campaign against the Gauls in the 
N. of Italy. He was praetor 216, when he com- 
manded the fleet, with which he proceeded to 
Africa. In 214 he was censor with M. Atilius 
Begulus, but died at the beginning of the follow- 
ing year. (Liv. xxii. 35; xxv. 2.) — 2. L., consul 
136, received Spain as his province, and was 
commissioned by the senate to deliver up to the 
Numantines C. Hostilius Mancinus, the consul 
of the preceding year. Philus, like his contem- 
poraries Scipio Africanus the younger and 
Laelius, was fond of Greek literature and refine- 
ment. He is introduced by Cicero as one of 
the speakers in his dialogue Be Bepublica. 
(Val. Max. iii. 7, 5 ; Cic. Off. iii. 30, 109, Bep. 
iii. 18, 28.) 

PhilylHus (*iA.uA.Aios), an Athenian comic 
poet, belongs to the latter part of the Old 
Comedy and the beginning of the Middle 
(Athen. p. 700). 

Philyreis (&t\vprjis : prob. the little island 
off C. Zefreh, E. of Kerasunt-Ada), an island 
off the N. coast of Asia Minor (Poutus), B. of 
the country of Mosynoeci, and near the promon- 



tory of Zephyrium, where Chibon was nurtured 
by his mother Philyra (Ap. Bhod. ii. 1231). 

Philyres (<i>iA.tipes), a people on the coast of 
Pontus, near the island Phtlybeis. 

PMneus (*«/evs). 1. Son of Belus and An- 
chinoe, and brother of Cepheus. He' was slain 
by Perseus. For details see Andbomeda and 
Pebseus. — 2. Son of Agenor, and king of 
Salmydessus in Thrace. He was first married 
to Cleopatra, the daughter of Boreas and 
Orithyia, by whom he had two children, Oryi- 
thus (Oarthus) and Crambis ; but their names 
are different in the different legends : Ovid 
calls them Polydectus and Polydorus. (Schol. 
ad Soph. Ant. 977 ; Ov. Ib. 273.) Afterwards 
he was married to Idaea (some call her Dia, 
Eurytia, or Idothea), by whom he again had 
two sons, Thynus and Mariandynus (Apollod. 
iii. 15, 3). — Phineuswas a blind soothsayer, who 
had received his prophetic powers from Apollo, 
but was blinded because he had revealed the 
counsels of Zeus (Apollod. i. 9, 21). He is most 
celebrated on account of his being tormented 
by the Harpies, who were sent by the gods to 
punish him on account of his cruelty towards 
his sons by the first marriage. His second wife 
falsely accused them of having made an attempt 
upon her virtue, whereupon Phineus put out 
their eyes, or, according to others, exposed them 
to be devoured by wild beasts, or ordered them 
to be half buried in the earth, and then to be 
scourged. (Soph. Ant. 973 ; Diod. iv. 44.) 
Whenever a meal was placed before Phineus, 
the Harpies darted down from the air and 
carried it off ; later writers add that they either 
devoured the food themselves, or rendered it 
unfit to be eaten. [Habpyiae.] When the Ar- 
gonauts visited Thrace, Phineus promised to 
instruct them respecting their voyage, if they 
would deliver him from the monsters. This 
was done by Zetes and Calais, the sons of Boreas, 
and brothers of Cleopatra. [See p. 106, a.] 
Phineus now explained to the Argonauts the 
further course they had to take, and especially 
cautioned them against the Symplegades. Ac- 
cording to another story, the Argonauts, on their 
arrival at Thrace, found the sons of Phineus 
half buried, and demanded their liberation, 
which Phineus refused. A battle thereupon 
ensued, in which Phineus was slain by Hera- 
cles. The latter also delivered Cleopatra from 
her confinement, and restored the kingdom to 
the sons of Phineus; and on their advice he 
also sent the second wife of Phineus back to 
her father, who ordered her to be put to death. 
(Diod. I. e. ; Apollod. iii. 15, 3.) Some tradi- 
tions, lastly, state that Phineus was killed by 
Boreas, or that he was carried off by the Har- 
pies into the country of the Bistones or Mil- 
chessians (Strab. p. 302). Those accounts in 
which Phineus puts out the eyes of his sons 
add that they had their sight restored to them 
by the sons of Boreas, or by Asclepius. 

Phinopolis ($iv6iro\is), a town in Thrace on 
the Pontus Euxinus near the entrance to the 
Bosporus (Strab. p. 319 ; Plin. iv. 45). 

Phintias ($ivt'io.s). 1. A Pythagorean, the 
friend of Damon, who was condemned to die by 
Dionysius the elder. For details see Damon. — 
2. Tyrant of Agrigentum, who established his 
power over that city during the period of con- 
fusion which followed the death of Agathocles 
(b.c. 289). He founded a new city on the S. 
coast of Sicily, to which he gave his own name, 
and whither he removed the inhabitants from 
Gela, which he destroyed. (Diod. xxii. 2.) 
i Phintias ($ivTtas: Alicata), a town on the 



PHLNTONIS INSULA PHOCAEA 
S. coast of Sicily, midway between Agrigentum 
and Gela [see preceding article]. It never rose 
to importance, but had a good harbour. (Diod. 
xxiv. 1 ; Cic. Verr. iii. 83, 192.J 

Phintonis Insula (Isola di Figo), an island 
between Sardinia and Corsica (Plan. iii. 83). 

Pbiegethon or Pyriphlegethon (*A.ey<F(W, 
nvpttpKeyeBav), i. e. the flaming, a river in the 
lower world, in whose channel flowed flames 
instead of water. [Achebon ; Styx.1 

Phlegon (QKiywv), a native of Tralles in 
Lydia, was a freedman of the emperor Hadrian, 
whom he survived (Spartian, Hadr. 16). The 
only two works of Phlegon which have come 
down to us are a small treatise on wonderful 
events (Ilcpi davfuKriwv), and another short 
treatise on long-lived persons (ITepi fuiKpo$iuv). 
which gives a list of persons in Italy who had 
attained the age of a hundred years and up- 
wards. Besides these two works Phlegon 
wrote many others, of which the most import- 
ant was an account of the Olympiads in seven- 
teen books, from 01. 1 to 01. 229 (a.d. 137).— 
Editions by Westermann in his Paradoxo- 
graphi, Brunsvig. 1839, and by Keller, 1877. 

Phlegra. [Pallene.] 

Phlegraei Campi (to. Qkeypcua weSta, or r) 
*A.e'7po: Solfatara), the name of the volcanic 
plain extending along the coast of Campania 
from Cumae to Capua. The frequent outbursts 
of flame and of hot springs gained for it the 
name ' burning plains,' and it was believed that 
the giants were buried beneath it. (Strab. 
p. 245 ; Diod. v. 71 ; SiL It. viii. 540, xii. 143.) 
It was also (or part of it) named Laboriae or adopting oecists of the race of Codrus. (Strab. 
Laborinus Campus {Terra di Lavoroj, perhaps pp. 632, 633; Paus. vii. 3, 5; Plin. v. 119.) 
on account of its great fertility and its constant Admirably situated, and possessing two ex- 
cultivation (Plin. xviii. Ill) ; but the name is cellent harbours, Naustathmus and Lampter, 
in some MSS. Leboriae. Phocaea became celebrated as a great maritime 

Phlegyas IQAeyvas), son of Ares and Chryse, state — according to Herodotus, i. 103, the earliest 
the daughter of Halmus, succeeded Eteocles in of the Greek states who rivalled the Phoenicians 
the government of Orchomenos in Boeotia, in distant voyages — and especially as the founder 
which he called after himself Phlegyantis. He of the furthest Greek colonies towards the W., 
was the father of Lxion and Coronis, the latter namely Massieia in Gaul, and the still more 
of whom became by Apollo the mother of distant, though far less celebrated, city of 
Asclepius. Enraged at this, Phlegyas set fire , Maenaca in Hispania Baetica. After the Per- 
to the temple of the god, who killed him with ! sian conquest of Ionia, Phocaea had so de- 
his arrows, and condemned him to punishment clined that she could onlj T furnish three ships 
in the lower world. (Horn. Hym n. xv. 3 ; Pind. to support the great Ionian revolt (Hdt. vi. 11) ; 
Pyth. iii. 8; Apollod. ii. 26, 4 ; iii. 5, 10 ; Serv. but the spirit of her people had not been ex- 
ad Aen. vi. 618.) Phlegyas is represented as tinguisbed : when the common cause was hope- 
the mythical ancestor of the race of the j less, and their city was besieged by Harpagus, 
Phlegyae, a branch of the Minyae, who emi- I they embarked, to seek new abodes in the dis- 
grated from Orchomenos in Boeotia and settled tant W., and bent their course to the colony of 
in Phocis, but the adoption of the worship of Aleria or Alalia in Corsica, which they had 
Asclepius in other countries caused variations founded twenty years before. They had bound 
in the story of Phlegyas himself ]see p. 131, a], themselves by an oath never to return to their 

Phliasia. [PirLrus.] ; native land until an iron bar which they threw 

Phlius (4>\iovs, -o&Vtos : <t>Aia<rios), the chief into the sea should float again (Hdt. i. 165; 
town of a small province in the NE. of Pelopon- [ Hor. Epod. xvL 17-26) ; but during the voyage 
nesus, whose territory Phliasia (4-Ktaala), was a portion of the emigrants resolved to return to 
bounded on the N. by Sicyonia, on the W. by their native city, which they restored, and 
Arcadia, on the E. by the territory of Cleonae, which recovered much of its prosperity, as is 
and on the S. by that of Argos. The greater ' proved by the rich booty gained by the Romans 
part of this country was occupied by mountains, when they plundered it under the praetor 
called Coelossa, Carneates, Arantinus, and Aemilius. (Liv. xxxvii. 81, 82 ; Pol. xxii. 27.) 
Tricaranon. According to Strabo (p. 882; cf. The town and territory was restored to the in- 
H. ii. 571), the most ancient town in the habitants (Liv. xxxviii. 89), after which it does 
country was Araethyrea, which the inhabitants not appear as a place of any consequence in 
deserted, and afterwards founded Phlins; while history, except as the seat of a bishopric under 
Pnusanias says nothing about a migration, but Smyrna, though it remained a free state t'Dio 
relates that the town was first called Arantia Cass. xli. 25 ; Lucan, v. 58). — Care must be 
from its founder Aras, an autochthon, after- taken not to confound Phocaea with Phocis, or 
wards Araethyrea from the daughter of Aras, the ethnic adjectives of the former <l>a»caf us and 
and finally Phlius, from Phlius, a grandson of Phocaecnsis, with those of the latter, <I>ohc«uj 
Temenus (Paus. ii. 12, 4). Phlius was originally and Phocensia: some of the ancient writers 
inhabited by Argives. It afterwards passed themselves have fallen into such mistakes 



j into the hands of the Dorians, with whom part 
j of the Argive population intermingled, while 
| part migrated to Samos and Clazomenae. 
During the greater part of its history it re- 
mained faithful to Sparta. "When Aratus or- 
ganised the Achaean League, Cleonymus, tyrant 
1 of Phlius, abdicated and united his city to the 
league (Pol. ii. 44). 

Phlygonlum {•bhvyovwv), a town in Phocis, 
destroyed in the Phocian war (Paus. x. 3, 2). 

Phocaea (<f>aj«:aia ; *£««:aevs, Phocaeensis : 
the Ku. called Karaja-Fokia, i.e. Old Fokia, 
SW. of Fouges or New Fokia), the northern- 
most of the Ionian cities on the W. coast of Asia 
Alinor, stood at the W. extremity of the tongue 
of land which divides the Sinus Elaiticus (G. of 
! Fouges), on the X., from the Sinus Hermaeus 
: (G. of Smyrna), on the S. It was said to have 
been founded by a band of colonists, mainly 




Coin of Phocaea (about 568 B.C.). 
Obc, a seal (two?); rev., incuse square. 

Phocian, under two Athenian leaders, Philo- 
genes and Damon. It was originally within 
the limits of Aeolis, in the territory of Cyme ; 
but the Cyrnaeans voluntarily gave up the site 
for the new city, which was soon admitted into 
the Ionian confederacy on the condition of 



704 



PHOCION 



PHOCIS 



(Lucan. I. c). The name of Phocaean is often 
used with reference to Massilia ; and the people 
of Marseilles still affect to regard themselves 
as Phocaeans. 

Phocioil (€>a>/a'a>!>), the Athenian general and 
statesman, son of Phocus, was a man of humble 
origin, and appears to have been born in B.C. 
402. He studied under Plato and Xenocrates. 
He distinguished himself for the first time 
under his friend Chabbias, in 376, at the battle 
of Naxos, but he was not employed promi- 
nently in any capacity for many years after- 
wards. In 354 (according to some, in 350) 
he was sent into Euboea in the command of a 
small force, in consequence of an application 
from Plutarchus, tyrant of Eretria. Here he 
won the victory of Tamynae, a brilliant success 
in spite of the treachery of Plutarchus, though 
the whole campaign was fruitless (Aesch. 
Ctes. 88 ; Plut. Phoc. 13), and he was subse- 
quently employed on several occasions in the 
war between the Athenians and Philip of 
Macedon. In 339, being sent with 120 triremes 
to the Hellespont, he raised the siege of Byzan- 
tium, and caused Philip to retire. He fre- 
quently opposed the measures of Demosthenes, 
and recommended peace with Philip ; but he 
must not be regarded as one of the mercenary 
supporters of the Macedonian monarch. His 
virtue is above suspicion, and his public con- 
duct was always influenced by upright motives. 
When Alexander was marching upon Thebes, 
in 335, Phocion rebuked Demosthenes for his 
invectives against the king. (Plut. Phoc. 16 ; 
Diod. xvii. 15.) The true explanation of his 
policy seems to be that he represented the 
party at Athens which believed opposition to 
Macedonia in the existing state of Greek power 
and politics to be absolutely hopeless, and had 
come to the conclusion that the wisest course 
was to acquiesce in this necessity instead of 
trying to rouse Greece to a war which was, 
as he thought, certain to fail ; and after the 
destruction of Thebes he advised the Athenians 
to comply with Alexander's demand for the 
surrender of Demosthenes and other chief 
orators of the anti-Macedonian party. This 
proposal was indignantly rejected by the people, 
and an embassy was sent to Alexander, which 
succeeded in deprecating his resentment. Ac- 
cording to Plutarch, there were two embassies, 
the first of which Alexander refused to receive, 
but to the second he gave a gracious audience, 
and granted its prayer, chiefly from regard to 
Phocion, who was at the head of it. Alexander 
ever continued to treat Phocion with the utmost 
consideration, and to cultivate his friendship. 
(Arrian, i. 10, 8; Plut. P7ioc. 17; Diod. I.e.) 
He also pressed upon him valuable presents ; 
but Phocion persisted in refusing them, begging 
the king to leave him no less honest than he 
found him. After Alexander's death, Phocion 
opposed vehemently, and with all the caustic 
bitterness which characterised him, the pro- 
posal for war with Antipater. Thus, to Hyper- 
ides, who asked him tauntingly when he would 
advise the Athenians to go to war, he answered, 
' When I see the young willing to keep their 
ranks, the rich to contribute of their wealth, 
and the orators to abstain from pilfering the 
public money.' (Plut. Phoc. 29, 30.) When 
Alexander, the son of Polysperehon, led his 
army to Athens in 318, Phocion was suspected 
of having advised him to occupy the Piraeus ; 
and there is reason to think that Phocion 
did advocate this step, as he had before 
favoured the occupation by Nicanor, from fear 



of what would ensue to himself and his party 
at Athens if the democratic party prevailed. 
Being therefore accused of treason by Agnon- 
ides, he fled, with several of his friends, to 
Alexander, who sent them with letters of recom- 
mendation to his father, Polysperehon. (Diod. 
xviii. 65 ; Plut. Phoc. 33.) The latter, willing 
to sacrifice them as a peace-offering to the 
Athenians, sent them back to Athens for the 
people to deal with them as they would. Here 
Phocion was sentenced to death. To the last 
he maintained his calm and dignified and 
somewhat contemptuous bearing. When some 
wretched man spat upon him as he passed to 
the prison, ' Will no one,' said he, ' check this, 
fellow's indecency ? ' To one who asked him 
whether he had any message to leave for hi^ 
son Phocus, he answered, ' Only that he bear 
no grudge against the Athenians.' And when 
the hemlock which had been prepared was 
found insufficient for all the condemned, and 
the jailer would not furnish more until he was 
paid for it, ' Give the man his money,' said 
Phocion to one of his friends, ' since at Athens 
one cannot even die for nothing.' He perished 
in 317, at the age of eighty-five. (Plut. Phoc. 34- 
37; Diod. xviii. 67; Nep. Phoc. 2, 3.) The 
Athenians are said to have repented of their 
conduct. A brazen statue was raised to the 
memory of Phocion, and Agnonides was con- 
demned to death. (Plut. Phoc. 38.) There 
can be no doubt of Phocion's honesty of pur- 
pose and patriotic motives, excepting only in 
his negotiations with Nicanor and Polysperehon. 
His opposition to Demosthenes, however honest, 
was a mistaken policy, and against the true 
interests of his country, if there was any real 
prospect of resisting Philip successfully. Pho- 
cion undoubtedly thought that there was no 
such prospect ; and his philosophical views, to 
some extent anticipating the views of the Stoics, 
tended to a cosmopolitanism which would 
make it easier for him to acquiesce in the 
possibility of Greek stages admitting the Mace- 
donian supremacy, which, it must not be for- 
gotten, by no means involved that subversion of 
all their institutions which the Greeks would 
have suffered from their conquest by a really 
'barbarous ' nation, such as the Persians. 

Phocis (rj <bmds : $o>icrjes Horn., <t>cu/cees Hdt. 
<pa>/cr;s Attie, or less correctly 4>&>/ce?s, Phocenses 
by the Romans), a country in North Greece, 
was bounded on the N. by the Loeri Epicnemidii 
and Opuntii, on the E. by Boeotia, on the W. 
by the Locri Ozolae and Doris, and on the S. 
by the Corinthian Gulf. At one time it 
possessed a narrow strip of country on the 
Euboean sea with the seaport Daphnus, between 
the territory of the Locri Ozolae and Locri 
Opuntii. (Strab. pp. 424, 425.) It was a moun- 
tainous and unproductive country, and owes 
its chief importance in history to the fact of its 
possessing the Delphic oracle. Its chief moun- 
tain was Pabnassus, situated in the interior of 
the country, to which, however, Cnemis on its 
N. frontier, Ciephis S. of Delphi, and Helicon 
on the SE. frontier all belonged. The princi- 
pal river in Phocis was the Cbphissus, the 
valley of which contained almost the only fertile 
land in the country with the exception of the 
celebrated Crissaean plain in the SE. on the 
borders of the Locri Ozolae. — Among the 
earliest inhabitants of Phocis we find mentioned 
Leleges, Thracians, Abantes, and Hyantes. 
Subsequently, but still in the prehistorical 
period, the Phlegyae, an Achaean race, a branch 
of the Minyae at Orchomenos, took possession 



PHOCRA 



PHOENIGB 



705 



of the country ; and from this time the main 
bulk of the population continued to be Achaean, 
although there were Dorian settlements at 
Delphi and Bulis. The Phocians are said to 
have derived their name from an eponymous 
ancestor Phocus [Phocus], and they are men- 
tioned under this name in the Iliad. The 
Phocians were natural enemies of Thebes, and 
in 456 they readily joined the Athenian alliance. 
From similar motives they aided the Spartans 
in 395, but after Leuctra were, forced into 
alliance with Thebes. They refused, however, 
to send any contingent to Mantinea in 362, and 
this added to the hostility of the Thebans 
towards Phocis, which displayed itself fully in 
the Phocian or Sacred war. The Phocians 
having cultivated a portion of the Crissaean 
plain, which the Amphictyons had declared in 
B.C. 585 should lie waste for ever, the Thebans 
availed themselves of this pretext to persuade 
the Amphictyons to impose a fine upon the 
Phocians, and upon their refusal to pay it, the 
Thebans further induced the council to declare 
the Phocian land forfeited to the god at Delphi. 
Thus threatened hy the Amphictyonic council, 
backed by the whole power of Thebes, the 
Phocians were persuaded by Philomelus, one 
of their citizens, to seize Delphi, and to make 
use of the treasures of the temple for the pur- 
pose of carrying on the war. They obtained 
possession of the temple in B.C. 357. The war 
which ensued lasted ten years, and was carried 
on with various success on each side. The 
Phocians were commanded first by Philomelus, 
B.C. 356-353, afterwards by his brother Ono- 
makchxs, 853—352, then by Phayllus, the 
brother of the two preceding, 352-351, and 
finally by Phalaeccs, the son of Onomarchus, 
351-346. The Phocians received some sup- 
port from Athens, but their chief dependence 
was upon their mercenary troops, which the 
treasures of the Delphic temple enabled them 
to hire. The Amphictyons and the Thebans, 
finding at length that they were unable with 
their own resources to subdue the Phocians, 
called in the assistance of Philip of Macedon, 
who brought the war to a close in 346. The 
conquerors inflicted the most signal punish- 
ment upon the Phocians, who were regarded 
as guilty of sacrilege. All their towns were 
razed to the ground with the exception of Abae, 
and the inhabitants distributed in villages con- 
taining not more than fifty inhabitants each. 
The two votes which they had in the Amphic- 
tyonic council were taken away and given to 
Philip. [For further account of the above 
events, see Phjlippus.] 

Phocra (4><iicpa) a mountuin of X. Africa, in 
Mauretania Tingitana, a northerly spur of the 
Atlas range (Ptol. iv. 1). 

Phocus (<po>kos). 1. Son of Ornytion of 
Corinth, or, according to some, of Poseidon, is 
said to have been the leader of a colony from 
Corinth into the territory of Tithorea and Bit. 
Parnassus, which derived from him the name 
of Phocis (Pans. ii. 4, 8, x. 1, 1).— 2. Son of 
Aeacus and the Nereid Psamathe, husband of 
Asteria or Asterodia, and fattier of Panopeus 
and Crissus (Hes. Tit. 1004). He was murdered 
by his half-brothers, Telamon and Peleus. 
\ Peleus.] According to some accounts the 
country of Phocis derived its name from him. 
(Pans. ii. 29, 2.) — 3. Son of Phocion. [Phociox. 

Phocylides i4>wkuAi'5t)s), of Miletus, an Ionian 
poet, contemporary with Theognis, wos born 
B.C. 560. His poetry was chiefly gnomic ; and 
the few fragments of it which we possess dis- 



play that contempt for birth and station, and 
that love for substantial enjoyment, which 
always marked the Ionian character. (Arist. 
Pol. iv, 8 ; Suid. s.v.) Among the longer pieces 
in hexameters is a satire on women resembling 
that of Simonides. The fragments, which are 
eighteen in number, are included in all the chief 
collections of the lyric and gnomic poets. Some 
of these collections contain a didactic poem, in 
217 hexameters, entitled noi7j/ia vov6*tlk6v, to 
which the name of Phocylides is attached, but 
winch is undoubtedly a forgery, probably by an 
Alexandrian Christian of Jewish origin. 

Phoebe (*oi'/8t)). 1. Daughter of Uranus and 
Ge, became by Coeus the mother of Asteria 
andLeto(Latona). (Hes. Th. 136, 404 ; Apollod. 

1. 1, 3.) — 2. Daughter of Tyndareos and Leda, 
and a sister of Clytaemnestra (Eur. I. A. 50 ; 
Ov. Her. viii. 77). — 3. Daughter of Leucippus, 
and sister of Hilaira, a priestess of Athene, was 
carried off with her sister by the Dioscuri, and 
became by Pollux the mother of Mnesileos 
(Paus. ii. 22, 6 ; Apollod. iii. 10, 3 ; cf. p. 298, a). 
—4. [Artemis.] 

Phoebidas (<poi/3i'8an, a Lacedaemonian, who, 
in B.C. 382, was appointed to the command of 
the troops destined to reinforce his brother 
Eudamidas, who had been sent against Olyn- 
thus. On his way Phoebidas halted at Thebes, 
and treacherously made liimself master of the 
Cadmea. The Lacedaemonians fined Phoebidas 
100,000 drachmas, but nevertheless kept pos- 
session of the Cadmea. In 378 he was left by 
Agesilaus as harmost at Thespiae, and was 
slain in battle bv the Thebans. (Xen. Hell. v. 

2, 24, v. 4, 41 ; Diod. xl. 20, 33 ; Plut. Ayes. 23.) 
Phoebus. [Apollo.] 

Phoenice (4>oici'k7j : Phoenicia is only found 
in a doubtful passage of Cicero [de Fin. iv. 20, 
56] : <poiVi|, pi. 4>oiVi/c€S, fern. 4>oiVi(rcro, Phoenix, 
Phoenlces; also, the adj. Punicus, though 
used specifically in connexion with Carthago, 
is etymologically equivalent to 4>oiVi|), a country 
of Asia, on the coast of Syria, extending from 
the river Eleutherus (Nahr-cl-Kebir) on the 
X. to below Mt. Carmel on the S., and bounded 
on the E. by Coelesyria and Palestine (Plin. 
v. 75). It was a mountainous strip of coast 
land, not more than ten or twelve miles broad, 
hemmed in between the Mediterranean and 
the chain of Lebanon, whose lateral branches, 
running out into the sea in bold promontories, 
divided the country into valleys, which are 
well watered by rivers flowing down from 
Lebanon, and are extremely fertile. Of these 
rivers the most important are, to one going 
from X. to S., the Eleutherus i Xahr-el-Kebir) ; 
the Sabbaticus {Arka)\ the river of Tripolis 
(Kadisha); the Adonis (Xaln-Ibrahim), S. 
of Byblus; the Lycus (Nahr-el-Kelb), N. of 
Berytus; the Magoras (No hr-Beirut), by Bery- 
tus; the Tamyras (Xahr-el-Dtimiir), between 
Berytus and Sidon ; the Leo, or Bostrenus 
(Xalir-el-Aiily), X. of Sidon ; the larger river 
Lita (Litani), which flows from Heliopolis 
SSW., through Coele-Syria, and then, turning 
westwards, fulls into the sea X. of Tyre ; the 
Belus, or Pagida (Numan or liahwin), by 
Ptolemals, and the Kishon (Ki.ihon), X. of Mt. 
Carmel. Of the promontories referred to, 
omitting a number of less important ones, the 

chief were: Theu-prosopon (ftatesh-Bli/u/cah), 
between Tripolis and Byblus, Pi. Allium tUits- 
el-Abiad, i.e. White Cape), S. of Tyre, and 
Mt. Carmel, besides those occupied by the 
cities of Tripolis, Byblus, Berytus, Sidon, Tyrus, 
and Ptolemais. This conformation of tho 

7. 7. 



706 



PHOENICE 



PHOENIX 



coast and the position of the country rendered 
it admirably suited for the home of great mari- 
time states ; and accordingly we find the cities 
of Phoenicia at the head, both in time and im- 
portance, of all the naval enterprise of the 
ancient world. For the history of those great 
cities, see Sidon, andTYRUS. As to the country 
in general, there is some difficulty about the 
origin of the inhabitants and of their name. In 
the O. T. the name does not occur ; the people 
seem to be included under the general designa- 
tion of Canaanites, and they are also named 
specifically after their several cities : as the 
Sidonians, Giblites (from Gebal, i.e. Byblus), 
Sinites, Arkites, Arvadites, &c. The name 
Qoivikt] (Od. iv. 83) is first found in Greek writers 
as early as Homer, and is derived by some from 
the abundance of palm trees in the country 
(<£oi'ei£, the date-palm), and by others from the 
purple-red ((polvi\) which was obtained from a 
fish on the coasts, and was a celebrated article 
of Phoenician commerce ; by others from the 
complexion of the inhabitants ; the mythical 
derivation is from Phoenix, the brother of 
Cadmus. The people were of the Semitic 
race, and are said to have dwelt originally 
on the shores of the Erythraean sea. Their 
language was a dialect of the Aramaic, closely 
related to the Hebrew. Their written characters 
formed the basis of the Greek alphabet, and 
hence they were regarded by the Greeks as the 
inventors of letters (p. 178, b). Other inventions 
in the sciences and arts are ascribed to them : 
such as arithmetic, astronomy, navigation, the 
manufacture of glass, and the coining of money. 
In the Homeric poems the Phoenicians are the 
artistic workers in gold and silver. From them 
the Greeks borrowed the types for all such 
workmanship, for armour, and for patterns on 
vases, many of which the Phoenicians had 
themselves adopted from Egypt. [For their 
early influence on Greek religion, see Aphro- 
dite ; Heracles.] Eespecting Phoenician 
literature, we know of little beyond the cele- 
brated work of Sanchuniathon. In the sacred 
history of the Israelitish conquest of Canaan, . 
in that of the Hebrew monarchy, and in the ! 
earliest Greek poetry, we find the Phoenicians 
already a great maritime people. Early formed 
into settled states, supplied with abundance of 
timber from Lebanon, and placed where the 
caravans from Arabia and the E. came upon 
the Mediterranean, they carried over to the 
coasts of this sea the products of those countries 
as well as of their own, which was rich in 
metals, and the shores of which furnished 
the materials of glass and the purple-fish 
already mentioned. Their colonies and trading 
stations were, especially for their trade in 
purple dye, planted throughout the Aegaean 
coast and the islands. [See Cyprus ; Creta ; 
Graecia.] They were in possession of the 
chief places in the Propontis and Bosporus 
until, in the eighth century B.C., the Milesians 
ousted them from those districts. Their 
voyages and their settlements extended beyond 
the Pillars of Hercules, to the W. coasts of 
Africa and Spurn, and even as far as our own 
islands, according to some accounts [but see p. 
171, b]. Within the Mediterranean they planted 
numerous colonies, on its islands, on the coast 
of Spain, and especially on the N. coast of 
Africa, the chief of which was Carthago ; they 
had also settlements on the Euxine and in Asia 
Minor. In the E. seas, we have records of 
their voyages to Ophir, in connexion with the 
navy of Solomon, and to the coasts of Africa 



I under the kings of Egypt. [Africa, p. 31, b.J 
They were successively subdued by the As- 
syrians, Babylonians, Persians, Macedonians,. ^9 
and Romans ; but neither these conquests nor 
the rivalry of Carthage entirely ruined their' 
I commerce, which was still considerable at the 
Christian era ; on the contrary, their ships 
! formed the fleet of Persia and the Syrian kings,. 
| and partly of the Bomans. [Sidon ; Tyrus.] 
Under the Bomans, Phoenice formed a part of 
the province' of Syria ; and, under the E. em- 
pire, it was erected, with the addition of Coele- 
Syria, into the province of Phoenice Libanesia 
or Libanensis. 

Phoenice (^oiviicrj : Finiki), an important 
commercial town on the coast of the Epirus in 
the district Chaonia, 56 miles NW. of Buthrotum, 
in the midst of a marshy country (Strab. p. 324 ; 
Pol. ii. 5, 8 ; Liv. xxix. 12). It was strongly 
fortified by Justinian (Procop. Aed. iv. 1). 
Phoenicia. [Phoenice.] 
Phoenicium Mare (rb boivliaov iriXayos : 2i- 
Sovir) BaXaa <ra), the part of the Mediterranean 
which washes the coast of Phoenice. 

PhoeniCUS (QoiviKOvs : Qoivikovvtios, <poiv(- 
Kovffffios). 1. Also Phoenix (♦ofvjj), a harbour 
on the S. of Crete, visited by St. Paul during 
his voyage to Rome (Acts xxvii. 12 ; Strab. 
p. 475). — 2. A harbour in Messenia, opposite the 
islands Oenussae (Paus. iv. 34, 12). — 3. A sea- 
port of the island of Cythera. — 4. (Chesmeh or 
Egri Li-man ?), a harbour of Ionia, in Asia 
Minor, at the foot of Mt. Mimas (Thuc. viii. 34 ; 
Liv. xxxvi. 45). — 5. (Deliktash, Ru.), a flourish- 
ing city in the S. of Lycia, on Mt. Olympus, 
with a harbour below it. It is a little to the 
E. of Patara (Liv. xxxvii. 16). It was some- 
times called Olympus (Strab. p. 666). Having 
become, under the Romans, one of the head- 
quarters of the pirates, who celebrated here the 
festival and mysteries of Mithras, it was de- 
stroyed by Servilius Isaui'icus. [Vatia.] 
Phoenicfisa. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 
Phoenix (<potVi£). 1. Son of Agenorby Agriope 
or Telephassa, and brother of Europa, but 
Homer makes him the father of Europa (II. 
xiv. 321). Being sent by his father in search 
of his sister, who was carried off by Zeus, he 
settled in the country, which was called after 
him Phoenicia (Apollod. iii. 1, 1 ; Hyg. Fab. 
178). — 2. Son of Amyntor by Cleobule or Hippo- 
damia, and king of the Dolopes, took part in 
the Calydonian hunt. His father Amyntor 
neglected his legitimate wife, and attached 
himself to a mistress ; whereupon Cleobule 
persuaded her son to seduce her rival. When 
Amyntor discovered the crime, he cursed 
Phoenix, who shortly afterwards fled to Peleus. 
Peleus received him kindly, made him the 
ruler of the country of the Dolopes, on the 
frontiers of Phthia, and entrusted to him his 
son Achilles, whom he was to educate. He 
afterwards accompanied Achilles on his expedi- 
tion against Troy. (II. ix. 447-480.) According 
to another tradition, Phoenix did not dishonour 
his father's mistress, but she merely accused 
him of having made overtures to her, in con- 
sequence of which his father put out his eyes. 
But Peleus took him to Chiron, who restored 
to him his sight. (Apollod. iii. 13, 8.) Phoenix 
moreover is said to have called the son of 
Achilles Neoptolemus, after Lycomedes had 
called him Pyrrhus (Paus. x. 26, 4). Neoptole- 
mus was believed to have buried Phoenix at 
Eion in Macedonia or at Trachis in Thessaly 
(Strab. p. 428). — 3. A fabulous bird Phoenix, 
which, according to a tale told to Herodotus 



PHOENIX 



PHORMISIUS 



707 



(ii. 73) at Heliopolis in Egypt, visited that place to Olenos, where Alector, king of Elis, made 

once in every 5U0 years, on his father's death, use of his assistance against Pelops, and 

and buried him in the sanctuary of Helios, shared his kingdom with him. Phorbas then 

For this purpose the Phoenix was believed to gave his daughter Diogenia in marriage to 

come from Arabia, and to make an egg of myrrh Alector, and he himself married Hyrmine, a 

us large as possible ; this egg he then hollowed sister of Alector, by whom he became the 

out and put into it his father, closing it up father of Augeas and Actor. (Paus. v. 1, 8 ; 

carefully, and the egg was believed then to be Apollod. ii. 5, 5.) He is also described as a 

of exactly the same weight as before. This bold boxer, and is said to have plundered the 

bird was represented as resembling an eagle, temple of Delphi along with the Phlegyae, but 

with feathers partly red and partly golden. It , to have been defeated by Apollo (Ov. Met. xi. 

is further related that when his life drew to a 414 ; Schol. ad II. xxiii. 660). 

close, he built a nest for lumself in Arabia, to Phorcides, Fhorcydes, or Phorcynides, 

Which he imparted the power of generation, so that is, the daughters of Phorcus and Ceto, or 

that after his death a new phoenix rose out of the Gorgons and Graeae. [Gorgones and 

it. As soon as the latter was grown up, he, . Graeae.] 

like his predecessor, proceeded to Heliopolis in ( Phorcus, Phorcys, or Phorcyn (<i>dp/cos, 
Egypt, and burned and buried his father in the ; QSpKvs, $6pKvv). 1. A sea-deity to whom a 
temple of Helios. (Tac. Ann. vi. 34.) — Accord- harbour in Ithaca was dedicated. He is called 
ing to a story which has gained more currency | the father of the nymph Thoosa (0(7. i. 71, xiii. 
in modern times, the Phoenix, when he arrived 96, 345). Other writers call him a son of 
at a very old age (some say 500 and others 1401J Pontus and Ge, and a brother of Thaumas, 
years i, committed himself to the flames (Lueian, Nereus, Eurybia, and Ceto (Hes. Th. 237; 
de Mort. Per. 27 ; Philostr. Apollon. iii. 49).— Apollod. i. 2, 6). By his sister Ceto he became 
Others, again, state that only one Phoenix lived the father of the Graeae and Gorgones, the 
;'t a time, and that when he died a worm crept I Hesperian dragon, and the Hesperides ; and by 
forth from his body, and was developed into a i Hecate or Cratais, he was the father of Scylla 
new Phoenix by the heat of the sun. His death. I (Hes. Th. 270, 333). — 2. Son of Phaenops, 
further, took place in Egypt after a life of 540 commander of the Phrygians of Ascania, 
years. (Plin. x. 4; Tzetz. L'hil. v. 397. i — assisted Priam in the Trojan war, but was slain 
Another modification of the same story relate^ by Ajax (II. ii. 682, xvii. 312; Paus. x. 26, 6). 
that when the Phoenix arrived at the age of Phormlon \<t>opfilwv). 1. A celebrated Athe- 
500 years, he built for himself a funeral pile, uian general, the son of Asopius. He is first 
consisting of spices, settled upon it, and died, mentioned as one of the generals sent to rein- 
Out of the decomposing body he then rose force the Athenians at Samos in 440 B.C. In 
again, and having grown up, he wrapped the ; 432 he commanded in the siege of Potidaea 
remains of his old body up in myrrh, carried and aftewards in Chalcidice (Thuc. i. 64, 117, 
them to Heliopolis, and burnt them there. (Ov. I ii. 29). In 430 he was sent with thirty ships to 
Mat. xv. 392-407 ; Stat. Silv. ii. 4, 30.) Similar Ambracia, and then to Naupactus, to blockade 
stories of marvellous birds occur in many parts the Gulf of Corinth. He particularly dis- 
of the East : as, in Persia, the legend of the bird tinguished himself, and witli far inferior 
Simorg, and, in India, that of the bird Semendar. forces gained some brilliant victories over the 

Phoenix (<t>oiVi|i. a small river in Malis, flow- Peloponnesian fleet in B.C. 429. In the ensuing 

ing into the Asopus near Thermopylae (Hdt. winter he landed on the coast of Acarnania, 

\ ii. 200 ; Strab. p. 428i. — 2. A river further N. and advanced into the interior, where he also 

in Thessaly, which flows into the Apidanus gained some successes. (Thuc. ii. 80-92, 102 ; 

(Lucan, vi. 374 ; Plin. it. 30). — 3. A harbour in Diod. xii. 37, 47.) He died before 428 (Thuc. 

( rete. [Phoenicus, No. 1.] iii. 7), and was commemorated by a statue on the 

Phoetiae or Phytia i4>oiT«iai, Gonial, 4>i'Tia, Acropolis (Paus. i. 23, 10). Pausanias men 

Thuc), a town in Acamania on a hill, W. of | tions that the Athenians on one occasion paid 

Stratus (Thuc. iii. 146 ; Pol. iv. 63). hie debts, because he refused to go on an 

Pholegandros iQoAtyavdpos : Polykandro), expedition while he was in debt to anyone, 

an island in the Aegaean sea.oneof theCyclades, j Aristophanes alludes to his hardy and temperate 

between Melos and Sicinos (Strab. p. 484). character (Aristoph. Pax, 348, Lys. 804; cf. 

Pholoe i'+oAotj : Oluno), a mountain forming Athen. p. 419). — 2. A Peripatetic philosopher of 

the boundary between Arcadia and Elis; being EphesuK, of whom is told the story that he dis- 

a S. continuation of Mount Erymanthus, in coursed before Hannibal on the military art 

which the rivers Selleis and Ladon took their i and the duties of a general. When his admir- 

origin (Strab. pp. 336, 357). It is mentioned as ' ing audience asked Hannibal what he thought 

one of the seats of the Centaurs. PHor.us.] of him, the latter replied that of all the old 

Pholus (<|><iAoii, a Centaur, a son of Silenus blockheads whom he had seen none could mulch 

and the nymph Melia. He was accidentally Pliormion (Cic. de Ural. ii. 18, 75). 

slain by one of the poisoned arrows of Heracles. Phormis or Phormus (4>6pfiis, Gup/xos), a 

The mountain, between Arcadia and Elis, native of Maenalus in Arcadia, removed to 

where he was buried was called Pholoe after Sicily, where he became intimate with Gelon, 

him. For details of his story see p. 397, a. whose children he educated. He distinguished 

Phorbantia. TAihiks. himself as a soldier, both under Gelon and 

Phorbas (4>opjSai). 1. Son of Lapithcs and Hieron his brother. In gratitude for his 
Orsinome, and brother of Periphas. Tin martial successes, lie dedicated gifts to Zeus at 
Rhodians, in pursuance of an oracle, are said Olympia, and to Apollo at Delphi. He is 
to have invited him into their island to deliver associated by Aristotle with Epicharmus, as 
it from snakes, and afterwards to have wor- one of tlie originators of comedy, or of a parti- 
shipped him as a hero. From this circuin- oalar form of it. (Arist. Poiit. 5*; Paus. v. 27 ; 
stance he was called Ophiuchus, and is said by Allien, p. 652; Suid. ». v.) 

some to have been placed among the star-;. Phormisius (♦op/iiViosI, one of the party of 

(Diod. v. 58; Hyg. Astr. ii. ll.i According to Tlier.unenes, who adopted the Lacedaemonian 

Mother tradition, Phorbas went from Thessaly views, and proposed that only landowners 

z Z 9 



708 



PHOBONEUS 



PHRIXUS 



should liave the franchise. (Argument to Lys. 
ITep! rrjs -KoAntias : Arist. 'Ad. iroA. 34.) 

Phoroneus ($opu>v€vs), son of Inachus and 
the Oceanid Melia or Archia, was a brother of 
Aegialeus and the ruler of Argos. He was 
married to the nymph Laodice, by whom he 
became the father of Niobe, Apis, and Car. 
(Paus. i. 39, 4 ; Apollod. ii. 1, 1 ; Hyg. Fab. 
143.) According to other writers his sons were 
Pelasgus, Iasus, and Agenor, who, after their 
father's death, divided the kingdom of Argos 
among themselves (Eustath. ad Horn. p. 385). 
Phoroneus is said to have been the first who 
offered sacrifices to Hera at Argos, and to have 
united the people, who until then had lived in 
scattered habitations, into a city which was 
called after him atrrv Qopaiviitov (Paus. ii. 15, 
5). The patronymic Phoronides is sometimes 
used for Argives in general, and especially to 
designate Amphiaraus and Adrastus. 

Phoronis (bopaivis), a surname of Io, who 
was either a descendant or a sister of Phoroneus 
(Ov. Met. i. 668). 

Phosphorus. [Hespebus.] 

Photius ($wTios), patriarch of Constantinople 
in the ninth century of our era, played a distin- 
guished part in the political and religious history 
of his age. After holding various high offices 
in the Byzantine court, he was, although a 
layman, elected patriarch of Constantinople in 
a.d. 858, in place of Ignatius, who had been 
deposed by Bardas, who was all-powerful at 
the court of his nephew Michael III., then a 
minor. The patriarchate of Photius was a 
stormy one, and full of vicissitudes. The 
cause of Ignatius was espoused by the Romish 
Church ; and Photius thus became one of the 
great promoters of the schism between the 
Eastern and Western Churches. In 867 
Photius was himself deposed by the emperor 
Basil I., and Ignatius was restored ; but on the 
death of Ignatius in 877, Photius, who had 
meantime gained the favour of Basil, was 
again elevated to the patriarchate. On the 
death of Basil, in 886, Photius was ac- 
cused of a conspiracy against the life of the 
new emperor, Leo VI., and was banished 
to a monastery in Armenia, where he 
seems to have remained till his death. Photius 
was one of the most learned men of his time, 
and in the midst of a busy life found time for 
the composition of numerous works, several of 
which have come down to us. Of these the 
two most important are (1) Mijriobiblion sen 
Bibliotheca [Mvpiofi'ifiAiov ^ Bi,8A.io0?)/c?j). It 
may be described as an extensive review of 
ancient Greek literature by a scholar of 
immense erudition and sound judgment. It is 
an extraordinary monument of literary energy, 
for it was written while the author was engaged 
in an embassy to Assyria, at the request of 
his brother Tarasius, who desired an account 
of the books which Photius had read in his 
absence. It contains the analyses of or ex- 
tracts from 280 volumes, and many valuable 
works are only known to us from tire account 
which Photius has given of them. The best 
edition of this work*s by Bekker, Berlin, 1824- 
1825. (2) The Lexicon or Glossary, which 
has reached us in an imperfect state, but is of 
great value for its citation of atfthors and for 
the light which it throws on many Greek 
terms. It was first published by Hermann, 
Lips. 1808, and subsequently at London, 1822, 
from the papers of Porson. Photius likewise 
wrote many theological works, some of which 
have been published, and others remain in MS. 



Phraata or Phraaspa (ra ^pdara, and other 
forms), a great city of Media Atropatene, the 
winter residence of the Parthian kings, especi- 
ally as a refuge in time of war, lay SE. of Gaza, 
near the river Amardus (Appian, Parth. p. 80 ; 
Dio Cass. xlix. 25). The mountain fortress of 
Vera (Ovipa), which was besieged by Antony, 
was probably the same place (Strab. p. 523). 

Phraataces, king of Parthia. [Aesaces 
XVI.] 

Phraates, the name of four kings of Parthia. 
[Aesaces, V. VII. XII. XV.] 

Phranzaor Phranzes, Georgius (<pp£W"7-f?j or 
fypavT^ris), the last, and one of the most import- 
ant, of the Byzantine historians, was frequently 
employed on important public business by Cbn- 
stantine XIII., the last emperor of Constanti- 
nople. On the capture of Constantinople by 
the Turks, in 1453, Phranza was reduced to 
slavery, but succeeded in making his escape. 
He subsequently retired to a monastery, where 
he wrote his Chronicon. This work extends 
from 1259 to 1477, and is a valuable authority 
for the history of the author's time, especially 
for the capture of Constantinople. — Edited by 
Aiter, Vienna, 1796, by Bekker, Bonn, 1838. 

Phraortes (^paoprrjs), second king of Media, 
and son of Deioces, whom he succeeded, 
reigned from b.c. 656 to 634. [Media.] He 
first conquered the Persians, and then subdued 
the greater part of Asia, but was at length 
defeated and killed while laying siege to Ninus 
(Nineveh). He was succeeded by his son 
Cyaxares (Hdt. i. 73, 102.) 

Phricium (<ppi/aov), a mountain in the E. of 
Locris near Thermopylae (Strab. pp. 582, 621). 

Phriconis. [Cyme ; Labissa, 2.] 

Phrixa (<ppi£a, <i>p££a<, ©pifai : Paleofanaro), 
a town of Elis in Triphylia on the borders of 
Pisatis, was situated upon a steep hill on the 
river Alpheus, and was thirty stadia from 
Olympia. It was founded by the Minyae, and 
is said to have derived its name from Phrixus. 
(Paus. vi. 21, 6 ; Strab. p. 343.) 

Phrixus (<i>pi'|os), son of Athamas and 
Nephele, and brother of Helle. In conse- 
quence of the intrigues of his stepmother, Ino, 
he was to be sacrificed to Zeus; but Nephele 
rescued her two children, who rode away 
through the air upon the ram with the golden 
fleece, the gift of Hermes. Between Sigeum 
and the Chersonesus, Helle fell into the sea 
which was called after her the Hellespont. A 
fine Pompeian painting (Mns. Borb. vi. 19) 
shows the exact moment described by Ovid 
(who possibly had the picture in his mind) : 

Paene simul periit dum volt succurrere lapsae 
Frater et extentas porrigit usque manus. 

(Fast. iii. 871.) Phrixus arrived in safety 
in Colchis, the kingdom of Aeetes, who 
gave him his daughter Chalciope in marriage. 
Phrixus sacrificed the ram which had carried 
him, to Zeus Phyxius or Laphystius, and gave 
its fleece to Aeetes, who fastened it to an oak 
tree in the grove of Ares. (Paus. i. 24, 2 ; Schol. 
ad Ap. Bh. ii. 653.) This fleece was afterwards 
carried away by Jason and the Argonauts. 
[Jason.] By Chalciope Phrixus became the 
father of Argus, Melas, Phrontis, Cytissorus, 
and Presbon. (Apollod. i. 9, 1 ; Hyg. Fab. 14.) 
Phrixus either died of old age in the kingdom 
of Aeetes, or was killed by Aeetes in conse- 
quence of an oracle (Ap. Bh. ii. 1151 ; Hyg. 
Fab. 3). Pausanias (ix. 34, 5) gives a story that 
either Phrixus or his son Presbon returned to 
Orchomenos. Herodotus in his account of the 



PHRIXUS 

myth (vii. 197 J mentions that the people of 
Phthiotis used to offer a human victim from 
the family of the Athamantidae to Zeus Laphys- 
tius. It is not unlikely that the story of 
Phrixus in part arose from this rite of sacrifice 
to the Minyan Zeus. It is held by some 
mythologists that the ram commonly offered to 
Zeus symbolised the clouds, and that the 
golden ram meant the wealth-giving clouds of 



PHRYGIA 



709 




Phrixus riding on a ram across the Hellespont, with 
Helle, fallen into the sea. (Pompeian painting.) 

spring. Phrixus in this view signified the 
spring rains, and therefore his mother is 
Nephele or Cloud ; and he is drawn towards the 
land of the sun [see also p. 107, a . 

Phrixus (-ppi'fos), a river in Argolis, which 
flows into the Argolic gulf between Temenium 
and Lerna (Paus. ii. 36, 6). 

Phrygia Mater, a name frequently given to 
Cybele, because she was especially worshipped 
in Phrygia. [Rhea.] 

Phrygia (<&pvy'ta: <!>pt/£, pi. 4>pvy(s, Phryx, 
Phryges), a country of Asia Minor, which was 
of very different extent at different periods. 
According to the division of the provinces 
under the Roman empire, Phrygia formed the 
E. part of the province of Asia, and was 
bounded on the W. by Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, 
on the S. by Lycia and Pisidia, on the E. by 
Lycoonia (which is often reckoned as a part of 
Phrygia) and Galatia (which formerly belonged 
to Phrygia), and on the N. by Bithynia. With 
reference to its physical geography and its 
early history, Phrygia formed the W. part (as 
Cappadocia did the E.) of the great central 
table-land of Asia Minor, supported by the 
chains of Olympus on the N.and Taurus on the 
S., and breaking on the W. into the ridges 
which separate the great valleys of the Hkh- 
MUS, the M.u INDEB, See., and which form the 
headlands of the \V. coast. This table-land 
itself was intersected by mountain-chains, and 
watered by the upper courses and tributaries of 
the rivers just mentioned in its W. part, and in 
its N. part by those of the Rhyndacuh and 
Sanoakius. These parts of the country were 
very fertile, especially in the valley of the 



Sangarius, but in the S. and E. the streams 
which descend from Taurus lose themselves in 
extensive salt marshes and salt lakes, some of 
which are still famous, as in ancient times, for 
their manufactures of salt. — There has been 
much dispute about the origin of the Phrygians. 
Their claim to a high antiquity is indicated by 
the story in Herodotus (ii. 2) of the experiment 
made by Psammetichus, king of Egypt, on the 
first spontaneous speech of children, which 
was held to show that they were the most 
ancient of people. Their own legends of a great 
flood, to escape which their king, Nannacus, 
built an ark, are also significant (Zosim. vi. 10 ; 
Suid. s. v. N«wa«os). Greek writers represent 
the Phrygians as a Thracian tribe, called in 
Europe Briges, who either before or shortly 
after the Trojan war migrated into Asia (Hdt. 
vii. 73 ; Strab. pp. 295, 471, 680). Other evi- 
dence on the question is to be sought in the 
character of the people — warlike in the Homeric 
age, but the reverse afterwards — in their mixed 
religions, and in their monuments, on which 
much light has been thrown in recent years. 
On the whole, the most probable theory is that 
to which Mr. Ramsay has been brought by his 
researches in Asia Minor — that the Phrygians 
were, as Greek tradition related, a European 
people who crossed the Hellespont before the 
period of the Trojan war, and established a 
kingdom in Asia Minor, TV. of the Halys; they 
were a race of hardy warriors, of Aryan descent, 
and their special deity was akin to Zeus, and 
was variously called Osogo or Papas (Father) 
or Bronton (Thunderer) ; the people whom 
they found in possession and conquered were a 
Semitic nation, who practised the orgiastic 
worship of a female deitj- (the Greek Cybele), 
with rites of an Oriental character, and with 
temples served by slaves [cf. p. 86, b]; the 
capital of this nation is conjectured to have 
been Pteria in Cappadocia [Ptebia]; the in- 
vading Phrygians probably occupied first the 
sea-coast on the Asiatic side of the Hellespont, 
and then, as they pressed inwards, reduced the 
Semitic people, but adopted much of their 
religion (just as the Galatians afterwards did), 
combining it also with their own, and gradually 
degenerated themselves in courage and manli- 
ness. Some early reliefs of armed warriors 
which have been discovered in Phrygia are 
taken to represent the invaders before they 
adopted the softer and weaker manners of the 
shepherd people whom they conquered. The 
lion sculptures resembling those of Mycenae 
r p. 580, a], and the sculptured tombs, such as that 
of Midas, belonged to the ruling dynasty which 
the invaders established. If the above conjec- 
tures are well founded, it is not unlikely that 
the stories of the wars with Amazons really 
represent the struggle which the invaders, 
whose deity was a god and whose right of in- 
heritance was male, waged against a race who 
worshipped a goddess served by female temple- 
slaves, and who counted their descent through 
the mother (by ' Mutterrecht '). The invaders 
left their name in the coast district which they 
first occupied in the neighbourhood of Cyzicus — 
namely, Phrygia Minor or Phrygia Helles- 
pontue. — The kingdom of Phrygia was con- 
quered by Croesus, and formed part of the 
Persian, Macedonian, and Syro- Grecian em- 
pires; but under the last the NE. part, adjacent 
to Paphhigonia and the Halys, was conquered 
by the Gauls, and formed the \Y. part of 
Galatia; and a part W. of this, containing 
the richest portion of the country, about tho 



710 



PHRYNE 



PHYCU3 



Sangarius, was subjected by the kings of Bithy- 
nia ; this last portion was the object of a contest 
between the kings of Bithynia and Pergamus, 
but at last, by the decision of the Romans, it 
was added, under the name of Phrygia Epicte- 
tus (*. ew'iKT-riTos, i.e. the acquired Phrygia), 
to the kingdom of Pergamus, to which the 
whole of Phrygia was assigned by the Romans, 
after the overthrow of Antiochus the Great in 
B.C. 190. With the rest of the kingdom of 
Pergamus, Phrygia passed to the Romans by 
the testament of Attalus III., and thus became 
a part of the province of Asia, B.C. 130. — As 
to the distinctive names : the inland district 
usually understood by the name of Phrygia, 
when it occurs alone, was also called Great 
Phrygia or Phrygia Proper, in contradistinction 
to the Lesser Phrygia or Phrygia on the Helles- 
pont ; and of this Great or Proper Phrygia, 
the N. part was called, as just stated, Phrygia 
Epictetus, and the S. part, adjacent to the 
Taurus, was called, from its position, Phrygia 
Paroreios (<f>. wapSpeios), a district of mountain 
valleys between Polybotus and Tyriaeum, in the 
SE. of Phrygia, with chief towns Antiochia and 
Apollonia. At the division of the provinces in 
the fourth century, the last mentioned part, 
also called Phrygia Pisidicus, was assigned to 
Pisidia ; and the SW. portion, about the Mae- 
ander, to Caria ; and the remainder was divided 
into Phrygia Salutaris (or Secunda) on the E., 
with Synnada, Eucarpia, and Dorylaeum for its 
chief towns, and Phrygia Pacatiana (or Prima) 
on the W., with the chief town Laodicea, ex- 
tending N. and S. from Bithynia to Pamphylia. 
— Phrygia was rich in products of every kind. 
Its mountains furnished gold and marble ; its 
valleys oil and wine; the less fertile hills in 
the W. afforded pasture for sheep, whose wool 
was celebrated (Strab. pp. 578, 579); and the 
marshes of the SE. furnished abundance of salt. 

Phryne (#pw7j), one of the most celebrated 
Athenian hetairae, was a native of Thespiae in 
Boeotia. Her beauty procured for her so much 
wealth that she is said to have offered to rebuild 
the walls of Thebes, after they had been de- 
stroyed by Alexander, if she might be allowed to 
put up this inscription on the walls : — ' Alexan- 
der destroyed them, but Phryne, the hetaira, 
rebuilt them.' She had among her admirers 
many of the most celebrated men of the age of 
Philip and Alexander, and the beauty of her 
form gave rise to some of the greatest works of 
art. The most celebrated picture of Apelles, 
his ' Venus Anadyomene ' [Apelles], is said to 
have been a representation of Phryne, who, at 
a festival at Eleusis, entered the sea with di- 
shevelled hair. The Cnidian Venus of Praxiteles, 
who was one of her lovers, was modelled from 
her. (Athen. pp. 558, 567, 583, 585, 590 ; Ael. 
V. H. ix. 32 ; Propert. ii. 6, 5 ; Plin. xxxiv. 71.) 

Phryniehus (fypivixos). 1. An Athenian, 
and one of the early tragic poets, is said to have 
been the disciple of Thespis. He gained his 
first tragic victory in B.C. 511, twenty-four years 
after Thespis (535), twelve years after Choerilus 
(523), and twelve years before Aeschylus (499) ; 
and his last in 47G, on which occasion Themi- 
stocles was his choragus, and recorded the 
event by an inscription (Plut. Them. 5). The 
play is supposed to have been the Phoenissae, 
which had the same subject as the Persae of 
Aeschylus. Phryniehus probably went, like 
other poets of the age, to the court of Hiero, 
and there died. In all the accounts of the rise 
and development of tragedy, the chief place 
after Thespis is assigned to Phryniehus ; and 



the improvements which he introduced in the 
internal poetical character of the drama en- 
title him to be considered as the real inventor 
of tragedy. For the light Bacchanalian stories 
or satyr plays which are supposed to have 
been exhibited by Thespis he substituted 
serious subjects, taken either from the heroic 
age, or the heroic deeds which illustrated the 
history of his own time. In these he aimed 
not so much to amuse the audience as to move 
their passions ; and so powerful was the effect 
of his tragedy on the capture of Miletus, that 
the audience burst into tears, and fined the 
poet 1000 drachmae, because he had exhibited 
the sufferings of a kindred people, and they even 
passed a law that no one should ever again 
make use of that drama. He was celebrated 
especially for the beauty of his lyrical choruses 
(Aristoph. Av. 748, Ban. 910, Thesmoph. 166). 
Phryniehus was the first poet who introduced 
masks representing female characters in the 
drama. He also paid particular attention to 
the dances of the chorus. In the drama of 
Phryniehus, however, the chorus still retained 
the principal place, and it was reserved for 
Aeschylus and Sophocles to bring the dialogue 
and action into their due position. — 2. A comic 
poet of the Old Comedy, was a contemporary 
of Eupolis, and flourished B.C. 429 (Aristoph. 
Ban. 14, Schol. ad loc). — 3. An Athenian 
general, son of Stratonides, who was sent with 
, a fleet to Asia Minor in 412 B.C. (Thuc. viii. 25). 
i In the following year he endeavoured to streng- 
then the position of the oligarchical party by 
calling in the Spartans, and he was assassinated 
: in the Agora (Thuc. viii. 92). — 4. A Greek 
j sophist and grammarian, described by some as 
an Arabian, and by others as a Bithynian, lived 
under M. Aurelius and Commodus. His great 
I work was entitled 2ocpi<rTiKT/ irapatrKevi) in 
j thirty-seven books, of which we still possess a 
fragment, published by Bekker, in his Anecdot a 
j Graeca, Berol. 1814, vol. i. He also wrote a 
I Lexicon of Attic words ('EKA077) p^aTW /ecu 
: dvo/xdrwy Attik&Sc), edited by Lobeck, Lips. 1830. 

Phrynnis ($pvvvis), or Phrynis (bpvvis), a 
dithyrambic poet, of the tune of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, was a native of Mytilene, but 
flourished at Athens. His innovations, effemi- 
nacies, and frigidness, are repeatedly attacked 
by the comic poets (Aristoph. Nub. 971 ; Plut. 
Mus. p. 1146). Among the innovations which 
he made, was the addition of two strings to the 
heptachord. He was the first who gained the 
victory in the musical contests established by 
! Pericles in connexion with the Panathenaic 
j festival, probably in B.C. 445. 
Phthia. [Phthiotis.] 

Phthlotis (<p0i£tis : #0iwt7)s), a district in 
the SE. of Thessaly, bounded on the S. by the 
Maliac gulf, and on the E. by the Pagasaean 
: gulf, and inhabited by Achaeans. [Thessalia.] 
j Homer calls it Phthia ($6iri), and mentions a 
l city of the same name, celebrated as the resi- 
dence of Achilles (II. i. 155, ii. 683 ; Strab. pp. 
383, 430). Hence the poets call Achilles 
Phthius her os, and Peleus Phthius rex. 

Phthira (to 08'ipa, QBetpuv opos), a mountain 
in Caria, forming a part or a branch of Latmus, 
inhabited by a people called Wipes (II. ii. 868 
Strab. p. 635). 

Phthlrophagi (<$e€ip6<payoi, i.e. eaters of 
lice), a Scythian people near the Caucasus, or, 
according to some, beyond the river Rha, in 
Sarmatia Asiat. (Strab. pp. 449, 492 ; Plin. vi. 14). 

Phya. [Pisistbatus.] 

Phycus (<&vkovs: Bas-Sem or Bas-el-Kazat), 



PHYLACE 



PICENUM 



711 



a, promontory on the coast of Cyrenaica, a 
little "W. of Apollonia and N W. of Cyrene. It 
is the northernmost headland of Libya E. of the 
Lesser Syrtis, and the nearest point of this 
coast to that of Europe, the distance from 
Phycus to Taenarum, the S. promontory of 
Peloponnesus, being 208 miles. There was a 
small town of the same name on the head- 
land. (Strab. pp. 363, 837 ; Lucan, ix. 40 ; Plin. 
v. 32.) 

Phylace (QuXokti). 1. A small town of Thes- 
saly, in Phthiotis, on the N. slope of Mt. Othrys, 
the birthplace of Protesilaus. (II. ii. 695, xiii. 
<!96 ; Od. xi. 290 ; Strab. p. 433.)— 2. A town 
of Epirus, in Molossia (Liv. xlv. 26). — 3. A town 
in Arcadia on the frontiers of Tegea and 
Laconia (Paus. viii. 54, 1). 

Phylacus (*uA.okos), son of Deion and Dio- 
mede, and husband of Periclymene or Clymene, 
the daughter of Minyas, by whom he became 
the father of Iphiclus and Alcimede (II. ii. 
705 ; Apollod. i. 9, 4). He was believed to be 
the founder of the town of Phylace, in Thes- 
saly. Either from its name or that of the 
town, his descendants, Phylacus, Iphiclus, and 
Protesilaus, are called Phylacidae. 

Ph.ylarch.US (<frv\apxos), a Greek historical 
writer, and a contemporary of Aratus, was 
probably a native of Naucratis in Egypt, but 
spent the greater part of his life at Athens 
(Athen. p. 58). His great work was a history 
in twenty-eight books, which embraced a period 
of fifty-two years, from the expedition of 
Pyrrhus into Peloponnesus, B.C. 272, to the 
death of Cleomenes, 220. Phylarchus is vehe- 
mently attacked by Polybius (ii. 56), who 
charges him with falsifying history through his 
partiality to Cleomenes and his hatred against 
Aratus and the Achaeans. The accusation is 
probably not unfounded, but it might be re- 
torted with equal justice upon Polybius, who 
has fallen into the opposite error of exaggera- 
ting the merits of Aratus and his party, and 
depreciating Cleomenes. The fragments of 
Phylarchus have been collected by Miiller, 
Frrtt/m. Histor. Graec. Paris, 1840 and 1868. 

Phylas (4>uAaj). 1. King of the Dryopes, was 
attacked and slain by Heracles, because he had 
violated the sanctuary of Delphi. By his 
daughter Midea, Heracles became the father 
of Antiochus. (Paus. i. 5, 2, iv. 34, 6 ; Diod. iv. 
37.) — 2. Son of Antiochus, and grandson of 
Heracles and Midea, was married to Deiphile, 
by whom he had two sons, Hippotas and Thero 
(Paus. ii. 4, 3). — 3. King of Ephyra in Thes- 
protia, and the father of Polymele and Astyoche, 
by the latter of whom Heracles was the father 
of Tlepolemus (//. xvi. 181 ; Apollod. ii. 7, C). 

Phyle (4>uAri : 4>i/Aa<noj : Fill), a demus in 
Attica, and a strongly fortified place, belonging 
to the tribe Oeneis, was situated on the con- 
fines of Boeotia, and on the S\V. slope of Mt. 
Panics, about thirteen miles from Athens. It 
is placed in a narrow defile 2100 feet above the 
sea level, and overlooks the plain of Athens 
and the city itself. The remains of the walls 
are still visible. It is memorable as the place 
which Thrasybulua and the Athenian patriots 
seized, soon after the end of the Peloponnesian 
war, p.O. 404, and from which they directed 
their operations against the Thirty Tyrants at 
Athens. [Tiikasvim i i s. 

Phyleus (4>v\(vs), son <>f Augeas, was ex- 
pelled by his father from Ephyra, because he 
gave evidence in favour of Heracles. [See p. 
-597, b.] He then emigrated to Dulichium (//. 
xv. 530, xxiii. 037). By Ctimene or Timandra 



he became the father of Meges, who is hence 
called Phylides (Paus. v. 3. 4). 

PhylHdas (<i>uAA.i5as), a Theban, secretary to 
the polemarchs who held the Cadmeia after 
B.C. 382. He used his opportunities to aid the 
movement of liberation, and introduced Pelo- 
pidas and his associates to the house of Leonti- 
ades. (Xen. Hell. v. 4, 2 ; Pelopidas.) 
Phyllis. [Demophok, No. 2 ] 
Phyllis (<pvAAis), a district in Thrace, S. of 
the Strymon, near Mt. Pangaeus (Hdt. vii. 113). 

Phyllus ($vk\os : Petrino), a town of Thes- 
saly in the district Thessaliotis, N. of Metro- 
polis (Strab. p. 435). 
Physcon. [Ptolemaeus.] 
Physcus (<ptWos). 1. (Marmoras), a town 
on the S. coast of Caria, in the Rhodian terri- 
tory, with an excellent harbour, used as the port 
of Mylasa, and the landing-place for travellers 
I coming from Rhodes (Strab. pp. 652, 663). — 2. 

lOdorneh), an E. tributary of the Tigris in 
| Lower Assyria. The town of Opis stood at its 
junction with the Tigris. (Xen. An. ii. 4, 25.) 

Phytaeum (i>vraiov : &ut<i7os), a town in 
Aetolia, on the lake Trichonis (Pol. v. 7). 
Phytia. [Phoetiae.] 
Piceni. [Picexvm.) 
Picentes. Picenim.] 

Picentia (Picentinus : Vicenza). a town in 
the S. of Campania at the head of the Sinus 
Paestanus, and between Salemum and the 
j frontiers of Lucania, the inhabitants of which 
were compelled by the Romans, in consequence 
of their revolt to Hannibal, to abandon their 
town and live in the neighbouring villages 
(Strab. p. 251). Between the town and the 
frontiers of Lucania there was an ancient 
temple of the Argive Juno, said to have been 
founded by Jason the Argonaut. — The name 
of Pieentmi was not confined to the inhabi- 
tants of Picentia, but was given to the inhabi- 
tants of the whole coast of the Sinus Paestanus, 
from the promontory of Minerva to the river 
Silarus (Strab. I.e. ; Plin. iii. 70). They were a 
portion of the Sabine Picentes, who were 
transplanted by the Romans to this part of 
Campania after the conquest of Picenum, B.C. 
268, when they founded Picentia. 
Picentlni. [Picentia.] 

Picenum (Picentes, sing. Picens, more rarely 
Picentini and Piceni), a country in Central 
Italy, was a narrow strip of land along the N. 
coast of the Adriatic, and was bounded on the 
N. by Umbria, from which it was separated by 
the river Aesis, on the W. by Umbria and the 
territory of the Sabines, and on the S. by the 
territory of the Marsi and Vestini, from which 
it was separated by a range of hills and by the 
river Matrinus (Strab. p. 240; Plin. iii. 110). 
It is said to have derived its name from the 
bird picus, which directed the Sabine immi- 
grants, under the vow of a Ver Sacrum, into 
the land (Plin. I.e.; Strab. I.e.). That this 
points to the existence of an uncient tribal 
totem or sacred animal is by no means impos- 
sible. [PicUS.] The inhabitants of the south- 
ern portion of Picenum in the neighbourhood 
of Interamnium and Adria and the river Vo- 
mamis had a s]>ecial name Praetuttii (Pnvetu- 
tianus Ager), from which the modern Abriizzi, 
is derived (Plin. I.e. ; Liv. xxii. 9, xxvii. 48), 
but the part of this district between the Vo- 
manns and Matrinus was distinguished as Ager 
Hadrianus. Picenum formed the fifth region in 
the division of Italy made by Augustus, and 
extended as far as the river Atemus. The 
I country was .traversed by a number of hills of 



712 



PICTI 



PIC US 



moderate height, eastern offshoots of the Apen- 
nines, and was drained by several small rivers 
flowing into the Adriatic through the valleys 
between these hills. The country was upon the 
whole fertile, and was especially celebrated for 
its apples ; but the chief employment of the in- 
habitants was the feeding of cattle and swine. 
— The Picentes, as already remarked, were Sa- 
bine immigrants ; but the population of the 
country appears to have been of a mixed na- 
ture. The Umbrians were in possession of the 
land when it was conquered by the Sabine 
Picentes, and some of the Umbrian population 
became intermingled with their Sabine con- 
querors. In addition to this the S. part of the 
country was for a time in the possession of the 
Liburnians, and Ancona was occupied by 
Greeks from Syracuse. In B.C. 299 the Pi- 
centes made a treaty with the Romans ; but 
having revolted in 269, they were defeated by 
the consul Sempronius Sophus in the following 
year, and were obliged to submit to the Roman 
supremacy. (Flor. i. 19; Liv. Ep. 15; Eutrop. 
ii. 16.) A portion of the people was trans- 
planted to the coast of the Sinus Paestanus, 
where they founded the town Picentia. [Pi- 
centia.] Two or three years afterwards the 
Romans sent colonies to Firmum and Castrum 
Novum in Picenum, in order to secure their 
newly conquered possession. The Picentes 
fought with the other Socii against Rome in the 
Social or Marsic war (90-89), and received the 
Roman franchise at the close of it. (App. B.C. 
i. 38-48 ; Flor. iii. 18.) 

Picti, a people inhabiting the northern part 
of Britain, appear to have been either a tribe of 
the Caledonians, or the same people as the 
Caledonians, though under another name. It 
is supposed by many that their name was given 
by the Romans because the Picti painted their 
bodies [cf. p. 171, b], but it is quite as prob- 
able that (like that of the Pictones) it is a 
Celtic name. They are first mentioned by the 
rhetorician Eumenius in an oration addressed 
to Constantinus Chlorus, a.d. 296 ; and after 
this time their name frequently occurs in the 
Roman writers, and often in connexion with 
that of the Scoti. In the next century we find 
them divided into two tribes, the Dicaledonae 
or Dicaledones, and the Verturiones. (Amm. 
Marc. xx. 1, xxvi. 4.) [Verturiones is the MS. 
reading, not Vecturiones, and is supported by 
the name Verterae in Westmoreland.] 

Pictones, subsequently Pictavi, a powerful 
people on the coast of Gallia Aquitanica, whose 
territory extended N. as far as the Liger 
(Loire), and E. probably as far as the river 
Creuse. Their chief town was Limonum, sub- 
sequently Pictavi (Poitiers). (Caes. B. G. iii. 
11, vii. 4 ; Strab. p. 190.) 

Pictor, Fabius. 1. C, painted the temple of 
Salus, which the dictator C. Junius Brutus 
Bubulcus contracted for in his censorship, B.C. 
307, and dedicated in his dictatorship, 302. 
This painting, which must have been on the 
walls of the temple, was probably a representa- 
tion of the battle which Bubulus had gained 
against the Samnites. This is the earliest 
Roman painting of which we have any record. 
It was preserved till the reign of Claudius, 
when the temple was destroyed by fire. In 
consequence of this painting C. Fabius 
received the surname of Pictor, which was 
borne by his descendants. (Plin. xxxv. 19; 
Dionys. xvi. 6 ; Val. Max. viii. 14, 6.) — 2. C, son 
of No. 1, consul 269. — 3. N. (i.e. Numerius), 
also son of No. 1, consul, 266.-4. Q., son of 



j No. 2, was the most ancient writer of Roman 
history in prose (Liv. i. 44, ii. 40 ; Dionys. i. 
6, vii. 71). He served in the Gallic war, 225,, 
and also in the second Punic war (Pol. iii. 9 ; 

j Liv. xxii. 7 ; Eutrop. iii. 5 ; Plin. x. 71). After 

I the battle of Cannae he was sent to consult the 

| oracle of Delphi (Liv. xxii. 57 ; Plut. Fab. Max. 
18). His history was written in Greek, which 
was then the only language of learning and 
literature, and was the channel of communica- 
tion with writers outside the Italian penin- 
sula. The History of Fabius began with 
the arrival of Aeneas in Italy, and came 
down to his own time. Polybius (i. 14, 58) 
speaks of his History as marked by some 
partiality, though not from design. That he 
was used as an authority by Livy and Diodorus 
there can be little doubt, though to what 
extent is a disputed question. For Polybius he 
was the chief authority in the account of the 
second Punic war. There seems to have been 
a Latin version or abridgment of his history 
(Gell. v. 4), to which Cicero probably alludes 
(de Or. ii. 12, 51). The order in which Cicero 
alludes to this version implies that it was made 
after Cato's Origines, whether by Fabius Pictor 
himself in his old age, or by some one else is 
uncertain. Some have attributed it to No. 6. 
— 5. Q., praetor 189, and flamen Quirinalis. 
(Liv. xxxvii. 47, xlv. 44). — 6. Ser,, is said by 
Cicero to have been well skilled in law, litera- 
ture, and antiquity. He lived about B.C. 150. 
He wrote a work De J ure Pontificio, in several 
books. (Cic. Brut. 21, 81; Gell. i. 12, x. 15; 
Macrob. iii. 2, 3.) 

Picumnus and Pilumnus, two Roman divi- 
nities, were regarded as two brothers, and a& 

, the beneficent gods of matrimony in the rustic 
religion of the ancient Romans were wor- 
shipped in the Indigitamenta. [See p. 443, a.] 
They were originally the Italian deities of the 
grain or meal store and of the fertilisation of 
the fields : Picumnus was identified with 
Sterquilinius, the god who presided over the 
manuring of fields, and Pilumnus presided 
over the pounding of grain with the pestle, 
or pilum (Serv. ad Aen. ix. 4 ; Isid. Or. iv. 11). 
Hence the two deities were supposed to supply 
strength and growth to children. A couch was 
prepared for them in the house in which there 
was a newly-born child. Pilumnus was be- 
lieved to ward off all sufferings from the infant 

\ with his pilum, and Picumnus conferred upon 
the infant prosperity (Varro, ap. August. O. JD. 

' vi. 9 ; Non. p. 528). The account cited from 
Varro states that at the time of childbirth 
these twin deities, associated with a third called 
Deverra, were supposed to prevent the incur- 
sion of Silvanus, who represented wild forest 
life. Three men in the character of these gods 
went round the house where the child was 

j born : the first two smote the threshold with a 
hatchet and a pestle ; the third swept it with a 
broom. 

Picus, a Latin prophetic divinity, is de- 
scribed as a son of Saturnus or Sterculus, as 

i the husband of Canens, and the father of 
Faunus. In some traditions he was called the 
first king of Italy. He was a famous sooth- 
sayer and augur, and as he made use in his 
prophetic art of a picus (a woodpecker), he- 
himself was also called Picus. He was repre- 
sented in a rude and primitive manner as a 
wooden pillar with a woodpecker on the top of 

! it, but afterwards as a young man with a wood- 
pecker on his head. Pomona, it is said, was- 
beloved by Mars, and when Circe's love for hnn> 



PIERIA 



PINARIA 



713 



was not requited, she changed him into a wood- 
pecker, who, however, retained the prophetic 
powers which he had formerly possessed as a 
man. (Ov. Met. xiv. 314, Fast. iii. 37 ; Verg. 
Aen. vii. 190 ; Plut. Q. JR. 21.) In the stories 
of Picus there seems to he a combination of 
various popular beliefs. The woodpecker was 
a bird of prophetic power sacred to Mars, in his 
character of the agricultural god : hence Picus 
is at one time the agricultural deity son of 
Satumus or Sterculus ; at another the wood- 
pecker itself ; while in other traditions he par- 
takes of the warlike character of Mars and is 
represented as a warrior king of Italy. 

Pieria (Uttpia : Tliepes). 1. A narrow slip of 
country on the SE. coast of Macedonia, extend- 
ing from the mouth of the Peneus in Thessaly 
to the Haliacmon, and bounded on the W. by 
Mount Olympus and its offshoots. A portion 
of these mountains was called by the ancient 
writers Pierus, or the Pierian mountain. 
The inhabitants of this country, the Pieres, 
were a Thracian people, and are celebrated in 
the early history of Greek poetry and music, 
since their country was one of the earliest 
seats of the worship of the Bluses, and 
Orpheus is said to have been buried there. 
(II. xiv. 226; Hes. Th. 53; Ap. Eh. i. 23.) 
After the establishment of the Macedonian 
kingdom in Emathia in the seventh century 
B.C. Pieria was conquered by the Macedonians, 
and the inhabitants were driven out of the 
country. — 2. A district in Macedonia E. of the 
Strymon near Mount Pangaeus, where the 
Pierians settled who had been driven out of 
their original abodes by the Macedonians, as 
already related. They possessed in this dis- 
trict the fortified towns of Phagres and Perga- 
mum. (Hdt. vii. 112; Time. ii. 99 ; Strab. p. 
331.) — 3. A district on the N. coast of Syria, so 
called from the mountain Pieria. a branch of 
the Amanus, a name given to it by the Mace- 
donians after their conquest of the East. In 
this district was the city of Seleuciu, which is 
distinguished from other cities of the same 
name as Seleucia in Pieria. (Strab. pp. 749, 751.) 

Pierides (niepi'56S). 1. A surname of the 
Muses, which they derived from Pieria, near 
Mt. Olympus, where they were first worshipped 
among the Thracians. Some derived the name 
from an ancient king Pierus, who is said to have 
emigrated from Thrace into Boeotia, und to 
have established their worship at Thespiae. 
Pieris also occurs in the singular. [See p. 
G78, b.] — 2. The nine daughters of Pierus, king 
of Emathia (Macedonia), whom he begot by 
Euippe or Antiope, and to whom he gave the 
names of the nine Muses. [Musae.1 They 
afterwards entered into a contest with the 
Muses, and, being conquered, they wi re changed 
into birds called Colymbas, Iyngx, Cenchris, 
Cissa, Chloris, Acalanthis, Nessa, Pipo, and 
Lracontis. (Ov. Met. v. 300-678 ; Paus. ix. 
99, 9 ; Ant Lib. 9.) 

Pierus (Tlltpos). 1. Mythological. Pikuidks.] 
— 2. A mountain. [PlEBIA, No. 1. 

Pietas, a personification of faithful attach- 
ment, love, and veneration among the Romans. 
At first she had only a small sanctuary at 
Rome, but in B.C. 191 a larger one was built. 
She is represented on Hoinnii coins as h matron 
throwing incense upon an altar, and her attri- 
butes are a stork and children. She is some- 
times represented as a female figure offering 
her breast to an aged parent, there being a 
tradition that the temple was dedicated in 
memory of a daughter who thus supported her 



mother in prison. (Plin. vii. 121 ; Val. Max. 
v. 417.) 
Pietas Julia. [Pola.] 

Pigres (ITi'7p7;y), of Halicamassus, either the 
brother or the son of the celebrated Artemisia, 
queen of Caria. He is said by some writers to 
have been the author of the Margites and the 
Batrachomyomaehia(Smd.s.v.; Plut. de Herod. 
Malign. 43, p. 873; cf. p. 425, b.) 

Pilia, the wife of T. Pomponius Atticus, to 
whom she was married on February 12, B.C. 56. 
In the summer of the following year she bore 
her husband a daughter, who subsequently 
married Vipsanius Agrippa. (Cic. ad Att. iv. 16, 
v. 19, vi. 1, ad Q. Fr. ii. 3.) 

Pilorus \Jlihwpos), a town of Macedonia in 
Chalcidice, at the head of the Singitic gulf 
(Hdt. vii. 122). 

Pilumnus. [Picumntjs.] 

Pimplea (nf/nrAeta), a town in the Mace- 
donian province of Pieria, sacred to the Muses, 
who were hence called Pimpleides (Strab. pp. 
410, 471; Iycophr. 273). Horace (Od. i. 26, 9) 
uses Pimplea for Pimpleis. 

Pinara ira Illvapa : Tltvaptvs : Minora), an 
inland city of Lycia, some distance W. of the 
river Xanthus, at the foot of Mt. Cragus. Here 
Pandarus was worshipped as a hero (Strab. p. 
665; Plin. v. 101). There are fine remains of 
the city and sculptured rock-tombs. 

Pinaria Gens, one of the most ancient pa- 
trician gentes at Rome, traced its origin to a 
time long previous to the foundation of the 
city. The legend related that when Hercules 
came into Italy he was hospitably received, on 
the spot where Rome was afterwards built, by 
the Potitii and the Pinarii, two of the most 
distinguished families in the country. The 
hero, in return, taught them the way in which 
he was to be worshipped ; but as the Pinarii 
were not at hand when the sacrificial banquet 
was ready, and did not come till the entrails of 
the victim were eaten, Hercules, angrily ex- 
claiming 'Tpeis 5e TreivaotTe, determined that 
the Pinarii should in all future time be excluded 
from partaking of the entrails of the victims, 
and that in all matters relating to his worship 
they should be inferior to the Potitii. (Liv. i. 7; 
Dionys. i. 40 ; Diod. iv. 21 ; Macrob. iii. 6, 12 ; 
Serv. ad Aen. viii. 269.) These two families 
continued to be the hereditary priests of Her- 
cules till the censorship of App. Claudius (B.C. 
312), who, as the story says, induced the Potitii 
to communicate the knowledge of the sacred 
rites to public slaves, in whose charge they 
remained thenceforth, whereat the god was so 
angry that the whole Potitia gens, containing 
twelve families and thirty grown-up men, 
perished within a year, or according to other 
accounts within thirty days, and Appius him- 
self became blind (Liv. ix. 29). The Pinarii 
did not share in the guilt of communicating the 
sacred knowledge, and therefore did not receive 
the same punishment as the Potitii, but con- 
tinued in existence to the latest times. The 
story may have arisen partly from a fancied 
etymology of the name of the Pinarii, partly 
from an attempt to account for the disappear- 
ance of a family who traditionally had held the 

priesthood. The warship of Hercules by the 
Potitii and Pinarii is described as a sacrum 
i/i nl ilitiiim belonging to these gentes; but it 
was u sacrum publicum entrusted by the state 
to these families. If it had been a sacrum 
privatum it would, as lias justly been re- 
marked, have ceased altogether when tin- family 
who administered it died out, instead of being 



714 



PINAKIUS 



PINDABUS 



entrusted to the public slaves. The Pinarii 
were divided into the families of Mamercmus, 
Natta, Posca, Busca, and Scarpus, but none 
of them obtained sufficient importance to re- 
quire a separate notice. 

Pinarius, L. , the great-nephew of the dicta- 
tor C. Julius Caesar, being the grandson of 
Julia, Caesar's eldest sister. In the will of the 
dictator, Pinarius was named one of his heirs 
along with his two other great-nephews, C. 
Octavius and L. Pinarius, Octavius obtaining 
three-fourths of the property, and the remain- 
ing fourth being divided between Pinarius and 
Pedius. (Suet. Jul. 83; App. B.C. iii. 22.) 

Plliarus {nivapos), a river of Cilicia, rising in 
M. Amanus, and falling into the gulf of Issus 
near Issus, between the mouth of the Pyramus 
and the Syrian frontier (Strab. p. 676). 

Pindarus (nivSapos), the greatest lyric poet 
of Greece, was born either at Thebes or at 
Cynoscephalae, a village in the territory of 
Thebes, about B.C. 522. His family was one of 
the noblest in Thebes, and seems also to have 
been celebrated for its skill in music. The 
father or uncle of Pindar was a flute-player, 
and Pindar at an early age received instruction 
in the art from the flute-player Scopelinus. 
But the youth soon gave indications of a genius 
for poetry, which induced his father to send 
him to Athens to receive more perfect instruc- 
tion in the art. Later writers tell us that his 
future glory as a poet was miraculously fore- 
shadowed by a swarm of bees which rested 
upon his lips while he was asleep, and that this 
miracle first led him to compose poetry. (Paus. 
ix. 23, 2 ; Ael. V.H. xii. 45.) At Athens Pindar 
became the pupil of Lasus of Hermione, the 
founder of the Athenian school of dithyrambic 
poetry. He returned to Thebes before he com- 
pleted his twentieth year, and is said to have 
received instruction there from Myrtis and 
Corinna of Tanagra, two poetesses, who then 
enjoyed great celebrity in Boeotia. It is said 
that Corinna objected to his earlier poems that 
they had too little mythology ; but in the next 
poem he went to the opposite extreme of too 
profuse reference to myths, and she advised 
him ' to sow with the hand and not with the 
sack' (Plut. de Glor. Athen. 14). With both 
these poetesses Pindar contended for the prize 
in the musical contests at Thebes, and he is 
said to have been defeated five times by 
Corinna. Pindar began his career as a poet at 
an early age, and was soon employed by different 
states and princes in all parts of the Hellenic 
world to compose for them choral songs for 
special occasions. He received money and 
presents for his works, but without sacrificing 
his independent position as a great poet. The 
earliest of his extant poems appears to be the 
tenth Pythian ode, which he wrote at the age 
of twenty in praise of Hippocleas, winner of a 
Pythian race B.C. 502. It was composed at the 
instance of Thorax, a prince of Larissa, be- 
longing to the family of the Aleuadae. He 
composed poems for Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, 
Alexander, son of Amyntas, king of Macedonia, 
Theron, tyrant of Agrigentum, Arcesilaus, king 
of Cyrene, as well as for many free states and 
private persons. He was courted especially by 
Alexander, king of Macedonia, and Hiero, 
tyrant of Syracuse ; and the praises which he 
bestowed upon the former are said to have 
been the chief reason which led his descendant, 
Alexander, the son of Philip, to spare the house 
of the poet when he destroyed the rest of 
Thebes. Pindar wrote the seventh Pythian ode 



in B.C. 490, the year of the battle of Marathon, 
in honour of the Athenian Megacles, winner of 
a chariot race. Between that year and the 
battle of Salami s only three of his extant odes 
were written — the tenth and eleventh Olympian 
and the fifth Nemean. This was in honour of 
the Aeginetan Pytheas, winner in the boys' 
contest at the Nemean games. It is the earliest 
of those odes (one fourth of the whole number) 
which honour Aeginetan victors and sing the 
praises of the heroic Aeacidae of Aegina. Sicily 
claimed even a larger share of his work ; for 
fourteen of his odes were written in honour of 
Sicilian victors. These date after the battle of 
Salamis, when Pindar was nearly forty years of 
age. It was probably about that time that he 
visited Hiero, at whose court he spent four 
years (476-472), Agrigentum, Camarina, and 
Himera. It is even possible that he went to 
Cyrene, which is celebrated in more than one 
of his odes : notably in one of his finest, the 
fourth Pythian, written to celebrate the victory 
of Arcesilas, king of Cyrene, in the chariot 
race — which deserves mention, not only for its 
beautiful poetry, but also as a good instance of 
Pindar's manner of introducing a mythological 
story. It will be seen that though Pindar's 
home was Thebes, he frequently left it to visit 
princes and great men who courted his friend- 
ship and employed his services. With Athens 
he probably was well acquainted : the Athenians 
were grateful for his praises of their city 
(Dithyr. 4 = Fragm. 46), and made him their 
irpo^vos, besides setting up his statue and 
making him great presents of money (Paus. i. 
8, 4 ; Isocr. irepl 'AvriS. § 166). He is said to 
have died in the theatre of Argos at the age of 
80. The latest work of his which can be dated 
is the fourth Olympian, which seems to have 
been written B.C. 452. A peculiar honour was 
paid to him at Delphi, where he was formally 
' summoned to the sacred feast, and his descen- 
dants were admitted to it as his representatives. 
: [Diet, of Ant. art. Theoxenia.~\ At Delphi, 
i too, an iron chair was preserved on which, as it 
1 was said, he used to sit (Paus. x. 24, 4). The 
only poems of Pindar which have come down 
to us entire are his Epinicia, or triumphal 
odes. But these were but a small portion of 
his works. Besides his triumphal odes he 
wrote hymns to the gods, paeans, dithyrambs, 
odes for processions (irpo(T((8ia), songs of maidens 
(ira.p94veia), mimic dancing songs (fiTropx'4A' aTa )' 
drinking songs (ovc^Aia), dirges (Bprjvoi), and 
encomia (eyict&fua), or panegyrics on princes. 
Of these we have numerous fragments. Most 
of them are mentioned in the well-known lines 
of Horace (Od. iv. 2) : 

Sen per audaces nova dithyrambos 
Verba devolvit, numerisque fertur 

Lege solutis : 
Seu deos (hymns and paeans) regesve (encomia) 

canit, deorum 
Ranguinem : . . . 
Sive quos Elea domnra reducit 
Palma caelestes (the Epinicia) : . . . 
Flebili sponsae juvenemve raptutn 
Plorat (the dirges). 

In all of these Pindar excelled, as we see from 
the numerous quotations made from them by 
the ancient writers, though they are generally 
of too fragmentary a kind to allow us to form 
a judgment respecting them. Our estimate of 
Pindar as a poet must be formed almost exclu- 
sively from his Epinicia, which were composed 
in commemoration of some victory in the public 
games. The Epinicia are divided into four 



PLNDASUS 

books, celebrating respectively the victories 
gained in the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and 
Isthmian games. In order to understand them 
properly we must bear in mind the nature of 
the occasion for which they were composed 
and the object which the poet had in view. A 
victory gained in one of the four great national 
festivals conferred honour, not oniy upon the 
conqueror and his family, but also upon the 
city to which he belonged. It was accordingly 
celebrated with great pomp and ceremony. 
Such a celebration began with a procession to 
a temple, where a sacrifice was offered, and it 
ended with a banquet and the joyous revelry 
called by the Greeks comus (ku/xos). For this 
celebration a poem was expressly composed, 
which was sung by a chorus. The poems were 
sung either during the procession to the temple 
or at the comus at the close of the banquet. 
Those of Pindar's Epinician odes which consist 
of strophes without epodes were sung during 
the procession, but the majority of them appear 
to have been sung at the comus. In these odes 
Pindar rarely describes the victory itself, as the 
scene was familiar to all the spectators, but he 
dwells upon the glory of the victor, and cele- 
brates chiefly either his wealth (o\[ios) or his 
skill (aperr)! — his wealth, if he had gained the 
victory in the chariot race, since it was only the 
wealthy that could contend for the prize in this 
contest ; his skill, if he had been exposed to 
peril in the contest. — Editions of Pindar by 
Dissen, 1843 ; Donaldson, 1NG8; C. T. Mommsen, 
1864 ; Bergk, 1878 ; Bury, 1892 ; Fennell, 1893 ; 
Gildersleeve ; Transl. by Myers, 1874. 

Pindasus (nivSatros), a S. branch of Mount 
Temnus in Myria, extending to the ElaTtie 
gulf, and containing the sources of the river 
Cetius (Plin. v. 126). 

Pindenissus inu>8ei'itT<ros), a town of eastern 
Cilicia on a spur of Mount Amanus, which was 
taken by Cicero after a siege of two months 
(Cic. ad Att. v. 20, ad Fam. ii. 10, xv. 4i. 

Pindus (riivSos). 1. A lofty range of moun- 
tains in northern Greece, a portion of the 
great backbone which runs through the centre 
of Greece from N. to S. (Hdt. i. 56, vii. 129 ; 
Strab. pp. 327, 428, 430). The name of Pindus 
was confined to that part of the chain which 
separates Thessaly and Epinis, and its most 
northerly and also highest part was called 
Lacmon. — 2. One of the four towns in Doris, 
near the sources of a small river of the same 
name which flowed through Locris into the 
Cephissus (Strab. p 427; Plin. iv. 28). 

Pinna iPinnensis: Civitd di Penna), the 
chief town of the Vestini at the foot of the 
Apennines, surrounded by beautiful meadows. 
It stood by the Romans in the Social war. It 
was a municipium, but was made a colony by 
Augustus. (Plin. iii. 107 ; SiL It. viii. 517.) 

Pinnes, Pinnens, or Pineus, was the son of 
Agron,kingof Illyria, by his first wife, Triteuta. 
At the death of Agron (b.c. 281), Pinnes, who 
was then a child, was left in the guardianship of 
his stepmother Teuta, whom Agron had 
married after divorcing Triteuta. When Teuta 
was defeated by the Romans, the care of 
Pinnes devolved upon Demetrius of Pharos ; 
but when Demetrius in his turn made war ' 
against the Romans and was defeated, Pinnes 
was placed upon the throne by the Romans, 
but was compelled to pnv tribute. (Liv. xxii. 
33 ; Dio Cass, xxxiv. 46, 161 ; App. Illyr. 7, 8.) j 

Pintnaria ( Utvrouapia : Teneriffc), one of 
the Insulae Fortunatae (Canary Is.) off the W. 
coast of Africa, also called Convallis, und, 



PIREXE 



715 



from the perpetual snow on its peak, Nivaria. 
[Fortunatae Insulae.] 

Piraeeus or Piraeus (rieipaieus : Porto Leone 
or Porto Dracone), the most important of the 
harbours of Athens, was situated in the penin- 
sula about five miles SW. of Athens. This 
peninsula, which is sometimes called by the 
general name of Piraeeus, contained three 
harbours, Piraeeus proper on the W. side by 
far the largest of the three, Zea on the E. side 
separated from Piraeeus by a narrow isthmus, 
and Munychia (Pharnari) still further to the 
E. The northern portion of the Piraeeus 
proper (or the great harbour) seems to have 
been used by the merchant vessels, and the 
Cantharus, where the ships of war were 
stationed, was on the S. side of the harbour 
near the entrance : the docks, called Aphro- 
disinm, were in the middle of the E. side, and 
derived their name from the temple of Aphro- 
dite built on that part of the shore by Conon 
after the battle of Cnidus (Paus. i. 1, 3; cf. 
Schol. ad Aristoph. Pac. 145). It was through 
the suggestion of Themistocles that the 
Athenians were induced to make use of the 
harbour of Piraeeus. Before the Persian wars 
their principal harbour was Phalerum, which 
1 was not situated in the Piraean peninsula at 
all, but lay to the E. of Munychia. iPhalerum.] 
At the entrance of the harbour of Piraeeus 
there were two promontories, the one on the 
right hand called Alcimus {"AKkihos). on which 
was the tomb of Themistocles (Pans. i. 1, 2 ; 
Plut. Them. 32), and tha other on the left 
called E&tionea ('H(rioiveta), on which the Four 
Hundred erected a fortress (Time. viii. 901 
The entrance of the harbour, which was narrow 
by nature, was rendered still narrower by two 
mole-heads, to which a chain was attached to 
prevent the ingress of hostile ships. The town 
or demus of Piraeeus was surrounded with 
strong fortifications by Themistocles, and was 
connected with Athens by means of the cele 
brated Long Walls under the administration of 
Pericles. [See p. 140, b.] The town possessed 
j a considerable population, especially of Metocci 
j who were attracted in large numbers by the 
facilities for trade. The most important of its 
public buildings - were : the Agora Hippodamia, 
the market built by Hippodamus of Miletus, 
which stood in the centre of the town ; the 
temples of Zeus Soter and Athene Soteira 
j (Paus. i. 1, 3 ; Strab. p. 395 ; Plin. xxxiv. 74), 
and a temple of the Syrian Aphrodite. The 
Scholiast to Aristophanes cited above speaks of 
five halls (uToai'i, the largest of which is men- 
tioned by Thuc\ dides (viii. 00 1. The Phreattys, 
where those who had gone into exile for man- 
slaughter, were tried for a new offence of the 
same kind [Diet, of Ant. art. Phonos], lay on 
the E. side of the peninsula to the S. of Zea. 
[For a map of the harbour see p. 142.] 

Pirene i rif ifmvrj), a celebrated fountain at 
Corinth, which, according to tradition, took its 
origin from Pirene, a daughter of Oeliulus, who 
here melted away into tears through grief for 
the loss of her son, Cenchrias. At this fountain 
Bellerophon is suid to have caught the horse 
Pegasus. It gushed forth from the rock in the 
Acrocorinthus, was conveyed down the hill b\ 
subterraneous conduits, and fell into a marbli 
baHin, from which the greater part of the towi: 
was supplied with water. The fountain was 
celebrated for the purity and salubrity of its 
water, and was so highly valued that the poets 
frequently employed its name as equivalent to 
that of Corinth itself. (Strab. p. 379 ; Pegasus. ) 



716 



PIRESIAE 



PISANDER 



PIresiae (ileipe cria't), a town of Thessaly, S. of 
the Peneus, on the river Pannisus and on the 
road from Tricca to Pharsalus. 

Pirithous (YleipiSoos), son of Ixion or Zeus 
by Dia, was king of the Lapithae in Thessaly, 
and married to Hippodamia, by whom he be- 
came the father of Polypoetes (II. ii. 741, xiv. 
317). When Pirithous was celebrating his mar- 
riage with Hippodamia, the intoxicated Centaur 
Eurytion or Eurytus carried her off, and this 
act occasioned the celebrated fight between 
the Centaurs and Lapithae, in which the Cen- 
taurs were defeated. (II. i. 263 ; Od. xi. 630, xxi. 
295; Ov. Met. xii. 210.) Pirithous once in- 
vaded Attica, but when Theseus came forth to 
oppose him, he conceived a warm admiration 
for the Athenian king, and from this time a 
most intimate friendship sprang up between 
the two heroes. Theseus was present at the 
wedding of Pirithous, and assisted him in his 
battle against the Centaurs. Hippodamia 
afterwards died, and each of the two friends 
resolved to wed a daughter of Zeus. With the 
assistance of Pirithous, Theseus carried off 
Helen from Sparta, and placed her at Aethra 
under the care of Phaedra. Pirithoiis was still 
more ambitious, and resolved to carry off 
Persephone, the wife of the king of the lower 
world. Theseus would not desert his friend in 
the enterprise, and the two friends descended 
to the lower world. Here they were seized by 
Pluto and fastened to a rock, where they both 
remained till Heracles delivered Theseus, who 
had made the daring attempt only to please 
his friend, but Pirithous remained for ever a 
prisoner (amatorem trecentae Pirithoum co- 
hibent catenae, Hor. Od. iii. 4, 80). Pirithous 
was worshipped at Athens, along with Theseus, 
as a hero. [Theseus.] 

Pirus (Ileipos), or Pierus (Tliepos : Kame- 
nitza), the chief river of Achaia, which falls 
into the gulf of Patrae, near Olenus (Strab. pp. 
342,386). 

Pirustae (TleipovvTai), a people in Illyria, 
exempted from taxes by the Romans, because 
they deserted Gentius and passed over to the 
Romans (Strab. p. 314 ; Liv. xlv. 26). 

Pisa (n7(ra: HiffaTr)s), the capital of Pisatis 
(Il1.0a.Tis), the middle portion of the province 
of Elis in Peloponnesus. [Elis.] In the most 
ancient times Pisatis formed a union of eight 
states, of which, in addition to Pisa, we find 
mention of Salmone, Heraclea, Harpinna, Cy- 
cesium and Dyspontium. (Strab. p. 356.) Pisa 
itself was situated N. of the Alpheus, at a very 
short distance E. of Olympia (Hdt. ii. 7 ; cf. 
Pind. 01. ii. 3), and, in consequence of its 
proximity to the latter place, was frequently 
identified by the poets with it. The history of 
the Pisatae consists of their struggle with the 
Eleans, with whom they contended for the 
presidency of the Olympic games. [Elis.] 
The Pisatae obtained this honour in the 8th 
Olympiad (B.C. 748) with the assistance of 
Phidon, tyrant of Argos, and also a second time 
in the 34th Olympiad (644) by means of their 
own king Pantaleon. In the 52nd Olympiad 
(572) the struggle between the two peoples was 
brought to a close by the conquest and destruc- 
tion of Pisa by the Eleans. So complete was 
the destruction of the city, that not a trace of it 
was left in later times, and some persons, as we 
learn from Strabo, even questioned whether it 
had ever existed, supposing that by the name 
of Pisa the kingdom of the Pisatae was alone 
intended (Strab. I.e. ; cf. Paus. vi. 22, 2). Even 
after the destruction of the city, the Pisatae 



did not relinquish their claims, and in the 
104th Olympiad (364), they had the presidency 
of the Olympic games along with the Arca- 
dians, when the latter people were making war 
with the Eleans. 

Pisae, more rarely Pisa (Pisanus : Pisa), one 
of the most ancient and important of the cities 
of Etruria, was situated at the confluence of 
the Arnus and Ausar (Serchio), about six miles 
from the sea ; but the latter river altered its 
course in the twelfth century, and now flows into 
the sea by a separate channel. According to 
some traditions, due perhaps to similarity of 
name, Pisae was founded by the companions 
of Nestor, the inhabitants of Pisa in Elis, who 
were driven upon the coast of Italy on their 
return from Troy ; whence the Roman poets 
give the Etruscan town the surname of Alphea. 
(Strab. p. 222 ; Verg. Aen. x. 179 ; Claud. Pell. 
Gild. 483.) Pliny (iii. 50) speaks of it as 
founded by Pelops ; Dionysius calls it a Pelas- 
gian city (i. 20). It would seem that Pisa passed 
into the hands of the Ligyae, and from them 
into those of the Etruscans. It then became 
one of the twelve cities of Etruria, and was 
down to the time of Augustus the most north- 
ern city in the country. Pisa was an ally of 
Rome in B.C. 225 (Pol. ii. 27), and is mentioned 
in the Ligurian wars as the head-quarters of 
the Roman legions (Liv. xxxiii. 43, xxxv. 22). 
In B.C. 180 it was made a Latin colony, and 
appears to have been colonised again in the 
time of Augustus, since we find it called in 
inscriptions Colonia Julia Pisana (Liv. xl. 43). 
Its harbour, called Portus Pisanus, between 
the mouth of the Arnus and the modern Leg- 
horn, was much used by the Romans ; and in 
the time of Strabo the town of Pisa was still a 
place of considerable importance on account of 
the marble quarries in its neighbourhood and 
, the quantity of timber which it yielded for ship- 
building (Strab. p. 223). About three miles N. 
of the town were mineral springs, called Aquae 
Pisanae (Plin. ii. 227), which have been identi- 
fied with the modern Bagni di 8. Giuliano, 
between Pisa and Lucca. 

Pisander (ne'uravSpos). 1, Son of Polyctoiv 
and one of the suitors of Penelope (Od. xviii. 
298, xxii. 268 ; Ov. Her. i. 91).— 2. An Athenian, 
of the demus of Acharnae, lived in the time of 
the Peloponnesian war, and was attacked by 
; the comic poets for his rapacity and cowardice 
j (Aristoph. Pax, 339, Av. 1556, Athen. p. 415 ; 
Ael. V.H. i. 27). In 412 he comes before Us as 
the chief ostensible agent in effecting the revo- 
lution of the Four Hundred. In all the 
measures of the new government, of which he 
was a member, he took an active part ; and 
when Theramenes and others withdrew from it, 
he sided with the more violent aristocrats, and 
was one of those who, on the counter-revolu- 
tion, took refuge with Agis at Decelea. (Thuc. 
vi. 27, 60, viii. 49, 63, 89 ; Diod. xiii. 34.) His 
property was confiscated, and it does not ap- 
pear that he ever returned to Athens. — 3. A 
Spartan, brother-in-law of Agesilaus II., who 
made him admiral of the fleet in 395. In the 
following year he was defeated and slain in the 
sea-fight off Cnidus, against Conon and Phar- 
nabazus. (Xen. Hell. iii. 4, 29, iv. 3, 10.)— 4. A 
poet of Camirus in Rhodes, flourished about 
B.C. 648-645 (Strab. pp. 655, 688). He was the 
author of a poem in two books on the exploits 
of Heracles, called Heraclia ('Hpa.K\*ia) (Paus. 
ii. 37, viii. 22; Athen. p. 469; Schol. ad Ar. 
Nub. 1034). The Alexandrian grammarians 
thought so highly of the poem that they re- 



PISATIS 

ceived Pisander, as well as Antimachus and 
Panyasis, into the epic canon together with 
Homer and Hesiod. Only a few lines of it 
have been preserved. In the Greek Anthology 
we find an epigram attributed to Pisander of 
Rhodes, perhaps the poet of Camirus. — 5. A 
poet of Laranda, in Lycia or Lycaonia, was 
the son of Nestor, and flourished in the reign 
of Alexander Severus (a.d. 222-235). He wrote 
a poem, called 'HpuiiKal 8toya/j.iai, which prob- 
ably treated of the marriages of gods and 
goddesses with mortals, and of the heroic pro- 
geny thus produced. (Zosim. v. 29 ; Macrob. v. 2.) 
Pisatis. [Pisa.] 

Pisaurum (Pisaurensis : Pesaro), an ancient 
town of Umbria, near the mouth of the river 
Pi8anrus (Foglia), on the road to Ariminum 
(Plin. hi. 113). It was colonised by the Ro- 
mans in B.C. 186, and probably a second time 
by Augustus, since it is called in inscriptions 
Colonia Julia Felix (Liv. xxxix. i4\. 

Pisaurus. [Pisaubum.] 

Pisidia (fi n«n5iK7) : riiin'Sijs, pi. n«n'5ai, 
also Uaa-'iSai, UiaeTScu and n«n5iK:<H, Plsida pi. 
Pisidae, or Peisidae), an inland district of 
Asia Minor, bounded by Lycia and Pamphylia 
on the S. ; Cilicia on the SE. ; Lycaonia and 
Isauria (the latter often reckoned a part of 
Pisidia) on the E. and NE. ; Phrygia Parorios 
on the N., where the boundary varied at dif- 
ferent times, and was never very definite ; and 
Caria on the W. It was a mountainous region, 
formed by that part of the main chain of Jit. 
Taurus which sweeps round in a semicircle 
parallel to the shore of the Pamphylian gulf ; 
the strip of shore itself, at the foot of the moun- 
tains, constituting the district of Pamphylia. 
The inhabitants of the mountains were a war- 
like aboriginal people, related apparently to the 
Isaurians and Cilicians. They maintained 
their independence, under petty chieftains, 
against all the successive rulers of Asia Minor. 
(Xen. An. i. 1, 11, ii. 1, 4 ; Strab. pp. 130, 569- 
571, 670 ; Liv. xxxv. 13. ) The Romans never 
subdued the Pisidians in their mountain for- 
tresses, though they took some of the towns on 
the outskirts of their country ; for example, 
Antiochia, which was made a colony with the 
Jus Italicum. Iu fact the N. part, in which 
Antiochia stood, had originally belonged to 
Phrygia, and was more accessible and more 
civilised than the mountains which formed the 
proper country of the Pisidians. Nominally, 
the country was considered a part of Pam- 
phylia, till the new subdivision of the empire 
under Constantine, when Pisidia was made a 
separate province. On the S. slope of the 
Taurus, severul rivers flowed through Pisidia 
and Pamphylia, into the Pamphylian gulf, the 
chief of which were the Cestrus and the Catar- 
rhactes ; and on the N. the mountain streams 
form some large salt lakes : namely, Ascania 
(Adjituz) S. of Antiochia, Caralis (Kerelu) SE. 
of Ascania, and Trogitis (Sighla) further to the 
SE., in Isauria. Special names were given to 
certain districts, which are sometimes spoken 
of as parts of Pisidia, sometimes as distinct 
countries : namely, Cabalia, in the SW. along 
the N. of Lycia ; Milyas, the district NE. of 
Lycia and NW. of Pamphylia, and Isauria, in 
the E. of Pisidia, on the borders of Lycaonia. 

Pisistratidae (n* ururr partial), the sons of 
Pisistratus. The name is used sometimes to 
indicate only Hippias and Hipparchus, and 
sometimes in a wider application, embrucing 
the grandchildren and near relations of Pisi- 
stratus (as by Herod, viii. 52, referring to a 



PISISTRATUS 



717 



time when both Hippias and Hipparchus were 
dead). 

Pisistratus ineialarpaTos), the youngest son 

of Nestor and Anaxibia, was a friend of Tele- 

machus, and accompanied him on his journey 

from Pylos to Menelaus at Sparta (0(7. iii. 400). 
Pisistratus (ne«nVTp<XTosl, an Athenian, son 

of Hippocrates, was so named after Pisistratus, 
the youngest son of Nestor, since the family of 
Hippocrates was of Pylian origin, and traced 
their descent to Neleus, the father of Nestor. 
The mother of Pisistratus was cousin to the 
mother of Solon. Pisistratus grew up equally 
distinguished for personal beauty and for 
mental endowments. The relationship between 
him and Solon naturally drew them together, 
and a close friendship sprang up between them. 
It is commonly said, on the authority of Plu- 
tarch (Sol. 8), that Pisistratus not only assisted 
Solon by his eloquence in persuading the 
Athenians to renew their struggle with the 
Megarians for the possession of Salamis, but 
afterwards fought with bravery in the expe- 
dition which Solon led against the island. It 
is, however, difficult to suppose that the dis- 
tinguished services of Pisistratus against the 

i Megarians can have been in Solon's expedition 
of 600 B.C., i.e. seventy-tlnee years before the 

i death of Pisistratus, especially as Herodotus 
seems to speak of him as commanding in the 
capture of Nisaea, which would imply that 
he was not then in his early youth. It is sug- 
gested, with probability, that the exploits of 
Pisistratus against the Megarians (recorded 
by Herodotus and Aristotle I were not in the 
campaign of 600, but in one several years 
later, possibly about 565, in which the Athe- 
nians a second time took Salamis and Nisaea, 
which had been recaptured by the Megarians 
iPlut. Sol. 12). In this war it is not unlikely 
that Pisistratus was arparqyos, though the 

j sentence in Arist. 'A6. TloA. 17 is ambiguous 
(cf. Hdt. i. 59 ; Arist. 'A0. Uo\. 14). When 
Solon, after the establishment of his con- 
stitution, retired for a time from Athens, the 
old rivalry between the parties of the Plain, 
the Highlands and the Coast broke out into 

j open feud. The part; of the Plain, comprising 
chiefly the landed proprietors, was headed by 
Lycurgus and Miltiades, son of Cypselus ; that 

j of the Coast, consisting of the wealthier classes 
not belonging to the nobles, by Megacles, the 
son of Alcmaeon ; the party of the Highlands, 
which aimed at more of political freedom and 
equality than either of the two others, was the 
one at the head of which Pisistratus placed 
himself, because they seemed the most likely 

I to be useful in the furtherance of his ambitious 

I designs. His liberality, as well as his military 
and oratorical abilities, gained him the support 

| of a large body of citizens. Solon, on his return, 
quickly saw through the designs of Pisistratus, 
who listened with respect to his advice, though 
he prosecuted his schemes none the less dili- 

j gently. When Pisistratus found his plans 
sufficiently ripe for execution, lie one day made 
his appearance in the agora with his mules and 

I his own person exhibiting recent wounds, pre- 
tending that he had been nearly assassinated 
by his enemies as he was riding into the 
country. An assembly of the people was forth- 
with called, in which one of his partisans pro- 
posed that a body-guard of fifty citizens, armed 
with clubs, should be granted to him. (Hdt. i. 
59; Plut. Sol. 30; Arist, 'A0. UoA. 14.1 It was 
in vain that Solon opjxwed this ; the guard was 
given him. Through the neglect or connivance 



718 



PISISTEATUS 



of the people Pisistratus took this opportunity 
of raising a much larger force, with which he 
seized the citadel, B.C. 560, thus becoming what 
the Greeks called Tyrant of Athens. Having 
secured to himself the substance of power, he 
made no further change in the constitution, or 
in the laws, and governed ably and moderately. 
His first usurpation lasted but a short time 
(probably five years, as Aristotle reckons it). 
Before his power was firmly rooted, the fac- 
tions headed by Megacles and Lycurgus com- 
bined, and Pisistratus was compelled to evacuate 
Athens. (Hdt. i. 60 ; Arist. I. c.) He remained 
in banishment B.C. 555-551 (if we take the 
' twelfth year ' of Arist. 'Ad. TloX. to mean the 
twelfth year after Ins first establishment). 
Meantime the factions of Megacles and Lycur- 
gus revived their old feuds, and Megacles made 
overtures to Pisistratus, offering to reinstate 
him in the tyranny if he would connect himself 
with him by receiving his daughter in marriage. 
The proposal was accepted by Pisistratus, and 
the following stratagem was devised for ac- 
complishing his restoration, according to the 
account of Herodotus. A damsel named Phya, 
of remarkable stature and beauty, was dressed 
up as Athene in a full suit of armour, and 
placed in a chariot, with Pisistratus by her 
side. The chariot was then driven towards the 
city, heralds being sent on before to announce 
that Athene in person was bringing back 
Pisistratus to her Acropolis. The report spread 
rapidly, and those in the city, believing that 
the woman was really their tutelary goddess, 
worshipped her, and admitted Pisistratus. (Hdt. 
i. 59, 60 ; Plut. Sol. 29, 30 ; Arist. 'A6. IToA. 
14.) Pisistratus nominally performed his part 
of the contract with Megacles; but in conse- 
quence of the insulting manner in which he 
treated his wife, Megacles again made common 
cause with Lycurgus, and Pisistratus was a 
second time compelled to evacuate Athens, b.c. 
545, after six years of power (Hdt. i. 61 ; Arist. 
'AS. Uo\. 15). He retired to Thrace, where he 
dwelt near Pangaeus, and employed the next 
ten years in making preparations to regain his 
power. At the end of that time lie transferred 
his head-quarters to Eretria in Euboea, where 
he gathered forces of Eretrians andThebans, and 
of troops supplied by Lygdamis of Naxos, who 
aided him in person. With these he invaded 
Attica, and defeated his opponents near the 
temple of Athene at Pallene, and then entered 
Athens without opposition. Lygdamis was re- 
warded by being restored as tyrant of Naxos, 
which island Pisistratus conquered. [Lygda- 
mis.] Having now become tyrant of Athens for 
the third time, Pisistratus adopted measures to 
secure the undisturbed possession of his su- 
premacy. Aristotle mentions a story that he 
disarmed the democratic party by a stratagem : 
having engaged their attention by a public 
speech, he induced them to follow him to a spot 
more convenient for hearing, and in the mean- 
time their arms, which had been piled, were 
removed by the guards of Pisistratus ('A6. IloA. 
15). He took a body of foreign mercenaries 
into his pay, and seized as hostages the children 
of several of the principal citizens, placing them 
in the custody of Lygdamis, in Naxos. He 
maintained at the same time the form of Solon's 
institutions, only taking care, as his sons did 
after him, that the highest offices should always 
be held by some member of the family. He 
not only exacted obedience to the laws from his 
subjects and friends, but himself set the 
example of submitting to them. On one occa- 



sion he even appeared before the Areopagus to 
answer a charge of murder, which, however, was 
not prosecuted. (Arist. Pol. v. 12 = p. 1315 ; 
Plut. Sol. 31.) There is abundant testimony 
to the just and moderate character of his rule. 
He encouraged commerce and agriculture with 
occasional aids both by remission of taxes and 
by presents of seed. For such expenses and 
for his public works funds were provided by a 
tax on produce of 10 per cent, (according to 
Aristotle, 'AS. Uo\. 16 : Thucydides vi. 54, speaks 
of a 5 per cent, tax ; but there he seems to 
refer to the rule of Hippias and Hipparchus). 
He took pains himself to terminate disputes 
among the agriculturists, and he maintained 
the state in peace. (Hdt. i. 59 ; Thuc. vi. 54 ; 
Arist. 'A8. Uo\. 16.) In spite, however, of the 
prosperity which Athens enjoyed, there was 
doubtless an underlying impatience of des- 
potism which broke out against the later and 
harsher rule of Hippias. Athens was indebted 
to Pisistratus for many stately and useful build- 
ings. Among these maybe mentioned a temple 
to the Pythian Apollo, and a magnificent temple 
to the Olympian Zeus, which remained un- 
finished for several centuries, and was at 
length completed by the emperor Hadrian. 
[See p. 143, a.] Pisistratus also encouraged 
literature in various ways. It was apparently 
under his auspices that Thespis introduced at 
Athens his rude form of tragedy (b.c. 535), and 
that dramatic contests were made a regular 
part of the Attic Dionysia. [For the accounts 
of his work in connexion with the Homeric 
poems, see Homerus.] Pisistratus is also said 
to have been the first person in Greece who 
collected a library, to which he generously 
allowed the public access. By his first wife 
Pisistratus had two sons, Hippias and Hippar- 
chus. By his second wife, Timonassa, he had 
also two sons, Iophon and Thessalus who are 
rarely mentioned. He had also an illegitimate 
son, Hegesistratus, whom he made tyrant of 
Sigeum, after taking that town from the My- 
tilenaeans. Pisistratus died at an advanced 
age in 527, and was succeeded in the tyranny 
by his eldest son Hippias : but Hippias and his 
brother Hipparchus appear to have adminis- 
tered the affairs of the state with so little out- 
ward distinction, that they are frequently 
spoken of as though they had been joint 
tyrants. They continued the government on 
the same principles as their father. Thucydides 
(vi. 54) speaks in terms of high commendation 
of the virtue and intelligence with which their 
rule was exercised till the death of Hipparchus. 
Hipparchus inherited his father's literary 
tastes. Several distinguished poets lived at 
Athens under the patronage of Hipparchus, as, 
for example, Simonides of Ceos, Anacreon of 
Teos, Lasus of Hermione, and Onomacritus. 
After the murder of Hipparchus in 514, an 
account of which is given under Habmodius, a 
great change ensued in the character of the 
government. Under the influence of revengeful 
feelings and fears for his own safety Hippias 
now became a morose and suspicious tyrant. 
(Thuc. vi. 57-60; Arist. 'AO. no A. 19.) He put 
to death great numbers of the citizens, and 
raised money by extraordinary imposts. His 
old enemies the Alcmaeonidae, to whom Me- 
gacles belonged, availed themselves of the 
growing discontent of the citizens, and, after 
one or two unsuccessful attempts, they at length 
' succeeded, supported by a large force under 
Cleomenes, in expelling the Pisistratidae from 
Attica. Hippias and his connexions retired to 



PISO 



719 



Sigeum, 510 (Hdt. v. 65). The family of the 
tyrants was condemned to perpetual banish- 
ment, a sentence which was maintained even in 
after-times, when decrees of amnesty were 
passed. Hippias afterwards repaired to the 
court of Darius, and looked forward to a 
restoration to his country by the aid of the 
Persians. He accompanied the expedition sent 
under Datis and Artaphemes, and pointed out 
to the Persians the plain of Marathon as the 
most suitable place for their landing iHdt. vi. 
102, 107). He was now (490) of great age. Ac- 
cording to some accounts he fell in the battle 
Of Marathon ; according to others he died at 
Lemnos on his return. (Suid. s.v. 'Iinrios ; 
Cic. ad Att. ix. 10; Just. ii. 9.,i Hippias was 
the only one of the legitimate sons of Pisis- 
tratus who had children ; but none of them 
attained distinction. 

PiSO, Calpurnius, the name of a distin- 
guished plebeian family. The name of Piso, 
like man}' other Roman cognomens, is con- 
nected with agriculture, the noblest and most 
honourable pursuit of the ancient Romans : it 
comes from the verb pisere or jiinsere, and re- 
fers to the pounding or grinding of corn (Plin. 
xviii. 10). — 1. Was taken prisoner at the battle 
of Cannae, B.C. '216, and sent by Hannibal to 
Rome to negotiate the exchange of prisoners 
(Liv. xxii. 61); was prut-tor urbanus -211, and 
afterwards commanded as propraetor in Etru- 
ria, '210 (Liv. xxvii. 21). Piso in his praetor- 
ship proposed to the senate that the Ludi 
Apollinares, which had been exhibited for the 
first time in the preceding year (212), should be 
repeated and should be celebrated in future 
annually. The senate passed a decree to this 
effect. The establishment of these games by 
their ancestor was commemorated on coins by 
the Pisones in later times iLiv. xxvi. 28). — 2. C, 
son of No. 1, was praetor 180, and received 
Further Spain as his province. He returned to 
Rome in 184, and obtained a triumph for a vic- 
tory he had gained over the Lusitani and Celti- 
beri. He was consul in 180, and died during 
his consulship, not without suspicion of poison. 
(Liv. xxxix. 6, 30. xl. 37.1 

Pisones with the agnomen Caesoninus. 
3. L., received the agnomen Caesoninus, be- 
cause he originally belonged to the Caesonia 
gens. He was praetor in 154, and obtained 
the province of Further Spain, but was defeated 
by the Lusitani. He was consul in 148, and 
was sent to conduct the war against Cartilage, 
in which he showed little ability ; he was 
succeeded in the command in the following 
year by Scipio. (App. Hisj). 56, Pun. 110.) — 
4. L., son of No. 3, consul 112 with M. Livius 
Drusus. In 107 he served us legatus to the 
consul, L. Cassius Longinus, who was sent 
into Gaul to opjiose the Cimbri and their allies, 
and he fell together witli tin- consul in the 
battle in which the Roman army was utterly 
defeuted by the Tigurini in the territory of the 
Allobrogcs fOros. v. 151. This l'i-o was the 
grandfather of Caesar's father-in-law, a circum- 
stance to which Caesar himself alludes in 
recording his own victory over tin- Tigurini at 
a later time (Cues. P.O. i. 7, 12). — 5. L., son of 
No. 4, never rose to any of the offices of state, and 
is only known from the account given of him by 
Cicero in his violent invective against his son. 
He married the daughter of Culveutius, a na- 
tive of Cisalpine Gaul, who emu- from 1'lacentiu 
and settled at Rome ; and hence Cicero calls 
his son in contempt a iemi-Plocentian (Pis. 



23, 53). — 6. L , son of No. 5, appears in Cicero 
(who perhaps somewhat exaggerates his faults) 
as an unprincipled debauchee and a cruel and 
corrupt magistrate. He is first mentioned in 
59, when he was brought to trial by P. Clodius 
for plundering a province of which he had the 
administration after his praetorship, and he 
was only acquitted by throwing himself at the 
feet of the judges (Val. Max. viii. 1, 6). In the 
same year Caesar married his daughter Cal- 
purnia, and through his influence Piso ob- 
tained the consulship for 58, having for his 
colleague A. Gabinius, who was indebted for 
the honour to Pompey. Both consuls sup- 
ported Clodius in his measures against Cicero, 
which resulted in the banishment of the orator. 
1 The conduct of Piso in support of Clodius 
produced that extreme resentment in the mind 
j of Cicero which he displayed against him on 
many subsequent occasions. At the expiration 
of his consulship Piso went to his province of 
Macedonia, where he remained during two 
years (57 and 56), plundering the province in 
the most shameless manner. In the latter of 
these years the senate resolved that a successor 
should be appointed ;" and in the debate in the 
senate which led to his recall, Cicero attacked 
him in the most unmeasured terms in an ora- 
! tion which has come down to us (De Provinciis 
. Consularibus). Piso on his return (55) com- 
plained in the senate of the attack of Cicero, 
and justified the administration of his pro- 
vince, whereupon Cicero reiterated his charges 
in a speech which is likewise extant (In Piso- 
neni). Cicero, however, did not venture to 
bring to trial the father-in-law of Caesar. In 
50 Piso was censor with Ap. Claudius Pulcher. 
On the breaking out of the Civil war (49) Piso 
! accompanied Pompey in his flight from the 
city ; and although he did not go with him 
across the sea, he still kept aloof from Caesar. 
; He subsequently returned to Rome, and re- 
i mained neutral during the remainder of the 
I Civil war. After Caesar's death (44) Piso at 
first opposed Antony, but is afterwards men- 
tioned as one of his partisans. (Caes. B.C. i. 8 ; 
Dio Cass. xli. 16 ; App. B.C. ii. 135, iii. 54.)— 
7. L., son of No. 6, was consul 15, and after- 
! wards obtained the province of Pamphylia ; 
j from thence he was recalled by Augustus in 11, 
l in order to make war upon the Thracians, who 
had attacked the province of Macedonia. He 
was appointed by Tiberius praefectus urbi, and 
was a companion of his revels. Wliile retain- 
ing the favour of the emperor without conde- 
scending to servility, he at the same time 
earned the good-will of his fellow-citizens by 
the integrity and justice with which he 
governed the city. He died in a.d. 32, at the 
age of eighty, and was honoured, by a decreo 
of the senate, with a public funeral. (Tac. 
Ann. vi. 16, 17; Dio Cass. liv. 21, 34, Iviii. 19; 
| Veil. Pat. ii. 98; Suet. Tib. 42; Plin. xiv. 145.) 
It was to this I'iso and his two sons that 
Horace addre>->-d his epistle on the Art of 
Poetry. 

Pisones with the agnomen Frugi. 
8. L., received from his integrity and con- 
scientiousness the surname of Frugi, which is 
perhaps nearly equivalent to our 'man of 
worth.' He was tribune of the plebs, 149, in 
which year lie proposed the first law for the 
punishment of extortion in the provinces (Cic. 
Brut. 27, 106). He was consul in 133, and 
carried on war ugainst the slaves in Sicily 
(Val. Max. ii. 7, '.*). He was a staunch sup- 



720 



PISO 



porter of the aristocratical party, and offered a 
strong opposition to the measures of C. Grac- 
chus. Piso was censor, but it is uncertain in 
what year (Plin. xiii. 37). He wrote Annals, 
which contained the history of Eome from the 
earliest period to the age in which Piso himself 
lived (Cic. I.e.; Gell. xi. 14).— 9. L., son of No. 
8, served with distinction under his father in 
Sicily in 133, and died in Spain about 111, 
whither he had gone as propraetor (Cic. Verr. 
iv. 25). — 10. L., son of No. 9, was a colleague 
of Verres in the praetorship, 74, when he 
thwarted many of the unrighteous schemes of 
the latter (Cic. Verr. i. 46).— 11. C, son of No. 
10, married Tullia, the daughter of Cicero, in 
63, but was betrothed to her as early as 67. 
He was quaestor in 58, when he used every 
exertion to obtain the recall of his father-in- 
law from banishment ; but he died hi 57 before 
Cicero's return to Eome. He is frequently 
mentioned by Cicero in terms of gratitude on 
account of the zeal which he had manifested 
in his behalf during his banishment (Cic. ad 
Att. i. 3, ii. 24, ad Fam. xiv. 1). 

Pisones without an agnomen. 
12. C, consul 67, belonged to the high aristo- 
cratical party, and in his consulship opposed 
with the utmost vehemence the law of the 
tribune Gabinius for giving Pompey the com- 
mand of the war against the pirates. In 66 
and 65, Piso administered the province of Nar- 
bonese Gaul as proconsul, and while there 
suppressed an insurrection of the Allobroges. 
In 63 he was accused of plundering the pro- 
vince, and was defended by Cicero. The latter 
charge was brought against Piso at the insti- 
gation of Caesar, and Piso, in revenge, im- 
plored Cicero, but without success, to accuse 
Caesar as one of the conspirators of Catiline. 
(Plut. Pomp. 25, 27 ; Dio Cass, xxxvi. 20 ; 
Sail. Cat. 49.)— 13. M., usually called M. Pu- 
pius Piso, because he was adopted by M. Pu- 
pius, when the latter was an old man. He 
retained, however, his family-name Piso, just 
as Scipio, after his adoption by Metellus, was 
called Metellus Scipio. [Metellus, No. 15.] 
On the death of L. Cinna, in 84, Piso married 
his wife, Annia. In 83 he was appointed quaes- 
tor to the consul L. Scipio; but he quickly 
deserted this party, and went over to Sulla, 
who compelled him to divorce his wife on ac- 
count of her previous connexion with Cinna 
(Veil. Pat. ii. 41). After his praetorship, the 
year of which is uncertain, he received the 
province of Spain with the title of proconsul, 
and on his return to Eome in 69, enjoyed the 
honour of a triumph. He served in the Mithri- 
datic war as a legatus of Pompey. (Dio Cass, 
xxxvii. 44 ; Cic. ad Att. i. 12-18.) He was 
elected consul for 61 through the influence of 
Pompey. In his consulship Piso gave great 
offence to Cicero, by not asking the orator first 
m the senate for his opinion, and by taking P. 
Clodius under his protection after his violation 
of the mysteries of the Bona Dea. Cicero 
revenged himself on Piso, by preventing him 
from obtaining the province of Syria, which 
had been promised him. Piso, in his younger- 
days, had so high a reputation as an orator 
that Cicero was taken to him by his father, in 
order to receive instruction from him. He 
belonged to the Peripatetic school in philo- 
sophy, in which he received instructions from 
Staseas. (Cic. N.D. i. 7.) — 14. Cn,, a young 
noble who had dissipated his fortune by his 
extravagance and profligacy, and therefore 



joined Catiline in what is usually called his 
first conspiracy (66). [For details see p. 207, b.] 
The senate, anxious to get rid of Piso, sent him 
into Nearer Spain as quaestor, but with the 
rank and title of propraetor. Here he was 
murdered by his escort; and some supposed 
that this was done at the instigation of Pompey. 
(Dio Cass, xxxvi. 27; Sail. Cat. 18, 19.)— 15. 
Cn., fought against Caesar in Africa (46), and 
after the death of the dictator joined Brutus 
and Cassius. He was subsequently pardoned, 
and returned to Eome ; but he disdained to 
ask Augustus for any of the honours of the 
state, and was, without solicitation, raised to 
the consulship in 23. (Tac. Ann. ii. 43.) — 16. 
Cn., son of No. 15, inherited all the pride and 
haughtiness of his father. He was consul B.C. 
7, and was sent by Augustus as legate into 
Spain, where he made himself hated by his 
cruelty and avarice. Tiberius after his acces- 
sion was chiefly jealous of Germanicus, his 
brother's son ; and accordingly, when the east- 
ern provinces were assigned to Germanicus in 
a.d. 18, Tiberius conferred upon Piso the com- 
mand of Syria, in order that the latter might 
do every thing in his power to thwart and op- 
pose Germanicus. Plancina, the wife of Piso, 
was also urged on by Livia, the mother of the 
emperor, to vie with and annoy Agrippina. 
Germanicus and Agrippina were thus exposed 
to every species of insult and opposition from 
Piso and Plancina, and when Germanicus fell 
ill in the autumn of 19, he believed that he had 
been poisoned by them. Piso on his return to 
Eome (20) was accused of murdering Germani- 
cus : the matter was investigated by the senate; 
but before the investigation came to an end, 
Piso was found one morning in his room with 
his throat cut, and his sword lying by his side. 
It was generally supposed that, despairing of 
the emperor's protection, he had put an end to 
his own life ; but others believed that Tiberius 
dreaded his revealing his secrets, and accord- 
ingly caused him to be put to death. The 
powerful influence of Livia secured the acquit- 
tal of Plancina. (Tac. Ann. ii. 43, 55, 57, 69, 74, 
80, hi. 10-18 ; Dio Cass. lvii. 18 ; Suet. Tib. 15, 52, 
Cal. 2.) — 17. C, the leader of the well-known 
conspiracy against Nero in a.d. 65. Piso him- 
self did not form the plot ; but as soon as he 
had joined it, his great popularity gained him 
many partisans. He possessed most of the 
qualities which the Eomans prized, high birth, 
an eloquent address, liberality and affability ; 
and he also displayed a sufficient love of mag- 
nificence and luxury to suit the taste of the 
day, which would not have tolerated austerity 
of manner or character. The conspiracy was 
discovered by Milichus, a freedman of Flavius 
Scevinus, one of the conspirators. Piso there- 
upon opened his veins, and thus died. (Tac. 
Ann. xiv. 65, xv. 48-59 ; Dio Cass. lxii. 24 ; 
Suet. Ner. 36 ; Schol. ad Juv. v. 109.) It is 
probable that the poem De Laude Pisonis refers 
to this Piso [see No. 19]. — 18. L,, surnamed 
Licinianus, w as the son of M. Licinius Crassus 
Frugi, and was adopted by one of the Pisones. 
On the accession of Galba to the throne, he 
adopted as his son and successor Piso Licini- 
anus ; but the latter only enjoyed the distinc- 
tinction four days, for Otho, who had hoped to 
receive this honour, induced the praetorians to 
rise against the emperor. Piso fled for refuge 
into the temple of Vesta, but was dragged out 
by the soldiers, and despatched at the threshold 
of the temple, a.d. 69. (Tac. Hist. i. 14, 84, 48 ; 
Dio Cass. lxiv. 5 ; Suet. Galb. 17.)— 19. T. Cal- 



PISTOR 

purnius Siculus, a poet in Nero's reign, who 
wrote seven Eclogues in imitation of Virgil and 
Theocritus. He praises the prosperous open- 
ing of Nero's reign, whom he calls ' deus ' as 
well as ' juvenis ' (i. 44, iv. 85). Editions by 
Keene, Lond. 1887, and in Poet. Lat. Min. It 
is probably right to assign to him also the 
poem De Laude Pisonis, which used to be as- 
cribed to Saleius Bassus. It is interesting for 
its description of the game Latrunculi [Diet, 
of Ant. s.v.]. Editions by C. F." Weber, 1859, 
and in Poet. Lat. Min. 

Pistor — that is, the 1 pounder '—a surname of 
Jupiter at Rome, which probably was applied 
to him as the destroyer by thunderbolts ; but a 
later tradition arose from a false connexion 
with the more familiar meaning ' baker ' ; and 
the common story was that, when the Gauls 
were besieging Rome, the god suggested to the 
besieged the idea of throwing loaves of bread 
among the enemies, to make them believe that 
the Romans had plenty of provisions, and thus 
caused them to give up the siege (Ov. Fast. vi. 
343 ; Lactant. i. 20, 33). 

Pistoria or Pistorium (Pistoriensis : Pistoia), 
a small place in Etruria, on the road from Luca 
to Florentia, rendered memorable by the defeat 
of Catiline in its neighbourhood (Plin. iii. 52 ; 
Sail. Cat. 57). 

Pitana. [Sparta.] 

Pitane (Xliravr) : Tchanderluk), a seaport 
town of Aeolis, on the coast of the Elaitic gulf, | 
at the mouth of the Evenus or, according to 
some, of the Calcus ; almost destroyed by an 
earthquake under Titus (Hdt. i. 149 ; Strab. 
pp. 581, 607 ; Ov. Met. vii. 357). It was the 
birthplace of the Academic philosopher Arcesi- 
laus. 

Pithecusa. [Aenaria.] 

PItho (nei0w), called Suada or Suadela by 
the Romans, the personification of Persuasion. 
She was worshipped as a divinity at Sicyon, 
where she was honoured witli a temple in the 
agora, because she had persuaded Apollo and 
Artemis to return (Hdt. viii. Ill ; Paus. ii. 7, 7). 
Pitho also occurs as a surname of Aphrodite, 
whose worship was said to have been introduced 
at Athens by Theseus, when he united the 
country communities into towns. At Athens 
the statues of Pitho and Aphrodite Pandemos 
stood close together, and at Megara the statue 
of Pitho stood in the temple of Aphrodite ; so 
that the two divinities must be conceived as 
closely connected. Pitho, in fact, was per- 
sonified as the intercessor who made prayers to 
a deity effectual (Paus. ii. 22, 3). 

Pithon [UiBav, also TltHlwv and nuBuv). 1. 
Son of Agenor, a Macedonian officer of Alex- 
ander the Great. He received from Alexander 
the government of part of the Indian provinces, 
in which he was confirmed after the king's 
death. In b.c. 810, he received from Antigonus 
the satrapy of Babylon. He afterwards fought 
with Demetrius against Ptolemy, and was slain 
at the battle of Gaza, 312. (Arrian, vi. fi ; Curt, 
ix. 8 ; Diod. xix. 50, 80, 85.) — 2. Son of Crateuas 
or Crateas, a Macedonian officer of Alexander 
(Just. xiii. 4), who is frequently confounded 
with the preceding (Arrian, vi. 28, 4). After 
Alexander's death he received from Perdiccas 
the satrapy of Media. He accompanied Per- 
diccas on his expedition to Egypt (321), but he 
took part in the mutiny against Perdiccas 
which terminated in the death of the latter 
(Diod. zviii. 86). Pithon rendered important 
service to Antigonus in his war against Eu- 
meucs; but after the death of Eumenes, he 



PITYUS 



721 



began to form schemes for his own aggrandise- 
ment, and was put to death by Antigonus, 316 
(Diod. xix. 18). 

Pitinum (Pitinas, -atis). I. A municipium 
in the interior of Umbria on the river Pisaurus, 
whence its inhabitants are called in inscriptions 
Pitinates Pisaurenses. — 2. {Pettino), a town 
on the borders of the Sabini and Yestini, on 
the road from Amiternum to Prifernum. 

Pittacus (riiTTcucos), one of those early culti- 
vators of letters who were designated as 'the 
Seven Wise Men of Greece,' was a native of 
Mytilene in Lesbos, and was born about B.C. 
652. He was highly celebrated as a warrior, a 
statesman, a philosopher, and a poet. He is 
first mentioned, in public life, as an opponent 
of the tyrants of Mytilene. [Alcaeus.] in 
conjunction with the brothers of Alcaeus, he 
overthrew and killed the tyrant Melanchrus, 
B.C. 612. In 606 he commanded the Mytile- 
naeans in their war with the Athenians for the 
possession of Sigeum, on the coast of the 
Troad, and signalised himself by killing in 
single combat Phrynon, the commander of the 
Athenians. This feat Pittacus performed by 
entangling his adversary in a net, and then 
despatching him with a trident and a dagger, 
exactly after the fashion in which the gladiators 
called retiarii long afterwards fought at Rome 
(Strab. p. 600). This war was terminated by 
the mediation of Periander, who assigned the 
disputed territory to the Athenians ; but the 
internal troubles of Mytilene still continued. 
The supreme power was fiercely disputed 
between a succession of t5~rants and the aristo- 
cratic party headed by Alcaeus and his brother 
Antimenidas, and the latter were driven into 
exile. [Alcaeus.] As the exiles tried to effect 
their return by force of arms, the popular 
party chose Pittacus as their ruler, with abso- 
lute power, under the title of Aesymnetes 
(Plut. Sol. 14). He held this office for ten years 
(589-579), and then voluntarily resigned it, 
having by his administration restored order to 
the state and prepared it for the safe enjoy- 
ment of a republican form of government. He 
lived in great honour at Mytilene for ten years 
after the resignation of his government, and 
died in 569, at an advanced age. Of the pro- 
verbial maxims of practical wisdom which 
were current under the names of the seven 
wise men of Greece, two were ascribed to 
Pittacus: namely, XaKeirhv eadKbv ifxixivai and 
Katpbv yvwBi. (Ar. Pol. ii. 9, 9; Plat. Prot. p. 
443; Paus. x. 24, 1.) 

Pittheus (niT0euj), king of Troezen, was 
son of Pelops and Dia, father of Aethra, and 
grandfather and instructor of Theseus. When 
Theseus married Phaedra, Pittheus took Hippo- 
lytus into his house. His tomb and the chair 
on which he had sat in judgment were shown 
at Troezene down to a late time. He is said 
to have taught the art of speaking, and even to 
have written a book upon it. Aethra, as his 
daughter, is called Pittheis. (Paus. ii. 80, 8 ; 
Strab. p. 874 ; Ov. Her. x. 81.) 

Pityia iriirvfta: prob. Shamelik), a town 
mentioned by Homer, in the N. of Mysia, 
between Parium and Priapus, evidently named 
from the pine forests in its neighbourhood (II. 
ii. 289 ; Strab. p. 588). 

Pityonesus IUiTu6vniros : Anghistri), an 
island off the coast of Argolis (Plin. iv. 57). 

PityiiB (riiTvous : Pitzunda), a Greek city, 
in Sarmatia Asiatica, on the NT. coast of the 
Euxine, NW. of Dioscurias. In the time of 
Strabo, it was a considerable city and port. It 

8 A 



722 



PITYUSA 



was afterwards destroyed by the neighbouring 
tribe of the Heniochi, but it was restored, and 
long served as an important frontier fortress 
of the Roman empire. (Strab. p. 496 ; Arrian, 
Peripl. p. 18 ; Plin. vi. 16; Zosim. i. 32.) 

Pityusa, Pityussa (nnvov&a, YliTvov<r<xa, I 
contracted from irirvdeaaa, fem. of wnvSeis), 
i.e. abounding in pine-trees. 1. (Petsa), a small 
island in the Argolic gulf (Paus. ii. 34, 8 ; Plin. 
iv. 56). — 2. The name of two islands off the S. 
coast of Spain, W. of the Baleares. The larger 
of them was called Ebusus {Iviza), the smaller 
Ophiussa (Formentera) : the latter was unin- 
habited. (Diod. v. 17 ; Strab. p. 167 ; Liv. xxviii. 
3? ; Plin. hi. 76.) 

r Pixodarus (Tli^Sapos), prince or king of 
Caria, was the youngest of the three sons of 
Hecatomnus, all of whom successively held 
the sovereignty of Caria. Pixodarus obtained 
possession of the throne by the expulsion of 
his sister Ada, the widow and successor of her 
brother Idbjeus, and held it for five years, b.c. 
340-335. He was succeeded by his son-in-law 
Orontobates (Strab. pp. 656, 657). 

Placentla (Placentinus : Piacenza), a Roman 
colony in Cisalpine Gaul, founded at the same 
time as Cremona, B.C. 219 (Pol. iii. 40; Liv. Mp. 
20 ; Veil. Pat. i. 14). It was situated in the 
territory of the Anamares, on the right bank of 
the Po, not far from the mouth of the Trebia, 
and on the road from Mediolanum to Parma. 
It was besieged in vain by Hasdrubal, but a 
few years afterwards was taken and destroyed 
by the Gauls (Liv. xxvii. 39, xxxi. 10). It was, 
however, soon rebuilt by the Romans, and be- 
came an important place. It seems to have 
received a fresh colony under Augustus, and 
continued to be a nourishing town down to the 
time of the Goths. Its prosperity was partly 
due to its position close to the river Po, on 
which it had a port (Liv. xxi. 57 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 
19 ; Plin. iii. 115 Strab. p. 215). 

Placia (riAaKir), Ion. : YlAaKtrivSs), an ancient 
town, in Mysia, B. of Cyzicus, at the foot of Mt. 
Olympus, seems to have been early destroyed 
(Hdt. i. 51). 

Placidla, Galla. [Galla.] 

Placitus, Sex., the author of a short Latin 
work, entitled De Medicina (or Medicamentis) 
ex Animations, consisting of thirty-four chap- 
ters, each of which treats of some animal whose 
body was supposed to possess certain medical 
properties. As might be expected, it contains 
numerous absurdities, and is of little or no 
value or interest. The date of the author is 
uncertain, but he is supposed to have lived in 
the fourth century after Christ. The work is 
printed by Stephanus in the Medicae Artis 
Principes, Paris, fol. 1567, and elsewhere. 

Placus (TlXdicos), a mountain of Mysia, above 
the city of Thebe (11. vi. 397, xxii. 479). The 
name had disappeared in Strabo's time (Strab. 
p. 614). 

Planaria (prob. Canaria, Canary), one of 
the islands in the Atlantic called Fortunatae. 

Planasia (Pianosa), an island between Cor- 
sica and the coast of Etruria, to which Augustus 
banished his grandson Agrippa Postumus (Tac. 
Ann. i. 3, 6, ii. 39). 

Planciades, Fulgentius. [Pulgentius.] 

Plancina, Munatia, the wife of Cn. Piso, 
who was appointed governor of Syria in a.d. 18. 
While her husband used every effort to thwart 
Germanicus, she exerted herself equally to 
annoy and insult Agrippina. She was en- 
couraged in this conduct by Livia, the mother 
of the emperor, who saved her from condemna- 



PLANCUS 

tion by the senate when she was accused along 
with her husband in 20. [Piso, No. 16.] She 
was brought to trial again in 33, a few years 
after the death of Livia, and, having no longer 
any hope of escape, she put an end to her own 
life. (Tac. Ann. ii. 43, 75, iii. 9, 17, vi. 32 ; Dio 
Cass, lviii. 22.) 

Plancius, Cn., first served in Africa under 
the propraetor A. Torquatus, subsequently, in 
b.c. 60, under the proconsul Q. Metellus in 
Crete, and next, in 62, as military tribune in the 
army of C. Antonius in Macedonia. In 58 he 
was quaestor in Macedonia under the propraetor 
L. Appuleius, and here he showed great kind- 
ness to Cicero when the latter came to this 
province during his banishment. He was tri- 
bune of the plebs in 56; and was elected curule 
aedile with A. Plotius in 54. But before Plan- 
cius and Plotius entered upon their office they 
were accused by Juventius Laterensis and L. 
Cassius Longinus, of the crime of sodalitium, 
or the bribery of the tribes by means of illegal 
associations and agencies [Diet, of Ant. art. 
Ambitus], in accordance with the Lex Licinia, 
which had been proposed by the consul Licinius 
Crassus in the preceding year. Cicero defended 
Plancius in an oration still extant, and obtained 
his acquittal. Plancius espoused the Pompeian 
party in the civil wars, and after Caesar had 
gained the supremacy lived in exile in Corcyra. 
(Cic. pro Plancio ; ad Fam. iv. 14, xiv. 1, 3.) 

Plancus, Munatius, the name of a dis- 
tinguished plebeian family. The surname Plan- 
cus signified a person having flat splay feet 
without any bend in them. 1. L., was a friend 
o Julius Caesar, and served under him both in 
the Gallic and the Civil wars (Caes. B. G. v. 24). 
Caesar shortly before his death nominated him 
to the government of Transalpine Gaul for B.C. 
44, with the exception of the Narbonese and 
Belgic portions of the province, and also to the 
consulship for 42, with D. Brutus as his col- 
league. After Caesar's death Plancus hastened 
into Gaul, and took possession of his province. 
Here he prepared at first to support the senate 
against Antony, but when Lepidus joined An- 
tony, and their united forces threatened to 
overwhelm Plancus, the latter, in spite of 
Cicero's dissuasion, was persuaded by Asinius 
Pollio to follow his example, and to unite with 
Antony and Lepidus. Plancus during his 
government of Gaul founded the colonies of 
Lugdunum and Raurica. (Cic. ad Fam. x. 1-24 ; 
App. B. C. iii. 46, 74, 81, 97 ; Plut. Ant. 18.) 
He was consul in 42 according to the arrange- 
ment made by Caesar, and he subsequently 
followed Antony to Asia, where he remained 
for some years, and governed in succession the 
provinces of Asia and Syria (App. B. C. iv. 37 ; 
Veil. Pat ii. 67). He deserted Antony in 32, 
shortly before the breaking out of the civil war 
between the latter and Octavian (Plut. Ant. 
56). He was favourably received by Octavian, 
and continued to reside at Rome during the 
remainder of his life. It was on his proposal 
that Octavian received the title of Augustus in 
27 ; and the emperor conferred upon him the 
censorship in 22 with Paulus Aemilius Lepidus. 
Both the public and private life of Plancus was 
stained by numerous vices. In his political 
action he was unprincipled as well as undecided 
(Veil. Pat. ii. 83). One of Horace's odes (0<7. 
i. 7) is addressed to him. — 2. T., surnamed 
Bursa, brother of the former, was tribune of 
the plebs B.C. 52, when he supported the views 
of Pompey, who was anxious to obtain the 
dictatorship. With this object he did every- 



PLANUDES 



723 



thing in his power to increase the confusion 
which followed upon the death of Clodius. At 
the close of the year, as soon as his tribunate 
had expired, Plancus was accused by Cicero of 
vis and was condemned. After his condemna- 
tion Plancus went to Ravenna in Cisalpine 
Gaul, where he was kindly received by Caesar. 
Soon after the beginning of the Civil war lie 
was restored to his civic rights by Caesar ; but 
he appears to have taken no part in the Civil 
war. After Caesar's death Plancus fought on 
Antony's side in the campaign of Mutina. He 
was driven out of Pollentia by Pontius Aquila, 
the legate of D. Brutus, and in his flight broke 
his leg. (Cic. Phil. vi. 4, x. 10, xi. 6, xiii. 12 ; Dio 
Cass. xl. 49, xlvi. 38 ; Plut. Pomp. 55.)— 3. Cn., 
brother of the two preceding, praetor elect 44, 
was charged by Caesar in that year with the 
assignment to his soldiers of lands at Buthro- 
tum in Epirus. As Atticus possessed property 
in the neighbourhood, Cicero commended to 
Plancus with much earnestness the interests of 
his friend. He was praetor in 43, and was 
allowed by the senate to join his brother Lucius 
[No. 1] in Transalpine Gaul, but caught a 
fever and was sent back to Rome. (Cic. ad Att. 
xvi. 16, ad Fam. x. 15, 17, 21.}— 4. L. Plautius 
Plancus, brother of the three preceding, was 
adopted by a L. Plautius, and therefore took his 
praenomen as well as nomen, but retained his 
original cognomen, as was the case with Metellus 
Scipio [Metellus, No. 15], and Pupius Piso 
[Piso, No. 13]. Before his adoption his praeno- 
men was Caius. He was included in the pro- 
scription of the triumvirs, 43, with the consent 
of liis brother Lucius, and was put to death. 
(Val. Max. xi. 8, 5; App. B. C. iv. 12; Plin. 
xiii. 25.) 

Planudes Maximus, was one of the most 
learned of the Constantinopolitan monks of the 
last age of the Greek empire, and was greatly 
distinguished as a theologian, grammarian, and 
rhetorician ; but his name is now chiefly in- 
teresting as that of the compiler of the latest 
of those collections of minor Greek poems, 
which were known by the names of Garlands 
or Anthologies (Srupavoi, ' Ai/doAoylcu). Pla- 
nudes lived at Constantinople in the first half 
of the fourteenth century, under the emperors 
Andronicus II. and HI. Palaeologi. In a.d. 
1827 he was sent by Andronicus II. as ambassa- 
dor to Venice. As the Anthology of Planudes 
was not only the latest compiled, but was also 
that which was recognised as The Greek An- 
thology until the discovery of the Anthology 
of Constantinus Cephalas, this is chosen as the 
fittest place for an account of the Literary 
History of the Greek Anthology. 1. Materials. 
The various collections to which their com- 
pilers gave the name of Garlands and Antholo- 
gies were made up of short poems, chiefly of 
an epigrammatic character, and in the elegiac 
metre. The earliest examples of Buch poetry 
were furnished by the inscriptions on monu- 
ments, such as those erected to commemorate 
heroic deeds, the statues of distinguished men, 
especially victors in the public games, sepul- 
chral monuments, and dedicatory offerings in 
temples (ivaBfifiara) ; to which may be added 
oracles and proverbial sayings. At an early 
period in the history of Greek literature, poets 
of the highest fame cultivated this species of 
composition, which received its most perfect 
development from the hand of Simonides. 
Thenceforth, as a set form of poetry, it became 
a fit vehicle for the brief expression of thoughts 
and sentiments on any subject; until at last 



the form came to be cultivated for its own sake, 
and the literati of Alexandria and Byzantium 
deemed the ability to make epigrams an essen- 
tial part of the character of a scholar. Hence 
the mere trifling, the stupid jokes and the 
wretched personalities which form so large a 
part of the epigrammatic poetry contained in 
the Greek Anthology. — 2. The Garland of 
Meleager. At a comparatively early period in 
the history of Greek literature, various persons 
collected epigrams of particular classes, and with 
reference to their use as historical authorities ; 
but the first person who made such a collection 
solely for its own sake, and to preserve epigrams 
of all kinds, was Meleager, a Cynic philosopher 
of Gadara, in Palestine, about b.c. 60. He en- 
titled it The Garland (Zretpavos), with reference 
to the common comparison of small beautiful 
poems to flowers. The same idea is kept up in 
the word Antliologij (avBoXoyta), which was 
adopted by the next compiler as the title of his 
work. The Garland of Meleager was arranged 
in alphabetical order, according to the initial 
letters of the first line of each epigram. He 
included in this collection poems by forty-six 
authors of various dates from Arclulochus to 
his own contemporaries, and also compositions 
of his own. — 3. The Anthology of Philip of 
Thessalonica, was compiled in the time of 
Trajan, with the view of adding to the Gar- 
land of Meleager the epigrams of more recent 
writers. — 4. Diogenianus, Straton, and Dio- 
genes Laertius. Shortly after Philip, in the 
reign of Hadrian, the learned grammarian, 
Diogenianus of Heraclea, compiled an Antho- 
logy, which is entirely lost. It might have 
been well if the same fate had befallen the very 
polluted collection of his contemporary, Straton 
of Sardis. About the same time Diogenes 
Laertius collected the epigrams which are inter- 
spersed in his Lives of the Pliilosophers into 
a separate book. — 5. Agathias Bcholasticus, of 
Myrina, who lived in the time of Justinian, 
made a collection entitled Ku/cAos eiriypa/j.- 
fjLaroiv. It was arranged in seven books, ac- 
cording to subjects. The poems included in it 
were those of recent writers, and chiefly those 
of Agathias himself and of his contemporaries, 
such as Paulus Silentiarius and Macedonius. — 
6. The Anthology of Constantinus Cephalas, 
or the Palatine Anthology. Constantinus 
Cephalas appears to have lived about four cen- 
turies after Agathias, and to have flourished in 
the tenth century, under the emperor Con- 
stantinus Porphyrogenitus. The labours of 
preceding compilers may be viewed as merely 
supplementary to the Garland of Meleager, 
but the Anthology of Constantinus Cephalas 
was an entirely new collection from the pre- 
ceding Anthologies and from original sources. 
Nothing is known of Constantine himself. The 
MS. of the Anthology was discovered by the 
French scholar Saumaise, or Salmasius, in 1606, 
in the library of the Electors Palatine at 
Heidelberg. It was afterwards removed to the 
Vatican, with the rest of the Palatine library 
, (1023), and has become known under tin: name 
J of the Palatine Anthology. The MS. was 
| restored to its old home at Heidelberg after 
the peace of 1815.— 7. The Anthology of Pla- 
nudes wos an extract from the collection of 
Cephalas, divided into seven books, each of 
which, except the fifth and seventh, is sub- 
divided into chapters according to subjects, 
( and these chapters are arranged in alphabetical 
order. The contents of the books are as fob 
I lows : — (1) Chiefly ^ri5<iKTi«a : that is, displays 

» A 2 



724 



PLATAEA 



of skill in this species of poetry, in 91 chapters. 
(2) Jocular or satiric ((TKuiirrtKa), chaps. 53. (3) 
Sepulchral (emTVfxfita), chaps. 32. (4) Inscrip- 
tions on statues of athletes and other works of 
art, descriptions of places, &c, chaps. 33. (5) 
The Ecphrasis of Christodorus, and epigrams 
on statues of charioteers in the Hippodrome at 
Constantinople. (6) Dedicatory (avadri par tied), 
chaps. 27. (7) Amatory (epcuri/ca). This abridg- 
ment by Planudes was the most complete 
anthology known until the discovery of the 
Palatine MS. of Cephalas, which then super- 
seded it.— Edition of the Palatine Anthology 
by Jacobs, Lips. 1813-1817 ; Tauchnitz edition, 
Lips. 1872; Diibner, Paris, 1864. 

Plataea, more commonly Plataeae (JlXarata, 
n\aToiai' : UKaratevs), an ancient city of Boeo- 
tia, on the N. slope of Mount Cithaeron, not far 




Battle of Plataea. 

a. Persians ; 6. Athenians; e. Lacedaemonians ; d. Various Greek allies ; I. First Position 
'„ occupied by the opposing armies; II. Second position; III. Third position ; A. Road 
from Plataea to Thebes ; B. Road from Megara to Thebes ; C. Persian camp ; D. Ery- 
thrae ; E. Hysiae. 

from the sources of the Asopus, and on the 
frontiers of Attica. It was said to have been 
founded by Thebes ; and its name was com- 
monly derived from Plataea, a daughter of 
Asopus. (II. ii. 504 ; Thuc. iii. 61 ; Strab. p. 
411 ; Paus. ix. 1, 1.) The town, though not 
large, played an important part in Greek 
history, and experienced many striking vicissi- 
tudes of fortune. At an early period the 
Plataeans deserted the Boeotian confederacy 
and placed themselves under the protection of 
Athens (Hdt. vi. 108 ; Thuc. iii. 68), and when 
the Persians invaded Attica, in B.C. 490, they 
sent 1000 men to the assistance of the Athe- 
nians, and had the honour of fighting on their 

side at the battle of Marathon. Ten years 1 native of Athens, contemporary with Aristo- 



PLATO 

afterwards (480) their city was destroyed by 
the Persian army under Xerxes at the instiga- 
tion of the Thebans ; and the place was still in 
ruins in the following year (479), when the 
memorable battle was fought in their territory 
in which Mardonius was defeated, and the 
independence of Greece secured. (Hdt. ix. 
25-70.) In consequence of this victory, the 
territory of Plataea was declared inviolable, 
and Pausanias ana the other Greeks swore to 
guarantee its independence (Thuc. ii. 71 ; 
Plut. Aristid. 19 ; Strab. p. 412 ; Paus. ix. 2, 4). 
The sanctity of the city was still further secured 
by its being selected as the place in which the 
great festival of the Eleutheria was to be cele- 
brated in honour of those Greeks who had 
fallen in the war. [See Diet, of Antiq. art. 
Eleutheria.} The Plataeans further received 
from the Greeks 
the large sum of 
eighty talents. Pla- 
taea now enjoyed a 
prosperity of fifty 
years; but in the 
third year of the 
Peloponnesian war 
(429) the Thebans 
persuaded the 
Spartans to attack 
the town, and after 
a siege of two 
years atlength suc- 
ceeded in obtaining 
possession of the 
place (427). (Thuc. 
ii. 1, 71, iii. 20, 52, 
68.) Plataea was 
now razed to the 
ground. Its * in- 
habitants sought 
refuge at Scione 
and afterwards at 
Athens ; but it was 
again rebuilt after 
the peace of Antal- 
cidas (387). (Thuc. 
v. 32; Plut. Lys. 
14 ; Paus. ix. 1, 4.) 
It was destroyed 
the third time by 
its inveterate ene- 
mies the Thebans 
in 372 (Paus. ix. 1, 
5; Diod. xv. 48; 
Isocr. Plataic. § 
13). It was once 
more restored un- 
der the Macedo- 
nian supremacy, 
and continued in 
existence till a very 
late period. Its walls were rebuilt by Justinian 
(Procop. Aed. iv. 2). 

Platamodes (n\ara/M<iSris : C. Kivia), a 
promontory in the W. of Messenia (Strab, 
p. 348). 

Platana, -um, -US {UXaTavr), UXaravov, 
YlXaravos), a fortress in Phoenicia, in a narrow 
pass between Lebanon and the sea, near the 
river Darnuras or Tamyras (Damur). (Pol. v, 
68 ; Jos. Ant. xvi. 11, 1.) 

Platea (TlXarea, also -eta, -eia't, -ala : Boviba), 
an island on the coast of Cyrenaica, in N. Africa, 
the first place taken possession of by the Greek 
colonists under Battus. 

Plato (XlXaTuv), the comic poet, was a 



PLATO 



725 



phanes, Phrynichus, Eupolis, and Pherecrates, 
and flourished from B.C. 428 to 389. He ranked 
among the best poets of the Old Comedy. 
From the expressions of the grammarians, and 
from the large number of fragments which are 
preserved, it is evident that his plays were only 
second in popularity to those of Aristophanes. 
He attacked in many of his plays public 
characters of the day : e.g. demagogues in the 
Hyperbolas and the Cleophon, and a contem- 
porary poet in the Cinesias. Purity of lan- 
guage, refined sharpness of wit, and a combina- 
tion of the vigour of the Old Comedy with 
the greater elegance of the Middl" and the 
New, were his chief characteristics. Suidas 
gives the titles of thirty of his dramas. With 
the Cleophonhe won the third prize in 405 B.C., 
when Aristophanes was first with the Frogs, 
and Phrynichus second with the Muses. — 
Fragments in Meineke, Fr. Com. Graec. 

Plato (HXaToiv), the philosopher, was born on 
the seventh day of Thargelion (= May 26th) 
B.C. 428 (if we follow the statements of Hermo- 
dorus and Apollodorus : see Diog. Laert. iii. 2, 
6.) Athens was probably his birthplace, though 
some say Aegina (Diog. Laert. I. c). His father, 
Aristo, claimed descent from Codrus, and the an- 
cestors of his mother, Perictione, were related to 
Solon. Plato himself mentions the relationship 
of Critias, his maternal uncle, with Solon 
(Charm, p. 155). Originally, we are told, he 
was named after his grandfather Aristocles, but 
in consequence of the fluency of his speech, or, 
as others have it, the breadth of his chest, he 
acquired that name under which alone we know 
him (Diog. Laert. iii. 4). One story made 
him the son of Apollo ; another related that 
bees settled upon the lips of the sleeping child 
(Cic. Div. i. 46, 78). He is said to have con- 
tended, when a youth, in the Isthmian and 
other games, as well as to have made attempts 
in epic, lyric, and dithyrambic poetry, and not 
to have devoted himself to philosophy till a 
later time, probably after Socrates had drawn 
him within the magic circle of his influence. 
Plato was instructed in grammar, music, and 
gymnastics by the most distinguished teachers 
of that time. He was thus by birth and educa- 
tion inclined to the aristocratic and cultivated 
classes at Athens; but though he had great 
opportunities for a favourable start in political 
contests by the help of his connexions, especi- 
ally of Critias, the most powerful of the Thirty, 
he preferred a life of philosophic study. At 
the same time it would be a mistake to suppose 
that he never took any part in public life. He 
must necessarily (as Grote points out) have 
served in military posts after he was eighteen, 
and the military service of 409-403 B.C. was 
constant and severe. Plato's birth and means 
probably placed him in the cavalry. There is 
abundant evidence from the Republic as well 
as from his letters that he had no aversion 
for such active employment, and some indica- 
tion of his having once thought of political life, 
though there is no warrant for believing that 
he ever spoke or acted as a politician. What- 
ever inclinations that way he may have had 
were diverted by his disappointment and dis- 
gust at the tyranny of tne Thirty, and he 
sought refuge in philosophy. At an early age 
he had become acquainted, through Cratylus, 
with the doctrines of Heraclitus, and through 
other instructors with the philosophical dogmas 
of the Eleatics and of Anaxagoras. In his 
twentieth year he is said to have betaken him- 
self to Socrates, and became one of his most 



ardent admirers (cf. Diog. Laert. iii. 5 ; Xen. 
Mem. iii. 6, 1). Pausanias (i. 30, 3) preserves a 
story that Socrates on the night before Plato 
first became his pupil, dreamed that a swan, 
the bird of Apollo, flew into his lap. After the 
1 death of Socrates (399) he withdrew to Megara, 
where he probably composed several of his 
dialogues, especially those of a dialectical 
i character. He next went to Cyrene through 
friendship for the mathematician Theodorus, 
and is said to have visited afterwards Egypt, 
Sicily, and the Greek cities in Lower Italy, 
about 388 B.C. (Plat. Epist. vii. p. 324), in his 
desire to see new countries, especially Mount 
Etna. More distant journeys of Plato into the 
interior of Asia, to the Hebrews, Babylonians, 
and Assyrians, to the Magi and Persians, are 
mentioned only by writers on whom no reliance 
can be placed (Clem. Alex. adv. Gent. p. 46). 
To this tradition Cicero (Tusc. iv. 19, 43) seems 
to refer. His journey to Egypt is not men- 
tioned by any writer before Cicero (de Rep. i. 
10, 15, de Fin. v. 29, 87) ; but there is no doubt 
that he visited Cyrene, and no improbability in 
his going thence to Egypt. Plato, during his 
residence in Sicily, became acquainted, through 
Dion, with the elder Dionysius, but very soon 
fell out with the tyrant, who disliked his free 
exposition of social and political truths. It is 
impossible to reject altogether the story of his 
' being sold into slavery (though of short dura- 
j tion). The best attested account is that Diony- 
sius handed him over to the Spartan envoy 
Pollis to be taken to Greece, with secret 
instructions that he should be sold as a slave, 
that he was sold at Aegina and was purchased 
for twenty or thirty minae and freed by 
Anniceris, whom he had known at Cyrene. 
(Plut. Dion, 5; Diog. Laert. iii. 17; Nep. 
I Dion, 2.) The story is given differently by 
Diodorus (xv. 7), who says that Plato was sold 
by orders of Dionysius in the slave market at 
Syracuse, and freed by his friends, who sub- 
I scribed twenty minae for the price. After his 
return to Athens, about 386, he began to teach, 
\ partly in the gymnasium of the Academy and 
its shady avenues, near the city, between the 
exterior Ceramicus and the hill Colonus 
Hippius, and partly in his garden, which was 
situated at Colonus. He taught without 
exacting fees, and his lectures were mainly in 
the form of lively dialogue ; yet on the more diffi- 
cult parts of his doctrinal system he probably 
delivered also connected discourses. The more 
narrow circle of his disciples assembled them- 
selves in his garden at common simple meals 
(Diog. Laert. ii. 8 ; Ael. V. H. ii. 18, iii. 35), and 
it was probably to them alone that the inscription 
said to have been set up over the vestibule of 
the house, ' Let no one enter who is unacquainted 
with geometry,' had reference (Tzetz. Chil. 
viii. 972). Among his pupils were his nephew 
Speusippus, Xenocratesof Chalcedon, Aristotle, 
Heraclides Ponticus, Hestiaeus of Perinthus, 
Philippus the Opuntian, and others, men from 
the most different parts of Greece. To the 
wider circle of those who, without attaching 
themselves to the more narrow community of 
i the school, sought instruction and incitement 
' from him, such distinguished men as Chabrias, 
I ph urates, Timotheus, Phocion, Hyperides, 
Lycurgus, and Isocrates, are said to have 
belonged. Whether Demosthenes was of the 
number is doubtful (cf. [Dem.] Epist. v. Cic. 
' de Or. i. 20, 89, Or. i, 16, de Off. i. 1, 4). 
Cicero clearly has no doubt of it, but he refers 
to the letters of Demosthenes as his authority, 



726 



PLATO 



and these are probably spurious. Plato's 
occupation as an instructor was twice inter- 
rupted by his voyages to Sicily ; first when 
Dion, probably soon after the death of the 
elder Dionysius, persuaded him to make the 
attempt to win the younger Dionysius to 
philosophy ; the second time, a few years later 
(about 360), when the wish of his Pythagorean 
friends, and the invitation of Dionysius to 
reconcile the disputes which had broken out 
between him and his step-uncle Dion, brought 
him back to Syracuse. His efforts were both 
times unsuccessful, and he owed his own safety 
to nothing but the earnest intercession of 
Archytas. That Plato cherished the hope of 
realising through the conversion of Dionysius 
his idea of a state in the rising city of Syracuse 
was a belief pretty generally spread in anti- 
quity, which finds some confirmation in the 
expressions of the philosopher himself, and 
of the seventh Platonic letter (which, though 
spurious, is written with the most evident 
acquaintance with the matters treated of). 
(Plut. Dion, 11-20; Diog. Laert. iii. 21, 25; 
[Plat.] Epist. iii., vii.) With the exception of 
these two visits to Sicily, Plato was occupied 
from the time when he opened the school in 
the Academy in giving instruction and in the 
composition of his works. He died in the 
82nd year of his age, B.C. 347. According to 
some he died while writing ; according to others, 
at a marriage feast. According to his last will 
his garden remained the property of the school, 
and passed, considerably increased by subse- 
quent additions, into the hands of the Academic 
school, who kept as a festival his birthday as 
well as that of Socrates. Athenians and 
strangers honoured his memory by monuments. 
Still he had no lack of enemies and enviers. 
He was attacked by contemporary comic poets, 
as Theopompus, Alexis, Cratinus the younger, 
and others ; by one-sided Socratics, as Anti- 
sthenes, Diogenes, and the later Megarics, and 
also by the Epicureans, Stoics, certain Peripa- 
tetics, and later writers eager for detraction. 
Thus even Antisthenes and Aristoxenus charged 
him with sensuality, avarice, and sycophancy ; 
and others with vanity, ambition, and envy 
towards other Socratics, Protagoras, Epichar- 
mus and Philolaus. (Diog. Laert. iii. 26, 35 ; 
Athen. pp. 59, 424, 507, 509, 589.) But the 
admiration is better attested, and the character 
which his admirers have drawn is substantiated 
by his writings. — The Writings of Plato. 
These writings have come down to us complete, 
and have always been admired as a model of 
the union of artistic perfection with philo- 
sophical acuteness and depth. They are in the 
form of dialogue. Plato was not the first 
writer who employed this style of composition 
for philosophical instruction : Zeno the Eleatic 
had already written in the form of question and 
answer ; Alexamenus the Teian and Sophron in 
the mimes had treated ethical subjectsin the form 
of dialogue ; and in later periods Xenophon, 
Aeschines, Antisthenes, Euclides, and other So- 
cratics also made use of the dialogical form, But 
Plato has handled this form not only with 
greater mastery than anyone who preceded him, 
but, in all probability, with the distinct inten- 
tion of keeping by this very means true to the ad- 
monition of Socrates, not to communicate in- 
struction, but to lead to the spontaneous dis- 
covery of it, and he is the first who has made this 
style of writing a literary model. The advan- 
tages which he found in this method were that 
he was able to make Socrates a central figure, 



that he could more easily argue out every 
question, from all points of view, and that he 
had full scope for his dramatic power of draw- 
ing character. Various arrangements of the 
dialogues of Plato have been proposed, but none 
of them can be maintained by any convincing 
arguments. Thei-e is no ground for the belief 
that Plato arranged them on any scheme, so as 
to form a consecutive series, and the probabili- 
ties are all the other way. The arrangement, 
therefore, which assumes progressive stages of 
philosophy from one dialogue to another will 
be wisely rejected ; nor is there any warrant 
for saying that certain dialogues belong to 
certain periods of Plato's life because this or 
that view is apparent in them. Even if the 
adoption of any doctrine, such as that of Ideas 
or of a.vdfj.vr)<ns, could be assigned to a particular 
date (which is, to say the least, doubtful), there 
would still remain the possibility of a later 
revision of the dialogue in question. Of exter- 
nal evidence as to date there is none, and the 
guidance from mention of historical events in 
the dialogues themselves is scanty and pre- 
carious. The utmost that can be said is that 
there are some arguments for the arrangement 
which places the following dialogues in the earlier 
period, i.e. before, or near, the time of the death 
of Socrates : viz. Laches, Hippias Major and 
Minor, Lysis, Ion, Charmides, Meno, Alci- 
Hades I., Cratylus, Euthydemus, Protagoras, 
Euthyphron, Gorgias : after the death of 
Socrates, Apology (which is not, however, a 
dialogue), Crito. The following seem to belong 
to a later date, between his first and second 
journeys to Sicily : viz. Theaetetus, Sophistes, 
Politicus, Parmenides, Menexenus (a funeral 
oration), Symposium, Phaedrus, Phaedo, 
Philebus, Republic, Timaeus, Critias, and, 
lastly, the Laws, which occupied several 
years in writing, and was published after his 
death. Of these Hippias Minor, Alcibiades I. 
and Menexenus are rejected by many critics 
and may be set down as doubtful. The 
following are certainly spurious: viz. Alci- 
biades II, Axiochus, Olitophon, Demodocus, 
Epinomis, Erastae, Eryxias, Hipparchus, 
De Justo, Minos, Sisyphus, Theages, De 
Virtute. In this list of spurious works the 
Letters also must be included. The dialogues 
which are directly cited by Aristotle as written 
by Plato are : Republic, Timaeus, Laivs, 
Phaedo, Phaedrus, Symposium, Gorgias, 
Meno, Hippias I. ; but it is obvious that his 
silence does not condemn the others, and 
several which have not his testimony are 
universally accepted as Plato's work. Some, 
however, of the dialogues which have been 
admitted as certainly genuine in the above list 
have been objected to by one critic or another. 
—The Philosophy of Plato. The nature of 
this work will allow only a few brief remarks 
upon this subject. Plato, like Socrates, was 
penetrated with the idea that wisdom is the 
attribute of the Godhead ; that philosophy, 
springing from the impulse to know, is the 
necessity of the intellectual man, and the 
greatest of the blessings in which he partici- 
pates. When once we strive after Wisdom 
with the intensity of a lover, she becomes the 
true consecration and purification of the soul, 
adapted to lead us from darkness to the 
true day. An approach to wisdom, however, 
presupposes an original communion with 
Being, truly so called ; and this communion 
again presupposes the divine nature of immor- 
tality of the soul, and the impulse to become 



PLATO 

like the Eternal. This impulse is the love 
which generates in Truth, and the development 
of it is termed Dialectics. Out of the philoso- 
phical impulse which is developed by Dialectics 
not only correct knowledge, but also correct 
action springs forth. Socrates' doctrine re- 
specting the unity of virtue, and that it consists 
in true, vigorous, and practical knowledge, is 
intended to be set forth in the Protagoras and 
the smaller kindred dialogues. They are de- 
signed, therefore, to introduce a foundation for 
ethics, by the refutation of the common views 
that were entertained of morals and of virtue. 
For although not even the words ' ethics ' and 
' physics ' occur in Plato, and even dialectics are 
not treated of as a distinct and separate province, 
yet he must rightly be regarded as the origi- 
nator of the threefold division of philosophy, 
inasmuch as he had before him the decided 
object to develop the Socratic method into a 
scientific system of dialectics that should 
supply the grounds of our knowledge as well as 
of our moral action (physics and ethics). 
Accordingly, the Theaetetus, Sophistes, Par- 
menides, and Cratylus, are principally dialecti- 
cal ; the Protagoras, Gorgias, Politicus, Phile- 
bus, and the Republic, principally ethical ; while 
the Timaeus is exclusively physical. Plato, in 
developing the Socratic view of the true con- j 
ception of objects, was influenced both by the 
Eleatic doctrine of the unchangeable unity of j 
real existence [Pabme>tdes] and the Heracli- 
tean theory of a perpetual flow and change in 
human life [see p. 403], whence followed the 
question, how could there be absolute know- 
ledge of the objects of sense which were per- 
petually changing (Aristot. Met. A. 6). This 
question Plato solved by his doctrine of Ideas. 
which became the central part of his system, i 
The objects wliich our senses perceive are 
indeed changeable with each perception and 
unreal, but each of these is an imperfect copy 
of a perfect original which has a real immutable 
and eternal existence in another world ; and 
the perfect original was called an iS4a or 
itSos, because it was the true form or arche- I 
type ; and inasmuch as there was only one | 
' idea ' or archetype of each class of things, 
' ideas ' were sometimes called evdSes or ftovdSes 
i.e. 'unities' (Phileb. p. 15). The highest of 
all was the ' idea ' of Good, which was the 
cause of all perfection (but yet nothing personi- 
fied). The body being a hindrance to the 
contemplation of these unchangeable realities 
which are the only absolute knowledge, the 
philosopher frees himself as far as possible from 
the disturbance of senses. Further, as an aid 
to conceiving these true ' ideas,' the human I 
soul has a certain power of ' recollection ' 
(avd/junritTts) of the sight which it enjoyed of ! 
them before it was linked to the human body. 
The vision has been to a great extent forgotten, 
but still the recollection is stirred by the sight 
of the im|>erfect copy and is strengthened when 
the mind abstracts itself from the world of 
sense, and exercises its reason. — His system of 
ethics was founded upon his dialectics, as 
remarked ubove. Hence he asserted that, not 
being in a condition to grasp the idea of the Good 
with full distinctness, we are able to approxi- 
mate to it only so far as we elevate the power 
of thinking to its original purity.— Complete 
editions of Plato by Stallbaum, Lips. 1850-1877 ; ' 
Baiter and Orelli, Zurich, 188U-1874 ; by C. F. , 
Hermann, Lips. 1874. Translation by Jowett, 
Oxford, 1881. Among the numerous editions 
of separate treatises are the Gorgias by W. H. i 



PLAIT TUS 



727 



Thompson ; Apology by Riddell ; Apology and 
Phaedo by W. Smith ; Phaedo by Archer Hind ; 
Theaetetus by Campbell ; Phaedrus by W. H. 
Thompson ; Sophistes and Politicus by Camp 
bell ; Philebus by H. Jackson. 

Flator. 1. Commanded Oreum for Philip B.C. 
207 and betrayed the town to the Roman?- 
(Liv. xxviii. 6). — 2. Brother of Gentius king of 
Hlyria, and son of Pleuratus (Liv. xliv. 30). 
According to Polybius, xxix. 5, his name was 
Pleuratus. 

Plautla Gens, a plebeian gens at Borne. The 
name is also written Plotius, just as we have 
both Clodius and Claudius. The gens was 
dividedinto the families of Hypsaeus, Proculus, 
Silvanus, Venno, Venox. Although several 
members of these families obtained the consul- 
ship, none of them are of sufficient importance 
to require a separate notice. 

Plautianus, Fulvius, an African by birth, 
the fellow-townsman of Septimius Severus. 
He served as praefect of the praetorium under 
this emperor, who loaded him with honours and 
wealth, and virtually made over much of the 
imperial authority into his hands. Intoxicated 
by these distinctions, Plautianus indulged in 
the most despotic tyranny, and perpetrated 
acts of cruelty almost beyond belief. In a.d. 
202 his daughter Plautilla was married to 
Caracalla; but having discovered the dislike 
cherished by Caracalla towards both his daugh- 
ter and himself, and looking forward with 
apprehension to the downfall which awaited 
him upon the death of the sovereign, he formed 
a plot against the life both of Septimius and 
Caracalla. His treachery was discovered, and 
he was immediately put to death, 203. His 
daughter, Plautilla, was banished first to Sicily, 
and subsequently to Lipara, where she was 
treated with the greatest harshness. After the 
murder of Geta, in 212, Plautilla was put to 
death by order of her husband. (Dio Cass. lxxv. 
14, lxxvi. 2, Ixxvii. 1.) 
Plautilla. [Plautianus.] 
PlautlUS. 1. A., a man of consular rank, 
who was sent by the emperor Claudius in a.d. 
43 to subdue Britain. He remained in Britain 
four years, and subdued the S. part of the 
island. He obtained an ovation on his return 
to Rome in 47. (Tac. Agr. 14.) It was alleged 
against his wife, Pomponia, that she had become 
a convert to Christianity, and Plautius was 
commissioned to inquire into the charge, which 
he reported to be disproved (Tac. Ann. xiii. 
32). — 2. An early writer of comedies, who is 
mentioned by Varro as having written plays 
which were sometimes reckoned among those of 
Plautus (Gell. iii. 3, 10). — 3. A Roman jurist, 
who lived about the time of Vespasian, and is 
cited by subsequent jurists. 

Plautus, T. Maccius, the most celebrated 
comic poet of Rome, was a native of Sarsina, 
a small village in Umbria. His name has been 
much disputed. Festus (p. 288) explains the 
name Plotus us meaning in the Umbrian lan- 
guage ' flat-footed ' and mentions as bearing 
that mime the poet of Sarsina, called (as it 
appears in the abridgment of Paulus) Accius. 
Hence the great comedian was commonly 
known in modern times as M. Accius Plautus 
until Ritschl, from a comparison of Plaut. 
Merc. 0, and the conclusion of the Carina, 
Menaechmi, and Epidicus in the Ambrosian 
MS., with Gell. iii. 3, 9, deduced the name 
Maccius, which is now almost universally 
accepted, It is suggested with some proba- 
bility that it was formed from the word maccus, 



728 



PLAUTUS 



a buffoon, given as a nickname to Plautus, and 
adopted by him when he became a Roman 
citizen. The date of his birth is uncertain, but 
it may be placed about B.C. 254. Cicero (de 
Sen. 50) speaks of Plautus as having been an 
old man in 191 B.C. He probably came to Rome 
at an early age, since he displays such a perfect 
mastery of the Latin language, and an ac- 
quaintance with Greek literature, which he 
could hardly have acquired in a provincial 
town. "When he arrived at Rome he was in 
needy circumstances, and was first employed 
in the service of the actors. With the money 
he had saved in this inferior station he left 
Rome and set up in business : but his specu- 
lations failed ; he returned to Rome, and his 
necessities obliged him to enter the service of 
a baker, who employed him in turning a hand- 
mill (G-ell. iii. 3, 14). "While in this degrading 
occupation he wrote three plays, the sale of 
which to the managers of the public games 
enabled him to quit his drudgery, and begin his 
literary career. He was then probably about 
thirty years of age (224), and accordingly began 
to write comedies a few years before the break- 
ing out of the second Punic war. He continued 
to write for about forty years, and died in 184, 
when he was seventy years of age (Cic. Brut. 
60). His contemporaries at first were Livius 
Andronicus and Naevius, afterwards Ennius 
and Caecilius : Terence did not rise into notice 
till almost twenty years after his death. During 
the long time that Plautus held possession of the 
stage, he was always a great favourite of the 
people ; and he expressed a bold consciousness 
of his own powers in the epitaph which he 
wrote for his tomb, and which has come down 
to us : — 

Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, comoedia luget, 

Scena deserta, dein risus, ludus joeusque 

Et Humeri immmeri simul omnes collacrumarunt. 

(Gell. i. 24, 3.) 

Plautus wrote a great number of comedies, 
and in the last century of the republic 
there were 130 plays which bore his name. 
Most of these, however, were not considered 
genuine by the best Roman critics. There 
were several works written upon the subject, 
and of these the most celebrated was the trea- 
tise of Varro entitled Quaestiones Plautinae. 
It appears that towards the end of the republic 
there had been a tendency to reckon as ' Plau- 
tine ' all old palliatae comediae, and Varro 
limited the undoubted comedies of the poet to 
twenty-one, which were hence called the Fabu- 
lae Varronianae. These Varronian comedies 
are no doubt those which have come down to 
our own time, with the loss of one. At present 
we possess only twenty comedies of Plautus ; 
but there were originally twenty-one in the 
manuscripts, and the Vidularia, which was the 
twenty -first, and which came last in the collec- 
tion, was torn off from the manuscript in the 
middle ages. The titles of the twenty-one 
Varronian plays are : 1. Amphitruo. 2. Asi- 
naria. 3. Aulularia. 4. Captivi. 5. Curcu- 
lio. 0. Casina. 7. Cistellaria. 8. Epidicus. 
9. Bacchides. 10. Mostellaria. 11. Menaech- 
mi. 12. Miles. 13. Mercator. 14. Pseudolus. 
15. Poenulus. 16. Perm. 17. Budens. 18. 
Stichus. 19. Trinummus. 20. Truculentiis. 
21. Vidularia. This is the order in which 
they occur in the manuscripts, though probably 
not the one in which they were originally 
arranged by Varro. The present order is 
evidently alphabetical ; the initial letter of the 
title of each play is alone regarded, and no 



attention is paid to those which follow : hence 
we find Captivi, Curculio, Casina, Cistel- 
laria : Mostellaria, Menaechmi, Miles, Mer- 
cator : Pseudolus, Poenulus, Persa. The play 
of the Bacchides forms the only exception to 
the alphabetical order. It was probably placed 
after the Epidicus by some copyist, because he 
had observed that Plautus in the Bacchides 
(ii. 2, 36) referred to the Epidicus as an earlier 
work. The names of the comedies are either 
taken from some leading character in the play, 
or from some circumstance which occurs in it : 
those titles ending in aria are adjectives, 
giving a general description of the play : thus 
Asinaria is the 1 Ass-Comedy.' The comedies 
of Plautus enjoyed unrivalled popularity among 
the Romans, and continued to be represented 
down to the time of Diocletian. The continued 
popularity of Plautus through so many centuries 
was owing, in a great measure, to his being a 
national poet. Though he founds his plays 
upon Greek models, the characters in them 
act, speak, and joke like genuine Romans, and 
he thereby secured the sympathy of his audience 
more completely than Terence could ever have 
done. Whether Plautus borrowed the plan of 
all his plays from Greek models, it is imposs- 
ible to say. The Bacchides, Poenulus and (ac- 
cording to some) the Stichus, were taken from 
Menander; the Casina and Budens from 
Diphilus ; the Mercator and the Trinummus, 
and possibly also the Mostellaria, from Phile- 
mon ; the Asinaria from Demophilus. But in 
all cases Plautus allowed himself much greater 
liberty than Terence ; and in some instances 
he appears to have simply taken the leading 
idea of the play from the Greek, and to have 
filled it up in his own fashion. It has been 
inferred from a well-known line of Horace 
(Epist. ii. 1. 58), ' Plautus ad exemplar Siculi 
properare Epicharmi,' that Plautus took great 
pains to imitate Epicharmus. But there is no 
correspondence between any of the existing 
plays of Plautus and the known titles of the 
comedies of Epicharmus ; and the verb pro- 
perare has reference only to the liveliness and 
energy of Plautus's style, in which he bore a 
resemblance to the Sicilian poet. There is 
abundant testimony to the esteem in which 
Plautus was held alike by the educated Romans 
and by the general public. Horace (de Arte 
Poet. 270), indeed, expresses a less favourable 
opinion of Plautus ; but it must be recollected 
that the taste of Horace had been formed by a 
different school of literature, and that he disliked 
the ancient poets of his country. Moreover, it 
is probable that the censure of Horace does not 
refer to the general character of Plautus's 
poetry, but merely to his inharmonious verses 
and to some of his jests. Cicero (de Off. i. 
29, 104) places his wit on a par with that of the 
Old Attic Comedy (cf. Apoll. Sidon. xxiii. 148). 
By moderns Plautus has not only been admired 
but has been selected for imitation by many of 
the best poets. Thus the Amphitruo (the only 
play of Plautus which has a mythological plot) 
has been imitated by Moliere and Dryden ; the 
Aulularia by Moliere in his Avare ; the Mos- 
tellaria by Regnard, Addison, and others ; the 
Menaechmi by Shakspeare in his Comedy of 
Errors; the Trinummus by Lessing in his 
Schatz; and so with others. — Of the present 
complete editions the best are by Ritschl, 1848, 
1884; Fleckeisen, 1859, 1874; Ussing, 1875. 
Among useful editions of separate plays are the 
Aulularia and Menaechmi by Wagner, 1876, 
1878 ; the Captivi by Sonnenschein. 1880 ; the 



PLAVIS 

Mostellaria by Ramsay, 1869, and by Sonnen- 
schein, 1884 ; the Miles Gloriosns by Tyrrell, 
1885 ; the Trinummus by Wagner, 1875, and 
by Sloman, 1883; the Truculentus by Stude- 
mund, 1868. 

Plavis (Piave), a river in Venetia in the N. 
of Italy, which flows past Bellunum and falls 
into the sea at Altinum, W. of Aquileia. 

Pleiades (TlKeidSes or neA<=ia5es),the Pleiads, 
are usually called the daughters of Atlas and 
Pleione, whence they bear the name of the 
Atlantides (Hes. Op. 383, 614 ; Hyg. Ast. ii. 
21 ; Apollod. iii. 10). They were called Ver- 
giliae by the Eomans a (name which some 
connected with ver as the season of their 
rising), and also Suculae (i.e. the herd of little 
pigs) : they were also known as Sidus Pari- 
licium, because they shone at the time of the 
festival Parilia. (Plin. xviii. 246 ; Serv. ad Aen. 

i. 744 ; Fest. p. 372.) They were the sisters of 
the Hyades, and seven in number, six of whom 
are described as visible, and the seventh as 
invisible. The Pleiades are said to have made 
away with themselves from grief at the death 
of their sisters, the Hyades, or at the fate of 
their father, Atlas, and were afterwards placed 
as stars at the back of Taurus, where they 
formed a cluster resembling a bunch of grapes, 
whence they were sometimes called Brfrpus. 
According to another story, the Pleiades were 
■virgin companions of Artemis, and, together 
with their mother, Pleione, were pursued by the 
hunter Orion in Boeotia; their prayer to be 
rescued from him was heard by the gods, and 
they were metamorphosed into doves (ne\ei- 
o5? v and placed among the stars. (Pind. Nem. 

ii. 11 ; Athen. p. 490 ; Diod. iii. 59. J The story of 
the lost Pleiad was that Merope, the seventh of 
the sisters, hid her light in mortification because 
she alone had married a mortal (Sisyphus) and 
become subject to mortality (Ov. Fast. iv. 170). 
The rising of the Pleiades in Italy was about 
the beginning of May, and their setting about 
the beginning of November. Hence the Pleiads 
were connected with the fertilising rains of 
spring, with the seed-time of autumn and also 
with autumn storms, and different parts of the 
myth are traceable to these different points of 
view. They are daughters of Atlas because the 
rain-clouds associated with them rise out of the 
western sea, and in the pursuit by Orion there 
is reference to the stormy time of autumn. It 
is likely that in the Homeric story of the doves 
who brought ambrosia from the western ocean 
there is allusion to the Pleiads and their aid to 
the summer harvests {Oct. x. 59; Athen. I. c). 
The story of the ' lost Pleiad ' here appears in 
the mention of one dove being killed in the 
passage of the rocks, and their name — usually 
connected with vKfiwu = ' many in number' 
(Hyg. Fab. 192) — is not improbably referred to 
iri\(tat (doves). Their names are Electra, 
Maia, Taygete, Alcyone, Celaeno, Sterope, and 
Merope. 

Pleiae (riAeTai), a town in the SW. of La- 
conia between Asopus and Acriae (Liv. xxxv. 
27). 

Plemmyrium (ru* nnvptov : Paula di Gi- 
gante), a promontory on the S. coast of Sicily, 
immediately S. of Syracuse. [Sybacusae.] 

Pleione (Tl\r)i6mi)), a daughter of Oceanos, 
and mother of the Pleiades by Atlas. [Atlas ; 
Plkadbs.] 

Plenmoxii, a small tribe in Gallia Belgica, 
subject to the Nervii (Caes. B. G. v. 89). 

Pleuratus (flAtupamsi, king of Illyria, was 
the son of Scerdilaidas. His name occurs as 



PLINIUS 



729 



an ally of the Romans in the second Punic 
war, and in their subsequent wars in Greece. 
(Pol. xviii. 30, xxii. 4 ; Liv. xxvi. 24.) 

Pleuroil iJlKevpaw. nAevpufios : Gyphtokas- 
tron), an ancient city in Aetolia, and one of 
the most important in the country, was situ- 
ated at a little distance from the coast, NW. 
of the mouth of the Evenus, and on the S. 
slope of Mt. Aracynthus. It was originally 
inhabited by the Curetes. (II. ii. 639, xiii. 
217, xiv. 116; Strab. pp. 450, 451.) This an- 
cient city was abandoned by its inhabitants 
when Demetrius EL, King of Macedon, laid 
waste the surrounding country, and a new city 
was built under the same name to the W. of the 
ancient one. (Strab. 1. c. ; Paus. vii. 11, 3.) 
The two cities are distinguished by geographers 
under the names of Old Pleuron and New 
Pleuron respectively. The ruins of the later 
town are remarkable. 

Plinius. 1. C. Plinius Secundus, the 
author of the Historia Naturalis, distin- 
guished as Pliny the Elder, was born a.d. 
23, at Novum Comum (Como) in the N. of 
Italy. He came to Rome while still young, 
and being descended from a family of wealth 
and distinction, he had the means at his dis- 
posal for availing himself of the instruction of 
the best teachers to be found in the imperial 
city. At the age of about 23 he went to Ger- 
many, where he served under L. Pomponius 
Secundus, of whom he afterwards wrote a 
memoir, and was appointed to the command of 
a troop of cavalry (praefectus alae). (Tac. Ann. 
i. 69 ; Plin. Ep. iii. 5.) It appears from notices 
of his own that he travelled over most of the 
frontier of Germany, having visited the Cauci, 
the sources of the Danube, &c. (Plin. xii. 98, 
xvi. 2, xxii. 8). It was in the intervals snatched 
from his military duties that he composed his 
treatise De Jaculatione equestri. At the same 
time he began a history of the Germanic wars, 
which he afterwards completed in twenty 
books (Plin. Ep. iii. 5). He returned to Rome 
with Pomponius (52), and applied himself to 
the study of jurisprudence. The greater part 
of the reign of Nero he spent in retirement, 
: chiefly, no doubt, at his native place. It may 
j have been with a view to the education of his 
' nephew that he composed the work entitled Stu- 
' diosus, an extensive treatise in three books, occu- 
I pying six volumes, in which he marked out the 
course that should be pursued in the training 
of a young orator, from the cradle to the com- 
pletion of his education and his entrance into 
public life. During the reign of Nero he 
! wrote a grammatical work in eight books, en- 
titled Dubius Sermo (Plin. Ep. iii. 5); and 
towards the end of the reign of this emperor 
he was appointed procurator in Spain. He 
was here in 71, when his brother-in-law died, 
leaving his son, the younger Pliny, to the 
guardianship of his uncle, who, on account of 
his absence, was obliged to entrust the care of 
him to Virginius Rufus. Pliny returned to 
Rome in the reign of Vespasian, shortly before 
73, when he adopted his nephew (Plin. Ep. v. 
8). He had known Vespasian in the Germanic 
wars, and the emperor received him into the 
number of his most intimate friends. It was 
at this period of his life that he wrote a con- 
tinuation of the History of Aufidius Bassus, in 
thirty-one books, carrying the narrative down 
to his own times. Of his manner of life at 
this period an interesting account has been 
preserved by his nephew (Epist. iii. 5). It 
was his practice to spend a portion of the 



"730 



PLINIUS 



night by candlelight. Before it was light he 
betook himself to the emperor Vespasian, and 
after executing such commissions as he might 
be charged with, returned home and devoted 
the time which he still had remaining to study. 
After a slender meal he would, in summer-time, 
lie in the sunshine while some one read to him, 
he himself making notes and extracts. He never 
read anything without making extracts in this 
way, for he used to say that there was no book 
so bad but that some good might be got out 
of it. He would then take a cold bath, and 
after a slight repast sleep a very little, and 
then pursue his studies till dinner-time. Dur- 
ing this meal some book was read to and 
commented on by him. At table, as might be 
supposed, he spent but a short time. Such 
was his mode of life when in the midst of the 
bustle and confusion of the city. When in re- 
tirement in the country, the time spent in the 
bath was nearly the only interval not allotted 
to study, and that he reduced to the narrowest 
limits, for during all the process of scraping 
and rubbing he had some book read to him, or 
himself dictated. When on a journey he had a 
secretary by his side with a book and tablets. 
By this incessant application, persevered in 
throughout life, he amassed an enormous 
amount of materials, and at his death left to 
his nephew 160 volumma of notes (electorum 
comment aril), written extremely small on both 
sides. With some reason might his nephew 
say that, when compared with Pliny, those who 
had spent their whole lives in literary pursuits 
seemed as if they had spent them in nothing 
else than sleep and idleness. Prom the ma- 
terials which he had in this way collected he 
compiled his celebrated Historia Naturalis, 
which he published about 77. The details of 
Pliny's death are given in a letter of the 
younger Pliny to Tacitus (Ep. vi. 16). He 
perished in the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius 
which overwhelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
in 79, being 56 years of age (Plin. Ep. iii. 5, 7). 
He was at the time stationed at Misenum in 
the command of the Roman fleet ; and it was 
his anxiety to examine more closely the extra- 
ordinary phenomenon which led him to sail 
to Stabiae, where he landed and perished. 
The only work of Pliny which has come down 
to us is his Historia Naturalis. By Natural 
History the ancients understood astronomy, 
meteorology, geography, mineralogy, zoology, 
botany — in short, every thing that does not 
relate to the results of human skill or the pro- 
ducts of human faculties. Pliny, however, 
has not kept within even these extensive limits. 
He has broken in upon the plan implied by the 
title of the work, by considerable digressions 
on human inventions and institutions (book 
vii.), and on the history of the fine arts (xxxv- 
xxxvii.) Minor digressions on similar topics 
are also interspersed in various parts of the 
work, the arrangement of which in other re- 
spects exhibits but little scientific discrimina- 
tion. It comprises, as Pliny says in the pre- 
face, 20,000 matters of importance, drawn from 
100 selected authors, to whose observations he 
added many of his own. The authors used by 
him whose writings are still extant are Ari- 
stotle (chiefly through the medium of Pompeius 
Trogus and Nigidius Pigulus), Theophrastus, 
Cato, Varro, Vitruvius, Columella, and Mela. 
On botany he seems to have relied a good deal 
on Sextius Niger, who was largely used also by 
Dioscorides. The whole work is divided into 
thirty-seven books, the first of which consists 



of a dedicatory epistle to Titus, followed by a 
table of contents of the other books. When it 
is remembered that this was not the result of 
the undistracted labour of a life, but written in 
the hours of leisure secured from active pur- 
suits, and that, too, by the author of other 
extensive works, it is, to say the least, a won- 
derful monument of human industry. It may 
easily be supposed that Pliny, with his inordi- 
nate appetite for accumulating knowledge out 
of books, was not the man to produce a really 
scientific work. He was not even an origi- 
nal observer. The materials which he worked 
up into his huge encyclopaedic compilation 
were almost all derived at second-hand, though 
doubtless he has incorporated the results of 
his own observation in a larger number of in- 
stances than those in which he indicates such 
to be the case. Nor did he, as a compiler, 
show either judgment or discrimination in the 
selection of his materials, so that in his ac- 
counts the true and the false are found inter- 
mixed. His love of the marvellous, and his 
contempt for human nature, lead him constantly 
to introduce what is strange or wonderful, or 
adapted to illustrate the wickedness of man, 
and the unsatisfactory arrangements of Provi- 
dence. His work is extremely valuable to us 
from the vast number of subjects treated of, 
with regard to many of which we have no other 
sources of information. But what he tells us 
is often unintelligible, from his retailing ac- 
counts of things with which he was himself 
personally unacquainted, and of which he in 
consequence gives no satisfactory idea to the 
reader. Though a writer on zoology, botany, 
and mineralogy, he has no pretensions to be 
called a naturalist. His compilations exhibit 
scarcely a trace of scientific arrangement ; and 
frequently it can be shown that he does not 
give the true sense of the authors whom he 
quotes and translates, giving not uncommonly 
wrong Latin names to the objects spoken of 
by his Greek authorities. — Editions of Pliny's 
Natural History, with a commentary, are by 
Hardouin (Paris, 1685, 5 vols. 4to ; 2nd edit. 
1723, 3 vols, fol.) ; critical editions by Sillig, 
Gotha, 1853 ; by Jan, Leips. 1870 ; by Detlessen, 
1873. There is a French translation by De 
Grandsagne, with notes by Cuvier and others, 
Paris, 1833). — 2. C. Plinius Caecilius Secun- 
dum, frequently called Pliny the Younger, was 
the son of C. Caecilius and of Plinia, the 
sister of the elder Pliny. He was born at 
Comum in a.d. 61 ; and having lost his father 
at an early age, he was adopted by his uncle, 
as has been mentioned above. His education 
was conducted under the care of his uncle, his 
mother, and his tutor, Virginius Rufus. From 
his youth he was devoted to letters. In his 
fourteenth year he wrote a Greek tragedy. 
He studied eloquence under Quintilian. His 
acquirements finally gained him the reputation 
of being one of the most learned men of the 
age ; and his friend Tacitus, the historian, had 
the same honourable distinction. He was also 
an orator. In his nineteenth year he began to 
speak in the Forum, and he was frequently em- 
ployed as an advocate before the court of the 
Centumviri and before the Roman senate. He 
filled numerous offices in succession. While a 
young man he served in Syria as tribunus 
militum, and was there a hearer of the Stoic 
Euphrates and of Artemidorus. He was sub- 
sequently quaestor Caesaris, praetor in or 
about 93, and consul 100, in which year he 
wrote his Panegyricus, which is addressed to 



PLINTHINE 

Trajan. In 103 he was appointed propraetor 
of the province Pontica, where he did not stay 
quite two years. Among his other functions 
he also- discharged that of curator of the chan- 
nel and the banks of the Tiber (C.I.L. v. 
5262; cf. Plin. Ep. v. 14). He was twice mar- 
ried. His second wife was Calpurnia, the 
granddaughter of Calpurnius Fabatus, and an 
accomplished woman : she was considerably 
younger than her husband, who has recorded 
her kind attentions to him (Plin. Ep. iv. 19, vi. 
4, viii. 10). He had no children by either wife 
bora alive. The life of Pliny is chiefly known 
from his letters. So far as this evidence shows, 
he was a kind and benevolent man, fond of 
literary pursuits, and of building on and im- 
proving his estates. He was rich, and he spent 
liberally. He was a kind master to his slaves. 
His body was feeble, and his health not good. 
Nothing is known as to the time of his death. 
The extant works of Pliny are his Panegyricus 
and the ten books of his Epistolae. The 
Panegyricus is a somewhat bombastic eulogium 
on Trajan. Pliny collected his own letters, as 
appears from the first letter of the first book, 
which looks something like a preface to the 
whole collection. It is not an improbable con- 
jecture that he may have written many of his 
letters with a view to publication, or that when 
he was writing some of them the idea of future 
publication was in his mind. However, they 
form a delightful collection, and make us ac- 
quainted with many interesting facts in the life 
of Pliny and that of his contemporaries. Tbe 
letters from Pliny to Trajan and the emperor's 
replies form the whole of the tenth book : let- 
ters 15-121 belong to the period of his Bithy- 
nian governorship. The letter on the punish- 
ment of the Christians (x. 97) and the emperor's 
answer (x. 98) are of the greatest interest and 
value from their bearing on the history of the 
Church in the first century. — Edition of the 
Epistolae and Panegyricus by Keil, Leips. 1853 
and 1870. Editions of the Epistolae are by 
Cortius and Longolius, Amsterdam, 1734, and 
by Gierig, Lips. 1800; by During, 1843; book 
iii. by Mayor, 1880 ; i. and ii. by Cowan, 1889. 

Plinthlne (U\iv6lvri), a city of Lower Egypt, 
on the bay called from it Sinus Plinthinetes 
(n\tt>0ivvTT)s k6\ttos), was the W.-most city of 
Egypt (according to its narrower limits) on the 
frontier of Marmarica. It stood a little N. of 
Taposiris (Abousir). (Strab. p. 799. ) 

Plistarchus (nktttTTapxos), king of Sparta, 
was the son and successor of Leonidas, who 
was killed at Thermopylae, B.C. 480. He 
reigned from 480 to 458, but being a mere child 
at the time of his father's death, the regency 
was assumed by his cousin Pausanias. It 
appears that the latter continued to administer 
affairs in the name of the young king till his 
own death, about 467 (Hdt. ix. 19). 

Plisthenes (n\ei<rd4vris), son of Atreus, and 
husband of Ae'rope or Eriphyle, by whom he 
became the father of Agamemnon, Menelaus, 
and Anaxibia; but Homer makes the latter 
the children of Atreus. [See Agamemnon, 
Atbeus.] 

Flistia Wrestia), a village in Sainnium in the 
valley between M. Tifata and Tabumus (Liv. 
ix. 21). 

Flistdanaz or Plistonax (nKtwroavat, n\a- 
trrwva£), king of Sparta, was the eldest son of 
the Pausanias who conquered at Plataea, B.C. 
479. On the death of Plistarchus, in 458, 
without issue, Plistoanax succeeded to the 
throne, being yet a minor (Thuc. i. 107). He 



PLOTINUS 



731 



reigned from 458 to 408. In 445 he invaded 
Attica ; but the premature withdrawal of his 
army from the enemy's territory exposed him 
to the suspicion of having been bribed by 
Pericles. He was punished by a heavy fine, 
which he was unable to pay, and was therefore 
obliged to leave his country (Thuc. ii. 21, iii. 
26; Plut. Per. 22). He remained nineteen 
years in exile, taking up his abode near the 
temple of Zeus on Mt. Lycaeus in Arcadia, and 
having half his house within the sacred pre- 
cincts that he might enjoy the benefit of the 
sanctuary. During this period his son Pau- 
sanias, a minor, reigned in liis stead. The 
Spartans at length recalled him in 426, in 
obedience to the injunctions of the Delphic 
oracle. But he was accused of having tampered 
with the Pythian priestess t Q induce her to 
interpose for him, and his alleged impiety in 
this matter was continually assigned by his 
enemies as the cause of all Sparta's mis- 
fortunes in the war ; and therefore it was that 
he used all his influence to bring about peace 
with Athens in 421 (Thuc. v. 16). He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Pausanias. 

Plistus (nA€i(TTor : Xeropotamo), a small 
river in Phocis, which rises in Mt. Parnassus, 
flows past Delphi, where it receives the small 
stream Castalia, and falls into the Crissaean 
gulf near Cirrha (Strab. p. 418 ; Delphi). 

Plotina, Pompeia, the wife of the emperor 
Trajan, and a woman of extraordinary merit 
and virtue. As she had no children, she per- 
suaded her husband to adopt Hadrian. She 
died in the reign of Hadrian, who honoured her 
memory b}" mourning for her nine days, by 
building a temple in her honour, and by com- 
posing hymns in her praise. (Plin. Paneg. 38 ; 
Dio Cass. lxix. 10 ; Hadhianus.) 

Plotinopolis (UXa>Tiv6-noXis), a town in 
Thrace on the road from Trajanopolis to Had- 
rianopolis, founded by Trajan, and named in 
honour of his wife, Plotina (Ptol. iii. 11, 13 ; 
Procop. Aed. iv. 11). 

Plotinus (J1\wt7vos), the originator of the 
Neo-Platonic system, was born at Lycopolis in 
Egypt, about a.d. 203. The details of his life 
have been preserved by his disciple Porphyry 
in a biography which has come down to us. 
From him we learn that Plotinus began to 
| study philosophy in his twenty-eighth year, and 
I remained eleven years under the instruction of 
Ammonius Saccas. In his thirty-ninth year 
; he joined the expedition of the emperor Gordian 
| (242) against the Persians, in order to become 
acquainted with the philosophy of the Persians 
and Indians. After the death of Gordian he 
1 fled to Antioch, and from thence to Rome (244). 
Intent on philosophical study, he lived on the 
scantiest fare and restricted his hours of sleep 
to the briefest time possible. For the first ten 
years of his residence at Rome he gave only 
oral instruction to a few friends ; but he was 
at length induced, in 254, to commit his instruc- 
tions to writing. In this manner when, ten 
years later (264), Porphyry came to Rome and 
joined himself to Plotinus, twenty-one books of 
very various contents had been already composed 
by him. During the six years that Porphyry 
lived with Plotinus at Rome, the latter, at the 
instigation of Amelius and Porphyry, wrote 
twenty-three books on the subjects which had 
been discussed at their meetings, to which ten 
j books were afterwards added. The correction 
' of these books was committed by Plotinus him- 
self to the care of Porphyry. On account of 
I the weakness of his sight, Plotinus never read 



732 



PLOTIUS 



PLUTARCHUS 



them through a second time, still less corrected 
them ; intent simply upon the matter, he was 
alike careless of orthography, of the division of 
the syllables, and the clearness of his hand- 
writing. The fifty-four books were divided by 
Porphyry into six Enneads, or sets of nine 
books. Plotinus was eloquent in his oral com- 
munications, and impressive in manner. He was 
regarded with admiration and respect by men 
of science such as the philosophers Amelius, Por- 
phyry, the physicians Paulinus, Eusfcochius, and 
Zethus the Arab. He also enjoyed the favour of 
the emperor Gallienus and the empress Salonina, 
and almost obtained from them the rebuilding 
of two destroyed towns in Campania, with the 
view of their being governed according to the 
laws of Plato. He died at Puteoli in 262. The 
philosophical system of Plotinus is founded 
upon Plato's writings, with the addition of 
various tenets drawn from ths Oriental philo- 
sophy and religion. He appears, however, to 
avoid studiously all reference to the Oriental 
origin of his tenets ; he endeavours to find them 
all under the veil of the Greek mythology, and 
points out here the germ of his own philosophi- 
cal and religious convictions. He was the real 
founder of the Neo-Platonic school. In his 
system of Pantheism vovs or thought is an 
emanation from the divine essence, and in it 
resides all true Being, which is analogous to the 
Platonic Ideas : the soul of the world, which, as 
nature, unites with the corporeal world, pro- 
ceeds from the vovs, but the material world is 
an imperfect copy of a world incomprehensible 
by the senses. In man the soul is an emana- 
tion from the world-soul, which descends into 
the human body, and whose highest perfection 
is to be liberated from it and purified from all 
that is sensuous. Plotinus is not guilty of that 
commixture and falsification of the Oriental 
mythology and mysticism which is found in 
Iamblichus, Proclus, and others of the Neo- 
Platonic school. — Editions of the Enneads of 
Plotinus are by Kreuzer, Oxonii, 1835 ; by Kirch- 
hoff, 1856 ; by Miiller, 1878. 

Plotius, whose full name was Marius Plo- 
tius Sacerdos, a Latin grammarian, the author 
of De Metris Liber, who probably lived towards 
the end of the third century of the Christian 
era, in the reign of Diocletian. His work is 
published by Putschius in the Grammaticae 
Latinae Auctores, Hannov. 1605, and "by Gais- 
ford in the Scriptores Latini Bei Metricae, 
Oxon, 1837. 

Plotus Gallus ; Plot. Griphus ; Plot. Tucca. 
[Gailus ; Gbiphus ; Tucca.] 

Plutarchus (UXoirapxos). 1. Tyrant of Ere- 
tria in Euboea, whom the Athenians assisted in 
B.C. 354 against his rival, Callias of Chalcis. 
The Athenian army was commanded by Pho- 
cion, who defeated Callias at Tamynae ; but 
Phocion having suspected Plutarchus of 
treachery, expelled him from Eretria. (Plut. 
Phoc. 12 ; Dem. de Pac. 5.) — 2. The biographer 
and philosopher, was born at Chaeronea in 
Boeotia. The year of his birth is not known ; 
but we learn from Plutarch himself that he 
was studying philosophy under Ammonius at 
the time when Nero was making his progress 
through Greece, in a.d. 66 ; from which we may 
assume that he was a youth or a young man at 
that time. He spent some time at Home and 
in other parts of Italy, but he tells us that he 
did not learn the Latin language in Italy, 
because he was occupied with public commis- 
sions and in giving lectures on philosophy; 
and it was late in life before he busied himself 



with Roman literature. He was lecturing at 
Rome during the reign of Domitian, but the 
statement of Suidas that Plutarch was the 
preceptor of Trajan ought to be rejected. 
Plutarch spent the later years of his life at 
Chaeronea, where he discharged various magis- 
terial offices, and held a priesthood. The time 
of his .death is unknown, but probably took 
place early in Hadrian's reign. — The work 
which has immortalised Plutarch's name is his 
Parallel Lives (Bi'oi Xlapi\\t)\oi) of forty-six 
Greeks and Romans. The forty-six Lives are 
arranged in pairs ; each pair contains the Life 
of a Greek and a Roman, and is followed by a 
comparison of the two men : in a few pairs the 
comparison is omitted or lost. He seems to 
have considered each pair of Lives and the 
Parallel as making one book (Bi^AiW). The 
forty-six Lives are the following : — (1) Theseus 
and Romulus ; (2) Lycurgus and Numa ; (3) 
Solon and Valerius Publicola ; (4) Themistocles 
and Camillus ; (5) Pericles and Q. Fabius 
Maximus ; (6) Alcibiades and Coriolanus ; (7) 
Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus ; (8) Pelopidas 
and Marcellus ; (9) Aristides and Cato the 
Elder; (10) Philopoemen and Flamininus ; (11) 
Pyrrhus and Marius ; (12) Lysander and Sulla ; 
(13) Cimon and Lucullus ; (14) Nicias and 
Crassus; (15) Eumenes and Sertorius; (16) 
Agesilaus and Pompeius ; (17) Alexander and 
Caesar ; (18) Phocion and Cato the Younger ; 
(19) Agis and Cleomenes, and Tiberius and 
Gaius Gracchus ; (20) Demosthenes and Cicero ; 

(21) Demetrius Poliorcetes and M. Antonius ; 

(22) Dion and M. Junius Brutus. There are 
also the Lives of Artaxerxes Mnemon, Aratus, 
Galba, and Otho, which are placed in the edi- 
tions after the forty-six Lives. Perhaps no work 
of antiquity has been so extensively read in 
modern times as Plutarch's Lives. The reason 
of their popularity is that Plutarch has rightly 
conceived the business of a biographer : his 
biography is true portraiture. Other biography 
is often a dull, tedious enumeration of facts in 
the order of time, with perhaps a summing up 
of character at the end. The reflections of 
Plutarch are neither impertinent nor trifling : 
his sound good sense is always there : bis 
honest purpose is transparent : his love of 
humanity warms the whole. His work is and 
will remain the book of those who can nobly 
think and dare and do. (The best edition of 
the Lives is by Sintenis, revised issue, Lips. 
1875. Among separate editions of particular 
Lives those of Themistocles and Demosthenes 
by Holden supply most useful commentaries.) 
— Plutarch's other writings, above sixty in num- 
ber, are placed under the general title of 
Moralia or Ethical works, though some of them 
are of an historical and anecdotal character, 
such as the essay on the Malignity (Ka.Kor)9eia) 
of Herodotus, which neither requires nor merits 
refutation, and his Apophthegmata, many of 
which are of little value. Eleven of these 
essays are generally classed among Plutarch's 
historical works : among them also are his 
Roman Questions or Inquiries, his Greek 
Questions, and the Lives of the Ten Orators. 
But it is likely enough that several of the essays 
which are included in the Moralia of Plutarch 
are not by him. At any rate, some of them are 
not worth reading. The best of the_ essays 
included among the Moralia are of a different 
stamp. There is no philosophical system in 
these essays : pure speculation was not Plu- 
tarch's province. His best writings are practi- 
cal, and their merits consist in the soundness 



PLUTO 

of his views on the ordinary events of human I 
life, and the benevolence of his temper. — Edi- 
tions of the Moralia by Wyttenbaeh, 1795-1821; 
by Hercher, 1851. Editions of the complete 
works of Plutarch by Eeiske, Lips. 1771-1782, | 
and by Hutten, 1791-1805.— 3. The younger, 
was a son of the last, and is supposed by some 
to have been the author of several of the works 
which pass usually for his father's, as e.g. the 
Apophthegmata (Tzetz. Chil. i. 14, adLyc. 653). , 
—4. An Athenian, son of Nestorius, presided 
with distinction over the Xeo-Platonic school at 
Athens in the early part of the fifth century, and 
was surnamed the Great. He numbered among 
his disciples Syrianus of Alexandria, who suc- 
ceeded him as head of the school, and Proclus 
of Lycia. He wrote commentaries, which are 
lost, on the Timaeus of Plato, and on Aristotle's 
treatise On the Soul. He died at an advanced 
age, about a.d. 430. (Suid. s. v. TlpoK\os : Marin. 
Vit. Prod. 12.) 
Pluto. [Hades.] 

PlutUS {XlKovros), the personification of 
wealth, is described as a son of Iasion and De- 
meter. [Lvsiox.] That Wealth should be the 
offspring of the Earth-goddess expresses the idea 
that riches come from the earth — primarily 
from agriculture, but also from metals. The 
same idea was the cause of the name TWovruv 
being given to Hades, the god of the earth and 
of the underworld [see p. 375, b]. Zeus is said 
to have deprived Plutus of sight, that he might 
not bestow his favours on righteous men ex- 
clusively, but that he might distribute his gifts 
blindly and without any regard to merit tAr. 
Plut. 90 ; Schol. ad Theocr. x. 19). At Thebes 
there was a statue of Tyche or Fortune, at 
Athens one of Irene or Peace, and at Thespiae 
one of Athene Ergane, and in each of these 
cases Plutus was represented as the child of 
those divinities, symbolically expressing the 
sources of wealth, from good fortune, peace and 
industry (Pans. i. 8, 2, ix. 16, 2, ix. 26, 8). A 
copy of the statue of Irene and Plutus is now 
at Munich. [Cephisodotus.] He seems to 
have been also represented as a boy with a 
cornucopia. 

Pluvialia(riAouiToA.a, Ptol. : prob. Ferro), one 
of the islands in the Atlantic called Fortunatae. 

Pluvius, i.e. the sender of rain (Tibull. i. 7, 
26), a surname of Jupiter among the Romans 
(also Pluvialis and Imbricitor), to whom sacri- 
fices were offered during long protracted 
droughts. [Jupiter.] 

Pnytagoras (XIvvt ay 6 pas). 1. Eldest son of 
Evagoras, king of Salamis in Cyprus, was assas- 
sinated along with his father, B.C. 374. [Ev- 
agoras.] — 2. King of Salamis in Cyprus, prob- 
ably succeeded Nicocles, though we have no 
account of his accession, or his relation to the 
previous monarchs. He submitted to Alexan- 
der in 832, under whom he served with a fleet 
at the siege of Tyre. (Diod. xvi. 46 ; Arrian, 
An. ii. 20; Curt. iv. 8, 11 ; Athen. p. 167.) 

Podalirins (rioSaAfipioj), son of Asclepius 
and Epione or Arsinoe, and brother of Machaon, 
along with whom he led the Thessalians of Tricca 
against Troy. Ho was, like his brother, skilled 
in the medical art. On his return from Troy he 
was cast by a storm on the coast of Syros in 
Caria, where he is said to have settled. He was 
worshipped as a hero on Mt. Driu. [Machaon.] 
Podarces (rioSapKTjs). 1. The original name of 
Priam. [Priamus.] — 2. Son of Iphiclus and 
grandson of Phylacus, was a younger brother 
of Protesilautt, and led the Thessalians of 
Phylace against Troy (II. ii. 695). 



POLEMON 



783 



Podarge. [Hakpyiae.] 

Poeas (IToiccs), son of Phylacus or Thaumacus, 
husband of Methone, and the father of Philo- 
ctetes, who is hence called Poeantiades, 
Poeantius heros, Poeantia proles, and Poeante 
satus. Poeas is mentioned among the Argo- 
nauts, and is said to have killed with an arrow 
Talaus in Crete. He set fire to the pile on 
which Heracles was burnt, and was rewarded 
by the hero with his arrows. [Heracles ; 
Phxloctetes.] 

Poemander (TJolfiavSpos), son of Chaeresilaus 
and Stratonice, was the husband of Tanagra, a 
daughter of Aeolus or Aesopus, by whom he be- 
came the father of Ephippus and Leucippus. He 
was the reputed founder of the town of Tanagra 
in Boeotia, hence called Poemandria. When 
Poemander had inad vertently killed his own son, 
he was purified by Elephenor. (Strab. p. 404.) 

Poemanenus (noif^avr]u6s ; ethnic, the same : 
prob. Maniyas), a fortified place in Mysia, S. of 
Cyzicus, with a celebrated temple of Asclepius 
(Steph. Byz. s. v. ; Plin. v. 123). 

Poetovio, sometimes written Petovio (Pet- 
tau), a town in Pannonia Superior (Western 
Pannonia) on the frontiers of Noricum, and on 
the Dravus (Drave), was at first a fortress, and 
then a Boman colony with the surname Ulpia, 
having been probably enlarged and made a 
colony by Trajan, and station of the legion XIII. 
Geniina (Tac. Hist. hi. 1 ; Amm. Marc. xiv. 37 ; 
C. I. L. iii. p. 439). 

Pogon (Ylwywv), the harbour of Troezen in 
Argolis (Strab. p. 373). 

Pola (Pola), an ancient town in Istria, situ- 
ated on the W. coast, and near the promontory 
Polaticum, which was the most southerly point 
in the country 7 . According to tradition Pola 
was founded by the Colehian'' who had been 
sent in pursuit of Medea (Strab. pp. 46, 209, 
216 ; Mel. ii. 3, 13). It was subsequently a Bo- 
man colony, with the surname Pietas Julia, 
and became an important commercial town, 
being united by good roads with Aquileia and 
the principal towns of Illyria (Plin. iii. 129). 
It was here that Belisarius assembled his fleet 
to cross to Ravenna, a.d. 544 (Procop. B. G. iii. 
10). Its importance in antiquity is attested by 
its magnificent ruins, of which the principal aro 
those of an amphitheatre, of a triumphal arch 
{Porta aurea), erected to L. Sergius by his wife, 
Salvia Postuma, and of several temples. 

Polemon (YloKefiaiv). 1. I., king of Pontus 
and the Bosporus, was the son of Zenon, the 
orator of Laodicea. As a reward for the services 
rendered by his father as well as himself he was 
appointed by Antony in B.C. 39 to the govern- 
ment of a part of Cilicia ; and he subsequently 
obtained in exchange the kingdom of Pontus. 
( ( App. B. C. v. 75 ; Dio Cass. xlix. 25, 33 ; Strab. 
p. 578.) He accompanied Antony in his expe- 
dition against the Parthians in 36. After the 
! battle of Actium he was able to make his peace 
\ with Octavian, who confirmed him in his kingdom 
(Dio Cass. liii. 25). About the year 16 he was 
entrusted by Agrippa with the charge of re- 
ducing the kingdom of Bosporus, of which he 
I was made king after conquering the country 
' (Dio Cass. liv. 21). His reign after this was 
long and prosperous ; he extended his do- 
minions as far as the river Tanals ; but having 
engaged in an expedition against the barbarian 
tribe of the Aspurgians he was not only de- 
feated by them, but taken prisoner, and put t<> 
death (Strab. pp. 493, 495, 556). By his second 
| wife, Pythodoris, who succeeded him on tin- 
I throne, he left two sons, Polemon Ii., and 



734 



POLEMON 



POLLIO 



Zenon, king of Armenia, and one daughter, 
who was married to Cotys king of Thrace. — 
2. II., son of the preceding and of Pythodoris, 
was raised to the sovereignty of Pontus and 
Bosporus by Caligula in a.d. 39. Bosporus was 
afterwards taken from him by Claudius, who 
assigned it to Mithridates, while he gave Pole- 
mon a portion of Cilicia in its stead, 41. In 62 
Polemon was induced by Nero to abdicate the 
throne, and Pontus was reduced to the con- 
dition of a Roman province. (Dio Cass. lix. 12, 
lx. 8 ; Suet. Ner. 18.) — 3. Brother of Attalus, a 
Macedonian officer in the army of Alexander 
the Great. He was suspected of complicity in 
the plot of which Philotas was accused, but he 
was acquitted or pardoned (Arr. An. iii. 27 ; 
Curt. vii. 2, 1). After the death of Alexander 
he became a partisan of Perdiccas, under whose 
brother, Alcetas, he served (Diod. xviii. 45, xix. 
16) until 320, when he shared the defeats and 
captivity of Attalus. [Attalus, No. 2.] — 4. Of 
Athens, an eminent Platonic philosopher, was 
the son of Philostratus, a man of wealth and 
political distinction. In his youth Polemon 
was extremely profligate ; but one day, when he 
was about thirty, on his bursting into the school 
of Xenocrates, at the head of a band of revellers, 
his attention was so arrested by the discourse, 
which chanced to be upon temperance, that he 
tore off his garland and remained an attentive 
listener, and from that day he adopted an abste- 
mious course of life (Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 253), and 
continued to frequent the school, of which, on 
the death of Xenocrates, he became the head, 
b.c. 315. He died in 273 at a great age. He 
esteemed the object of philosophy to be to 
exercise men in things and deeds, not in dia- 
lectic speculation. He placed the sumnmm 
bonum in living according to the laws of nature. 
(Diog. Laert. iv. 16 ; Athen. p. 44 ; Cic. de Fin. 
iv. 2, 6, 16, v. 1, 5.)— 5. Of Athens by citizen- 
ship, but by birth either of Ilium, or Samos, or 
Sicyon, a Stoic philosopher and an eminent 
geographer, surnamed Periegetes (o irepnjy^TTjs), 
lived in the time of Ptolemy Epiphanes, at the 
beginning of the second century B.C. In philo- 
sophy he was a disciple of Panaetius. He made 
extensive journeys through Greece, to collect 
materials for his geographical works, in the 
course of which he paid particular attention to 
the inscriptions on votive offerings and on 
columns. As the collector of these inscriptions, 
he was one of the earlier contributors to the 
Greek Anthology. Athenaeus and other writers 
make very numerous quotations from his works. 
They were chiefly descriptions of different parts 
of Greece ; some were on the paintings pre- 
served in various places, and several are con- 
troversial, among which is one against Erato- 
sthenes. (Athen. pp. 436, 442.) — 6. Antonius, a 
celebrated sophist and rhetorician, flourished 
under Trajan, Hadrian, and the first Antoninus, 
and was in high favour with the two former 
emperors. He was born of a consular family, 
at Laodicea, but spent the greater part of his 
life at Smyrna. His most celebrated disciple 
was Aristides. Among his imitators in subse- 
quent times was Gregory Nazianzen. His style 
of oratory was imposing rather than pleasing, 
and his character was haughty and reserved. 
During the latter part of his life he was so 
tortured by the gout that he resolved to put an 
end to his existence ; he had himself shut up in 
the tomb of his ancestors at Laodicea, where 
he died of hunger, at the a,ge of sixty-five. 
(Philostr. Sophist, p. 530 ; Suid. s.v.) The only 
extant work of Polemon is the funeral orations 



for Cynaegirus and Callimachus, the generals 
who fell at Marathon, which are supposed to be 
pronounced by their fathers. These orations 
are edited by Orelli, Lips. 1819. — 7. The author 
of a short Greek work on Physiognomy, which 
is still extant. He must have lived in or before 
the third century after Christ, as he is men- 
tioned by Origen, and from his style he cannot 
be supposed to have lived much earlier than 
this time. His work consists of two books : in 
the first, which contains twenty-three chapters, 
after proving the utility of physiognomy, he 
lays down the general principles of the science ; 
in the second book, which consists of twenty- 
seven chapters, he goes on to apply the 
i principles he had before laid down, and de- 
| scribes in a few words the characters of the 
! courageous man, the timid, the impudent, the 
| passionate, the talkative, &c. — Edited by Franz 
in his Scriptores Physiognomoniae Veteres, 
Altenburg, 1780. 

Polemomum (Uokefiiiviov : Uotefiwvios, and 
TloAefuovievs : Buleman), a city on the coast of 
Pontus in Asia Minor, built by king Polemon 
(probably the second), on the site of the older 
city of Side, at the mouth of the river Sidenus 
(Poleman Chai), and at the bottom of a deep 
gulf, with a good harbour. It was the capital 
of the kingdom of Polemon, comprising the 
central part of Pontus, E. of the Iris, which was 
hence called Pontus Polemoniacus. (Plin. vi. 
11 ; Ptol. v. 6, 4 ; Amm. Marc. xxii. 8.) 
Polias. [Athene.] 

Polichna (UoK'ixvri, Dor. IloXixva : TloKixvi- 
T7js), a town : — 1. In the NW. of Messenia, W. 
of Andania (Paus. iv. 33, 6).— 2. In the NE. 
of Laconia (Pol. iv. 36).— 3. In Chios.— 4. In 
Crete, whose territory bordered on that of 
Cydonia (Hdt. vii. 170; Thuc. ii. 85).— 5. In 
Mysia, in the district Troas, on the left bank of 
the Aesepus near its source (Strab. p. 603). 

Polieus {Ylo\ievs), 1 the protector of the city,' 
a surname of Zeus. 
Poliorcetes, Demetrius. [Demeteius.] 
Polites (noAi'r?js), son of Priam and Hecuba, 
and father of Priam the younger, was a valiant 
warrior and famed for his swiftness of foot. 
He was slain by Pyrrhus. (II. xiii. 533, xv. 339 ; 
Verg. Aen. ii. 526, v. 564.) 

Politorium, a town in the interior of La- 
tium, destroyed by Ancus Martius (Liv. i. 33 ; 
Dionys. iii. 43 ; Plin. iii. 68). 

Polla, Argentaria, the wife of the poet 
Lucan. [Lucanus.] 

Pollentia (Pollentlnus). 1. (Polenza), a 
town of the Statielli in Liguria at the confluence 
of the Stura and the Tanarus, and subse- 
quently a Roman municipium (Plin. iii. 49). 
It was celebrated for its wool. In its neigh- 
bourhood Stilicho gained a victory over the 
Goths under Alaric (Claudian, B. Get. 580-647; 
Oros. vii. 37). — 2. A town in Picenum probably 
identical with Urbs Salvia (Plin. iii. 111).— 3. 
(Pollenza), a Roman colony on the NE. point 
of the Balearis Major. [Baleaees.] 

Pollentia, a deity worshipped by the Romans 
among the Indigetes, who was supposed to 
supply strength to the growing child (Liv. 
xxxix. 7 ; Plaut. Cas. iv. 4, 3 ; cf. Indigetes). 

Pollio, Annius, was accused of treason 
(majestas) towards the end of the reign of 
Tiberius, but was not brought to trial. He was 
subsequently one of Nero's intimate friends, 
but was accused of taking part in Piso's con- 
spiracy against that emperor in a.d. 63, and 
was banished. (Tac. Ann. xv. 56, 71.) 
Pollio, C. Asinius, a distinguished orator, 



POLLIO 



POLLUX 



735 



poet and historian of the Augustan age. He 
was born at Home in B.C. 76, and became dis- 
tinguished as an orator at an early age. At the 
age of twenty-two he prosecuted C. Cato (Tac. 
Dial. 34). On the breaking out of the Civil war he 
joined Caesar, and in 49 he accompanied Curio 
to Africa. After the defeat and death of Curio, 
he crossed over to Greece, and fought on 
Caesar's side at the battle of Pharsalia (48). 
He also accompanied Caesar in his campaigns 
against the Pompeian party in Africa (46) and 
Spain (45). He returned with Caesar to Rome, 
but was shortly afterwards sent back to Spain, 
with the command of the Further Province, in 
order to prosecute the war against Sex. Pom- 
pey. He was in his province at the time of 
Caesar's death (44). He took no part in the 
war between Antony and the senate ; but when 
Antony was joined by Lepidus and Octavian in 
43, Pollio espoused their cause, and persuaded 
L. Plancus in Gaul to follow his example. In 
the division of the provinces among the trium- 
virs, Antony received the Gauls. The adminis- 
tration of the Transpadane Gaul was committed 
to Pollio by Antony, and he had accordingly 
the difficult task of settling the veterans in the 
lands which had been assigned to them in this 
province. It was upon this occasion that he 
saved the property of the poet Virgil at Mantua 
from confiscation, whom he took under his 
protection from his love of literature. In 40 
Pollio took an active part in effecting the 
reconciliation between Octavian and Antony at 
Brundusium. In the same year he was consul ; 
and it was during his consulship that Virgil 
addressed to him his 4th Eclogue. In 39 
Antony went to Greece, and sent Pollio with a 
part of his army against the Parthini, an Illy- 
rian people. Pollio defeated the Parthini and 
took the Dalmatian town of Salonae; and in 
consequence of his success obtained the honour 
of a triumph on the 25th of October in this 
year. (Hor. Oil. ii.l, 16; C. I. L. i. p. 461.) He 
gave his son, A3inius Gallus, the agnomen of 
Saloninus after the town which he had taken. 
It was during his Hlyrian campaign that Virgil 
addressed to him the 8th Eclogue. From this 
time Pollio withdrew altogether from political 
life, and devoted himself to the study of litera- 
ture. He still continued, however, to exercise 
his oratorical powers, and maintained his 
reputation for eloquence by his speeches both 
in the senate and in the courts of justice. He 
died at his Tusculan villa, a.d. 4, in the 80th 
year of his age, preserving to the last the full 
enjoyment of his health and of all his faculties. 
(Hieron. ad Euseb. Chron. 2020 ; cf. Tac. Dial. 
17 ; Sen. Contr. 4, 5.) — Pollio deserves a dis- 
tinguished place in the history of Roman 
literature, not so much on account of his works, 
as of the encouragement which he gave to 
literature. He was not only a patron of Virgil, 
Horace (see Ocl. ii. l),and other great poets and 
writers, but he has the honour of having been 
the first person to establish a public library at 
Rome, upon which he expended the money he 
had obtained in his Illyrian campaign (Plin. 
xxxv. 10). None of Pollio's own works have 
come down to us, but they possessed sufficient 
merit to lead his contemporaries and successors 
to class his name with those of Cicero, Virgil 
and Sallust, as an orator, a poet and an 
historian. Catullus (xii. 9) describes him in his 
youth as ' leporum disertus puer et facetiarum,' 
and Horace speaks of him in the full maturity 
of his powers (Od. ii. 1, 1") us ' In^igne mueslis 
praesidium reis et consuienti, Pollio, curiae ; ' 



I and we have also the testimony of Quiutilian, 
J the two Senecas and Tacitus to the greatness 
of his oratorical powers (Quint, x. 1, 113 ; Sen. 
Contr. 4, 3; Sen. Ep. 100, 7; Tac. Dial. 21). 
— Pollio wrote the history of the Civil wars in 
seventeen books (Suid. s. v.). It began with 
the consulship of Hetellus and Afranius, B.C. 
j 60, in which year the first triumvirate was 
I formed, and appears to have come down to the 
time when Augustus obtained the undisputed 
supremacy of the Roman world (Hor. Od. ii. 1, 
| 24; Sen. Suas. vi. 15, 24; Suet. Jul. 30; Tac. 
Ann. iv. 34). — As a poet Pollio was best known 
for his tragedies, which are spoken of in high 
terms by Virgil and Horace, but which probably 
did not possess any great merit, as they are 
hardlv mentioned by subsequent writers 
(Verg". Eel. iii. 86, viii. 10 ; Hor. Od. ii. 1, 9 ; 
Sat. i. 10, 42). It has been asserted by some 
modern critics that Pollio was the author of the 
Bellum Africanum ; but the theory is improb- 
able and has no support. — Pollio also enjoyed 
great reputation as a critic, but he is chiefly 
known in this capacity for the severe judgment 
which he passed upon his great contemporaries. 
Thus he pointed out many mistakes in the 
speeches of Cicero (Quint, xii. 1, 22), censured 
the Commentaries of Caesar for their want of 
historical fidelity (Suet. Jul. 56), and found 
fault with Sallust for affectation in the use of 
antiquated words and expressions (Suet. 
Gramm. 10 ; Gell. x. 26). He also complained 
of a certain Patavinity in Livy, respecting 
which some remarks are made in the life of 
Livy [p. 495, a]. Pollio had a son, C. Asinius 
Gallus Saloninus. [See p. 355, b.] Asinius 
Gallus married Vipsania, the former wife of 
Tiberius, by whom he had several children : 
. namely, (1) Asinius Saloninus ; (2) Asinius 
Gallus ; (3) Asinius Pollio, consul a.d. 23 ; (4) 
Asinius Agrippa, consul a.d. 25; (5) Asinius 
Celer. 

Pollio, Vedlus, a Roman eques and a friend 
of Augustus, was by birth a freedman, and has 
obtained a place in liistory on account of his 
riches and his cruelty. He was accustomed to 
feed his lampreys with human flesh, and when- 
ever a slave displeased him, the unfortunate 
wretch was forthwith thrown into the pond as 
food for the fish. On one occasion Augustus 
I was supping with him, when a slave had the 
misfortune to break a crystal goblet, and his 
\ master immediately ordered him to be thrown 
to the fishes. The slave fell at the feet of 
I Augustus, praying for mercy ; and when the 
] emperor could not prevail upon Pollio to pardon 
him, he dismissed the slave of his own accord, 
and commanded all Pollio's crystal goblets to 
be broken and the fish-pond to be filled up. 
Pollio died B.C. 15. leaving a large part of his 
property to Augustus. It was this Pollio who 
built the celebrated villa of Pausilypum near 
Naples. (Dio Cass. liv. 23 ; Sen. de Ira, iii. 
40 ; Plin. ix. 77 ; Tac. Ann. i. 10, xii. CO.) 

Pollusca (UoKKoviTKa), a city of Latium near 
Corioli taken and retaken in the Volscian wars, 
after which it disappears from history (Liv. ii. 
38, 89 ; Dionvs. vi. 91, viii. 36). 
Pollux or Polydeuces. [Dioscuri.] 
Pollux, Julius f'louAio? rioA.i/5(u(fT)s). 1. Ol 
Naucratis in Egypt, was a Greek sophist and 
\ grammarian. He studied rhetoric at Athens 
I under the sophist Adrian, and afterwards 
opened a private school in this city, where lie 
gave instruction in grammar and rhetoric. At 
a later time he was appointed by tac emperoi 
CommoduB to the chair of rhetoric at Athena 



736 



POLUS 



POLYAENUS 



He died during the reign of Comrnodus at 
the age of fifty-eight. He seems to have been 
attacked by many of his contemporaries on 
account of the inferior character of his ora- 
tory, and especially by Lucian in his 'T?r)T6pa>v 
SiSd(TKa\os. Pollux was the author of several 
works, all of which have perished with the 
exception of the Onomasticon. This work is 
divided into ten books, each of which contains 
a short dedication to the Caesar Comrnodus: it 
was therefore published before a.d. 177, since 
Comrnodus became Augustus in that year. 
Each book forms a separate treatise by itself, 
containing the most important words relating 
to certain subjects, with short explanations of 
the meanings of the words. The alphabetical 
arrangement is not adopted, but the words are 
given according to the subjects treated of in 
eachbook. — Editions by Lederlin andHemsters- 
huis, Amsterdam, 1706 ; by Dindorf, Lips. 
1824; and by Imm. Bekker, Berol. 1846.— 2. 
A Byzantine writer, the author of a Chronicon 
which treats at some length of the creation of 
the world, and is therefore entitled 'laropia 
ipvtriKT). It is a universal history, beginning 
with the creation of the world and coming down 
to the time of the writer. — Edited by Hardt, 
Munich, 1792. 

Polus (TIcDAos). 1, A sophist and rhetorician, 
a native of Agrigentum. He was a disciple of 
Gorgias, and wrote a treatise on rhetoric, as 
well as other works mentioned by Suidas. He 
is introduced by Plato as an interlocutor in the 
Gorgias (cf. Plat. Phaedr. p. 267). — 2. A cele- 
brated tragic actor, the son of Charicles of 
Sunium, and a disciple of Archias of Thurii. It 
is related that at the age of 70, shortly before 
his death, he acted in eight tragedies on four 
successive days. (Plut. Dem. 28.) 

Polyaegos (lloAvaiyos : Polybos or Anti- 
melos), an uninhabited island in the Aegaean 
sea, near Melos (Plin. iv. 70; Ptol. iii. 15, 28). 

Polyaenus (HoXvaivos). 1. Of Lampsacus, a 
mathematician and a friend of Epicurus, adopted 
the philosophical system of his friend, and, 
although he had previously acquired great 
reputation as a mathematician, he now main- 
tained with Epicurus the worthlessness of 
geometry (Cic. Ac. ii. 33, Fin. i. 6).— 2. Of 
Sardis, a sophist, lived in the time of Julius 
Caesar. He is the author of four epigrams in 
the Greek Anthology. His full name was 
Julius Polyaenus. — 3. The Macedonian, the 
author of the work on Stratagems in war 
(STpctT7)777yu.aTa), which is still extant, lived 
about the middle of the second century of the 
Christian era. Suidas calls him a rhetorician, 
and we learn from Polyaenus himself that he 
was accustomed to plead causes before the 
emperor. He dedicated his work to M. Aure- 
lius and Verus, while they were engaged in the 
Parthian war, about a.d. 163, at which time, he 
says, he was too old to accompany them in their 
campaigns. This work is divided into eight 
books, of which the first six contain an account 
of the stratagems of the most celebrated Greek 
generals, the seventh of those of barbarous or 
foreign people, and the eighth of the Romans. 
Parts, however, of the sixth and seventh books 
are lost, so that of the 900 stratagems which 
Polyaenus described, only 833 have come down 
to us. The work is written in a clear and 
pleasing style, though somewhat tinged with 
the artificial rhetoric of the age. It contains 
a vast number of anecdotes respecting many 
of the most celebrated men in antiquity; 
but its value as a historical authority is very 



much diminished by the little judgment which 
the author evidently possessed, and by our 
ignorance of the sources from which he took his 
statements. — Editions by Casaubon, 1589 ; 
Coray, 1809 ; Wolflinn, 1860 ; Wescher, 1867. 

Polybius (noAu/Sios). 1. The historian, the 
son of Lycortas, and a native of Megalopolis, in 
Arcadia, was born about B.C. 204. His father, 
Lycortas, was one of the most distinguished men 
of the Achaean League : and Polybius received 
the advantages of his father's instruction in 
political knowledge and the military art. He 
must also have reaped great benefit from his 
intercourse with Philopoemen, who was a friend 
of his father's, and on whose death, in 182, 
Polybius carried the urn in which his ashes 
were deposited. In the following year Polybius 
was appointed one of the ambassadors to Egypt, 
but he did not leave Greece, as the intention of 
sending an embassy was abandoned. Prom this 
time he probably began to take part in public 
affairs, and he appears to have soon obtained, 
great influence among his countrymen, and as 
Hipparch attained a position which ranked 
second in the state. He advised neutrality in 
the war between Rome and Macedon. After 
the conquest of Macedonia, in 168, the Roman 
commissioners who were sent into the S. of 
Greece commanded, at the instigation of Calli- 
crates, that 1000 Achaeans should be carried to 
Rome, to answer the charge of not having 
assisted the Romans against Perseus. This 
number included all the best and noblest part 
of the nation, and among them was Polybius. 
They arrived in Italy in B.C. 167, but, instead of 
being put upon their trial, they were distributed 
among the Etruscan towns. Polybius was 
more fortunate than the rest of his countrymen. 
He had probably become acquainted in Greece 
with Aemilius Paulus, or his sons Fabius and 
Scipio, and the two young men now obtained 
permission from the praetor for Polybius to 
reside at Rome in the house of their father, 
Paulus. Scipio was then eighteen years of age, 
and soon became warmly attached to Polybius. 
Scipio was accompanied by his friend in all his 
military expeditions, and received much advan- 
tage from his experience and knowledge. Poly- 
bius, on the other hand, besides finding a liberal 
patron and protector in Scipio, was able by his 
means to obtain access to public documents, 
and to accumulate materials for his great his- 
torical work. After remaining in Italy seven- 
teen years, he returned to the Peloponnesus in 
151, with the surviving Achaean exiles, who 
were at length allowed by the senate to revisit 
their native land. He did not, however, remain 
long in Greece. He joined Scipio in his cam- 
paign against Carthage, and was present at the 
destruction of that city in 146. Immediately 
afterwards he hurried to Greece, where the 
Achaeans were waging a mad and hopeless war 
against the Romans. He appears to have 
arrived in Greece soon after the capture of 
Corinth, and he exerted all his influence to 
alleviate the misfortunes of his countrymen, 
and to procure favourable terms for them. His 
grateful fellow-countrymen acknowledged the 
great services he had rendered them, and 
statues were erected to his honour at Megalo- 
polis, Mantinea, Pallantium, Tegea, and other 
places. The base of the statue erected to him 
by the state of Elis was found at Olympia by 
the German explorers in 1877. Polybius seems 
now to have devoted himself to the composi- 
tion of the great historical work for which he 
had long been collecting materials. At what 



POLYBIUS 



787 



period of his life he made the journeys into 
foreign countries for the purpose of visiting the 
places which he had to describe in his history, 
it is impossible to determine. He tells us 
(iii. 59) that he undertook long and dangerous 
journeys into Africa, Spain, Gaul, and even as 
far as the Atlantic, on account of the ignorance 
which prevailed respecting those parts. Some 
of these countries he visited while serving 
under Scipio, who afforded him every facility 
for the prosecution of his design. At a later 
period of his life he visited Egypt likewise. 
He probably accompanied Scipio to Spain in 
134, and was present at the fall of Numantia, 
since Cicero states (ad Fam. v. 12) that Poly- 
bius wrote a history of the Numantine war. 
He died at the age of eighty-two, in consequence 
of a fall from his horse, about 122. — The His- 
tory of Polybius consisted of forty books, of 
which the first five books, and extracts from 
the other thirty-five books, survive. Books i. 
and ii. form the Introduction, taking up the 
history where Timaeus left off, at 264 B.C. They 
contain some account of the first Punic war and 
the Achaean League. The remainder of the 
work fell into two parts. The first comprised a 
period of thirty-five years, beginning with the 
second Punic war and the Social war in Greece, 
and ending with the conquest of Perseus and 
the downfall of the Macedonian kingdom, in 
168. This was in fact the main portion of his 
work, and its great object was to show how the 
Romans had in this brief period of fifty-three 
years conquered the greater part of the world, 
and to demonstrate that they were marked out 
as the rulers of nations, and fitted for a uni- 
versal empire. With the fall of the Macedonian 
kingdom the supremacy of the Roman dominion 
was decided, and it was vain for the other 
nations of the world to resist. In this first 
part book iii. relates the second Punic war as 
far as Cannae ; iv. and v. deal with the wars 
in Greece and Syria. Books vi.-xxx. described 
the progress of Roman conquest to the 
battle of Pydna, B.C. 168. The second part of 
the work, which formed a kind of supplement 
to the former part, comprised the period from 
the conquest of Perseus, in 168, to the fall of 
Corinth, in 146. The history of the conquest 
of Greece seems to have been completed in the 
thirty-ninth book ; and the fortieth book prob- 
ably contained a chionological summary of 
the whole work. The History of Polybius is 
one of the most valuable works that have come 
down to us from antiquity. His early training 
had taught him to appreciate military opera- 
tions as well as political measures, and the 
leading part which he took in his own country 
enabled him to judge of the characters and 
motives of the great actors in history in a way 
which no mere scholar or rhetorician could do. 
To these qualifications were added the inestim- 
able advantage of intimate friendship with 
the greatest men of Rome, and the opportunities 
of learning at first hand all that those who 
directed the civil and military actions of the 
republic could tell him. No one could have a 
better claim to write a history of the second 
and third Punic wars than the man who pos- 
sessed all the information that the Kcipios and 
Aemilii had stored up of the second, and was 
himself an eye-witness of the conclusion of the 
third. These materials he supplemented by 
every means in his power. Thus lie not only 
collected witli accuracy and care an account of 
the events that he intended to narrate, but he 
also studied the history of the Roman constitu- 



i tion, and made distant journeys to become 
acquainted with the geography of the countries 
that he had to describe in his work. A char- 
acteristic feature of his work, which distin- 
guishes it from all other histories which 
! have come down to us from antiquity, 
is its didactic nature. His object was to 
teach by the past a knowledge of the future, 
and to deduce from previous events lessons 
of practical wisdom. Hence he calls his 
work a Pragmateia iwpayfj.aTeia), and not 
a History (laropia). The value of history con- 
sisted, in his opinion, in the instruction that 
might be obtained from it. Thus the narrative 
of events became in his view of secondary 
importance ; they formed only the text of the 
political and moral discourses which it was the 
province of the historian to deliver. Excellent, 
however, as these discourses are, they materially 
detract from the merits of the history as a 
work of art ; their frequent occurrence inter- 
rupts the continuity of the narrative, and 
destroys, to a great extent, the interest of the 
reader in the scenes which are described. 
Moreover, he frequently inserts long episodes, 
which have little connexion with the main 
subject of his work, because they have a didactic 
' tendency. Thus we find that one whole book 
(the sixth) was devoted to a history of the 
Roman constitution ; and the thirty-fourth book 
I seems to have been exclusively a treatise on 
geography. The style of Polybius bears the 
impress of his mind ; and, as instruction and 
not amusement was the great object for which 
he wrote, he did not seek to please his readers 
by the choice of his phrases or the composition 
of his sentences. Hence the later Greek critics 
were severe in their condemnation of his style. 
Of the extracts which have been preserved 
from the lost books (vi.-xl.) some are of con- 
siderable length, such as the account of the 
Roman army, which belonged to the sixth 
book. There have been discovered at different 
times four distinct collections of extracts from 
the lost books. The first collection, discovered 
I soon after the revival of learning in a MS. 
j brought from Corfu, contained the greater part 
of the sixth book, and portions of the following 
eleven. In 1582 Ursinus published at Antwerp 
a second collection of Extracts, entitled Ex- 
cerpta de Legationibus, which were made in 
the tenth century of the Christian era. In 
1634, Valesius published a third collection of 
extracts from Polybius, also taken from the 
Exrerpta of Constantinus, entitled Exccrpta 
dc Virtutibus et Vitiis. The fourth collection 
of extracts was published at Rome in 1827 by 
Angelo Mai, who discovered in the Vatican 
library at Rome the section of the Excerpta 
of Constantinus Porphyrogenitus entitled Ex- 
Cetvta de Srntrntiis. — Editions of Polybius, 
with a commentary, by Schweighaeuser, Lips. 
1789-1795 ; of the text alone, by Bekker 
1 (Berol. 1844, 2 vols. 8vo), who has added the 
Vatican fragments ; Dindorf, 1866 ; Hultsc h, 
j 1871. Edition of portion of the history, with a 
commentary, by Strachan Davidson, 1890. Livy 
did not use Polybius till he came to the second 
, Punic war, but from that time lie followed him 
very closely. Cicero likewise chiefly followed 
Polybius in the account which he gives of the 
] Roman constitution in his De Picpublica. The 
i History of Polybius was continued by Posi- 
donius and Strabo. [Posidoniub ; StBABO.] 
Besides the great historical work of which we 
have been speaking. Polybius wrote (2) The 
I Life of Philopoemen, in three hooks; (8) a 



738 



POLYBOTES 



treatise on Tactics ; (4) A History of the 
Numantine War. — 2. A freedman of the em- 
peror Augustus, read in the senate the will of 
the emperor after his decease (Suet. Aug. 101). 
— 3. A favourite freedman of the emperor 
Claudius. He was the companion of the studies 
of Claudius, and on the death of his brother, 
Seneca addressed to him a Consolatio, in which 
he bestows the highest praises upon his literary 
attainments. Polybius was put to death through 
the intrigues of Messaliina, although he had 
been one of her paramours (Suet. Claud. 28). 

P51yb6tes (Tlo\v$urr)s), one of the giants 
who fought against the gods, was pursued by 
Poseidon across the sea as far as the island of 
Cos. There Poseidon tore away a part of the 
island, which was afterwards called Nisyrion, 
and throwing it upon the giant buried him 
under it. [Gigantes.] 

Polybotus (no\v0OTos : Bidawadin, Ru.), a 
city of Great Phrygia, E. of Synnada (Procop. 
Hist. Arc. 18 ; Hi'erocl. p. 677). 

Polybus (Tl6\vf}os). 1. King of Corinth, by 
whom Oedipus was brought up. [Oedipus.] 
He was the husband of Periboea or Merope. 
Pausanias makes him king of Sicyon, and 
describes him as a son of Hermes and Chthono- 
phyle, and as the father of Lysianassa, whom 
he gave in marriage to Talaus, king of the 
Argives. (Soph. O. T. 770 ; Apollod. iii. 5, 7 ; 
Paus. ii. 6, 3.) — 2. A Greek physician, was one 
of the pupils of Hippocrates, who was also his 
son-in-law, and lived in the island of Cos, in 
the fourth century B.C. With his brothers-in- 
law, Thessalus and Dracon, Polybus .was one 
of the founders of the ancient medical sect of 
the Dogmatici. He was sent abroad by Hippo- 
crates, with his fellow-pupils, during the time 
of the plague, to assist different cities with his 
medical skill, and he afterwards remained in 
his native country. He has been supposed, 
both by ancient and modern critics, to be the 
author of several treatises in the Hippocratic 
collection. 

Polycarpus (TlohvKapTros), Bishop of Smyrna 
[Diet, of Christian Biography]. 

Polycles (Ylo\vK\ris) , the name of two artists. 
The elder Polycles was probably an Athenian, 
and flourished about B.C. 370 (Plin. xxxiv. 50). 
The younger Polycles is placed by Pliny in 155. 
He was an Athenian sculptor, and with his two 
sons, Timocles and Timarchides (also sculptors), 
settled at Rome. Among his works were a 
statue of Agesarchus the wrestler at Olympia ; 
a statue of Juno, which was placed in the por- 
tico of Octavia at Rome, when that portico was 
erected by Metellus Macedonicus, and (probably) 
a Hermaphrodite which Pliny calls famous. 
(Paus. vi. 12, 8 ; Plin. xxxiv. 52, 80, xxxvi. 35.) 
The Hermaphrodite is by some attributed to the 
elder Polycles, but on the whole it is more 
likely that it belongs to the later period. The 
two sons of the younger Polycles were authors 
of the statue of Asclepius at Elatea (Paus. x. 
34, 6). 

Polyclltus (I7oAukA.€!tos). 1. The Elder, of Ar- 
gos, probably by citizenship, and of Sicyon, prob- 
ably by birth, was one of the most celebrated 
sculptors of the ancient world. He was the pu- 
pil of the great Argive sculptor Ageladas, under 
whom he had Phidias and Myron for his fellow- 
disciples. He was somewhat younger than 
Phidias, and about the same age as Myron. 
He flourished about B.C. 452-412. Of his 
personal history we know nothing further. As 
an artist, he stood at the head of the schools of 
Argos and Sicyon, and approached more nearly 



POLYCLITUS 

than any other to an equality with Phidias, the 
great head of the Athenian school. The essen- 
tial difference between these artists was that 
Phidias was unsurpassed in making the images 
of the gods, Poly- 
clitus in those of 
men. . One of the 
most celebrated 
works of Polycli- 
tus was his Dory- 
chorus or Spear- 
bearer, a youthful 
figure, but with the 
full proportions of 
a man. This was 
the statue which 
became known by 
the name of The 
Canon, because in 
it the artist had 
embodied a perfect 
representation of 
the ideal of the hu- 
man figure (Plin. 
xxxiv. 55). Another 
of his great works 
was his ivory and 
gold statue of Hera 
in her temple be- 
tween Argos and 
Mycenae. The god- 
dess was seated on 
a throne, her head 
crowned with a 
garland, on which 
were worked the 
Graces and! the 
Hours, the 1 one 




Doryphorus, after Polyclitue. 

(Naples.) 



hand holding the symbolical pomegranate, and 
the other a sceptre, surmounted by a cuckoo, a 
bird sacred to Hera (Paus. ii. 17, 4). This statue 
was accepted as fixing the type of Hera, just as 
the great statues of 
Phidias at Olympia 
and Athens fixed 
the types of Zeus 
and Athene. [See 
the head of the 
Farnese Hera on 
p. 393.] It is no- 
ticed of Polyclitus 
that he particu- 
larly adopted the 
attitude of resting 
on one foot with 
the other more 
lightly pressed 
(Plin. xxxiv. 56), so 
as to give an easy 
and- graceful pose. 
In grace of form 
he excelled, so that 
Quintilian notices 
that he gave ideal 
beauty to the hu- 
man form, but did 
not express the 
full grandeur and 
majesty of the di- 
vine (xii. 10, 7). 
In this, no doubt, 
he contrasts him 
with Phidias. His 




Marble copy of the Amazon of 
Polyclitus. Berlin Museum.) 



finish was perfect, a point in which Cicero 
regarded him as unsurpassed (Brut. 18, 70). 
With the exception of the Hera, the statues of 
Polyclitus were in bronze. It is possible to 



POLYCEATES 



POLYDORUS 



739 



judge of the form of some of them from marble 
copies. Of these the most generally recognised 
are the Doryphorus, the Diadumenus and the 
Amazon. In the department of toreutic, the 
fame of Polyclitus no doubt rested chiefly on 
the golden ornaments of his statue of Hera ; 
but he also made small bronzes (sigilla), and 
drinking-vessels (jphialae). — 2. The Younger, 
also a sculptor of Argos, of whom very little is 
known, because his fame was eclipsed by that 
of his more celebrated namesake. His work 
may be dated about 400-365 B.C. He was 
pupil, and younger brother or nephew, of 
Naucydes. His statues were mainly of athletes, 
set up at Olympia, where the inscribed bases of 
two have recently been discovered. (Paus. ii. 
22, 8, vi. 6, 1, vi. 7, 3.) Pausanias mentions one 
statue of a different character, that of a Zeus 
Philios at Megalopolis (viii. 31, 2). He was dis- 
tinguished as an architect, for there is little 
doubt that the building of the theatre and 
tholus in the precincts of the temple of As- 
clepius at Epidaurus (Paus. ii. 27, 5) should be 
ascribed to him and not to the elder Polyclitus. 
— 3. Of Larissa, a Greek historian, and one of 
the numerous writers of the history of Alex- 
ander the Great. — 4. A favourite freedman of 
Nero, who sent him into Britain to inspect the 
state of the island. 

Polycrates (noKvKpdrris). 1. Of Samos, 
one of the most ambitious of the Greek 
tyrants. With the assistance of his brothers, 
Pantagnotus and Syloson, he made himself 
master of the island towards the latter end 
of the reign of Cyrus. At first he shared 
the supreme power with his brothers ; but 
he shortly afterwards put Pantagnotus to 
death, and banished Syloson. Having thus 
become sole despot, he raised a powerful fleet, 
which dominated the whole of the eastern 
Aegaean, and by his piratical enterprises accu- 
mulated vast riches. He had formed an alliance 
with Amasis, king of Egypt, who, however, 
finally renounced it through alarm at the 
amazing good fortune cf Polycrates, which 
never met with any check or disaster, and which 
therefore was sure, sooner or later, to incur the 
envy of the gods. Such, at least, is the account 
of Herodotus, who has narrated the story of 
the rupture between Amasis and Polycrates in 1 
his most dramatic manner. In a letter which 
Amasis wrote to Polycrates, the Egyptian 
monarch advised him to throw away one of his 
most valuable possessions, in order that he 
might thus inflict some injury upon himself. 
In accordance with this advice Polycrates threw 
into the sea a seal-ring of extraordinary beauty, 
but in a few days it was found in the belly of a 
fish, which had been presented to him by a 
fisherman. In the reign of Cambyses, the 
Spartans and Corinthians sent a powerful force 
to Samos, in order to depose the tyrant, but 
their expedition failed, and after besieging the 
city forty days, they left the island. The power 
of Polycrates now became greater than ever. 
The great works which Herodotus saw at Samoa 
were probably executed by him. He lived in 
great pomp and luxury, and, like others of the 
Greek tyrants, was a patron of literature and 
the arts. The most eminent artists and poets 
found a ready welcome at his court, and his 
friendship for Anacreon is particularly cele- 
brated. But in the midst of all his prosperity 
he fell by the most ignominious fate. Oroetes, 
the satrap of Sardis, had formed a deadly hatred 
against Polycrates. By false pretences, the 
satrup contrived to allure him to the muinland, 



where he was arrested soon after his arrival, 
and crucified, 522. » (Hdt. iii. 39, 54, 120 ; Strab. 
pp. 637, 638 ; Paus. viii. 14, 8 ; Cic. Fin. v. 30, 
92.) — 2. An Athenian rhetorician and sophist 
of some repute, a contemporary of Socrates and 
Isocrates, taught first at Athens and afterwards 
at Cyprus. He was the teacher of Zoilus. He 
wrote: (1J an accusation of Socrates, which was 
a declamation on the subject composed some 
years after the death of the philosopher (Diog. 
' Laert. ii. 38). (2) A defence of Busiris. The 
oration of Isocrates entitled Busiris is ad- 
dressed to Polycrates, and points out the faults 
which the latter had committed in his oration 
on this subject. (3) An obscene poem, which he 
published under the name of the poetess 
Philaenis, for the purpose of injuring her repu- 
tation (Athen. p. 335). 

Polydamas (UoXuhaixas). 1. Son of Panthous 
and Phrontis, was a Trojan hero, a friend of 
Hector, and brother of Euphorbus (II. xvi. 
534, xviii. 249, xxii. 100).— 2. Of Scotussa in 
Thessaly, son of Nicias, conquered in the Pan- 
cratium at the Olympic games, in 01. 93, B.C. 
408. His size was immense, and the most mar- 
vellous stories are related of his strength : how 
he killed without arms a huge and fierce lion on 
Mt. Olympus ; how he stopped a chariot at full 
gallop, &c. His reputation led the Persian 
king Darius Ochus to invite him to his court, 
| where he performed similar feats (Paus. vi. 5, 
4, vii. 27, 6). — 3. Of Pharsalus in Thessaly, was 
entrusted by his fellow-citizens, about B.C. 375, 
with the supreme government of their native 
town. He afterwards entered into a treaty 
with Jason of Pherae. On the murder of Jason, 
in 370, his brother Polvphron put to death 
Polydamas. (Xen. Hell vi. 1, 2.) 

Polydectes (noAu5eVr77s). 1. King of the 
island of Seriphos, was son of JIagnes, and 
brother of Dictys. He received kindly Danae 
and Perseus, when the chest in which they had 
been exposed by Acrisius floated to the island 
of Seriphos. (Pind. Pyth. xii. 10; Apollod. i. 
9, 6 ; Paus. i. 22, 6.) His story is related under 
Pebseus. — 2. King of Sparta, was the eldest 
son of Eunomus, the brother of Lycurgus the 
lawgiver, and the father of Charilau's, who suc- 
ceeded him. Herodotus, contrary to the other 
authorities, makes Polydectes the father of 
Eunomus. (Hdt. viii. 131 ; Paus. iii. 7, 2 ; Plut. 
Lyc. 2.) 

Polydeuces tUoXvSevKrjs), one of the Dios- 
curi, and the twin brother of Castor, called by 
the Romans Pollux. [Dioscubi.] 

Polydorus inoAuSwpos). 1. King of Thebes, 
son of Cadmus and Harmonia, husband of 
Nyctels, and father of Labdacus. — 2. The 
youngest among the sons of Priam and Laotoe, 
was slain by Achilles (11. xx. 407, xxii. 16). 
This is the Homeric account ; but later tradi- 
tions make him a son of Priam and Hecuba, 
and give a different account of his death. One 
tradition relates that when Ilium was, on the 
point of falling into the hands of the Greeks, 
Priam entrusted Polydorus and a large sum of 
money to Polymestor or Polymnestor, king of 
the Thracian Chersonesus. After the destruc- 
tion of Troy, Polymestor killed Polydorus for 
the purpose of getting possession of his trea- 
sures, and cast his body into the sea. His body 
was afterwards washed up on the coast, where 
it was found and recognised by his mother 
Hecuba, who, together with other Trojan cap- 
tives, took vengeance upon Polymestor by 
putting out his eyes and killing his two children, 
(Eur. Hecuba ; Verg. Aen. iii. 49; Ov. Met. 

■J B 2 



740 POLYEUCTUS 



POLYPHRON 



xiii. 432.) Another tradition stated that Poly- 
dorus was entrusted to his stster Ilione, who was 
married to Polymestor. She brought him up 
as her own son, while she made everyone else 
believe that her own son, De'iphilus or Delpylus, 
was Polydorus. The Greeks, anxious to des- 
troy the race of Priam, promised to Polymes- 
tor Electra for his wife, and a large amount of 
gold, if he would kill Polydorus. Polymestor 
was prevailed upon, and he accordingly slew his 
own son. Polydorus, thereupon, persuaded his 
sister Ilione to kill Polymestor. Paeuvius wrote 
a tragedy Iliona. (Cic. Ac. ii. 27, Tusc. i. 44 ; 
Hor. Sat. iii. 3, 61.) — 3. King of Sparta, was 
the son of Alcamenes and the father of Eury- 
crates, who succeeded him. He assisted in 
bringing the first Messenian war to a conclu- 
sion, B.C. 724. He was murdered by Polem- 
archus, a Spartan of high family, but his name 
was precious among his people on account of 
his justice and kindness. Crotona and the 
Epizephyrian Locri were founded in his reign. 
— 4. Brother of Jason of Pherae, obtained the 
supreme power along with his brother Poly- 
phron, on the death of Jason in B.C. 370, but 
was shortly afterwards assassinated by Poly- 
phron. [Jason.] — 5. A sculptor of Rhodes, one 
of the associates of Agesander in the execu- 
tion of the celebrated group of the Laocoon. 
[Agesandbb.] 

Polyeuctus (Uo\vevKTOs), an Athenian orator, 
of the demus Sphettus, was a political friend 
of Demosthenes, with whom he worked in re- 
sisting the Macedonian party (Dem. Phil. iii. 
p. 129 ; Arist. JRhet. iii. 10, 7 ; Plut. Dsm. 10). 

PolygnotUS (YloKvyyaiTOs), one of the most 
celebrated Greek painters, was a native of the 
island of Thasos, and was honoured with the 
citizenship of Athens, on which account he is 
sometimes called an Athenian. His father, 
Aglaophon, was his instructor in his art, and 
he had a brother, named Aristophon, who was 
also a painter. Polygnotus lived on intimate 
terms with Cimon and his sister Elpinice, and 
he probably came to Athens in B.C. 463, after 
the subjugation of Thasos by Cimon. He ap- 
pears to have been at that time an artist of 
some reputation, and he continued to exercise 
his art almost down to the beginning of the 
Pelopoimesian war (431). He was called by 
some the inventor of painting (Theophrast. ap. 
Plin. vii. 205), as being the first who raised 
painting to the position of an art above that of 
the handicraftsman. His work was between 
the years 475 and 430 B.C. The famous paint- 
ings in the Lesche, or hall of the Cnidians at 
Delphi, representing the Fall of Troy and the 
scenes of the underworld (Paus. x. 25-31), 
were probably executed not later than 470, 
since they are mentioned by Simonides, who 
died in 467. The period of his greatest artistic 
activity at Athens seems to have been that 
which elapsed from his removal to Athens (463) 
to the death of Cimon (449), who employed him 
in the pictorial decoration of the public build- 
ings with which he began to adorn the city, 
such as the temple of Theseus, the Anaceum, 
and the Poecile. He appears to have re- 
turned to Athens about 435, where he executed 
a series of paintings in the Propylaea of the 
Acropolis. The Propylaea were commenced in 
437, and completed in 432. The subjects of the 
pictures of Polygnotus were almost invariably 
taken from Homer and the other poets of the 
epic circle. They were historical pictures, and 
it was remarked that Polygnotus excelled as 
a painter of character (Arist. Poet. 6; Plin. 



xxxv. 58). His pictures were without back- 
ground, as tinted outlines on the white wall 
without shading, but the beauty of the drawing 
and the admirable conception of character in 
his figures won for them admiration undimi- 
nished in the age of Pausanias. 

Polymedium (noAu^Sioc), a town in Mysia, 
between Assus and the Prom. Lectum (Strab. 
pp. 606, 616 ; Plin. v. 123). 

Polyhymnia. [Polymnia.] 

Polyidus (noAui'Soy). 1. Son of Coeranus, 
grandson of Abas and great-grandson of Me- 
lampus. He was, like his ancestor Melampus, 
a celebrated soothsayer at Corinth, and is de- 
scribed as the father of Euchenor, Astycratla, 
and Manto (II. xiii. 663). When Alcathous had 
murdered his own son, Callipolis, at Megara, he 
was purified by Polyidus, who erected at Me- 
j gara a sanctuary to Dionysus, and a statue of 
the god. — 2. A dithyrambic poet of the most 
flourishing period of the later Athenian dithy- 
ramb, and also skilful as a painter, was con- 
temporary with Philoxenus, Timotheus, and 
Telestes, about B.C. 400. 

Polymestor or Polynmestor. [Polydorus.] 

Polymnestus, or Polymnastus (lloXvuvqo-- 
toj), the son of Meles of Colophon, was an epic, 
elegiac and lyric poet, and a musician. He 
flourished B.C. 675-644. He belongs to the 
school of Dorian music, which flourished at 
this time at Sparta, where he carried on the 
improvements of Thaletas. The Attic come- 
dians attacked his poems for their erotic 
character (Aristoph. Eq. 1287). As an elegiac 
poet, he may be regarded as the predecessor of 
his fellow-countryman, Mimnermus. 

Polymnia or Polyhymnia. [Musae.] 

Polynices (noAuj/eiKTjs), son of Oedipus and 
Jocasta, and brother of Eteocles and Antigone. 
His story is given under Eteocles and Adkas- 
tus. 

Polyphemus (UoK{i<prtfias). 1. Son of Pos- 
eidon and the nymph Thoosa, was one of the 
Cyclopes in Sicily. [Cyclopes.] He is repre- 
sented as a gigantic monster, having only one 
eye, in the centre of his forehead, caring nought 
for the god's, and devouring human flesh. He 
dwelt in a cave near Mt. Aetna, and fed his 
flocks upon the mountain. He fell in love 
with the nymph Galatea (Theocr. Id. xi. ; Ov. 
Met. xiii. 780), but as she rejected him for Acis, 
he destroyed the latter by crushing him under 
a huge rock. [Acis.] In the Homeric story, when 
Odysseus was driven upon Sicily, Polyphemus 
devoured some of his companions, and Odys- 
seus would have shared the same fate had he 
not put out the eye of the monster while he 
was asleep. [Odysseus.] — 2. Son of Elatus or 
Poseidon and Hippea, was one of the Lapithae 
at Larissa in Thessaly. He was married to 
Laonome, a sister of Heracles. He was also 
one of the Argonauts, but being left behind by 
them in Mysia, he founded Cios, and fell in 
battle against the Chalybes. (II. i. 264 ; Ap. Rh. 
i. 1241 ; Apollod. i. 9, 16.) 

Polyphontes (noAu$(Wr)s), one of the de- 
scendants of Heracles who slew Cresphontes, 
king of Messene, married his wife Merope and 
took possession of his kingdom. He was slain 
by Aepytus, son of Cresphontes. (Pol. iv. 22; 
Apollod. ii. 8, 4.) 

Polyphron (Uo\v(f>po>v), brother of Jason of 
Pherae, succeeded to the supreme power with 
his brother Polydorus on the death of 3 ason in 
B.C. 370. Shortly afterwards he murdered 
Polydorus. He exercised his power with great 
cruelty, and was murdered in his turn, 369, by 



POLYPOETES 



POMPEII 



741 



his nephew Alexander, who proved a still greater 
tyrant. [Jason ; Alexander.] 

Polypoetes (rioA.irtro[T7)si, son of Pirithous 
and Hippodamia, was one of the Lapithae, and 
joined the Greeks in the Trojan war (Strab. 
pp. 439, 441).__ 

Polyrrhenla or -ium (TloXvppyvia '• IloXvppfi- 
vios), a town in Crete, whose territory embraced 
the whole western comer of the island. It 
possessed a sanctuary of Dictynna, and is said 
to have been colonised by Achaeans and Lace- 
daemonians. (Strab. p. 479 ; Pol. iv. 53 ; Plin. 
iv. 59.) 

Pdlysperchon (JloAvo-n-epxw), a Macedo- 
nian, and an officer of Alexander the Great, 
who distinguished himself at Issus and Gau- 
gamela and accompanied Alexander in his 
Indian campaigns (Arrian, iii. 11, v. 11, vi. 5). 
In B.C. 323 he was appointed by Alexander 
second in command of the army of invalids and 
veterans which Craterns had to conduct home 
to Macedonia. He afterwards served under 
Antipater in Europe, and so great was the 
confidence which the latter reposed in him, 
that Antipater on his deathbed (319J appointed 
Polysperchon to succeed him as regent and 
guardian of the king, while he assigned to his 
own son Cassander the subordinate station of 
Chiliarch (Diod. xviii. 48). Polysperchon soon 
became involved in war with Cassander, 
who was dissatisfied with this arrangement. 
It was in the course of this war that Poly- 
sperchon surrendered Phocion to the Athe- 
nians, in the hope of securing the adherence 
of Athens. [Phocion.] Although Polysperchon 
was supported by Olympias, and possessed 
great influence with the Macedonian sol- 
diers, he proved no match for Cassander, 
and was obliged to yield to him possession 
of Macedonia about 316 (Diod. xviii. 57, 69, 
xix. 57, 74). For the next few years Polysper- 
chon is rarely mentioned, but in 310, he again 
assumed an important part by reviving the 
long- forgotten pretensions of Heracles, the son 
of Alexander and Barsine, to the throne of 
Macedonia. Cassander marched against him, 
but, distrusting the fidelity of his own troops, 
he entered into secret negotiations with Poly- 
sperchon, and persuaded the latter, by promises 
and flatteries, to murder Heracles. (Diod. xx. 
28 ; Just. xv. 2.) From this time he appears 
to have served under Cassander ; but the period 
of his death is not mentioned. 

Polytimetus (rioAuTi'/xrjToj : Zcrafschaii), a 
considerable river of Sogdiana, which vanished 
underground near Maracanda (Samarkand), 
or was lost in the sands of the steppes (Strab. 
p. 518). 

Polyxena {TloXvt,ivri), daughter of Priam and 
Hecuba, was beloved by Achilles. When the 
Greeks, on their voyage home, were still 
lingering on the coast of Thrace, the shade of 
Achilles appeared to them, demanding that 
Polyxena should be sacrificed to him. Neopto- 
lemus accordingly sacrificed her on the tomb 
of his father. It was related that Achilles had 
promised Priam to bring about a peace with 
the Greeks, if the king would give him his 
daughter Polyxena in marringe ; and that when 
Achilles had gone to the temple of the Thym- 
braean Apollo, for the purpose of negotiating 
the marriage, he was treacherously killed by 
Paris. (Eur. Bee. 40; Ov. Met. xiii. 448 ; Hyg. 
Fah. 110.) Another tradition stated that 
Achilles and Polyxena fell in love with each 
other when Hector's body was delivered up to 
Priam ; and tluit Polyxena fled to tho Greeks 



I after the death of Achilles, and killed herself 
on the tomb of her beloved with a sword. 

1 (Philostr. Her. 19, 11.) 

Polyxenidas {Tlo\vEevi8as\ a Ehodian in the 
service of Antiochus III., king of Syria, whose 
fleet he commanded in 192 and 190 B.C. He 
was defeated by C. Livius off Corycus, and by 
Aemilius Eegillus at Myonnesus. (Liv. xxxvi. 
43. xxxvii. 28 ; App. Syr. 21-27.) 

Polyxo inoAu|ci). 1. The nurse of queen 
Hypsipyle in Lemnos, was celebrated as a 
prophetess (Ap. Eh. i. 668; Hyg. Fab. 15).— 
2. An Argive woman, married to Tlepolemus, 
son of Heracles (Paus. iii. 19, 10), followed her 
husband to Ehodes, where, according to some 
traditions, she is said to have put to death the 
celebrated Helen. [Helena.] 

Polyzelus (noAv^VjAos). 1. Brother of Hieron, 

' the tyrant of Syracuse. [Hieron.] — 2. Of 
Ehodes, a historian, of uncertain date, wrote a 
history of his native country (Athen. p. 361 ; 
Plut. Sol. 15). — 3. An Athenian comic poet, 
belonging to the last period of the Old Comedy 

j and the beginning of the Middle. (Meineke, 
Fr. Com. Graec.) 

Pomona, the Italian divinity of the fruit of 
trees, hence called Pomorum Patrona. She is 
represented by the poets as beloved by several 
of the rustic divinities, such as Silvanus, Picus 
and Vertumnus (Ov. Met. xiv. 623). For the 
myth of her union with the last, see Vertum- 
nus. Her worship must originally have been 

j of considerable importance, since a special 

' priest, under the name of flamen Pomonalis, 
was appointed to attend to her service. (Varro, 
L. L. vii. 45; Fest. p. 154.) There was a 

I sanctuary for her worship \Pomonal\ between 
Ardea and Ostia (Fest. p. 250). 

Pompeia. 1. Daughter of Q. PompeiusEufus. 
son of the consul of B.C. 88, and of Cornelia, 
the daughter of the dictator Sulla. She married 
C. Caesar, subsequently the dictator, in 67, but 
was divorced by him in 61. because she was 
suspected of intriguing with Clodius, who 

i stealthily introduced himself into her hus- 
band's house while she was celebrating the 

1 mysteries of the Bona Dea. [Clodius.] — 2. 
Sister of Cn. Pompoy. the triumvir, married 
C. Memmius, who was killed in the war against 
Sertorius, in 75. — 3. Daughter of the triumvir 
by his third wife Mucia. She married Faustus 
Sulla, the son of the dictator, who perished in 
the African war, 46. She afterwards married 
L. Cornelius Cinna. As her brother Sextus 
survived her, she must have died before 35. — 

4. Daughter of Sex. Pompey, the son of the 
triumvir and of Scribonia. At the peace of 
Misenum in 39 she was betrothed to M. Mar- 
cellns, the son of Octavia, the sister of Octavian, 
but was never married to him. She accom- 
panied her father in his flight to Asia, 36. — 

5. Paulina. [Paulina.] 

Pompeianus, Tib. Claudius, son of aEoman 
knight originally from Antioch, rose to the 
highest dignities under M. Aurelius. He was 
' consul in 173 a.d. and held a command also in 
: the war against the Marcomanni. Aurelius 
gave him his daughter Lucilla in marriage. 
He lived to the reign of Severas. (Dio Cass, 
lxxi. 8, lxxiii. 3; Vit. M. Anton. 20; Pert. 2.) 

Pompeii (no/ir^Zoi, Uofnrala, Tlofanfta : Pom- 
peianus), a city of Campania, was situated o>i 
tho coast, at the mouth of the river Snrnus, 
and at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius ; but in eonse- 
' quence of the physical changes which the 
' surrounding country has undergone, the ruins 
of Pompeii are found at present about two 



742 



POMPEII 



POMPEIUS 



miles from the sea. Pompeii was first in the 
hands of the Osoans, and afterwards of the 
Tyrrhenians. (Strab. p. 247 ; Plin. iii. 62.) It 
is mentioned as a port in B.C. 310 (Liv. ix. 38), 
and as taking part in the Social war, during 
which it was captured by Sulla (App. B. C. i. 39, 
50 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 16). Afterwards it became a 
Roman municipium and received a colony in 
the reign of Augustus. It was populous 
(having apparently nearly 30,000 inhabitants) 
and flourishing (Tac. Ann. xv. 22 ; Sen. Q. N. 
vi. 1), and a favourite resort. Among others 
Cicero had a villa (Pompeianum) there (Cic. Ac. 
ii. 3, ad Att. i. 20, ad Fain. vii. 3, xii. 20) ; but 
Pompeii never rose above the rank of a second- 
rate provincial town, and its great importance 
is due to the manner in which the circumstances 
of its destruction ensured the preservation of 
its remains till their excavation in the eighteenth 
and nineteenth centuries. Pompeii was partly 
destroyed by an earthquake in a.d. 63, but was 
overwhelmed in 79, along with Herculaneum 
and Stabiae, by the great eruption of Mt. 
Vesuvius. (Dio Cass. lxvi. 23 ; cf. Pliu. Ep. vi. 
16, 20.) The lava did not reach Pompeii, but 
the town was covered with successive layers of 
ashes and other volcanic matter, on which a soil 
was gradually formed. Thus a great part of 
the city has been preserved with its market- 
places, theatres, baths, temples, and private 
houses, and the excavation of these has thrown 
great light upon many points of antiquity, such 
as the construction of Roman houses, and in 
general all subjects connected with the private 
life of the ancients. The first traces of the 
ancient city were discovered in 1689, rising 
above the ground, but it was not till 1721 that 
the excavations were commenced. These have 
been continued with various interruptions down 
to the present day, and now about one-third of 
the city is exposed to view. It was surrounded 
by walls, which were nearly two miles in cir- 
cumference, surmounted at intervals by towers, 
and containing eight gates. These walls had 
been partly demolished during the peace of the 
early empire and a suburb called ' Pagus 
Augustus Felix ' had grown up outside the 
gate of Herculaneum, by which room was made 
for the colony planted by Augustus. The 
streets are narrow, the widest not exceeding 
twenty-four feet in width, and many have high 
stepping-stones for foot-passengers crossing 
from one raised foot-path to the other [see Diet, 
of Ant. art. Via']; they are usually straight, but 
the street which connects the Forum with the 
gate of Herculaneum, and is continued by the 
street of tombs, takes a sinuous course. The 
Forum is distant about four hundred yards from 
this gate. At its North end stands the temple 
of Jupiter on an elevated podium ; at the South 
the Basilica and the Tribunals : it is bounded 
on the West by the temple of Venus, and on the 
East by the Pantheon or temple of Augustus, 
the council-chamber (Curia), the temple of 
Mercury and the Chalcidicum, a building 
erected by a priestess named Eumachia, which 
may possibly have been used as an exchange. 
There was a smaller triangular forum in the 
S. of the city not far from the gate of Stabiae 
and adjoining the greater and smaller theatres ; 
close to the great theatre was the temple of Isis, 
in which a small statue of the deity was found ; 
the amphitheatre has been discovered in the 
SE. angle of the town between the gate of 
Nocera and that of the Sarnus. It is impossible 
here to enter into details regarding the many 
private houses which have been discovered with. 



much of their fittings and decorations in good 
preservation, and have proved of the greatest 
value for the elucidation of Boman domestic 
architecture [see Diet, of Ant. art. Domus]. 
There can be little doubt that much of the 
Pompeii now to be seen was a restoration after 
the earthquake of 63. The oldest remains, 
however, are of a very early period, especially 
the older parts of the walls, built of large blocks, 
of travertine, and a Doric temple near the 
theatre, known as the ' Greek ' temple, which 
is assigned to the 6th cent. B.C. 

Pompelopolis {Tlo/inr7]ioviroAis), the name of 
several cities founded or enlarged by Pompey. 
1. (Tash Kopr'i), an inland city of Paphlagonia, 
SW. of Sinope, on the river Amnias (Gok 
Irmak), a W. tributary of the Halys (Strab. 
p. 562).— 2. [Pompelon.]— 3. [SoLois.] 

Pompeius. 1. Q. Pompeius, said to have 
been the son of a flute-player, was the first of 
the family who rose to dignity in the state. He 
was consul in 141, when he carried on war 
against the Numantines in Spain. Having 
been defeated by the enemy in several engage- 
ments, he concluded a peace with them ; but 
on the arrival of his successor in the command, 
he disowned the treaty, which was declared 
invalid by the senate. He wa3 censor in 131 
with Q. Metellus Macedonicus. (App. B.C. vi. 
76 Cic. Fin. ii. 17, Off. iii. 30.)— 2. Q. Pom- 
peius Rufus, either son or grandson of the 
preceding, was a zealous supporter of the 
aristocratical party. He was tribune of the 
plebs 100, praetor 91, and consul 88, with L. 
Sulla. When Sulla set out for the East to 
conduct the war agrinst Mithridates, he left 
Italy in charge of Pompeius Bufus, and 
assigned to him the army of Cn. Pompeius 
Strabo, who was still engaged in carrying on 
war against the Marsi. Strabo, however, who 
was unwilling to be deprived of the command, 
caused Pompeius Bufus to be murdered by the 
soldiers. (Cic. pro Dom. 31, Brut. 89 ; App. 
B.C. i. 57.) — 3. Q. Pompeius Rufus, son of 
No. 2, married Sulla's daughter, and was mur- 
dered by the party of Sulpicius and Marius in 
the Forum, during the consulship of his father, 
88 (Plut. Sitll. 8).— 4. Q. Pompeius Rufus, son 
of No. 3 and grandson of the dictator Sulla, 
was tribune of the plebs 52, when he dis- 
tinguished himself as the great partisan of the 
triumvir Pompey, whom he assisted to obtain 
the sole consulship. Rufus, however, on the 
expiration of his office was accused of vis, was 
condemned, and went into exile at Bauli in 
Campania (Cic. ad Fam. viii. 1, 4 ; Dio Cass, 
xl. 45). — 5. Q. Pompeius Rufus, praetor 63, 
was sent to Capua to watch over Campania and 
Apulia during Catiline's conspiracy. In 61 he 
obtained the province of Africa, with the title 
of proconsul. — 6. Sex. Pompeius, married 
Lucilia, a sister of the poet C. Lucilius. — 7. 
Sex. Pompeius, elder son of No. 6, never 
obtained any of the higher offices of the state, 
but acquired great reputation as a man of learn- 
ing, and is praised by Cicero for his accurate 
knowledge of jurisprudence, geometry, and the 
Stoic philosophy (Cic. Brut. 47, 175).— 8. Sex. 
Pompeius, a descendant of No. 7, consul a.d. 
14, with Sex. Appuleius, in which year the 
emperor Augustus died. He seems to have 
been a patron of literature. Ovid addressed 
him several letters during his exile (Ov. Pont. 
iv. 1, 5). — 9. Cn. Pompeius Strabo, younger 
son of No. 6, and father of the triumvir. H& 
was quaestor in Sardinia 103, praetor 94, and 
propraetor in Sicily in the following year. He : 



POMPEIUS 



743 



was consul 89, when he carried on war with 
success against the allies, subduing the greater 
number of the Italian people who were still in 
arms. Towards the end of the year he brought 
forward the law (Lex Po?npeia) which gave to 
all the towns of the Transpadani the Jus Latii 
or Latinitas. [Diet, of Ant. art. Latinitas.} 
He continued in the S. of Italy as proconsul in 
the following year (88), and when Pompeius 
Rufus [No. 2] was appointed to succeed him in 
the command of the army, Strabo caused him 
to be assassinated by the troops. Next year 
(87) the Marian party obtained the upper hand. 
Strabo was summoned by the aristocratical 
party to their assistance ; and though not active 
in their cause, he marched to the relief of the 
city, and fought a battle near the Colline Gate 
with Cinna and Sertorius (Veil. Pat. ii. 21). 
Shortly afterwards he was killed by lightning. 
His avarice and cruelty had made him hated 
by the soldiers to such a degree that they tore 
his corpse from the bier and dragged it through 
the streets. Cicero describes him (Brut. 47) 
' as worthy of hatred on account of his cruelty, 
avarice, and perfidy ' (cf. Flor. iii. 18). He 
possessed some reputation as an orator, and 
still more as a general. He left behind him a 
considerable property, especially in Picenum. — 
10. Cn. Pompeius Magnus, the Triumvir, son 
of No. 9, was born on the 30th of September, 
B.C. 106, in the consulship of Atilius Serranus 
and Servilius Caepio, and was consequently a 
few months younger than Cicero, who was born 
on the 3rd of January in tins year, and six years 
older than Caesar. He fought under his father 
in 89 against the Italians, when he was only 
seventeen years of age, and continued with him 
till his death two years afterwards. For the 
next few years the Marian party had possession 
of Italy ; and accordingly Pompey, who adhered 
to the aristocratical party, was obliged to keep 
in the background, and was only saved from an 
indictment by the intervention of Carbo. But 
when it became known, in 84, that Sulla was 
on the point of returning from Greece to Italy, 
Pompey hastened into Picenum, where he raised 
an army of three legions. Although only 
twenty-three years of age, Pompey displayed 
great military abilities in opposing the Marian 
generals by whom he was surrounded ; and 
when he succeeded in joining Sulla in the 
course of the year (83), he was saluted by the 
latter with the title of Imperator. During the 
remainder of the war in Italy Pompey distin- 
guished himself as one of the most successful 
of Sulla's generals, and when the war in Italy 
was brought to a close, Sulla sent Pompey 
against the Marian party in Sicily and Africa. 
Pompey first proceeded to Sicily, of which he 
easily made himself master (82) : here he put 
Carbo to death. In 81 Pompey crossed over to 
Africa, where he defeated Cn. Domitius Aheno- 
barbus and the Numidian king Hiarbas, after a 
hard-fought battle. On his return to Rome, in 
the same year, he was received with enthusiasm 
by the people, and was greeted by Sulla with 
the surname of Magnus, a name which he bore 
ever afterwards, and handed down to his chil- 
dren. Pompey. however, not satisfied with this 
distinction, Bued for a triumph, which Sulla at 
first refused, but at length, overcome by Pom- 
pey's importunity, he allowed him to have his 
own way. Accordingly Pompey, who litid not 
yet held any public office, and was still a simple 
eques, entered Rome in triumph in September, 
81, and before he had completed his twenty- 
fifth year. Pompey continued faithful to the 



aristocracy after Sulla's death (78), and sup- 
ported the consul Catulus in resisting the 
attempts of his colleague Lepidus to repeal the 
laws of Sulla ; and when Lepidus had recourse 
to arms in the following year (77), Pompey took 
an active part in the war against him, and 
succeeded in driving him out of Italy. — The 
aristocracy, however, now began to fear the 
young and successful general; but since Ser- 
torius in Spain had for the last three years 
successfully opposed Metellus Pius, one of the 
ablest of Sulla's generals, and it had become 
necessary to send the latter some effectual 
assistance, the senate, with considerable re- 
luctance, determined to send Pompey to Spain, 
with the title of proconsul, and with equal 
powers to Metellus. Pompey remained in 
Spain between five and six years (76-71) ; but 
neither he nor Metellus was able to gain any 
decisive advantage over Sertorius. But when 
Sertorius was treacherously murdei - ed by his 
own officer Perperna, in 72, the war was speedily 
brought to a close. Perperna was easily de- 
feated by Pompey in the first battle, and the 
whole of Spain was subdued by the early part 
of the following year (71). Pompey then re- 
turned to Italy at the head of his army. In 
his march towards Rome he fell in with the 
remains of the army of Spartacus, which M. 
Crassus had previously defeated. Pompey cut 
to pieces these fugitives, and therefore claimed 
for himself, in addition to all his other exploits, 
the glory of finishing the Servile war. Pompey 
was now a candidate for the consulship ; and 
although he was ineligible by law, inasmuch as 
he was absent from Rome, had not yet reached 
the legal age, and had not held any of the lower 
offices of the state, still his election was certain. 
His military glory had charmed the people ; 
and as it was known that the aristocracy looked 
upon Pompey with jealousy, they ceased to 
regard him as belonging to this party, and 
hoped to obtain through him a restoration of 
the rights and privileges of which they had 
been deprived by Sulla. Pompey was accord- 
ingly elected consul, along with M. Crassus ; 
and on the 31st of December, 71, he entered 
the city a second time in his triumphal car, a 
simple eques. Pompey now found it necessary 
to secure power beyond the control of the 
senate either by force or by the aid of the 
opposite party. He chose the latter course as 
safer than a coup d'etat, and openly broke with 
the aristocracy. Thus in his consulship (70) he 
was regarded as the popular hero. He pro- 
posed and carried a law restoring to the 
tribunes the power of which they had been 
deprived by Sulla. He also afforded his all- 
powerful aid to the Lex Aurelia, proposed 
by the praetor L. Aurelius Cotta, by which 
the judices were to be taken in future from 
the senatus, equites, and tribuni aerarii, in- 
stead of from the senators exclusively, as Sulla 
had ordained. In carrying both these measures 
Pompey was strongly supported by Caesar, 
with whom he was thus brought into close 
! connexion, and Crassus joined the coalition. — 
! For the next two years (69 and 68) Pompey 
remained in Rome. In 67 the tribune A. 
CiabiniuH brought forward u bill proposing to 
confer upon Pompey the command of the war 
against the pirates, with extraordinary powers. 
This bill was opposed by the aristocracy with 
the utmost vehemence, but was notwithstand- 
ing carried. [Gabinius.] The pirates were at 
this time masters of the Mediterranean, and 
had not only plundered many cities ou tho 



744 POM] 

coasts of Greece and Asia, but had even made 
descents upon Italy itself. As soon as Pompey 
received the command, he began to make his 
preparations for the war, and completed them 
by the end of the winter. His plans were 
formed with great skill and judgment, and were 
crowned with complete success. In forty days 
he cleared the western sea of pirates, and 
restored communication between Spain, Africa, 
and Italy. He then followed the main body of 
the pirates to their strongholds on the coast of 
Cilicia, and after defeating their fleet, he 
induced a great part of them, by promises of 
pardon, to surrender to him. Many of these he 
settled at Soli, which was henceforward called 
Pompeiopolis. The second part of the cam- 
paign occupied only forty-nine days, and the 
whole war was brought to a conclusion in the 
course of three months ; so that, to adopt the 
panegyricof Cicero (pro Leg. Man. 12), 'Pompey 
made his preparations for the war at the end of 
the winter, entered upon it at the commence- 
ment of spring, and finished it in the middle of 
the summer.' Pompey was employed during 
the remainder of this year and the beginning of 
the following in visiting the cities of Cilicia and 
Pamphylia, and providing for the government 
of the newly-conquered districts. — During his 
absence from Rome, Pompey was appointed to 
succeed Lucullus in the command of the war 
against Mithridates (66). The bill conferring 
upon him this command was proposed by the 
tribune C. Manilius, and was supported by 
Cicero in an oration which has come down to 
us (pro Lege Manilia). Like the Gabinian 
law, it was opposed by the whole weight of 
the aristocracy, but was carried triumphantly. 
[Manilius.] The power of Mithridates had 
been broken by the previous victories of Lucul- 
lus, and it was only left to Pompey to bring the 
war to a conclusion. On the approach of 
Pompey, Mithridates retreated towards Ar- 
menia, but he was defeated by the Roman 
general ; and as Tigranes now refused to receive 
him into his dominions, Mithridates resolved to 
plunge into the heart of Colchis, and from 
thence make his way to his own dominions in 
the Cimmerian Bosporus. Pompey now turned 
his arms against Tigranes ; but the Armenian 
king submitted to him without a contest, and 
was allowed to conclude a peace with the re- 
public. It was bad policy as well as bad faith 
to fix, as he did, the boundary of the Roman 
dominion towards Parthia at Oruros, 200 miles 
E. of the Euphrates, instead of making that 
river the limit ; and it led to difficulties with 
the Parthians afterwards. In 65 Pompey set 
out in pursuit of Mithridates, but he met with 
much opposition from the Iberians and Alba- 
nians ; and after advancing as far as the river 
Phasis (Faz), he resolved to leave these savage 
districts. [Mithbidates, p. 569.] He accord- 
ingly retraced his steps, and spent the winter at 
Pontus, which he reduced to the form of a 
Roman province. In 64 he marched into Syria, 
deposed the king Antiochus Asiaticus, and 
made that country also a Roman province. In 
63 he advanced further south, in order to 
establish the Roman supremacy in Phoenicia, 
Coele-Syria, and Palestine. The Jews refused 
to submit to him, and shut the gates of Jerusa- 
lem against him ; and it was not till after a 
siege of three months that the city was taken. 
Pompey entered the Holy of Holies, the first 
time that any human being except the high- 
priest had dared to penetrate into this sacred 
spot. It was during the war in Palestine that 



! Pompey received intelligence of the death of 
Mithridates. [Mithridates VI.] Pompey 
spent the next winter in Pontus ; and after 
settling the affairs of Asia, he returned to Italy 
in 62. He disbanded his army almost immedi- 
ately after landing at Brundisium, and thus 
calmed the apprehension of many who feared 
that, at the head of his victorious troops, he 
would seize upon the supreme power. He did not, 
however, return to Rome till the following year 
(61), and he entered the city in triumph on the 
30th of September. He had just completed his 
forty-fifth year, and this was the third time that 
he had enjoyed the honour of a triumph. — With 
this triumph the first and most glorious part of 
Pompey's life may be said to have ended. 
Hitherto his life had been an almost uninter- 
rupted succession of military glory. But now 
he was called upon to play a prominent part in 
the civil commotions of the commonwealth, a 
part for which neither his natural talents nor 
his previous habits had in the least fitted him. 
It would seem that, on his return to Rome, 
Pompey hardly knew what part to take in the 
politics of the city. He had been appointed to 
the command against the pirates and Mithri- 
dates in opposition to the aristocracy, and they 
still regarded him with jealousy and distrust. 
At the same time he was not disposed to unite 
himself to the popular party, which had risen 
into importance during his absence in the 
East, and over which Caesar possessed un- 
bounded influence. The object, however, 
which engaged the immediate attention of 
Pompey was to obtain from the senate a ratifi- 
cation for all his acts in Asia, and an assign- 
ment of lands which he had promised to his 
veterans. The senate, glad of an opportunity 
to put an affront upon a man whom they both 
feared and hated, resolutely refused to sanction 
his measures in Asia. This was the unwisest 
thing they could have done. If they had 
known their real interests, they would have 
sought to win Pompey over to their side, as a 
counterpoise to the growing and more dangerous 
influence of Caesar. But their short-sighted 
policy threw Pompey into Caesar's arms, and 
thus sealed the downfall of their party. Caesar 
promised to obtain for Pompey the ratification 
of his acts ; and Pompey, on his part, agreed to 
support Caesar in all his measures. That they 
might be more sure of carrying their plans into 
execution, Caesar prevailed upon Pompey to 
become reconciled to Crassus, with whom he 
was at variance, but who, by his immense 
wealth, had great influence at Rome. The 
three agreed to assist one another against their 
common enemies ; and thus was first formed the 
first triumvirate. — This union of the three most 
powerful men at Rome crushed the aristocracy 
for the time. Supported by Pompey and 
Crassus, Caesar was able in his consulship (59) 
to carry all his measures. Pompey's acts in 
Asia were ratified, and Caesar's agrarian law, 
which divided the rich Campanian land among 
the poorer citizens, enabled Pompey to fulfil 
the promises he had made to his veterans. In 
order to cement their union more closely, 
Caesar gave to Pompey his daughter Julia in 
marriage. Next year (58) Caesar went to his 
province in Gaul, but Pompey remained in 
Rome. While Caesar was gaining glory and 
influence in Gaul, Pompey was gradually losing 
the confidence of all parties at Rome. The 
senate hated and feared him ; the people had' 
deserted him for their favourite Clodius ; and 
he had no other resource left but to strengthen 



POMPEIUS 



pomponius 



745 



his connexion with Caesar. Thus he came to 
be regarded as the second man in the state, and 
was obliged to abandon the proud position 
which he had occupied for so many years. 
According to an arrangement made with 
Caesar, Pompey and Crassus were consuls for 
a second time in 55. Pompey received as bis 
provinces the two Spains, Crassus obtained 
Syria, while Caesar's government was prolonged 
for five years more — namely, from the 1st of 
January, 53, to the end of the year 49. At the 
end of his consulship Pompey did not go in 
person to his provinces, but sent his legates, 
L. Afranius and M. Petreius, to govern the 
Spains, while he himself remained in the 
neighbourhood of the city. His object now 
was to obtain the dictatorship, and to make 
himself the undisputed master of the Roman 
world. Caesar's increasing power and influence 
had at length made it clear to Pompey that a 
struggle must take place between them sooner 
or later. The death of his wife Julia, in 54, to 
whom he was tenderly attached, broke one link 
which still connected him with Caesar ; and 
the fall of Crassus in the following year (53), in 
the Parthian expedition, removed the only 
person who had the least chance of contesting 
the supremacy with them. In order to obtain 
the dictatorship, Pompey secretly encouraged 
the civil discord with which the state was torn 
asunder ; and such frightful scenes of anarchy 
followed the death of Clodius at the beginning 
of 52, that the senate had now no alternative 
but calling in the assistance of Pompey, who 
was accordingly made sole consul in 52, and 
succeeded in restoring order to the state. Soon 
afterwards Pompey became reconciled to the 
aristocracy, and was now regarded as their ac- 
knowledged head. The history of the civil war 
which followed is related in the Life of Caesar. 
It is only necessary to mention here, that after 
the battle of Pharsalia (48) Pompey sailed to 
Egypt, where he hoped to meet with a favour- 
able reception, since he had been the means of 
restoring to his kingdom the father of the 
young Egyptian monarch. The ministers of 
the latter, however, dreading Caesar's anger if 
they received Pompey, and likewise Pompey's 
resentment if they forbade him to land, resolved 
to release themselves from their difficulties by 
putting him to death. They accordingly sent 
out a small boat, took Pompey on board, and 
rowed for the shore. His wife and friends 
watched him from the ship, anxious to see in 
what manner he would be received by the king, 
who was standing on the edge of the sea with 
his troops ; but just as the boat reached the 
shore, and Pompey was in the act of rising 
from his seat, in order to step on land, he was 
stabbed in the back by Septimius, who had 
formerly been one of his centurions, and was 
now in the service of the Egyptian monarch. 
Pompey was killed on the 29th of September, 
B.C. 48, and had juBt completed his fifty-eighth 
year. His head was cut off, and his body, 
which was thrown out naked on the shore, was 
buried by his freedman Philippns, who had 
accompanied him from the ship. The head was 
brought to Caesar when he arrived in Egypt 
soon afterwards, but he turned away from the 
sight/ shed tears at the melancholy deatli of his 
rival, and put his murderers to death. iPlut. 
Pompeius ; Strab. pp. 555-560.) Pompey was 
married five times. The names of his wives 
were: (1) Antistia; (2) Aemilia; (:l) Mucia; 
(4) Julia; (5) Cornelia. — 11. Cn. Pompeius 
Magnus, elder son of the triumvir by his third 



I wife, Mucia. In the Civil war in 48, he com- 
manded a squadron of the fleet in the Adriatic 
Sea. After his father's death, he crossed over 

I to Africa, and after remaining there a short time, 

I he sailed to Spain in 47. In Spain he was 

1 joined by his brother Sextus and others of his 

j party, who had fled from Africa after their defeat 

; at Thapsus. Here the two brothers collected 
a powerful army, but were defeated by Caesar 
himself at the battle of Munda, fought on the 
17th of March, 55. Cneius escaped from the 
field of battle, but was shortly afterwards 
taken prisoner, and put to death. (Plut. Ant. 
25 ; Bell. Hisp. 39 ; Strab. p. 141.)— 12. Sex. 
Pompeius Magnus, younger son of the trium- 
vir by his third wife, Mucia, was born 75. After 
the battle of Pharsalia he accompanied his 
father to Egypt, and saw him murdered before 
his eyes. After the battle of Munda and the 

J death of his brother, Sextus lived for a tune in 

| concealment in the country of the Lacetani, 
between the Iberus and the Pyrenees ; but 

] when Caesar quitted Spain, he collected a body 

! of troops, and emerged from his lurking-place. 
In the civil wars which followed Caesar's 

! death the power of Sextus increased. He ob- 
tained a large fleet, became master of the sea, 
and eventually took possession of Sicily. His 
fleet enabled him to stop all the supplies of 
corn which were brought to Rome from Egypt 
and the eastern provinces, and such scarcity 

j began to prevail in the city that the triumvirs 
were compelled by the popular discontent to 
make peace with Pompey. This peace was 
concluded at Misenum in 39, but the war was 
renewed in the following year. Octavian made 
great efforts to collect a large and powerful 

j fleet, which he placed under the command of 
Agrippa. In 36 Pompey's fleet was defeated 
off Naulochus, with great loss. Pompey him- 
self fled from Sicily to Lesbos and from Lesbos 
to Asia. Here he was taken prisoner by a body 
of Antony's troops, and carried to Miletus, 

I where he was put to death (35), probably by 
command of Antony, though the latter sought 

j to throw the responsibility of the deed upon his 
officers. (Dio Cass. xlv. 9, xlviii. 17, xlix. 11 ; 

' App. B. C. ii. 105, iii. 4, v. 144.) 
Pompeius Festus. [Festus.] 
Pompeius Trogus. [Jt/stdtos.] 
Pompelon (Pamplona), which name is equiva- 

' lent to Pompeiopolis, so called by the sons of 

i Pompey, was the chief town of the Vascones in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Astu- 
rica to Burdigala (Strab. p. 161 ; Ptol. ii. 0, 67 ; 
Plin. iii. 25). 

Pompilius. [Xuma ; Andronicus.] 
Pomponia. 1. Sister of T. Pomponius Atti- 
cus, was married to Q. Cicero, the brother of 
the orator, B.C. 68. The marriage proved an 
extremely unhappy one. Q. Cicero, after lead- 
ing a miserable life with his wife for almost 
twenty-four years, at length divorced her at the 
end of 45 or in the beginning of the following 
year. [Cicero, No. 6.]— 2. Daughter of T. Pom- 
ponius Atticus. She is also called Caecilia (be- 
cause her father was adopted by Q. Caecilius) 

, and likewise Attica. She was born in 51, and 
she was still quite young when she was married 
to M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Her daughter Vip- 
sania Agrippina married Tiberius, the successor 

1 of Augustus. 

Pomponiana. [Stoechades.] 

Pomponius, Sextus, a distinguished Roman 

: jurist, who lived under Antoninus Pius and M. 
Aurelius. Some modern writers think Qui 

! there were two jurists of this name. The works 



746 



POMPONIUS 



PONTIUS 



of Pomponius are frequently quoted in the 
Digest. 

Pomponius Atticus. [Atticus.] 

Pomponius Bononiensis, the most celebrated 
writer of Fabulae Atellanae, was a native of Bo- 
nonia (Bologna) in northern Italy, about B.C. 
91 (Macrob. i. 10, 3, vi. 9, 4 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 9, 6). 

Pomponius Mela. [Mela,] 

Pomptinae Paludes (Ylovrivai xi/xvai : Palu- 
di Pontine, in English the Pontine Marshes), 
the name of a low marshy plain on the coast of 
Latium between Circeii and Terracina, said to 
have been so called after an ancient town 
Pontia, which disappeared at an early period. 
The plain is about thirty miles long, and from 
seven to eight miles in breadth. The marshes 
are formed chiefly by the rivers Nymphaeus, 
Ufens, and Amasenus, and some other small 
streams, which, instead of finding their way into 
the sea, spread over this plain. (Strab. p. 233 ; 
cf. Verg. Aen. vii. 801 ; Sil. It. viii. 379.) Hence 
the plain is turned into a vast number of 
marshes, the miasmas arising from which are 
exceedingly unhealthy in the summer. At an 
early period, however, they appear not to have 
existed at all, or at any rate to have been con- 
fined to a narrow district. There was a tradi- 
tion that originally there were twenty-three 
towns situated in this plain (Plin. iii. 59). On 
the other hand, Theophrastus states that in his 
time the promontory of Circeii, which had been 
an island (hence by some considered the Homeric 
island of Circe), began to be united to the main- 
land by alluvial deposits (Theophr. H. P. v. 8, 3 ; 
Plin. iii. 58). It is certainly improbable that 
the district was ever habitable and fertile within 
the period of history ; and the cornfields of the 
Pomptinus ager (Liv. ii. 34, iv. 25, vi. 5, 21) 
were probably never more than the borderland 
of the marshes. There was, however, a suffi- 
ciently sound tract in the marshy plain to 
admit of the construction of the Via Appia in 
312, and no doubt the formation of the canal 
helped to preserve the road. This was a navi- 
gable canal, parallel with the road from Forum 
Appii to Feronia (Hor. Sat. v.). That the 
marshes had a tendency to spread is clear from 
the not very successful attempts which were 
made to drain them by the consul Cethegus in 
160, by Julius Caesar and by Augustus. (Liv. 
Bp. 46 ; Suet. Jul. 44 ; Plut. Caes. 58 ; Dio Cass, 
xliv. 5 ; Hor. A. P. 65.) Juvenal mentions the 
marshes as a haunt of highwaymen (iii. 307), 
no doubt, because they were thinly inhabited. 
Subsequently the marshes again spread over 
the whole plain, and the Via Appia entirely dis- 
appeared ; and it was not until the pontificate 
of Pius VI. that any serious attempt was made 
to drain them. The works were begun in 1778, 
and the greater part of the marshes was drained ; 
but the plain is still unhealthy in the great 
heats of the summer. 

C. Pomptinus, was praetor B.C. 63, when he 
was employed by Cicero in apprehending the 
ambassadors of the Allobroges. He afterwards 
obtained the province of Gallia Narbonensis, 
and in 61 defeated the Allobroges, who had 
invaded the province. He triumphed in 54, after 
suing in vain for this honour for some years. 
(Sail. Cat. 45 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 47, xxxix. 65.) 

Pons, a common name for stations on the 
Roman roads at the passage of rivers, some of 
which stations on the more important roads grew 
into villages or towns. 1. Pons Aelius (New- 
castle-upon-Tyne), in the N. of Britain. — 2. P. 
Aeni (Pfii nzen) in Vindelicia, at the passage of 
the Inn, was a fortress with a Boman garrison. 



— 3. P. Aureoli (Pontirolo), in Gallia Transpa- 
dana on the road from Bergamum to Medio- 
lanum, derived its name from one of the Thirty 
Tyrants who was defeated and slain by Claudius 
in this place (Aur. Vict. Caes. 33). — 4. P. Campa- 
nus, in Campania between Sinuessa and Urbana 
on the Savo. — 5. P. Mosae (prob. Maastricht) 
in the N. of G-aul (Tac. Hist. iv. 66).— 6. P. 
Saravi (Saarbriick), on the road from Divo- 
durum (Metz) to Argentoratum (Strasshurg). 

Pontia (Ponza), a rocky island, about five 
miles long, off the coast of Latium opposite 
Formiae, which was taken by the Bomans from 
the Volscians, and colonised, B.C. 313 (Liv. ix. 
28 ; Strab. p. 233). Under the Bomans it was 
used as a place of banishment for state crimi- 
nals (Suet. Tib. 54, Cal. 15). There is a group 
of smaller islands round Pontia, which are some- 
times called Insulae Pontiae (Plin. iii. 82). 

Ponticus, an epic poet and a friend both of 
Ovid and Propertius. He wrote a poem on 
the Theban legendary wars, which Propertius 
praises as being in the Homeric style. (Propert. 
i. 7, 1, i. 9, 9 ; Ov. Trist. iv. 10, 47.) 

Pontlnus (YIovtIvos), a river and mountain in 
Argolis near Lerna, with a sanctuary of Athene 
Saitis. 

C. Pontius, son of Herennius Pontius, the 

general of the Samnites in B.C. 321, defeated the 
Boman army under the two consuls T. Veturius 
Calvinus and Sp. Postumius Albinus in one of 
the mountain passes in the neighbourhood of 
Caudium. The survivors, who were completely 
at the mercy of the Samnites, were dismissed 
unhurt by Pontius. They had to surrender 
their arms, and to pass under the yoke ; and as 
the price of their deliverance, the consuls and 
the other commanders swore, in the name of 
the republic, to a humiliating peace. The Bo- 
man state, however, refused to ratify the treaty. 
Nearly thirty years afterwards, Pontius was de- 
feated by Q. Fabius Gurges (292), was taken 
prisoner, and was put to death after the triumph 
of the consul (Liv. ix. 1). 

Pontius Aquila. [Aqtjila.] 

Pontius Pilatus, was the sixth procurator of 
Judaea, and the successor of Valerius Gratus 
(Tac. Ann. xv. 44). He held the office for ten 
years in the reign of Tiberius, from A.D. 26 to 
36, and it was during his government that 
Christ taught, suffered, and died. By his tyran- 
nical conduct he excited an insurrection at 
Jerusalem, and at a later period commotions in 
Samaria also, which were not put down without 
the loss of life. The Samaritans complained of 
his conduct to Vitellius, the governor of Syria, 
who deprived him of his office, and sent him to 
Borne to answer before the emperor the accusa- 
tions that were brought against him. Eusebius 
states that Pilatus put an end to his own life 
early in the reign of Caligula, worn out by the 
many misfortunes he had experienced (Euseb. 
H.E. ii. 7). An old tradition (possibly founded 
on a similarity of name) says that he drowned 
himself in the lake on Mt. Pilatus near Lucerne, 
having wandered thither from a place of banish- 
ment in Gaul. The early Christian writers 
refer to an official report, made by Pilatus to 
the emperor Tiberius, of the condemnation and 
death of Christ. It is very doubtful whether 
this document was genuine ; and it is certain 
that the Acts of Pilate, as they are called, which 
are extant in Greek, as well as his two Latin 
letters to the emperor, are the productions of a 
later age. 

Pontius Telesinus. 1. A Samnite, and com- 
mander of a Samnite army, with which he fought 



PONTUS 

against Sulla. He was defeated by Sulla in a 
hard-fought battle near the Colline gate, B.C. 82. 
He fell in the fight ; his head was cut off, and 
carried under the walls of Praeneste, to let the 
younger Marius know that his last hope of 
succour was gone. (Veil. Pat. ii. 27.) — 2. Brother 
of the preceding, was shut up in Praeneste with 
the younger Marius, when his brother was de- 
feated by Sulla. After the death of the elder 
Pontius, Marius and Telesinus, finding it im- 
possible to escape from Praeneste, resolved to 
die by one another's hands. Telesinus fell 
first, and Marius put an end to his own life, or 
was slain by his slave. [Marius.] 

Pontus (d Uovtos), the NE.-most district of 
Asia Minor, along the coast of the Euxine, E. 
of the river Halys, having originally no specific 
name, was spoken of as the country iv noVr^, 
on the Pontus (Euxinus), and hence acquired 
the name of Pontus, which is first found in 
Xenophon's Anabasis (v. 6, 15). The term, 
however, was used very indefinitely until the 
settlement of the boundaries of the country as 
a Roman province. Originally it was regarded 
as a part of Cappadocia, but its parts were 
best known by the names of the different tribes 
who dwelt along the coast, and of whom some 
account is given by Xenophon, in the Anabasis. 
"We learn from the legends of the Argonauts, 
who are represented as visiting this coast, and 
the Amazons, whose abodes are placed about 
the river Thermodon, E. of the Iris, as well as 
from other poetical allusions, that the Greeks 
had some knowledge of these SE. shores of the 
Euxine at a very early period. A great acces- 
sion to such knowledge was made by the 
information gained by Xenophon and his com- 
rades, when they passed through the country 
in their famous retreat and long afterwards 
the Romans became well acquainted with it by 
means of the Mithridatic war, and Pompey's 
subsequent expedition through Pontus into the 
countries at the foot of the Caucasus. Tradi- 
tion said that this district was subdued by 
Ninus (Diod. ii. 2). It was under the rule of 
the Persian kings after Cyrus the Great (Hdt. 
iii. 91, vii. 77). Its subsequent name, Pontus, 
first acquired a political rather than a terri- 
torial importance, through the foundation of a 
new kingdom in it, about the beginning of the 
fourth century B.C., by Ariobarzanes I. The 
history of the gradual growth of this kingdom 
until, under Mithridates VI., it threatened the 
Roman empire in Asia, is given under the names 
of its kings, of whom the following is the list : — 
(1) Ariobarzanes I., exact date unknown; (2) 
Mithridates I., to b.c. 8G8 ; (S) Ariobar- 
zanes II., 8G3-887 ; (4) Mithridates II., 
837-302 ; (5) Mithridatks III., 802-266 ; (6) 
Ariobauzanf.s III., 260-240? (7) Mithri- 
dates IV., 2-10-100? (8) Pharnaces I., 190- 
156? (9) Mithridates V. Euergeteb, 156- 
120? (10) Mithkidates VI. Eupator, 120- 
68; (11) Pharnaces II., 63-47. After the 
death of Pharnaces, the reduced kingdom re- 
tained a nominal existence under his son 
Darius, who was made king by Antony in B.C. 
59, but was soon deposed ; and under Pole- 
mon L and PoLEMON EL, till about a.d. 62, 
when the country was constituted by Nero a 
Roman province (Suet. Ner. 18; Eutrop. vii. 
14). Of this province the W. boundary was the 
river Halys, which divided it from Paphlagonia ; 
the furthest E. limit was tho Isis (a small river 
not far S. of the Phasis), which separated it 
from Colchis; on the S. it was divided from 
Galatiu, Cappadocia, and Armenia Minor by 



PONTUS 



747 



the great chain of the Paryadres and by its 
branches. It was divided into the three dis- 
tricts of Pontus Galaticus, in the W., border- 
ing on Galatia, P. Polemoniacus in the centre, 
so called from its capital Polemonium, and P. 
Cappadocius in the E. bordering on Cappadocia 
(Armenia Minor). In the new division of the 
provinces under Constantine, these three dis- 
tricts were reduced to two : Helenopontus in 
the W., so called in honour of the emperor's 
mother, Helena, and Pontus Polemoniacus in 
the E. The country was also divided into 
smaller districts, named from the towns they 
surrounded and the tribes who peopled them. 
Pontus was a mountainous country : wild and 
barren in the E., where the great chains 
approach the Euxine ; but in the W. watered 
by the great rivers Halys and Iris and their 
tributaries, the valleys of which, as well as the 
land along the coast, are extremely fertile. Be- 
sides corn and olives, it was famous for its fruit 
trees, and some of the best of our common 
fruits are said to have been brought to Europe 
from this quarter : for example, the cherry (see 
Cerasus). The sides of the mountains were 
covered with fine timber, and their lower slopes 
with box and other shrubs. The E. part was 
rich in minerals, and contained the celebrated 
iron mines of the Chalybes. (Strab. pp. 545, 
549 ; Theophrast. H.P. iv. 5, viii. 4, ix. 16, xix. 
17; Xen. An. iv. 8, 16.) Pontus was peopled 
by numerous tribes, belonging probably to very 
different races, though the Semitic (Syro- 
Arabian) race appears to have been the prevail- 
ing one, and hence the inhabitants were included 
under the general name of Leucosyri. [The 
chief of these peoples are spoken of in separate 
articles.] 

Pontus Euxinus, or simply Pontus (6 riovros, 
ndvros Eu|€ieos : rh TlovTixhv IleAayos, Mare 
Euxinum : the Black Sea, Turk. Kara Deniz, 
Grk. Maurethalassa, Russ. Tchcriago More 
or Czarne-More, all names of the same mean- 
ing, and supposed to have originated from the 
terror with which it was at first regarded by 
the Turkish mariners, as the first wide expanse 
of sea with which they became acquainted), the 
great inland sea enclosed by Asia Minor on the 
S., Colchis on the E., Sarmatia on the N., and 
Dacia and Thracia on the W., and having 
no other outlet than the narrow Bosporus 
Thraciuk. in the SW. corner. It lies between 
28° and 41° 80' E. long., and between 41° and 
46° 40' N. lat., its length being about 700 miles, 
and its breadth varying from 400 to 160. Its 
surface contains more than 180,000 square 
miles. It receives the drainage of an immense 

I extent of country in Europe and in Asia, but 
much the greater portion of its waters flows 
from the former continent by the following 

' rivers: the Ister or Danubius (Danube), whose 
basin contains the greater part of central 
Europe ; the Tyrus or Danastris (Dniester), 
Hypanis or Bogus ilioug), Borysthenes (Dnie- 
per), and Tanai's (Don), which drain the im- 
mense plains of S. Russia, and flow into the N. 
side of the Euxine, the last of. them- (i.e. the 
Tunais) through the Palus Maeotis (Sea of 
Azov). Tho space thus drained is calculated at 
above 860,000 square miles, or nearly one-fifth 
of the whole surface of Europe. In Asia, the 
basin of the Euxine contains, first, the trian- 
gular piece of Sarmatia Asiatica between the 
Tnnals on the N., the Caucasus on the 8., and 
on the E. the Hippici M., which form the water- 
shed dividing the tributaries of the Euxine 
from those of the Caspian: the waters of this 



748 



POPILLIUS 



PORPHYRION 



space flow into the Tanai's and the Palus 
Maeotis, and the largest of them is the Hypanis 
or Vardanes (Kuban), which comes down to the 
Palus Maeotis and the Euxine at their junction, 
and divides its waters between them ; next we 
have the narrow strip of land between the 
Caucasus and the NE. coast of the sea ; then, 
on the E., Colchis, hemmed in between the 
Caucasus and Moschici M., and watered by the 
Phasis ; and lastly, on the S., the whole of that 
part of Asia Minor which lies between the 
Paryadres and Antitaurus on the E. and SE., 
the Taurus on the S., and the highlands of 
Phrygia on the W., the chief rivers of this 
portion being the Iris (Yeshil Irmak), the Halys 
(Kizil Irmak), and the Sangarius (Sakariyeh). 
The whole of the Asiatic basin of the Euxine 
is estimated at 100,000 square miles. As might 
be expected from this vast influx of fresh water, 
the water is much less salt than that of the 
ocean. A curious prediction was founded upon 
this great influx by Polybius (iv. 89-43) — that 
the Euxine would in time become choked up 
and converted into dry land by the deposits of 
all these rivers (cf. Strab. pp. 49, 50). The 
great bank of which he speaks as being one 
day's sail off the mouths of the Danube, is not 
mentioned by other writers and has no exist- 
ence now. The waters which the Euxine 
receives from the rivers that flow directly into 
it, and also from the Palus Maeotis (Sea of 
Azov) through the Bosporus Cimmerius (Straits 
of Kaffa or Yenikaleh), find their exit at the 
SW. corner, through the Bosporus Thracius 
(Channel of Constantinople), into the Pro- 
pontis (Sea of Marmara), and thence in a 
constant rapid current through the Helles- 
pontus (Straits of Gallipoli or Dardanelles) 
into the Aegeum Mare (Archipelago). — The 
Argonautic and other legends show that the 
Greeks had some acquaintance with this sea at 
a very early period. It is said that they at first 
called ifA^vos (inhospitable), from the savage 
character of the peoples on its coast, and from 
the supposed terrors ol' its navigation, and 
that afterwards, on their iavourite principle of 
euphemism (i.e. abstaining from words of evil 
omen), they changed its Tiame to Ev^evos, Ion. 
Ev^eivos (hospitable) (Ov. Trist. iv. 4, 55 ; 
cf. Scymn. 734 ; Strab. p. 298 ; Mel. i. 19, 6 ; 
Plin. vi. 1.) The Greeks of Asia Minor, espe- 
cially the people of Miletus, founded many 
colonies and commercial emporiums on its 
shores, and as early as the Persian wars we 
find Athens carrying on a regular trade with 
these settlements in the corn grown in the 
great plains on its N. side (the Ukraine) and in 
the Chersonesus Taurica (Crimea), which have 
ever since supplied W. Europe with large quan- 
tities of grain. The history of the settlements 
themselves will be found under their several 
names. The Romans had a pretty accurate 
knowledge of the sea. An account of its 
coasts exists in Greek, entitled Periphis Maris 
Euxini, ascribed to Arrian, who lived in the 
reign of Hadrian. [Arrianus.] 

Popilllus Laenas. [Laenas.] 

Poplicola. [Publicola.] 

Poppaea Sablna. [Sabina.] 

Poppaeus Sabinus." [Sabinus.] 

Populonia, or -!um (Populoniensis : Populo- 
nia), an ancient town of Etruria, situated on a 
lofty hill, sinking abruptly to the sea, and form- 
ing a peninsula. According to one tradition it 
was founded by the Corsicans ; but according 
to another it was a colony from Volaterrae, or 
was taken from the Corsicans by the V olater- 



rani. (Strab. p. 223 ; Verg. Aen. x. 174 ; Serv. 
ad loc.) It was not one of the twelve Etruscan 
cities, and was never a place of political im- 
portance ; but it carried on an extensive com- 
merce, and was the principal seaport of Etruria. 
Part of its trade was in iron obtained from the 
opposite island of Ilva (Liv. xxviii. 45). It was 
destroyed by Sulla in the civil wars, and was 
ahnost in ruins in the time of Strabo, but is 
mentioned as an existing town by Pliny (iii. 50). 




Coin of Populonia in Etruria (early in 5th cent. B.C.). 
Obv., Gorgon's head ; rev., plain. 



There are still remains of the walls of the 
ancient Populonia, showing that the city was 
only about lg mile in circumference. 

Porcia. 1. Sister of Cato Uticensis, married 
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul B.C. 54, who 
was slain in the battle of Pharsalia. She died 
in 46. (Plut. Cat. i. 41 ; Cic. ad Att. ix. 3, xiii. 
37, 48.)— 2. Daughter of Cato Uticensis by his 
first wife, Atilia. She was married first to M. 
Bibulus, consul 59, to whom she bore three 
children. Bibulus died in 48 ; and in 45 she 
married M. Brutus, the assassin of Julius Caesar. 
She inherited all her father's republican prin- 
ciples, and likewise his courage and firmness 
of will. She induced her husband on the night 
before the 15th of March to disclose to her the 
conspiracy against Caesar's life, and she is re- 
ported to have wounded herself in the thigh in 
order to show that she had a courageous soul 
and could be trusted with the secret. (Plut. 
Cat. 25, 73, Brut. 2, 13, 15, 23 ; App. B. C. iv. 
136 ; Dio Cass. xliv. 13.) She put an end to her 
own life after the death of Brutus, in 42. The 
common tale was, that her friends, suspecting 
her design, had taken all weapons out of her 
way, and that she therefore destroyed herself 
by swallowing live coals. (Plut. Brut. 53 ; 
Mart. i. 43 ; Dio Cass, xlvii. 49 ; Val. Max. iv. 
6, 5.) The real fact may have been that she 
suffocated herself by the vapour of a charcoal 
fire, which we know was a frequent means of 
self-destruction among the Romans. 

Porcifera (Polcevera), a river of Liguria, 
about two miles W. of Genoa (Plin. iii. 48). 

Porcius Cato. [Cato.] 

Porcius Festus. [Festus.] 

Porcius Latro. [Latro.] 

Porcius Licinus. [Licinus.] 

Pordoselene or Poroselene (nop8o<re\i)vr), 
TlopoatXiivri), the largest of the group of islands 
called Hecatonnesi, which lie between Lesbos 
and the coast of Asia Minor (Strab. p. 618 ; 
Ptol. v. 2, 5 ; Plin. v. 137). 

Porphyrio, Pomponius, one of the most valu- 
able among the ancient commentators on Ho- 
race. He lived after Festus and Aero, probably 
in the third or fourth century a.d. — Ed. by 
Meyer, Leips. 1874. 

Porphyrion (Tloptpvplav), one of the giants 
who fought against the gods. When he at- 
tempted to offer violence to Hera, or to throw 
the island of Delos against the gods, Zeus 
hurled a thunderbolt at him, and Heracles 
completed his destruction with his arrows. 

[GlGANTES.] 



PORPHYRIS 



PORTUNUS 



749 



Porphyris (Xlop<pvpls), an earlier name of the I nished at his courage, the king bade him depart 
island of NlSYBUS. in peace ; and Scaevola, as he was henceforward 

Porphyrites Mons (Jlop<pvpWiis : Gebel called, told him, out of gratitude, to make peace 
Dokhan), a range of mountains on theW. shore with Rome, since 300 noble youths had sworn 
of the Red Sea opposite the most southerly to take the life of the king, and he was the first 
part of Arabia (Ptol. iv. 5, 27) upon whom the lot had fallen. Porsenna there- 

Porphyrius iTU>p<pvpios), usually called Por- ; upon made peace with the Romans, and with- 
phyry, the celebrated antagonist of Christianity, drew his troops from the Janiculum after 
was a Greek philosopher of the Neo-Platonic receiving twenty hostages from the Romans, 
school. He was born a.d. 233 either in Batunea Such was the tale by which Roman vanity con- 
in Palestine or at Tyre. His original name was cealed one of the earliest and greatest disasters 
Malchus, the Greek form of the Syro-Phoenician of the city. (Liv. ii. 9-15; Plut. Popl. 16; 
Melech, a word which signified king. The Dionys. v. 21.) The real fact is, that this war 
name Porphyrias (in allusion to the usual was an invasion by the Etruscan king for 
colour of royal robes) was subsequently devised purposes of conquest, not from any desire to re- 
for him by his preceptor Longinus. After store the Tarquins : otherwise their restoration 
studying under Origen at Caesarea, and under would have been a condition of the treaty. 
Apollonius and Longinus at Athens, he settled This part of the story appears to be an episode 
at Rome in his thirtieth year, and there be- ] introduced to glorify the establishment of the 
came a diligent disciple of Plotinus, who en- republic, and possibly the real wars of Porsenna 
trusted him with the task of correcting aud j may have been at a different period. But 
arranging his writings. [Plotinus.] After re- ' whenever the war occurred, Rome was com- 
maining in Rome six years, Porphyry, for the j pletely conquered by Porsenna. This is ex- 
sake of his health, took a voyage to Sicily, where i pressly stated by Tacitus (Hist. iii. 72), and is 
he lived for some time. It was during his resi- | confirmed by other writers. Dionysius states 
dence in Sicily that he wrote his treatise against 1 (v. 34) that the Romans acknowledged the 
the Christian religion, in fifteen books. After- | supremacy of Porsenna by sending him a 
wards he returned to Rome, where he continued sceptre, a royal robe, and an ivory chair. Pliny 
to teach until his death, which took place about tells us (xxxiv. 139) that so thorough was the 
305 or 306. Late in life he married Marcella, subjection of the Romans that they were ex- 
the widow of one of his friends, and the mother [ pressly prohibited from using iron for any other 
of seven children, with the view, as he avowed, purpose but agriculture. The Romans, how- 
of superintending their education. As a writer ever did not long remain subject to the Etrus- 
Porphyry deserves considerable praise. His i cans. After the conquest of Rome, Aruns, the 
style is clear, and his learning was most exten- son of Porsenna, proceeded to attack Alicia, 
sive. His most celebrated work was his treatise but was defeated before the city by the united 
against the Christian religion ; but of its nature forces of the Latin cities, assisted by the Greeks 
and merits we are not able to judge, as it has of Cumae (Liv. ii. 15; Dionys. v. 36, vii. 2-llJ. 
not come down to us : it was destroyed by 
order of the emperor Theodosius. Among 
his extant works his Life of Pythagoras and 
Life of Plotinus are the best known. 

Porphyrlus. Publilius Optatianus, a Roman 
poet of small merit, who lived in the age of 
Constantine the Great. He was praefectus 
urbi in 329 and 333. His verses are in the 
highest degree artificial, many of them puzzles 
in the acrostic and other forms rather than 
poetry. He was brought into notice by a 
Panegyric upon Constantine. — Ed. by L. Miiller, 
Leips. 1877, and partly in Wernsdorf, Poet. 
Lat. Min. 

Porsenna or Porsena,* Lars, king of the 
Etruscan town of Clusium, marched against 
Rome at the head of a vast army, in order to 
restore Tarquinius Superbus to the throne. 
He took possession of the hill Janiculum, and 
would have entered the city by the bridge which 
connected Rome with the Janiculum, had it not 
been for the superhuman prowess of Horatius 
Cocles, who kept the whole Etruscan army at 
bay, while his comrades broke down the bridge 
behind him. [Cocles.J The Etruscans pro- 
ceeded to lay siege to the city, which soon began 
to suffer from famine. Thereupon a young 
Roman, named C. Mucins, resolved to deliver 
his country by murdering the invading king. 
He accordingly went over to the Etruscan 
camp, but, ignorant of the person of Porsenna, 
killed the royal secretary instead. Seized, and 
threatened witli torture, he thrust his right 
hand into the fire on the altar, and there let it 
burn, to show how little he heeded pain. Asto- 

9 The quantity of the penultimate is variable. It 
is short in Horace anil Martini, bat Ionk in Virgil 
(II or. Epo'l. xvi. \, Murt. *iv. 98; Vert;. Am. viii. 
«46.) 



Ihe Etruscans appear, m consequence, to have 
been confined to their own territory on the 
right bank of the Tiber, and the Romans to 
have availed themselves of the opportunity to 
recover their independence. — The tomb of Por- 
senna at Clusium, of great size and magnifi- 
cence, is described by Pliny (xxxvi. 91 J, and 
remains of it have been discovered at Chiusi. 
[Clusium; Diet, of Ant. art. Labyrinthus.] 

Porthaon iUopdaaiv), son of Agenor and Epi- 
caste, was king of Pleuron and Calydon in 
Aetolia, and married to Euryte, by whom he 
became the father of Oeneus, Agrius, Alcathous, 
Melas, Leucopeus, and Sterope. [Oeneus.] 

Porthmus inopfl/aos : Porto Bufalo), a har- 
bour in Euboea, belonging to Eretria, opposite 
to Oropus (Dem. Phil. iii. p. 119, de Cor. p. 
248 ; Plin. iv. 64). 

Portunus or Portumnus, originally the god 

, of portae and partus, i.e. of doors, gates and 
harbours (as being the river or maritime 
entrances (Paul. p. 56). He was thus at first 
identical with Janus, and, like him, represented 

. with a key in his hand [Janus, p. 457, aj : but 
gradually the harbour-god was distinguished 
from the god of gates, and Portunus received a 

J separate worship as the protecting deity who 

I guarded the harbour and was invoked to grant 
a safe return to the haven. (Cic. N. D. ii. 26, 

' 56; Verg. Aen. v. 241.) When Greek mytho- 
logy influenced that of the Romans, Portunus 

' became identified with the Greek sea-god 

i Palaemon or Melicertes [Palaemon], and 
sometimes with Neptunus. Portunus had a 
temple on the Tiber near the Pons Aemilius, 
and another near Ostia, whence he was con- 
nected with the river god Tiberinus ; but it is 
probably a mistake to say that he was identi- 

I fled with Tiberinus. The two names appear as 



750 



POEUS 



POSEIDON 



distinct in the same calendar of festivals. The 
festival of the Portunalia at which Portunus 
was worshipped took place on the 17th of 
August. [Diet, of Ant. s.v.] 

Porus (Ilcupos) king of the Indian provinces 
E. of the river Hydaspes, offered a formidable 
resistance to Alexander when the latter 
attempted to cross this river B.C. 327. The 
battle which he fought with Alexander was one 
of the most severely contested which occurred 
during the whole of Alexander's campaigns. 
Porus displayed great personal courage in the 
battle, and when brought before the conqueror, 
he proudly demanded to be treated in a manner 
worthy of a king. This magnanimity at once 
conciliated the favour of Alexander, who not 
only restored to him his dominions, but in- 
creased them by large accessions of territory. 
From this time Porus became firmly attached 
to his generous conqueror, whom he accom- 
panied to the Hyphasis. In 321 Porus was 
treacherously put to death by Eudemus, who 
commanded the Macedonian troops in the 
adjacent province. We are told that Porus 
was a man of gigantic stature — not less than 
five cubits in height — distinguished for personal 
strength and prowess in war. (Arrian, v. 18 ; 
Plut. Alex. 60; Curt. viii. 14.) 

Poseidon (nocraSHv), called Neptunus by 
the Romans, was the god of the sea. (In so far 
as he was distinguished from Oceanus, his rule 
referred to the Mediterranean : otherwise it 
was generally over all seas.) His name is 
connected with tt&tos, ttoutos and TroTa.fj.6s, 
according to which he is the god of the flowing 
waters, whether of land or sea : hence his 
epithet (pvTa.Kp.ios, as nourisher of plants. Ac- 
cording to the genealogy recognised by the 
earliest Greek poets, he was a son of Cronos 
and Rhea (whence he is called Cronius, and by 
Latin poets Satumius). He was accordingly a 
brother of Zeus, Hades, Hera, Hestia and 
Demeter, and it was determined by lot that 
he should rule over the sea. (11. xv. 187-191 ; 
Hes. Th. 453, 464.) Like his brothers and 
sisters, he was, after his birth, swallowed by his 
father Cronos, but thrown up again (Apollod. i. 
1, 5, i. 2, 1). According to the story given by 
Pausanias (viii. 8, 2), he was concealed by 
Rhea, after his birth, among a flock of lambs, 
and his mother pretended to have given birth 
to a young horse, which she gave to Cronos to 
devour. Li the Homeric poems Poseidon is 
described as equal to Zeus in dignity, but less 
powerful. He resents the attempts of Zeus to 
intimidate him ; he even threatens his mightier 
brother, and once conspired with Hera and 
Athene to put him into chains ; but on other 
occasions we find him submissive to Zeus. (II. 
i. 309, viii. 210, xv. 165-190, 209-212 ; Od. xiii. 
148.) The palace of Poseidon was in the depth 
of the sea near Aegae in Achaia, where he kept 
his horses with brazen hoofs and golden manes 
(II. xiii. 21 ; Od. v. 381). With these horses he 
drives in a chariot over the waves of the sea, 
which become smooth as he approaches, and 
the monsters of the deep recognise him and 
play around his chariot (II. xiii. 27 ; Verg. 
Aen. v. 817 ; Ap. Rh. hi. 1240). Although he 
generally dwelt in the sea, still he also appears 
in Olympus in the assembly of the gods (II. 
xx. 13). — Poseidon in conjunction with Apollo 
is said to have built the walls of Troy for 
Laomedon, whence Troy is called Neptunia 
Pergama (II. vii. 452 ; Eur. Andr. 1014 ; Ov. 
Fast. i. 525). Laomedon refused to give these 
gods the reward which had been stipulated, and 



even dismissed them with threats. Poseidon 
in consequence sent a sea monster, which was 
on the point of devouring Laomedon's daughter 
when it was killed by Heracles, and he con- 
tinued to bear an implacable hatred against 
the Trojans. [Hesione.] He sided with the 
Greeks in the war against Troy, sometimes 
witnessing the contests from the heights of 
Thrace, and sometimes interfering in person, 
asssuming the appearance of a mortal hero and 
encouraging the Greeks, while Zeus favoured 
the Trojans (II. xiii. 12, 44, xiv. 136). In the 
Odyssey, Poseidon is hostile to Odysseus, 
whom he prevents from returning home be- 
cause he had blinded Polyphemus, a son of 
Poseidon by the nymph Thoosa (Od. i. 20, v. 
286, 366, xi. 101 ; Ov. Trist. i. 2, 9).— Being the 
ruler of the sea, he is described as gathering 
clouds and calling forth storms, but at the same 
time he has it in his power to grant a successful 
voyage and save those who are in danger ; and 
all other marine divinities are subject to him. 
As the sea surrounds and holds the earth, 
he himself is described as the god who holds 
the earth (70050x05)) and who has it in his 
power to shake the earth 'Evvocriyatos, ivoai- 
xSav, KivrjTTip yas, tivoktoio yaias, so that 
Hades feared lest he should tear up its founda- 
tion and reveaLthe depths below (II. xx. 57). 
In this belief it is possible also that there may 
have been some perception of the fact that 
earthquakes are more frequent and violent near 
the sea-coast.— Among the many local stories 
of Poseidon the most famous is the legend of 
the naming of Athens. It is said that when 
Poseidon and Athene disputed as to which of 
them should give the name to the capital of 
Attica, the gods decided that it should receive 
its name from the deity who should bestow 
upon man the most useful gift. Poseidon then 
created the horse, and Athene called forth the 
olive tree ; in consequence of which the honour 
was conferred upon the goddess. (Hdt. viii. 
55 ; Apollod. iii. 14 ; Serv. ad Georg. i. 12.) It 
should be noticed as regards this story that 
Poseidon is really Erechtheus, the local deity 
of Athens who has been transformed into a 
hero. The myth probably expresses the fact 
that Poseidon, or Poseidon-Erechtheus, was 
worshipped by the old Ionian (or so-called 
Pelasgian) inhabitants of Attica, and after the 
later immigration occupied a subordinate place 
in the festivals of the city. At Colonus the 
worship of Athene was united with the (prob- 
ably) older worship of UoffeiSuv "Ittttios. — The 
following legends also respecting Poseidon 
deserve to be mentioned. In conjunction with 
Zeus he fought against Cronos and the Titans ; 
and in the contest with the Giants he pursued 
Polybotes across the sea as far as Cos, and 
there killed him by throwing the island upon 
him (Apollod. i. 6, 2 ; Paus. i. 2, 4). He further 
crushed the Centaurs, when they were pursued 
by Heracles, under a mountain in Leucosia, the 
island of the Sirens (Apollod. ii. 5, 4). He 
sued together with Zeus for the hand of Thetis ; 
but he withdrew when Themis prophesied that 
the son of Thetis would be greater than his 
father (Apollod. iii. 13, 5 ; Tzetz. ad Lyc. 178). 
At the request of Minos, king of Crete, Poseidon 
caused a bull to rise from the sea, which the 
king promised to sacrifice; but when Minos 
treacherously concealed the animal among a 
herd of oxen, the god punished Minos by 
causing his wife Pasiphae to fall in love with 
the bull (Apollod. iii. 1, 3). — Poseidon was 
married to Amphitrite, by whom he had three 



POSEIDON 



751 



children, Triton, Rhode, and Benthesicyme ; 
but he had also a vast number of children by 
other divinities and by mortal women [see 
especially Demeter ; Tyro\ It is, no doubt, 
because the sea is rough and stormy that 
many of the children of Poseidon are described 
as rough and passionate, or even savage and 
gigantic [see Aureus, Antaeus, Busmis, 
Cercyox, Cycnus, Procrustes, Sciron.] — 
Poseidon seems to have been worshipped 
originally by the oldest branches of the Ionic 
race in especial. It is possible that when they 
were an inland people mainly he was the god 
of running streams and wells, and that as they 
occupied more and more sea-coast towns his 
worship took particularly the form, which 
eventually everywhere prevailed, appropriate 
to the god of the sea. In Thessaly, a well- 
watered country, without many sea-ports, his 
character was rather that of a <rod of rivers, who 
was therefore a lover of nymphs ; and, as the 
Thessalians were in early times an equestrian 
people, it naturally happened that Poseidon was 
accepted by them as the god of horses ; and 
other circumstances also may have contributed 
to this — the impression of the horses' hoofs 
trampling round the sacred streams and springs, 
which led also to the stories of Hippocrene 
'Pegasus] ; and perhaps also the idea of horses 
shaking the earth in their gallop. This is a 
more likely origin of his being regarded as the 
god of horses than the comparison of crested 
waves with horses. In this aspect he was n. 
lirmos, or 'Imrtos ava£ : he was honoured in 
chariot races, as at the Isthmian games, and the 
giver of famous horses (II. xxiii. 277 ; Pind. 01. 
i. 40, Pijth. vi. 43 ; Eur. Phoen. 1707 ; Soph. 
O. C. 712; Pans. i. 30, 4, vi. 20, 8, viii. 25, 5). 
The worship of Poseidon was specially notice- 
able in Thessaly, of which country he was 
indeed the national god, and it belonged, no 
doubt, to the early inhabitants, the so-called 
Pelasgian races. Poseidon, as their traditions 
recorded, not only gave them their rivers and 
their horses, but he made their land, by cleaving 
the way through Tempe for the waters to 
escape. (Hence his epithet vfrpaioi : Pind. 
Pyth. iv. 138.) Thence it had spread to j 
Boeotia, and was probably supreme there J 
before it was superseded by the worship of 
Apollo and of Dionysus. In Attica, as has been i 
seen, it was established at a very early time, 
and in the Peloponnesus also, which is said to 
have been an oiKr\rripiov XlorrfiSuvos in pre- 
Dorian times (Diod. xv. 49), it held an im- 
portant place. It may have been brought ; 
thither by the old Ionian settlers from Asia — 
to which country it was again brought back to 
be celebrated in the great Panionian festival 
— or it may have been planted in various 
centres of the Peloponnesus by races coming 
southwards from Thessaly : for instance, from 
the race of Pelias and Neleus may have arisen j 
the worship of Poseidon at Pylos (Od. iii. ») ; 
from the Lapithae that in Attica. The most 
famous seats of this worship in the Pelopon- 
nesus were Aegae and Helice in Achaia (II. 
viii. 503 ; Hdt. i. 145 ; Paus. vii. 25, 7), and it is 
remarkable that Helice was destroyed by an 
earthquake in 873 B.C. (Strab. p. 384) : possibly 
it had a reputation for earthquakes in earlier 
times ; at Onchestus (Paus. ix. 26, (1) ; at 
Calausia and at other cities which united in the 
Isthmian games; especially also at Taenarum 
and Maloa (Ap. Hh. iii. 1240) the promontories 
of Lacedaemon, whence probably it was carried 
to Tarentum (Hor. Od. i. 28, 29), having been 



adopted by the Dorians from their predecessors. 
[For the worship of Poseidon at Athens, see 
Erechtheusi.] — The attribute of Poseidon, 
which distinguishes him also in works of art, 
was especially the trident (Od. v. 291; Apollod. 
i. 2, 1), with which his various works of power 
are done, the rocks are cleft, the horse or the 
spring of water is produced from the earth, and 
the depths of the sea are stirred. It is gener- 
ally held that the form of his trident was 
merely adopted from the three-pronged weapon 
with which the fisher struck the tunny — and 
this seems to be the idea of Aeschylus when he 
calls the trident of Poseidon ixSvpoAos (Sept. 
123) : on the other hand, a recent writer has 
brought arguments to show that it was a 
development of the sceptre, headed by a lotus 
or fleur-de-lys, such as was commonly painted 
on vases as an emblem of power for Zeus, Hades 
on Poseidon. The bull was also an attribute, 
symbolising the roar of the stormy sea, whence 
Poseidon had the epithet ravpeos or ravpeios 
(that the hunting of the bull was the sport in 
early times of the Thessalians may also have had 
something to do with this connexion) ; bulls were 
sacrificed to him (Od. iii. 1), and the ministers 
of his sacrifices at Ephesus were called ravpot 
(Athen. p. 245). On the other hand, the dolphin 
belonged to him as the symbol of his power to 
calm the sea (Ael. 
PL. A. xii. 45). In 
art he never ap- 
pears enthroned, 
but usually as a 
standing figure 
with the trident : 
sometimes he is 
fully clothed : 
sometimes he is 
naked : in the coin 
of Paestum [see 
p. 1541], as in the 
medal engraved 
here, he is naked 
except for a cloak 
thrown over his 
arm, and on the re- 
verse the attribute 
of the bull also 
appears. In the 

colossal statue of Poseidon in the Lateran 
Museum the god is standing, naked, with the 
trident in his left hand and a rudder in his 
right, one foot is resting on a ship joined to 
which is a dolphin's head. All these are 
common attributes, as may be gathered from 
coins (see coin 
of Hadrian, en- 
graved here) ; 
but in this sta- 
tue most of 
them appear to 
be restorations. 
The typical 
head of Posei- 
don resembles 
that of Zeus, 
but has less of 
repose in it. 
The contest be- 
tween Posei- 
don and Athene Poseidon (Neptune). (Coin ol Hadrian, 
was the subject 

of the sculptures on the W. pediment of the 
Parthenon, and probably that treatment of it 
is illustrated by the painting on a vase found 
at Kertch which is now at St. Petersburg. 




Poseidon. iFrom a medal of 
Demetrius Poliorcetes.) 




752 



POSIDIPPUS 



POTIDAEA 



Posidippus (UoffdSnnros, Iloa'iSiTnros). 1. 
An Athenian comic poet of the New Comedy, 
was a native of Cassandrea in Macedonia. He 
was reckoned one of the six most celebrated 
poets of the New Comedy. In time, he was 
the last of all the poets of the New Comedy. 
Among his plays was one entitled AlSvfioi, 
which was possibly the original of the Men- 
aechmi of Plautus. He began to exhibit dramas 
in the third year after the death of Menander — 
that is, in B.C. 289. (Fragments in Meineke, Fr, 
Com. Gr.) — 2. An epigrammatic poet of the 
Alexandrian period. His epigrams formed a 
part of the Garland of Mele.ager, and twenty- 
two of them are preserved in the Greek Antho- 

Posidium (HoaeiSiOv), the name of several 
promontories sacred to Poseidon. 1. (Punta 
della Licosa), in Lucania, opposite the island 
Leucosia, the S. point of the gulf of Paestum 
(Strab. p. 252). — 2. In Epirus, opposite the 
NE. point of Corcyra (Ptol. hi. 14, 4; Strab. p. 
324).— 3. (C. Stavros), in Thessaly, forming 
the W. point of the Sinus Pagasaeus. It is the 
promontory which Livy (xxxi. 4G) calls Zela- 
sium. (Strab. p. 330, 32 ; Ptol. iii. 13, 17.)— 4. 
(C. Selene), the SW. point of Chios (Strab. p. 
644). — 5. (Marmaras), on the SW. coast of 
Caria, between Miletus and the Iassius Sinus, 
with a town of the same name upon it (Strab. 
pp. 633, 651 ; Plin. v. 112).— 6. On the W. 
coast of Arabia, with an altar dedicated to 
Poseidon by Ariston, whom Ptolemy had sent 
to explore the Arabian gulf (Diod. iii. 42 ; 
Strab. p. 776). — 7. (Posseda), a seaport town in 
Syria, in the district Cassiotis (Strab. p. 751 ; 
Plin. v. 79). 

Posidoma. [Paestum.] 

Poslddnium or Posidium (TioaetZdiviov : C. 
Possidhi), a promontory on the SW. coast of 
the peninsula Pallene in Macedonia, not far 
from Mende (Time. iv. 129 ; Liv. xliv. 11). 

Posidonius (Tloo-eiiwvios), a distinguished 
Stoic philosopher, was a native of Apamea in 
Syria. The date of his birth is not known with 
any exactness, but it may be placed about B.C. 
135. He studied at Athens under Panaetius, 
after whose death (112) Posidonius set out on 
his travels. After visiting most of the coun- 
tries on the coast of the Mediterranean, he 
fixed his abode at Rhodes, where he became 
the president of the Stoic school. He also took 
a prominent part in the political affairs of 
Rhodes, and was sent as ambassador to Rome 
in 86. Cicero, when he visited Rhodes, received 
instruction from Posidonius (Cic. Tusc. ii. 25, 
N. D. i. 3, Fin. i. 2, ad Att. ii. 1 ; Plut. Cic. 4). 
Pompey also had a great admiration for Posi- 
donius, and visited him twice, in 67 and 62 
(Plut. Pomp. 42). To the occasion of his first 
visit probably belongs the story that Posidonius, 
to prevent the disappointment of his distin- 
guished visitor, though severely afflicted with 
the gout, held a long discourse on the topic that 
pain is not an evil. In 51 Posidonius removed 
to Rome, and appears to have died soon after, 
at the age of eighty-four. Posidonius was a 
man of extensive and varied acquirements in 
almost all departments of human knowledge. 
Cicero thought so highly of his powers that he 
requested him to write an account of his con- 
sulship. As a physical investigator he was 
greatly superior to the Stoics generally, attach- 
ing himself in this respect rather to Aristotle. 
His geographical and historical knowledge was 
very extensive. He cultivated astronomy with 
considerable diligence. He also constructed a 



planetary machine, or revolving sphere, to 
exhibit the daily motions of the sun, moon, and 
planets. His calculation of the circumference 
of the earth differed widely from that of 
Eratosthenes. He made it only 180,000 stadia, 
and his measurement was pretty generally 
adopted. None of the writings of Posidonius 
has come down to us entire. His fragments are 
collected by Bake, Lugd. Bat. 1810. 

Postumia Castra (Salado), a fortress in 
Hispania Baetica, on a hill near the river 
Salsum (Bell. Hispan. 8). 

Postumia Gens, patrician, was one of the 
most ancient patrician gentes at Rome. Its 
members frequently held the highest offices of 
the state, from the banishment of the kings to 
the downfall of the republic. The most dis- 
tinguished family in the gens was that of 
Albus or Albinus ; but we also find early in the 
republic families of the names of Megellus and 
Tubertus (Liv. iv. 27, ix. 44). A Postumius 
Megellus was consul in 262, and took Agrigen- 
tum (Pol. i. 17). 

Postumus, whose full name was M. Cassianus 
Latinius Postumus, stands second in the list 
of the so-called Thirty Tyrants. Being nomi- 
nated by Valerian governor of Gaul, he 
assumed the title of emperor in a.d. 258, while 
Valerian was prosecuting his campaign against 
the Persians. Postumus maintained a strong 
and just government, and preserved Gaul from 
the devastation of the warlike tribes upon the 
eastern border. After reigning nearly ten 
years, he was slain by his soldiers in 267, and 
Laelianus proclaimed emperor in his stead. 
(Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. ii.; Aurel. Vict. 
Caes. 32 ; Oros. vii. 22.) 

Postumus, M. Cartius, was made tribune of 
the soldiers by Caesar at the recommendation 
of Cicero (Cic. ad Q. Fr. ii. 15, iii. 1). He 
afterwards became a warm adherent of Caesar, 
and was disliked and suspected by Cicero, 
though sometimes courted by him (Cic. ad Att. 
ix. 2, 5, 6, xii. 49, xiv. 9, ad Fam. vi. 12). 

Postverta or Postvorta. [Indigetes, p. 
443, a.] 

Potami or Potamus {noTa.fj.oi, UoTa/j.6s : 
Tlorafxios : Keratia), a demus in the S. of 
Attica, belonging to the tribe Leontis, where 
the tomb of Ion was shown (Paus. i. 31, 3 ; 
Strab. p. 398). 

Potamon (XloTap.<j)v). 1. A rhetorician of 
Mytilene, lived in the time of Tiberius Caesar, 
whose favour he enjoyed (Strab. p. 617). — 2. 
A philosopher of Alexandria, who is said to 
have introduced at Rome an ecleotic sect of 
philosophy. He appears to have lived at Rome 
a little before the time of Plotinus, and to have 
entrusted his children to the guardianship of 
the latter. (Suid. s.v. ; Diog. Laert. Proem. 21.) 

Potentia (Potentinus ; S. Maria di Po- 
tenza). 1. A town of Picenum on the river 
Flosis, between Ancona and Castellum Pirma- 
num, was made a Roman colony in B.C. 184 
(Liv. xxxix. 44 ; Veil. Pat. i. 15 ; Strab. p. 241). 
— 2. (Potenza), a town of Lucania on the Via 
Popilia, E. of Forum Popilii (Ptol. iii. 1, 70; 
Plin. iii. 98). 

Pothlnus, a eunuch, the guardian of the 
young king Ptolemy, recommended the assassi- 
nation of Pompey, when the latter fled to 
Egypt, B.C. 48. Pothinus plotted against Caesar 
when he came to Alexandria shortly afterwards, 
and was put to death by Caesar's order. (Caes. 
B. C. iii. 108, 112 ; Dio Cass. xlii. 39 ; Lucan, 
viii. jt84, x. 333.) 

Potidaea (TlOTiSaia : TloTiSaiaTiji : Ko,S- 



POTIDANIA 



PRATINAS 



753 



tandra), a town in Macedonia on the narrow 
isthmus of the peninsula Pallene, was a strongly 
fortified place and one of considerable import- 
tance (Hdt. vii. 123 ; Thuc. i. 56, 63 ; Strab. p. 
330, 25-28). It was a colony of the Corinthians, 
and must have been founded before the Persian 
wars, though the time of its foundation is not 
recorded. It afterwards became tributary to 
Athens, and its revolt from the latter city in 
B.C. 432 was one of the immediate causes of 
the Peloponnesian war. It was taken by the 
Athenians in 429 after a siege of more than two 
years, its inhabitants expelled, and their place 
supplied by Athenian colonists. (Thuc. ii. 58, 70, 
iv. 120.) In 356 it was taken by Philip, who 
destroyed the city and gave its territory to the 
Olynthians. Cassander, however, built a new- 
city on the same site, to which he gave the 
name of Cassandrea (KatraavSpeia : Kaaaav- 
Spevs), and which he peopled with the remains of 
the old population and with the inhabitants of 
Olynthus and the surrounding towns, so that it 
soon became the most flourishing city in all 
Macedonia. (Dem. Phil. ii. p. 170 ; Strab. I. c). 
It was taken and plundered by the Huns, but 
was restored by Justinian. 

Potidania (nonSaiaa), a fortress in the NE. 
of Aetolia, near the frontiers of Locris 'Thuc. 
iii. 96; Liv. xxviii. 1). 

Potitii. [Pin abia Gens.] 

Potitus, the name of an ancient and cele- 
brated family of the Valeria Gens. This family 
disappears about the time of the Samnite wars, 
but the name was revived at a later period by 
the Valeria gens, as a praenomen : thus we find 
mention of a Potitus Valerius Messalla, who was 
consul suffectus in B.C. 29. 

Potniae (VloTyiai : TJorytevs), a small town in 
Boeotia on the Asopus, ten stadia S. of Thebes, 
on the road to Plataea (Xen. Hell. v. 4, 51 ; 
Paus. ix. 8, 1). The adjective Potniades (sing. 
Potnias) is an epithet frequently given to the 
mares which tore to death Glaucus of Potniae. 
[Glaucus, No. 1.] 

Praaspa. [Phraata.] 

Practius (UpaKTios : Bergas), a river of the 
Troad, rising in M. Ida, and flowing into the 
Hellespont, N. of Abydus (II. ii. 835 ; Strab. p. 
590 ; Arrian, An. i. 12, 6). 

Praeneste (Praenestinus : Paleslrina), one 
of the most ancient towns of Latium, was 
situated on a steep and lofty hill, about twenty 
miles SE. of Rome, with which it was connected 
by a road called Via Praenestina. It probably 
existed before the Greek colonisation, but it 
ciaimed a Greek origin, and was said to have 
been founded by Praenestus, the grandson of 
Odysseus (Steph. Byz. s. v. ; Solin. 2, 9). I 
Another tradition ascribed its foundation to 
Caeculus, son of Vulcan (Verg. Aen. vii. 678). 
Strabo speaks of it as a Greek town, and asserts 
that it was formerly called T\oKv<TTt<pa.vos, for 
which Pliny writes Stephane (Strab. p. 238; 
Plin. iii. 64). The traditions which imply a 
foundation by the earlier inhabitants of Italy 
are older and probably truer. Dionysins (v. 61) 
speaks of it as an important member of the 
Latin confederation. In very °arly times (from 
B.C. 499), according to Livy, it was an ally of 
Rome (Liv. ii. 19, iii. 8), but after the Gallic 
invasion appears as an enemy of the Romans, 
and, being strongly fortified by nature and by 
art, frequently resisted their attacks (Liv. vi. 
21). After the Latin war Praeneste lost some \ 
territory, but remained nominally independent 
till after the Social war, when it received the 
franchise (App. Li. C. i. 65) and became a . 



Roman colony (Cic. Cat. i. 3). It was here that 
the younger Marius took refuge, and was for a 
considerable time besieged by Sulla's troops. 
Praeneste possessed a very celebrated and 
ancient temple of Fortuna, with an oracle, 
which is often mentioned under the name of 
Praenestinae sortes (Ov. Fast. vi. 61 ; Lucan, 
ii. 194 ; Cic. Div. ii. 41 ; Fortuna). In conse- 
quence of its lofty situation Praeneste was a 
cool and healthy residence in the great heats 
of summer (frigidum Praeneste, Hor. Od. iii. 

4, 22; Juv. iii. 190), and was therefore much 
frequented at that season by the wealthy 
Romans. The remains of the ancient walls 
and some other antiquities are still to be seen 
at Palestrina. The fragments of a Roman 
Calendar, called Fasti Praenestini, were found 
here in 1771, and are probably those which 
Verrius Flaccus set up in the forum of Praeneste 
(Suet. Gramm. 17; C. I. L. i. p. 311). 

Praesus (Upa?(ros : npaiaios), an inland town 
in the E. of Crete, belonging to the Eteocretes, 
which was destroyed by the neighbouring town 
of Hierapytna (Strab. pp. 475, 478). 

Praetoria Augusta. [Augusta, No. 4.] 

Praetutii iIIpaiTouTTioi), a iribe of Picenum, 
whose district iay on the N. side of the river 
Vomanus. Their chief city was Interamnium 
(Pol. iii. 88; Liv. xxii. 9; Plin. iii. 110). 

Pras l Tlpay, gen. Tlpavrds - ^Ipdvres), a town 
of Thessaly, in the W. of the district Phthiotis, 
on the NE. slope of Mt. Narthacius (Xen. Hell. 
iv. 319). 

Prasiae (Upaa-iai : ripa<nevs). 1. Or Prasia 
{Upaaia), a town of the Eleuthero-lacones. on 
the E. coast of Laconia, was taken and 
destroyed by the Athenians in the second year 
of the Peloponnesian war (Thuc. ii. 56 ; Strab. 
pp. 368, 374 ; Paus. iii. 24, 3).— 2. (Prassa), a 
demus in Attica, S. of Stiria, belonging to the 
tribe Pandionis, with a temple of Apollo (Thuc. 
viii. 95). 

Prasias Lacus (Upacnas \ifivri : Batkovo), a 
lake in Thrace between the Strymon and Nestus, 
and near the Strymonie gulf, with silver mines 
in the neighbourhood. 

Prasii, Praesii, and Parrhasii (npacrioi : 
Sanscrit, Prachinas, i.e. people of the E. 
country), a great and powerful people of India 
on the Ganges, governed at the time of Seleu- 
cus I. by king Sandrocottus. Their capital 
city was Palibothra (Patna), and the extent 
of the kingdom seems to have embraced the 
whole valley of the upper Ganges, at least as 
far down as that city. At a later time the 
monarchy declined, so that in Ptolemy we only 
find the name as that of the inhabitants of a 
small district, called Prasiaca (YlpatriaKr,), about 
the river Soa (Strab. pp. 702, 703 ; Plin. vi. 68 ; 
Diod. xvii. 93 ; Curt. ix. 2; Plut. Alex. 62). 

Prasodis Mare lUpairuSris OaAocrira or ko'A- 
toj), the SW. part of the Indian Ocean, about 
the promontory Prasum. 

Prasum (npaaov aKpurriipiov : i.e. ' the green 
headland ' : C. Delgado), a promontory on the 
E. coast of Africa in 10j° S. lat., in the district 
Zingites (Zind), appears to have been the 

5. -most point to which the ancient knowledge 
of this coast extended. 

Pratinas Tlpa-ricas), one of the early tragic 
poets at Athens whose combined efforts brought 
the art to its perfection, was a native of Phlius, 
and was therefore by birth a Dorian. It is not 
stated at what time he went to Athens, but he 
was older than Choerilus and younger than 
Aeschylus, with both of whom lie competed for 
the prize in the seventieth Olympiad, according 

8C 



754 



PEAXAGOBAS 



PEAXITELES 



to Suidas, i.e. between 500 and 495 B.C. By 
trie same writer he is said to have invented 
Satyrie drama : that is to say, he introduced the 
practice of adding a satyr-play to be acted in 
connexion with the preceding tragedy or tra- 
gedies. The Chorus of Satyrs belonged to the 
earliest phase of drama, and it was possibly 
with the object of preserving this that he 
separated the satyr-chorus from the tragedy (as 
■we should now understand it), and confined it 
to the lighter satyrie drama. He is said to have 
•written sixty plays, of which only scanty frag- 
ments remain. His satyrie dramas were ranked 
by Pausanias next to those of Aeschylus (Paus. 
ii. 13, 6; Suid. s. v. Uparivas). He also stood 
high as writer of lyrical pieces, of which frag- 
ments, one of some length, remain (Bergk, 
Po'et. Lyr. 953). 

Praxagoras (npaf aySpas), a celebrated physi- 
cian, was a native of the island of Cos, and lived 
in the fourth century B.C. He belonged to the 
medical sect of the Dogmatici, and was cele- 
brated for his knowledge of medical science in 
general, and especially for his attainments in 
anatomy and physiology. (Gal. ii. p. 905 ; Plin. 
xxvi. 10.) 

Praxias (Jlpa^las), an Athenian sculptor of 
the age of Phidias, but of the more archaic 
school of Calamis, commenced the execution of 
the statues in the pediments of the great temple 
of Apollo at Delphi— Artemis, Leto and Apollo 
with the Muses, Dionysus and the Thyiades, 
and Helios at his setting — but died while he was 
still engaged upon the work. His date may be 
placed about B.C. 448 and onwards. (Paus. x. 
19, 3.) 

Praxidice (npa£i5i'/nj), i.e. the goddess who 
carries out the objects of justice, or watches that 
justice is done to men. Sometimes Praxidice 
seems to be merely Dike herself, regarded as 
having attained her ends : for instance, when 
Menelaus arrived in Laconia, on his return 
from Troy, he set up a statue of Praxidice near 
Gytheum, not far from the spot where Paris, in 
carrying off Helen, had founded a sanctuary of 
Aphrodite Migonitis (Paus. iii. 22, 2). In other 
traditions there seems to have been (as so often 
appears in Greek mythology), a triad. These 
three Praxidicae were workers of justice and 
had a shrine near Haliartus in Boeotia (Paus. 
ix. 33, 4). In some accounts they are daughters 
of Ogyges, and their names are Alalcomenia, 
Thelxinoa, and Aulis (Suid. s. v. npa£i5i/nj). 
Pausanias seems to connect the death of Sulla 
with the working of Alalcomenia in retribution 
for his severities in Greece (Paus. ix. 33, 6). 

Praxilla (IIpa£iAAa), of Sicyon, a lyricpoetess, 
who flourished about B.C. 450, and was one of 
the nine poetesses who were distinguished as 
the Lyric Muses. Her scolia were among the 
most celebrated compositions of that species. 
She belonged to the Dorian school of lyric 
poetry, but there were also traces of Aeolic 
influence in her rhythms, and even in her dia- 
lect. (Suid. s. v. ; Athen. p. 694 ; Paus. iii. 13, 3.) 

Praxiphanes {Upa^Kpdvris), a Peripatetic 
philosopher, a native either of Mytilene or of 
Ehodes, was a pupil of Theophrastus, and lived 
about B.C. 322. Epicurus is said to have been 
one of his pupils. Praxiphanes paid especial 
attention to grammatical studies, and is hence 
named along with Aristotle as the founder and 
creator of the science of grammar. (Clem. Alex, 
i. p. 365 ; Strab. p. 655.) 

Praxiteles (npafiTe'A7)s), one of the greatest 
-Greek sculptors. He was a son of Cephisodotus, 
also a famous sculptor, and some modern writers 



argue (but not conclusively) that 1 Pasiteles,' 
whom Pausanias (v. 20, 1) mentions as a sculptor 
of Paros, was really Praxiteles, and grandfather 
of the great sculptor. However that may be, 
Praxiteles was a citizen of Athens, born about 
390 B.C., and contemporary with Scopas, with 
whom he stands at the head of the later Attic 
school, so called in contradistinction to the 
earlier Attic school of Phidias. Without at- 
tempting those sublime impersonations of divine 
majesty in which Phidias had been so inimitably 
successful, Praxiteles was unsurpassed in the 
exhibition of the softer beauties of the human 
form. While Phidias was supreme in his at- 
tainment of the grandest and noblest ideas, 
Praxiteles was equally so in his representation 
of beauty of face and form. In the estimation 
of ancient writers his most beautiful work was 
his marble statue of Aphrodite, which was dis- 
tinguished from the other statues of the goddess 
by the name of the Cnidians, who purchased 




Copy (in Capitol at Home) ol the Satyr of Praxiteles. 

it (Plin. xxxvi. 20). The statue at Munich is a 
copy of this, and the Venus de' Medici is an 
imitation. [See cuts on p. 86.] It was always 
esteemed the most perfectly beautiful of the 
statues of the goddess. Many made the voyage 
to Cnidus expressly to behold it. So highly 
did the Cnidians themselves esteem their 
treasure, that when king Nicomedes offered 
them, as the price of it, to pay off the whole of 
their heavy public debt, they preferred to en- 
dure any suffering rather than part with the 
work which gave their city its chief renown. 
It was afterwards carried to Constantinople, 
where it perished by fire in the reign of Justi- 
nian (Zonar. xiv. 2) . Praxiteles modelled it from 
Phryne, of whom also he made more than one 
portrait statue. His famous statue of Apollo 
Sauroctonos (Plin. xxxiv. 70), of a delicate and 
highly idealised beauty, is also represented by 
a copy. [See cut on p. 89.] Another of the 
celebrated works of Praxiteles was his statue 
of Eros (Paus. ix. 27, 3 ; Cic. Verr. iv. 2, 4). It 
i was preserved at Thespiae where it was dedi- 



PRAXITHEA 



PRIAPTJS 



755 



cated by Phryne ; and an interesting story is 
told of the manner in which she became 
possessed of it. Praxiteles had promised to 
give Phryne whichever of his works she might 
choose, but he was unwilling to tell her which 
of them, in his own opinion, was the best. To 
discover this, she sent a slave to tell Praxiteles 
that a fire had broken out in his house, and 
that most of his works had already perished. 
On hearing this message, the artist rushed out, 
exclaiming that all his toil was lost if the fire 
had touched his Satyr or his Eros. Upon this 
Phryne confessed the stratagem, and chose the 
Eros. This statue was removed to Rome by 
Caligula, restored to Thespiae by Claudius, and 
carried back by Nero to Rome, where it stood 
in Pliny's time in the schools of Octavia, and it 
finally perished in the fire which destroyed that 
building in the reign of Titus. (Paus. i. 20, 2 ; 
Dio Cass. lxvi. 24.) Of the Satyr of Praxiteles 




The Hermes of Praxiteles. (Original statue now 
at Olympla.) 

a copy exists in the statue of the Faun in the 
Capitol at Rome. But, above all, since the 
discovery of the Hermes at Olympia, the su- 
preme- skill of PraxiteleB in delineating beauty 
of form can be seen in an original work. This 
statue, which represented Apollo bearing the 
infant Dionysus on his left arm, and holding up 
(probably) a bunch of grapes in his right hand 
(Paus. v. 17, 8), was found by the German 
archaeologists in 1877, fairly preserved, and is 
now in the museum at Olympia. — Praxiteles 
had two sons, who were also distinguished 
sculptors, Timarchns and Cephiaodotus. 

Praxithea (ripa{i0«'a), daughter of Phrasimus 
and Diogenla, was the wife of Erechtheus, and 
mother of Cecrops, Pandorus, Metion, Omens, 
Procris, Creusa, Chthonia, and Orithyia. 
[Erechthkub.] 

Prcciani, a people in Gallia Aquitania at the 
foot of the Pyrenees (Caes. B. O. iii. 27). 

PreliU8, or Prilius Lacus (Lago di Casti- 
glione), a hike in Etruria near the coast, be- 
tween Vetulonia and Rusellae. It was fed and 



drained by a river of the same name. (Cic. 
Mil. 27 ; Plin. iii. 51.) 

Premnis, Premis, orPrimis (nprifivis:Ibrim), 
a town on the Nile in Aethiopia near the limit 
of the Roman empire, which was taken by Pe- 
tronius in his expedition (Strab. p. 820 ; Ptol. 
iv. 7, 19; Plin. vi. 181). 

Prepesinthus (Ylpe-KecrivOos : Despotiko), one 
of the smaller Cyclades, between Oliaros and 
Siphnos (Strab. p. 485). 

Priamides, that is, a son of Priam, by which 
name Hector, Paris, Helenus, Deiphobus, and 
the other sons of Priam, are called. 

Priamus (Upia/xos), the king of Troy at the 

; time of the Trojan war. He was a son of Lao- 
medon and Stryrno or Placia. His original 
name is said to have been Podarces, i.e. ' the 
swift-footed,' which was changed into Priamus, 
' the ransomed ' (from vplafMi), because he was 
the only surviving son of Laomedon and was 
ransomed by his sister Hesione after he had 
fallen into the hands of Heracles. He is 
said to have been first married to Arisbe, the 
daughter of Merops, by whom he became the 
father of Aesacus [Arisbe] ; but afterwards 
he gave up Arisbe to Hyrtacus, and married 
Hecuba, by whom he had the following children : 

] Hector, Alexander orParis, Deiphobus, Helenus, 
Pammon, Polites, Antiphus, Hipponous, Poly- 
dorus, Troilus, Creusa, Laodiee, Polyxena, and 
Cassandra. By other women he had a great 
many children besides. According to the Ho- 
meric tradition, he was the father of fifty sons 
(nineteen of whom were children of Hecuba), to 
whom others add an equal number of daughters. 
(II. xxiv. 495.) In the earlier part of his reign, 
Priam is said to have supported the Phrygians 
in their war against the Amazons (II. iii. 184 ; 

1 Amazones). When the Greeks lauded on the 
Trojan coast Priam was already advanced in 

i years, and took no active part in the war (II. 
xxiv. 487). Once only did he venture upon the 
field of battle, to conclude the agreement re- 
specting the single combat between Paris and 
Menelaus (II. iii. 250). After the death of 
Hector, Priam, accompanied by Hermes, went 
to the tent of Achilles to ransom his son's body 
for burial and obtained it. His death is not 
mentioned by Homer, but is related by later 
poets. When the Greeks entered Troy, the 
aged king put on his armour, and was on the 
point of rushing against the enemy, but he was 
prevailed on by Hecuba to take refuge with 
herself and her daughters, as a suppliant at the 
altar of Zeus. While he was tarrying in the 
temple, his son Polites, pursued by Pyrrhus, 
rushed into the sacred spot, and expired at the 
feet of his father, whereupon Priam, overcome 
with indignation, hurled his spear with feeble 
hand against Pyrrhus, but was forthwith killed 
by the latter. (Eur. Ti •>ad. 17; Verg. Aen. ii. 
512.) — Virgil mentions (Aen. v. 501) another 
Priam, a son of "Polites, and a grandson of king 
Priam. [Diet, of Ant. art. Trojae Ludus.] 

Priansus (ripiavo-os : npioWior, Tlptavtrif vs), 
a town in Crete on the S. coast nearly due S. 
of Gnosus and E. of Leben, confounded by 
Straho witli PBABBDB (Strab. p. 478). Its name 
appears on coins and in inscriptions. 

PrlapuB iripiairosl.Bonof Dionysus and Aphro- 
dite. It is said that Aphrodite, who was in love 
with Dionysus, went to meet the god on his re- 
turn from India, but soon abandoned him, and 
proceeded to Lampsacus on the Hellespont, to 
give birth to the child of the god. Hera caused 
her to give birth to a child of extreme ugliness, 
who was named Priapus. (Paus. ix. 81, 2; 

8c 2 



756 



PRIAPUS 



PRISCIANUS 



Steph. Byz. s.v. "Afiapvos, Adfixf/aKos.) Accord- 
ing to Strabo (p. 587) he was son of Dionysus 
and a nymph.. The earliest Greek poets do 
not mention this divinity. He was worshipped 
more especially at Lampsacus, Parium, and 
Cyzicus on the Hellespont, whence he is some- 
times called Hellespontiacus. (Catull. 18 ; 
Verg. Georg. iv. 110.) The true account seems 
to be that Priapus was originally worshipped 
under the image of the phallus as the deity who 
gave fertility, especially to gardens, vineyards, 
and all trees. Hence he was identified with 
Dionysus and the Asiatic Bacchic rites, and 
thereupon was in myth represented as a son of 
Dionysus when the worship of that god pre- 
vailed, but sometimes as Dionysus himself 
under another name (Athen. p. 30). In some 
rites he was connected with other gods of 
fertility, Hermes and Eros ; and also with Sile- 
nus (whence the ass was sacrificed to both). 
He was regarded as the promoter of fertility, 
not only in vegetation, but also in all animals 
connected with an agricultural life ; and in this 
capacity he was worshipped as the protector of 
flocks of sheep and goats, of bees, of the vine, 
of all garden produce, and even of fishing. The 
worship of Priapus was accepted in Italy with 
that of Dionysus and Aphrodite, and he was re- 
garded especially as the protector of gardens, 
in which his image was commonly placed. 
(Verg. I.e. ; Hor. Sat. i. 8 ; Plin. xix. 50 ; C. I. L. 
vi. 564.) In mystic theology he was recognised 
as symbolising the doctrine of regeneration and 
future life ; whence his image was placed on 
tombs, and he appears in sepulchral inscrip- 
tions — ' Deus Priapus ego sum mortis et vitai 
locus ' (Henzen, 5756 ; C. I. L. v. 3634). The 
sacrifices offered to him consisted of the first- 
fruits of gardens, vineyards, and fields ; of milk, 
honey, cakes ; rams, asses, and fishes. He was 
represented in carved images, mostly in the 
form of hermae, or carrying fruit in his garment, 
with either a sickle or cornucopia in his hand. 
The hermae of Priapus in Italy, like those of 
other rustic divinities, were usually painted red ; 
whence the god is called rube?' or rubicundus. 

Priapus (TlpiaKos, Ion. T\pit)-KOS : UpiaTrqvSs : 
Karaboa, Ru.), a city of Mysia, on the Pro- 
pontis, E. of Parium, with a small but excellent 
harbour. It was a colony of the Milesians, and 
a chief seat of the worship of Priapus. The 
surrounding district was called Priapis (Tlpiaie'is) 
and Priapene (Upiairrjvi]). (Thuc. viii. 107 ; 
Strab. p. 587 ; Plin. v. 141.) 

Priene (Ylpiyvri : Tlptrivevs, Hpirjutos : Pri- 
eneus, pi. Prienenses: Samsun, Ru.), one of the 
twelve Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor, 
stood in the NW. corner of Caria, at the S. foot 
of M. Mycale, and on the N. side of the Sinus 
Latinicus (Hdt. i. 142, vi. 6). Its foundation 
was ascribed mythically to the Neleid Aepytus, 
in conjunction with Cadmeans, from whom it 
was also called Kadfrii (Paus. vii. 2, 7 ; Strab. 
p. 636). It stood originally on the seashore, and 
had two harbours and a small fleet, but the 
change in the coast by the alluvial deposits of 
the Maeander left it some distance inland 
(Strab. p. 579). It was of much religious im- 
portance in connexion with the Panionian 
festival on M. Mycale, at which the people of 
Priene took precedence in virtue of their being 
the supposed descendants of those of Helice in 
Greece Proper (Strab. p. 639). The city was 
also celebrated as the birthplace of Bias. 

Prifernum, a town of the Vestini on the E. 
coast of central Italy. 

Primus, M. Antonius, a native of Tolosa in 



Gaul, was condemned for forgery (falsum) in 
the reign of Nero, was expelled the senate, of 
which he was a member, and was banisbed 
from the city. (Tac. Ann. xiv. 40 ; Dio Cass, 
lv. 9.) After the death of Nero (68), he was 
restored to his former rank by Galba, and ap- 
pointed to the command of the seventh legion, 
which was stationed in Pannonia. He was one 
of the first generals in Europe who declared in 
favour of Vespasian ; and he rendered him the 
most important services. In conjunction with 
the governors of Moesia and Pannonia, he in- 
vaded Italy, gained a decisive victory over the 
Vitellian army at Bedriacum, and took Cre- 
mona, which he allowed his soldiers to pillage 
and destroy. (Tac. Hist. ii. 86, hi., iv. ; Dio 
Cass. lxv. 9-18.) He afterwards forced his way 
into Rome, notwithstanding the obstinate resis- 
tance of the Vitellian troops, and had the 
government of the city till the arrival of Mu- 
cianus from Syria. [Mucianus, No. 2.] We 
learn from Martial, who was a friend of Antonius 
Primus, that he was alive at the accession of 
Trajan (Mart. x. 23). 

Priscianus, a Roman grammarian, surnamed 
Caesariensis, because he was born at Caesarea 
in Mauretania. He lived in the sixth cent. A.D., 
in the reign of Anastasius, and taught grammar 
at Constantinople. He was celebrated for the 
extent and depth of his grammatical knowledge, 
of which he has left the evidence in his work on 
the subject, entitled Commentariorum gram- 
maticorum Libri XVIII, addressed to his 
friend and patron, the consul Julianus. The 
first sixteen books treat upon the eight parts of 
speech recognised by the ancient grammarians, 
letters, syllables, &c. The last two books are 
on syntax. This treatise soon became the 
standard work on Latin grammar, and in the 
epitome of Rabanus Maurus obtained an exten- 
sive circulation. His terminology forms the 
basis of much that is still maintained. His 
work is also valuable for its citations from 
ancient writers. Of the earlier grammarians 
those whom he chiefly follows are the Greek 
writer Apollonius and the Latin Flavius Caper. 
The other works of Priscianus still extant are : — 

(I) A grammatical catechism on twelve lines of 
the Aeneid, manifestly intended as a school 
book. (2) A treatise on accents. (3) A treatise 
on the symbols used to denote numbers and 
weights, and on coins and numbers. (4) On the 
metres of Terence. (5) A translation of the 
Tlpoyvixvafffiara (Praeexercitamenta) of Her- 
mogenes. (6) On the declensions of nouns. (7) A 
poem on the emperor Anastasius in 312 hex- 
ameters, with a preface in twenty-two iambic 
lines. (8) A piece De Ponderibus et Mensuris, 
in verse. (9) An Epitome phaenonienon, or De 
Sideribus, in verse. (10) A free translation of 
the Periegesis of Dionysius in 1427 lines, 
manifestly made for the instruction of youth. 

(II) A couple of epigrams. — The best edition of 
Priscianus is by Krehl, Lips. 1819-20, 2 vols. 
8vo, and in Keil's Gramm. Lai. 1855. 

Priscianus Lydus, a writer of the Neo-Plato- 
nic school of philosophy in the reign of J us- 
tinian. When that emperor suppressed the 
schools of philosophy at Athens, Priscian with 
six others went to the court of Chosroes, whose 
intercession secured their safe return to Greece. 
Priscian wrote a paraphrase and commentary 
on the physics of Theophrastus (Metaphrasis 
in Theophrastum), and answers (solutiones) to 
questions on philosophy proposed by Chosroes. 
All that remains of his works has been edited 
by I. Bywater, Berlin, 1886. 



PRISCIANUS 
Priscianus, Theodoras, a physician, and a I 
pupil of Vindicianus, lived in the fourth cen- 
tury after Christ. He is supposed to have lived 
at the court of Constantinople, and to have 
attained the dignity of Archiater. He is the 
author of a Latin work, entitled Serum Medi- 
carutn Libri Quatuor, published in 1532, both 
at Strasburg and at Basel. 

Priscus (UpiaKos), a Byzantine historian, was 
a native of Panimn in Thrace, and was one of 
the ambassadors sent by Theodosius the 
Younger to Attila, a.d. 445. He died about 471. 
Priscus wrote an account of his embassy to 
Attila, enriched by digressions on the life and 
reign of that king. The work was in eight 
books, but only fragments of it have come down 
to us. Priscus was an excellent and trust- 
worthy historian, and his style was remarkably 
elegant and pure. — The fragments are published 
by Bekker and Niebuhr, 1829; and by Miiller, 
Fragm. Hist. Graec. 

Priscus, Helvidlus, son-in-law of Thrasea 
Paetus, and, like him, distinguished by his love 
of virtue, philosophy, and liberty. He was 
quaestor in Achaia during the reign of Xero, 
and tribune of the plebs a.d. 56. When Thrasea 
was put to death by Xero (66), Priscus was 
banished from Italy. He was recalled to Rome 
by Galba (68) ; but in consequence of his free- 
dom of speech and love of independence, he was 
again banished by Vespasian, and was shortly 
afterwards put to death by order of this em- 
peror. (Tac. Ann. iv. 5,43, Dial. 5; Suet. 
Vesp. 15 ; Dio Cass. lxvi. 12.) His life was 
written by Herennius Senecio at the request of 
his widow, Fannia ; and the tyrant Domitian, 
in consequence of this work, subsequently put 
Senecio to death, and sent Fannia into exile 
(Plin. Ep. vii. 19, 5 ; Dio Cass, lxvii. 13). Pris- 
cus left a son, Helvidius, who was put to death 
by Domitian. 

Priscus, Servilius. The Prisci were an an- 
cient family of the Servilia gens, and filled the 
highest offices of the state during the early 
years of the republic. They also bore the 
agnomen of Structus, which is always appended 
to their name in the Fasti, till it was supplanted 
by that of Fidenas, which was first obtained by 
Q. Servilius Priscus Structus, who took Fidenae 
in his dictatorship, B.C. 435, and which was also 
borue by his descendants. 
Priscus, Tarquinius. [TABQUiNrus.* 
Prista (npio-T7): Iiustschuk), a town inMoesia 
on the Danube (Ptol. iii. 10, 10). 

Privernum (Priveroas, -atis : Piperno), an 
ancient town of Latium on the river Amasenus, 
belonged to the Volscians (Verg. Aen. xi. 540). 
It was conquered by the Romans at an early 
period, and was subsequently made a colony 
(Liv. vii. 42, viii. 11). 

Proaereslus iTXpooupiaios), a teacher of rhe- 
toric, was a native of Armenia, and was born 
about a.d. 276. He first studied at Antioch 
under Ulpian, and afterwards at Athens under 
Julianus. He became at a later time the chief 
teacher of rhetoric at Athens, and enjoyed a 
high reputation. He died 868, in his ninety- 
second year. (Suid.a.u. j Vit. Soph. i. p. 78.) 

Probalinthus (TIpoiSaAii'tfo? : XlpofiaKioiot), a 
demus in Attica, S. of Marathon, belonging to 
the tribe Pandionis (Strab. p. 383). 

Probatia {npofSariai, a river of Boeotia, 
which, after passing Lebadea, and receiving 
itH tributary the Hercyna, flowed into the lake 
Copais. 

Probus, Aemlllus. [Ni pob, Cornelius.] 

Probus, M. AurellUS, li'.mtn emperor A.I). 



PROCLTJS 



75T 



276-282, was a native of Sirmium in Pannonia, 
and rose to distinction by his military abilities. 
He was appointed by the emperor Tacitus 
governor of the whole East, and, upon the 
death of that sovereign, the purple was forced 
upon his acceptance by the armies of Syria. 
The downfall of Florianus speedily removed 
his own rival I Florianus], and he was enthu- 
siastically hailed by the united voice of the 
senate, the people, and the legions. The reign 
of Probus presents a series of the most brilliant 
achievements. He defeated the barbarians on 
the frontiers of Gaul and Illyricum, and in 
other parts of the Roman empire, and put down 
the rebellions of Satuminus at Alexandria, and 
of Proculus and Bonosus in Gaul. But, after 
erusliing all external and internal foes, he was 
killed at Sirmium by his own soldiers, who had 
risen in mutiny against liim because he had 
employed them in laborious public works. 
Probus was as just and virtuous as he was war- 
like, and is deservedly regarded as one of the 
greatest and best of the Roman emperors. (Life 
in Script. Hist. Aug.; Zosim. i. 64.) 

Probus, Valerius. 1. Of Berytus, a Roman 
grammarian, who lived in the time of Nero. 
His chief works were editions of Lucretius, 
Virgil, Horace and Persius with annotations, 
which he wrote frequently in shorthand (notae). 
The Life of Persius is taken from his edition. 
Much of his criticism was given orally and pre- 
served by his pupils. (Gell. ix. 9, 12, xiii. 21 ; 
Suet. Gramm. 24; Mart. iii. 2, 12; Serv-. ad 
Georg. i. 277.) To this Probus we may assign 
those annotations on Terence from which 
fragments are quoted in the Scholia on the 
dramatist. — 2. Under the same name appears 
a grammatical treatise of no great value called 
Grammaticac Institutiones. Since it speaks 
of the Baths of Diocletian it cannot be dated 
I before the fourth century. He may possibly 
be the Probus who was a friend and correspon- 
dent of Lactantius. 

Procas, one of the fabulous kings of Alba 
Longa, succeeded Aventinus, and reigned 
twenty-three years : he was the father of 
Xurnitor and Amulius (Liv. i. 3). 

Prochyta (Procida), an island off the coast 
of Campania near the promontory Misenum, is 
said to have been torn away by an earthquake 
either from this promontory or from the neigh- 
bouring island of Pithecusa or Aenaria (Strab. 
pp. 60, 123, 248, 258 ; Plin. ii. 203 ; Verg. Aen. 
ix. 715 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 89). 

Procles illpoKKrjs), one of the twin sons of 
Aristodemus. For details see Eurysthenes. 

Proclus inpoK\os) — surnamed Diadochus 
(AiaSoxoj), the Successor, from his being re- 
garded as the genuine successor of Plato in 
doctrine; — was one of the most celebrated 
I teachers of the Neo-Platonic school. He was 
born at Byzantium a.d. 410, but was brought 
up at Xanthus in Lycia, to which city his 
parents belonged, and which Proclus himself 
, regarded as his native place. He studied at 
Alexandria under Olympiodorus, and after- 
i wards at Athens under Plntarchus and Syri- 
anus. At an early ngehis philosophical attain- 
1 ments attracted the attention and admiration 
of his contemporaries. He had written bis 
commentary on the TimeuUS of Plato, as well 
' as many other treatises, by his twenty-eighth 
year. On the death of SyrianuH Proclus suc- 
ceeded him in his school, and inherited from 
liim the house in which he resided and taught. 
Mnrinus in his Life of Proclus records, with in- 
tense admiration, the perfection to which his 



758 



PEOCNE 



PEOCULEIUS 



master attained in all virtues. The highest of 
these virtues were, in the estimation of Marinus, 
those of a purifying and ascetic kind. From 
animal food he almost totally abstained ; fasts 
and vigils he observed with scrupulous exacti- 
tude. The reverence with which he honoured 
the sun and moon would seem to have been 
unbounded. He celebrated all the important 
religious festivals of every nation, himself com- 
posing hymns in honour, not only of Grecian 
deities, but of those of other nations also. It 
was of course not surprising that such a man 
should be favoured with various apparitions 
and miraculous interpositions of the gods. He 
used to tell how a god had once appeared and 
proclaimed to him the glory of the city. But 
the still higher grade of what, in the language 
of the school, was termed the theurgic virtue 
he obtained by his profound meditations on the 
oracles, and the Orphic and Chaldaic mysteries, 
into the highest secrets of which he was 
initiated by Asclepigenia, the daughter of Plu- 
tarchus, who alone was in complete possession 
of the theurgic knowledge and discipline, 
which had descended to her from the great 
Nestorius. He profited so much by her instruc- 
tions, as to be able, according to Marinus, to 
call down rain in a time of drought, to stop an 
earthquake, and to procure the immediate 
intervention of Asclepius to cure the daughter 
of his friend Archiadas. Proclus died a.d. 485. 
During the last five years of his life he had 
become superannuated, his strength having 
been exhausted by his fastings and other ascetic 
practices. As a philosopher Proclus enjoyed 
the highest celebrity among his contempo- 
raries and successors, but his writings are 
characterised by vagueness, and mysticism. 
His main object was to systematise and bring 
into a complete form the theological and cosmo- 
logical tenets handed down by preceding Neo- 
Platonists, especially those of Plotinus and 
Iamblichus. — The edition of Cousin (Paris, 6 
vols. 8vo, 1820-1827) contains the following 
treatises of Proclus : — On Providence and 
Fate ; On Ten Doubts about Providence ; On 
the Nature of Evil ; a Commentary on the 
Alcibiades, and a Commentary on the Par- 
menides. The other principal works of Proclus 
are : — On the Theology of Plato, in six books : 
Theological Elements : a Commentary on the 
Timaeus of Plato ; five Hymns of an Orphic 
character. Proclus was also a mathematician 
.and grammarian. His Commentaries on the 
first book of Euclid, and on the Works and 
Days of Hesiod are still extant. 

Procne (Ilp(5/cerj), daughter of king Pandion 
of Athens, and wife of Tereus. Her story is 
given under Tebeus. 

Proconnesns (npoKovi>r)<Tos, or ripoi/crfwrjcros, 
i.e. Fawn-island, Marmara), an island of the 
Propontis (Sea of Marmara), off the N. coast 
of Mysia, NW. of the peninsula of Cyzicus or 
Dolionis. A neighbouring island was called Ela- 
phonnesus ('EAa^xWrjtros, i.e. Deer-island) ; 
and the two were distinguished by the names 
of Old and New Proconnesus. (Strab. pp. 587, 
589 ; Scyl. p. 35 ; Hdt. iv. 14, vi. 33.) Pliny (v. 
151) considers the two names to belong to the 
same island. The island was celebrated for its 
marble, and hence its modern name. It was 
the native place of the poet Aristeas. 

Procopius (npondmos). 1. A native of 
Cilicia, and a relative of the emperor Julian, 
served with distinction under Constantius II. 
and Julian. Having incurred the suspicions of 
J ovian and of his successor Valens, Procopius 



remained in concealment for about two years ; 
but in a.d. 365 he was proclaimed emperor at 
Constantinople, while Valens was staying at 
Caesarea in Cappadocia. Both parties pre- 
pared for war. In the following year (306) the 
forces of Procopius were defeated in two great 
battles. Procopius himself was taken prisoner, 
and put to death by order of Valens. — 2. An 
eminent Byzantine historian, was born at 
Caesarea in Palestine about A.D. 500. He went 
to Constantinople when still a young man, and 
there obtained so much distinction as an advo- 
cate and a professor of eloquence, that he 
attracted the attention of Belisarius, who ap- 
pointed him his secretary in 527. In this 
capacity Procopius accompanied the great here 
on his different wars in Asia, Africa, and Italy, 
being frequently employed in state business of 
importance, or in conducting military expedi- 
tions. Procopius returned with Belisarius to 
Constantinople a little before 542. His eminent 
talents were appreciated by the emperor Justi- 
nian, who conferred upon him the title of 
illustris, made him a senator, and in 562 created 
him prefect of Constantinople. Procopius died 
about the same time as Justinian, 565. — As a 
historian Procopius deserves great praise. His 
style is good, and generally full of vigour. His 
works are : — (1) Histories ('lcroToplat), in eight 
books ; viz, two On the Persian War, contain- 
ing the period from 408-553, and treating more 
fully of the author's own times ; two On the War 
with the Vandals, 395-545; four On the Gothic 
War, or properly speaking, only three books, 
the fourth (eighth) being a sort of supplement 
containing various matters, and going down to 
the beginning of 553. It was continued by 
Agathias till 559. The work is extremely in- 
teresting ; the descriptions of the habits &c. of 
the barbarians are faithful and done in a 
masterly style. — (2) On the Public Buildings 
erected by Justinian (Krlff/MiTa), in six books : 
a work equally interesting and valuable in its 
I kind, though overloaded with flattery of the 
I emperor. — (3) Anecdota ('AveK$OTa), a collection 
! of anecdotes, some of them witty and pleasant, 
but others most indecent, reflecting upon Justi- 
nian, the empress Theodora, Belisarius, and 
other eminent persons. It is a complete 
■ Chronique Scandaleuse of the court of Con- 
stantinople, from 549 till 562. — (4) Orationes, 
probably extracts from the History, which is 
rather overstocked with harangues and speeches. 
— The collected works of Procopius are edited 
by Dindorf, Bonn, 3 vols. 8vo, 1833-1838. 

Procris (np6icpis), daughter of Erechtheus and 
wife of Cephalus. For details see Cephaltjs. 

Procrustes (npo/cpouo-TTjs), that is, ' the 
Stretcher,' a surname of the famous robber 
Polypemon or Damastes. He used to tie all 
travellers who fell into his hands upon a bed : if 
they were shorter than the bed, he stretched their 
limbs till they were of the same length ; if they 
were longer than the bed, he made them of the 
same size by cutting off some of their limbs. 
He was slain by Theseus, on the Cephissus in 
Attica. The bed of Procrustes has passed into 
a proverb. [Thesetjs.] 

C. Proculeius, a Koman eques, one of the 
friends of Augustus, was sent by the latter, after 
the victory at Actium, to Antony and Cleopatra 
(Plut. Ant. 78). It is of this Proculeius that 
Horace speaks (Od. ii. 2). He is said to have 
divided his property with his brothers (perhaps 
cousins) Caepio and Murena, who had lost 
their property in the civil wars. [Mueena.] 
Proculeius put an end to his life by taking. 



PBOCTJLTJS 

gypsum, when suffering from a disease in the ' 
stomach. 

Proculus, the jurist, was the contemporary of 
the jurist Nerva the younger, who was probably 
the father of the emperor Xerva (Pompon. Dig. 
i. 2, 2, 52). The fact that Proculus gave his 
name to the school or sect (Proculiani or Pro- 
culeiani, as the name is also written), which 
was opposed to that of the Sabiniani, shows 
that he was a jurist of note. Proculus is often 
cited, and there are thirty-seven extracts from 
him in the Digest from his eight books of Epi- 
stolae. He appears to have written notes on 
Labeo. Some writers suppose that Proculus is 
the Licinius Proculus who was praefectus 
praetorio under Otho. 

Proculus, Julius, a Eoraan senator, is said 
in the legend of Eomulus to have informed the 
sorrowing Eoman people, after the strange de- 
parture of their king from the world, that Eo- 
mulus had descended from heaven and appeared 
to him, bidding him tell the people to honour 
him in future as a god under the name of Qui- 
rinus. [Eomulus.] 

Prodicus (UpodiKos), the celebrated sophist, 
was a native of Iulis in the island of Ceos 
(Plat. Protag. p. 315). He lived in the time of 
the Peloponnesian war and subsequently ; but 
the date cannot be determined either of his 
birth or of his death. Prodicus came frequently 
to Athens on the public business of his native 
city. He is mentioned in the Clouds of Aristo- 
phanes, which belongs to B.C. 423 ; he was one 
of the teachers of Isocrates, and he was alive at 
the time of the death of Socrates (399). (Plat. 
Apol. p. 19.) It is probable that no weight 
should be attached to the statement of Suidas 
that Prodicus was put to death by the Athe- 
nians as a corrupter of the youth. He is men- 
tioned both by Plato and Xenophon with more 
respect than the other sophists. Like Prot- 
agoras and others he travelled through Greece, 
delivering lectures for money, and in this way 
he amassed a large fortune (Xen. Symp. iv. 62). 
He paid especial attention to the correct use of 
words, and some have supposed this to be mere 
idle hair-splitting; yet it is possible that, though 
he was ridiculed for it by Plato, he may have 
done service thereby to dialectics. (Plat. 
Euthyd. p. 277, Cratyl. p. 384, Charmid. p. 
103.) We have the substance of one of his lec- 
tures preserved by Xenophon in the well-known 
fable called ' The Choice of Heracles ' [see p. 
895, b], and it must be confessed that its teach- 
ing is such as to raise, not to debase, the minds 
of the youth. 

Proeina (npo'eppa : Gynaekokastru), a town 
of southern Thessaly, SW. of Pharsahis, on the 
W. slope of M. Narthacius, near the sources of 
the Apidanus (Strab. p. 434; Liv. xxxvi. 14). 
Proetides. [Proetus.] 

Proetils lUpoirot), son of Abas and Ocalea, 
and twin-brother of Acrisius. In the dispute 
between the two brothers for the kingdom of 
Argos, Proetus was expelled (Paus. ii. 25, 7), 
whereupon lie fled to Iobates in Lycia, whose 
daughter, Antea or Stheneboea, he married 
(II. vi. 160 ; Serv. ad Eel. vi. 48). With the 
assistance of Iobates, Proetus was restored to 
his kingdom, and took Tiryns, which was now 
fortified by the Cyclopes. [Tiryns.] Acrisius 
then shared his kingdom with his brother, sur- 
rendering to him Tiryns, Midea and the coast 
of Argolis (Paus. ii. 16, 2|. By his wife Proetus, 
besides a son Megapenthcs.had three daughters, 
Lysippe, Iphinoi : , and Iphianassa, who are often 
mentioned under the general name of Proe- 



PEOMETHEUS 



759 



tides. When these daughters arrived at the 
age of maturity, they were stricken with mad- 
ness, the cause of which is differently related. 
Some say that it was a punishment inflicted 
upon them by Dionysus, because they had 
despised his worship (Apollod. ii. 4, 1 ; Diod. iv. 
68) ; others relate that they were driven mad 
by Hera, because they presumed to consider 
themselves more handsome than the goddess, 
or because they had stolen some of the gold of 
her statue (Serv. I. c). It is clear from the 
passage in Virgil (Eel. vi. 48) that in some tra- 
ditions their madness took the form of their 
imagining themselves to be cows. It seems not 
unlikely that this story may have grown out of 
some old custom in the locality of women who 
worshipped Hera putting horns on their heads 
to symbolise the goddess of the crescent moon 
Tsee p. 394, a] ; whence the tradition may have 
survived of women driven by Hera into this 
form of madness. The frenzy spread to the 
other women of Argos, till at length Proetus 
agreed to divide his kingdom between Mel- 
ampus and his brother Bias, upon the former 
promising that he would cure the women of 
their madness. Melampus then chose the most 
robust among the young men, gave chase to 
the mad women, amid shouting and dancing, 
and drove them as far as Sicyon. Durir.g 
[ this pursuit, Iphinoe died, but the two other 
daughters were cured by Melampus by means 
of purifications, and were then married to Mel- 
I ampus and Bias. (Hdt. ix. 34.) The place 
I where the cure was effected upon his daughters 
I is not the same in all traditions, some mention- 
! ing the well Anigros, others the fountain Clitor 
in Arcadia, or Lusi in Arcadia (Strab. p. 436 ; 
Paus. viii. 18, 3 ; Ov. Met. xv. 325). Another 
and still more famous story tells that when 
Bellerophon came to Proetus to be purified of 
a murder which lie had committed, the wife of 
Proetus fell in love with him ; but, as Bellero- 
phon declined her advances, she charged him 
before Proetus with having tried to seduce her. 
Proetus then sent Bellerophon to Iobates in 
Lycia, with a letter desiring him to murder 
Bellerophon. [Bellerophon.] — According to 
Ovid (Met. v. 238) Acrisius was expelled from 
his kingdom by Proetus, and Perseus, the 
grandson of Acrisius, avenged his grandfather 
I by turning Proetus into stone by means of the 
' head of Medusa. [Perseus.J 

Prometheus lUpo/xridtvs), according to the 
i Greek genealogies son of the Titan Iapetus and 
Clymene, and brother of Atlas, Menoetius, and 
Epimetheus (Hes. Th. 508). Other accounts 
make his mother Asia, one of the Oceanides 
(Apollod. i. 2, 2; Lycophr. 1283). Aeschylus, 
with a deeper allegorical meaning, makes him 
the son of Themis (Aesch. Pr. 18, 207). Pro- 
metheus was beyond all doubt originally a god 
of fire, akin to Hephaestus, with whom and 
with Athene he was closely connected in ritual 
at Athens. Thus Prometheus and Hephaestus 
were worshipped at a common altar in the 
sanctuary of Athene in the Academy, and it is 
said that in the sculptures there Prometheus 
was represented as the superior of the two fire- 
gods, holding the sceptre (Schol. ad Soph. Oed. 
Col. 55). All three deities, because they were 
deities of light and fire, were honoured witli a 
torch-race [Diet, of Ant. art. Lnmj>ndeilromia\. 
And as fire was regarded as the source of all 
crafts and inventions (of, Plin. xxxvi. 200), so 
all three deities were patrons of handic rafts, 
and Prometheus, like Atliene, was specially 
gifted with wisdom (whence his name, which 



760 PKOMETHEUS 



PROPERTIUS 



signified 'forethought'). But from this original 
conception of the fire-god sprang many myths, 
some bearing all the marks of old popular 
•stories, which were gradually welded into a 
more or less consecutive story by the poets. It 
may be seen that the name of the god irvp(p6pos, 
' the fire-bringer ' (cf. Soph. C. 56), provided 
a starting-point for the myth of the robbery of 
fire from heaven. The story of Hesiod is as 
follows. Once, in the reign of Zeus, when gods 
and men were disputing with one another at 
Mecone (afterwards Sicyon), Prometheus, with 
a view of deceiving Zeus, cut up a bull and 
divided it into two parts : he wrapped up the 
best parts and the intestines in the skin, and at 
the top he placed the stomach, which is one of 
the worst parts, while the second heap consisted 
of the bones covered with fat. (It may be noticed 
that the office of presiding at sacrifice belonged 
to Prometheus as fire-god.) When Zeus pointed 
•out to him how badly he had made the division, 
Prometheus desired him to choose, but Zeus, 
seeing through the stratagem of Prometheus, 
chose the heap of bones covered with the fat. 
The father of the gods avenged himself by with- 
holding fire from mortals, but Prometheus stole 
it in a hollow tube (vapB-q^, ferula). This fire 
be stole from the hearth of Zeus (Hes. Op. 51), 
or from the lightning (Lucret. v. 1090), or from 
the sun (Serv. ad Eel. vi. 42), or from the work- 
shop of Hephaestus and Athene (Plat. Protag. 
p. 321). Zeus thereupon chained Prometheus 
to a pillar, where an eagle consumed in the 
daytime his liver, which was restored in each 
succeeding night. Prometheus was thus ex- 
posed to perpetual torture ; but Heracles killed 
the eagle and delivered the sufferer, with the 
consent of Zeus, who in this way had an oppor- 
tunity of allowing his son to gain immortal 
fame. Further, in order to punish men Zeus 
gave Pandora as a present to Epimetheus, in 
consequence of which diseases and sufferings 
of every kind befell mortals. [For details, see 
Pandoka.] This is an outline of the legend 
about Prometheus, as contained in the poems 
of Hesiod. (Hes. Th. 521, Op. 47; cf. Hyg. 
Ast. ii. 15 ; Apollod. ii. 5, 11.) — Aeschylus, in 
his trilogy Prometheus, added various new 
features to this legend. Although Prometheus 
belonged to the Titans, he is nevertheless repre- 
sented by Aeschylus as having assisted Zeus 
against the Titans (218). But when Zeus 
wanted to extirpate the whole race of man, 
whose place he proposed to fill by an entirely 
new race of beings, Prometheus prevented the 
execution of the scheme, and saved mankind 
from destruction (228). Prometheus further 
deprived them of their knowledge of the future, 
and gave them hope instead. He taught them 
the use of fire, made them acquainted with 
architecture, astronomy, mathematics, writing, 
the treatment of domestic animals, navigation, 
medicine, the art of prophecy, working in metal, 
and all the other arts (248, 445). But, as he had 
acted in all these things contrary to the will of 
Zeus, the latter ordered Hephaestus to chain 
him to a rock in Scythia-, which was done in the 
presence of Cratos and Bia, two ministers of 
Zeus. Prometheus, however, still continued to 
defy Zeus, and declared that there was a decree 
of fate, according to which Zeus was destined to 
be dethroned by his own son. As Prometheus 
steadfastly refused to give any explanation of 
this decree, Zeus hurled him into Tartarus, 
together with the rock to which he was chained. 
After the lapse of a long time, Prometheus 
returned to the upper world, to endure a fresh 



course of suffering, for he was now fastened to 
Mt. Caucasus, and his liver devoured by an 
eagle, as related in the Hesiodic legend. (It is 
remarkable that the natives of the Caucasus 
still have a tradition that a giant dwells on the 
summit of Mt. Elbruz : but the eagle has been 
transformed into a cock which visits him every 
morning at sunrise.) The state of suffering was 
to last for Prometheus until some other god, of 
his own accord, should take his place, and 
descend into Tartarus for him (1025). This 
came to pass after Heracles had slain the eagle, 
when Chiron, who had been incurably wounded, 
desired to go into Hades, and Zeus allowed 
him to supply the place of Prometheus (Apollod. 

11. 5, 4). According to other accounts, Zeus him- 
self delivered Prometheus, after the Titan had 
been at length prevailed upon to reveal to Zeus 
the decree of fate, which was that, if he should 
become by Thetis the father of a son, that son 
should deprive him of the sovereignty (Apollod. 

iii. 13, 5 ; Hyg. Fab. 54). There was also a 
legend which related that Prometheus had 
created man out of earth and water, either at 
the very beginning of the human race, or after 
the flood of Deucalion, when Zeus is said to 
have ordered him and Athene to make men out 
of the mud, and the winds to breathe life into 
them. Prometheus is said to have given to 
men a portion of all the qualities possessed by 
the other animals (Hor. Od. i. 16, 13 ; Apollod. 
i. 7, 1 ; Ov. Met. i. 81). The kind of earth out 
of which Prometheus formed men was shown 
in later times near Panopeus in Phocis (Paus. 
x. 4, 3). _ 

Promona (Tipoifxova : Petrovacz), a mountain 
fortress of the Liburni at the N. of Dalmatia, 
between Burnum and Salona. Its name is pre- 
served in the hill called now Promina, and its 
site may be the modern Dernis (App. Illyr. 

12, 2). 

Pronapides (npora?ri'8?)s), an Athenian, is 
said to have been the teacher of Homer. He is 
enumerated among those who used the Pelasgio 
letters, before the introduction of the Phoe- 
nician, and is characterised as a graceful com- 
poser of song. 

Pronax (XlpSival), son of Talaus and Lysi- 
mache, brother of Adrastus and Eriphyle, and 
father of Lycurgus and Amphithea. According 
to some traditions the Nemean games were 
instituted in honour of Pronax. 

Pronni (UpSuyoi : Upouvaios), a town on the 
E. coast of Cephallenia, and one of the four 
towns of the island (Thuc. ii. 30 ; Pol. v. 3 ; 
Strab. p. 455). 

Pronomus (Xlpdvo^os), of Thebes, son of 
Oeniadas, was one of the most distinguished 
auletic musicians of Greece at the time of the 
Peloponnesian war. He was the instructor of 
Alcibiades in flute-playing. He invented a new 
sort of flute, the compass of which was such 
that melodies could be played upon it in all the 
three modes of music, the Dorian, the Phry- 
gian, and the Lydian, for each of which a 
separate flute had been necessary. 

Pronous (Ylp6voos), son of Phegeus, and 
brother of Agenor, in conjunction with whom 
he slew Alcmaeon. [For details, see Agenob 
and Alcmaeon.] 

Pronuba, a surname of Juno among the 
Romans, describing her as the deity presiding 
over marriage. [Juno.] 

Propertlus, Sex., the Roman poet, was prob- 
ably born about B.C. 51. He comes in age 
between Tibullus and Ovid (Ov. Trist. ii. 465, 

iv. 10, 53). He tells us that he was a native of 



PROPERTIUS 



PROSPER 



761 



Umbria, where it borders on Etruria (i. 22, 9, v. 
1, 64), but nowhere mentions the exact spot. 
It was probably the town of Asisium (cf. v. 1, 
125, where Asisi should be read), where other 
Propertii are mentioned in inscriptions. As 
regards his name, by himself and other authors 
he is spoken of simply as Propertius. The 
praeuomen Sextus is derived from Donatus 
(Vit. Vergil. 45). The idea that he was Sex. 
Aurelius Propertius is derived from the head- 
ings of some MSS., but is generally discredited. 
It is suggested that it started from a confusion 
with Aurelius Prudentius. The inscriptions 
where it occurs are said to be spurious. He 
was not descended from a family of any dis- ] 
tinction, and he was deprived of his paternal 
estate by an agrarian division of 41 B.C. (v. 1, 
127 ; cf. iii. 34, 55). At the time of this mis- ; 
fortune he had not yet assumed the toga virilis, ] 
and was therefore under sixteen years of age. 
He had already lost his father, who is conjec- 
tured to have been one of the victims sacrificed 
after the taking of Perusia ; but this notion 
does not rest on any satisfactory grounds. We 
have no account of Propertius's education ; but 
from one of his elegies (v. i.) it would seem that 
he was destined to be an advocate, but aban- 
doned the profession for that of poetry. The 
history of his life, so far as it is known to us, is 
the history of his amours, nor can it be said 
how much of this is fiction. He began to write 
poetry at a very early age, and the merit of 
his productions soon attracted the attention and 
patronage of Maecenas. This was most prob- 
ably shortly after the death of Antony, in 30, 
when Propertius was about twenty-one. It was 
probably in 32 or 31 that Propertius first be- 
came acquainted with his Cynthia. She was a 
native of Tibur, and her real name was Hostia 
(Apul. Apol. 10 ; cf . Mart. viii. 73, 5, xiv. 189 ; 
Juv. vi. 7). As Propertius (iii. 20, 8l alludes to 
her docius avus, it is probable that she was a 
grand-daughter of Hostius, who wrote a poem on 
the Istrian war. [Hostius.] She seems to have 
inherited a considerable portion of the family 
talent, and was herself a poetess, besides being 
skilled in music. It appears that Propertius sub- 
sequently married, probably after Cynthia's 
death, and left legitimate issue, since the younger 
Pliny twice mentions Passienus Paulus as de- 
scended from him. This must have been through 
the female line. The year of Propertius's death 
is altogether unknown. — Propertius resided on 
the Esquiline, near the gardens of Maecenas (iv. 
28, 4). He seems to have cultivated the friend- 
ship of his brother poets, as Ponticus, Bassus 
Ovid, and others. He mentions Virgil (iii. 34, 
68) in a way that shows he had heard parts of 
the Aeneid privately recited. But though he 
belonged to the circle of Maecenas, he never 
once mentions Horace. He is equally silent 
about Tibullus. His not mentioning Ovid is 
best explained by the difference in their ages ; 
for Ovid alludes more than once to Propertius, 
and with evident affection (Trist. iv. 10, 45, v. 
1, 17). — As an elegiac poet, a high rank must be 
awarded to Propertius, and among the ancients 
it was a disputed point whether the preference 
should be given to him or to Tibullus. It is 
true that he follows the Alexandrine school of 
learned poets, adopting their somewhat pedantic 
and affected display of mythological research, 
and claiming to be the Roman Callimochns 
(v. ], 68), whom, as well as Philetas and other 
of the Greek elegiac poets, he made his model. 
But Propertius had a fervour and originality 
which gave him a rank far above the school of 



artificial poets, and some of his elegies (e.g. v. 11) 
have a poetry unsurpassed by any of the Latin 
elegiac poets. In this metre he uses the licence 
admitted in Greek elegy. Tibullus generally, 
and Ovid almost invariably, close their penta- 
meter with a word contained in an iambic foot ; 
Propertius, especially in his first book, fre- 
quently ends with a word of four or five 
syllables. The elegy on Hylas is an instance 
of the melody which he could produce under 
these conditions. — Most editors now follow 
Lachmann in dividing the work into five books. 
Book i. (the book on Cynthia, which was pub- 
lished first) is the same in all editions ; but 
book ii. of the MSS. is divided at the ninth 
elegy : so that book ii. 10-34 of the MSS. be- 
comes book iii., and the third and fourth books 
are numbered iv. and v. An argument for the 
division of book ii. is found in iii. 13, 25. — 
Editions of Propertius bv Lachmann, 1816 ; 
Hertzberg, 1844, 1845; Paley, 1872; Bahrens, 
1880 ; A. Palmer, 1881 ; select elegies by Post- 
gate, 1881. 

Prophthasia iUpo(p6a<rla: prob. Peshawarun, 
Ru.), the N.-most city of Drangiana, on the 
borders of Asia, was probably the place where 
Phtlotas was put to death. 

Propontis tri Upo-Kovris : Sea of Marmara), 
so called from its position with reference to the 
Pontus (Euxinus), and thus more fully de- 
scribed as i] irpb tov Tiovrov tov EifeiVou 
SdKacnra, and ' Vestibulum Ponti,' is the small 
sea which united the Euxine and the Aegaean 
[Pontus Euxinus^ and divides Europe (Thracia) 
from Asia (Mysia and Bithynia). It is of an 
irregular oval shape, running out on the E. 
into two deep gulfs, the Sinus Astacenus (G. of 
Ismid) and the Sinus Cianus (G. of Modonia), 
and containing several islands. It received the 
waters of the Rhyndacus and other rivers of 
E. Mysia and W. Bithynia, ilowing from Mt. 
Ida and Olympus ; and several important 

I Greek cities stood on its shores, the chief of 

I which were Byzantium and IIekaclea Pekin- 
tiius on the X.. and Cyzicus on the S. Its 
length is calculated by Herodotus at 1400 
stadia (140 geog. miles) and its greatest breadth 
at 500 stadia 150 g. m.) which is very near the 
truth. (Hdt, iv. 85; Strab. pp. 503, 574, 583; 

; Aesch. Vers. 870; Plin. iv. 76, v. 141; Mel. i. 1, 

| 3, 19.) 

Proschium. [Pylene.] 
Proserpina. [Persephone.] 
Prospalta Ira Tlp6a-n-a\ra : Tlpoo-irdiKTios), a 
demus in the S. of Attica, belonging to the tribe 

, Acamantis. 

Prosper, a celebrated ecclesiastical writer, 

I was a native of Aquitania, and lived during the 
first half of the fifth century. Many of his 

I theological works are extant [for which see 
Diet, of Christ. BiogrA, and he also left a 

' Chronicle which is of value since its last thirty 
years supply information not to be obtained 

I elsewhere. It is called Chronicon Consular/; 
and extends from A. I). 879, the date at which 
the Chronicle of Jerome ends, down to 455, the 
events being arranged according to the years of 
the Roman consuls. We find short notices 
with regard to the Roman emperors, the Roman 
bishops, and political occurrences in general, 

1 but the troubles of the Church are especially 
dwelt upon, and above all the Pelagian heresy. 

1 The Chronicon Imperiale- comprehended with- 
in the same limits as the preceding ("79-455), 
which treats of the period arranged according 
to the reigns of the emperors, is erroneously as- 
cribed to Prosper. It was probably not written 



762 



PROSYMNA 



PROTEUS 



by Prosper of Aquitania, and is.assigned by most 
critics to Prosper Tiro, who, it is imagined, 
flourished in the sixth century. There are 
likewise several poems which have come down 
to us under the name of Prosper. — The best 
edition of Prosper's works is the Benedictine, 
Paris, 1711. 

Prosymna (\Jp6(rvp.va : Tlpoav/jivcuos), an an- 
cient town of Argolis, with a temple of Hera, 
N. of Argos (Strab. p. 373 ; Stat. Theb. iv. 44). 

Prota (Tlpara : Prote), an island in the Pro- 
pontis near Chalcedon (Steph. Byz. s.v. XaA/cjTis) . 

Protagoras (Upwraydpas), a celebrated so- 
phist, was born at Abdera, in Thrace (Plat. 
Protag. pp. 316, 349, Bep. p. 606), probably 
about B.C. 480, and died about 411, at the age 
of nearly seventy years. It is said that Prot- 
agoras was once a poor porter, and that the 
skill with which he had fastened together, and 
poised upon his shoulders, a large bundle of 
wood, attracted the attention of Democritus, 
who conceived a liking for him, took him under 
his care, and instructed him in philosophy. 
(Diog. La'e'rt. ix. 53, x. 8 ; Gell. v. 3 ; Athen. 
p. 354.) This well-known story, however, ap- 
pears to have arisen out of the statement of 
Aristotle, that Protagoras invented a sort of 
porter's knot for the more convenient carrying 
of burdens. It cannot be true that he was 
patronised or instructed by Democritus, who 
was twenty years younger than Protagoras 
himself. Protagoras was the first who called 
himself a sophist (i.e. in the original sense of 
the name, one who professed to teach skill and 
practical life instead of only theory and abstract 
truth) ; and he is is said to have been the first 
who taught for pay. He practised his pro- 
fession for the space of forty years. He must 
have come to Athens before B.C. 445, since 
he drew up a code of laws for the Thurians, 
who left Athens for the first time in that 
year (Diog. La'e'rt. ix. 50). Whether he accom- 
panied the colonists to Thurii, we are not 
informed ; but at the time of the plague (430) 
we find him again in Athens. Between his 
first and second visit to Athens, he had spent 
some time in Sicily, where he had acquired 
great fame ; and he brought with him to Athens 
many admirers out of other Greek cities through 
which he had passed (Plat. Protag. p. 315). 
His instructions were so highly valued that he 
sometimes received one hundred minae from a 
pupil ; and Plato saj'S that Protagoras made 
more money than Phidias and ten other sculp- 
tors. In 411 he was accused of impiety by 
Pythodorus, one of the Pour Hundred. His 
impeachment was founded on his book on the 
gods, which began with the statement : ' Re- 
specting the gods, I am unable to know whether 
they exist or do not exist.' The impeachment 
was followed by his banishment, or, as others 
affirm, only by the burning of his book. (Diog. 
Laert. ix. 52 ; Cic. JV. D. i. 23.) His profession 
being to fit for practical life, it followed that 
his object was to enable his- pupils to persuade 
others to take their view, whatever it might be, 
since at that time success in political -life de- 
pended upon skilful oratory and upon the power 
to maintain in speech, if need be, a bad cause 
(rbv t^tto) \6yov KpeiTTo> ttoizIv). — Protagoras 
wrote a large number of works, of which the 
most important were entitled Truth ('AA/^fleia) 
and On the Gods (Ylfpl 0ecDe). The first con- 
tained the theory that ' Man is the measure of 
all things ' (i.e. that everything is, as regards 
each man, what it appears to him to be ; and 
so that absolute truth, independent of opinion, 



could not exist) refuted by Plato in the Theaete- 
tus. Plato gives a vivid picture of the teaching of 
Protagoras in the dialogue that bears his name 
(cf. Plat. Theaet. pp. 156, 160 ; Cic. Ac. ii. 46, 
142, N. D. i. 2, 12). Protagoras was especially 
celebrated for his skill in the rhetorical art. 
By way of practice in the art he was accustomed 
to make his pupils discuss Theses (communes 
loci) ; an exercise which is also recommended 
by Cicero (Brut. 12, 45). 

Protesilaus (npa>Te<rl\aos), son of Iphiclus 
and Astyoche, belonged to Phylace in Thessaly. 
He is called Phylacius and Phylacides, either 
from his native place, or from his being a grand- 
son of Phylacus. He led the warriors of several 
Thessalian places against Troy, and was the 
first of all the Greeks who was killed by the 
Trojans, being the first who leaped from the 
ships upon the Trojan coast. (II. ii. 695 ; Ov. 
Met. xii. 67.) According to the common tra- 
dition he was slain by Hector. Protesilaus is 
most celebrated in ancient story for the strong 
affection existing between him and his wife 
Laodamia, the daughter of Acastus. [For de- 
tails see Laodamia.] His tomb was shown near 
Eleus, in the Thracian Chersonesus, where a 
magnificent temple was erected to him. There 
was a belief that nymphs had planted elm- 
trees around his grave, which died away when 
they had grown sufficiently high to see Troy, 
and that fresh shoots then sprang from the 
roots. There was also a sanctuary of Protesi- 
laus at Phylace, at which funeral games were 
celebrated. (Hdt. vii. 33, ix. 116, 120 ; Plin. xvi. 
99; Strab. pp. 296, 394, 432, 595.) Euripides 
made the story of Protesilaus the subject of a 
tragedy, of which only fragments remain. 

Proteus (Ylpwrevs), the prophetic old man of 
the sea, is described in the earliest legends as a 
subject of Poseidon,. whose flocks (the seals) he 
tended. According to Homer he lived in the 
island of Pharos, at the distance of one day's 
journey from the river Aegyptus (Nile) ; whereas 
Virgil places his dwelling in the island of Car- 
! pathos, between Crete and Rhodes. At midday 
Proteus rose from the sea, and slept in the 
! shadow of the rocks of the coast, with the 
monsters of the deep lying around him. Any- 
I one wishing to learn from him the future, was 
obliged to catch hold of him at that time : as 
soon as he was seized, he assumed every possible 
shape, in order to escape the necessity of 
prophesying, but whenever he saw that his 
endeavours were of no avail, he resumed his 
usual form, and told the truth. After finishing 
his prophecy he returned into the sea. (Od. iv. 
I 351 ff. ; Verg. Georg. iv. 386 ff.) Homer as- 
cribes to him a daughter Idothea. — Later tra- 
ditions describe Proteus as a son of Poseidon, 
and as a king of Egypt, who had two sons, Tele- 
! gonus and Polygonus or Tmolus. His Egyptian 
name is said to have been Cetes, for which the 
Greeks substituted that of Proteus, and his 
wife's name was Psamathe. These names seem 
i to have been taken from Krjros (a sea-monster) 
and >fidfm8os (sand), as relics of the older myth 
to which they belonged. Besides the above- 
mentioned sons, Theoclymenus and Theonoe are 
likewise called his children (Eur. Hel. 9, 13). 
He is said to have hospitably received Dionysus 
during his wanderings. Hermes brought to him 
Helena after her abduction, or, according to 
others, Proteus himself took her from Paris, 
gave to the lover a phantom, and restored the 
true Helen to Menelaus after his return from 
Troy. (Hdt. ii. 112, 118 ; Eur. Helena ; Diod. 
i. 62 ; see p. 388, a.) 



PROTOGENES 



PRYTANTS 



763 



Protogenes (Xlpcoroy4vr]sK a celebrated Greek 
painter. He was a native of Caunus, in Caria, 
a city subject to the Ehodians, and flourished 
B.C. 332-300. (Paus. i. 3, 4 ; Plin. xxxv. 101.) 
He resided at Rhodes almost entirely ; the only 
other city of Greece which he is said to have 
visited is Athens, where he executed one of his 
great works in the Propylaea. Up to his 
fiftieth year he is said to have lived iu poverty 
and in comparative obscurity, supporting him- 
self by painting ships. It has been suggested 
that he originally made pictures of ships as 
votive offerings for escape from shipwreck. 
His fame had, however, reached the ears of 
Apelles, who, upon visiting Rhodes, made it his 
first business to seek out Protogenes. As the 
surest way of making the merits of Protogenes 
known to his fellow-citizens, Apelles offered 
liim for his finished works the enormous sum 
of fifty talents apiece, and thus led the Rhodians 
to understand what an artist they had amongst 
them. Protogenes was distinguished by the 
care with which he wrought up his pictures. 
It is said that in his picture of a satyr resting 
he introduced a partridge so naturally painted 
that it absorbed all the attention of those who 
came to see the picture, and that Protogenes, 
annoyed at this, painted out the bird. His 
masterpiece was the picture of Ialysus, the 
tutelary hero of Rhodes, on which he is said to 
have spent seven years, or even, according to 
another statement, eleven ; and to liave painted 
it four times over. This picture was so highly 
prized even in the artist's lifetime that when 
Demetrius Poliorcetes was using every effort 
to subdue Rhodes, he refrained from attacking I 
the city at its most vulnerable point, lest he 
should injure this picture, which had been 
placed in that quarter. (Plut. Demetr. 22 ; 
Ael. V. H. xii. 41.) There is a celebrated story 
about this picture, relating to the accidental 
production of one of the most effective parts of 
it, the foam at the mouth of a tired hound. 
The artist, it is said, dissatisfied with his re- 
peated attempts to produce the desired effect, 
at last, in his vexation, dashed the sponge, with 
which he had repeatedly effaced his work, 
against the faulty place ; and the sponge 
charged as it was by repeated use with the 
necessary colours, left a mark in which the 
painter recognised the very foam which his art 
had failed to produce (Plin. I. c). 

ProtogenJa (Upwroyeveia), daughter of Deu- 
calion and Pyrrha, and wife of Locrus ; but 
Zeus carried her off, and became by her the 
father of Opus (Apollod. i. 7, 2; Schol. ad 
Pind. 01. ix. 850 
Provincia. [Gallia, p. 353, h.~ 
Proxenus (Up6^fvos). 1. A Boeotian, was a 
disciple of Gorgias, and a friend of Xenophon. 
Being connected by the ties of hospitality with 
the younger Cyrus, the latter engaged him in 
his service. He was seized by Tissaphernes 
and put to death, with the other Greek generals. 
It was at the invitation of Proxenus that Xeno- 
phon was induced to enter the service of Cyrus. 
(Xen. An. i. 1, 11, ii. 6, 10, v. 3, 5.)— 2. Of Tegea, 
took a leading part in opj>osition to Sparta and 
in the scheme for founding Megalopolis. He 
was killed in a disturbance at Tegea. (Xen. Hell. 
vi. 5, 6; Paus. vii. 27, 2.) — 3. An Athenian 
general in the Sacred war, B.C. 347 (Aesch. 
F.L. 87). 

PrUdentlus, Aurellus Clemens, the earliest 
of the Christian poets of any celebrity, was a 
native of Spain, and was bom a.d. 348. After 
practising us an advocate, uud discharging the 



I duties of a civil and criminal judge in two impor- 
tant cities, he received from the emperor Theodo- 
sius, or from Honorius, a high military appoint- 
ment at court ; but as he advanced in years, he 
became sensible of the emptiness of worldly 
: honour, and earnest in the exercises of religion. 
His poems, which are composed in a great 
variety of metres, have much of the artificiality 
which belonged to the time, and great fondness 
for obscure allegory; but in vigour of poetry 
and in style he not only stands before other 
Christian writers of Latin verse, but shows more 
genius than any contemporary poet, even than 
Ausonius and Claudian, though in his versifi- 
cation he is inferior to them. His poem on 
martyrdom (Peristephanori) is his most power- 
ful. — Editions of Prudentius are by Arevalus, 
Rom. 1788 and 1789; by Obbarius, Tubing. 
1845 ; and by Dressel, Leips. 1860. 

Prusa or Prusias (TlpoVffa : Upovfftevs : 
Broussa), a great city of Bithynia, on the N. 
side of M. Olympus, fifteen Roman miles from 
Cius and twenty-five from Nicaea, was built by 
Prusias, king of Bithynia. or, according to some, 
by Hannibal (Strab. p. 564 ; Plin. v. 148). It 
was a prosperous city under the Roman em- 
perors and celebrated for its warm baths (Plin. 
Ep. x. 85 ; Athen. p. 43). 

Prusias (npotxrias). 1. I., king of Bithynia 
from about B.C. 228 to 180, though the date 
neither of his accession nor his death is exactly 
known. He was the son of Zielas, whom he suc- 
ceeded. He appears to have been a monarch 
of vigour and ability, and raised his kingdom 
of Bithynia to a much higher pitch of power 
and prosperity than it had previously attained. 
(Pol. iv. 50, v. 90, viii. 17, xxii. 27.) It was at 
his court that Hannibal took refuge ; and when 
the Romans demanded the surrender of the 
Carthaginian general, the kii 4 basely gave his 
consent, and Hannibal only escaped falling into 
the hands of his enemies by a voluntary death 
(Nep. Hann. 10; Just, xxxii. i). — 2. II., king 
of Bithynia, son and successor of the preced- 
ing, reigned from about 180 to 149. He courted 
assiduously the alliance of the Romans. He 
carried on war with Attalus, king of Pergamus, 
with whom, however, he was compelled by the 
Romans to conclude peace in 154. He was 
slain in 149 by order of his son Nicomedes, as 
is related in the Life of the latter. [Nico- 
medes H.] Prusias is described to us as a 
man in whom personal deformity was combined 
with a character the most vicious and degraded. 
His passion for the chase is attested by the 
epithet of the ' Huntsman ' (Kwny6s). (Pol. 
xxiv. 1, xxix. 3, xxxvii. 2 ; Just, xxxiv. 4.) 




Coin of I'ruslas L, King of Bithj-nla, ob. A.D. 149. 
06r., head of Prusias : rcr., baiiaedi nPOYiiov; Zous 
standing with sceptre. 

Prymnesia or Prymnesus (Upvp.vr)aia, npu- 
uynais, npivu'Tjircrd'r : Seulun, near Afium Kara 
Hisaar), a city in the N. of Phrygia, which ap- 
pears, from its coins, to have been a Beat of the 
worship of Midas as a hero (Ptol. v. 2, 24). 

Prytanis (npvravts), king of Sparta, of the 
Proclid line, was the son of Eurypon, and 
fourth king of that race. 



764 



PSAMATHE 



PSYCHE 



Psamathe (Va.fj.d8Ti). 1. Daughter of Nereus 
and Doris, and mother of Phocus (Hes. Th. 260, 
1004; Ov. Met. xi. 381, 398).— 2. [Proteus.] 

Psamathiis (Va/xadovs, -ovutos '■ VaiiaBovv- 
tioj, "VafxaOovaios), a seaport town in Laconia 
near the promontory Taenarum (Strab. p. 353). 

Psammenitus (^a^uTji/n-os^Psamthek III., 
king of Egypt, succeeded his father, Amasis, in 
B.C. 526, and reigned only six months. He was 
conquered by Cambyses in 525, and his country 
made a province of the Persian empire. His 
life was spared by Cambyses, but as he was 
detected shortly afterwards in endeavouring to 
excite a revolt among the Egyptians, he was 
compelled to put an end to his life by drinking 
bull's blood. (Hdt. hi. 10, 13-15.) 

Psammis (¥a,u,uis)=Psamthek II., king of 
Egypt, succeeded his father, Necho, and reigned 
from B.C. 601 to 595. He carried on war against 
Ethiopia, and died immediately after his re- 
turn from the latter country. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Apkibs. (Hdt. ii. 159-161.) 

Psammitichus or Psammetichus (Va/j./x(- 
rtXos or VafifxriTixos), the Greek form of the 
Egyptian Psamthek I., king of Egypt about 
B.C. 666, and founder of the Saitic dynasty. He 
was the great-grandson of Technactis (Tefnekt), 
who had in vain opposed the establishment of 
the Ethiopian power in Egypt in 733. Psam- 
mitichus was originally one of the twelve 
petty kings who obtained an independent 
sovereignty. Having been driven into banish- 
ment by the other kings, he took refuge in the 
marshes ; but shortly afterwards, with the aid 
of some Ionian and Carian pirates, he con- 
quered the other kings, and became sole ruler 
of Egypt (Hdt. ii. 149-152). A clue to the 
manner in which he obtained the power which 
the Ethiopian dynasty had held, and so restored 
peace and union to Egypt, is afforded by the 
monuments, which state that he married the 
heiress of the Ethiopian dynasty, Shep-en-apet. 
Having thus established his power, his object 
was to secure his frontiers, and therefore he 
provided a settlement for his Greek mercen- 
aries on the Pelusiac or eastern branch of the 
Nile, a little below Bubastis ; for he appears to 
have mainly relied upon them for the mainte- 
nance of his power. In order to facilitate in- 
tercourse between the Greeks and his other 
subjects, he ordered a number of Egyptian 
children to live with them, that they might 
learn the Greek language ; and from them 
sprang the class of interpreters (Hdt. ii. 154). 
The employment of foreign mercenaries by 
Psammitichus gave great offence to the mili- 
tary caste in Egypt ; and being indignant at 
other treatment which they received from him, 
they emigrated in a body of 240,000 men, into 
Ethiopia, where settlements were assigned to 
them by the Ethiopian king (Hdt. ii. 30 ; Diod. 
i. 67). It must, therefore, have been chiefly with 
his Ionian and Carian troops that Psammitichus 
carried on his wars against Syria and Phoenicia. 
He laid siege to the city of Azotus (the Ashod of 
Scripture) for twenty-nine years, till he took it 
(Hdt. ii. 157) . As Psammitichus had displeased a 
large portion of his subjects by the introduc- 
tion of foreigners, he seems to have paid 
especial court to the priesthood. He built the 
southern propylaea of the temple of Hephaes- 
tus at Memphis, and a splendid aula, with a 
portico round it, for the habitation of Apis, in 
front of the temple. 

Psebo (¥6/3ai : Thana), a lake in Aethiopia 
SE. of Me'roe, the source of the Astapus (Strab. 
p. 822). 



Pselcis (TeA/a's : -DaMe),the chief city in the 
Dodecaschoenus — that is, the N. part of Aethi- 
opia, which was adjacent to Egypt, to which it 
was regarded by the Romans as belonging. 
The city stood on the W. bank of the Nile, be- 
tween Syene and Tachompso, the latter of 
which was so far eclipsed by Pselcis as to ac- 
quire the name of Contrapselcis. Under the 
later empire, Pselcis was garrisoned by a body 
of German horsemen. (Strab. p. 820 ; Dio Cass, 
liv. 5.) 

Psellus Cv4\\os). 1. Michael Psellus, the 

elder, of Andros, flourished in the ninth cen- 
tury after Christ. He was a learned man, and 
an eager student of the Alexandrian philo- 
sophy. He was probably the author of some 
of the works which are ascribed to the younger 
Psellus.— 2. Michael Constantius Psellus, 
the younger, a far more celebrated person, 
flourished in the eleventh century of our era. 
He was born at Constantinople 1020, and lived 
at least till 1105. He taught philosophy, rhe- 
toric, and dialectics, at Constantinople, where 
he stood forth as almost the last upholder of 
the falling cause of learning. The emperors 
honoured him with the title of Prince of the 
Philosophers. His works are both in prose 
and poetry, on a vast variety of subjects, and 
distinguished by an eloquence and taste which 
are worthy of a better period. They are edited 
by Migne, 1863. 

Psillis (¥i'AAir), a river of Bithynia, which 
flows into the Propontis between Artane and 
Calpe (Strab. p. 543). 

Psdphis (Vooty'is : VaxplStos : Tripotamo), a 
town in the NW. of Arcadia, on the river Ery- 
manthus, is said to have been originally called 
Phegia (Paus. viii. 24, 2). It sided with the 
Aetolians against the Achaeans, but was taken 
B.C. 219 by Philip, king of Macedonia, who was 
then in alliance with the Achaeans (Pol. iv. 70). 

Psyche (Vvxt)), ' the soul,' occurs in the later 
times of antiquity as a personification of the 
human soul, and hence as pursued by Eros as 
personified love. Upon this is built the myth 
related by Apuleius (Met. iv. 28-vi. 24). Psyche 
was the youngest of the three daughters of a 
king, and excited by her beauty the jealousy 
and envy of Venus. In order to avenge her- 
self, the goddess ordered Cupid to inspire 
Psyche with a love for the most contemptible 
of all men : but Cupid was so smitten with her 
beauty that he himself "fell in love with her. 
He accordingly conveyed her to a charming 
spot, where unseen and unknown he visited 
her every night, and left her as soon as the day 
began to dawn. Psyche might have continued 
to enjoy this state of happiness, if she had 
attended to the advice of her lover, who told 
her never to give way to her curiosity, or to 
inquire who he was. But her jealous sisters 
made her believe that in the darkness of night 
she was embracing some hideous monster, and 
accordingly once, while Cupid was asleep, she 
drew near to him with a lamp, and, to her 
amazement, beheld the most handsome and 
lovely of the gods. In her excitement of joy 
and fear, a drop of hot oil fell from her lamp 
upon his shoulder. This awoke Cupid, who 
censured her for her mistrust, and escaped. 
Psyche's happiness was now gone, and after 
attempting in vain to throw herself into a river, 
she wandered about from temple to temple, 
inquiring after her lover, and at length came to 
the palace of Venus. There her real sufferings 
began, for Venus retained her, treated her as 
a slave, and imposed upon her the hardest and 



PSYCHIUM 



PTOLEMAETJS 



765 



most humiliating labours. Psyche would have 
perished under the weight of her sufferings, 
had not Cupid, who still loved her in secret, 
invisibly comforted and assisted her in her 
toils. With his aid she at last succeeded in 
overcoming the jealousy and hatred of Venus : 




Psyche. rFrom an ancient gem.) 

she became immortal, and was united to him 
for ever. It is not difficult to recognise in this 
beautiful story the idea of which it is merely the 
mythical embodiment ; for Psyche is evidently 
the human soul, which is purified by passions 
and misfortunes, and is thus prepared for the 
enjoyment of true and pure happiness. [Cf. 
Apuleits, p. 94, a.] In works of art Psyche is 
usually represented as a maiden with the wings 
of a butterfly, but in the beautiful group of 
Eros and Psyche in the Capitol, both are re- 
presented without wings. 

Psychlum (Vvxiov), a town on the S. coast of 
Crete (Ptol. iii. 17, 4). 

Psylli (VuAAoi), a Libyan people, the earliest 
known inhabitants of the district of N. Africa 
called Cyrenaica, who lived on the shores of the 
Greater Syrtis, W. of the Nasamones. 

Psyra [ra Vupd : Vvptos : Psara), a small 
island of the Aegaean sea, forty stadia (four 
geogr. miles) in circuit, lying fifty stadia (five 
geogr. miles) W. of the XW. point of Chios. It 
had a city of the same name. (Od. iii. 171 ; 
Strab. p. 645.) 

Psyttalea (VmraKeia : Lipsolcutali), a small 
island off the Attic coast, between Salamis and 
the Peiraeus. [Salamis.] 

Pteleos (nrtKeas), a small lake in Mysia, j 
near Ophrynium, on the coast of the Hellespont 
(Hdtvii. 42; Strab. p. 595;. 

Fteleum (rireAtoV : riTfAfarns, Tire Afoumos). 
1. (Ftelia), an ancient seaport town of Thessaly 
in the district Phthiotis, at the SW. extremity 
of the Sinus Pagasaeus, was destroyed by the 
Romans (II. ii. 697 : Strab. p. 483 ; Liv. xlii. C). 
— 2. A town in Elis Triphylia, said to have been 
a colony from the preceding (//. ii. 594 ; Strab. 
p. 349). — 3. A fortress of Ionia, on the coast of 
Asia Minor, belonging to Erythrae (Time. viii. 
24 ; Plin. v. 115). 

Ptolemaeus ( rii-oAf /io7os) usually calhd Pto- 
lemy. I. Minor historical persons. 1. Nephew 
of AntigonuB, king of Asia. He carried on 
war in Greece on behalf of Antigonus, but in 
BIO he abandoned the cause of his uncle and 
concluded a treaty with Cassander and Ptolemy 
the son of Lagus. He soon gave offence to the 
Egyptian king, and was in consequence com- | 



pelled to put an end to his life by poison, B.C. 
309 (Diod. xix. 57-87, xx. 27).— 2. Son of Lysi- 
machus, king of Thrace. He was the eldest of 
the three sons of that monarch by his last wife, 
Arsinoe, and the only one who escaped falling 
into the hands of Ptolemy Ceraunus (Just. xxiv. 
2.) — 3. Son of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, by his 
wife Antigone, the stepdaughter of Ptolemy 
Soter. When only fifteen years of age he was 
left by his father in charge of his hereditary 
dominions when Pyrrhus himself set out on 
his expedition to Italy, 280. At a later time he 
fought under his father in Greece, and was 
slain in the course of Pyrrhus's campaign in 
the Peloponnesus, 272. (Just, xviii. 1, xxv. 4 ; 
Plut. Pyrrh. 28, 30.) — i. Surnamed Philadel- 
phus, son of M. Antony, the Triumvir, by 
Cleopatra. After the death of Antony, 30, 
his life was spared by Augustus, at the inter- 
cession of Juba and Cleopatra, and he was 
brought up by Octavia with her own children. 
(Dio Cass. Ii. 15 ; Plut. Ant. 87.) 

II. Kings of Egypt. 
I., surnamed Soter, the Preserver, but more 
commonly known as the son of Lagus, reigned 
B.C. 323-285. His father, Lagus, was a Macedo- 
nian of ignoble birth, but his mother, Arsinoe, 
had been a concubine of Philip of Macedon, on 
which account it seems to have been generally 
believed that Ptolemy was in reality the off- 
spring of that monarch (Curt. ix. 8, 22 ; Paus. 
i. 6, 2). Ptolemy is mentioned among the 
friends of the young Alexander before the death 
of Philip. He accompanied Alexander through- 
out his campaigns in Asia, and was always 
treated by the king with the greatest favour. 
He was sent to arrest Bessus; in all the 
Indian campaigns his name is among the most 
prominent, and he is said to have saved the 
life of Alexander by discovering a plot against 
his life (Curt. viii. 1, 45). In the march through 
Gedrosia he had command of a division, and he 
accompanied Alexander on his last expedition, 
against the Cossaeans (Curt, ix.10, 5 ; Arr. An. 
vii. 4, 15). He therefore held a leading place 
among the officers of Alexander, and on the 
division of the empire which followed Alex- 
ander's death (323) Ptolemy obtained the 
government of Egypt. In 321 his dominion? 
were invaded by Perdiccas, the regent ; but the 
assassination of Perdiccas by his mutinous 
soldierB soon delivered Ptolemy from this 
danger. (Curt. x. 6, 13 ; Just. xiii. 2.) In the 
following year Ptolemy enlarged his dominions 
by seizing upon the important satrapy of 
Phoenicia and Coele-Syria. It was probably 
during this expedition that he made himself 




Coin of Ptolemaeas I. Soter, King of Egypt. B.C. 823.285. 
06c. , head of Ptolemy I. ; . r., bauaeoi iitoaemaioy 
eaglo on thunderbolt. 



master of Jerusalem, by attacking the city on 
the Sabbath day (Jos. Ant. xii. 1). A few 
years afterwards (816) Ptolemy entered into an 
alliance with Cassander and Lysimaohus 
against AntigonuB, whose growing power had 



766 



PTOLEMAEUS 



excited their common apprehensions. In the 
war which followed, Antigonus conquered 
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia (315, 314) ; but 
Ptolemy recovered these provinces by the 
defeat of Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, near 
Gaza, in 312. (Diod. xix. 57-105.) In 311 
hostilities were suspended by a general peace. 
This peace, however, was of short duration, and 
Ptolemy appears to have been the first to re- 
commence the war. He crossed over to Greece, 
where he announced himself as the liberator of 
the Greeks, but he effected little. In 306 
Ptolemy was defeated by Demetrius in a great 
sea-fight off Salamis in Cyprus. In conse- 
quence of this defeat, Ptolemy lost the import- 
ant island of Cyprus, which had previously 
been subject to him. Antigonus was so much 
elated by this victory as to assume the title of 
king, an example which Ptolemy, notwith- 
standing his defeat, immediately followed. 
(Diod. xx. 19-53 ; Plut. Demetr. 18.) Anti- 
gonus and Demetrius followed up their success 
by the invasion of Egypt, but were compelled 
to return to Syria without effecting any thing. 
Next year (305) Ptolemy rendered the most 
important assistance to the Ehodians, who 
were besieged by Demetrius ; and when Deme- 
trius was at length compelled to raise the siege 
(304), the Ehodians paid divine honours to the 
Egyptian monarch as their saviour and pre- 
server ('gcoriip), a title which appears to have 
been now bestowed upon Ptolemy for the first 
time. (Diod. xx. 81-100 ; Paus. i. 8, 6 ; Athen. 
p. 696.) Ptolemy took comparatively little part 
in the contest which led to the decisive battle 
of Ipsus, in which Antigonus was defeated and 
slain (301). The latter years of Ptolemy's 
reign appear to have been devoted almost 
entirely to the arts of peace, and to promoting 
the internal prosperity of his dominions. In 
285 Ptolemy abdicated in favour of his youngest 
son Ptolemy Philadelphus, the child of his 
latest and most beloved wife, Berenice, exclud- 
ing from the throne his two eldest sons, 
Ptolemy Ceraunus and Meleager, the offspring 
of Eurydice (Just. xvi. 2). The elder Ptolemy 
survived this event two years, and died in 283. 
His reign is variously estimated at thirty-eight 
or forty years, according as we include or not 
these two years which followed his abdication. 
— The character of Ptolemy has been generally 
represented in a very favourable light by 
historians, and there is no doubt that if we 
compare him with his contemporai'y and rival 
potentates he appears to deserve the praises 
bestowed upon his mildness and moderation. 
But it is only with this important qualification 
that they can be admitted : for there are many 
evidences that he did not shrink from any 
measure that he deemed requisite in order to 
carry out the object of his ambition. But as a 
ruler Ptolemy certainly deserves the highest 
praise. By his able and vigorous administra- 
tion he laid the foundations of the wealth and 
prosperity which Egypt enjoyed for a long 
period. Under his fostering care Alexandria 
•quickly rose to the place designed for it by its 
founder, that of the greatest commercial city of 
the world. Not less eminent were the services 
rendered by Ptolemy to the advancement of 
literature and science. In this department, 
indeed, it is not always easy to distinguish the 
portion of credit due to the father from that of 
his son : but it seems certain that to the elder 
monarch belongs the merit of having originated 
those literary institutions which assumed a 
more definite and regular form, as well as a 



more prominent place, under his successor. 
Such appears to have been the case with the 
two most celebrated of all, the Library and the 
Museum of Alexandria. The first suggestion of 
these important foundations is ascribed by 
some writers to Demetrius of Phalerus, who 
spent all the latter years of his life at the court 
of Ptolemy. But many other men of literary 
eminence were also gathered around the Egyp- 
tian king: among whom may be especially 
noticed the geometer Euclid, the philosophers 
Stilpo of Megara, Theodoras of Cyrene, and 
Diodorus surnamed Cronus ; as well as the 
elegiac poet Philetas of Cos, and the gram- 
marian Zenodotus. To the last two we are told 
Ptolemy confided the literary education of his 
son Philadelphus. Many anecdotes sufficiently 
attest the free intercourse which subsisted 
between the king and the men of letters by 
whom he was surrounded, and prove that the 
easy familiarity of his manners corresponded 
with his simple and unostentatious habits of 
life. We also find him maintaining a corre- 
spondence with Menander, whom he in vain 
endeavoured to attract to his court, and send- 
ing overtures, probably of a similar nature, to 
Theophrastus. Nor were the fine arts neg- 
lected : the rival painters Antiphilus and 
Apelles both exercised their talents at Alex- 
andria, where some of their most celebrated 
pictures were produced. — Ptolemy was himself 
an author : he composed a history of the wars 
of Alexander, which is frequently cited by later 
writers, and is one of the chief authorities 
which Arrian made the groundwork of his own 
history.— II., Philadelphus (b.c. 285-247), the 
son of Ptolemy I. by his wife Berenice, was 
born in the island of Cos, 309. (Theocr. xvii. 58; 
Schol. ad loc). He was a pupil of Zenodotus 
and Philebus. His long reign was marked by 
few events of a striking character. He was 
engaged in war with his half-brother, Magas, 
who had governed Cyrene as viceroy under 
Ptolemy Soter, but on the death of that 
monarch not only asserted his independence, 
but even attempted to invade Egypt. Magas 
was supported by Antiochus II., king of Syria ; 
and the war was at length terminated by a 
treaty, which left Magas in undisputed posses- 
sion of Cyrenai'ca, while his infant daughter 
Berenice was betrothed to Ptolemy, the son of 
Philadelphus. (Just. xxvi. 3; Paus. i. 7, 3.) 
Ptolemy also concluded a treaty with the 
Bomans. He was frequently engaged in hosti- 
lities with Syria, which were terminated towards 
the close of his reign by a treaty of peace, by 
which Ptolemy gave his daughter Berenice in 
marriage to Antiochus II. Ptolemy's chief 
care, however, was directed to the internal 
administration of his kingdom, and to the 
patronage of literature and science. The in- 
stitutions of which the foundations had been 
laid by his father quickly rose under his foster- 
ing care to the highest prosperity. The 
Museum of Alexandria became the resort and 
abode of all the most distinguished men of 
letters of the day, and in the library attached 
to it were accumulated all the treasures of 
ancient learning. Among the illustrious names 
which adorned the reign of Ptolemy, may 
be mentioned those of the poets Philetas and 
Theocritus, the philosophers Hegesias and 
Theodoras, the mathematician Euclid, and the 
astronomers Timocharis, Aristarchus of Samos, 
and Aratus. Nor was his patronage confined to 
the ordinary cycle of Hellenic literature. By 
his interest in natural history he gave a 



PTOLEMAEUS 



7U7 



stimulus to the pursuit of that science which 
gave birth to many important works, while he 
himself formed collections of rare animals 
within the precincts of the royal palace. He 
encouraged expeditions for trade and commerce 
with Aethiopia and with India. (Diod. i. 37, 38 ; 
Plin. vi. 58 ; cf. Theocr. xv.) It was during his 
reign also, and perhaps at his desire, that Ma- 
netho gave to the world in a Greek form the 
historical records of the Egyptians ; and accord- 
ing to a well-known tradition, it was by his 
express command that the Holy Scriptures of the 
Jews were translated into Greek. The new 
cities or colonies founded by Philadelphia in 
different parts of his dominions were extremely 
numerous. On the Eed Sea alone we find at 
least two bearing the name of Arsinoe, one 
called after another of his sisters, Philotera, and 
two cities named in honour of his mother, Bere- 
nice. The same names occur also in Cilicia 
and Syria : and in the latter country he founded 
the important fortress of Ptolemais in Palestine. 
All authorities concur in attesting the great 
power and wealth to which the Egyptian 
monarchy was raised under Philadelphus. He 
possessed at the close of his reign a standing 
army of 200,000 foot, and 40,000 horse, besides 
war-chariots and elephants : a fleet of 1500 
ships, and a sum of 740,000 talents in his 
treasury; while he derived from Egypt alone 
an annual revenue of 14,800 talents. His do- 
minions comprised, besides Egypt itself, and 
portions of Ethiopia, Arabia and Libya, the im- 
portant provinces of Phoenicia and Coele-Syria, 
together with Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, and the 
Cyclades ; and during a great part at least of 
his reign, Cilicia and Pamphylia also. Before 
his death Cyrene was reunited to the monarchy 
by the marriage of his son Ptolemy with Bere- 
nice, the daughter of Magas. The private life 
and relations of Philadelphus do not exhibit 
his character in as favourable a light as we 
might have inferred from the splendour of his 
administration. He put to death two of his 
brothers ; and he banished his first wife, Arsinoii, 
the daughter of Lysimachus, to Coptos in Upper 
Egypt on a charge of conspiracy. After her 
removal Ptolemy married his own sister Ar- 
sinoii, the widow of Lysimachus : a flagrant 
violation of the religious notions of the Greeks 
of that age : which, however, was frequently 
imitated by his successors. He evinced his 
affection for Arsinoe, not only by bestowing her 
name upon many of his newly-founded colonies 
[Arsinoe], but by assuming himself the sur- 
name of Philadelphus, a title which some 
writers referred in derision to his unnatural 
treatment of his two brothers. By this second 
marriage Ptolemy had no issue ; but his first 
wife had borne lum two sons — Ptolemy, who 
succeeded him on the throne, and Lysimachus ; 
and a daughter, Berenice, whose marriage to 
Antiochus II., king of Syria, has been already 
mentioned.— III., Euer'getes (B.C. 247-222), 
eldest son and successor of Philadelphus. 
Shortly after his accession he invaded Syria, in 
order to avenge the death of his sister Berenice. 
[Bkkknice, No. 2.] He met with the most 
striking success. He advanced us far as Baby- 
lon and Susa, and after reducing all Meso- 
potamia, Babylonia, and Susiana, received the 
submission of all the upper provinces of Asia as 
far as the confines of Bactria and India. From 
this career of conquest lie was recalled by the 
news of seditions in Egypt, and returned to 
that country, carrying with liiin an immense 
booty, comprising, among other objects, all the 



statues of the Egyptian deities which had been 
carried off by Cambyses to Babylon or Persia. 
(Diod. i. 46-55 ; Just, xxvii. l.J These he re- 
stored to their respective temples, an act by 
which he earned the greatest popularity with 
his native Egyptian subjects, who bestowed on 
him in consequence the title of Euergetes (the 
Benefactor), by which he is generally known. 
While the arms of the king himself were thus 
successful in the East, his fleets reduced the 
maritime provinces of Asia, including Cilicia, 
Painphylia, and Ionia, as far as the Hellespont, 
together with Lysimachia and other important 
places on the coast of Thrace which continued 
for a long period subject to the Egyptian rule. 
Concerning the events which followed the re- 
turn of Euergetes to his own dominions (pro- 
bably in 243) we are almost wholly in the dark ; 
but it appears that the greater part of the 
eastern provinces speedily fell again into the 
hands of Seleucus, while Ptolemy retained pos- 
session of the maritime regions and a great 




Coin of Ptolemaeus III. Euergetes, King of Egypt, 

B.C. 247-222. 

01m., head of Ptolemy III. ; rev., iitoaemaiuy ba^iaeqz; 
cornucopia surmounted by rays. 

part of Syria itself. He soon obtained a valu- 
able ally in the person of Antiochus Hierax, the 
younger brother of Seleucus, whom he sup- 
ported in his wars against his elder brother. 
He was unfriendly to Macedonia, and hence 
was led to support Aratus and the Achaean 
League, until the unfortunate policy which 
Aratus adopted, of seeking the alliance of Mace- 
donia, caused Ptolemy to ally himself with 
Clomenes (Plut. Arat. 24, 41, Cleom. 22). We 
find Euergetes maintaining the same friendly 
relations as his father with Rome (Eutrop. iii. 1). 
During the latter years of his reign he subdued 
the Ethiopian tribes on his southern frontier, 
and advanced as far as Adule, a port ou the 
Bed Sea, where he established an emporium, 
and set up an inscription commemorating the 
exploits of his reign. To a copy of this, acci- 
dentally preserved to us by an Egyptian monk, 
Cosmas Indicopleustes, we are indebted for 
much of the scanty information we possess 
concerning his reign. Ptolemy Euergetes is 
scarcely less celebrated than his father for his 
patronage of literature and science ; he added so 
largely to the library at Alexandria that he has 
been sometimes erroneously deemed its founder. 
Eratosthenes, Apollonius Khodius and Aristo- 
phanes the grammarian flourished at Alexan- 
dria during his reign — sufficient to prove that 
the literature and learning of the Alexandrian 
school still retained their formereminence. By 
his wife Berenice, who survived him, Euergetes 
left three children : (1) Ptolemy, his successor ; 
(2) Magas; and (8) ArKinoe, afterwards married 
to bet brol bet Ptolemy Philopator. — IV., Philo- 
pator or Tryphon (b.c. 222-205), eldest son and 
successor of Euergetes. He was very far from 
inheriting the virtues or obilities of his father, 
and his reign was the commencement of the 
decline of the Egyptian kingdom, which had 



768 



PTOLEMAEUS 



been raised to such a height of power and pro- 
sperity by his three predecessors. Its first 
beginning was stained with crimes of the darkest 
kind. He put to death his mother, Berenice, 
and his brother, Magas, and his uncle Lysima- 
chus, the brother of Euergetes. Cleomenes, 
the exiled king of Sparta, fell under his suspi- 
cion, and being thrown into prison, and having 
failed to escape, put an end to his own life. (Pol. 
v. 34-39 ; Plut. Cleom. 33-37.) . He then gave 
himself up without restraint to a life of indo- 
lence and luxury, while he abandoned to his 
minister, Sosibius,the care of all-political affairs. 
The latter seems to have been, as incapable as 
his master, and the kingdom was allowed to 
fall into a state of the utmost disorder, of which 
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was not 
slow to avail himself. In the first two cam- 
paigns (219, 218), Antiochus conquered the 
greater part of Coele-Syria and Palestine, but 
in the third year of the war (217), he was com- 
pletely defeated by Ptolemy in person at the 
decisive battle of Raphia, and was glad to con- 
clude a peace with the Egyptian monarch. On 
his return from his Syrian expedition, Ptolemy 
gave himself up more and more to every species 
of vice and debauchery. His mistress, Agatho- 
clea, and her brother, Agathocles, divided with 
Sosibius the patronage and distribution of all 




Coin of Ptolemaeus IV. Philopator, King of Egypt, 
B.C. 222-205. 

Obv., head of Ptolemy IV.; rev., iitoaemaioy iiAOiuxo- 
POS ; eagle on thunderbolt. 

places of honour or profit. Towards the close 
of his reign Ptolemy put to death his wife, 
Arsinoe. His debaucheries shortened his life. 
He died in 205, leaving only one son, a child of 
five years old. — We find Ptolemy following up 
the policy of his predecessors, by cultivating 
the friendship of the Romans, to whom he fur- 
nished large supplies of corn during their 
struggle with Carthage. Plunged as he was in 
vice and debauchery, Philopator appears to 
have still inherited something of the love of 
letters for which his predecessors were so con- 
spicuous. We find him associating on familiar 
terms with philosophers and men of letters, 
and especially patronising the distinguished 
grammarian Aristarchus, and he wrote a tragedy 
called Adonis (Diog. La'e'rt. vii. 177). — V., Epi- 
phanes (b.c. 205-181), son and successor of 
Ptolemy IV. He was a child of five years old 
at the death of his father, 205. Philip, king of 
Macedonia, and Antiochus III. of Syria deter- 
mined to take advantage of the minority of 
Ptolemy, and entered into a league to divide 
his dominions between them. In pursuance of 
this arrangement Antiochus conquered Coele- 
Syria, while Philip reduced the Cyclades and 
the cities in Thrace which had still remained 
subject to Egypt. In this emergency the 
Egyptian ministers had recourse to the power- 
ful intervention of the Romans, who com- 
manded both monarchs to refrain from further 
hostilities, and restore all the conquered cities. 
In order to evade this demand without openly 
opposing the power of Rome, Antiochus con- 



cluded a treaty with Egypt, by which it was 
agreed that the young king should marry Cleo- 
patra, the daughter of Antiochus, and receive 
back the Syrian provinces as her dower. (Pol. 
xv. 20-33, xvi. 39, xviii. 33 ; Just. xxx. 2, xxxi. 1 ; 
Liv. xxxi. 2, 9.) This treaty took place in 199, 
but the marriage was not actually solemnised 
until six years after. The administration of 
Egypt was placed in the hands of Aristomenes, 
a man who was every way worthy of the charge. 
As early, however, as 196 the young king was 
declared of full age, and the ceremony of his 
Anacleteria, or coronation, was solemnised with 
great magnificence. It was on this occasion 
that the decree was issued which has been pre- 
served to us in the celebrated inscription known 
as the Rosetta stone, a monument of great 
interest in regard to the internal history of 
Egypt under the Ptolemies, independently of 
its importance as having afforded the key to the 
discovery of hieroglyphics. In 193 the mar- 
riage of Ptolemy with the Syrian princess 
Cleopatra was solemnised at Raphia (Liv. xxxv. 
13). Ptolemy, however, refused to assist his 
father-in-law in the war against the Romans, 
which was at this time on the eve of breaking 
out, and he continued steadfast in his alliance 
with Rome. But he derived no advantage 
from the treaty which concluded it, and Antio- 
chus ' still retained possession of Coele-Syria 
and Phoenicia. As long as Ptolemy continued 
under the guidance and influence of Aristo- 
menes, his administration was equitable and 
popular. Gradually, however, he became es- 
tranged from his able and virtuous minister, 
and threw himself more and more into the 
power of flatterers and vicious companions, un- 
til at length he was induced to rid himself of 
Aristomenes, who was compelled to take poison 
(Pol. xxiii. 16). Ptolemy seems to have fol- 
lowed the policy of his predecessors in offering 
help to the Achaean League (Pol. xxiii. 1, 7, xxv. 
7). Towards the close of his reign he conceived 
the project of recovering Coele-Syria from 
Seleucus, the successor of Antiochus, and 
had assembled a large mercenary force for 
that purpose : but having, by an unguarded 
expression, excited the apprehensions of some 
of his friends, he was cut off by poison in the 
twenty-fourth year of his reign and the twenty- 
ninth of his age, 181 (Jos. Ant. xii. 4, 11). He 
left two sons, both named Ptolemy, who subse- 
quently ascended the throne, under the names 
of Ptolemy Philometor and Euergetes II., and 
a daughter, who bore her mother's name of 
Cleopatra. His reign was marked by the rapid 
decline of the Egyptian monarchy, for the pro- 
vinces and cities wrested from it during his 
minority by Antiochus and Philip were never 
recovered, and at his death Cyprus and Cyre- 
na'ica were the only foreign possessions of im- 
portance still attached to the crown of Egypt. 
According to Varro (ap. Plin. xii. 70) it was 
the prohibition by Ptolemy of the export of 
papyrus (a measure dictated-by jealousy of the 
library of the Pergamene kings) which led to 
the 'invention' of parchment at Pergamene 
(i.e. to its improved manufacture and its name 
pergamena). By this Ptolemy Epiphanes must 
be meant [see Diet, of Ant. art. Liber]. — 
VI., Philometor (b.c. 181-146), eldest son and 
successor of Ptolemy V. He was a child at the 
death of his father in 181, and the regency was 
assumed during his minority by his mother, 
Cleopatra, who, by her able administration, 
maintained the kingdom in a state of tran- 
quillity. But after her death, in 173, the chief 



PTOLEMAEUS 



769 



power fell into the hands of Eulaeus and 
Lenaeus, ministers as corrupt as they were 
incapable, who had the rashness to engage in 
war with Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, 
in the vain hope of recovering the provinces of 
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. But their army 
was totally defeated by Antiochus, near Pelu- 
siiun, and Antiochus was able to advance with- 
out opposition as far as Memphis, 170. The 
young king himself fell into his hands, but 
was treated with kindness and distinction, as 
Antiochus hoped by his means to make himself 
the master of Egypt. On learning the captivity 
of his brother, the younger Ptolemy, who was 
then at Alexandria with his sister, Cleopatra, 
assumed the title of king, under the name of 
Euergetes II., and prepared to defend the 
capital to the utmost. Antiochus hereupon 
laid siege to Alexandria ; but he was unable to 
take the city, and withdrew into Syria, after 
estabhshing Philometor as king at Memphis, 
but retaining in his hands the frontier fortress 
of Pelusium. This last circumstance, together 
with the ravages committed by +he Syrian 
troops, awakened Philometor, who had hitherto 
been a mere puppet in the hands of the Syrian 
king, to a sense of his true position, and he 
hastened to make overtures of peace to his 
brother and sister at Alexandria. It was agreed 
that the two brothers should reign together, 
and that Philometor should marry his sister, 
Cleopatra. But this arrangement did not suit 
the views of Antiochus, who immediately re- 
newed hostilities. The two brothers were unable 
to offer any effectual opposition, and he had 
advanced a second time to the walls of Alex- 
andria, when he was met by a Roman embassy, 
headed by M. Popillius Laenas, who haughtily 
commanded him instantly to desist from hostili- 
ties. (Liv. xlv. 11 ; Pol. xxvii. 17, xxviii. 1G-19, 
xxix. 8, 11.) Antiochus did not venture to dis- 
obey, and withdrew to his own dominions, 168. 
Dissensions soon broke out between the two 
brothers, and Euergetes expelled Philometor 
from Alexandria. Hereupon Philometor re- 
paired in person to Rome, 164, where he was 
received by the senate with the utmost honour, 
and deputies were appointed to reinstate him 
in the sovereign power. This they effected with 
little opposition ; but they settled that Euergetes 
should obtain Cyrene as a separate kingdom. 
Euergetes, however, shortly afterwards laid 
claim to Cyprus as well, in which he was sup- 
ported by the Romans ; but Philometor refused 
to surrender the island to him, and in the war 
which ensued, Euergetes was taken prisoner by 
his brother, who not only spared his life, but 
sent him back to Cyrene on condition that he 
should thenceforth content himself with that 
kingdom. (Pol. xxxi. 18-27, xxxiii. 5 ; Liv. Ep. 
40, 47.) The attention of Philometor appears 
to have been, from this time, principally directed 
to the side of Syria. Demetrius Soter having 
sought during the dissensions between the two 
brothers to make himself master of Cyprus, 
Ptolemy now supported the usurper Alexander 
Balas, to whom he gave his daughter Cleopatra 
in marriage, 150. But when Ptolemy advanced 
with an army to the assistance of his son-in- 
law, Ammonius, the favourite and minister of 
Alexander, formed a plot against the life of 
Ptolemy, who thereupon took away his daughter 
Cleopatra from her faithless husband, and he- 
stowed her hand on Demetrius Nicator, the 
son of Soter, whose cause he now espoused. 
In conjunction with Demetrius, Ptolemy carried 
on war against Alexander, whom he defeated in 



a decisive battle ; but he died a few days after- 
wards in consequence of an injury which he 
had received from a fall from his horse in this 
battle, 146. (Pol. xl. 12 ; Just. xxxv. 1, 2 ; App. 
Syr. 67.) He had reigned thirty-five years 
from the period of his first accession, and 
eighteen from his restoration by the Romans. 
Philometor is praised for the mildness and 
humanity of his disposition. Polybius even 
tells us that not a single citizen of Alexandria 
was put to death by him for any political or 
private offence. On the whole, if not one of 
the greatest, he was at least one of the best of 
the race of the Ptolemies. He left three chil- 
dren : (1) a son, Ptolemy, who was proclaimed 
king after his father's death, under the name 
Ptolemy Eupator, but was put to death almost 
immediately after by his uncle Euergetes ; (2) 
: a daughter, Cleopatra, married first to Alex- 
j ander Balas, then to Demetrius II., king of 
1 Syria ; and (3) another daughter, also named 
Cleopatra, who was afterwards married to her 
uncle Ptolemy Euergetes. — VII., Euergetes II. 
or Phy scon ($i/o~k cov), that is, Big-Belly, reigned 
B.C. 146-117. His history down to the death of 
his brother has been already given. In order 
' to secure undisputed possession of the throne, 
' he married his sister Cleopatra, the widow of 
j his brother Philometor, and put to death his 
nephew, Ptolemy, who had been proclaimed 
king under the surname of Eupator (Just, 
xxxviii. 8). A reign thus commenced in blood 
was continued in a similar sx^irit. Many of the 
leading citizens of Alexandria, who had taken 
part against him on the death of his brother, 
were put to death, while the populace were 
given up to the cruelties of his mercenary 
troops, and the streets of the city were repeatedly 
deluged with blood. Thousands of the inhabi- 
tants fled from the scene of such horrors, and 
the population of Alexandria was so greatly 
thinned that the king found himself compelled 
to invite foreign settlers from all quarters to re- 
people his deserted capital. At the same time 
that he thus incurred the hatred of his subjects 
by his cruelties, he rendered himself an object 
of their aversion and contempt by abandoning 
himself to the most degrading vices. In con- 
sequence of these, he had become bloated and 
deformed in person, and enormously corpulent, 
whence the Alexandrians gave him the nick- 
name of Physcon, by which appellation he is 
more usually known (Just. I.e. ; Athen. pp. 184, 
252, 549). His union with Cleopatra was not 
of long duration. He became enamoured of 
his niece, Cleopatra (the offspring of his wife 
by her former marriage with Philometor), and 
lie did not hesitate to divorce the mother and 
receive her daughter instead, as his wife and 
queen. By this proceeding he alienated still 
more the minds of his Greek subjects, and his 
vices and cruelties at length produced an in- 
surrection at Alexandria. Thereupon he fled 
to Cyprus, and the Alexandrians declared his 
sister Cleopatra queen (180). Enraged at this, 
1 Ptolemy put to death Memphitis, his son by 
' Cleopatra, and sent his head and hands to his 
unhappy mother. But Cleopatra having been 
' shortly afterwards expelled from Alexandria in 
her turn, Ptolemy found himself unexpectedly 
reinstated on the throne, 127. (Just, xxxviii. 9; 
Vul. Max. ix. 2; Oros. v. 10.) His sister Cleo- 
patra fled to the court of her elder sister 
Cleopatra, the wife of Demetrius II., king of 
Syria, who espoused the cause of the fugitive. 
Ptolemy, in revenge, set up against him a pre- 
tender named Zabinas or Zebina, who assumed 

Ji D 



770 



PTOLEMAEUS 



the title of Alexander II. But the usurper 
behaved with such haughtiness to Ptolemy 
that the latter suddenly changed his policy, 
became reconciled to his sister Cleopatra, whom 
he permitted to return to Egypt, and gave his 
daughter Tryphaena in marriage to Antiochus 
Grypus, the son of Demetrius. Ptolemy died 
after reigning twenty-nine years from the death 
of his brother Philometor ; but he himself 
reckoned the years of his reign from the date of 
his first assumption of the regal title in 170. 
(Just, xxxix. 1, 2 ; Jos. Ant. xiii. 9.) Although 
the character of Ptolemy Physcon was stained 
by the most infamous vices, and by the most 
sanguinary cruelty, he still retained that love 
of letters which appears to have been hereditary 
in the whole race of the Ptolemies. He had in 
his youth been a pupil of Aristarchus, and not 
only courted the society of learned men, but 
was himself the author of a work called 'Tiro- 
fiv^lfiara, or Memoirs, which extended to twenty- 
four books. He left two sons : Ptolemy, after- 
wards known as Soter II., and Alexander, both 
of whom subsequently ascended the throne of 
Egypt ; and three daughters : (1) Cleopatra, 
married to her brother Ptolemy Soter ; (2) 
Tryphaena, the wife of Antiochus Grypus, king 
of Syria ; and (3) Selene, who was unmarried 
at her father's death. To his natural son, 
Ptolemy, surnamed Apion, he bequeathed by 
his will the separate kingdom of Cyrene. — VIII. , 
Soter II., and also Philometor, but more com- 
monly called Lathyrus or Lathurus (AdOovpos), 
reigned B.C. 117-107, and also 89-81. Although 
he was of full age at the time of his father's 
death (117), he was obliged to reign jointly with 
his mother, Cleopatra, who had been appointed 
by the will of her late husband to succeed him 
on the throne. She was, indeed, desirous of 
associating with herself her younger son, 
Ptolemy Alexander ; but since Lathyrus was 
popular with the Alexandrians, she was obliged 
to give way, and sent Alexander to Cyprus. 
After declaring Lathyrus king, she compelled 
him to repudiate his sister Cleopatra, of whose 
influence she was jealous, and to marry his 
younger sister, Selene, in her stead. (Just, xxxix. 
3; Paus. i. 9, 1.) After reigning ten years 
jointly with his mother, he was expelled from 
Alexandria by an insurrection of the people 
which she had excited against him, 107 (Just, 
xxxix. 4 ; Jos. Ant. xiii. 10). His brother, Alex- 
ander now assumed the sovereignty of Egypt, 
in conjunction with his mother, while Lathyrus 
was able to establish himself in the possession 
of Cyprus. Cleopatra, indeed, attempted to dis- 
possess him of that island also, but without 
success, and Ptolemy held it as an independent 
kingdom for the eighteen years during which 
Cleopatra and Alexander reigned in Egypt. 
After the death of Cleopatra and the expulsion 
of Alexander, in 89, Ptolemy Lathyrus was 
recalled by the Alexandrians and established 
anew on the throne of Egypt, which he occupied 
thenceforth without interruption till his death, 
in 81. The most important event of this period 
was the revolt of Thebes, in Upper Egypt, 
which was still powerful enough to hold out for 
three years against the arms of Ptolemy, but at 
the end of that time was taken and reduced to 
the state of ruin in which it has ever since 
remained (Just, xxxix. 5 ; Paus. i. 9, 3). Lathy- 
rus reigned in all 35g years ; 10 in conjunction 
with his mother (117-107), 18 in Cyprus (107-89), 
and 7 1 as sole ruler of Egypt. He left only 
one daughter, Berenice, called also Cleopatra, 
who succeeded him on the throne: and two 



j sons, both named Ptolemy, who, though illegiti- 
mate, became severally kings of Egypt and 
Cyprus. — IX., Alexander I., youngest son of 
j Ptolemy VII., reigned conjointly with his 
[ mother, Cleopatra, from the expulsion of his 
brother, Lathyrus, B.C. 107-90. In this year 
he assassinated his mother ; but he had not 
i reigned alone a year when he was compelled 
by a general sedition of the populace and mili- 
tary to quit Alexandria. He, however, raised 
fresh troops, but was totally defeated in a sea- 
fight by the rebels ; whereupon Lathyrus was 
recalled by the Alexandrians to Egypt, as has 
been already related. Alexander now attempted 
to make himself master of Cyprus, and invaded 
that island, but was defeated and slain. He 
left a son, Alexander, who afterwards ascended 
the throne of Egypt. (Just, xxxix. 4, 5 ; Jos. 
Ant. xiii. 13, 1.) — X., Alexander II,, son of the 
preceding, was at Borne at the death of Ptolemy 
Lathyrus, in 81. Sulla, who was then dictator, 
nominated the young Alexander (who had 
obtained a high place in his favour) king of 
Egypt, and 'sent him to take possession of the 
crown. It was, however, agreed, in deference 
to the claims of Cleopatra Berenice, the 
daughter of Lathyrus, whom the Alexandrians 
had already placed on the throne, that Alex- 
ander should marry her, and admit her to share 
the sovereign power. He complied with the 
letter of this treaty by marrying Cleopatra, but 
only nineteen days afterwards caused her to be 
assassinated. The Alexandrians thereupon 
rose against their new monarch, and put him 
to death (App. Mithr. 23 ; Porphyr. ap. Euseb. 
Chron. p. 117). It was probably this Alexander, 
not his predecessor, who bequeathed his do- 
minions and his wealth to the Boman people 
(Cic. de Leg. Agr. i. 4, 12; 15, 38; 16, 41). 
The Bomans accepted the treasure (which 
apparently had been deposited at Tyre and not 
yet transferred to Egypt), but, not wishing to 
place Egypt in the hands of any Boman pro- 
consul, they did not take over that country. 
— XI,, Dionysus or Nothus, but more com- 
monly known by the appellation of Auletes, 
the flute-player (in which capacity he entered 
into public competition : Strab. p. 796), was an 
illegitimate son of Ptolemy Lathyrus. When 
the assassination of Berenice and the death of 
Alexander II. had completed the extinction of 
the legitimate race of the Lagidae, Ptolemy 
was proclaimed king by the Alexandrians, B.C. 
80. He was anxious to obtain from the Boman 
senate (who might now even consider them- 
selves the rightful owners) their ratification of 
his title to the crown, but it was not till the 
consulship of Caesar (59) that he was able to 
purchase by vast bribes the desired privilege. 
He had expended immense sums in the pursuit 
of this object, which he was compelled to raise 
by the imposition of fresh taxes, and the dis- 
content thus excited combining with the con- 
tempt entertained for his character, led to his 
expulsion by the Alexandrians, in 58. There- 
upon he proceeded in person to Bome to procure 
from the senate his restoration (Suet. Jul. 54). 
His first reception was promising ; and he 
procured a decree from the senate commanding 
his restoration, and entrusting the charge of 
effecting it to P. Lentulus Spinther, then pro- 
consul of Cilicia. Meanwhile, the Alexandrians 
sent an embassy of 100 of their leading citizens 
to plead their cause with the Boman senate ; 
but Ptolemy had the audacity to cause the 
deputies, on their arrival in Italy, to be waylaid, 
and the greater part of them murdered. The 



PTOLEMAEUS 



771 



indignation excited at Rome by this proceeding 
produced a reaction : the tribunes took up the 
matter against the nobility; and an oracle was 
produced from the Sibylline books, forbidding 
the restoration of the king by an armed force. 
The intrigues and disputes thus raised were 
protracted throughout the year 56, and at 
length Ptolemy, despairing of a favourable 
result, quitted Rome in disgust, and withdrew 
to Ephesus. (Dio Cass, xxxix. 12-16 ; Cic. ad 
Fam. i. 1-7, ad Q. Fr. 2, 3, pro Babir. 2, 3 ; 
Plut. Pomp. 49.) But in 55, A. Gabinius, who 
was proconsul in Syria, was induced, by the 
influence of Pompey, aided by the enormous 
bribe of 10,000 talents from Ptolemy himself, 
to undertake his restoration. The Alexandrians 
had in the meantime placed on the throne of 
Egypt Berenice, the eldest daughter of Ptolemy, 
who had married Archelaus, the son of the 
general of Mithridates, and they opposed Gabi- 
nius with an army on the confines of the 
kingdom. They were, however, defeated in 
three successive battles, Archelaus was slain, 
and Ptolemy once more established on the 
throne, 55. One of his first acts was to put to 
death his daughter, Berenice, and many of the 
leading citizens of Alexandria. (Dio Cass, xxxix. 
55-58.) He survived his restoration only 3£ 
years, during which time he was supported by 
a large body of Roman soldiers who had been 
left behind by Gabinius for his protection 
(Caes. B. C. iii. 103, 110). He died in 51, after 
a reign of twenty-nine years from the date of 
his first accession (Cic. ad Fam. viii. 4). He 
left two sons, both named Ptolemy, and two 
daughters, Cleopatra and Arsinoe. — XII., eldest 
son of the preceding. By his father's will the 
sovereign power was left to himself and his 
sister Cleopatra jointly, and this arrangement 
was carried into effect without opposition, 51. 
Auletes had also referred the execution of his 
will to the Roman senate, and the latter 
accepted the office, confirmed its provisions, 
and bestowed on Pompey the title of guardian 
of the young king (Caes. B. C. iii. 108 ; Eutrop. 
vi. 21). But the approach of the Civil war 
prevented them from taking any active part in 
the administration of affairs, which fell into 
the hands of a eunuch named Pothinus. It 
was not long before dissensions broke out 
between the latter and Cleopatra, which ended 
in the expulsion of the princess, after she had 
reigned in conjunction with her brother about 
three years, 48. Hereupon she took refuge in 
Syria, and assembled an army, with which she 
invaded Egypt. The young king, accompanied 
by his guardians, met her at Pelusium, and it 
was while the two armies were here encamped 
opposite to one another that Pompey landed in 
Egypt, to throw himself as a suppliant on the 
protection of Ptolemy; but he was assassinated, 
by the orders of Pothinus, b«fore he could 
obtain an interview with the king himself. (Caes. 
B. C. iii. 108, 104; Plut. Pomp. 77-79; App. 
B. C. ii. 84.) Shortly after, Caesar arrived in 
Egypt, and took upon himself to settle the 
dispute between Ptolemy and his sister. But 
as Cleopatra's charms gained for her the sup- 
port of Caesar, Pothinus determined to excite 
an insurrection against Caesar. Hence arose 
what is usually called the Alexandrian war. 
Ptolemy, who was at first in Caesar's hands, 
managed to escape, and put himself at the head 
of the insurgents, but he was defeated by 
Caesar, and was drowned in an attempt to 
escape by the river, 47. (Caes. B. C. iii. 100-112 ; 
Dio Cass. xlii. 3-9 ; Bell. Alex. 1-81.) — XIU., 



j youngest son of Ptolemy Auletes, was appointed 
by Caesar to reign jointly with Cleopatra, after 
the death of his elder brother, Ptolemy XII., 
47 ; and although he was a mere boy, it was 
decreed that he should marry his sister, with, 
whom he was thus to share the power. Both 
his marriage and his regal title were, of course, 
purely nominal ; and in 43 Cleopatra put him to 
death. (Dio Cass. xlii. 44, xliii. 27 ; Strab. p. 797.) 

HI. Kings of other Countries. 
1. Surnamed Alorites (that is, of Alorus), 
regent, or, according to some authors, king of 
Macedonia. He obtained the supreme power 
by the assassination of Alexander II., the 
eldest son of Amyntas, B.C. 367, but was, in his 
turn, assassinated by Perdiccas EH., 364. (Diod. 
xv. 7, 7; Plut. Pelop. 26, 27.)— 2. Surnamed 
Apion, king of Cyrene (117-96), was an illegiti- 
mate son of Ptolemy Physcon, king of Egypt, 
who left him by his will the kingdom of 
Cyrenaica. At his death in 26, Apion be- 
queathed his kingdom by his will to the Roman 
people. The senate, however, refused to accept 
the legacy, and declared the cities of Cyre- 
naica free. They were not reduced to the 
condition of a province till nearly thirty years 
afterwards. (Just, xxxix. 5 ; Liv. Ep. 70 ; 
Eutrop. vi. 11.) — 3. Surnamed Ceraunus on 
account of his rashness (Paus. x. 19, 7), king of 
Macedonia, was the son of Ptolemy I., king of 
Egypt, by his second wife, Eurydice. When his 
father, in 285, set aside the claim of Ceraunus to 
the throne, and appointed his younger son, 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, his successor, Ceraunus 
repaired to the court of Lysimachus. After 
Lysimachus had perished in battle against 
Seleucus (281) Ptolemy Ceraunus was received 
by the latter in the most friendly manner ; but 
shortly afterwards (280) he basely assassinated 
Seleucus, and took possession of the Mace- 
donian throne. After reigning a few months he 
was defeated in battle by the Gauls undertheir 
chief, Belgius, taken prisoner and put to death. 
(Just. xvii. 2, xxiv. 1-5 ; Pol. ix. 35, 4.)— 4. Te- 
trarch of Chalcis in Syria, the son of Mennaeus. 
He appears to have held the cities of Heliopolis 
and Chalcis as well as the mountain district of 
Ituraea, from whence he was in the habit of 
infesting Damascus and the more wealthy parts 
of Coele-Syria with predatory incursions. He 
reigned from about 70 to 40, when he was suc- 
ceeded by his son Lysanias I Strab. p. 753 ; Jos. 
Ant. xiii. 16, xiv. 3). — 5. King of Cyprus, was 
the younger brother of Ptolemy Auletes, king 
of Egypt, being, like him, an illegitimate son of 
Ptolemy Lathyrus. He was acknowledged as 
king of Cyprus at the same time that his 
brother Auletes obtained possession of the 
throne of Egypt, 80. He had offended P. 
Clodius, by neglecting to ransom him when he 
had fallen into the hands of the Cilician pi- 
rates ; and accordingly Clodius, when he became 
tribune (58), brought forward a law to deprive 
Ptolemy of his kingdom, and reduce Cyprus to 
a Roman province. Cato, who had to carry 
into execution this nefarious decree, sent to 
Ptolemy, advising him to submit, and offering 
him his personal safety, with the office of high- 
priest at Paphos, and a liberal maintenance. 
But the unhappy king refused these offers, and 
put an end to his own life, 57. (Strab. p. 684 ; 
Cic. pro Bom. viii. 20 ; Plut. Oat. 84-86, Brut. 
8.) — 6. King of Epirus, was the second son of 
Alexander II., king of Epirus, and Olympias, 
and grandson of the great Pyrrhus. Ho suc- 
ceeded to the throne on the death of his elder 

8 d 2 



772 



PTOLEMAEUS 



brother, Pyrrhus II., but reigned only a very 
short time. The date of his reign cannot be 
fixed with certainty, but as he was contem- 
porary with Demetrius II., king of Macedonia, 
it may be placed between 239-229. (Just, 
xxviii. 1, 3 ; Paus. iv. 35, 3.) — 7. King of Maure- 
tania, was the son and successor of Juba II. 
By his mother, Cleopatra, he was descended 
from the kings of Egypt, whose name he bore. 
The period of his accession cannot be deter- 
mined with certainty, but we know that he was 
on the throne in a.d. 18. He continued to 
reign without interruption till a.d. 40, when 
he was summoned to Home by Caligula, and 
shortly after put to death, his great riches 
having excited the cupidity of the emperor. 
(Tac. Ann. iv. 23, 26 ; Suet. Gal. 26, 35 ; Dio 
Cass. lix. 25.) 

IV. Literary. 

1. Claudius Ptolemaeus, a celebrated mathe- 
matician, astronomer, and geographer. Of Pto- 
lemy himself we know absolutely nothing but 
his date. He certainly observed in a.d. 139, at 
Alexandria ; and since he survived Antoninus 
he was alive a.d. 161. His writings are as 
follows : — (1) Me7oAr) crvvTa^ts rrjs aarpovofiias, 
usually known by its Arabic name of Almagest. 
Since the Tetrabiblus, the work on astrology, 
was also entitled <riWa£is, the Arabs to dis- 
tinguish the two, probably called the greater 
work fxeyaAr), and afterwards fitylarr) : the 
title Almagest is a compound of this last 
adjective and the Arabic article. The Almagest 
is divided into thirteen books. It treats of the 
relations of the earth and heaven ; the effect of 
position upon the earth ; the theory of the sun 
and moon, without which that of the stars 
cannot be undertaken ; the sphere of the fixed 
stars, and those of the five stars called planets. 
The seventh and eighth books are the most 
interesting to the modern astronomer, as they 
contain a catalogue of the stars. This cata- 
logue gives the longitudes and latitudes of 
1022 stars, described by their positions in the 
constellations. It seems that this catalogue is 
in the main really that of Hipparchus, altered 
to Ptolemy's own time by assuming the value 
of the precession of the equinoxes given by 
Hipparchus as the least which could be ; some 
changes having also been made by Ptolemy'.s 
own observations. Indeed, the whole work of 
Ptolemy appears to have been based upon the 
observations of Hipparchus, whom he con- 
stantly cites as his authority. The best edition 
of the Almagest is by Halma, Paris, 1813, 1816, 
2 vols. 4to. There are also two other volumes 
by Halma (1819-1820), which contain some 
of the other writings of Ptolemy. — (2) Terpa- 
j8i/3Aos crvura^is, generally called Tetrabiblus, 
or Quadripartitum de Apotelesmatibus et 
Judiciis Astrorum. With this goes another 
small work, called Kapirh j, or Fructus Libroricm 
suorum, often called Centiloqaium, from its 
containing a hundred aphorisms. Both of these 
works are astrological, and it has been doubted 
by some whether they are genuine. But the 
doubt merely arises from the feeling that the 
contents are unworthy of Ptolemy.— (3) Kavav 
BacriAe'aje, a catalogue of Assyrian, Persian, 
Greek, and Boman sovereigns, with the length 
of their reigns, several times referred to by 
Syncellus. — (4) $d<reis airXavuv aarepuv k<x\ 
ovvayvyr) imcrriiiacrttoiv, De Apparentiis et 
Significationibus inerrantium, an annual list 
of sidereal phenomena. — (5, 6) De Analemmate 
and Planisphaerium, These works are ob- 



tained from the Arabic. The Analemma is a 
collection of graphical processes for facilitating 
the construction of sun-dials. The Planisphere 
is a description of the stereographic projection, 
in which the eye is at the pole of the circle 
on which the sphere is projected. — (7) Ilepi 
viroBiaewv tS>v ir\a.vwixiva>v, De Planetarwm 
Hypothesibus. This is a brief statement of the 
principal hypotheses employed in the Alma- 
gest for the explanation of the heavenly 
motions. — (8) ' kpfiovticSiv f}if}\'ia y , a treatise on 
the theory of the musical scale. — (9) Ilep! 
KpiTrip'iov Kal riye/xoviKov, De Judicandi Facul- 
tate et Animi Principatu, a metaphysical work, 
attributed to Ptolemy (ed. Hanow, Lips. 1871). 
— (10) r^coypacpM^i vcpijyriais, in eight books, 
the great geographical work of Ptolemy. This 
work was the last attempt made by the ancients 
to form a complete geographical system ; it was 
accepted as the . text-book of the science, and 
it maintained that position during the middle 
ages and until the fifteenth century, when the 
rapid progress of maritime discovery caused it 
to be superseded. It was based on a work by 
Maximus of Tyre (Ptol. i. 6). It contains very 
little information respecting the objects of 
interest connected with the different countries 
and places, for, with the exception of the intro- 
ductory matter in the first book, and the latter 
part of the work, it is a mere catalogue of the 
names of places, with their longitudes and 
latitudes (in which he uses the calculations of 
Poseidonius), and with a few incidental refer- 
ences to objects of interest. The latitudes of 
Ptolemy are tolerably correct ; but his longi- 
tudes are very wide of the truth, his length of 
the known world, from east to west, being much 
too great. It is, however, well worthy of 
remark in passing, that the modern world 
owes much to this error ; for it tended to 
encourage that belief in the practicability of a 
western passage to the Indies which occasioned 
the discovery of America by Columbus. The 
first book is introductory. The next six and a 
half books (ii-vii. 4) are occupied with the 
description of the known world, beginning with 
the West of Europe, the description of which is 
contained in book ii. ; next comes the East of 
Europe, in book iii. ; then Africa, in book iv. ; 
then Western or Lesser Asia, in book v. ; then 
the Greater Asia, in book vi. ; then India, the 
Chersonesus Aurea, Serica, the Sinae, and 
Taprobane, in book vii. cc. 1-4. The form in 
which the description is given is that of lists of 
places with their longitudes and latitudes, 
arranged under the heads, first, of the three 
continents, and then of the several countries 
and tribes. Prefixed to each section is a brief 
general description of the boundaries and 
divisions of the part about to be described; 
and remarks of a miscellaneous character are 
interspersed among the lists, to which, however, 
they bear but a small proportion. The remain- 
ing part of the seventh and the whole of the 
eighth book are occupied with a description of 
a set of maps of the known world. These maps 
are still extant, appended to the MSS. of 
Ptolemy's Geography at Vienna and Venice 
[Agathodaemon]. — Editions of the Geographia 
of Ptolemy are by Petrus Bertius, Lugd. Bat, 
1619, fol. ; reprinted Antwerp, 1624, fol. ; by 
F. A. Nobbe, Lips. 1845.— 2. Of Megalopolis 
the son of Agesarchus, wrote a history of king 
Ptolemy IV. Philopator (Athen. pp. 246, 425) 
— 3. An Egyptian priest, of Mendes, who wrote 
on the ancient history of Egypt. He probablj 
lived under the first Roman emperors (Syncell 



cola under the empire, and appears so in the 
best MSS. of Livy. 

Publicola, Gelllus. 1. L., consul with Cn. 
Lentulus Clodianus, B.C. 72. Both consuls 
carried on war against Spartacus, but were de- 
feated by the latter. In 70, Gellius was censor, 
and in 67 and 66 he served as one of Pompey's 
legates in the war against the pirates. He be- 
longed to the aristocratical party. In 63 he 



PTOLEMAIS PUBLILIUS 773 

p. 64). 4. Surnamed Chemnus, a grammarian 

of Alexandria, flourished under Trajan and 
Hadrian. An epitome of one of his works is 
preserved by Photius (cf. Suid. s.v.). 

Ptolemais (nToAe/iai's : YlTO\€naiTris and 
XlroKefiaevs). 1. Also called Ace ('AK19, a cor- 
ruption of the native name, Acco, 0. T. : Arab. 
Akka, Fr. St. Jean a" Acre, Eng. Acre), a cele- 
brated city on the coast of Phoenicia, S. of Tyre, 

and N. of M. Carmel, lies at the bottom of a warmly supported £icero in the suppression of 
bay surrounded by mountains, in a position the Catilinarian conspiracy. In 59 he opposed 
marked out by nature as a key of the passage the agrarian law of Caesar, and in 57 he spoke 
between Coele-Syria and Palestine (Strab. p. in favour of Cicero's recall from exile. He was 
758). It is one of the oldest cities of Phoenicia, alive in 55, when Cicero delivered his speech 
being mentioned in the Book of Judges (i. 31). against Piso, but he probably died soon after- 
Under the Persians it was made the head- wards. He was married twice. He must have 
quarters of the expeditions against Egypt ; but reached a great age, since he is mentioned as 
it was not till the decline of Tyre that it ac- the contubernalis of C. Papirius Carbo, who was 
quired its great importance as a military and consul in 120. (App. B.C. i. 117 ; Plut. Pomp. 
commercial city. The Ptolemy who enlarged 22, Cic. 26 ; Liv. Ep. 96, 98 ; Cic. ad Att. xii. 



and strengthened it, and from whom it obtained 
its Greek name, was probably Ptolemy L [see 
p. 765]. After the change of its name, its 
citadel continued to be called Ace. Under the 
Romans it was a colony, and belonged to 
Galilee (Plin. v. 75). To recount its great 



21.) — 2. L., son of the preceding by his first 
wife. He espoused the republican party after 
Caesar's death (44), and went with M. Brutus 
to Asia. After plotting against the lives of 
both Brutus and Cassius, he deserted the 
triumvirs, Octavian and Antony. He was re- 



celebrity in medieval and modem history does j warded for his treachery by the consulship in 
not fall within the province of this work. — 2. (At ; 36. In the war between Octavian and Antony, 
or near El-Lahum), a small town of Middle I he espoused the side of the latter, and corn- 
Egypt, in the Nomos Arsinoltes, between Arsi- i manded the right wing of Antony's fleet at the 
noe and Heracleopolis the Great. — 3. P. Hermii battle of Actium. (Dio Cass. xlix. 54 ; Plut. Ant. 
(II. v 'Ep/iei'ou, n-roAe/iuufCT) voKis : Menshieh, ' 65; Veil. Pat. ii. 85.) — 3. Brother probably of 
Ru.), a city of Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of : No. 1, is called stepson of L. Marcius Philip- 
the Nile, below Abydos, was a place of great 1 pus, consul 91, and brother of L. Marcius 



importance under the Ptolemies, who enlarged 
and adorned it, and made it a purely Greek 
city, exempt from all peculiarly Egyptian laws 
and customs. (Strab. p. 813 ; Ptol. i. 15, 11, 
iv. 5, 56.) — 4. P. Theron, or Epitheras (n. 
0ijpa>v, v M (Wjpas), a port on the Red Sea, on 
the coast of the Troglodytae, which Ptolemy 
Philadelphus enlarged, fortified and renamed 
as an emporium for the trade with India and 
Arabia. It was a great depot for ivory and for 
live elephants. Ptolemais was remarkable in 
the history of mathematical geography, inas- 
much as, the sun having been observed to be 
directly over it forty-five clays before and after 
the summer solstice, the place was taken as one 
of the fixed points for determining the length of 
a degree of a great circle on the earth's surface. 
(Strab. pp. 768-776; Ptol. i. 8, 1, iv. 7, 7, viii. 
16, 10.) — 5. (Tolmetta or Tolometa, Ru.), on 
the NW, coast of Cyrenaica, one of the five 



Philippus, consul 56. According to Cicero's 
account he was a profligate and a spendthrift, 
and having dissipated his property, united 
himself to P. Clodius. (Cic. pro Sest. 51, 52, 110, 
111. ad Att. iv. 3, ad Q. Fr. ii. 1.) 

Publicola, or Poplicola. P. Valerius, took 
an active part in expelling the Tarquins from 
the city, and was thereupon elected consul with 
Brutus (B.C. 509). He secured the liberties of 
of the people by proposing several laws, one of 
the most important of which was that every 
citizen who was condemned by a magistrate 
should have the right of appeal to the people. 
He also ordered the lictors to lower the fasces 
before the people, as an acknowledgment that 
their power was superior to that of the consuls. 
Hence he became so great a favourite with the 
people, that he received the surname of Popli- 
cola. He was consul three times again : namely, 
in 508, 507 and 504. He died in 503. He was 



great cities of the Libyan Pentapolis, was at ' buried at the public expense, and the matrons 
first only the port of Babca, which lay 100 j mourned for him ten months, as they had done 
stadia (10 geogr. miles) inland, but which was for Brutus. (Liv. i. 58, ii. 2-10 ; Dionys. iv. 67, v 



so entirely eclipsed by Ptolemai's that, under 
the Romans, even the name of Bnrca was 



12,40 ; Plut. Public.) — His descendants bore the 
same surname, and several of them held the 



transferred to the latter city. From which of highest offices of state during the early years 
the Ptolemies it took its name, we are not of _the republic. 



informed. Its magnificence is attested by its 
splendid ruins, which are now partly covered 
by the sea. They are four miles in circum- 
ference, and contain the remains of several 
temples, three theatres, and an aqueduct. 
[Barca.] 

P toon (Tlrwov : Skroponeri), a mountain in 
Boeotia, an offshot of Helicon, which extends 
from the SE. side of the lake Copals south- 
wards to the coast (Strab. p. 418). 

Publicola, or Poplicula, or Poplicola, a 
Roman cognomen, signified ' one who courts 



Publilia, the second wife of M . Tullius Cicero, 
whom he married B.C. 46. As Cicero was then 
sixty years of age, and Publilia quite young, 
the marriage occasioned great scandal. It 
appears that Cicero was at the time in great 
pecuniary embarrassments; and after the di- 
vorce of Terentia, he was anxious to contract 
a new marriage for the purpose of obtaining 
money to pay his debts. Publilia had a large 
fortune, which had been left to Cicero in trust 
for her. The marriage proved an unhappy one, 
as might have been expected, and Cicero 



the people " (from populus and colo), and thus divorced her in 45. (Cic. ad Att. xii. 82; Dio 
'a friend of the people.' The form Poplicula , Cass. xlvi. 18 ; cf. p. 228, b.) 
or Poplicola was employed down to the end of Publilius Philo. [Philo.] 
the republic, but the name was written Publi- I Publilius Syrus. [Sybub.J 



774 



PUBLILIUS 



PYDNA 



Publilius, Volero, tribune of the plebs b.c. 
472, and again 471, effected an important 
change in the Roman constitution. In virtue 
of the laws which he proposed, the tribunes of 
the plebs and the aediles were elected by the 
eomitia tributa, instead of by the comitia cen- 
turiata, as had previously been the case, and 
the tribes obtained the power of passing reso- 
lutions on matters affecting the whole nation. 
It appears also (though there is some doubt 
about it) that the number of the tribunes was 
now for the first time raised to five, having 
been only two previously. (Liv. ii. 55 ; Diet, of 
Ant. art. Tribuni.) 

Pucinum (TiovKivov : Duino), a fortress in 
Venetia, in the territory of the Carni, was 
situated on a steep rock, about two miles from 
the sources of the Timavus and sixteen from 
Trieste. It was famous for its wine. (Plin. iii. 
127, xiv. 60.) 

Pudicitia (AlSiis), a personification of 
modesty, was worshipped both in Greece and 
at Rome. At Athens an altar was dedicated 
to her. At Rome two sanctuaries were dedi- 
cated to her, one under the name of Pudicitia 
patricia, and the other under that of Pudicitia 
plebe'ia. The former was in the Forum Boarium 
near the temple of Hercules (Liv. x. 23 ; Fest. 
p. 242). "When the patrician Virginia was 
driven from this sanctuary by the other patrician 
women, because she had married the plebeian 
consul L. Volumnius, she built a separate 
sanctuary to Pudicitia plebeia in the Vicus 
Longus. The cult of these altars is said to 
have fallen into disuse in the second century 
B.C. (Plin. xvii. 244 ; Propert. ii. 6, 25). Under 
the empire it was common to erect altars to 
ladies of the imperial family under the title of 
Pudicitia, as a compliment : e.g. to Livia (Val. 
Max. vi. 1, 11). 

Pulcher, Claudius. [Claudius.] 

Pulcheria, eldest daughter of the emperor 
Arcadius, was born a.d. 399. In 414, when she 
was only fifteen years of age, she became the 
guardian of her brother Theodosius, and was 
declared Augusta or empress. She had the 
virtual government in her hands during the 
whole lifetime of her brother, who died in 450. 
On his death she remained at the head of 
affairs, and shortly afterwards she married 
Marcian, with whom she continued to reign in 
common till her death in 453. Pulcheria was 
a woman of ability, and was celebrated for her 
piety and her public and private virtues. 
[Theodosius II. ; Valentinianus III.] 

Pulchrum Promontorium (Ka.x6u 'A/cpco- 
rrtpiov), a promontory on the N. coast of the 
Carthaginian territory in N. Africa, where the 
elder Scipio Africanus landed; probably 
identical with the Apollinis Promontoeium. 

Pullua, L. Junius, consul b.c. 249, in the 
first Punio war. His fleet was destroyed by a 
storm off Camarina, on account, it was said, of 
his neglecting the auspices. In despair he put 
an end to his own life. (Pol. i. 53 ; Cic. N.D. 
ii. 3.) 

Pupienus Maxunus, M. Clodius, was elected 
emperor with Balbinus, in a.d. 238, when the 
senate received intelligence of the death of the 
two Gordians in Africa ; but the new emperors 
were slain by the soldiers at Rome in the same 
year. [Balbinus.] 

Pupius, a Roman dramatist of the Augustan 
age, of small merit, whose tragedies are noticed 
as drawing tears from the less critical part of 
the audience (' lacrimosa poemata,' Hor. Ep. i. 
1, 67 ; Aero, ad loc). 



Pura (llovpa : prob. Bunpur), the capital of 
Gedrosia, in the interior of the country, on the 
borders of Carmania. [Gedbosia.] 

Purpurariae Insulae (prob. the Madeira 
group), a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, 
off the NW. coast of Africa, which are supposed 
to have derived their name from the purple 
muscles winch abound on the opposite coast of 
Africa (Gaetulia). (Plin. vi. 203.) 

Purpureo, L. Furius, praetor B.C. 200, ob- 
tained Cisalpine Gaul as his province, and 
gained a brilliant victory over the Gauls who 
had laid siege to Cremona. He was consul 
196, when he defeated the Boii. (Liv. xxxi. 
47-49, xxxviii. 44, xxxix. 54.) 

Puteolanum, a country-house of Cicero near 
Puteoli, where he wrote his Quaestiones Aca- 
demicae, and where the emperor Hadrian was 
buried (Cic. ad Att. xiv. 7 ; Vit. Hadr. 25). 

Puteolanus Sinus (Bay of Naples), a bay of 
the sea on the coast of Campania between the 
promontory Misenum and the promontory of 
Minerva, which was originally called Cuma- 
nus, but Puteolanus from the town Puteoli. 
The NW. corner of it was separated by a dike 
eight stadia in length from the rest of the bay, 
thus forming the Lucbinus Lacus. 

Puteoli (Puteolanus : Pozzuoli), originally 
named Dicaearchia (AiKaiapx'a> Ai«aiapx eia : 
AiKaiapx^is, Ai/caiapxemjs, -x'tijs), a cele- 
brated seaport town of Campania, situated on 
a promontory on the E. side of the Puteolanus 
Sinus, and a little to the B. of Cumae, was 
founded by the Greeks of Cumae, B.C. 521, 
under the name of Dicaearchia (Strab. p. 245 ; 
Steph. Byz. s.v. ; cf. Diod. iv. 22, v. 13). In 
the second Punic war it was fortified by the 
Romans, who changed its name into that of 
Puteoli, either from its numerous wells or from 
the stench arising from the mineral springs in 
its neighbourhood (Varro,i.i. v. 25 ; Strab. I.e.), 
The town was indebted for its importance to its 
excellent harbour, which was protected by an 
extensive mole formed from the celebrated 
reddish earth of the neighbouring hills. This 
earth, called Pozzolana, when mixed with lime, 
forms an excellent cement, which in course of 
time becomes as hard in water as stone. The 
mole was built on arches like a bridge, and 
seventeen of the piers are still visible projecting 
above the water. To this mole Caligula 
attached a floating bridge, which extended as 
far as Baiae, a distance of two miles. (Suet. 
Cal. xix. 32 ; Dio Cass. lix. 17.) Puteoli was 
the chief emporium for the commerce with 
Alexandria and with the greater part of Spain 
(Liv. xxvi. 17, xxx. 22; Strab. p. 793; Suet. 
Aug. 98). The town was colonised by the 
Romans in B.C. 194 (Liv. xxxiv. 45 ; Plin. iii. 
61), and also anew by Augustus, Nero, and Ves- 
pasian. It was destroyed by Alaric in a.d. 410, 
by Genseric in 455, and also by Totila in 545, 
but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. 
There are still many ruins of the ancient town 
at the modern Pozzuoli. Of these the most 
important are the remains of the temple of 
Serapis, of the amphitheatre, and of the mole 
already described. 

Pydna {TlvSva: YlvSvaios : Kitron), a town of 
Macedonia in the district Pieria, was situated 
at a small distance W. of the Thermaic gulf, on 
which it had a harbour. It was originally a 
Greek colony, but it was subdued by the Mace- 
donian kings, from whom, however, it frequently 
revolted. (Thuc. i. 61, 137 ; Strab. p. 330, 20, 
22.) Towards the end of the Peloponnesian 
war it was taken after a long siege by Arche- 



PYGELA 



PYLOS 



775 



laus, and its inhabitants removed twenty stadia 
inland ; but at a later period we still find the 
town situated on the coast (Diod. xiii. 49). It 
again revolted from the Macedonians, and was 
subdued by Philip, who enlarged and fortified 
the place. It was here that Olympias sustained 
a long siege against Cassander, B.C. 317-316. 
(Polyaen. iv. 11,3.) It is memorable on account 
of the victory gained under its walls by Aemilius 
Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, 
163 (Liv. xliv. 32-46). Under the Romans it 
was also called Citruni (Strab. I. c). 

Pygela or Phygela (IIiryeAa, "fciryeAa), a 
small town of Ionia, on the coast of Lydia, with 
a temple of Artemis Munychia. Tradition 
ascribed its foundation to Agamemnon. (Sen. 
Hell. i. 2, 2 ; Strab. p. 639.) 

Pygmaei (Xlvyfiatoi, i.e. men of the height of 
a -jrvyixi], i.e. 13 -, inches), a fabulous people, 
first mentioned by Homer (II. iii. 5) as dwell- 
ing on the shores of Ocean, and attacked by 
cranes in spring time. The fable is repeated 
by numerous writers, in various forms, especi- 
ally as to the locality, some placing them in 
Aethiopia, others in India, and others in the 
extreme N. of the earth. The story is referred 
to by Ovid and Juvenal, and forms the subject 
of several works of art. (Arist. H. A. viii. 12 ; 
Juv. xiii. 167 ; Plin. v. 109, vi. 188 ; Ov. Fast. 
vi. 176, Met. vi. 90.) It is possible that the 
stories may have arisen from vague accounts of 
the dwarfish races in the interior of Africa, 
such as those which have been met with by 
recent explorers between the Congo and the 
Upper Nile. 

Pygmalion invy^akioiu). 1. King of Cyprus 
and father of Metharme. He is said to have 
fallen in love witli the ivory image of a maiden 
which he himself had made, and therefore to 
have prayed to Aphrodite to breathe life into 
it. When the request was granted, Pygmalion 
married the maiden, and became by her the 
father of Paphus (Ov. Met. x. 243).— 2. Son of 
Belus and brother of Dido, who murdered 
Sichaeus, Dido's husband. For details see 
Dido. 

Pylades (Ili/Ao87)j). 1. Son of Strophius and 
Anaxibia, a sister of Agamemnon. His father 
was king of Phocis, and after the death of 
Agamemnon, Orestes was secretly carried to his 
father's court. Here Pylades contracted that 
friendship with Orestes, which became prover- 
bial. He assisted Orestes in murdering his 
mother, Clytaemnestra, and also accompanied 
him to the Tauric Chersonesus ; and he eventu- 
ally married his sister, Electra, by whom he 
became the father of Hellanicus, Medon, and 
Strophius. For details see Ohestes. — 2. A 
pantomime dancer in the reign of Augustus, 
spoken of under Bathyllus. 

Pylae (riuAcu, Gates), a general name for any 
narrow pass, such as THERMOPYLAE , Pylae 
Albaniae, Caspiae, &c. (See the specific names.) 

Pylaemenes (nuAai^Vris), appears to have 
been in early times the name of many princes 
of Paphlagonia, so as to have become a kind of 
hereditary appellation (II. ii. 851, v. 570, xiii. 
043; cf. Liv. i. 1). 

Pylas. [Pyloh.] 

Pylene (UuKi]vi)), an ancient town of Aetolia 
on the S. slope of Mount Aracynthus, on whose 
site Proschium was subsequently built. 

Pylos iriuAoj), the name of three towns on 
the W. coast of Peloponnesus. 1. A town in 
the SW. of Messenia, about sixty-three miles 
from Sparta, situated on the promontory of 
Coryphasium forming the northern horn of the 



bay of Navarino, of which the southern horn 
is occupied by the town called Navarino in the 
middle ages (the name is supposed to be 
derived from the Avars), but now more usually 
Neocastro. The spurs of Mount Aegaleos 
stretch nearly down to the N. shores of the bay, 
which forms the largest and safest harbour in 
all Greece. It was fronted and protected by 
the small island of Sphacteria (Sphagia), which 
stretched along the coast about If mile, 
leaving only two narrow entrances at each end. 
In the second Messenian war the inhabitants of 
Pylos offered a long and brave resistance to 
the Spartans ; but after the capture of Ira, they 
migrated to Cyllene, and thence with the other 
Messenians to Sicily. (Paus. iv. 8, 1, iv. 23, 1.) 
The old town of Pylos, of which the ruins are 
now known as Old Pylos or Old Navarino, is, 




Map of the Bay of Pylos. 
A, Sphacteria ISpltayio) ; B, Pylos on the promontory 
Coryphasium (Old maoarind); C. the modern Xncarino; 
L) D, Bay of Pylos lllay of Xararino). 



almost certainly, the place which was tradi- 
tionally founded by Neleus, and the Pylos of 
Homer (II. xi. 081, Oil. iii. 4; Paus. iv. 30; 
cf. Pind. P'/th. vi. 35). In Homer TlvKos also 
expresses the territory of Nestor generally {II. 
xi. 711, 715). The arguments of Strabo (p. 837) 
in favour of the Triphylian Elis have not much, 
weight. The peninsula of Coryphasium, where 
stand the ruins of the old town and fortress 
(some of the walls being of polygonal masonry), 
' is precipitous on the E. and N\V. side or to- 
wards the lagoon, but on most of the W. 
side or towards the open sea it slopes gradu- 
ally, particularly on the SW., where Demo- 
sthenes succeeded in preventing the landing of 
Brasidas and the Lacedaemonians. The pro- 
montory is higher at the northern end. Below 
the ruined fortress at the northern end there isa 
fine cavern, called Voidh6-Ki/i<i (Boi'So'-KoiAio), 
' the ox's belly,' which gives name to the small 
circular port immediately below it, which has 



776 



PYEAMIA 



PYRGOTELES 



been already spoken of. This cavern is sixty 
feet long, forty wide, and forty high, having a roof 
like a Gothic arch. The entrance is triangular, 
thirty feet long and twelve high ; at the top of 
the cavern there is an opening in the surface 
of the hill above. This, according to the Pelo- 
ponnesiau tradition, was the cave into which the 
infant Hermes drove the cattle which he had 
stolen from Apollo [see p. 405, a]. It is mentioned 
in the Homeric hymn to Hermes as situated 
upon the sea-side (v. 341) ; but in Ant. Lib. 23, it 
is expressly said to have been at Coryphasium. 
In Ovid (Met. ii. 684) Mercury is represented as 
beholding from Mount Cyllene the unguarded 
cattle proceeding into the fields of Pylos. 
— The bay of Voidho-Kilia is separated by a 
low semicircular ridge of sand from the large 
shallow lagoon of Osnujn-Aga. As neither 
Thucydides nor Pausanias says a word about 
this lagoon, which now forms so striking a 
feature, we may conclude that it is of recent 
formation. The peninsula must, in that case 
have been surrounded with a sandy plain, as 
Pausanias describes it ; and accordingly, if we 
suppose this to have been the site of the 
Homeric Pylos, the epithet fj/iia96eis, which the 
poet gives to it, would be perfectly applicable. 
As regards the bay occupied and blockaded 
by the Athenians in the famous incident of the 
Peloponnesian war (Thuc. iv. 3-13, 29-40), it 
seems clear that Arnold and others were mis- 
taken in supposing that it was the lagoon of 
Osmyn-Aga, originally (as they thought) open 
to the sea at each end of Coryphasium. The 
objections to this theory are : (1) that we should 
then have three neighbouring islands instead of 
only two (Prote and Sphacteria) as Thucydides 
describes ; (2) that on the promontory, which 
by Arnold's theory becomes Sphacteria, there 
are ruins of buildings older than the date of the 
war, and Thucydides describes the island as 
never having been inhabited ; (3) the name 
Sphagia probably preserves the old name. 
There is in truth no difficulty in supposing the 
entrances to the Bay of Navarino to have 
widened in the course of 2000 years, and as 
regards the expression ov cjj.iKp6s, applied to 
the harbour, it is not inconsistent with the 
great size of Navarino. Thucydides would 
have spoken thus of the largest harbour in 
Greece. When Epaminondas restored the 
Messenians to their country, they again occu- 
pied Pylos (Pol. xviii. 25 ; Liv. xxvii. 30 ; Paus. 
I. c). — 2. In Elis, at the foot of Mount Scollis, and 
about seventy or eighty stadia from the city of 
Elis on the road to Olympia, near the confluence 
of the Ladon and the Peneus. It is said to have 
been founded by Pylon or Pylas of Megara, to 
have been destroyed by Heracles, and to have 
been afterwards rebuilt by the Eleans. (Paus. 
iv. 36, 1, vi. 22, 5 ; Plin. iv. 15.)— 3. In Triphylia, 
about thirty stadia from the coast, on the river 
Mamaus, W. of the mountain Minthe, and N. 
of Lepreum (Strab. p. 344). 

Pyramia (to Xlvpafua), a town of Argolis, in 
the district Thyreatis, where Danaus is said to 
have landed. 

Pyramon. [Cyclopes.] 

Pyramus. [Thisbe.] 

Pyramus (Tlvpaixos: Jihari), one of the 
largest rivers of Asia Minor, rises in the Anti- 
Taurus range, near Arabissus in Cataonia (the 
SE. part of Cappadocia), and, after running SE. 
first underground and then as a navigable 
river, breaks through the Taurus chain by a 
deep and narrow ravine, and then flows SW. 
through Cilicia, in a deep and rapid stream, 



about one stadium (606 feet) in width, and falls 
into the sea near Mallus (Strab. pp. 53, 536). 
Its ancient name is said to have been Leuco- 
syrus, from the Leucosysi, who dwelt on its 
banks. 

Pyrasus (Uvpacros), a town of Phthiotis in 
Thessaly, situated in fertile corn land, whence, 
probably, its name and also the worship of 
Demeter in that district (II. ii. 495, Strab. p. 
435). It had been destroyed before Strabo's 
time, and its place was taken by the town 
Demetrium in the neighbourhood (Liv. xxviii.6). 

Pyrene or Pyrenaei Montes (Ylvpiivri, 
Hvprivaia bpr) : Pyrenees), a range of mountains 
extending from the Atlantic to the Mediterra- 
nean, and forming the boundary between Gaul 
and Spain. The length of these mountains is 
about 270 miles in a straight line ; their breadth 
varies from about forty miles to twenty ; then- 
greatest height is between 11,000 and 12,000 
feet. The Romans first became acquainted 
with these mountains by their campaigns 
against the Carthaginians in Spain in the 
second Punic war. Their name, however, had 
travelled eastward at a much earlier period, 
since Herodotus (ii. 33) speaks of a city Pyrene 
belonging to the Celts, near which the Ister 
rises. The ancient writers usually derived the 
name from irvp, ' fire,' and then, according to a 
common practice, invented a story to explain 
the false etymology, relating that a great fire 
once raged upon the mountains. (Strab. p. 
147; Diod. v. 25; Sen. Q. N. 1.) The name 
is probably connected with the Celtic Byrin 
or Bryn, ' a mountain.' The continuation 
of the mountains along the Mare Canta- 
bricum was called Saltus Vasconum, and still 
further W. Mons Vindius or Vinnius. The 
Romans were acquainted with only three 
passes over the Pyrenees : the one on the W. 
near Carasae (Garis) not far from the Mare 
Cantabicrum ; the one in the middle leading 
from Caesaraugusta to Beneharnum (Bareges) ; 
and the one on the E., which was most fre- 
quently used, near the coast of the Mediterra- 
nean by Juncaria (Junquera). (Strab. p. 160; 
Liv. xxi. 23 ; Bin.) 

Pyrenes Promontorium, or Prom. Veneris 
(C Creus), the SE. extremity of the Pyrenees 
in Spain, on the frontiers of Gaul, derived its 
second name from a temple of Venus on the 
promontory ; below this was a port called Port. 
Veneris or Pyrenaei Portus, now Vendres (Liv. 
xxxiv. 8). 

Pyretus'(riup€T(Js : Prutli), a river of Scythia 
which falls into the Danube (Hdt. iv. 48). 

Pyrgi. 1. (Tlvpyoi or Xlvpyos : Uvpyirris), 
the most southemly town of Triphylia in Elis, 
near the Messenian frontier, said to have been 
founded by the Minyae (Hdt. iv. 148 ; Strab. p. 
348). — 2. (Pyrgensis : Santa Sev'era), an an- 
cient town on the coast of Etruria, was used as 
the port of Caere or Agylla, and was a place of 
considerable importance as a commercial em- 
porium. It was at an early period the head- 
quarters of the Tyrrhenian pirates (Serv. ad 
Aen. x. 184). It possessed a very wealthy 
temple of Ilithyia, which Dionysius of Syracuse 
plundered in B.C. 384. (Strab. p. 226 ; Diod. xv. 
14). Pyrgi is mentioned at a later time as a 
Roman colony, but lost its importance under 
the Roman dominion (Liv. xxxvi. 3 ; Mart. xii. 
2). There are still remains at S. Sever a of 
the ancient polygonal walls of Pyrgi. 

Pyrgoteles (Uvpyor4\ris), one of the most 
celebrated gem-engravers of ancient Greece, 
was a contemporary of Alexander the Great, 



PYRICUS 



PYBBHUS 



777 



who placed him on a level with Apelles and 
Lysippus, hy naming him as the only artist who. 
was permitted to engrave seal-lings for the 
king (Plin. vii. 125, xxxvii. 8). 

Pyricus (nOpei/cos), a Greek painter, who 
probably lived soon after the time of Alexander 
the Great. He devoted himself entirely to the 
production of small pictures of low and mean 
subjects. 

Pyriphlegethon (nvpupKeyeduv) — that is, 
flaming with fire — the name of one of the rivers 
in the lower world. 

Pyromachus or Phyromachus (nvpo/mxos, 
$vp6[iaxos : the latter appears to be the more 
correct form : the name is so written on the 
inscription). 1. An Athenian sculptor, who 
executed the bas-reliefs on the frieze of the 
temple of Athene Polias, about b.c. 408 (C.I.A. 
i. 324). He is probably the same as the Pyro- 
machus mentioned by Pliny |xxxiv. 80), as 
author of a sculpture representing Alcibiades 
driving a chariot. — 2. A sculptor of Pergamum 
(Plin. xxxiv. 84), who worked with Isigonus, 
Stratonicus and Antigonus in representing the 
battles of Attalus and Eumenes against the 
Gauls. The ' Dying Gaul ' (the so-called ' Dying 
Gladiator ') of the Capitol is a copy from one of 
these groups. It is possible that the same 
sculptors may have executed the figures in the 
Gigantomachia on the great altar of Pergamum 
[see p. 364]. It is probable that they worked 
in the reign of Eumenes H. B.C. 197-159 ; not, i 
as some have thought, under Eumenes I. 

Pyrrha (Uvppa : Uvppaios). 1. A town on the 
W. coast of the island of Lesbos, on the inner j 
part of the deep bay named after it, and conse- 
quently on the narrowest part of the island 
(Thuc. iii. 18 ; Strab. p. 617 ; Athen. p. 88).— 2. 
A town and promontory of Phthiotis in Thes- 1 
saly, on the Pagasaean gulf and near the 
frontiers of Magnesia. Off this promontory 
there were two small islands, named Pyrrha 
and Deucalion. (Strab. p. 435j. — 3. A small 
Ionic town in Caria on the X. side of the Sinus [ 
Latmicus and fifty stadia from the mouth of 
the Maeander (Strab. p. 636). 

Pyrrhi Castra (Ylvppov x^PoD) a fortified 
place in the N. of Laconica, where Pyrrhus 
probably encamped in his invasion of the 
country in B.C. 272 (Pol. v. 19; Liv. xxxv. 27). 

Pyrrhlchus (Uvppixos), a town of the Eleu- 
thero-lacones, in the SW.of Laconica (Paus. iii. 
21, 7, iii. 25, 1). 

Pyrrho (Ylvppwv), the founder of the Sceptical 
or Pyrrhonian school of philosophy, was a 
native of Elis in Peloponnesus. He ia said to 
have been poor, and to have followed, at first, 
the profession of a painter. He is then said , 
to have been attracted to philosophy by the 
books of Democritus, to have attended the 
lectures of Bryson, a disciple of Stilpon, to 
have attached himself closely to Anaxarchus. 
and with him to have joined the expedition of i 
Alexander the Great. During the greater part 
of his life he lived in retirement, and en- 
deavoured to render himself independent of | 
all external circumstances. (Diog. Latirt. ix. | 
61-67 ; Paus. vi. 24, 5 ; Suid. s.v.) His disciple 
Timon of Phlius extolled with admiration his 
divine repose of soul (arapa^ia), and his indiffer- , 
ence to pleasure or pain. So highly was he i 
valued by his fellow-citizens that they made 
him their high priest, and erected a monument 
to him after his death. The Athenians con- 
ferred upon him the rights of citizenship. — He 
asserted that certain knowledge on any subject 
was unattainable ; that we must not say 'This 



is so,' but, ' This seems so ' ; and that hence 
the only wisdom is a suspension of judgment 
(iiroxv or d/caTaA.7)i//i'a). This is the virtue which 
the philosopher will strive after, and the result 
will be the happiness of tranquillity. — Pyrrho 
wrote no works, except a poem addressed to 
Alexander, which was rewarded by the latter 
in a royal manner. His philosophical system 
was first reduced to writing by his disciple 
Timon. The so-called Ten Tropes (8e'/co rpoiroi) 
of Pyrrho, which professed to show that every- 
thing is relative and nothing positive, should 
be ascribed to Aexesidejius. He reached the 
age of ninety years, but we have no mention 
of the year either of his birth or of his death. 

Pyrrhus (JIvppos). 1. Mythological. [Neo- 
ptolemus.] — 2. I., king of Epirus, son of 
Aeacides and Phthia, was born B.C. 318. His 
ancestors claimed descent from Pyrrhus the 
sou of Achilles, who was said to have settled in 
Epirus after the Trojan war, and to have 
become the founder of the race of Molossian 
kings. (Plut. Pyrrh. 1.) On the deposition 
of his father by the Epirots [Aeacedes], 
Pyrrhus, who was then a child of only two 
years old, was saved from destruction by the 
faithful adherents of the king, who carried 
him to Glaucias, the king of the Taulantians, 
an Illyiian people. Glaucias took the child 
under his care, and brought him up with his 
own children. (Just. xvii. 3.) He not only 
refused to surrender Pyrrhus to Cassander, 
but about ten years afterwards he marched 
into Epirus at the head of an army, and placed 
Pyrrhus on the throne, leaving him, however, 
under the care of guardians, as he was then 
only twelve years of age. In the course of 
four or five years, however, Cassander, who had 
regained his supremacy in Greece, prevailed 
upon the Epirots to expel their young king. 
Pyrrhus, who was still only seventeen years of 
age, joined Demetrius, who had married his 
sister Deidamia, accompanied him to Asia, and 
was present at the battle of Ipsus, 301, in 
which he gained great renown for his valour. 
(Plut. Pyrrh. 4.) Antigonus fell in the battle, 
and Demetrius became a fugitive ; but Pyrrhus 
did not desert his brother-in-law in his mis- 
fortunes, and shortly afterwards went for him 
as a hostage into Egypt. Here he was fortu- 
nate enough to win the favour of Berenice, the 
wife of Ptolemy, and received in marriage 
Antigone, her daughter by her first husband. 
Ptolemy, who wished him to counteract the 
power of Demetrius Poliorcetes, now supplied 
him with a fleet and forces, with which he 
returned to Epirus. Neoptolemus, who had 
reigned from the time that Pyrrhus had been 
driven from the kingdom, agreed to share the 
sovereignty with Pyrrhus. But such an ar- 
rangement could not last long, and Pyrrhus 
anticipated his own destruction by putting his 
rival to death. This appears to have happened 
in 295, in which year Pyrrhus is said to have 
begun to reign. He was now twenty-three 
years old, and he soon became one of the most 
popular princes of his time. His daring cour- 
age made him a favourite with his troops, and 
his affability and generosity secured the love of 
hia people. He seems at an early age to have 
taken Alexander as his model, and to have been 
fired with the ambition of imitating hia ex- 
ploits und treading in his footsteps. Hia eyes 
were first directed to the conquest of Mace- 
donia. By assisting Alexander, the son of 
Cassander, against his brother, Antipater, he 
obtained possession of the whole of the Mace- 



778 



PYBEHUS 



donian dominions on the western side of 
Greece. But the Macedonian throne itself fell 
into the hands of Demetrius, greatly to the 
disappointment of Pyrrhus. The two former 
friends now became the most deadly enemies, 
and open war broke out between them in 291.- 
After the war had been carried on with great 
vigour and various vicissitudes for four years, 
Pyrrhus joined the coalition formed in 287 by 
Seleucus, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus against 
Demetrius. Lysimachus and Pyrrhus invaded 
Macedonia ; Demetrius was deserted by his 
troops, and obliged to fly in disguise, and the 
kingdom was divided between Lysimachus and 
Pyrrhus. (Plut. Pyrrh. 7-10; Demetr. 41.) 
But the latter did not long retain his portion ; 
the Macedonians preferred the rule of their old 
general Lysimachus, and Pyrrhus was ac- 
cordingly driven out of the country after a 
reign of seven months (286). For the next 
few years Pyrrhus reigned quietly in Epirus 
without embarking in any new enterprise. But 
a life of inactivity was insupportable to him ; 
and accordingly he readily accepted the invita- 
tion of the Tarentines to assist them in their 
war against the Bomans. He crossed over to 
Italy early in 280, in the thirty-eighth year of 
his age. He took with him 20,000 foot, 3000 
horse, 2000 archers, 500 slingers, and 20 ele- 
phants, having previously sent Milo, one of his 
generals, with a detachment of 3000 men. As 
soon as he arrived at Tarentum, he began to 
make vigorous preparations for carrying on the 
war, and as the giddy and licentious inhabi- 
tants of Tarentum complained of the severity 
of his discipline, he forthwith treated them as 
their master rather than as their ally, shut up 
the theatre and all other public places, and 
compelled their young men to serve in his 
ranks. In the first campaign (280) the Roman 
consul, M. Valerius Laevinus, was defeated by 
Pyrrhus near Heraclea, on the bank of the 
river Siris. The battle was long and bravely 
contested, and it was not till Pyrrhus brought 
forward his elephants, which bore down every- 
thing before them, that the Romans took to j 
flight. The loss of Pyrrhus, though inferior to 
that of the Romans, was still very consider- ' 
able. A large proportion of his officers and 
best troops had fallen ; and he said, as he 
viewed the field of battle, ' Another such vic- 
tory, and I must return to Epirus alone.' (Plut. 
Pyrrh. 21 ; Pol. xviii. 11 ; Flor. i. 18 ; Dionys. 
xviii. 1.) He therefore availed himself of his 
success to send his minister Cineas to Rome 
with proposals of peace, while he himself 
marched slowly towards the city. His pro- 
posals, however, were rejected by the senate. 
He accordingly continued his march, ravaging 
the Roman territory as he went along. He 
advanced within twenty- four miles of Rome ; 
but as he found it impossible to compel the 
Romans to accept the peace, and two armies 
had gathered near Rome, while the forces of 
Laevinus still menaced his rear, he retraced his 
steps, and withdrew into winter-quarters to 
Tarentum. As soon as the armies were quar- 
tered for the winter, the Romans sent an 
embassy to Pyrrhus, to endeavour to obtain the 
ransom of the Roman prisoners. The ambas- 
sadors were received by Pyrrhus in the most 
distinguished manner, and his interviews with 
C. Fabricius, who was at the head of the em- 
bassy, form one of the most celebrated stories 
in Roman history [Fabricius.] In the second 
campaign (279) Pyrrhus gained another victory 
near Asculum over the Romans, who were 



commanded by the consuls P. Decius Mus and 
P. Sulpicius Saverrio. The battle, however, 
was followed by no decisive results, and the 
brunt of it had again fallen, as in the previous 
year, almost exclusively on the Greek troops of 
the king. He was therefore unwilling to 
hazard his surviving Greeks by another cam- 
paign with the Romans, and accordingly he 
lent a ready ear to the invitations of the 
Greeks in Sicily, who begged him to come to 
their assistance against the Carthaginians. The 
Romans were likewise anxious to get rid of so 
formidable an opponent, that they might com- 
plete the subjugation of southern Italy without 
further interruption. When both parties had 
the same wishes, it was not difficult to find a 
fair pretext for bringing the war to a conclusion. 
This was afforded at the beginning of the fol- 
lowing year (278), pj one of the servants of 
Pyrrhus deserting to the Romans and proposing 
to the consuls to poison his master. The con- 
suls Fabricius and Aemilius sent back the 
deserter to the king, stating that they abhorred 
a victory gained by treason. Thereupon Pyrrhus, 
to show his gratitude, sent Cineas to Rome 
with all the Roman prisoners without ransom 
and without conditions ; and the Romans 
granted him a truce, though not a formal peace, 
as he had not consented to evacuate Italy. 
Pyrrhus now crossed over into Sicily, where 
he remained upwards of two years, from the 
middle of 478 nearly to the end of 476. At first 
he met with brilliant success, defeated the 
Carthaginians and took Eryx ; but having failed 
in an attempt upon Lilybaeum, he lost his 
popularity with the Greeks, who began to form 
cabals and plots against him. This led to 
retaliation on the part of Pyrrhus, and to acts 
which were deemed arbitrary and tyrannical by 
the Greeks. His position in Sicily at length 
became so uncomfortable and dangerous that 
he soon desired to abandon the island. Ac- 
cordingly, when his Italian allies again begged 
him to come to their assistance, he gladly com- 
plied with their request. Pyrrhus returned to 
Italy, where his troops had continued to hold 
Tarentum, in the autumn of 276. (Plut. Pyrrh. 
22-26 ; Dionys. xix. 6-9 ; Just, xxiii. 3.) In the 
following year (275) the war was brought to a 
close. Pyrrhus was defeated with great loss 
near Beneventum by the Roman consul Curius 
Dentatus, and was obliged to leave Italy. He 
brought back with him to Epirus only 8000 foot 
and 500 horse, and had not money to maintain 
even these without undertaking new wars. 
Accordingly, in 273, he invaded Macedonia, of 
which Antigonus Gonatas, the son of Demetrius, 
was then king. His only object at first seems 
to have been plunder, but his success far 
exceeded his expectations. Antigonus was de- 
serted by his own troops, and Pyrrhus thus 
became king of Macedonia a second time. But 
scarcely had he obtained possession of the 
kingdom before his restless spirit drove him 
into new enterprises. On the invitation of 
Cleonymus he turned his arms against Sparta, 
but was repulsed in an attack upon this city. 
From Sparta he marched towards Argos in 
order to support Aristeas, one of the leading 
citizens at Argos, against his rival, Aristippus, 
whose cause was espoused by Antigonus. In 
the night-time Aristeas admitted Pyrrhus into 
the city, but the alarm having been given, the 
citadel and all the strong places were seized by 
the Argives of the opposite faction. On the 
dawn of day Pyrrhus saw that it would be 
necessary for him to retreat ; and as he was 



PYTHAGORAS 779 

fighting his way out of the city, an Argive Egypt, and it is by no means improbable that 
woman hurled down from the house-top a pon- ' he travelled to Babylon. The biographies of 
derous tile, which struck Pyrrhus on the back Pythagoras are late and fond of dealing with 
of his neck. He fell from his horse stunned the marvellous. It is impossible to accept 
with the blow, and being recognised by some of with absolute confidence anything but the 
the soldiers of Antigonus, was quickly des- statements contained in the fragments of 
patched. His head was cut off and carried to Philolaus, or in the writings of Aristotle and 
Antigonus, who turned away from the sight, Theophrastus, or in citations directly from them, 
and ordered the body to be interred with be- To these may be added as having authority 
coming honours. (Paus. i. 13 ; Plut. Pyrrh. 31 ; the mention of him in Herodotus, and scanty 
Just. xxv. 5.) Pyrrhus perished in 272, in the notices in fragments of Xenophanes, Heraclitus 
forty-sixth year of his age, and in the twenty- and Plato. No certainty can be arrived at as 
third of his reign. — He was the greatest warrior to the length of time spent by Pythagoras in 
and one of the best princes of his time. With , Egypt or the East, or as to Iris residence and 
his daring courage, his military skill, and his efforts in Samos or other Grecian cities, 
kingly bearing, he might have become the most before he settled at Crotona in Italy. He 
powerful monarch of his day, if he had steadily probably removed to Crotona because he found 
pursued the immediate object before him. But it impossible to realise his schemes in his 
he never rested satisfied with any acquisition, native country while under the tyranny of 
and was ever grasping at some fresh object : Polycrates. The reason why he selected Cro- 
hence Antigonus compared him to a gambler tona as the sphere of his operations it is 
who made many good- throws with the dice but impossible to ascertain ; but soon after his 
was unable to make the proper use of the game arrival in that city he attained extensive in- 
Pyrrhus was regarded in subsequent times as ( fluence, and gained over great numbers to 
one of the greatest generals that had ever lived. ; enter into his views. His adherents were 
Hannibal said that of all generals Pyrrhus was j chiefly of the noble and wealthy classes. Three 
the first, Scipio the second, and himself the hundred of these were formed into a select 
third ; or, according to another version of the I brotherhood or club, bound by a sort of vow to 
story, Alexander was the first, Pyrrhus the | Pythagoras and each other, for the purpose of 
second, and himself the third (Plut. Pyrrh. 8, cultivating the religious and ascetic observ- 
Flam. 21). — Pyrrhus wrote a work on the art i ances of their master, and of studying his 
of war, which was read in the time of Cicero | religious and philosophical theories. Every- 
(Cic. ad Fam. ix. 25) ; and his commentaries i thing that was done and taught among the 
are quoted both by Dionysius and Plutarch, members was kept a profound secret from all 
Pyrrhus married four wives : (1) Antigone, without its pale. It was an old Pythagorean 
the daughter of Berenice ; (2) a daughter of maxim, that everything was not to be told 
Audoleon, king of the Paeonians ; (3) Bircenna, i to everybody. There were also gradations 
a daughter of Bardylis, king of the Hlyrians ; ; among the members themselves, rising from 
(4) Lanassa, a daughter of Agathocles of Syra- the 'A/coi/<r,uaTiKol (Listeners), who were in the 
cuse. His children were : (1) Ptolemy, born class of the ' exoterics,' to the esoteric class of 
295, killed in battle, 272; (2) Alexander, who MaBrifiaTtKol or Students, and Philosophers, 
succeeded his father as king of Epirus; (3) In the admission of candidates Pythagoras is 
Helenas ; (4) Nereis, who manned Gelo of said to have placed great reliance on his 
Syracuse; (5) Olympias, who married her own ! physiognomical discernment. If admitted, they 
brother, Alexander ; (6) Deidamia or Laodamia. had to pass through a period of probation 
— 3. II., king of Epirus, son of Alexander 11. lasting from two to five years, in which their 
and Olympias, and grandson of Pyrrhus I., was ! powers of maintaining silence were especially 
a child at the time of his father's death (he- tested, as well as their general temper, dispo- 
tween 262 and 258). During his minority the | sition, and mental capacity. As regards the 
kirgdom was governed by his mother, Olympias. nature of the esoteric instruction to which 
According to one account, Olympias survived only the most approved members of the fra- 
Pyrrhus, who died soon after he had grown up ternity were admitted, some have supposed 
to manhood ; according to another account, that it had reference to the political views of 
Olympias had poisoned a maiden to whom Pythagoras. Others have maintained, with 
Pyrrhus was attached, and was poisoned by him greater probablity, that it related mainly to the 
in revenge. (Just, xxviii. 3 ; Athen. p. 589.) nrgics, or secret religious doctrines and usages, 
Pythagoras (TlvdaySpas). 1. A celebrated which undoubtedly formed a prominent feature 
Greek philosopher, was a native of Samos (Hdt. in the Pythagorean system (Hdt. ii. 83), and 
iv. 95), and the son of JInesarchus, who was were peculiarly connected with the worship of 
a merchant, or, according to other accounts, an Apollo. Some of his disciples at Crotona ara 
engraver. The date of his birth is uncertain, said to have identified Pythagoras himself 
but all authorities agree that he lived in the with the Hyperborean Apollo. There were some 
times of Polycrates and Tarquinius Superbus outward peculiarities of an ascetic kind in the 
(b c. 540-510). He studied in his own country mode of life to which the members of thn 
under Creophilus, Pherecydes of Syros, and brotherhood were subjected. Some represent 
others, and is said to have visited Egypt and him as forbidding .ill animal food; but all tlio 
many countries of the East for the purpose of members cannot have been subjected to this 
acquiring knowledge. It is therefore quite prohibition, since the athletic Milo, for in- 
permissible to accept the dates commonly stance, could not possibly have dispensed with 
given: about 580 for his birth; about 510 for animal food. According to some ancient autho- 
his coming to Italy, and about 500 for his death, rities, Pythagoras allowed the use of all kinds of 
(Diog. Laiirt. viii. 2 ; Porphyr. Vit. J J //tli. 11; animal food except the flesh of oxen used for 
Iambi. Vit. Pyth. 14.) It is probable that ploughing, and rams. There is a similar discre- 
many of his travels (in which he is even said pancy as to the prohibition of beans [see below J. 
to have visited the Indians in one direction But temperance of all kinds seems to have been 
and the Druids of Gaul in another) are lie- strictly enjoined. It is also stated that they had 
titioua ; but there is little doubt that he did \ init common meals, Humbling the Spartan sys- 



780 



PYTHAGORAS 



sitia, at which they met in companies of ten. 
Considerable importance seems to have been 
attached to music and gymnastics in the daily 
exercises of the disciples. Their whole disci- 
pline is represented as tending to produce a 
lofty serenity and self-possession, regarding 
which various anecdotes were current in anti- 
quity. The purity of life which was required 
in the initiated is called by Plato YlvOayopmos 
Tpdiros fiiov (Rcjj. x. p. 600). Among the 
best ascertained features of the brotherhood 
are the devoted attachment of the members 
to each other, and their sovereign contempt 
for those who did not belong to their ranks. 
It appears that they had some secret con- 
ventional symbols by which members of the 
fraternity could recognise each other, even 
if they had never met before. Clubs similar to 
that at Crotona were established at Sybaris, 
Metapontum, Tarentum, and other cities of 
Magna Graecia. — The institutions of Pythago- 
ras were certainly not intended to withdraw 
those who adopted them from active exertion 
that they might devote themselves exclusively 
to religious and philosophical contemplations. 
He rather aimed at the production of a calm 
bearing and elevated tone of character, through 
which those trained in the discipline of the 
Pythagorean life should exhibit in their per- 
sonal and social capacities a reflection of the 
order and harmony of the universe. Whether 
he had any distinct political designs in the 
foundation of his brotherhood is doubtful ; but 
it was perfectly natural, even without any 
express design on his part, that a club such as 
the Three Hundred of Crotona should gradually 
come to mingle political with other objects, 
and by the facilities afforded by their secret 
and compact organisation should speedily gain 
extensive political influence. That this in- 
fluence should be decisively on the side of 
aristocracy or oligarchy resulted naturally both 
from the nature of the Pythagorean institutions, 
and from the rank and social position of the 
members of the brotherhood. Through them, 
of course, Pythagoras himself exercised a large 
amount of indirect influence over the affairs 
both of Crotona and of other Italian cities. 
This Pythagorean brotherhood or order re- 
resembled in many respects the one founded by 
Loyola. It is easy to understand how this 
aristocratical and exclusive club would excite 
the jealousy and hostility not only of the demo- 
cratical party in Crotona, but also of a con- 
siderable number of the opposite faction. Their 
political activity was the cause of their down- 
fall, since the hatred which they had excited 
emboldened their enemies to use force for their 
suppression. The populace of Crotona rose 
against them ; and an attack was made upon 
them while they were assembled either in the 
house of Milo or in some other place of meeting. 
The building was set on fire, and many of the 
assembled members perished ; only the younger 
and more active escaped. Similar commotions 
ensued in the other cities of Magna Graecia in 
which Pythagorean clubs had been formed. 
As an active and organised brotherhood the 
Pythagorean order was everywhere suppressed ; 
but the Pythagoreans still continued to exist as 
a sect, the members of which kept up among 
themselves their religious observances and 
scientific pursuits, while individuals, as in the 
case of Archytas, acquired now and then great 
political influence. Eespecting the fate of 
Pythagoras himself, the accounts varied. Some 
say that he perished with his disciples, 



others that he fled first to Tarentum, and 
that, being driven thence, he escaped to Meta- 
pontum, and there starved himself to death. 
I." ; tomb was shown at Metapontum in the 
no of Cicero. (Cic. de Fin. iv. 2, 4; Diog. 
Lae'rt. viii. 40 ; Iambi. Vit. Pyth. 249 ; Just, 
xx. 4.) — According to some accounts Pythagoras 
married Theano, a native of Crotona, and had a 
daughter, Damo, and a son,Telauges, or, accord- 
ing to others, two daughters, Damo and. Myia ; 
while other notices seem to imply that he had a 
wife and a daughter grown up when he came 
to Crotona. — When we come to inquire what 
were the philosophical or religious opinions held 
by Pythagoras himself, we are met at the out- 
set by the difficulty that even the authors from 
whom we have to draw possessed no authentic 
records bearing upon the age of Pythagoras 
himself. If Pythagoras ever wrote anything, 
his writings perished with him, or not long 
after. The probability is that he wrote nothing. 
Everything current under his name in antiquity 
was spurious. It is all but certain that Phi- 
lolaus was the first who published the Pytha- 
gorean doctrines, at any rate in a written form 
[Philolaus]. Still there was so marked a 
peculiarity running through the Pythagorean 
philosophy, that there can be little question as to 
the germs of the system at any rate having been 
derived from Pythagoras himself. Pythagoras 
resembled the philosophers of the Ionic school, 
who undertook to solve by means of a single 
primordial principle the vague problem of the 
origin and constitution of the universe as a 
whole. His predilection for mathematical 
studies led him to trace the origin of all things 
to number, his theory being suggested, or at all 
events confirmed, by the observation of various 
numerical relations, or analogies to them, in 
the phenomena of the universe. According to 
Philolaus, who may here be representing the 
actual opinions of Pythagoras, ' Number is 
that which brings what is obscure within the 
range of our knowledge, rules all true order of 
the universe, and allows of no error.' Further 
it was held by later Pythagoreans, if not by 
their founder, that since uneven numbers set a 
limit to the division by two, while even do not, 
the uneven are limiters or definers (irepaivoVTts) ; 
the even are not. The limiter, which imposes a 
form, is held to be more perfect than that which is 
unlimited, and so without definite form, though 
capable of having form imposed upon it : hence 
uneven numbers were regarded as lucky, and 
what seems in part an arbitrary list of ten oppo- 
sites was drawn up : limited and unlimited ; odd 
and even ; one and many ; right and left ; rest 
and motion ; masculine and feminine ; light 
and darkness ; good and evil ; straight and 
crooked; square and oblong. These antithe- 
tical principles were the elements (aroix^a) 
of the universe (Arist. Met. A. 5, Fth. Nic. i. 
4, ii. 5), wherein these opposites were brought 
together by harmony.— Musical principles like- 
wise played almost as important a part in the 
Pythagorean system as mathematical or nu- 
merical ideas. The story, indeed, that Pytha- 
goras discovered the arithmetical relations of 
the musical scale by observing accidentally the 
various sounds produced by hammers of dif- 
ferent weights striking the same anvil (Diog. 
Laert. viii. 12) might have been discovered to 
be false if the experiment had been verified. 
But there is no need to doubt his researches 
into the musical scale. We find running through 
the entire system the idea that order, or har- 
mony of relation, is the regulating principle of 



PYTHAGOHAS 



PYTHEAS 



781 



the whole universe. The intervals between the 
heavenly bodies were supposed to be determined 
according to the laws and relations of musical 
harmony. Hence arose the celebrated doctrine 
of the harmony of the spheres : for the heavenly 
bodies in their motion could not but occasion a 
certain sound or note, depending on their dis- 
tances and velocities ; and as these were deter- 
mined by the laws of harmonical intervals, the 
notes altogether formed a regular musical scale 
or harmony. This harmony, however, we do 
not hear, either because we have been accus- 
tomed to it from the first, and have never had 
an opportunity of contrasting it with stillness, 
or because the sound is so powerful as to exceed 
our capacities for hearing. — The ethics of the 
Pythagoreans consisted more in ascetic practice 
and maxims for the restraint of the passions, 
especially of anger, and the cultivation of the 
power of endurance, than in scientific theory. 
What of the latter they had was, as might be 
expected, intimately connected with their num- 
ber theory. Happiness consisted in the science 
of the perfection of the virtues of the soul, or in 
the perfect science of numbers. Likeness to 
the Deity was to be the object of all our en- 
deavours, man becoming better as he approaches 
the gods, who are the guardians and guides of 
men. Great importance was attached to the 
influence of music in controlling the force of 
the passions. Self-examination was strongly 
insisted on. A great feature of the religious 
doctrines of Pythagoras was the metempsycho- 
sis, or transmigration of souls from one man, at 
his death, into another man, and into animals, 
and from animals to men. This doctrine Pytha- 
goras adopted from the Orphic mysteries, which 
again were in all probability more or less 
derived from Egypt. The transmigration of 
souls was viewed apparently in the light of a 
process of purification. Souls under the do- 
minion of sensuality either passed into the 
bodies of animals, or, if incurable, were thrust 
down into Tartarus, to meet with expiation or 
condign punishment. The pure were exalted to 
higher modes of life, and at last attained to in- 
corporeal existence. Connected with this doc- 
trine is the story told by Xenophanes, that 
Pythagoras interceded for a dog which was 
being beaten, because, as he said, he recognised 
in its cries the voice of a departed friend 
(Xenoph. Fr. 7); and again, that Pythagoras 
claimed to have been Euphorbus, a hero of the 
Trojan war, whose soul had passed into his body. 
(Porph. Vit. Pyth.26; Diog. Laert.viii. 5 ; Hor. 
Od. i. 28, 10 ; cf. Paus. ii. 17, 8.) Ennius is 
said to have followed the same doctrine, and to 
have believed that the soul of Homer had 
passed to him through various bodies, among 
them that of a peacock, which Persius therefore 
calls ' pavo Pythagoreus ' (vi. 10). The idea 
that Pythagoras believed the soul of one of his 
family to have passed into a bean (Hor. Sat. ii. 
6, G8) is a mere travesty of hisdoctrine, founded 
upon a tradition that Pythagoras forbade his 
disciples to eat beans (Cic. de Div. i. 30, 02 ; 
Lucian, Oneir. 4): and this tradition, moreover, 
appears to be false (Aristox. ap. Gell. iv. 11).— 
As regards the fruits of this system of training 
or belief, it is worthy of remark, that wherever 
we have notices of distinguished Pythagoreans, 
we usually hear of them as men of great upright- 
ness, conscientiousness, and self-restraint, und 
as capable of devoted and enduring friendship. 
rSee Akchytas ; Damon and Phintias.] — 2. Of 
Rhegium, one of the most celebrated sculptors 
of Greece, probably nourished B.C. 480-430. 



| His most important works appear to have been 
his statues of athletes (Paus. vi. 13, 1, vi. 18, 1). 

! Pliny notices in especial a statue at Syracuse of 
a man limping (perhaps Philoctetes) with a sore 
in his foot, the anguish of which was felt by 
those who looked at the statue (Plin. xxxiv. 59). 

Pytheas (nv64as). 1. An Athenian orator, 
distinguished by his unceasing animosity against 
Demosthenes. He had no political principles, 
made no pretensions to honesty, and changed 
sides as often as suited his convenience or his 
interest. Of the part that he took in political 
affairs only two or three facts are recorded. 
He opposed the honours which the Athe- 
nians proposed to confer upon Alexander, but 
he afterwards espoused the interests of the 
Macedonian party. He accused Demosthenes 
of having received bribes from Harpalus. In 
the Lamian war, B.C. 322, he joined Antipater, 
and had thus the satisfaction of surviving his 
great enemy Demosthenes. He is said to have 
been the author of the well-known saying, that 

' the orations of Demosthenes smelt of the lamp. 

; (Ael. V.H. vii. 7 ; Plut. Bern. 8 ; Vit. X. Or. 
p. 846.) — 2. Of Massilia, in Gaul, a celebrated 

| Greek navigator, who sailed to the western and 

I northern parts of Europe, and wrote a work 
containing the results of his discoveries. He 

! was a contemporary of Aristotle, and lived in 

\ the middle of the fourth century B.C., for he is 
quoted by Dicaearchus, a pupil of Aristotle 
(Strab. p. 104). He appears to have undertaken 
two voyages : one in which he visited Britain and 

! Thule, and of which he probably gave an ac- 
count in his work On the Ocean ; and a second, 
undertaken after his return from his first 
voyage, in which he coasted along the whole 
of Europe from Gadira (Cadiz) to the Tanais, 
and the description of which probably formed 
the subject of his Periplus. Pytheas made 
Thule a six days' sail from Britain, and said 
that the day and the night were each six 
months long in Thule (Strab. p. G3 ; Plin. ii. 
187). Hence some modern writers have sup- 
posed that he must have reached Iceland ; 
while others have maintained that he advanced 
as far as the Shetland Islands. But either 
supposition is very improbable, and neither is 

j necessary, for reports of the great length of the 

: day and night in the northern parts of Europe 

[ had already reached the Greeks before the time 
of Pytheas. There has been likewise much dis- 
pute as to what river we are to understand by 
the Tanais. The most probable conjecture 
is that upon reaching the Elbe, Pytheas con- 

j eluded that he had arrived at the Tanais, 
separating Europe from Asia. Pytheas had 
discovered, probably from his voyage along 
the N. German coast, that amber came from 

I the north ; and he seems to have been the first 
person who attempted to fix the latitude of a 
place by the shadow of the sun (Strab. pp. 
71, 115). As regards the truth of his informa- 
tion, he was discredited by Strabo (pp. 08, 102, 
148, 157), but probably with injustice. He 
magnified distances, which, if we accept his 
long voyages as authentic, may well have been 
due to the slow and tentative manner of sail- 
ing in these unknown seas. Neither Strabo nor 
1 Polybius (who also doubts him) had travelled 
as far, and their doubts were therefore in some 
cases due to want of information. — The frag- 
ments of Pythons arc edited by Schmeckel, 
1848. — 3. A silver-chaser, who nourished at 
Rome in the age immediately following that of 
Pompey, and whose productions commanded a 
I remarkably high price (Plin. xxxiii. 156). 



782 



PYTHIAS 



QUADRATUS 



Pythias (Ylvdids). 1. The sister or adopted 
daughter of Hermias, ana the wife of Aristotle. 
— 2. Daughter of Aristotle and Pythias. [Abi- 

STOTELES.] 

Py thrum (TlvBiov). 1. A place in Attica, not 
far from Eleusis (Strab. p. 392).— 2. A town of 
Thessaly in the E. part of the district Hestiae- 
otis, which with Azorus and Doliche formed a 
Tripolis (Liv. xlii. 53 ; Ptol. iii. 13, 42). 

PytMus (Tlvdios). 1. A Lydian,the son of Atys, 
was a man of enormous wealth, which he de- 
rived from his gold mines in the neighbourhood 
of Celaenae in Phrygia. When Xerxes arrived 
at Celaenae, Pythius banqueted him and his 
whole army. His five sons accompanied Xer- 
xes. Pythius, alarmed by an eclipse of the 
sun which happened, came to Xerxes, and 
begged that the eldest might be left behind. 
This request so enraged the king that he had 
the young man immediately killed and cut in 
two, and the two portions of his body placed 
on either side of the road, and then ordered 
the army to march between them. (Hdt. vii. 21, 
38 ; Sen. de Ira, iii. 17.) — 2. One of the archi- 
tects of the Mausoleum of Caria (b.c. 353), and 
the sculptor of the four-horse chariot of which 
fragments are in the British Museum (Plin. 
xxxvi. 31 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Mausoleum). His 
name is also written Pythis, Phiteus,and Phileus. 

Pythoclides (nu0o/cAei8r)s),a musician of the 
time of Pericles, was a native of Ceos, and 
flourished at Athens, under the patronage of 
Pericles, whom he instructed in his art (Plat. 
Protaa. p. 316; Plut. Per. 4, de Mus. 16). 

Pytnodoris (TlvBoScapis), wife of Polemon I. 
king of Pontus. After the death of her hus- 
band she retained possession of the govern- 
ment. She subsequently married Archelaus, 
king of Cappadocia, but after his death 
(a.d. 17) returned to her own kingdom, of which 
she continued to administer the affairs herself 
until her death, which probably did not take 
place until a.d. 38. Of her two sons, the one, 
Zenon, became king of Armenia, while the other, 
Polemon, succeeded her on the throne of Pontus. 
(Strab. pp. 499, 555-560, 649 ; Polemon.) 

Pythodorus (nv965a>pos), an Athenian admi- 
ral in the Peloponnesian war. He was unsuc- 
cessful in Sicily b.c. 425 and was banished, but 
held a command again nine years later. (Thuc. 
iii. 115, iv. 2, 65, vi. 105.) 

Python (ttvBcav). 1. The serpent which was 
produced from the mud left on the earth after 
the deluge of Deucalion. He lived in the 
caves of Mt. Parnassus, but was slain by Apollo, 
who founded the Pythian games in commemo- 
ration of his victory, and received in conse- 
quence the surname PytMus. [Apollo, p. 
88, b.] — 2. Of Catana, a dramatic poet of the 
time of Alexander, whom he accompanied into 
Asia, and whose army he entertained with a 
satyric drama when they were celebrating the 
Dionysia on the banks of the Hydaspes. The 
drama was in ridicule of Harpalus and the 
Athenians. (Athen. pp. 586, 595.) 

Pyxites (nujmjs : Vitzeh), a river of Pontus, 
falling into the Euxine near Trapezus (Arrian, 
Peripl. Pont. p. 6; Plin. vi. 12). 

Pyxus. [Buxentum.] 



Q. 

Quadi, a powerful German people of the 
Suevic race, dwelt in the SE. of Germany, 
between Mt. Gabreta, the Hercynian forest, the 
Sarmatian mountains, and the Danube. They 



were bounded on the W. by the Marcomanni, 
with whom they were always closely united, 
on the N. by the Gothini and Osi, on the E. by 
the Iazyges Metanastae, from whom they were 
separated by the river Granuas {Gran), and on 
the S. by the Pannonians, from whom they 
were divided by the Danube. (Tac. Germ. 42, 
Ann. xii. 29; Plin. iv. 81.) They probably 
settled in this district at the same time as the 
Marcomanni made themselves masters of 
Bohemia [Marcomanni], but we have no 
account of the earlier settlements of the Quadi. 
When Maroboduus, and shortly afterwards his 
successor Catualda, had been expelled from 
their dominions and had taken refuge with the 
Bomans in the reign of Tiberius, the Romans 
assigned to the barbarians who had accom- 
panied these monarchs, and who consisted 
chiefly of Marcomanni and Quadi, the country 
between the Marus (March) and Cusus (Guse?i), 
and gave to them, as king, Vannius, who be- 
longed to the Quadi, whence Pliny calls the 
country ' regnum Vannianum ' (Tac. Ann. ii. 
63 ; Plin. I.e.). Vannius was expelled by his 
nephews, Vangio and Sido, but this new king- 
dom of the Quadi continued for a long time 
afterwards under Boman protection (Tac. Ann. 
xii. 29). In the reign of M. Aurelius, however, 
the Quadi joined the Marcomanni and other 
German tribes in the long and bloody war 
against the empire which lasted during the 
greater part of that emperor's reign (Dio Cass, 
lxxi. 8-20). The independence of the Quadi 
and Marcomanni was secured by the peace 
which Commodus made with them in a.d. 180. 
Their name is especially memorable in the 
history of this war by the victory which M. 
Aurelius gained over them in 174, when his 
army was in great danger of being destroyed 
by the barbarians, and was said to have been 
saved by a sudden storm, which was attributed 
to the prayers of his Christian soldiers. [See 
p. 153, b.] The Quadi disappear from his- 
tory towards the end of the fourth century. 
They probably migrated with the Suevi further 
west. 

Quadratae (Chivasso), a military station, 
mentioned in the Itineraries, between Augusta 
Taurinorum (Turin) and Eporedia (Ivrea). 

Quadratus, Asinlus, lived in the times of 
Philippus I. and II., emperors of Borne (a.d. 
244-249), and wrote two historical works in the 
Greek language. (1) A History of Rome, in 
fifteen books, in the Ionic dialect, called XiAi- 
erripls, because it related the history of the city 
from its foundation to the one thousandth year 
after its nativity (a.d. 248), when the Ludi 
Saeculares were performed with extraordinary 
pomp. (2) A History of Parthia. (Suid. s.v 
K6Sparos ; Dio Cass. lxx. 3 ; Zos. v. 27.) 
Quadratus, Fannius. [Fannius, No. 7.] 
Quadratus, L. Ninnius, tribune of the plebs 
b.c. 58, distinguished himself by his opposition 
to the measures of his colleague P. Clodius 
against Cicero, and proposed Cicero's recall 
and the dedication of the property of Clodius 
to Ceres (Dio Cass, xxxviii. 14, 30 ; Cic. pro 
Sest. 31, 68, de Bom. 48, 125). 

Quadratus, Ummidius. 1. Governor of 
Syria during the latter part of the reign of 
Claudius, and the commencement of the reign 
of Nero, from about a.d. 51-60. In 52 he 
marched into Judaea to put down disturbances 
there. (Jos. Ant. xx. 5, 2, B. J. ii. 12, 5 ; Tac. 
Ann. xii. 45, 49, 54.) — 2. A friend and admirer 
of the younger Pliny, whom he took as his 
model in oratory (Plin. Ep. vi. 11, 29, vii. 24). 



QTJADRIFRONS 

Quadrifrons. [Janus.] 

Quadrigarius, Q. Claudius, a Roman annal- 
ist who lived about B.C. 120-70. His work, which 
contained at least twenty-three books, com- 
menced immediately after the destruction of 
Rome by the Gauls, and must in all probability 
have come down to the death of Sulla, since 
the seventh consulship of Marius was com- 
memorated in the nineteenth book. By Livy 
he is uniformly referred to simply as Claudius 
or Clodius. By other authors he is cited as 
Quintius, as Claudius, as Q. Claudius, as 
Claudius Quadrigarius, or as Quadrigarius. 
From the caution evinced by Livy in making 
use of him as an authority, especially in 
matters relating to numbers, it would appear 
that he was disposed to indulge, although in a 
less degree, in those exaggerations which dis- 
figured the productions of his contemporary 
Valerius Antias. By A. Gellius he is quoted 
repeatedly, and praised in the warmest terms. 
(Liv. xxxiii. 10, xxxvi. 19, xxxviii. 23 ; Gell. x. 
13, xiii. 29, xv. 1.) It is possible that he is the 
Clodius mentioned in Cic. Legg. i. 6, 37. 

Quariates, a people in Gallia Narbonensis, 
on the W. slope of the Alpes Cottiae, on the 
left bank of the Durance below Briancon. 
Their name is preserved by the modern Queiras. 
(Plin. iii. 35.) 

Querquetulum (prob. Coreollo), an old town 
of Latium, NE. of Gabii (Plin. iii. 69 ; Dionys. 
v. 61). 

Quies, the personification of tranquillity, 
was worshipped as a divinity by the Romans. 
She had one sanctuary on the Via Labicana 
(probably a pleasant resting-place for the weary 
traveller), and another outside the Porta 
Collina. (Liv. iv. 41 ; cf. Cic. Orat. i. 1.) It is 
probable that this deity is identical with the 
Diva Fessonia, the protectress of the weary (cf. 
August. C. D. iv. 16, 21). 

Quietus, Q. Lusius, an independent Moorish 
chief, served with distinction under Trajan 
both in the Dacian and Parthian wars. Trajan 
made him governor of Judaea, and raised him 
to the consulship in a.d. 116 or 117. After 
Trajan's death he returned to his native 
country, but he was suspected by Hadrian of 
fomenting the disturbances which then pre- 
vailed in Mauretania, and was shortly after- 
wards put to death by order of Hadrian. (Dio 
Cass, lxviii.8, 22, 30, 32, lxix. 2.) 

Quintilius Varus. [Vakus.] 

Quintia for Quinctia; Gens, an ancient 
patrician gens at Rome, was one of the Alban 
houses removed to Rome by Tullus Hostilius, 
and enrolled by him among the patricians. 
Its members often, throughout the whole his- 
tory of the republic, held the highest offices of 
the state. Its three most distinguished families 
bore the name of Capitolinus, Cincinnatus, 
and Flaminius. [For the question of the 
connexion of the Quintian gens with the 
Ltipcrcalia, see Diet, of Ant. s.v.] 

Quintillanus, M. Fabius, the most cele- 
brated of Roman rhetoricians, was born at 
Calagurris (Calahorra), in Spain, a.d. 40 
(Auson. Prof. Burd. i. 7). If not reared at 
Rome, he completed his education there, where 
his father also was a rhetorician (Quint, ix. 3, 
78; Sen. Co ntr. 10, 2). While he was still a 
very young man, he attended the lectures of 
Domitius Afer, who died in 59 (Quint, x. 1, 
86, xii. 11, 3). Having revisited Spain, he 
returned thence (61) in the train of Galba, 
and forthwith began to practise in the law 
courts, where he acquired considerable reputa- 



QUINTILIANUS 



783 



! tion. But he was chiefly distinguished as a 
teacher of eloquence, bearing away the palm in 
this department from all his rivals, and asso- 

i ciating his name, even to a proverb, witli pre- 

j eminence in the art (Plin. Ep. ii. 14, 10; Mart, 
ii. 90, 1). Among his pupils were numbered 
Plinj- the Younger and the two grand-nephews 

| of Domitian. By this prince he was invested 

j with the insignia and title of consul (consula- 
ria ornamenta), and is, moreover, celebrated 
as the first public instructor who, in virtue of 
the endowment by Vespasian, received a regular 
salary from the imperial exchequer. (Suet. 
Vesp. 3, Doth. 15; cf. Juv. vii. 186.) After 

j having devoted twenty years, commencing 
probably with 69, to the duties of his pro- 

j fession, he retired into private life, and 
died probably about the end of the first 

i century. The great work of Quintilian is a 
complete system of rhetoric in twelve books, 
entitled De Institutions Oratoria Libri XII, 
or sometimes, Institutiones Oratoriae, dedi- 
cated to his friend Marcellus Victorius, himself 
a celebrated orator, and a favourite at court. 
It was written during the reign of Domitian, 
while the author was discharging his duties as 
preceptor to the sons of the emperor's niece. 
In a short preface to his bookseller, Trypho, 
he acquaints us that he began this under- 
taking after he had retired from his labours as 
a public instructor (probably in 89), and that 
he finished his task in little more than two 
years. The first book contains a dissertation 
on the preliminary training requisite before a 
youth can enter directly upon the studies neces- 
sary to mould an accomplished orator, and 
presents us with a carefully sketched outline of 
the method to be pursued in educating 
children, from the time they leave the cradle 
until they pass from the hands of the gram- 
marian. In the second book we find an expo- 
sition of the first principles of rhetoric, together 
with an investigation into the nature or 
essence of the art. The five following are 
devoted to invention and arrangement (in- 
rentio, dispositio) ; the eighth, ninth, tenth, 
and eleventh to composition (including the 
proper use of the figures of speech) and 
delivery, comprised under the general term 
etocufio; and the last is occupied with what 
the author considers by far the most important 
portion of his project, an inquiry, namely, 
into various circumstances not included in a 
course of scholastic discipline, but essential to 
the formation of a perfect public speaker : such 
as his manners ; his moral character ; the 
principles by which he must be guided in under- 
taking, in preparing, and in conducting causes ; 
the peculiar style of eloquence which he may 
adopt witli greatest advantage ; the collateral 
studies to be pursued ; the age at which it is 
most suitable to commence pleading; the 
necessity of retiring before the powers begin to 
fail ; and various other kindred topics. This 
production bears throughout the impress of a 
clear, sound judgment, keen discrimination and 
pure taste, improved by extensive reading, deep 
reflection, and long practice. The diction is 
highly polished, and graceful. The sections 
which possess the greatest interest for general 
readers are those chapters in the first book 
which relate to elementary education, and the 
first part of the tenth book, which furnishes 
us with a compressed but valuable history of 
Greek and Roman literature. There are also 
extant 164 declamations under the name of 
Quintliian, nineteen of considerable length ; 



784 



QUINTILLUS 



the remaining 145, which form the concluding 
portion only of a collection which originally 
extended to 388 pieces, are mere skeletons or 
fragments. The nineteen longer declamations 
are unquestionably of a later date ; and it is 
improbable that the few scholars who believe 
the remaining 145 to be by Quintilian are 
right in their opinion. They apparently belong, 
not only to different persons, but to different 
periods, and neither in style nor in substance 
are they valuable. They are edited by Bur- 
maim, 1720. — Editions of Quintilian by Bur- 
mann, 1720 ; C. Halm, 1868 ; Petersen, Oxford, 
1891 : a separate edition of book x. by J. E. B. 
Mayor, 1872 ; Kriiger, 1888. 

Quintillus, M. Aurelius, the brother of the 
emperor M. Aurelius Claudius, was elevated to 
the throne by the troops whom he commanded 
at Aquileia, in a.d. 270. But as the army at 
Sirmium, where Claudius died, had proclaimed 
Aurelian emperor, Quintillus put an end to 
his own life, seeing himself deserted by his own 
soldiers, to whom the rigour of his discipline 
had given offence. (Trebell. Claud. 10-13 ; 
Eutrop. ix. 12 ; Zos. i. 47.) 

T. Quintus Capitolinus Barbatus, a cele- 
brated general in the early history of the 
republic, and equally distinguished in the 
internal history of the °tate. He frequently 
acted as mediator between the patricians and 
plebeians, by both of whom he was held in 
the highest esteem. He was six times consul : 
namely, in B.C. 471, 468, 465, 446, 443, 439. 
(Liv. ii. 56, iii. 2, 66.) Several of his descend- 
ants held the consulship, but none of these 
require mention except T. Quintius Pennus 
Capitolinus Crispinus, who was consul 208, 
and was defeated by Hannibal (Liv. xxv. 18, 
xxvii. 27 ; Pol. x. 32). 

Quintus, an eminent physician at Rome, in 
the first half of the second century after 
Christ. He was so much superior to his 
medical colleagues that they grew jealous of 
his eminence, and formed a sort of coalition 
against him, and forced him to quit the city by 
charging him with killing his patients. He 
died about A.D. 148. 

Quintus Curtius. [Ctjbtius.] 

Quintus Smyrnaeus (K6'ivros 2,fivpua7os), 
commonly called Quintus Calaber, from the 
circumstance that the first copy through which 
his poem became known was found in a con- 
vent at Otranto in Calabria. He was the 
author of an epic poem in fourteen books, 
entitled To. fj.ed' "0/j.^pov (Posthovwica), or 
TIapzAtnrdfieva 'Oytipy. Scarcely anything is 
known of his personal history ; but it appears 
most probable that he lived towards the end of 
the fourth century after Christ. The matters 
treated of in his poem are the events cf the 
Trojan war from the death of Hector to the 
return of the Greeks. The materials for his 
poem he found in the works of the earlier poets 
of the Epic Cycle. In phraseology, similes, and 
other technicalities, Quintus closely copied 
Homer. But not a single poetical idea of his 
own seems ever to have inspired him. His 
gods and heroes are alike devoid of all 
character: everything like pathos or moral 
interest was quite beyond his powers. With 
respect to chronology his poem is as punctual 
as a diary. His style, however, is clear, and 
marked on the whole by purity and good taste, 
without any bombast or exaggeration. There 
can be little doubt that his work is nothing 
more than an amplification or remodelling of 
the poems of Arctinus and Lesches. He appears 



QUIZA 

to have also made diligent use of Apollonius. — 
Edited by A. Kochly, Lips. 1853. 

Quirinalis Mons. [Roma.] 

Quirinus was the name under which the 
Sabine and Latin god Mars was worshipped in 
old times upon the Quirinal by the people who 
were settled there (whether we call them 
Sabines or ' Hill ' Romans) in the same manner 
as Mars was worshipped by the Montani, or 
Romans on the Palatine (Varro, L. L. v. 51 ; 
Dionys. ii. 48). From the idea of his Sabine 
origin he was represented as father of Modius 
Fabidius the traditional founder of Cures, just 
as Mars was the father of Romulus in Roman 
legend (Ov. Fast. ii. 475 ; iv. 56, 808). It is 
likely enough that the name Quirinus was 
originally an adjective in the title Mars Quiri- 
nus, i.e. ' Mars the god of the spear ' (quiris), 
or of ' the assembled citizens,' and that in 
Sabine usage it was taken as the name of the 
god himself. As regards the etymology, it is an 
open question whether that from quiris, or that 
from Curia is correct. It is not likely that the 
old derivation of Quirinus and Quirites from the 
town Cures is correct. After the complete union 
of the two settlements it was natural that both 
worships should be preserved, and in the reli- 
gious system ascribed to Numa, Jupiter, Mars 
and Quirinus were worshipped as great deities, 
j and for Quirinus there were a special priest, 
the Flamen Quirinalis, and a special festival, 
Quirinalia (Liv. i. 20; Ov. Fast. ii. 475, iv. 
910). The attributes and functions of Quirinus 
were the same as those of Mars, for he was the 
god of agriculture as well as of war [see p. 529, 
b.] Hence the Flamen Quirinalis presided also 
at the festivals of Acca Larentia and Robigus. 
With Quirinus was associated Hora or Horta 
Quirini (Non. p. 120 ; Plut. Q. B. 46), who was 
the same as Hersilia (Ov. Met. xiv. 832). This 
association corresponded to the union of Mars 
and Nerio [see p. 530, a]. In course of time, 
since the deities Mars and Quirinus were 
essentially the same, the name Mars was given 
generally to the great deity, and Quirinus 
became the title of Romulus, the founder 
and hero of the united Roman people, repre- 
sented as the son of Mars (Verg. Georg. iii. 
27, Aen. i. 292 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 375 ; Juv. xi. 
105). 

Quirinus, P. Sulpicius, was a native of 
Lanuvium, and of obscure origin, but was raised 
to the highest honours by Augustus. He was 
consul B.C. 12, and subsequently carried on war 
against some of the robber tribes dwelling in 
the mountains of Cilicia. In B.C. 1, Augustus 
appointed him to direct the counsels of his 
grandson, C. Caesar, then in Armenia. (Dio 
Cass. liv. 25 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 30, iii. 22 ; Strab. 
p. 569.) Some years afterwards, but not before 
a.d. 5, he was appointed governor of Syria, and 
while in this office, according to Josephus, he 
took a census of the Jewish people (Jos. Ant. 
xviii. 1, 1 ; see further in Diet, of the Bible). 
Quirinus had been married to Aemilia Lepida, 
whom he divorced; but in a.d. 20, twenty years 
after the divorce, he brought an accusation 
against her (Suet. Tib. 49). The conduct of 
Quirinus met with general disapprobation as 
harsh and revengeful. He died in a.d. 21, and 
was honoured with a public funeral. (Tac. Ann. 
iii. 48.) 

Quiza (Kovi(a : Giza near Oran), a munici- 
pium on the coast of Mam-etania Caesariensis 
in N. Africa, on the river Chydemath, between 
Arsenaria and Portus Magnus (Ptol. iv. 2, 3 ; 
Plin. v. 19). 



RABATHMOBA 



R. 



RAETIA 



785 



Rabathmoba <'Paf}a6fu&f}<x, i.e. Rabbath- 
Moab, O. T., also called Rabbah, and aft. Areo- 
polis : Rabbali), the ancient capital of the 
Moabites, lay in a fertile plain, on the E. side 
of the Dead Sea, and S. of the river Arnon, in 
the district of Moabitis in Arabia Petraea, or, 
according to the later division of the provinces, 
in Palaestina Tertia (Steph. Byz. s.v.). 

Rabbatamana ('PafiaTa.fj.ai'a, i.e. Rabbath- 
Ammon, O. T. : Amman, Ru.), the ancient 
capital of the Ammonites, lay in Peraea on a 
S. tributary of the Jabbok, NE. of the Dead 
Sea [see Diet, of Bible, s.v.]. Ptolemy II. 
Philadelphus gave it the name of Philadelphia ; 
and it long continued a flourishing and splendid 
city (Jos. B. J. i. 6, 3 ; Plin. v. 74 ; Amm. Marc, 
xiv. 8, 8). 

Rabirius. 1. C, an aged senator, was accused 
in B.C. 63, by T. Labienus, tribune of the plebs, 
of having put to death the tribune L. Appu- 
leius Saturninus in 100, nearly forty years 
before. [8ATUBNIHUS.] The accusation was 
set on foot at the instigation of Caesar, who 
judged it necessary to deter the senate from 
resorting to arms against the popular party, by 
some measure which would mark the sove- 
reignty of the people and the sanctity of the 
tribunes. To make the warning still more 
striking, Labienus did not proceed against him 
on the charge of majestas, but revived the old 
accusation of perduellio, which had been dis- 
continued for some centuries. The Duoviri 
Perduellionis appointed to try Rabirius were 
C. Caesar himself and his relative, L. Caesar. 
With such judges the result could not be doubt- 
ful : Rabirius was forthwith condemned ; and 
the sentence of death would have been carried 
into effect had he not availed himself of his 
right of appeal to the people in the comitia of 
the centuries. The case excited the greatest 
interest ; since it was not simply the life or 
death of Rabirius, but the power and authority 
of the senate, which were at stake. Rabirius 
was defended by Cicero ; but the eloquence of 
his advocate was of no avail, and the people 
would have ratified the decision of the duum- 
virs had not the meeting been broken up by 
the praetor, Q. Metellus Celer, who removed 
the military flag which floated on the Janicn- 
lum. (Dio Cass, xxxvii. 26-28; Suet. Jul.Vi ; 
Cic. pro Babir.) This was in accordance with 
an ancient custom, which was intended to pre- 
vent the Campus Martius from being surprised 
by an enemy when the territory of Rome 
scarcely extended beyond the boundaries of the 
city. — i. C. Rabirius Postumus, was the son 
of the sister of the preceding. He was born 
after the death of his father, C. Curius, whence 
his surname, Postumus ; and he was adopted 
by his uncle, whence his name, C. Rabirius. 
He had lent largo sums of money to Ptolemy 
Auletes ; and after the restoration of Ptolemy 
to his kingdom by means of Gabinius, in B.C. 
65, Rabirius repaired to Alexandria, and 
invested by the king with the office of ])ioecetes, 
or chief treasurer. In this office he hud to 
amass money both for himself and for Gabinius; 
but his extortions were so terrible that Ptolemy 
had him apprehended, either to secure him 
against the wrath of the people, or to satisfy 
their indignation, lest they should drive him 
again from his kingdom. Rabirius esciped 
from prison, probably through the connivance 
of the king, and returned to Rome. Here a 



trial awaited him. Gabinius had been sen- 
tenced to pay a heavy fine on account of his 
extortions in Egypt; and as he was unable to 
pay this fine, a suit was instituted against 
Rabirius, who was liable to make up the de- 
ficiency, if it could be proved that he had 
received any of the money of which Gabinius 
had illegally become possessed (Cic. pro Bab. 
Post.). Rabirius was defended by Cicero, and 
was probably condemned and banished. He is 
mentioned at a later time (46) as serving under 
Caesar, who sent him from Africa into Sicily, 
in order to obtain provisions for his army (Bell. 
Afr. 8 ; Suet. Jul. 12). — 3. A Roman epic poet, 
contemporary with Ovid, who is praised by 
Ovid and Paterculus, and considered worth 
reading by Quintilian (Ov. Pont. iv. 16, 5; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 36, 3 ; Quint, x. 1, 90). He wrote 
a poem on the Civil wars. A portion of this 
poem was found at Herculaneum, and was 
edited by Kreyssig, under the title Carminis 
Latini de bello Actiaco s. Alexaiulrino frag- 
menta, 4to, Schneeberg, 1814. It is included 
in Bahrens' Poet. Lat. Min. 1879. — i. Epi- 
curean philosopher. [AMAFrsrus]. 

L Racilius, tribune of the plebs b.c. 56, 
and a warm friend of Cicero and of Lentulus 
Spinth;r. In the Civil war Racilius espoused 
Caesar's party, and was with his army in Spain 
in 48. There he entered into the conspiracy 
formed against the life of Q. Cassius Longinus, 
the governor of that province, and was put to 
death, with the other conspirators. (Cic. ad Q. 
F. ii. 1, ad Fam. i. 7 ; Bell. Alex. 52.) 

Radagaisus, a Scythian, invaded Italy at the 
head of a formidable host of barbarians in the 
reign of the emperor Honorius. He was de- 
feated by Stilicho, near Florence, in a.d. 408, 
and was put to death after the battle, although 
ho had capitulated on condition that his lite 
should be spared. (Zos. v. 26 ; Oros. vii. 37.) 

Raetia. or, less correctly, Rhaetla, a Roman 
province S. of the Danube, was originally dis- 
tinct from Vindelicia, and was bounded on the 
W. by the Helvetii, on the E. by Xoriouf.i, on 
the N. by Vindelicia, and on the S. by Cisalpine 
Gaul, thus corresponding to the Grisons in 
Switzerland, and to the greater part of the 
Tyrol. Raetia, like the adjoining districts, was 
conquered by Drusus and Tiberius, B.C. 15, and 
was at first a distinct province (Sui j t. Aug. 21 ; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 39 ; Liv. Ep. 136). Towards the 
end of the first century, however, Vindelicia 
was added to the province of Raetia, whence 
Tacitus speaks of Augusta Vindelicorum as 
situated in Raetia. At a later time Raetia was 
subdivided into two provinces, Raetia Prima 
and Baetia Secunda, the former of which 
answered to the old province of Raetia, and 
the latter to that of Vindelicia. The boundaries 
between the two provinces are not accurately 
defined, but it may be stated in general that 
they were separated from each other by the 
Brigantinus Lacus Lake of Constance) and 
the river Oenus (Inn). Vindelicia is spoken of 
in a separate article. [Vindelicia.] Raetia 
was a very mountainous country, since the 
main chain of the Alps ran through the greater 
part of the province. These mountains were 
called Alpes Raeticoe or Iloetoe, and extended 
from the St. Gothard to the Orteler by the pass 
of the Stclvio, and in them rose the Oenus (Inn) 
and most of the chief rivers in the N. of Italy, 
such as the Athens (Adi/je) and the Addua 
(Adda). The valleys produced corn andexcellent 
wine, the latter of which was much esteemed it. 
Italy. Augustus drank Radian wiuo 



786 



BAGAE 



EAVENNA 



ence to all others. The original inhabitants of 
the country, the Raeti, are said by most ancient 
writers to have been Tuscans who were driven 
out of the N. of Italy by the invasion of the 
Celts, and who took refuge in this mountainous 
district under a leader called Raetus. (Strab. 
pp. 204, 292, 313; Plin. iii. 133.) [For the 
question of the connexion of Eaetians and 
Etruscans, see p. 328, b.] In the time of the 
Eomans the country was inhabited by various 
Celtic tribes. The Eaeti are first mentioned 
by Polybius (xxxiv. 10). They were a brave 
and warlike people, and caused the Eomans 
much trouble by their marauding incursions 
into Gaul and the N. of Italy. They were not 
subdued by the Romans till the reign of Augus- 
tus, and they offered a brave and desperate 
resistance against both Drusus and Tiberius, 
who finally conquered them, as has been men- 
tioned above (cf. Hor. Od. iv. 14). The Eaeti 
were divided into several tribes, such as the 
Lepontii, Vennones, Tbidentini, &c. The 
only town in Eaetia of any importance was 
Tbidentinum (Trent). 

Ragae or Rhagae ('Payai, 'Pdya, 'Payeid : 
'Payqvds : Eai, Eu. SE. of Tehran), the greatest 
city of Media, lay in the extreme N. of Great 
Media, at the S. foot of the mountains (Cas- 
pius M.) which border the S. shores of the 
Caspian Sea, and on the W. side of the great 
pass through those mountains called the Cas- 
piae Pylae (Arrian, An. iii. 20 ; Strab. pp. 514, 
524). It was therefore the key of Media to- 
wards Parthia and Hyrcania. Having been 
destroyed by an earthquake, it was restored 
by Seleucus Nicator, and named Europus 
(EvpairSs). In the Parthian wars it was again 
destroyed, but it was rebuilt by Arsaces (Strab. 
p. 524), and called Arsacia (Aptraia'a). In the 
middle ages it was still a great city under its 
original name, slightly altered (Eai) ; and it 
was finally destroyed by the Tartars in the 
twelfth century. The surrounding district, 
which was a rugged volcanic region, subject to 
frequent earthquakes, was called 'Payiavij. 

Rambacia ('Pa/x^aKia), the chief city of the 
Oritae, on the coast of Gedrosia, colonised by 
Alexander the Great (Arrian, An. vi. 21). 

Ramitha. [Laodicea, No. 3.] 

Ramses or Ramessu, the name of thirteen 
kings of Egypt of the eighteenth, nineteenth, 
and twentieth dynasties. The second and third 
of these kings were known to the Greeks as 
Sesostbis and Rhampsinitus. 

Raphana or Raphaneae ('Pafiaveai : Ba- 
faniat, Ru.), a city of Syria, in the district of 
Cassiotis, at the N. extremity of Lebanon (Jos. 
B. J. vii. 5, 1). 

Raphia orRaphea ('Pa<p(a, 'Pd&eia: Bepha), 
a seaport town in the extreme SW. of Palestine, 
beyond Gaza, on the edge of the desert. It was 
restored by Gabinius. (Pol. v. 80 ; Strab. p. 
759 ; Jos. Ant. xiii. 13, 3.) 

Rasena. [Eteubia.] 

Ratiaria (Arcer), an important town in 
Moesia Superior on the Danube, the head- 
quarters of a Roman legion, and the station of 
one of the Eoman fleets on the Danube (Ptol. 
iii. 9, 4 ; Procop. Aed. iv. 6). 
Ratomagus. [Eotomagtjs.] 
Raudii Campi. [Campi Eaudii.] 
Eauraci, a people in Gallia Belgica, bounded 
on the S. by the Helvetii, on the W. by the 
Sequani, on the N. by the Tribocci, and on the 
E. by the Ehine. They must have been a 
people of considerable importance, as 23,000 of 
them are said to have emigrated with the Hel- 



vetii in B.C. 58, and they possessed several 
towns, of which the most important were 
Augusta (Augst) and Argentovaria (Sorburg). 
Basilia (Bale) was in their territory (Ptol. ii. 9, 
18 ; Plin. iv. 106). 

Rauranum (Bom or Baum, nr. Chenay), a 
town of the Pictones in Gallia Aquitanica, S. 
of Limonum. 

Ravenna (Ravennas, -atis : Bavenna), an 
important town in Gallia Cisalpina, on the 
river Bedesis and about a mile from the sea, 
though it is now about four miles in the interior 
in consequence of the sea having receded all 
along this coast. Ravenna was situated in the 
midst of marshes, and was only accessible in 
one direction by land, probably by the road 
leading from Ariminum. The town laid claim 
to a high antiquity. It was said to have been 
founded by Thessalians, and afterwards to have 
passed into the hands of the Umbrians (Strab. 
pp. 214, 217), but it long remained an insignifi- 
cant place. It is mentioned as being occupied 
by Metellus, the lieutenant of Sulla, in B.C. 82 
(App. B. C. i. 89) ; and its name occurs fre- 
quently in the civil wars between Antony and 
Octavian (App. B. O. iii. 42, v. 33, 50), It is 
probable that Augustus made Bavenna a colony, 
tut its great importance began when he made 
it one of the two chief stations of the Eoman 
fleet. He not only enlarged the town, but 
caused a large harbour to be constructed on 
the coast, capable of containing 240 triremes, 
and he connected this harbour with the Po by 
means of a canal called Padusa or Augusta 
Fossa (Plin. iii. 119; Jordan. Get. 29). This 
harbour was called Classes, and between it and 
Eavenna a new town sprang up, to which the 
name of Caesarea was given. All three were 
subsequently formed into one town, and were 
surrounded by strong fortifications. Eavenna 
thus suddenly became one of the most important 
places in the N. of Italy. It held the position 
for the Adriatic which Misenum had for the 
other coast of Italy, as a permanent station of 
a fleet (Tac. Ann. iv. 5, Hist. ii. 100 ; Veget. 
B. M. v. 1), and under the later empire was no 
less important as a military fortress. The 
town itself, however, was mean in appearance. 
In consequence of the marshy nature of the 
soil, most of the houses were built of wood, 
and since an arm of the canal was carried 
through some of the principal streets, the 
communication was carried on to a great extent 
by gondolas, as in modern Venice. The town 
also was very deficient in a supply of good 
drinking-water ; but it was not considered un- 
healthy, since the canals drained the marshes 
to a great extent, and the ebb and flow of the 
tide prevented the waters from stagnating. In 
the neighbourhood good wine was made, not- 
withstanding the marshy nature of the soil. 
When the Eoman empire was threatened by 
the barbarians, the emperors of the West took 
up their residence at Eavenna, which, on 
account of its situation and its fortifications, 
was regarded as impregnable. After the down- 
fall of the Western empire, Theodoric also 
made it the capital of his kingdom ; and after 
the overthrow of the Gothic dominion by 
Narses, it became the residence of the Exarchs 
or the Governors of the Byzantine empire in 
Italy, till the Lombards took the town, a.d. 752. 
The modern Bavenna stands on the site of the 
ancient town ; the village Porto di Fuori on 
the site of Caesarea ; and the ancient harbour 
is called Porto Vecchio del Caudiano, but the 
accumulation of alluvial deposit has pushed 



REATE 

the coast further out, and Ravenna now stands 
at a distance of four miles from the sea, from 
which it is separated by a sandy tract covered 
with pine woods. 

Reate (Reatmus : Rieti), an ancient town of 
the Sabines in central Italy, said to have been 
founded by the Aborigines or Pelasgians, was 
situated on the Lacus Velinus and the Via 
Salaria (Dionys. ii. 49). It was the chief place 
of assembly for the Sabines, and was subse- 
quently a praefectura (Cic. Cat. iii. 2, N. D. 
ii. 2). Later it was a municipium. The valley 
in which Reate was situated was so beautiful 
that it received the name of Tempe (Cic. ad 
Att. iv. 15), and in its neighbourhood is the 
celebrated waterfall which is now known under 
the name of the fall of Terni. This waterfall 
owed its origin to a canal constructed by M'. 
Curius Dentatns, in order to carry off the super- 
fluous waters from the lake Velinus into the river 
Nar. It falls into this river from a height of 140 
feet. By this undertaking, the Reatini gained a 
large quantity of land, which was called Rosea 
Rura. (Verg. Aen. vii. 712 ; Serv. ad loc. ; 
Varro, J?. R. i. 7, 10, ii. 1,16; Bid. of Ant. art. 1 
Emissarium.) — Reate was celebrated for its 
mules and asses (Varro, R. R. ii. 1, 8). 

Rebilus, C. Caninlus, was one of Caesar's 
legates in Gaul e.c. 52 and 51 (Caes. B. G. 
vii. 83, 90, viii. 24). He followed Caesar to 
Italy in 49, fought in Africa in that year, and 
again in 46, when he took possession of Thapsus 
(Caes. B. C. i. 26, ii. 24 ; Bell. Afr. 86, 93). On 
the last day of the year 45 he was appointed 
consul to supply the place of Fabius, who had 
died suddenly. The consulship, therefore, of 
Rebilus lasted only one day. (Cic. ad Fam. vii. 
80; Suet. Jul. 76; Dio Cass, xliii. 46; Tac. 
Hist. iii. 37.) 

Recaranus. r Hr.itAt LEs, p. 401, a.] 

Rediculus, a Roman divinity who had a 
temple near the Porta Capena, and who received 
his name from having induced Hannibal, when 
he was near the gates of the city, to return 
(redire) southward. A place on the Appian 
road, near the second milestone from the city, 
was called Campus Rediculi. [Indigetes, p. 
443, a.] j 

Redones. a people in the W. of Gallia Lug- 
dunensis, whose chief town was Condate 
(Rennes) (Caes. B. G. ii. 34, vii. 75). 

Redox. [Fortuna.] 

Regalianus, Regallianus, or Regillianus, a 
Dacian, who served with distinction under the 
emperors Claudius and Valerian. The Moesians, 
terrified by the cruelties inflicted by Gallienus 
on those who had taken part in the rebellion 
of Ingenuus, suddenly proclaimed Regalianus 
emperor, and, with the consent of the soldiers, 
in a new fit of alarm, put him to death, A.D. 
268. Hence he is enumerated among the Thirty 
Tyrants. (Vict. Caes. xxxiii. ; Trebell. Poll. 
Trig. Tyr. ix.l 

RegianaoiRegina(Ft7fa de Reyna), atown 
in Hispania Baetica on the road from Astigi 
(Krijat to Emerita (Ptol. ii. 4, 13 ; Plin. iii. 15). 

Regillnm, a small place in the Sabine terri- 
tory, from which Appius Claudius migrated to 
Rome. Its site is uncertain, as it disappeared 
at an early period. (Liv. ii. 16 ; Dionys. v. 40 ; 
Snet. Tib. 1.) 

Regillus, AemilTus. 1. M., hud been de- 
clared consul, with T. Otacilius, for nx. 21 1, by 
the centuria praerogativa, and would have been 
elected had not Q. Fabius Maximus, who pre- 
sided at the comitia, pointed out that there was 
need of generals of more experience to cope 



REGULTJS 



787 



with Hannibal. Regillus died in 205, at which 
time he is spoken of as Flamen Martialis. (Liv. 
xxiv. 7, xxix. 11.) — 2. 1., son of the preceding, 
was praetor 190, when he received the com- 
mand of the fleet in the war against Antiochus 
(Liv. xxxvii. 14-32 ; App. Syr. 26). 

Regillus Lacus (L. di Cornufelle), a lake 
in Latiuru, memorable for the victory gained on 
its banks by the Romans over the Latins, B.C. 
498 (Liv. ii. 19 ; Dionys. vi. 3). It was E. of 
Rome, in the territory of Tusculum, and be- 
tween Lavicum and Gabii. The lake with 
which it is identified is a volcanic crater, which 
has in modem times been drained. 

Reginum or Castra Regina (Regensburg), a 
Roman fortress in Vindelicia on the Danube, 
and on the road to Vindobona, was the head- 
quarters of a Roman legion. [Vindelicia.] 

Regium Flumen. [Naarmalcha.] 

Regium Lepidi, Regium Lepidum, or simply 
Regium, also Forum Lepidi (Regienses a 
Lepido : Reggio), a town of the Boii in Gallia 
Cisalpina, between Mutina and Tarentum, 
which was probably made a colon}- by the con- 
sul M. Aemilius Lepidus when he constructed 
the Aemilia Via through Cisalpine Gaul, though 
we have no record of the foundation of the 
colony (Strab. p. 216; Plin. iii. 116; Cic. ad 
Fam. xi. 9 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 50). 

Regui, a people on the S. coast of Britain, 
in Sussex, whose chief town bore the same 
name, and probablv is represented by Chi- 
chester (Ptol. ii. 3, 28). 

Regulus, M. Aquilius, was one of the dela- 
tores or informers in the time of Nero, and 
thus rose from poverty to great wealth. Under 
Domitian he resumed his old trade, and became 
one of the instruments of that tyrant's cruelty. 
He survived Domitian, and is frequently spoken 
of by Pliny with the greatest detestation and 
contempt (Bp. i. 5, ii. 10, vi. 2). Martial, on 
the contrary, who flattered all the creatures of 
Domitian, celebrates the virtues, the wisdom, 
and the eloquence of Regulus (Mart. i. 13, 83, 
112). 

Regulus, Atilius. 1. M., consul B.C. 335, 
carried on war against the Siclicini (Liv. viii. 
16). — 2. M., consul 294, carried on war against 
the Samnites (Liv. x. 82). — 3. M., consul 267, 
conquered the Sallentini, took the town of 
Brundusium. and obtained in consequence the 
honour of a triumph (Flor. i. 20). In 256, he 
was consul a second time with L. Manlius Vulso 
Longus. The two consuls defeated the Cartha- 
ginian fleet at Ecnomus, and afterwards landed 
in Africa with a large force. They met with 
great and striking success; and after Manlius 
returned to Rome with half of the army, Regulus 
remained in Africa with the other half, and 
prosecuted the war with the utmost vigour. 
(Pol. i. 29 ; Flor. ii. 2, 10.) The Carthaginian 
generals, Hasdrubal, Bostar, and Hamilcar, 
avoided the plains, where their cavulry and 
elephants would have given them an advantage 
over the Roman army, and withdrew into the 
mountains. There they were attacked by 
Regulus, and defeated with great loss: 15,000 
men are said to have been killed in battle, and 
5000 men, with eighteen elephants, to have been 
taken. The Carthaginian troops retired within 
the walls of the city, and Regulus now overran 
the country without opposition. (Pol. i. 30,31.) 
Numerous towns fell into the power of the 
t Romans, and among others Tunis, at the dis- 
| tance of only twenty miles from the capital 
| The Carthaginians in despair sent a herald to 
Regulus to solicit peace. But the Roman 

8 E 2 



788 



REGULUS 



RESAINA 



general would only grant it on such intolerable 
terms that the Carthaginians resolved to con- 
tinue the war and hold out to the last. (Pol. 
i. 31 ; Zonar. viii. 13 ; Diod. xxiii. 10.) In the 
midst of their distress and alarm, success came 
to them from an unexpected quarter. Among 
the Greek mercenaries who had lately arrived 
at Carthage, was a Lacedaemonian of the name 
of Xanthippus. He pointed out to the Cartha- 
ginians that their defeat was owing to the 
incompetency of their generals, and not to the 
superiority of the Roman arms, and he in- 
spired such confidence in the people that he 
was forthwith placed at the head of their 
troops. Relying on his 4000 cavalry and 100 
elephants, Xanthippus boldly marched into the 
open country to meet the enemy. In the 
battle which ensued, Regulus was totally de- 
feated : scarcely 2000 of his men escaped to 
Clupea, and Regulus himself was taken pri- 
soner, with 500 more (255). (Pol. i. 32-34.) Of 
the further history of Regulus, and his end, 
nothing is related on good authority. Polybius 
says nothing about it, and does not even men- 
tion the embassy to Rome in which later 
writers make him play the principal part. The 
well-known tradition, a favourite theme with 
orators and poets, relates that Regulus re- * 
mained in captivity for the next five years, till 
250, when the Carthaginians, after their defeat 
by the proconsul Metellus, sent an embassy to 
Rome to solicit peace, or at least an exchange 
of prisoners. They allowed Regulus to accom- 
pany the ambassadors on the promise that he 
would return to Carthage if their proposals were 
declined, thinking that he would persuade his 
countrymen to agree to an exchange of pri- 
soners in order to obtain his own liberty. The 
story then sets forth how Regulus at first 
refused to enter the city as a slave of the 
Carthaginians; how afterwards he would not 
give his opinion in the senate, as he had ceased 
by his captivity to be a member of that illus- 
trious body; how, at length, when he was 
allowed by the Romans to speak, he endeavoured 
to dissuade the senate from assenting to a 
peace, or even to an exchange of prisoners, 
and when he saw them wavering, from their 
desire of redeeming him from captivity, how he 
told them that the Carthaginians had given him 
a slow poison, which would soon terminate his 
life ; and how, finally, when the senate through 
his influence refused the offers of the Cartha- 
ginians, he firmly resisted all the persuasions 
of his friends to remain in Rome, and returned 
to Carthage, where he is said to have been put 
to death with the most excruciating tortures. 
It was related that he was placed in a chest 
covered over in the inside with iron nails, and 
thus perished; other writers stated that after 
his eyelids had been cut off, he was first thrown 
into a dark dungeon and then suddenly exposed 
to the full rays of a burning sun. When the . 
news of the barbarous death of Regulus reached 
Rome, the senate is said to have given Hamilcar 
and Bostar, two of the noblest Carthaginian 
prisoners, to the family of Regulus, who re- 
venged themselves by putting them to death 
with cruel torments. (Cic. Of. iii. 26, 99, de 
Win. v. 27, 82, pro Sest. 59, 127 ; Liv. Bp. 18 ; 
Val. Max. i. 1, 14 ; Eutrop. ii. 25 ; Zonar. viii. 
15; Hor. Qd. iii. 5; Sil. It. vi. 346-551.) This 
celebrated tale is not mentioned by any writer 
before the age of Cicero, and the silence of 
Polybius may well be held to condemn it. It 
seems to have been imagined by rhetoricians as a 
stock instance of heroic constancy in misfortune, 



or to have been invented by annalists in order 
to excuse the cruelties perpetrated by the 
family of Regulus on the Carthaginian prisoners 
committed to their custody. Regulus was one 
of the favourite characters of early Roman 
story. Not only was he celebrated on account 
of his heroism in giving the senate advice which 
secured him a martyr's death, but also on 
account of his frugality and simplicity of life. 
Like Pabricius and Curius he lived on his 
hereditary farm, which he cultivated with his 
own hands ; and subsequent ages loved to tell 
how he petitioned the senate for his recall from 
Africa when he was in the full career of victory, 
as his farm was going to ruin in his absence, 
and his family was suffering from want. (Val. 
Max. iv. 4, 6.) — 4. C, surnamed Serranus, 
consul 257, when he defeated the Carthaginian 
fleet off the Liparean islands, and obtained 
possession of the islands of Lipara and Melite 
(Pol. i. 25 ; Zonar. viii, 12). He was consul a 
second time in 250, with L. Manlius Vulso. 
The two consuls undertook the siege of Lily- 
baeum, but they were foiled in their attempts 
to carry the place by storm, and after losing a 
great number of men, were obliged to turn the 
siege into a blockade. (Pol. i. 39-48 ; Zonar. 
viii. 15.) This Regulus is the first Atilius who 
bears the surname Serranus, which afterwards 
became the name of a distinct family in the 
Igens. The origin of this name is spoken of 
under Seebanus. — 5. M., son of No. 3, was 
consul 227, and again 217, in the latter of 
which years he was elected to supply the place 
of C. Plaminius, who had fallen in the battle of 
the Trasimene lake. He was censor in 214. 
(Liv. xxii. 25, 32, 34, 40, xxiii. 21, xxiv. 43 ; Val. 
Max. ii. 9, 8.) Polybius (iii. 116) seems to be 
in error in stating that he fell at Cannae. — 
~B. C, consul 225, conquered the Sardinians, 
who had revolted. On his return to Italy he 
fought against the Gauls, and fell in the battle. 
(Pol. ii. 23-28 ; Eutrop. iii. 5.) 

Regulus Livineius, M. and L., two brothers, 
friends and supporters of Cicero. One of them 
fought under Caesar in Africa. (Cic. ad Fain. 
xiii. 60, ad Att. iii. 17 ; Bell. Afr. 89.) 

Reii Apollinares (Biez), a Roman colony in 
Gallia Narbonensis, with the surname Julia 
Augusta, E. of the Druentia, NE. of Massilia 
and NW. of Forum Julii (Plin. iii. 36). 

Remesiana or Romesiana (Mustapha Pal- 
anlca), a town in Moesia Superior, between 
Naisus and Serdica. 

Remi or Rhemi, one of the most powerful 
people in Gallia Belgica, inhabited the country 
through which the Axona flowed, and were 
bounded on the S. by the Nervii, on the SE. 
by the Veromandui, on the E. by the Sues- 
siones and Bellovaci, and on the W. by the 
Nervii. They formed an alliance with Caesar 
when the rest of the Belgae made war against 
him, b.c. 57. (Caes. B. G. ii. 3, 12, vi. 4 ; Plin. 
iv. 106 ; Lucan, i. 424.) Their chief town 
was Durocortorum, afterwards called Remi 
(Bheims), and sometimes the residence of 
Roman governors (Strab. p. 194 ; Ptol. ii. 9, 
12), 

Remraius Palaemon. [Palaemon.] 
Remus. [Romulus.] 

Resaina, Resaena, Rhesaena, Resina 

('Viffatva, 'Peanva: Bas-el-Ain), a city of 
Mesopotamia, near the sources of the Chaboras, 
on the road from Carrae to Nisibis. After its 
restoration and fortification by Theodosius, 
it was called Theodosiopolis (®eodocrioviroMs). 
(Ptol. v. 18, 13 ; A mm. Marc, xxxii. 5.) 



RESTIO 



RHEA 



789 



Eestio, Antius. L The author of a sump- 
tuary law of uncertain date, but passed after 
the sumptuary law of the consul Aemilius 
Lepidus, B.C. 73, and before that of Caesar 
(Gell. ii. 24 ; Macrob. ii. 13). — 2. Probably a 
son of the preceding, proscribed by the trium- 
virs in 43, but preserved by the fidelity of a 
slave (Val. Max. vi. 8, 7). 

RestitutUS, Claudius, an orator in Trajan's 
reign, a friend of the younger Pliny and of 
Martial (Plin. Ep. hi. 9 ; Mart. x. 87). 

Eeudigni, a people in the N. of Germany 
on the right bank of the Albis, N.of the Lango- 
bardi (Tac. Germ. 40). 

Bex, Marclus. L (J., praetor B.C. 144, built 
the aqueduct called Aqua Marcia, which was 
one of the most important at Eome (Diet, of 
Antiq. art. Aquaeductus). — 2. Q.. consul 118, 
founded in this year the .colony of Xarbo 
Martins in Gaul, and carried on war against the 
Stoeni, a Ligurian people at the foot of the 
Alps (Liv. Ep. 62; Val. Max. v. 10, 3; Gell. 
xiii. 19).— 3. Q., consul 68, and proconsul in 
Cilicia in the following year. On his return to 
Eome in 66 he sued for a triumph, but as 1 
obstacles were thrown in the way by political 
opponents, he remained outside the city to pro- ' 
secute his claims, and was still there when the I 
Catilinarian conspiracy broke out in 63. The j 
senate sent him to Faesulae, to watch the 
movements of C. Mallius or Manlius, Catiline's 
general. (Dio Cass. xxxv. 14-17, xxxvi. 26, 31 : 
Sail. Cat. 32.) 

Eha (Pa : Volga), a great river of Sarmatia, 
first mentioned by Ptolemy, who describes it as 
rising in the N. of Sarmatia, in two branches, 
Eha Occidentalis and Rha Orientalis (the 
Volga and the Kama), after the junction of 
which it flowed SW., forming the boundary 
between Sarmatia Asiatica and Scythia, till 
near the Tanais (Don), where it suddenly 
turns to the SE. and falls into the W. part of 
the Caspian (Ptol. v. 9, vi. 14 ; Amm. Marc, 
xxii. 8, 28). 

Rhadamanthys (PaSdfiavBus), son of Zeus 
and Europa, and brother of king Minos of 
Crete (II. xiv. 322). From fear of his brother 
he fled to Ocalea in Boeotia, and there married 
Alcmene (Paus. viii. 53, 2; Diod. v. 79). In 
the Homeric account he dwelt, with other 
heroes of surpassing merit, in Elysium (Od. iv. 
564 ; Elysium). But in later tradition he is 
represented as one of the judges of the dead, 
either in the Islands of the Blest (Pind. 01. ii. 
76) or in Hades (Plat. Min. p. 320), since he 
had in life been notable for wisdom and justice 
and had won the surname & 5'iKatos (Ibyc. ap. 
Athen. p. 603; Theogn. 701). In Od. vii. 323 
he is brought (? from Elysium) by the Phaea- 
cians to Tityus in Euboea. His nume suggests 
an Egyptian source for his story. 

Ehaetia. [ Raetia.] 

Bhamnus {'Papvovs, - ovvros '■ 'Pa/tvovtrios : 
Obrio Kastro), a demus in Attica, belonging to 
the tribe Aeantis, which derived its name from 
the rhamnus, a kind of prickly shrub. ('Parous 
is an adjective, a contraction of j>anv&ns, 
which comes from frdfwos.) Khamnus was 
situated on a small rocky peninsula on the E. 
coast of Attica, sixty stadia from Marathon 
(Paus. i. 33, 2 ; Plin. iv. 24). It possessed a 
celebrated temple of Nemesis, who is hence 
called bv the Latin poets Hhamnuxia dea or 
virgo (Catull. lxvi. 71 ; Ov. Met. iii. 406, 
Trist. v. 819). In this temple there was a 
colossal statue of the goddess made by Agnra- 
critus, the disciple of Phidias iStrab. p. 396). 



Another account, but less trustworthy, relates 
that the statue was the work of Phidias, and 
was made out of the block of Parian marble 
which the Persians brought with them to serve 
as a trophy for their anticipated victory at 
Marathon (Paus. 1. c.). There are still remains 
of this temple, as well as of a smaller one to 
the same goddess. Below the terrace on which 
the temples stood remains of the city walls can 
be traced. 

Rhampsinitus ('Pa^iyiros), = Ramses III., 
one of the ancient kings of Egypt, succeeded 
by Cheops. This king is said to have possessed 
immense wealth ; and in order to keep it safe 
he had a treasury built of stone, respecting the 
robbery of which Herodotus (ii. 121) relates a 
romantic story, which bears a great resemblance 
to the one told about the treasury built by the 
two brothers Agamedes and Trophonius of 
Orchomenus. [Agamedes.] Rhampsinitus, or 
Ramses III., belongs to the twentieth dynasty 
(about 1200 B.C.). His popular name was 
Ra-messu-pa-neter I Ramses the god), which 
the Greeks corrupted into 'Pafi^iviros. He won 
victories over the Dauau of Asia Minor (whom, 
however, some take to be the Greek Danai), 
the Cypriotes, and the Shardana (whom some 
place in Colchis, others in Sardinia). 

Ehapta (to 'Pan-rd), the southernmost sea- 
port known to the ancients, the capital of the 
district of Barbaria, or Azania, on the E. coast 
of Africa. It stood on a river called Ehaptus 
(Doara), and near a promontory called Rhap- 
tum (Formosa), and the people of the district 
were called 'Pctyioi AlOioires. (Ptol. i. 9, 1; 
Peri/A. Mar. Eryth. p. 10.) 

Rhaucus {'PaiKosi a town in the interior of 
Crete, near Mount Ida, between Gnosus and 
Gortyna (Pol. xxxi. 1, xxxiii. 15 ; Scyl. p. 19). 

Rhea ('Pea,' Epic and Ion. Pe'ia, or 'Per/;, 
'Pc'tj), a nature-goddess of the old Greek reli- 
gion, who gave fruitfulness alike of men and 
beasts and vegetation. Hence in the genealo- 
gies of the poets she is represented as the 
daughter of the Sky and the Earth (Uranus 
and Ge), and the wife of Cronos, by whom she 
became the mother of Hestia, Demeter, Hera, 
Hades, Poseidon and Zeus. Cronos devoured 
all his children by Rhea, but when she was on 
the point of giving birth to Zeus, she went to 
Lyctus in Crete, by the advice of her parents. 
When Zeus was born she gave to Cronos a 
stone wrapped up like an infant, winch the god 
swallowed supposing it to be his cluld. (Hes. 
Th. 138, 453-491 ; cf. Apollod. i. 1, 5 ; Diod. v. 
70.) In Homer also (II. xv. 187), Rhea is 
spoken of as the wife of Cronos and mother of 
Zeus, Poseidon and Hades. As appears from 
this account of Hesiod, the worship of Rhea 
belonged originally to Crete and spread thence 
to other parts of Greece. Rhea was afterwards 
identified by the Greeks in Asia Minor with the 
great Phrygian nature-goddess, known under 
I the name of ' the Great Mother,' and also bear- 
j ing other names such as Cybele, Agdistis and 
Dindymene. Hence her worship became of a 
wild and enthusiastic character, and various 
Eastern rites were added to it, wliich were 
adopted throughout the whole of Greece. 
Under the name of Cybele her worship was 
universal in Phrygia. She was in one aspect 
the goddess of wild, unrestrained nature 
dwelling in the forests and mountains of 
Phrygia, whence the wild beasts of the mountain 
forests, the linns and panthers were represented 
as her attendants, and her name itself was 
connected with mountains (e.g. Dindymene 



790 



RHEA 



RHEGIUM 



from Mount Dindymus). For the same reason 
the Greeks called her Mtjtijp opeia (Eur. Hipp. 
144 ; Ap. Rh. i. 1119) ; and the name ' Idaean 
mother ' (Ap. Bh. i. 1128 ; Verg. Aen. x. 252) 
was perhaps originally in a general sense 
' mother of forests ' (ISai) and thus particularly 
connected with the Mount Ida in Crete and 
the Phrygian Ida. The principal seat of her 
worship was Pessinus, and from Mount Agdus 
(a part of Mount Dindymus) in that district 
she was called Agdistis (Strab. p. 567), but in 
the legend of her love for Attis, which grew out 
of an allegory about the productiveness of 
nature, Agdistis appears as a separate person- 
age [see Attis]. Here she was worshipped 
under the image of a rude block of stone, and 
her attendant priests were the emasculated 
TaAAoi. In Lydia the principal seat of her 
worship was Mount Tmolus, and in Lydian 
legend she was called the nurse or foster- 
mother of Dionysus, because as earth-goddess 
she had to do with the vine as with other trees. 
And, as giver of wealth, she became recognised 
in the great cities which grew up as the 
goddess of settled life also and of towns, 
whence her crown of walled cities (cf. Lucret. 
ii. 625). She was conceived to be accompanied 
by the Curetes, who are connected with the 




Rhea, or Cybelo. (From a Roman lamp.i 



birth and bringing up of Zeus in Crete, and in 
Phrygia by the Corybantes, the Idaean Dactyli, 
Atys, and Agdistis. The Corybantes were her 
enthusiastic priests, who with drums, cymbals, 
horns, and in full armour, performed their orgi- 
astic dances in the forests and on the moun- 
tains of Phrygia. [Corybantes ; Curetes ; 
Dactyli.] This form of worship of Rhea-Cybele, 
borrowed' from Asia, was adopted in Greece, 
where her temple was called ' The Temple of 
the Mother' (ix-qrpwov). She was connected in 
ritual with Dionysus, and with Demeter, her 
daughter, and is even spoken of as Earth herself 
(Soph. Phil. 391). At Athens in especial her 
sanctuary (the Metroon : see p. 143, b), which 
was also the repository of the state archives, 
contained her statue by Phidias (according to 
Plin. xxxvi. 17, by Agoracritus) enthroned, 
with cymbals in her hand and lions at her feet 
(Paus. i. 3, 5 ; Arrian, Peripl. Pont. 9). It is 
probable that this worship at Athens was 
originally of Rhea the earth-goddess, and that 
the wild Asiatic ritual was not introduced till 
later. At Rome the worship of Cybele was 
introduced from Pessinus in the year 204 B.C., 
when by direction of the Sibylline oracle the 
sacred stone was brought from that city to 



Rome as a means of driving Hannibal out of 
the country (Liv. xxix. 14 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 305 ; 
Claudia Quinta). Her temple, dedicated in 
191, was on the Palatine, and her festival, the 
Megalesia, was celebrated in April. It is 
noticeable that, as coming from Phrygia, the 
country of Aeneas, she was regarded as a na- 
tional deity, and so her temple was within the 
pomerium. The fully Asiatic character of her 
rites, with all their extravagance and all their 
allegory, was not introduced till after the end of 
the Republic. [For an account of them see 
Diet, of Ant. art. Megalesia.'] Her priests 
were the Galli, as in Phrygia. — In art Rhea- 
Cybele is represented as crowned either with, 
the modius or with a mural crown [see above]. 
She was seated on a throne with lions by her, 
or drawn by lions in a chariot (cf. Lucret. ii. 
610-643). Her attributes were the cymbals, 
used in her worship, and the pine-tree, connected 
with the story of Attis. 

Rhea Silvia (also called Ilia), according to 
the traditions followed by Roman poets and 
historians, was daughter of Numitor and one 
of the Vestal Virgins. (Ennius and Naevius, 
however, placing her at an earlier date, called 
I her Ilia, and represented her as daughter of 
Aeneas ; in this they probably followed a Greek 
tradition : Serv. ad Aen. i. 273, vi. 778.) By 
Mars she became the mother of Romulus and 
Remus [Romulus], and was thrown either into 
the Anio or the Tiber by orders of Amulius. 
She was saved by the river-god and became his 
wife and a river-goddess (Hor. Od. i. 2, 17; 
Ov. Am. iii. 6, 45 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 273). It is 
suggested with great probability that originally 
Rhea Silvia = the Idaean Rhea (Idaea Mater 
or Cybele), since Silvia and ISaia mean the 
same thing [see preceding article]. In that 
case the myth would describe the founder of 
Rome as born from Mars and a goddess of the 
the earth. It is true that such an interpreta- 
tion assigns a Greek, and therefore compara- 
tively later, origin to the introduction of Rhea 
Silvia into the story ; but there are other signs 
of Greek influence in parts of the story of 
Romulus. Others take Rhea to be a corruption 
of Rea, which they explain as meaning ' dedi- 
cated to the gods,' and Silvia to be a gentile 
name. Others who seek the explanation in a 
sun-myth are probably wide of the mark. 

Rhebas {'P-qfias, 'Prifiaios: Biva),a. river of 
Bithynia, in Asia Minor, falling into the Euxine 
NE. of Chalcedon (Ptol. v. 1, 5; Plin. vi. 4); 
very small and insignificant in itself, but cele- 
brated in the Argonautic legends (Ap. Rh. ii. 
650, 787 ; Orph. Arg. 711). 

RhMones. [Redones.] 

Rhegium {'Piiyiov: Rheginus: Beggio), an 
important city of Magna Graecia on the coast of 
Bruttium in the S. of Italy, was situated on the 
Fretum Siculum, or the Straits which separate 
Italy and Sicily. The ancients derived its name 
from the verb p-fjyvvfii ('break'), because it was 
supposed that Sicily was at this place torn 
asunder from Italy (Strab. p. 257 ; cf . Diod. iv. 
85). Rhegium was founded about the begin- 
ning of the first Messenian war, B.C. 743, by 
Aeolian Chalcidians from Euboea and by Doric 
Messenians who had quitted their native 
country on the commencement of hostilities 
between Sparta and Messenia (Thuc. vi. 5 ; 
Strab. I.e.). At the end of the second Mes- 
senian war, 668, a large body of Messenians, 
under the conduct of the sons of Aristomenes, 
settled at Rhegium, which now became a 
flourishing and important city, and extended 



EHEGIUM 

its authority over several of the neighbouring 
towns. Even before the Persian wars Ehegium 
was sufficiently powerful to send 3000 of its 
citizens to the assistance of the Taren tines, and 
in the time of the elder Dionysius it possessed a 
fleet of eighty ships of war. The government 
was an aristocracy, but in the beginning of the 
fifth century B.C. Anaxilaus, who was of a Mes- 
senian family, made himself tyrant of the place 
(Paus. iv. 23, 6). In 494 this Anaxilaus con- 
quered Zancle in Sicily, the name of which he 
changed into Messana (Diod. xi. 48 ; Arist. Pol. 
v. 12 ; Thuc. I.e.). He ruled over the two cities, 
and on his death in 476 he bequeathed his 
power to his sons. About ten years afterwards 
(466) his sons were driven out of Rhegium and 
Messana, and republican governments were 
established in both cities, which now became 
independent of one another (Hdt. vii. 170 ; Diod. 
xi. 76). In 427 when the Athenian fleet came to 
support Leontini, the Rhegians sided with the 
Chaleidian cities of Sicily, and therefore their 
city became the headquarters of the Athenians 
(Thuc. iii. 86, iv. 1, 24). But they maintained 
neutrality during the Athenian expedition of 
415 (Thuc. vi. 44, vii. 1, 58 ; Diod. xiii. 3). At a 
later period Rhegium incurred the deadly 
enmity of the elder Dionysius in consequence 
of a personal insult which the inhabitants had 
offered him. It is said that when he asked the 
Rhegians to give him one of their maidens for 
his wife, they replied that they could only grant 
him the daughter of their public executioner. 
Dionysius carried on war against the city for a 
long time, and after two or three unsuccessful 
attempts he at length took the place, which he 
treated with the greatest severity. (Diod. xiv. 
44, 87, 10-112; Strab. p. 258.) Rhegium never 
recovered its former greatness, though it still 
continued to be a place of considerable import- 
ance. The younger Dionysius gave it the name 
of Phoebia, but this name never came into 
general use, and was speedily forgotten (Strab. 
I.e.). The Rhegians having applied to Rome 
for assistance when Pyrrhus was in the S. of 
Italy, the Romans placed in the town a garrison 
of 4000 soldiers, who had been levied among 
the Latin colonies in Campania. These troops 
seized the town in 279, killed or expelled the 
male inhabitants, and took possession of their 
wives and children. (Pol. i. 7 ; Oros. iv. 3 ; App. 
Sanin. iii. 9.) The Romans were too much 



RHENUS 



791 




Coin of Rhegium. 
Obv., llon'a scalp; rev., PEZ1NOS j seated figure, supposed 
to represent the demos of the city after the expulsion 
of the princes, B.C. 4<il ; laurel wreath surrounding. 



engaged at the time with 
Pyrrhus to take notice of 
when Pyrrhus was driven 
took signal vengeance upon 
and restored the surviving 
city (Pol. i. 6, 7; Liv. xxxi. 
fared greatly from an earthq 
the breaking out of tho So< 
population was augmented 
settled here a number of 



their war against 
this outrage ; but 
out of Italy, they 
these Campanians, 
Rhegians to their 
1). Itlwgium suf- 
uake shortly before 
ial war, 90, but its 
by Augustus, who 
veterans from his 



fleet, whence the town bears in Ptolemy the 
surname Julium (App. B.C. iv. 3, v. 81; Dio 
Cass, xlviii. 18 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 9). It was a 
flourishing city under the later empire and a 
strong fortress (Procop. B. G. i. 8, iii. 18), and 
after the seventh century was chiefly subject to 
the Greek emperors until it fell into the hands of 
Robert Guiscard in 1060. Rhegium was the 
place from which persons usually crossed over 
to Sicily, but the spot at which they embarked 
was called Columna Rhegina ('Pt^ipwj/ <tt7)A.i's : 
Torre di Cavalio), and was 100 stadia N. of the 
town (Plin. iii. 71 ; Strab. I.e.). 

Rhenea ('PVeia, also 'PVje'), 'Pyuria), for- 
merly called Ortygia and Celadussa, an islamd 
in the Aegaean sea and one of the Cyclades, 
W. of Delos, from which it was divided by a 
narrow strait only four stadia in width. When 
Polycrates took the island, he dedicated it to 
Apollo, and united it by a chain to Delos ; and 
Nicias connected the two islands by means of a 
bridge. When the Athenians purified Delos in 
B.C. 426, they removed all the dead from the 
latter island to Rhenea. (Strab. p. 486 ; Delos.) 

Rhenus. 1. (Rhein in German, Rhine in 
English), one of the great rivers in Europe, 
j forming in ancient times the boundary between 
I Gaul and Germany, having its sources partly 
in the St. Gothard, partly in the Adula group 
of the Lepontine Alps [Adula Moss], from 
three principal branches : the Vorder-Rhein, 
which rises in the mountain called Badus 
(a little E. of Andermatt and the St. Go- 
thard) ; the Mittel-Rhein, which rises near 
the Lukmanier Pass ; and the Hinter-Bhein, 
which rises from the glaciers of Piz Valrhein, 
the highest of the Adula group, and joins the 
other two near Beichenau. The Rhine then 
flows first in a westerly direction, passing 
through the Lacus Brigantinus (Lake of Con- 
stance), till it reaches Basilia (Basle), where 
it takes a northerly direction and eventually 
flows into the Ocean by several mouths. The 
ancients spoke of two main arms into which 
the Rhine was divided in entering the territory 
of the Batavi, of which the one on the E. 
continued to bear the name of Rhenus, while 
that on the W., into which the Mosa (Maas or 
Meuse) flowed, was called Vahalis (Waal). 
Hence it was called bicornis (Verg. Aen. viii. 
724 ; cf. Caes. B. G. iv. 17). But some writers 
incorrectly believed that it entered the sea by 
only two mouths I Strab. p. 192). After Drusus, 
in B.C. 12, had connected the Flevo Lacus 
(Z)iyder-Zee) with the Rhine by means of a 
canal (in making which lie probably made use 
of the bed of the Yssel), we find mention of 
three branches of the Rhine. Of these the 
names, as given by Pliny, are, on the W. 
Helium (the Vahalis of other writers), in the 
centre Rlienus, and on the E. Flevuin (Plin. iv. 
101). Pliny seems in this account to reckon 
only two outlets besides the Flevuin, reckon- 
ing tho Mosa as one of them. Tacitus and 
Mela agree with Pliny, but Ptolemy distin- 
guishes the Meuse from the Rhine and reckons 
three outlets for the Rhine proper (Tac. Ann. 
ii. 6, Hist. v. 23; Ptol. ii. 9, 4).— The Rhine is 
described by the ancients as n broad, rapid and 
deep river. It receives many tributaries, of 
which the most important were the Arura (Aar) 
and the Mosella (Moselle), on the left, and tho 
Nicer (Neckar), Moenus (Main) and Luppiu. 
(Lippc) on the right. It passed through 
various tribes, of which the principal on the W. 
were the Nantuates, Helvetii, Sequani, Medio- 
matrici, Tribocci, Treviri, Ubii, Batavi, and 



792 



RHESCUPORIS 



RHODANUS 



Canninefates, and the principal on the E. were 
the Raeti, Vindelici, Mattiaoi, Sigambri, 
Tencteri, Usipetes, Bructeri, and Frisii. The 
length of the Rhine is stated differently by the 
ancient writers. Its whole course amounts to 
about 950 miles. The inundations of the Rhine 
near its mouth are mentioned by the ancients. 
Caesar was the first Roman general who 
crossed the Rhine. He threw a bridge of boats 
across the river, probably in the neighbourhood 
of Cologne. The system of embankments 
against floods in the lower course of the Rhine 
(near Wesel) was begun by the Romans in the 
reign of Nero (Tac. Ann. xiii. 53). — 2. (Reno), a 
tributary of the Padus (Po) in Gallia Cisalpina 
near Bononia, on a small island of which 
Octavian, Antony and Lepidus formed the cele- 
brated triumvirate (Plin. iii. 118 ; Caesab, p. 
182, b). 

Rhescuporis, Rhascuporis, or Rescuporis, 

the names of several kings of Bosporus under 
the Roman empire [see p. 170, a] . 

Rhesus ('Prjaos). 1. A river-god in Bithynia, 
one of the sons of Oceanus and Tethys (II. xii. 
20 ; Hes. Th. 340 ; Strab. p. 590, 602).— 2. Son 
of king Eioneus in Thrace, marched to the 
assistance of the Trojans in their war with the 
Greeks. An oracle had declared that Troy 
would never be taken if the snow-white horses 
of Rhesus should once drink the water of the 
Xanthus and feed upon the grass of the Trojan 
plain. But as soon as Rhesus had reached the 
Trojan territory and had pitched his tents late 
at night, Odysseus and Diomedes penetrated 
into his camp, slew Rhesus himself, and carried 
off his horses. (II. x. 434 ; [Eur.] Rhesus ; 
Verg. Aen. i. 469.) In later writers Rhesus is 
described as a son of Strymon and Euterpe, or 
Calliope, or Terpsichore. 

Khianus ('Ptavos), of Crete, a distinguished 
Alexandrian poet and grammarian, flourished 
b.c. 222. He wrote several epic poems, one of 
which was on the Messenian wars, and was a 
source of information to Pausanias as regards 
that period. He also wrote epigrams, ten of 
which are preserved in the Palatine Anthology, 
and one by Athenaeus. His fragments are 
printed in Gaisford's Poetae Minores Graeci ; 
and separately edited by Nic. Saal, Bonn, 1831. 

Rhidagus, a tributary of the river Zioberis 
in Parthia. 

Rhinocoluraoi'RMnocorurafTa'Pij'o/cdAoupa 
or 'Pwotcdpovpa, and v, 'PivoKoXoipa or 'Pivo- 
Kopovpa: Kasr-el-Arish); the frontier town of 
Egypt and Palestine, lay in the midst of the 
desert, at the mouth of the brook (El-Arish) 
which was the boundary between the countries. 
It was sometimes reckoned to Syria, sometimes 
to Egypt (Strab. pp. 741, 759 ; Pol. v. 80 ; Ptol. 
iv. 5, 12 ; Liv. xlv. 11). Its name, ' The cut-off - 
noses,' was said to be derived from its having 
been the place of exile of criminals who had 
first been so mutilated, under the Ethiopian 
dynasty of kings of Egypt (Strab. p. 759). 

Rhinthon ('Pivdwv),o{ Syracuse or Tarentum, 
said to have been the son of a potter, was a 
dramatic poet, of that species of burlesque tra- 
gedy which parodied myths, and was called 
(phvatioyptMpia or tXapoTpaycpSla, and flourished 
in the reign of Ptolemy I., king of Egypt. 
Among his followers in this style of composition 
was Sciras or Sclerias of Tarentum (Athen. 
p. 402). When he is placed at the head of the 
composers of this burlesque drama, we are not 
to suppose that he actually invented it, but 
that he was the first to develop in a written 
form, and to introduce into Greek literature, a 



species of dramatic composition which had 
already long existed as a popular amusement 
among the Greeks of southern Italy and Sicily, 
and especially at Tarentum. The species of 
drama which he cultivated may be described as 
an exhibition of the subjects of tragedy in the 
spirit and style of comedy. A poet of this 
description was called <p\va!-. This name, and 
that of the drama itself, (pXvotKoypcup'ia, seem to 
have been the genuine terms used at Tarentum. 
Rhinthon wrote thirty-eight dramas. (Suid. 
s.v.; Cic. ad Att. i. 20; Varro, B. B. iii. 3, 9.) 

Rhipaei Montes (t« 'Piiraia opt), also 'Pnrcu), 
the name of a lofty range of mountains in the 
northern part of the earth, respecting which 
there are diverse statements in the ancient 
writers. The name seems to have been given by 
the Greek poets quite indefinitely to all the moun- 
tains in the northern parts of Europe and Asia. 
(Soph. 0. C. 1247 ; cf. Verg. Georg. i. 240.) In 
Aeschylus the source of the Ister is placed in 
this range. Thus the Rhipaei Montes are 
sometimes called the Hyperborei Montes. 
[Hypebbobei.] The later geographical writers 
place the Rhipaean mountains NE. of M. 
Alaunus on the frontiers of Asiatic Sarmatia, 
and state that the Tanais rises in these moun- 
tains. According to this account the Rhipaean 
mountains may be regarded as the western 
branch of the Ural Mountains. (Strab. pp. 
295, 299 ; Mel. i. 19, 18 ; Plin. iv. 78.) 

Rhithymna (PiQvp.ua : Betimo), a town on the 
N. coast of Crete, between the promontories 
Drepanum and Dium (Ptol. iii. 17, 7 ; Plin. 
iv. 59). 

Rhium ('Ploy : Castello di Morea), a promon- 
tory in Achaia, opposite the promontory of 
Antirrhium (Castello di Bomelia), on the bor- 
ders of Aetolia and Locris, with which it formed 
the narrow entrance to the Corinthian gulf, 
which straits are now called the Little Dar- 
danelles. It is sometimes called 'Axo&kov 'P'iov, 
to distinguish it from the opposite promontory, 
which was surnamed MoXvupmbv or AItcoXikSi'. 
On the promontory of Rhium there was a 

, temple of Poseidon. (Thuc. ii. 84 ; Strab. p. 

| 355 ; Paus. vii. 22, 10.) 

Rhizon or Rhizinium ('pi(a>v. 'Pi£Wt7)s : 

! Bisano), an ancient town in Dalmatia, situated 
at the upper end of the gulf called after it Rhi- 

j zonaeus Sinus (G. of Cattaro). It was a 
stronghold of Queen Teuta. (Pol. ii. 11 ; 
Strab. p. 316 ; Liv. xlv. 26.) 

Rhizus (Pl^ovs). 1. A seaport of Pontus 
which was strongly fortified by Justinian. It 
was a few miles W. of the river Ascurus (Pro- 
cop. Aed. iii. 4 ; Ptol. v. 6, 6). — 2. A town of 
Magnesia in Thessaly (Strab. p. 436). 

Rhoda or Rhodus ('P6Sn, 'P6$os : Bozas), a 
Greek emporium on the coast of the Indigetae 

'< in Hispania Tarraconensis, founded by the 
Rhodians, and subsequently occupied by the 
inhabitants of Massilia (Strab. p. 654; Liv. 
xxxiv. 8). 

RhManus (Bhone), one of the chief rivers 
of Gaul, rises in a glacier W. of the St. Gothard 
i (included in the range called Adula by the 
ancients), not far from the sources of the Vor- 
der-Bhein, flows first in a westerly direction, 
and after passing through the Lacus Lemanus, 
turns to the S., passes by the towns of Lug- 
dunum, Vienna, Avenio and Arelate, receives 
several tributaries, and finally falls by several 
mouths into the Sinus Gallicus in the Medi- 
terranean. The number of the mouths of the 
Rhone is stated differently by the ancient writers 
(Strab. p. 183) ; which is not surprising, as the 



RHODE 

river has frequently altered its course near the 
sea. Pliny mentions three mouths, of which 
the most important was called Os Massalioti- 
cum, while the two others bore the general 
name of Lib-yea ora, being distinguished from 
each other as the Os Hispaniense and the Os 
Metapinum (Plin. iii. 33). Polybius reckons 
only two, the Massaliotic and the western 
branch (Pol. iii. 41). Besides these mouths 
there was a canal to the E. of the Os Massali- 
oticnm, called Fossae Marianae, which was dug 
by order of Marius during his war with the 
Cimbri, in order to make an easier connexion 
between the Ehone and the Mediterranean, as j 
the mouths of the river were frequently choked 
up with sand (Plut. Mar. 15 ; Strab. p. 183). 
The Ehone is a very rapid river, and its upward 
navigation is therefore difficult, though it is 
navigable for large vessels as high as Lug- 
dunum, and by means of the Arar still further N. 
Ehode. [Bhodos.] 

Ehodia and Bhodiopolis ('Pohia, 'PootowoXis : 
'PoSievs, 'PoSio7toA.i't7JS : Eski-Hissar, Eu.), a 
mountain city of Lycia, near Corydallus, with a 
temple of Asclepius (Ptol. v. 3, 6 ; Steph. Byz. 
s. v.). 

EhodlUS ('Podios '. Kodja-tschai), a small 
river of the Troad, mentioned both by Homer 
and Hesiod. It rose on the lower slopes of -.It. 
Ida, and flowed NW. into the Hellespont, be- 
tween Abydus and Dardanus, after receiving 
the Sellei's from the W. (II. xii. 20, xx. 215; 
Hes. Th. 341 ; Strab. pp. 554, 595 ; Plin. v. 124). 
It is identified by some with the river HvSws, 
which Thucydides mentions, between Cynos- 
sema and Abydas (Thuc. viii. 106). Some 
made it erroneously a tributary of the Aesepus. 
It is mentioned on the coins of Dardanus. 

Ehodope (Poouirq : Despoto-Planina), one of 
the highest ranges of mountains in Thrace, ex- 
tending from Mt. Scomius, E. of the river Nes- 
tus and the boundaries of Macedonia, in a 
south-easterly direction almost down to the 
coast. It is highest in its northern part, and 
is thickly covered with wood. (Hdt. vi. 49; 
Thuc. ii. 96; Strab. pp. 208, 313.; Ehodope, 
like the rest of Thrace, was sacred to Dionysus, 
and is frequently mentioned by the poets in 
connexion with the worship of this god (Hor. 
Od. iii. 25, 12). 

Bhodopis CPoowttis), a Greek courtesan, of 
Thracian origin, was said to have been a fellow- 
slave with the poet Aesop, both of them 
belonging to the Samian Iadmon. She after- 
wards became the property of Xanthes, another 
Samian, who carried her to Naucratis in Egypt, 
in the reign of Amasis, and at this great sea- 
port she carried on the trade of a hetaera for 
the benefit of her master. While thus employed, 
Charaxus, the brother of the poetess Sappho, 
who had come to Naucratis as a merchant, fell 
in love with her, and ransomed her from slavery 
for a large sum of money. She was in conse- 
quence attacked by Sappho in a poem (cf. Ov. 
Her. xv. 68). She continued to live at Nau- 
cratis, and with the tenth part of her gains she 
dedicated at Delphi ten iron spits, which wen: 
Been by Herodotus. She is called Rhodopis by 
Herodotus, but Sappho in her poem spoke of 
her under the name of Doricha. It is therefore 
probable that Doricha was her real name, and 
that she received that of Rhodopis, which sig- 
nifies the ' rosy-cheeked,' on account of her 
beauty. (Hdt. ii. 134, 185; Athen. p. 596; 
Strab. p. 808 ; Suid. s.v.) There was a tale 
current in Greece (which Herodotus rejects) 
that Bhodopis built the third pyramid. This 



EHODUS 



793 



tale confuses her with Nitocris, who lived 
2400 years earlier. Another story (Ael. V.H. 
xiii. 33) tells that Psammitichus III. picked up 
her shoe and was so struck with it that he 
sought out and married the owner. This is 
merely one of the many stories of which Cin- 
derella is another. Psammitichus lived nearly 
a century after Bhodopis. His wife also was 
called Nitocris, and this suggests a confusion 
between the names Doricha and Nitocris as 
the origin of both stories. 

Bhodos fPo'Sos), sometimes called Ehode, 
daughter of Poseidon and Halia, or of Poseidon 
and Aphrodite, or lastly of Oceanus (Diod. v. 
55 ; Pind. 01. vii. 24 ; Telchixes). From her 
the island of Rhodes is said to have derived its 
name, and in this island she bore to Helios 
seven sons (Pind. 01. vii. 72). 

Rhodus (t) 'P68os : 'Po'Sios, Ehodius : Bhodos, 
Rhodes), the easternmost island of the Aegaean 
j or, more specifically, of the Carpathian sea, lies 
off the S. coast of Carta, due S. of the pro- 
montory of Cynossema (C. Aloupo), at the dis- 
tance of about twelve geogr. miles. Its length, 
from NE. to SW. is about forty-five miles ; itB 
greatest breadth about twenty to twenty-five. 
A chain of mountains with lateral spurs forms 
the backbone of the island. The highest point, 
about 4000 feet above the sea, is Mt. Atabyrus, 
on which stood a temple of Zeus Atabyrius 
(Strab. p. 655). In early times it was called 
Aethraea and Ophiussa (Strab. p. 653; Steph. 
Byz. s.v.; Plin. v. 132). The earliest Greek 
records make mention of it. Mythological 
stories ascribed its origin to the power of 
Helios, who, because he had received no por- 
tion of land, raised it from beneath the waves 
(Pind. Ol. vii. 55) ; and its first peopling to 
the Telchines, children of Thalatta (the Sea), 
upon whose destruction by a deluge, the 
Heliadae were planted in the island by Helios, 
where they formed seven tribes, and founded 
a kingdom, which soon became flourishing 
by their skill in astronomy and navigation, 
and other sciences and arts. [Telchines.1 
These traditions appear to signify the early 
peopling of the island by some of the civilised 
races of W. Asia, probably the Phoenicians. 
After other alleged migrations into the island 
we come to its Hellenic colonisation, which is 
ascribed to Tlepolemus, the son of Heracles, 
before the Trojan war, and after that war to 
Althaemenes. [For the legend of Helen's con- 
j nexion with Ehodes, see p. 588, a.] Homer 
mentions the three Dorian settlements in 
Ehodes : namely, Lindus, Ialysus, and Camirus 
(27. ii. 653) ; and these cities, with Cos, Cnidus, 
and Halicarnassus, formed the Dorian Hexa- 
| polis, which was established, from a period of 
unknown antiquity, in the SW. corner of Asia 
Minor, but after the expulsion of Halicarnassus 
became aPentapolis (Hdt. i. 144). Ehodes soon 
grew into a great maritime state, or rather 
confederacy, the island being parcelled out be- 
tween the three cities above mentioned. The 
Rhodians made distant voyages, and founded 
numerous colonies, of which the chief were, 
Rhoda in Iberia ; Gela, in Sicily ; Parthenope, 
Salacia, Siris, and Sybaris, in Italy; scltle- 
ments in the Balearic islands; and, in their 
own neighbourhood, Soli in Cilicia, und Gaga*: 
and Corydalla in Lycia. During this early 
period the government of each of the three 
cities seems to have been monarchical ; but 
about B.C. 660 the whole island seems to have 
been united in an oligarchical republic, the 
chief magistrates of which, called prytaneB, 



794 



BHODUS 



RHOECTJS 



were taken from the family of the Eratidae, who 
had been the royal family of Ialysus. [Di- 
agoras : Dorieus.] Rhodes escaped the Persian 
dominion as long as there was no Persian fleet ; 
but it was reduced by Darius, and Bhodians 
were employed in the fleet of Xerxes (Aesch. 
Pers. 891 ; Diod. xi. 3). Themistocles restored 
its independence (Timocr. Fr. 1). At the begin- 
ning of the Peloponnesian war Rhodes was one 
of those Dorian maritime states which were 
subject to Athens, but in the twentieth year of 
the war, 412, it joined the Spartan alliance, and 
the oligarchical party, which had been depressed 
and their leaders, the Eratidae, expelled, re- 
covered their former power, under Dorieus, but 
remained under the control of Sparta until the 
end of the Peloponnesian war. (Thuc. viii. 41, 
44, 60 ; Xen. Hell, i. 1, 5, ii. 1 ; Diod. xiii. 69.) 
In 408, the new capital, called Rhodus, was 
built, and peopled from the three ancient cities 
of Ialysus, Lindus, and Camirus. It stood on 
the E. side of the long promontory which forms 
the northernmost point of the island. At the 
back of the town rose the acropolis, in front of 
it the greater and lesser harbours protected by 
moles, but the greater harbour was exposed 
to the N. winds. The history of the island 
presents a series of conflicts between the demo- 
cratical and oligarchical parties, and of subjec- 
tion to Athens and Sparta in turn, till the end 
of the Social war, 355, when its independence 
was acknowledged. Then followed a conflict 
with the princes of Caria, during which the 
island was for a time subject to Artemisia, and 
again to her successor, Idrieus. During this 
period there were great internal dissensions, 
which were at length composed by a mixed 
form of government, uniting the elements of 
aristocracy and democracy. At the Macedonian 
conquest, they submitted to Alexander, but 
upon his death they expelled the Macedonian 
garrison (Diod. xviii. 8). In the ensuing wars 
they formed an alliance with Ptolemy, the son 
of Lagus, and their city, Rhodes, successfully 
endured a most famous siege by the forces of 
Demetrius Poliorcetes (Diod. xx. 82-98), who at 
length, when he raised the siege, left behind 
him all his siege train, from the sale of which 
they defrayed the cost of the celebrated Co- 
lossus, which is described under the name of its 
artist, Chares. The state now for a long time 
flourished, with an extensive commerce, and 
with such a maritime power that it compelled 
the Byzantines to remit the toll which they 
levied on ships passing the Bosporus (Pol. iv. 
38). From the time of Alexander it had been 
the chief maritime power in the Aegaean. At 
various times they occupied the islands of 
Nisyros, Andros, Tenos and Naxos (Diod. v. 
54 ; App. B. C. v. 7), and when a small volcanic 
island near Thera was upheaved in 197 B.C., 
they took possession and built there a temple 
to Poseidon Asphaleios, i.e. averter of earth- 
quakes (Strab. p. 57). At length they came 
into connexion with the Bomans, whose alliance 
they joined (Ptol. xxx. 5 ; Liv. xlv. 25), with 
Attalus, king of Pergamus, in the war against 
Philip III. of Macedon. In the ensuing war 
with Antiochus, the Rhodians gave the Romans 
great aid with their fleet ; and in the subse- 
quent partition of the Syrian possessions of 
Asia Minor they were rewarded by the supre- 
macy of S. Caria, where they had had settle- 
ments from an early period. [Pebaea Rhodio- 
RUM.] A temporary interruption of their 
alliance with Rome was caused by their espous- 
ing the cause of Perseus (probably from fear of 



] the growth of the Roman power ; but it was a. 
false move at that time), for which they were 
severely punished by the loss of their territory 
on the mainland, 168 ; but they recovered the 
favour of Rome by the important naval aid they 
rendered in the Mithridatic war. In the Civil 
wars they took part mainly with Caesar, and 
suffered in consequence from Cassius, 42, but 
were afterwards compensated for their losses by 
the favour of Antonius. (App. B. C. iv. 60-74, 
v. 7.) They were deprived of their independence 
by Claudius, but recovered it again under Nero 
(Dio Cass. Ix. 24; Tac. Ann. xii. 58). Under 
Vespasian Rhodes was made part of the pro- 
vince of Asia (Suet. Vesp. 8) ; but a separate 
Province of the Islands (Insularum Provincia, 
iwapx'a vftaaiv) under Diocletian and after- 
wards included Rhodes and fifteen other islands 
(O. I. L. iii. 450, 460). But earlier than this the 
prosperity of Bhodes received its final blow 
from an earthquake, which laid the city in ruins, 
in the reign of Antoninus Pius, a.d. 155. — The 
celebrated mediaeval history of the island, as the 
seat of the Knights of St. John, does not belong- 
to this work. The island is of great beauty 
and fertility, with a delicious climate. It was 
further celebrated as the home of distinguished 
schools of Greek art and of Greek oratory. The 
city of Bhodes was famous for the beauty and 
regularity of its architecture, and the number 
of statues which adorned it ; it was designed by 
Hippodamus of Miletus. Among its treasures 
of sculpture was the chariot and horses in the 
temple of Helios by Lysippus ; among the great 
works of the Bhodian school of sculpture was 
the Laocoon [Agesander]. Tombs on the sites 
of Camirus and Ialysus have yielded an im- 
portant store of antiquities, both terra-cotta 
figures and pottery. Some of the Bhodian ware 




Coin of Rhodes (4th cent. B.C.). 

Obv., head of the sun (Helios) ; rev., rose with bud (for 
name of the island) ; in the field, a sphinx. | 

presents striking points of similarity to that of 
Naucratis. [For a description of Bhodian vase- 
painting see Diet, of Antiq. art. Vas.] — The 
most noticeable feature in the religious wor- 
ship of Rhodes was the position of Helios as- 
the chief god of the island (Pind. 01. vii. 70). 
His image appeared on the Colossus and on the 
coins : he was honoured by an annual sacrifice 
of a team of four horses. Poseidon also was 
particularly honoured, for which two reasons 
might be assigned — the maritime character of 
the people, and the liability of their island to 
earthquakes. [Comp. Ialysus, Lindus, and 
Camirus.] 

Rhoecus ('Voikos). 1. A centaur, who, in 
conjunction with Hylaeus, pursued Atalanta in 
Arcadia, but was killed by her with an arrow. 
The Roman poets called him Rhoetus, and re- 
late that he was wounded at the nuptials of 
Pirithous (Apollod. iii. 9, 2).— 2. Son of Phileas 
or Philaeus, of Samos, an architect and sculptor, 
belonging to the earliest period in the history 
of Greek art, is mentioned as the head of a 
family of Samian artists. He lived about B.C. 
640. He was the first architect of the great 



BHOETEUM 

temple of Hera at Samos, which Theodoras 
completed. In conjunction with Smilis and 
Theodoras, he constructed the labyrinth at 
Lemnos; and he, and the members of his 
family who succeeded him, are said to have 
invented the art of casting statues in bronze. 
(Hdt. iii. 60 ; Paus. viii. 14, 5, x. 88, 3 ; Plin. 
xxxv. 152, xxxvi. 90.) 

Bhoeteum (rb 'PoiTeiov aKpov, t) 'Poireias 
aKT-ri, 'PoiT7)icu oktcu : Virg. Bhoetea litora : C. 
Intepeh or Barbieri), a promontory, or a strip 
of rocky coast breaking into several pro- 
montories, in Mysia, on the Hellespont, near 
Aeantium, with a town of the same name (prob. 
Paleo Castro). (Hdt. vii. 43 ; Strab. p. 595.) 

Ehoetus. 1. A centaur. [Bhof.cus.] — 2. One 
of the giants, who was slain by Dionysus ; he is 
usually called Eurytus (Hor. Od. ii. 19, 23). 

Ehoxolani or Boxolani, a warlike people in 
European Sannatia, on the coast of the Palus 
Maeotis, and between the Borysthenes and 
the Tanais. They frequently attacked and 
plundered the Eoman provinces S. of the 
Danube, and Hadrian was even obliged to pay 
them tribute. They are mentioned as late as 
the eleventh century. They fought with lances 
and with long swords wielded with both hands ; 
and their armies were composed chiefly of 
cavalry. (Strab. pp. 114, 294, 306; Tac. Hist. 

i. 79.) 

Ehudiae. [Budiae.] 

Bhyndacus ('VvvZokos : Actinias), a con- 
siderable river of Asia Minor. Eising in Mount 
Dindymene, in Phrygia Epictetus, it flows 
N. through Phrygia, then turns NW., then 
W. and then N. through the lake Apolloniatis, 
into the Propontis. From the point where it 
left Phrygia it formed the boundary of Mysia 
and Bithynia (Strab. p. 576 ; Mel. i. 19 ; Plin. 
v. 142). It is an error of Pliny to make it the 
same river as the Lycus. Its chief tributary, 
which joins it from the W. below the lake 
Apolloniatis, was called Macestls. On the 
banks of the Ehyndacus, Lucullus gained a 
great victory over Mithridates, B.C. 73 (Plut. 
Luc. ii. ; Pol. v. 17). 

Ehypes ('Puires and other forms : 'Pviraios), 
one of the twelve cities of Achaia, situated 
between Aegium and Patrae (Hdt. i. 145 ; Thuc. 
vii. 34). It was destroyed by Augustus and its 
inhabitants removed to Patrae (Paus. vii. 18, 7 ; 
Strab. p. 387). 

Ehytlum CVvtlov), a town in Crete, men- 
tioned by Homer, in the district of Gortvna ( II. 

ii. 648 ; Plin. iv. 59; Strab. p. 479). 
Eicimer, the Eoman ' King-Maker,' was the 

son of a Suevian chief, and was brought up at 
the court of Valentinian III., in whose reign 
he served with distinction under Aetius. In 
a.d. 456 he commanded the fleet of the em- 
peror Avitus, with which he gained a great 
victory over the Vandals, and in the same 
year he deposed Avitus; but as he was a bar- 
barian by birth, he would not assume the title 
of emperor, but gave it to Majorian, intending 
to keep the real power in his own hands. But 
as Majorian proved more able and energetic 
than Eicimer had expected, he was put to death 
in 461 by order of Eicimer, who now raised 
Libius Severus to the throne. On the death of 
Severus in 465, Eicimer kept the government 
in his own hands for the next eighteen months; 
but in 467 Antliemius was appointed emperor 
of the West by Leo, emperor of the East. 
Eicimer acquiesced in the appointment, and 
received the daughter of Antliemius in mar- 
riage; but in 472 he made war against his 



EOMA 



795" 



| father-in-law, and took Borne by storm. An- 
themius perished in the assault, and Olybrius 
was proclaimed emperor by Eicimer, who died, 
however, only forty days after the sack of 
Borne. (Procop. Vand. i. 7, 57 ; Evagr. ii. 
7-16.) 

Eicina. 1. (Bicinensis), a town in Picenum, 
colonised by the emperor Severus. Its mines 
are on the river Potenza near Macerata ( Plin. 
iii. 111). — 2. One of the Ebudae Insulae, or the 
Hebrides (Ptol. ii. 2, 11). 

Eigodiilum (Beol), a town of the Treviri in 
Gallia Belgica, distant three days' march from 
Mogontiacum (Tac. Hist. iv. 71). 

Eigomagus. 1. (Prob. Trino Yecchio), a 
town in Cisalpine Gaul, on the road from Tici- 
num (Pavia) to Augusta Taurinorum( Turin). — 
[ 2. (Bemagen), a town on the Bhine, between 
1 Bonna (Bonn) and Antunnacum (Andernach). 
Eobigo. [Bobigcs.] 

Eobigus was a divinity worshipped for the 
purpose of averting blight or too great heat 
from the voung cornfields (Varro, L.L. vi. 16, 
; B.B. i. 1, 6 : Gell. v. 12, 14 ; Paul. p. 267 ; Serv. 
1 ad Georg. i. 151). The name was derived from 
robus = rufus (red), referring to the rusty 
! colour of the blighted corn (cf. epvai&r)). Eo- 
bigus and Flora were worshipped together as a 
pair of kindred deities, Flora being possibly 
called also Bobiga. In later writers robigo 
I (blight) vras personified, as if the deity were a 
goddess Eobigo (Tertull. Spectac. 5 ; August, 
i CD. iv. 21). There is a similar personification 
i of robigo in Ovid, but it does not appear that 
\ the deity was worshipped under that feminine 
' name. The festival of the Bobigalia was cele- 
brated on April 25, and was said to have been 
instituted by Numa. It was held in the sacred 
grove of Bobigus on the Via Nomentana, five 
miles from Borne. The offerings made by the 
j Flamen Quirinalis included liver-coloured pup- 
! pies, in allusion to the red dog- star, whose in- 
I fluence blighted the crops. (Ov. Fast. iv. 905; 
Plin. xviii. 285 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Bobigalia.) 

Eoma (Bomanus; Borne) : A. Geographical 
Situation. — Bome stands, roughly speaking, 
about the middle of the Western side of Italy, 
on the left bank of the Tiber, some fourteen 
miles from its mouth, and close to what was in 
j ancient times the boundary between Latium 
and Etruria. The river in this part varies from 
300 to 200 feet in breadth, and from 15 to 20 
feet in depth, and from Bome to its mouth is 
affected both by floods and by silting of earth 
carried down. Hence, although it was suited 
for the commerce of the city in early days, it 
was quite inadequate when Bome was the 
capital of the world, especially as traffic is not 
assisted by any tide. The plain through which 
the Tiber flows, the Roman Campagna, is apt 
to mislead by its title. Broadly speaking, in 
relation to the bounding ranges of the Apen- 
nines and the Alban hills, it is, no doubt, a 
plain ; but to those who are upon it it presents 
a very uneven appearance of eminences and 
ravines. What was in remote ages an alluvial 
flat has been broken up by the volcanic dis- 
| turbunces which have produced hills of tufa or 
of volcanic ash, subsequently sharpened and 
carved out by weather and streams ; and so 
far from the Tiber appeuring to pass through a 
wide champaign country, it flows at a con- 
siderable depth below the plain in its own 
relatively narrow valley. Still more apt to mis- 
lead is the mention of the hills of Bome ; for it 
is difficult for anyone who has not seen the 
| country to realise that, if he were to stand on 



796 



ROMA 



the Campagna, he would be on the same level 
as the Rom an hills, and the city would seem to 
be built on a plain, though, viewed from the 
river, it stands for the most part on several 
eminences rising from 120 to 160 feet above the 
river bank. These eminences, like others in 
the Campagna, are of volcanic formation, but 
they have been carved out by erosion, chiefly 
by the Tiber itself and by water flowing into it. 
Three have thus become isolated hills, and 
these (the Palatine, Aventine, and Capitoline), 
were naturally early occupied as defensible 
positions. The others, though hills when seen 
from the river valley, are really promontories 



bases of the Palatine, Viminai, Quirinal and 
Capitoline, was the site eventually of the Fo- 
rum Romanum ; its lower branch towards the 
Tiber, separating the Palatine from the Capi- 
toline, was the Velabrum (whose name preserved 
the recollection of the marshes) and the Forum 
Boarium ; the indentation between the Esqui- 
line and the Quirinal was the Subura ; the 
valley running E. between the bases of the 
Palatine, Esquiline and Caelian was eventually 
occupied by the Colosseum, and the long low 
valley which separates the Aventine and Pala- 
tine was the site of the Circus Maximus. These 
natural differences of level have been modified 




Plan of the Roman Hills. 

Mons Capitolinus ; B, Mons Palatinus ; C, Mons Aventinus ; B\ Mons Caelius ; E, Blons Esquilinus ; F, Collis 
Viminalis ; G, Collis Quirinalis ; H, Collis Hortorum (or Mons PinciusJ ; I, Mons Janiculus ; a, Velia ; b, Germalus ; 
c, Oppius ; d, Cispius ; ee, Tiberis Fl. ; 1. Prata Quinctia ; 2, Prata Flaminia ; 3, Subura ; 4, Carinae ; 5, Caerolien- 
sis ; 6, Velabrum ; 7, Forum Boarium ; 8, Yallis Murcia. 

at various times and by different causes : the 
hills, at first artificially made more pronounced 
by escarpment for defence, were afterwards made 
lower in appearance by levelling up in road 
making, or, in the middle ages, by the accumu- 
lation of debris : on the other hand, the valley 
between the Quirinal and Viminai was cut 
wider and deeper to receive the Forum Tra- 
janum. Lastly, in the present time the exi- 
gencies of a nineteenth century capital have 
changed the natural features still more, under 
what is called the ' piano regolatore,' and 
threatens to improve away much more of the 
hills of Rome. The river Tiber, besides con- 
tributing to the defence and the commercial 



from the Campagna jutting out into it, and on 
their other side running back at a level into 
the general plain. A reference to the annexed 
plan will show that, further from the river than 
the three isolated hills, come the Caelian (which 
is nearly isolated), the Esquiline (which in- 
cludes two spurs, the Oppian and Cispian), the 
Viminai and Quirinal, and, a little further 
north, the Pincian, which was not included 
within the Servian walls : all these being con- 
nected at the back by the line of table-land. 
The bays or depressions between these belong 
to the floor of the Tiber valley, and were in 
early times covered mainly by marshes and 
pools. The central depression, between the 



ROMA 



prosperity of early Rome, had a great deal to 
do with the shape of the city. It has been 
best described as divided into five reaches : the 
first, or upper reach, about 5 a mile long run- 
ning nearly due S. ; the second making a great 
bend for ^ of a mile to the "W., and thus afford- 
ing space for the Campus Martius (once a wide 
swamp) ; the third turning again at right angles 
and running 1£ mile SE., including in its 
lower part the Island of the Tiber (about 300 
yards x 90) ; the fourth diverted by the Aventine 
for a distance of about J of a mile to the SW. ; 
and the fifth running for a mile nearly due S. 
to the point where the Aurelian wall left the 
river. The principal wharves were placed in 
these two lower reaches. As regards the hills 
on the western side of the river, the long ridge 
of the Janiculum reaches a greater elevation 
(260 feet) than those on the eastern side ; but 
the Vatican is lower. It should be noted that 
the volcanic character of all this district mate- 
rially contributed to the magnificent strength 
of Roman masonry. The tufa of the neighbour- 
hood was largely used from the earliest times 
(as in the walls of Roma Quadrata) ; but greater 
strength was gained by employing the peperino 
from Alba, as in parts of the Servian walls and 
of the Cloaca Maxima, or that from Gabii, as 
in the Tabularium ; but, above all, the abund- 
ance of volcanic dust (' pul vis Puteolanus,' pozzo- 
lana), found all over the Roman district as 
well as at Puteoli, which gave the name, pro- 
vided the elements of strength in the imperish- 
able Roman cement. The lime for this cement 
was derived from the travertine ilapis Tiber- 
tinus) found at Tivoli, and also much used for 
Roman buildings [see Diet, of Ant. art. Murus]. 
— B. Origin of the City. — The traditional ac- 
count, adopted by Livy and more generally 
accepted than any other, was that Rome (i.e. 
the earliest settlement on the Roman hills) was 
a colony from Alba Longa, founded by Romulus 
B.C. 753. [For the legend, see Romulus.] Of 
late years, since the discovery in 1874 of several 
tombs, having some appearance of being Etrus- 
can, on the Esquiline, writers of authority have 
put forward the theory that there was an 
Etruscan settlement on the hills earlier than 
any Latin town. As far as archaeological evi- 
dence goes, this theory cannot be said to be 
substantiated as yet, and the best Roman 
archaeologists reject it altogether. The evi- 
dence of certain traditions and myths, put 
forward in its favour, may be largely dis- 
counted, but, for their bearing on literature, it 
is worth while to mention them. It was said 
(a) that Evander before the Trojan war brought 
a colony of Pelasgians from Arcadia, and built 
a city, Pallantium, under the Palatine (Dionys. 
i. 83; Liv. i. 5; Verg. Aen. ix. 9): ib) that 
Home was founded first by colonists from 
Athens and Sicyon (Fest. p. 266) : ic) that there 
were older settlements made by Romus, son of 
Aeneas (Dionys. i. 72), or that there were a Ro- 
mulus and Romus founders of an earlier city, 
and another pair of the same name who founded 
a later one (Dio (.'ass. iii. 5) : (d) that Saturnus, 
Janus, Picus und Faunus were prehistoric 
kings reigning there [see the articles under 
these names]. All these accounts bear the 
stamp, not of traditions about some fact of 
ancient history, but of stories invented, long 
after the settlement of Rome, to maintain some 
theory, or accoi nt for some name or rite. Thus 
(a) and (6) are evidently due to u desire to find a 
Greek origin, after the relations with Greek 
colonies began, and (a) is also due partly to an 



attempt to explain the name Palatinus and the 
rites of Faunus or Lupercus [see p. 338] ; (c) 
seems to have been invented from a wish to 
carry back the foundation to an earlier date so 
as to reconcile conflicting chronicles [SlLvrus] ; 
(d) belongs to the class of fictions, like those of 
Euhemerus, which transformed the deities wor- 
shipped in the rites of the early inhabitants 
into actual kings who once reigned there. The 
received account of Romulus himself, in its 
simplest form a Latin tradition and probably 
with elements of truth in it, connected him by 
descent with the Trojan Aeneas (not much be- 
fore the time of Naevius), because the Homeric 
story was becoming famous in Italy, and prob- 
ably through the direct influence of the Cu- 
maeans and their stories of their Aeolian mother- 
country [cf. p. 24]. On the other hand, Pro- 
fessor Lanciani, insisting strongly on the trutii 
of the traditional colonisation from Alba, argues 
from the discovery (in 1817 and 1867; of an 
inhabited district near Alba, of the bronze age, 
underneath a stratum of lava, that Rome was 
founded byAlban shepherds migrating because 
their pasture grounds had been overwhelmed 
by volcanic eruptions. It is true that the evi- 
dence of the earliest remains at Rome and also 
of the ' taboo ' of iron in much of their ancient 
ritual [e.g. in that of the Arvales Fratres: Diet, 
of Ant. s. v.] point to the bronze age as the 
period of the original settlement ; but it can 
only be a guess to connect their arrival with 
the volcanic disturbances at Alba. There is no 
reason (though Slommsen on the whole dis- 
credits it) to reject the tradition of the first 
settlers coming from Alba. However that may 
be, all trustworthy evidence supports the theory 
; that they were primarily Latin, and were ori- 
ginally village communities (probably, as was 
said, emigrants from Alba), who had grouped 
themselves round the Roman hills, and built 
the old Rome on the Palatine as their ring wall 
or common fortress [Diet, of Ant. art. Pagus]. 
They were probably an amalgamation of three 
communities represented by the Tities, Ramnes, 
and Luceres (of whom the last two were Latin 
and the first may have been Habellian), who 
chose a common fortress on a Site convenient 
both for defence and for commerce. The 
shepherd origin ascribed in tradition is con- 
firmed by the pastoral rites of the Lupercalia 
and the Parilia. The origin of the name given 
to the city is uncertain : some connect it with 
the name of the Ramnes, others with rumon 
(stream), as ' the city on the river ' [see p. 799, b]. 
The old-fashioned theory of a connexion with 
fxinn (strength) may safely be set aside. — C. De- 
velopment of the City. — The fortified enclosure 
ascribed to Romulus and called Roma Quad- 
rata, was built on the Palatine, which had 
precipitous sides on the N \V. and SW., and was 
at that time further defended in those direc- 
tions by marshes. But it afforded an easier 
ascent on the other sides : this may, as has 
been suggested, have been desirable for the 
shepherds, who in sudden alarms had to drive 
their flocks up to the fortress. The walls, of 
which there are remains ut variouH points on 
the NW. and SW. sides of the hill, are formed 
of tufa blocks (Bee Diet, of Ant. ait. Murus]. 
It was called ' Quadrata ' because the form was 
roughly rectangular, according to the shape 
of a templum, embracing the whole of the 
Palatine. [See Diet, of Ant. art. Pomcrium.) 
The points named (Tac. Ann. xii. 24), viz. 
Ara Herculis, Ara Consi, Curiae Veteres, and 
Sacellum Larum, designate respectively the 



798 



ROMA 



S"W., SE., and NW. corners and the N. side 
of the hill as being within the limits. In 
Roma Quadrata was the Lupercal, regarded 
as the oldest sanctuary in Rome, a cave, 
afterwards built up as a shrine, probably near 
the W. angle of the hill. Its exact site is un- 
known ; for the remains often shown as the 
Lupercal belong to the castellum of an aque- 
duct. Another sacred spot of ancient times 
was the hut of Romulus near the Lupercal. 
The Palatine settlement was enlarged so as 
to include the district called 'the city of seven 
hills ' or Septimontium, the recollection of 
which was preserved in the festival of that 
name [Diet, of Ant. art. Sacra], which was 
held at seven places on the ' Montes ' of Rome. 
It must be noted that these seven ' Montes ' 
were not those which were afterwards known as 
the seven hills of Rome [see above, A.] They 
were (1) the Palatium, (2) the Germalus (SW. 
slope of the Palatine), (3) the Velia (northern 
base of the Palatine), (4) the Oppian, (5) the 
Cispian, (6) the Fagutal (the depression be- 
tween the Oppian and Cispian) and (7) the 
Subura, probably already including the Caelian 
Hill, so that the seven ' Montes ' were made up 
of hills and the adjacent depressions. The 
most probable account of this development is 
that these districts had gradually grown up as 
suburbs with weaker circumvallations of their 
own, and were joined on to, and numbered with, 
the older Palatine ring-wall, and just as the 
Lupercalia preserved the memory of the limits 
of Roma Quadrata by beating the bounds, so 
the limits of the extended settlement were fixed 
by the festival of Septimontium. Some have 
supposed that in this common settlement the 
Tities occupied the fortress in the Subura, the 
Ramnes the Palatine, and the Luceres the 
Esquiline. Meanwhile another town, as yet 
separate, had been built on the Quirinal with 
the Viminal as its suburb. It is probable, 
though this is disputed, that this was a 
Sabine settlement [see Quibintjs]. By the 
union of the people of the seven Montes (hence 
called Montani) with the people of the Quiri- 
nal hill and the Viminal hill (hence called 
Collini), the City of Four Regions was formed 
[see below, under D.] The memory of this 
union was preserved by the twofold arrange- 
ment of many of their sacred rites [see Mabs ; 
Quibinus]. The combined population had as 
Su common fortress and religious centre the 
Capitoline hill, which before this union had 
had a wall of its own, some remains of which, 
resembling the wall of Roma Quadrata, may 
still be seen. The Capitoline was not reckoned 
in any of the four regions, because it was 
regarded as set apart for the gods of the amal- 
gamated settlements and had no dwelling 
houses upon it. The absence of the Aventine 
from the ' city of the Four Regions ' merely 
implies that the houses had not yet spread so 
far. The next stage in the development of 
Rome was the so-called ' Servian ' city, the 
limits of which are clearly defined by the walls 
which enclosed it [see below]. The chief altera- 
tion was that by this time the Aventine was 
partially occupied for habitation and at any 
rate necessary for defensive purposes, and was 
therefore included within the walls, but there 
was also an extension in two other parts, for 
the ground to the E. and NE. of the Quirinal 
and Esquiline was thenceforth part of the city, 
and also the strip along the Tiber W. of the 
Palatine and SW. of the Capitol, which was 
occupied by the Forum Boarium, and included 



the E. end of the Sublician bridge, thus com- 
municating with the outpost on the Janiculum. 
The limits of the Servian walls sufficed for some 
centuries, because there was room for the 
growth of population in the districts which had 
been very sparsely occupied when they were 
first included. By the time of Sulla, however, 
the whole was fully inhabited, and the houses 
extended further and further beyond the walls. 
This at length necessitated an entirely new 
distribution of the city, which Augustus carried 
out in his Fourteen Regions [see below], Rome 
no longer needing fortification, and having 
none until the whole space was enclosed by the 
walls of Aurelian which are described below. 
It is said that the appearance of the interior 
of republican Rome was greatly affected by the 
fact that the city, having been almost entirely 
destroyed by the Gauls in 390 B.C., was rebuilt 
after their departure hastily, without attention 
to regularity and with narrow and crooked 
streets. After the conquest of Carthage, 
' Macedonia and Syria, the city began to be 
adorned with many public buildings and hand- 
some private houses ; and it was still further 
I embellished by Augustus, who introduced 
1 improvements into all parts, and both erected 
| many public buildings himself and induced the 
leading men of the day to follow his example. 
So greatly had the appearance of the city im- 
proved during his long and prosperous reign 
that he used to boast that he found it of brick 
and would leave it of marble. Still the main 
features of the city remained the same ; and 
the narrow streets and mean houses formed a 
striking and disagreeable contrast to the splen- 
did public buildings and magnificent palaces 
which had been recently erected. The great 
fire at Rome in the reign of Nero (a.d. 64) 
destroyed two-thirds of the city. Nero availed 
himself of this opportunity to indulge his 
passion for building, and the city now assumed 
a more regular and stately appearance. The 
new streets were made both wide and straight ; 
the height of the houses was restricted ; and a 
certain part of each was required to be built of 
Gabian or Alban stone, which was proof 
against fire. — D. Divisions of the City. — Men- 
tion has been made of the four Begiones or 
districts of which the city consisted after the 
union of the Palatine city of seven Montes 
(Montani) with the Quirinal settlement 
(Collini). These regions were generally called 
the 1 Servian Regions ' and were ascribed to 
Servius Tullius, but (as has been pointed out) 
they belonged to an earlier period of develop- 
ment than the ' Servian ' city, as defined by the 
walls ascribed to Servius. Their names were : 
(1) Suburana, comprehending the space from 
the Subura to the Caelius, both inclusive ; (2) 
Esquilina, comprehending the Esquiline hill ; 
(3) Collina, extending over the Quirinal and 
Viminal ; (4) Palatina, comprehending the 
Palatine hill. These seem to have been sub- 
divided into twenty- seven Vici, for each of 
which there was an ' Argean chapel.' The 
number of twenty- seven Sacella Argeorum 
seems to arise from assigning nine to each of 
the three tribes (there is no need to alter 
twenty-seven into twenty-four). [For the rites 
of these chapels see Diet. Ant. art. Argei.~\ The 
Aventine and other districts were added in the 
' Servian ' city, and yet more afterwards [see 
above, C], but no other arrangement of Regions 
was made till the time of Augustus. This 
emperor made a fresh division of the city into 
fourteen Regions, which comprised both the 



ROMA 



799 



ancient city of Servius Tullius and all the 
suburbs which had been subsequently added. 
This division was made by Augustus to facili- 
tate the internal government of the city. Each 
region was subdivided into Vici (265 in all), 
and each Vicus had its shrine of Lares Compi- 
tales {Diet, of Ant. art. Vicus]. The names of 
the Regions were : — (1) Porta Capena, at the 
SE. corner of the city by the Porta Capena, 
and extending as far as the subsequent limit 
of the Aurelian walls. It had ten Vici. (2) 
Caelimontana, NE. of the preceding, em- 
bracing M. Caelius, with seven Vici. (3) Isis 
et Serapis, NW. of No. 2, in the valley between 
the Caelius, the Palatine and Esquiline, 
in which the Colosseum was afterwards built. 
It contained eight Vici. (4) Templum Pads, 
NW. of No. 3, embracing the valley between 
the Esquiline, Viminal and Quirinal towards 
the Palatine, including the Via Sacra and the 
buildings on the NE. side of the Forum, 
among them the Te.jple of Peace. It had 
eight Vici. (5) Esquilina cum Colle Viminali, 
NE. of No. 4, comprehending the whole of the 
Esquiline and Viminal, with fifteen Vici. (6) 
Alta Semita, NW. of No. 5, comprising the 
Quirinal, with seventeen Vici. (7) Via Lata, 



(domus). The middle and lower classes lived 
! in blocks (insulae). Each insula contained 
j several apartments or sets of apartments which 
were let to different families, and it was fre- 
quently surrounded with shops. The insulae 
I contained several stories ; and as the value of 
ground increased in Rome, they were frequently 
built of a dangerous height. Hence Augustus 
restricted the height of all new houses to 
seventy feet, and Trajan to sixty feet. (Suet. 
Aug. 30, 89; Dio Cass. lv. 8; Aurel. Vict. Ep. 
13.) No houses of any description were 
allowed to be built close together at Rome, and 
I it was provided by the Twelve Tables that a 
space of at least 2£ feet should be left between 
the houses. From the Notitia Regionum it 
appears that before the end of the fourth century 
a.d. there were 46,602 insulae at Rome and 
1790 domus. As regards the population 
there is very uncertain evidence. From the 
statement of the Monumentum Ancyranum 
that there were 320,000 males of the plebs 
urbana it has been roughly computed that in 
the reign of Augustus the total population, 
free and slave, exceeded one million, and there 
is no improbability in the supposition that the 
population of Rome and the neighbouring Cam- 




ent Rome restored. 



W. of No. 6, between the Quirinal and Campus 
Martius, bounded on the west by the Via Lata 
(the modern Corso), with fifteen Vici. (8) i 
Forum Romanum, S. of No. 7, comprehending ' 
the Capitoline and the valley between it and 
the Palatine, including, therefore, three other 1 
Fora, those of Julius Caesar, Augustus and 
Trajan. It had thirty-four Vici. (9) Circus 
Flaminius, NW. of No. 8, extending as far as 
the Tiber, and comprehending the whole of the 
Campus Martius, with thirty-five Vici. (10) 
Palatium, SE. of No. 8, containing the Palatine, 
with twenty Vici. (11) Circus Maximus, SW. 
of No. 10, comprehending the plain between the 
Palatine, Aventine and Tiber, with the Vela- 
brum and Forum Boarium, having eighteen 
Vici. (12) Piscina Publico., SE. of No. 11, 
between the Caelian and Aventine, and extend- 
ing to the subsequent limits of the Aurelian 
walls. It had fourteen Vici. (13) Aventvnus, 
NW. of No. 12, embracing the Aventine, with 
seventeen Vici. iH) Trans Tiherim, the only 
region on the right bank of the river, contain- 
ing the Insula Tibrrinn, the valley between 
the river and the Janiculum, the Juniculum 
itself and the Vatican. It had seventy-eight 
Vici. As regards the dwelling-houses, the 
richer men had their own separate town houses 



pagnain the later empire amounted to 2,000,000. 
— E. Walls and Gates. I. Wall of Romulus 

[i.e. of Roma Quadrata). — The course of this 
wall and the limits comprised within it have 
been noticed under C. In it there were three 
gates: (1) Porta Mugonia (which was takes 
by some to mean ' cattle-gate,' from mugire : 
Varr. L. L. v. 34), also called Porta vetus 
Palatii, at the slope of the Palatine. Remains 
with probability regarded as belonging to this 
gateway were found ncv.r the point where the 
Summa Via Nova joins an old lava-paved road 
(discovered in 1883; leading from the Summa 
Via Sacra up to the Palatine : i.e. the gate was 
not far from the Arch of Titus, but further up 
the Palatine slope. (2) Porta Jiomanula, at 
the NW. angle of the hill near the temple of 
Victory, where the Clivus Victoriae passes from 
beneath the palace of Caligula, which was built 
over it. The approach to this gate sloped up 
from the Velabrum, and its name has been 
connected with the word rumon stream (by 
those who thence derive the name of Rome), as 
signifying that it was the water-gate, or access 
to the river from the fortress. (3) The position 
of the third gate, which Varro states to have 
been the Porta Jnnualis, is not known. Be- 
sides theBe gates the 'stairs of Cacus' (Scalae 



8C0 



ROMA 



Caci), said to have been derived from a Caeius 
who lived near, are described as coming up 
near the house of Romulus. They have prob- 
ably been rightly identified with a flight of 
steps cut in the tufa rock which ascend from 
the direction of the Circus Maximus (cf. Plut. 
Bom. 20 ; Solin. i. 18).— II. Walls of Servius 
Tullius. — These walls enclosed, as was stated 
above, not merely the seven ' montes ' of the 
Septimontium, but also the other suburbs 
which belonged to the ' Four. Regions,' and 
lastly the more recent additions, among which 
was the Aventine. It thus included all the hills 
afterwards regarded as the ' seven hills ' of Rome 
[see above, pp. 796, 798] ; and later writers, as 
Virgil in Georg. ii. 535, refer to these hills, and 
not to the Septimontium, as giving the city her 
title (cf. Hor. Carm. Sec. 7). The wall was, of 
course, more massive and elaborate where it 
crossed the level ground than where it was 
following the hill. In those parts it consisted 
of a ditch 30 feet deep and 100 feet wide, the 
earth from which formed an agger from 30 to 
50 feet high, kept up by a retaining back wall 
of stone 9 feet thick, and faced with masonry 
on the side towards the ditch. The total 
width of the rampart exceeded 20 feet. [See 
Diet, of Ant. art. Murus.] Starting from the 
southern extremity of this mound at the Porta 
Esquilina, the fortifications of Servius ran 
along the outside edge of the Caelian and 
Aventine hills to the river Tiber by the Porta 
Trigemina. From this point to the Porta Flu- 
mentana near the SW. extremity of the Capi- 
toline hill, there appears to have been no wall, 
but only a stone quay formed of blocks of tufa, 
the river itself being considered a sufficient 
defence. At the Porta Flumentana the fortifi- 
cations again commenced, and ran along the 
outside edge of the Capitoline and Quirinal 
hills till they reached the northern extremity 
of the agger at the Porta Collina, and continued 
along the Campus Viminalis to the Esquiline 
gate. It was in this plain, between the Colline 
and Esquiline gates, that the most massive 
fortification was employed. A great part of 
it has been discovered near the railway station. 
A part of the wall on the Aventine also still 
remains of magnificent construction, 50 feet 
high and 10g feet thick. In many parts, no 
doubt, the Servian walls followed the line of the 
older walls of the suburbs incorporated in the 
city, and replaced them by stronger work. The 
number of the gates in the walls of Servius is 
uncertain, and the position of many of them is 
doubtful. Pliny, indeed, states that their num- 
ber was thirty-seven ; but it is almost certain 
that this number includes many mere openings 
made through the walls to connect different 
parts of the city with the suburbs, since the 
walls of Servius had long since ceased to be 
regarded. The following is a list of the gates 
as far as they can be ascertained : (1) Porta 
Collina, at the N. extremity of the agger, and 
the most northerly of all the gates, stood at 
the point of junction of the Via Salaria and Via 
Nomentana. Its remains have been discovered 
on the site of the modern Ministero delle 
Finanze, a little to the S. of the road leading to 
Porta Pia. This gate was also called Porta 
Quirinalis or Agonalis. It was of great im- 
portance as being in a particularly accessible 
part of the walls. The Gauls approached at 
this point in 3G0, Hannibal in the next century, 
and Sulla when he led his troops back in 88 ; 
and it was the scene of the battle in 82 which 
secured the power of Sulla and ended the last 



struggle of the Samnites. (2) P. Viminalis, S.. 
of No. 1, and in the centre of the agger. The 
roadway through it was discovered in 1872 in 
digging the foundations of the Public Offices. 
(3) P. Esquilina, S. of No. 2, on the site of the 
Arch of Gallienus, which probably replaced it ; 
the Via Praenestina and Labicana began here. 
It was discovered in 1876. (4) P. Querquetu- 
lana, S. of No. 3. (5) P. Caeliomontana., S. of 
No. 4, on the heights of M. Caelius, behind the 
hospital of S. Giovanni in Laterano, at the point 
of junction of the two modern streets which 
bear the name of S. Stefano Rotondo, and the 
SS. Quattro Coronati. (6) P. Capena, one of 
the most celebrated of all the Roman gates,, 
from which issued the Via Appia. It stdod 
SW. of No. 5, and at the SW. foot of the 
Caelian. Its foundations were discovered near 
the church of S. Gregorio, and the remains of 
the Marcian aqueduct which passed over it and 
by its leakage gained for it the epithet ' madida.' 
(Juv. hi. 11 ; Mart. hi. 47, 1). (7, 8, 9) P. La- 
vernalis, P. Bauduscula, and P. Naevia, three 
of the most southerly gates of Rome, lying 
between the Caelian and the Aventine. The 
walls of Servius probably here took a great 
bend to the S., inclosing the heights of S. 
Balbina and S. Saba. (10) P. Trigemina, on 
the NW. of the Aventine, near the Tiber and the 
great salt-magazines. The arch discovered in 
1887 near the church of S. Maria in Cosmedin is 
thought to belong to this gate. (11) P. Flu- 
mentana, N. of the preceding, near the SW. 
slope of the Capitol and close to the Tiber. 
(12) P. Carmentalis, N. of No. 11, and at the 
foot of the SW. slope of the Capitoline, near the 
altar of Carmenta, and leading to the Forum 
Olitorium and the Theatre of Marcellus. This 
gate contained two passages, of which the right- 
hand one was called Porta Scelerata from the 
time that the three hundred Fabii passed 
through it, and was always avoided. (Liv. ii. 
49 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 201.) (13) P. Batumena, N. 
of No. 12, and at the N. slope of the Capitoline, 
just below the Arx, leading to the Campus 
Martius and the Via Flaminia. The remains 
of the gate and part of the wall were found 
under a house in the Via di Marforio. (14) P. 
Fontinalis, N. of No. 13 on the W. slope of the 
Quirinal, also leading to the Campus Martius. 
(15) P. Sanqualis, N. of No. 14, also on the 
W. slope of the same hill, deriving its name 
from the temple of Sancus which stood near it. 
[Sanctis.] (16) P. Salutaris, N. of No. 15, 
on the NW. slope of the same hill, near the 
temple of Salus. (17) P. Triumphalis. The 
position of this gate is quite uncertain, except 
that it led, more or less directly, to the Campus 
Martius. It was probably opened only for tri- 
umphal processions. (Cic. Pis. 23, 55 ; Jos. 
B. J. vii. 5, 4.)— III. Walls of Aurelian. These 
walls are essentially the same as those which 
surround the modern city of Rome, with the 
exception of the part beyond the Tiber. The 
Janiculum and the adjacent suburb was the only 
portion beyond the Tiber which was included 
within the fortifications of Aurelian ; for the 
Vatican was not surrounded with walls till the 
time of Leo IV., in the ninth century. The wall, 
a circuit of twelve miles, is built of concrete faced 
with brick. The lower part is solid ; the upper 
has a passage for soldiers, vaulted overhead, 
and having arches looking into the interior. 
There were 383 towers, at intervals of 45 feet, 
about 70 feet high, the average height of the 
wall being 50 feet. The top of the wall was 
! battlemented, but most of the battlements have 



ROMA 



801 



perished. On the left bank of the Tiber the 
walls of Aurelian embraced on the N. the Colhs 
Hortulorum or Pincianus, on the W. the Cam- 
pus Martius, on the E. the Campus Esquilinus, 
and on the S. the Mons Testaceus. There were 
fifteen gates in the Aurelian walls, most of 
which derived their names from the roads 
issuing from them. These were, on the N. 
side : (1) Porta Cornelia, on the Tiber in front 
of the Pons Aelius. (2) Porta Flaminia, now 
Porta del Popolo. (3) P. Pinciana, on the 
hill of the same name. (4) P. Salaria, extant 
under the same name, but restored in modern 
times. Between this and No. 4 comes the mo- 
dern Porta Pia, called after Pius IV. (5) P. No- 
mentana, leading to the ancient P. Collina. 
On the E. side : very little S. of the Via No- 
mentana was the Praetorian Camp, which, 
when the Aurelian walls were built, was set in 
them, projecting from them on either side : in 
the angle where the wall abutted on the S. side 
of the camp wall there is a blocked gateway 
now called Porta Clausa, whose ancient name 
is unknown. (6) P. Tiburtina, leading to the 
old P. Esquilina, now Porta S. Lorenzo. (7) P. 
Praenestina or Labicana, now Porta Maggiore. 
On the S. side : (8) P. Asinaria, close to the re- 
mains of the Domus Laterana. It has been 
blocked up and the modern Porta S. Giovanni 
a few yards to the E. is used instead. (9) P. 
Metronis, or Metronii, or Metrovia, which has 
now disappeared, probably at the entrance to 
the Caelian, between S. Stefano Rotondo and 
the Villa Mattei. (10) P. Latina, now walled 
up. (11) P. Appia, now Porta S. Sebastiano. 
The roads through this gate and through No. 9, 
both led to the old Porta Capena. (12) P. 
Ostiensis, leading to Ostia, now Porta S. Paolo. 
On the W. side : (13) P. Portuensis, on the other 
side of the Tiber near the river, from which 
issued the road to Portus. (14) P. Aurelia, on 
the W. slope of the Janiculum, now Porta S. 
Pancrazio. (15) P. Septimiana,ne&T the Tiber, 
on the road connecting the Janiculum with 
the Vatican, was destroyed by Alexander VI. 
— F. Bridges. There were eight bridges across 
the Tiber, which probably ran in the following 
order from N. to S. : — (1) Pons Aelius, which 
was built by Hadrian, and led from the city to 
the mausoleum of that emperor, now the bridge 
and castle of St. Angelo (Dio Cass. lxix. 23). 
(2) Pons Neronianus, or Vaticanus, which led 
from the Campus Martius to the Vatican and 
the gardens of Caligula and Nero. The re- 
mains of its piers may still be seen, when the 
waters of the Tiber are low, at the back of the 
Hospital of S. Spirito. (3) Pons Agrippae, at 
a spot about 180 yards above the Ponte Sisto, 
where the foundations of a three-arched bridge 
were found in 1887, with an inscription on a 
cippus near which mentioned the name of the 
bridge. (4) Very little below No. 3, P. Aurelius 
also called Janiculensis, which led to the Jani- 
culum and the Porta Aurelia. It occupied the 
site of the present 'Ponte Sisto,' which was 
built by Sixtus IV. upon the ruins of the old 
bridge. (5, 6) P. Fabricius and P. Cestius, the 
two bridges which connected the Insula Tibe- 
rina with the opposite sides of the river, the 
former with the city, the latter with the jani- 
culum. Both are still remuining. The P. Fa- 
bricius, which was built by one L. Fabricius, 
curator viarum, b. c. 62 (Dio Cass, xxxviii. 45), 
whose name appears in an inscription cut on one 
of the arches, now bears the name of ' Ponte 
Quattro Capi.' The P. Cestius, which was 
probably built by L. Cestius, praefectus urbi in 



B. c. 46, is now called ' Ponte S. Bartolommeo.' 
(7) P. Aemilius or Lapideus, wrongly called 
Palatinus, below the Island of the Tiber, formed 
the communication between the Palatine and 
its neighbourhood and the Janiculum. It was 
the earliest stone bridge, begun by Aemilius 
Lepidus 179 B. c. and completed in 142. (8) P. 
Sublicius, the oldest of the Roman bridges, 
connecting the city with the Janiculum, said to 
have been built by Ancus Marcius, when he 

; erected a fort on that hill (Liv. i. 33). It was 
built of wood, whence its name, which comes 
from sublicae, 'wooden beams.' It was carried 
away several times by the river, but from a 

! feeling of religious respect was always rebuilt 
of wood down to the latest times, though with 
stone piers. Its site is uncertain, but probably 
led out of the Forum Boarium. Some think 
that some foundations near the Marmoratum 
belong to it. Others ascribe those remains to 
a bridge of the emperor Probus. (9) P. Mil- 
vius, or Mulvius, now 'Ponte Molle,' was situ- 
ated outside the city, higher up the river where 
the Via Flaminia crosses, and was built by 
Aemilius Scaurus the censor, B. c. 109. [See 
also Diet, of Ant. art. Po?;s.] — G. Interior of 
the City. I. Fora. The Fora were open 
spaces of ground, paved with stones, surrounded 
by buildings, and used as market places, or for 

I the transaction of public business. At Rome 
the number of fora increased with the growth 
of the city. They were level pieces of ground 

! of an oblong form, and were surrounded by 
buildings, both private and public. They were 
divided into two classes : fora civilia, in which 
justice was administered and public business 
transacted, and fora venalia, in which pro- 
visions and other things were sold, and which 
were distinguished as t\\e Forum Boarium, Oli- 
torium, Suarium, Piscarium, &c. The prin- 
cipal fora at Rome were : 1. Forum Romanum, 
also called simply the Forum, and at a later 
time distinguished by the epithets vetus or 
magnum. It ran lengthwise from the foot of 
the ascent to the Capitol (Clivus Capitolinus) 
near the Arch of Septimius Severus in the 
direction of the Arch of Titus ; but it did not 
extend so far as the latter, and came to an end 
at the ascent to the Velian ridge, where was 
the temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Its 
shape was that of an irregular quadrangle, of 
which the two longer sides were not parallel, 
but were wider near the Capitol than at the 
other end. This represents a space of about 
200 yards by 70 ; but the central area of the 
Forum, kept clear of buildings (though not of 
statues and monuments) between the three 
bounding roads was about 375 feet long, 150 
wide at the NW. end and 110 at the SE., paved 
with slabs of travertine. This was an extent 
undoubtedly small for the greatness of Rome; 
but it must be recollected that the limits of the 
Forum were fixed in the early days of Rome and 
never underwent any alteration, the relief being 
afforded by the transference of public shows to 
other places, and by the erection of basilicas for 
certain business and the building of new fora 
by successive Caesars. The origin of the Forum 
is ascribed to Romulus and Tat ius, who are said 
to have filled up the swamp or marsh which 
occupied its site, and to have set it apart as a 
place for the administration of justice and for 
holding the assemblies of the people. There is 
no doubt that the ground was originally a marsh 
(Ov. Fast. vi. 401), and it was drained by tin- 
Cloaca Maxima. The Forum in its widest sense 
included the Forum properly so culled and the 

8 F 



802 



EOMA 



Coniitium, where the patricians met in their 
comitia euriata : the Forum in its narrower 
sense was originally only a market-place, and 
was not used for any political purpose, but 
gladiatorial shows were given in it from 216 B.C. 
down to the reign of Augustus, and for this 
purpose temporary wooden barriers and seats 
were set up with awnings spread over them 
(Liv. xxiii. 30 ; Suet. Jul. 39, Aug. 43, Tib. 7 ; 
Plin. xv. 78, xix. 23). At a later time the Forum 
in its narrower sense was the place of meeting 
for the plebeians in their comitia tributa. The 
Comitium lay between the Forum and the Curia 
or senate-house, i.e. on the NE. side of the 
Forum and in front of what is now the church 
of S. Adriano, bounded on the E. by the Argi- 
letum and the road leading from the Forum to 
the Subura. Recent excavations seem to show 
that it was a paved area about two feet below 
the level of the Forum, from which it was reached 



the slopes of the Capitoline hill, from which the 
Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Con- 
cord looked down upon the Forum ; in front of 
the Temple of Concord was the Senaculum 
(probably a place of conference for senators 
with officials) ; below this were the Umbilicus 
Komae, of which there are still the remains — a 
cylindrical structure of concrete and brick, with 
I slabs of marble. It marked the central point 
of Eome (and so of the world in Roman esti- 
mation), and opposite it a little to the S. is the 
probable site of the Milliarium Aureum, a 
gilded pillar denoting that the great roads all 
diverged from the Forum (the distances were 
measured from the gates) . Immediately below 
was the Graecostasis, or platform on which 
foreign envoys stood to listen to speeches, and 
adjoining it the Rostra. [Before the time of 
Julius Caesar the Graecostasis adjoined the 
Rostra in its old position in the Comitium.] 




Walker & Boutall sc. 



Plan of the Forum. 



by three steps. The Rostra, or platform from 
which the orators addressed the people, ori- 
ginally stood on the E. side of the Comitium ; 
but in 44 B. c. Julius Caesar transferred the 
Rostra to the W. end of the Forum. [For a de- 
scription, see Diet, of Ant. art. Bostra .] In the 
time of Tarquin the Forum was surrounded by 
a range of shops, probably of a mean character, 
but they gradually underwent a change, and 
were eventually occupied by bankers and money- 
changers. The shops on the N. side underwent 
this change first, whence they were called 
Novae or Argentariae Tabernae ; while the 
shops on the S. side, though they subsequently 
experienced the same change, were distin- 
guished by the name of Veteres Tabernae. 
The buildings edging the Forum in its eventual 
condition were as follows. At the SW. corner 
under the Capitol was the Temple of Saturn ; at 
the NW. corner beyond the Arch of Severus was 
the Tullianum ; between these two points were 



There are remains of the curved platform of 
the Graecostasis behind the Rostra. The area 
of the Forum was bordered on the S. side by 
the Via Sacra, beyond which was the magnificent 
Basilica Julia, and, further E. (across the Vicus 
Tuscus) the Temple of Castor ; on the N. side 
of the Forum, E. of the Comitium and Curia 
stood the great Basilica Aemilia ; at the E. end 
of the Forum were the Temple of Julius and the 
Rostra Julia, to the S. of which have been dis- 
covered the foundations of the Arch of Augustus ; 
E. of these were the house and Temple of Vesta, 
the Regia, and the Temple of Faustina, in a line 
which marked the extreme limits eastward of 
the Forum ; the free space of the Forum ter- 
minated further west, at the Rostra Julia. — 2. 
Forum Julium or Forum Caesaris, was built 
by Julius Caesar, because the old Forum was 
found too small for the transaction of public 
business. It was close by the old Forum, behind 
the church of S. Martina. Caesar built here a 



ROMA 



803 



magnificent temple of Venus Genitrix. Remains 
of five arches, built of tufa blocks with key- 
stones of travertine, have been found, communi- 
cating with vaulted chambers, which are sup- 
posed to have been used as offices. — 3. Forum 
Augusti, built by Augustus, because the two 
existing fora were not found sufficient for the 
great increase of business which had taken 
place. It stood behind the Forum Julium, and 
its entrance at the other end was by an arch, 
now called Arco de' Pantani. Augustus 
adorned it with a temple of Mars Ultor, and 
with the statues of the most distinguished men 



forum lying in the narrow strip between the 
Forum Pacis and the Forum Augusti. It 
was begun by Domitian. who demolished the 
private buildings on this strip, and it. was 
finished by Nerva. It was called Transitorium 
because it served as a passage from the Forum 
Romanum to the Subura and Carinae. It was 
sometimes called Forum Palladium, because a 
temple of Minerva stood in it. There was also 
a sanctuary of Janus Quadrifrons at the inter- 
section of the roads communicating with the 
other fora and with the Subura [see p. 498, a]. 
There are some remains of these temples and 




Relief from the Arch of Aurcllus showing the front of the Capltollnc Temple. 



of the republic. There are magnificent remains 
of the wall which enclosed this forum, «<; feet 
high, built of blocks of peperino in three stages, 
divided by string courses of travertine ; arched 
doorways are traceable. — 4. The Forum Pacis 
of Vespasian lay to the SE. of the Forum of 
Augustus, divided from it by the stri ct lending 
to the Subura. In it was the Temple of Peace 
dedicated by Vespasian after the end of the 
Jewish war and containing spoils from the 
Jewish Temple. Part of the circuit wall of 
this forum remains, opposite the N\V. end 
of the Basilica of Constantine. — 5. Forum 
Nervae or Forum Transitorium, was a small 



of the wall of the forum. — 6. Forum Trajani, 

built by the emperor Trajan, who employed the 
architect Apollodorus for the purpose. It lay 
between the Forum of Augustus and the Campus 
Martius. It was the most splendid of all the 
fora, and considerable remains of it are still 
extant. It consisted of the forum-area sur- 
rounded by a magnificent colonnade ; the Basi- 
lica Ulpia and its two Bibliothecae, between 
which rose the great column 120 feet high and 
the Temple of Trajan. To provide space for 
these buildings the ridge of tufa rock between 
the Capitoline and the Qnirinal was cut away. 
The column remains in situ, and also a greufc 

8 t 2 



804 



ROMA 



curved line of wall, part of the circuit wall, which 
contained three stories of chambers. — 7. The 
Forum Boarium, or cattle market, lay between 
the Velabrum to the E. and the Tiber to the 
W. ; to the N. lay the Capitol. In it were the 
still existing Temple of Fors Fortuna, the Temple 
of Ceres, and the still existing round Temple of 
Hercules, which was at the S. end of the forum, 
next to Circus Maximus. The vegetable market 
(Forum Olitorium) lay outside the wall of Servius, 
between the Forum Boarium and the Campus 
Martius. — II. Capitolium. The Capitoline hill 
had two summits : the SW. peak, on which stood 
the Temple of Jupiter, being called Capitolium ; 
the NE. peak, on which stood the Temple of 
Juno Moneta (and now stands the Ara Coeli), 
being called the Arx. The space between them 
was called the Asylum, because (as the legends 
said) Romulus had there established a refuge 
for fugitives. In reality, before the union of 
the ' Four Regions ' it would seem that the 
Capitoline hill belonged to the settlement in 
the Quirinal, with which it was more nearly 
united by the low intervening ridge. The 
approaches, however, were more difficult in 
ancient times than they became later, and the 
cliffs could originally be ascended only on the 
side of the Forum, either by the Sacred Way 
up to the Asylum, or by the Gradus Monetae 
up to the Arx. The whole hill is said to have 
been once called Mons Saturnius (Varro, L. L. 
v. 41) and also Mons Tarpeius [Taepeia], but 
the name ' Tarpeian Rock ' belonged to that 
part of the cliff which faced the Vicus Jugarius 
and the Forum, and has now been so completely 
transformed as to present no idea of the steep 
cliff from which criminals were thrown. [An 
escarped piece of the rock on the W. side of 
the hill, towards the Tiber, is often, but 
wrongly, shown as the Tarpeian Rock.] The 
primitive wall, of which remains are traceable, 
may belong to a time when the Capitoline was 
an altogether independent fortress occupied by 
a settlement not as yet united either with the 
Quirinal or the Palatine city ; and it appears 
that the Arx had also a separate wall of its 
own. The name Capitolium Vetus was ap- 
plied to the citadel on the Quirinal hill, which, 
before the united city had its common sanc- 
tuary on the Capitoline, possessed a threefold 
temple there to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva 
(Varro, L. L. v. 158). The most ancient sanc- 
tuary, according to tradition, on the Capitol 
was the small temple of Jupiter Feretrius, said 
to have been built by Romulus on the site of a 
sacred oak, which belonged to a still more 
primitive cult (Liv. i. 10). It was rebuilt by 
Augustus. But the worship of the Capitoline 
triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva must have 
belonged also to the earliest settlements on the 
hill, and gave it through all Roman history its 
chief sanctity. In the Temple of Jupiter 
Capitolinus on the Capitolium, the statue of 
Jupiter occupied the centre chamber, but there 
were two smaller ones, that on the right con- 
taining the statue of Minerva, that on the left 
the statue of Juno. This temple was many 
times destroyed and rebuilt. It is said to have 
been first built by the Tarquins (if so, it prob- 
ably took the place of something earlier), and 
dedicated in 509 B.C. It contained a terra- 
cotta statue of Jupiter of Etruscan make, and 
a chariot of the same material stood on the 
pediment (Plin. xxxv. 157). It was burnt down 
in the civil wars, 83, but was rebuilt by Sulla, 
and was dedicated by Q. Catulus, 69. It was 
burnt down a second time by the soldiers of 



Vitellius, a.d. 69, and was rebuilt by Vespa- 
sian ; it was burnt down a third time in the 
reign of Titus, 80, and was again rebuilt by 
Domitian with greater splendour than before. 
The Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was the 
most magnificent at Rome. Its front was 
towards the Forum, above the Tarpeian Rock. 
It stood on a very large elevated platform or 
podium. The columns were Corinthian, of 
Pentelic marble. The gates were of bronze, 
and the ceilings and tiles gilt. The gilding 
alone of the building cost Domitian 12,000 
talents. These gilt-bronze tiles were partly 
removed by Genseric, and the rest were used 
by Pope Honorius in 630 to roof the Basilica 
of St. Peter. In the temple were kept the 
Sibylline books. Here the consuls upon enter- 
ing on their office offered sacrifices and took 
their vows ; and hither the victorious general 
who entered the city in triumph was carried 
in his triumphal car to return thanks to the 
Father of the gods. Remains of the podium 
have been found on this SW. peak, and in 1875 
the drum of a column of Pentelic marble was 
discovered there, and also the remains of a 
small podium which may belong either to the 
small temple of Jupiter Tonans or to that of 
Jupiter Feretrius rebuilt by Augustus. The 
Temple of Juno Moneta, used also as a mint 
[Diet, of Ant. art. Moneta], built by Camillus 
B.C. 344, stood on the Arx (the NE. peak), which 
is now occupied by the church of Ara Coeli. 
In this space between the two peaks, called, 
as has been stated, the Asylum, and on the side 
of it above the Forum, stands the so-called 
Tabularium, a building of which the use and 
history have never been ascertained [see Diet, 
of Ant. s. v.]. — III. Campi, as certain open 
spaces of ground were called : 1. Campus 
Martius, the ' Plain of Mars,' frequently 
called the Campus simply, was, in its widest 
signification, the open plain at Rome outside 
the city- walls, lying between the Tiber and the 
hills Capitolinus, Quirinal, and Pincius ; but it 
was more commonly used to signify the NW. 
portion of the plain lying in the bend of the 
Tiber, which here nearly surrounded it on three 
sides, and stretching along the bank of the 
upper reach of the river as far as was included 
in the Aurelian walls. The S. portion of the 
plain in the neighbourhood of the Circus Flami- 
nius was called Campus Flaminius or Prata 
Flaminia. The Campus Martius is said to have 
belonged originally to the Tarquins, and to have 
become the property of the state and to have 
been consecrated to Mars upon the expulsion of 
the kings. Here the Roman youths were ac- 
customed to perform their gymnastic and war- 
like exercises, and here the comitia of the 
centuries were held (cf. Hor. OA. i. 8, iii. 7, 25, 
iv. 1, 39, Sat. ii. 6, 49, i. 6, 126, Ep. i. 7, 59, i. 11, 
4, A. P. 162 ; Mart. ii. 14, iv. 8)? The Septa or 
inclosure for voting purposes originally con- 
sisted of pens like sheepfolds (Juv. vi. 529), but 
the Septa Julia, begun by Julius Caesar and 
completed by Agrippa (Cic. ad Att. iv. 16, Dio 
Cass. liii. 23) were built of stone and adorned 
with statues. Remains of travertine piers in 
eight rows are visible in Via Lata under the 
church of S. Maria, and the Palazzo Doria. 
At a later time it was surrounded by temples, 
porticoes, theatres and thermae [see under 
these heads]. 2. Campus Sceleratus, close to 
the Porta Collina and within the walls of 
Servius, where the Vestals who had broken 
their vows of chastity were entombed alive. 3. 
Campus Agrippae, probably on the SW. slope 



ROMA 



805 



of the Pinciau hill, E. of the Campus Martins, 
on the right of the Corso, and N. of the Piazza 
degli Apostoli. 4. Campus Esquilinus, out- 
side of the agger of Servius and near the Porta 
Esquilina, where criminals were executed, 
and the lower classes were buried. Recent 
excavations showed the terribly insanitary 
manner in which corpses had been piled up in 
the ditch of the Servian fortification at this 
point till they filled it up. Every kind of 
refuse was also thrown out here, till Maecenas 
covered the whole with a great embankment of 
earth and converted the space into pleasure- 
grounds known as Horti Maecenatis. The 
benefit to the health of the neighbourhood is 
alluded to in the lines of Horace (Sat. i. 8, 
14-16).— IV. Streets and Districts. There are 
said to have been in all 215 streets in Rome. 
The broad streets were called Viae and Vici * ; 
the narrow streets Angiportus. The chief 
streets were: (1) Via Sacra, the principal 
street in Rome. It began near the Sacellum 
Streniae, in the valley between the Caelian and 
the Esquiline, and leaving the Flavian Amphi- 
theatre (Colosseum) on the left ran along the 
N. slope of the Palatine ; passing under the 
Arch of Titus, it bent slightly to the N. (prob- 
ably to avoid ancient sacred buildings), skirted 
the N. side of the Temple of Julius, beyond 
which it turned to the S., skirting the narrow 
E. end of the Forum, passed along the SW. 
side of the Forum (i.e. between the Forum 
and the Basilica Julia), and thence by a wind- 
ing course up the Clivus Capitolinus to the 
Capitol and the Temple of Jupiter. It should 
be noticed that it passes a little distance to the 
N. of the temple and the house of Vesta, but 
the sacred precincts of Vesta included not only 
these but also a sacred grove, which probably 
stretched up to the Via Sacra. Hence Horace 
(Sat. i. 9, 35) speaks of the Via Sacra as 
reaching the sanctuary or dwelling of Vesta. 
The road was called ' sacred ' in all probability 
because it led from the Forum to the most i 
sacred ancient places, the precincts of Vesta | 
and the shrine of the Penates. The part of it I 
originally, or specially, so spoken of was that be- 
tween the Velia and the entrance to the Forum 
(Varro, L. L. v. 47). The Summa Via Sacra 
was that part which passed over the Velian ridge [ 
by the Arch of Titus. Some have thought that 
originally the Via Sacra went straight from the 
Regia to the S. side of the Forum and that the 
deflection by the Temple of Julius was only 
made because that temple was built. This at 
present wants evidence. (2) Via Lata, led 
from the N. side of the Capitol and the Porta 
Ratumena to the Porta Flaminia, whence the 
N. part of it was called Via Flaminia. (3) 
Via Nova, by the side of the W. slope of the 
Palatine, led from the ancient Porta Romanula 
and the Velabrum to the Forum, and was con- 
nected by a side street with the Via Sacra. 
Starting from the road which led from the Via 
Sacra up to the Palatine near the Porta 
Magonia (Summa Via Sacra)'\i skirted the N. 
side of the hill, passed by the S. side of the 
Atrium Vestae and bent round the W. side of 
the Palatine to the Velabrum, near the Porta 
Komanula. It has been laid bare by excava- 
tions from the Summa Via Nova to the church 
of S. Maria Ijiberatrice, near the SW. angle of 
the Atrium Vestae, from which point a flight of 



• Vicus properly signified a quarter of tin- city, liut 
the Brlntnpa] street in a Vicus was frequently called 
by the name of the Vicus to which it belonged. 



steps lead from the Via Xova to the Forum (cf. 
j Ov. Fast. vi. 395). (4) Vicus Jugarius, led 
from the Porta Cannentalis under the Capitol 
to the Forum Romanum, which it enbered near 
the Basilica Julia and the Lacus Servilius. (5) 
Vicus Tuscus, connected the Velabrum with 
the Forum, running W. of, and nearly parallel 
with, the Via Xova. It contained a great 
number of shops, where articles of luxury were 
sold, and its inhabitants did not possess the 
best of characters (Tusci turba impia vici, 
Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 228). From the Velabrum it 
continued to the Circus Maximus. It derived 
its name from an early settlement there of 
Tuscans, possibly shopkeepers, possibly em- 
ployed in the making of the Cloaca Maxima. 
A tradition states the settlers to have been 
soldiers of the Etruscan Caelius Vibenna, 
removed to the lower city from Mons Caelius 
IVarr. L.L. v. 40; Tac. Jitii. iv. 65). Livy (ii. 
, 14) speaks of the sellers as remnants of the 
army of Porsenna. (6) Vicus Cyprius, ran 
from the Colosseum valley to the Esquiline. 
The upper part of it, turning on the right to 
Urbius Clivus, was called Sceleratus Vicus, 
because Tullia here drove her chariot over the 
corpse of her father, Servius. (7) Vicus 
Patricias, in the valley between the Esquiline 
and the Viminal in the direction of the modern 
Via Urbana and Via di S. Pudenziana. (8) 
Vicus Africus, in the district of the Esquiline, 
but the exact situation of which cannot be de- 
termined, said to have been so called because 
African hostages were kept here during the 
first Punic war. (9) Vicus Sandahtrius, also 
in the district of the Esquiline, extending as 
far as the heights of the Carinae. (10) Vicus 
Vitriarius or Vitrarius, in the SE. part of the 
city, near the Porta Capena. (11) Vicus 
Longus, in the VaUia Quirini between the 
Quirinal and Viminal, now S. Vitale. (12) 
Caput Africae, near the Colosseum. (13) 
Subiira or Suburra, a district through which 
a street of the same name ran, was the whole 
valley between the Esquiline, Quirinal and 
Viminal. It was one of the busiest parts 
of the town and contained a great number of 
shops (Juv. xi. 51, Mart. v. 22), and also 
brothels, from which it derived its bad reputa- 
tion (Pers. v. 32; Mart. vi. 66). (14) Velia, 
a height near the Forum, which extended from 
the Palatine near the Arch of Titus, to the 
Esquiline, and which separated the valley of 
the Forum from that of the Colosseum. On 
the Velia were situated the Basilica of Con- 
stantine and the Temple of Venus and Rome. 
(15) Carinae, a district on the SW. part of the 
Esquiline, or the modern height of S. Pietro in 
Vincoli, where Pompey, Cicero and many other 
dNtingiii-dn'il Romans lived : hence called 
'lautae' (Verg. Aen. viii. 861, cf. Suet. Tib. 
15). (16) Velabrum, a district on the W. slope 
of the Palatine, between the Vicus Tuscus and 
the Forum Boarium, was originally a morass. 
(17) Aequimaclium , a place at the E. foot of 
the Capitol and by the side of the Vicus 
Jugarius, where the house of Sp. Maelius is 
said to have stood. (18) Argiletum, a district 
S. of the Quirinal, between the Subura, the 
Forum of Nerva and the Forum of Peace, 
and running down to the back of the Basilica 
Aemilia. It was a booksellers' quarter. Its 
name was probably derived from argil/a, ' white 
clay;' but traditions spoke of a hero Argus, a 
friend of Evan'der, who is said to have been 
buried here. Oil) Lant umiac, a. district where 
there had been old quarries, near the Kobur 



806 



ROMA 



Tullianum or Mamertine prison [see below]. — 
V. Temples. [For the strict uses of the words 
aedes and templum, see Diet, of Ant. art. 
Templum.~] Out of the vast number of temples 
inRorne(of which there are said to have been 400) 
the following (in alphabetical order) are the 
most important to notice. Templum Aesculapii, 
on the Island in the Tiber, to which sick per- 
sons were brought for cure. A sacred snake, 
representing the god, had been brought from 
Epidaurus in 292 B.C. to avert a pestilence, 
and the temple built on the island, because the 
snake had swum ashore there (Li v. ii. 5, Fy. 
11). T. Antonini et Faustinae, at the further 
end of the N. side of the Forum, built by 
Antoninus Pius in honour of his wife Faus- 
tina, 141 a.d. It was converted into the 
church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda, and most of 
the old cella destroyed, but the fine Corinthian 
front remains. T. Apollinis (1) on the Pala- 
tine, dedicated by Augustus in 28 B.C. in 
memory of his victory over Sex. Pompeius in 
36. It was of great magnificence both for its 
iirchitecture and its treasures. The statue of 
Apollo was by Scopas. At the sides of the portico 
or peristyle were two large libraries, one for 
Greek, the other for Latin books. (2) In the 
Campus Martius, near the Theatre of Marcellus. 
It was dedicated to the Delphic Apollo, in 428 
B.C. Eemains of it have been found near the 
Piazza Montanara. T. Augusti, founded by 
Tiberius, on the slope of the Palatine towards 
the Via Nova. T. Bellonae, in which the 
senate assembled to receive foreign ambassa- 
dors and to hear the applications of generals 
for a triumph, as it was outside the pomerium. 
It stood near the Circus Flaminius. T. Bonae 
Deae on the SE. side of the Aventine near the 
Sacrum Saxum, where Remus took the auspices 
(Ov. Fast. v. 148). Aed. Castoris, the temple of 
Castor and Pollux, at the SE. end of the Forum, 
divided from the Basilica Julia by the Vicus 
Tuscus. It was said to have been founded near 
the fountain of Juturna, on the spot where the 
twin gods halted in the Forum to announce 
the victory of Begillus. It was vowed by 
A. Postumius in that battle and dedicated by 
his son in 482 B.C., restored in 119 by L. Metel- 
lus Dalmaticus, rebuilt by Tiberius and Drusus 
after their German campaigns, A.D. 6, with 
Corinthian columns of Pentelic marble, three of 
which and the entablature are now standing. 
It was sometimes used as a place of meeting 
for the senate (Cicero Scaur. 46), and as an 
office for testing weights and measures. T. Ce- 
reris, in which Liber and Libera were associated 
with Ceres, in the Forum Boarium, near the 
Circus Maximus, dedicated by the consul Sp. 
Cassius in 494 B.C. Remains of it are built up 
into the walls of the church of S. Maria in Cos- 
medin. T. Concordiae, on the slope of the 
Capitoline hill above the Forum, founded by 
Camillus B.C. 867, rebuilt by Opimius in 121, 
and again, B.C. 6, by Tiberius and Drusus from 
the spoils of Germany. The senate often met 
in it. Remains of the podium may be seen, 
besides fragments of columns and cornices. 
T. Dianae, on the Aventine, said to have been 
built by Servius Tullius, and restored by Augus- 
tus. T. Fidei, on the Capitol, said to have 
been founded by Numa, rebuilt in the first 
Punic war. Aed. Fortunae, the temple of 
Fors Fortuna or Fortuna Virilis [see p. 346, a], 
in the Forum Boarium, near the Porta Car- 
mentalis, said to have been built by Servius 
Tullius. It stood close to the temple of Mater 
Matuta. Both were burnt down B.C. 213 and 



rebuilt the following year. (Dionys. iv. 27 ; Ov. 
Fast. vi. 481 ; Liv. xxiv. 47, xxv. 7.) The exist- 
ing temple called that of Fortuna Virilis is by 
some supposed to be the temple of Mater Ma- 
tuta ; by others (with greater probability) it 
is taken to be the temple of Portunus, which 
stood near the Pons Aemilius (Kal. Aug. 17), the 
modern Ponte Rotto. This temple is well pre- 
served and is an Ionic temple, said to be of a date 
earlier than the middle of the first century B.C. 
There was also a temple of Fortuna Sedux 
dedicated by Domitian in the Campus Martius, 
of Fortuna Sespiciens on the Palatine, and 
three temples of Fortune near the Porta Col- 
lina. T. Florae on the Quirinal, near the 
' Tiburtina pila ' (probably a stone of Lares 
Compitales), and the old shrine of Jupiter at 
the Capitolium Vetus (Mart. v. 62). T. Fauni 
or Jovis et Fauni in the Island of the Tiber, 
dedicated 196 b.c Aed. Herculis. A round 
temple of Hercules stood in the SE. corner of 
the Forum Boarium near the Ara Maxima 
(Liv. x. 23; Tac. Ann. xv. 41 ; Macrob. iii. 6), 
of great antiquity, and traditionally ascribed to 
Evander. It was rebuilt in the time of Au- 
gustus, and there is little doubt that it is the 
beautiful round temple with Corinthian col- 
umns which stands at this spot and is often 
erroneously called a temple of Vesta. There 
was also a temple of Hercules Musarum ( = 
'HpaK\ris Movffayirns) close to the Portico of 
Octavia, between the theatre of Marcellus and 
the Circus Flaminius. It was built by M. Ful- 
vius Nobilior about 187 B.C., who adorned it 
with terra-cotta statues of the Muses and of 
Heracles playing on the lyre (Plin. xxxvi. 66) 
whichhehad brought from Greece. [Forthe con- 
nexion of Heracles and the Muses see p. 401, a.] 
There was also a temple of Hercules Custos 
in the same district. T. Honoris et Virtutis, 
near the Porta Capena, founded by Marcellus 
in 212 B.C. from the spoils of Syracuse : another, 
founded by Marcius, stood on the Capitol. 
T. Isidis et Serapis, was built in the time of 
Nero in the Campus Martius near the temple 
of Minerva : it was damaged by the fires in the 
reigns of Nero and of Titus and was restored 
by Alex. Severus. Many works of Egyptian 
art have been found on this spot. Another 
temple of Isis stood somewhere in the third 
region. T. Jani, the most notable temple of 
Janus, was at the NE. end of the Forum. [For 
an account of it see p. 457, b.] The temple 
of Janus Quadrifrons (a quadruple arch) stood 
in the Forum Nervae at the intersection of 
the road from the Forum to the Subura with 
that from the Forum Pacis to the Forum 
Augusti. It is thought that the remains found at 
the S W. end of the Forum Nervae belong to this 
temple. T. Jovis. For the temples of Jupiter 
Capitolinus, Custos, Feretrius and Tonans on 
the Capitolium, see above, Gr. II. The temple 
of Jupiter Stator was said to have been origin- 
ally built by Bomulus in gratitude for the 
staying of the flight of the Romans before the 
Sabines (Liv. i. 12 ; Dionys. ii. 50 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 
793, Frist, iii. 1, 31). It was on the Palatine 
between the Porta Magonia and the site of the 
Arch of Titus, and between the Via Sacra and 
Via Nova. Another temple of Jupiter Stator 
was in the Campus Martius. A temple of 
Jupiter Victor, of which it is thought that the 
foundations have been discovered, stood on the 
Palatine overlooking the Campus Martius. A. 
temple of the Asiatic Jupiter Dolichenus 
[p. 464, b] stood in the Campus Martius near 
the church of S. Alessio, where inscriptions 



ROMA 



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relating to it have been found (C.I.L. vi. 406- 
413). T. Julii, built by Augustus in 42 B.C. 
at the E. end of the Forum opposite the 
temple of Castor. It stood on a high platform 
(cf. Ov. Pont. ii. 2, 85). T. Junonis Monetae, 
on the Arx or NE. peak of the Capitoline 
hill [see above]. T. Junonis Sospitae, in the 
Forum Olitorium, near the theatre of Mar- 
cellus, may be one of three small temples of 
which remains have been found on the site 
of the church of S. Niccolo. The temple of 
Juno Begina was on the Aventine. T. Lu- 
nae, said to have been founded by Servius 
Tullius on the Aventine above the Forum 
Boarium (Liv. xL 2 ; Tac. Ann. 41). T. Martis. 
The temple of Mars Ultor in the centre of the 
Forum of Augustus, was dedicated in B.C. 2. 
It was th° place where the senate deliberated 




Remains o! Temple of Mars Ultor. 
on the question of granting a triumph fas 
before in the temple of Bellona). Three Corin- 
thian columns of Lunamarble,with the architrave 
above them, and a pilaster against the wall of 
the forum still remain and testify to the great 
beauty of the temple. There were two temples 
of Mars built by Augustus on the Capitol ; a 
temple of Mars in the Campus Martius, built, 
or rebuilt, by D. Brutus Callaicus, consul 
in 138 B.C. ; and another on the Appian Way 
outside the Porta Capena. T. Magnae Matris, 
on the slope of the Palatine towards the Via 
Sacra, built in 191 B.C. to receive the sacred 
stone of Cybele or Magna Mater Idaea, which 
had meantime been placed in the temple of 
Victory. Some remains of the temple have 
been found near the Arch of Titus. T. Matris 
Matutae, in the Forum Boarium near that 
of Fortuna [see above]. T. of Minerva. 
Besides the cella of Minerva in the temple of 
the Capitoline Jupiter [see above], there 
was a separate temple of Minerva in the 
Forum of Nerva. Its marble columns were 
used by Paul V. in 1600 for a chapel in 
the church of S. Maria Maggiore, but part of 
the apse and two Corinthian columns, and a 
relief of Minerva on the portion of entablature 
still remain. The temple of Minerva Chalci- 
ilica was founded by Pompey in the Campus 
Martius near the Pantheon, and restored, 
lifter damage from fire, by Domitian. Its site 
i-i marked by the church of S. Maria sopra 
Minerva. The ancient temple of Minerva 
Capta [p. 56"), aj was on the slope of the 
Caelian, near the Colosseum. T. Minervae 



Medicae, of which the remains were recently 
discovered, near the Porta Praenestina (Porta 
Maggiore). The Pantheon was built as a 
temple to Mars, Venus, and the deified ancestors 
of the Julian gens by Agrippa in 27 B.C. (Dio 
Cass, lxiii. 27). The original building was 
damaged by fire in 80 a.d. (Dio Cass. lxvi. 24), 
and there is record of two subsequent restora- 
tions, by Hadrian and by Severus. It is an error 
to suppose that it was connected with the Baths 
of Agrippa, from which it is separated by 
an interval of twenty feet, the walls which are 
imagined to be the junction being of a much 
later date. The drain in the floor, which was 
made another argument for the theory, is 
designed to carry away the water which fell from 
the opening in the roof. The temple has a fine 
portico, but its great characteristic is the 
magnificent dome, 142A feet in diameter, and the 
same in height from the floor, lighted by an 
opening in the top, through which the sky is 
seen. The dome is a solid mass standing by its 
own coherence, not by the principle of the arch, 
and therefore is a remarkable proof of the great 
strength of Roman concrete. It was entirely 
covered with marble lining, which has in great 
part disappeared. Its exterior was overlaid 
with tiles of gilt bronze, of which a very small 
part remains, round the hypaethral opening. 
The whole interior was lined with precious 
marbles, some of which remain, and had fluted 
marble columns. Much of this adornment was 
due to Hadrian's restoration. The great bronze 
doors have fortunately been left as they were. 
A new question has been raised by recent dis- 
coveries of archaeologists, especially of the 
French school, that bricks of the rotunda be- 
long to the time of Hadrian. If it is established 
that bricks of this date are not merely surface 
repairs, but integral parts of the structure, it 
follows that in the present building the portico 
and vestibule alone are the work of Agrippa, 
the rotunda with its great dome having been 
joined on to them by Hadrian, replacing the 
older temple. It is argued moreover that this 
explains certain anomalies of style, assigns the 
domed cupola to a period when such an inno- 

! vation was more probable, and also disposes 
of the difficulty which some have felt in 
understanding how a fire could lay hold on 
a building such as the Pantheon now is. 
The preservation of this temple is due to the 
fact that it was consecrated as the church of 

' S. Maria ad Martyres by Boniface IV. in G08. 
T. Paris, built by Vespasian in the Forum 
Pacis, mentioned above. Aed. Quirini, on the 
Quirinal, near the church of S. Vitale. It was 
mentioned as existing in B.C. 432 (Liv. iv. 21), 
was rebuilt bv Papirius Cursor in 293, and again 
by Augustus in 16 (Dio Cass. liv. 19). T. Por- 
tuni, in the Forum Boarium [see T. FortunaeX 
T. Salutis, on the slope of the Quirinal, near the 
Porta Salutaris, built by Junius Bubulcus 
B.C. 104 and adorned with paintings by Fabius 
Pictor, burnt down in the reign of Claudius 
(Liv. ix. 48; Fest. p. 327). T. Sanci, the 
temple of Semo Sanctis or Dins Fidius, stood 
on the Quirinal, and was regar led as one of the 
most ancient in Rome. The neighbouring 
Porta Sanqualis was called after it. T. Saturni, 
was on the Clivus Capitolinns near the Temple of 
Concord, and overlooking the Forum. It was 
said to have been built by Tarquin. In it was 
the treasury. [Diet, of Ant. art. Acrarium.) 
Part of the travertine podium, of the time of 
Augustus, remains, and eight columns and 

| the entablature, of the age of Domitian. Some 



808 



BOMA 




ROMA 



809 




810 



BOB1A 



marble steps which exist are supposed to 
have been the entrance to a treasure chamber. 
T. Solis, near the Spina of the Circus Maximus 
(Tac. Ann. xv. 74; Tertull. Sped. 8). T. 
Spei, in the Forum Olitorium, probably 
one of the three small temples built in 
the walls of S. Niccolo in Carcere. T. 
Telluris, near the house of Pompey in the 
Carinae (SW. slope of the Esquiline), often used 
for meetings of the senate. T. Trajani, in the 
Forum of Trajan [see above]. T. Vejovis, on 
the island in the Tiber ; also on the Capitoline 
hill. T. Veneris et Romae, built by Hadrian, 
who employed Apollodorus of Damascus as 
architect. It stood at theE. end of the Forum, 
on the slope of the Velia, raised on a high stylo- 
bate above the Via Sacra, and was the largest, 
and among the most magnificent, at Eome. It 
had two cellae, one for Venus, the other for 
Boma Aeterna. There are fine remains adjoin- 
ing the monastery of S. Francesca. T. Veneris 
Erycinae, was on the Capitoline hill close to 
the temple of Mars : these two were vowed by 
Fabius Maximus and T. Otacilius B.C. 217 
(Liv. xxii. 10). Another temple of Venus Ery- 
cina was built, B.C. 181, just outside the Porta 
Collina (Ov. .Fast. iv. 871; Liv. xl. 34). The 




Temple of Vesta. 

temple of Venus Genetrix, vowed in the battle 
of Pharsalia, was built in the centre of the 
Forum Julium, and dedicated B.C. 46. T. Ves- 
pasiani, was built by Domitian on the slope of 
the Capitoline hill under the Tabularium 
and next to the temple of Concord; and was 
restored by Sept. Severus. Three columns 
(belonging to the six of the portico) with the 
entablature above are still standing : they are 
part of the building of Domitian. Aed. Vestae, 
stands at the S. angle of the Forum. The 
original temple was destroyed by the Gauls 
B.C. 390, and three successive temples were 
burnt in 241 B.C., 66 A.D. and 191 a.d. The 
existing temple (preserving the ancient circular 
shape, the form of the primitive house) was built 
by Sept. Severus [see further under Vesta]. 
T. Victoriae, on the Clivus Victoriae, a N. 
slope of the Palatine, was built on the site of 
a very ancient altar of Victory (Dionys. i. 32). 
It was rebuilt in 294 B.C. from the proceeds of 
fines imposed by the aediles (Liv. x. 33), and 
restored by Augustus. Some remains of it were 
discovered near the church of S. Maria Libera- 
trice. Volcanal : a very ancient altar to Vul- 
can stood on the slope of the Capitol, with 
a wide space of sacred ground round it called 



Area Volcani (Liv. xxxix. 46 ; Fest. p. 290 ; 
G.I.L. vi. 457). The Area Volcani was used 
for meetings of the people (Dionys. ii. 50, vi. 57). 
Part of it was afterwards occupied by the 
temple of Concord. T. Urbis or Sacrae Urbis 
stood at the SE. corner of the Forum Pacis. 
A square-headed doorway of travertine in the 
remains of the bounding wall of the Forum 
Pacis led from the side of the Basilica of Con- 
stantine into the T. Sacrae Urbis. The two 
end walls of the temple, rebuilt by Severus, 
remain. The map of the city was engraved 
or painted on one of the walls of this temple. 
— VI. Circi. The Circi were places for chariot- 
races and horse-races. 1. Circus Maximus, fre- 
quently called simply the Circus, was founded 
by Tarquinius Priscus, in the Vallis Murcia, be- 
tween the Palatine and the Aventine, and was 
successively enlarged by Julius Caesar and 
Trajan. Under the emperors it contained seats 
for 385,000 persons. It was restored by Con- 
stantine the Great, and games were celebrated 
in it as late as the sixth century. [For a full 
description see Diet, of Ant. art. Circus.] 2. C. 
Flaminius, erected by Flaminius in B.C. 221 in 
the Prata Flaminia before the Porta Carmen- 
talis ; it was not sufficiently large for the popu- 
lation of Rome, and was there- 
fore seldom used. 3. C. Caii 
et Neronis, erected by Caligula 
in the gardens of Agrippina on 
the other side of the Tiber, 
under the Vatican hill, and en- 
larged by Nero. 4. C. Maxen- 
tii, wrongly ascribed to Cara- 
calla, on the Via Appia, two 
miles from the gates. It was 
built by Maxentius a.d. 311. 
Kernarkable remains of the ex- 
ternal wall still exist. 5. C. 
Hadriani, is the title given to 
a circus of which some remains 
have been found near the Mau- 
soleum of Hadrian. Among 
the Circi we may also reckon : 
6. The Stadium, likewise called 
C. Agonalis and C. Alexandria 
in the Campus Martius, erected 
by Domitian in place of the 
wooden Stadium built by Au- 
gustus, and was restored by Alexander Severus. 
Its remains still exist in the Piazza Navona. — 
VII. Theatres. Theatres were not built at Rome 
till a comparatively late period, and long after 
the Circi. At first they were only made of 
wood for temporary purposes, and were after- 
wards broken up ; but many of these wooden 
theatres were notwithstanding constructed with 
great magnificence. The splendid wooden 
theatre of M. Aemilius Scaurus was capable of 
containing 80,000 spectators. [Diet, of Ant. 
art. Theatrum.~\ 1. Theatrum Pompeii, the 
first permanent stone theatre, was erected by 
Cn. Pompey, B.C. 55, in the Campus Martius, 
NE. of the Circus Flaminius, after the model 
of the theatre of Mytilene. It contained seats 
for 40,000 spectators. It was restored succes- 
sively hy Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Diocle- 
tian, and Theodoric. Its ruins are by the 
Palazzo Pio, not far from the Campo di Fiore. 
2. Th. Cornelii Balbi, SE. of the preceding, 
near the Tiber, on the site of the Palazzo Cenci. 
It was dedicated by Cornelius Balbus in B.C. 
13, was partly burnt down under Titus, but 
was subsequently restored. It contained seats 
for 11,600 persons. Some of its columns are 
visible, built into houses in Via di S. Maria in 



40 Feet. 



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811 



Cacaberis. 3. Th. Marcelli, in the Forum Oli- ' middle ages to the amphitheatre at Capua, 
torium, SE. of the preceding, between the slope The Flavian Amphitheatre was situated in the 
of the Capitoline and the Island of the Tiber, valley between the Caelian, the Esquiline and 
on the site of the temple of Pietas. It was I the Velia, on the marshy ground which was 
begun by Julius Caesar, and dedicated by Au- previously the pond of Nero's palace. It was 
gustus in B.C. 13, to the memory of his nephew begun by Vespasian, and was completed by 
Marcellus. It was restored by Vespasian, and i Titus, who dedicated it in a.d. 80, when 5000 
perhaps also by Alexander Severus. It con- animals of different kinds were slaughtered, 
tained seats for 20,000 spectators. The re- 1 To this period belong the three tiers of open 
mains of its Cavea exist near the Piazza Monta- \ arches on the facade and the interior up to 
nara, arcades with engaged columns in two a level with the top of the arcades. The 
stories supporting an entablature to each story. ) highest tiers of seats and the fourth story with 
There was also an Odeum, in the Campus Mar- ! pilasters belong to the third century. This 
tius, built by Domitian, and enlarged by Trajan : ! wonderful building covered nearly six acres of 
it contained seats for about 11,000 persons. — ground, and furnished seats for 87,000 specta- 
VIII. Amrjhitheatres. The amphitheatres, like tors. In the reign of Macrinus it was struck by 
the theatres, were originally made of wood for lightning, and so much damage was done to it 
temporary purposes. They were used for the that the games were for some years celebrated 
shows of gladiators and wild beasts. The first in the Stadium. Its restoration was commenced 
wooden amphitheatre was built by C. Scri- by Elagabalus and completed by Alexander 
bonius Curio (the celebrated partisan of Caesar), Severus. 3. Amph. Castrense, at the SE. of 
and the next by Julius Caesar during his per- the Aurelian walls. — IX. Naurnachiae. These 




petual dictatorship, B.C. 40. 1. Amph. Statilii were buildings of a kind similar to the amphi- 
Tauri, in the Campus Martius, was the first j theatres. They were used for representations 

stone amphitheatre in Eome, and was built by of sea-fights, and consisted of artificial lakes or 

Statilius Taurus, B.C. 80. This edifice was the ponds, with stone seats around them to accom- 

only one of the kind until the building of the modate the spectators. [Diet, of Ant. art. 

Flavian Amphitheatre. It did not satisfy Cnli- Kanmncliiae] 1. Naumachia Julii Caesaris, 

gula, who began an amphitheatre near the in the middle part of the Campus Martius, 

Septa; but the work was not continued by called the 'Lesser Codeta.' This lake was 

Claudius. Nero, too, a.d. 57, erected a vast filled up in the time of Augustus, so that we 

amphitheatre of wood, but this was only a find in later writers mention only of two Nau- 

temporary building. The amphitheatre of machiae. 2. .V. Augusti, constructed by Au- 

Taurus was destroyed in the burning of Rome, gustus on the other side of the Tiber under the 

a.d. 04, and was probably never restored, and Janiculuin, in the Horti Caesariani or Nemus 

it is not again mentioned. [Diet, of Ant. art. C'aesarum. It was subsequently called the 

Amphitheatrum.] 2. Amph. Flavtum, or, as Vrtm Suumarhin, to distinguish it from the 

it has been called since the middle ages, the following one. 3. N. Domitiani, constructed 

Colosseum or Coliseum, a name said to be de- by the emperor Domitian, probably on the other 

rived from the Colossus of Nero, which once side of the Tiber under the Vatican and the 

stood near, but had been destroyed U-fore tin: ( in ns Neronis. — X. Thermae. The Thermae 

name was given to the amphitheatre It is were some of the most magnificent buildings of 

more likely that the name (which first appears j im|H-rinl Rome. They were distinct from the 

in the writings of Bede) was descriptive of its Balneac,OT common baths, of which there were 

vast size. The same name was applied in the a go at number at Rome. In tin- Thermae the 



812 



EOMA 



baths constituted a small part of the building. 
They were, properly speaking, a Roman adapta- 
tion of the Greek gymnasia ; and besides the 
baths they contained places for athletic games 
and youthful sports, exedrae or public halls, 




Elevation of Colosseum restored. 



porticoes and vestibules for the idle, and libra- 
ries for the learned. They were decorated with 
the finest objects of art, and adorned with 
fountains, and shaded walks and plantations. 
[Bid. of Ant. art. Balneal] 1. Thermae Agrip- 
pae, in the Campus Martius, erected by M. 
Agrippa, about twenty feet behind the Pan- 
theon, which was supposed by some, but with- 
out sufficient reason, to have served originally 
as a vestibule to these Thermae [see above]. 
On the removal of some houses in 1881 remains 
of a great hall, lined and paved with marble 
and with fluted columns, belonging to these 
Thermae were found. 2. Th. Neronis, erected 
by Nero in the Campus Martius alongside 
of the Thermae of Agrippa: they were re- 
stored by Alexander Severus, and were from 
that time called Th. Alexanclrinae. 3. Th. 
Titi, on the Esquiline, near the amphitheatre 
of this emperor, of which there are still con- 
siderable remains, 4. Th. Trajani, also on 
the Esquiline, immediately behind the two 
preceding, towards the NE. 5. Th. Com- 
modianae and Th. Severianae, close to one 
another, near S. Balbina, in the SE. part of the 
city. 6. Th. Antoninianae (the Baths of Cara- 
calla), also in the SE. part of the city, behind 



the two preceding, one of the most magnificent 
of all the Thermae, in which 2300 men could 
bathe at the same time. The greater part of it 
was built by Caracalla, and it was completed by 
Elagabalus und Alexander Severus. The re- 
mains of this immense building are among 
the most remarkable in Borne. (For a full 
description see Bict. of Ant. art. Balnea). 
7. Th. Biocletiani, in the NE. part of the city 
between the Agger of Servius and the Viminal 
and Quirinal, covering nearly all the ground 
between the Porta Viminalis and Porta Collina. 
It was the most extensive of all the Thermae, 
containing a library, picture-gallery, Odeum, 
&c, and such immense baths that 3000 men 
could bathe in them at the same time. The 
great hall of the Tepidarium was transformed by 
Michelangelo into the nave of the church of 
S. Maria degli Angeli, and one of the hot 
rooms (laconica) forms the vestibule of the 
church. 8. Th. Constantini, on the Quirinal, 
on the site of the modern Palazzo Bospigliosi, 
of which all traces have disappeared. The 
following Thermae were smaller and less cele- 
brated. 9. Th. Becianae, on the Aventine. 
10. Th. Suranae, erected by Trajan to the 
memory of his friend Sulpicius Sura, also in 
the neighbourhood of the Aventine, probably 
the same as the Th. Varianae. 11. Th. Phil- 
ippi, near S. Matteo in Merulana. 12. Th. 
Agrippinae, on the Viminal, behind S. Lorenzo. 
13. Th. Caii et Bucu, on the Esquiline, called 
in the middle ages the Terme di Galluccio. — 
XI. Basilicae. The Basilicae were buildings 
which served as courts of law, and exchanges or 
places of meeting for merchants and men of 
business. 1. Basilica Porcia, erected by M. 
Porcius Cato, in the Forum, adjoining the Curia, 
B.C. 184. It was burnt down along with the 
Curia in the riots which followed the death of 
Clodius, 52. 2. B. Aemilia, also called Aemilia 
et Fulvia, because it was built by the censors 
L. Aemilius Lepidus and M. Pulvius Nobilior 
in 179. It was situated in the Forum, near the 
preceding one. It was restored by Aemilius 
Paulus in the time of Caesar, and was hence 
called B. Aemilia or Paidi. It was dedicated 
by his son Paulus Aemilius Lepidus in his 
consulship, 31. It was burnt down twenty 
years afterwards (14), and was rebuilt nomin- 
ally by Paulus Lepidus, but in reality by 
Augustus and the friends of Paulus. The new 
building was a most magnificent one ; its 
columns of Phrygian marble were especially 
celebrated. It was repaired by another Lepidus 
in the reign of Tiberius, a.d. 22. 3. B. Sem- 
pronia, built by Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, b.c. 
171, in the Forum, at the end of the Vicus 
Tuscus. 4. B. Opiviia, in the Forum, near the 
temple of Concordia. 5. B. Julia, begun by 
Julius Caesar and finished by Augustus, in the 
Forum, between the temples of Castor and 
Saturn, probably on the site of the B. Sempronia 
mentioned above. It was restored after a fire 
by Sept. Severus. The building can now be 
traced by the remains of marble piers, of the 
cancelli and of the pavement. 6. B. Argen- 
taria, in the Forum, near the Clivus Argentarius 
and before the temple of Concordia, destroyed 
to make room for the imperial fora. The re- 
mains of this building are behind S. Martina, 
alongside of the Salita di Marforio. 7. B. TJlpia, 
in the middle of the Forum of Trajan, of which 
there are still considerable remains. 8. B. 
Constantiana, a magnificent building, between 
the temple of Peace and the temple of Bome 
and Venus, of which little remains except three 



ROMA 



813 



vaulted chambers. [For fuller description see 
Diet, of Ant. art. Basilica.^ — XII. Porticoes. 
The Porticoes (Porticus) were covered walks, 
supported by columns, and open on one side. 
There were several public porticoes at Rome, 
many of them of great size, which were used as 
places of recreation, and for the transaction of 
business. 1. Porticus Pompeii, adjoining the 
theatre of Pompey, and erected to afford shelter 
to the spectators in the theatre during a shower 
of rain. It was restored by Diocletian, and was 
hence called P. Jovia. 2. P. Argonautarum, 
or NeptunioT Agrippae, erected by Agrippa in 
the Campus Martius, as a thank-offering for 
his naval victories, around the temple of 
Neptune, and adorned with paintings represent- 
ing the story of the Argonauts. Eleven marble 
columns of the temple still exist and traces 
of a portico. 3. P. Philippi, by the side of 
the T. Herculis Musarum, and the Porticus 
Octaviae, built by M. Philippus, the father-in- 
law of Augustus, and adorned with splendid 
works of art (Plin. xxxv. 114). 4. P. Minucia 
et Frumentaria, in the Campus Martius, near 
the Circus Flaminius, built by Q. Minucius 
Rufus in B.C. 109, to commemorate his victories 
over the Scordisci and Triballi in the preceding 
year. It appears that the tesserae, or tickets, 
which entitled persons to a share in the public 
distribution of corn were given to them in the 
P. Minucia. (lav. iv. 12; Veil. Pat, ii. 813.) 
5. P. Metelli, built by Q. Metellus, after his 
triumph over Perseus, king of Macedonia, B.C. 
146. It was situated in the Campus Martius 
between the Circus Flaminius and the theatre 
of Marcellus, and surrounded the two temples 
of Jupiter Stator and Juno Regina. 6. P. 
Octaviae, built by Augustus on the site of the 
P. Metelli just mentioned, in honour of his 
sister Octavia. It was a magnificent building, 
containing a vast number of works of art and 
a public library, in which the senate frequently 
assembled ; hence it is sometimes called Curia 
Octavia. It was burnt down in the reign of 
Titus. Its ruins are near the church of S. 
Angelo in Pescaria. Remains also of Corinthian 
columns have been found since the destruction 
of the Ghetto. 7. P. Octavia, which must be 
carefully distinguished from the P. Octaviae 
just mentioned, was built by Cn. Octavius, who 
commanded the Roman fleet in the war against 
Perseus, king of Macedonia. It was situated 
in the Campus Martius, between the theatre of 
Pompey and the Circus Flaminius. It was 
rebuilt by Augustus, and contained two rows of 
columns of the Corinthian order, with brazen 
capitals, whence it was also called P. Corinthia. 
8. P. Europae, in the Campus Martius, prob- 
ably N. of the Pantheon, so called from the 
statues or frescoes in it relating to the story of 
Europa (Mart. ii. 14, iii. 20, vii. 32). 9. P. 
Pollae, built by the sister of Agrippa in the 
Campus Agrippae. In it was the map of the 
Roman world which Agrippa caused to be 
painted or carved upon the walls (Plin. iii. 
17). 10. P. Livia, on the Esquiline, surround- 
ing a temple of Concordia (Ov. Fast. vi. 037). 

11. P. Deorum Conscntinm, a portico forming 
shrines for the twelve statues of the Dii Con- 
sentes [Consentes]. It was built on the slope 
of the Capitol, above the temple of Saturn. 

12. P. Vipsania was probably only another name 
of the Porticus Pollae ( — Vipsaniae) : the neigh- 
bouring arch, which dripped, may have belonged 
to the Aqua Virgo (Mart. iv. 18). 18. P. Me- 
leagri, near the P. Europae, and also named 
from the paintings or statues in it. 14. P. Boni 



Eventus, in the Campus Martius, near the 
Thermae of Agrippa. — XIII. triumphal 

Arches. The Triumphal Arches (Arcus) were 
structures peculiar to the Romans, and were 
erected by victorious generals in commemoration 
of their victories. They were built across the 
principal streets of the city, and, according to 
the space of their respective localities, consisted 
either of a single archway or of a central one 
for carriages, with a smaller one on each side 
for foot-passengers. Ancient writers mention 
twenty-one arches in the city of Rome. Of these 
the most important were : 1. Arcus Fabianus, 
also called Fornix Fabiamus, near the beginning 
of the Via Sacra, built by Fabius Maximus in 
B.C. 121, in commemoration of his victory over 
the Allobroges. 2. A. Drusi, erected by the 
senate in B.C. 9, in honour of Xero Claudius 
Drusus, in Regio I., but the existing arch which 
is called the ' Arch of Drusus,' over the Via 
Appia, is merely an arch of the aqueduct built 
by Caracalla to supply his thermae, and more 
highly ornamented because it crossed a road. 
It is clearly of a much later date than the time 
of Drusus. 3. A. Augusti, in the Forum, near 
the house of Julius Caesar. 4. A. Tiberii, 




Aich of TltaB. 

near the temple of Saturn on the Clivus Capito- 
linus, erected by Tiberius, a.d. 16, in honour of 
the victories of Germanicus in Germany. 5. A. 
Claudii, in the plain E. of the Quirinal, erected 
across the Via Lata a.d. 51, to commemorate 
the victories of Claudius in Britain. Remains 
of it have been dug up at the beginning of the 
Piazza Sciarra, by the Via di Pietra. 6. A. 
Titi, in the middle of the Via Sacra at the foot 
of the Palatine, which still exists. It was 
erected to the honour of Titus, after his con- 
quest of Judaea, but was not finished till after 
his death, since in the inscription upon it he is 
called 'Divus,' and he is also represented a- 
being carried up to heaven upon an eagle. The 
bas-reliefs of this arch represent the spoils from 
the Temple of Jerusalem carried in triumphal 
procession. Another Arch of Titus once stood 
in the Circus Maximus. 7. A. Trajani, in the 
forum of this emperor, at the point where it is 
entered from the Forum of Augustus. 8. A. 
Veri, on the Via Appia, erected to the lioDour 



614 



ROMA 



of Verus after his victory over the Parthians. 
9. A. Marci Aurelii, in the Via Flaminia, not 
far from the Arch of Claudius, probably erected 
to commemorate the victory of this emperor 
over the Marcomanni. It existed under differ- 
ent names near the Piazza Fiano down to 1662, 
when it was broken up by order of Alexander 
VII. 10. A. Septimii Sever i, still extant in .the 
Forum, at the end of the Via Sacra and the 
Clivus Capitolinus before the temple of Con- 
cordia, near the church of SS. Sergio e Bacco, 
was erected by the senate, a.d. 203, in honour 
of Septimius Severus and his two sons, Cara- 
calla and Geta, on account of his victories over 
Parthians and Arabians. 11. A. Argentari- 
orum, in the Forum Boarium (a gateway rather 
than an arch), was also erected in honour of 
Sept. Severus and his two sons by the silver- 
smiths and merchants of the district. Cara- 
calla erased all that referred to his brother 
Geta. 12. A. Gallieni, erected to the honour 
of Gallienus by a private individual, M. Aure- 
lius Victor, also on the Esquiline, SE. of the 
Porta Esquilina. It is still extant near the 
church of S. Vito. 13. A. Constantini, at the 
entrance to the valley between the Palatine 
and the Caelian, is still extant. It was erected 
by the senate in honour of Constantine after 
his victory over Maxentius, a.d. 312. It is 
profusely ornamented, and many of the bas- 
reliefs which adorn it were taken from one of 
the arches erected in the time of Trajan. 
14. A. Dolabellae, on the Caelian hill, a plain 
arch of travertine, with an inscription stating 
that it was erected by Dolabella in his consul- 
ship (a.d. 10). It is not a triumphal arch, nor 
can it have been made for the Claudian aque- 
duct which passes over it, but is of a later date. 
It is suggested that it may have been built for 
the Aqua Marcia, and afterwards used for the 
Aqua Claudia. — XIV. Curiae or Senate-Houses. 
1. Curia Hostilia, frequently called Curia 
simply, was built by Tullus Hostilius, and was 
used as the ordinary place of assembly for the 
senate down to the time of Julius Caesar. It 
stood on the N. side of the Comitium. It was 
burnt to the ground in the riots which followed 
the death of Clodius, b.c. 52. It was, however, 
soon rebuilt, the direction of the work being 
entrusted to Faustus, the son of the dictator 
Sulla ; but scarcely had it been finished, when 
the senate, at the suggestion of Caesar, decreed 
that it should be destroyed, and a temple of 
Fortune erected on its site, while a new Curia 
should be erected, which should bear the name 
of Julia. This Curia Julia stood nearly, but 
not exactly, on the site of the old one. It 
was burnt, and rebuilt by Domitian, and re- 
built again after another Are by Diocletian. It 
has been fairly established that the Curia of 
Diocletian is the existing church of S. Adriano. 
C. Pompeia or Pompeii, attached to the Portico 
of Pompey in the Campus Martius. It was in this 
Curia, at the foot of the statue of Pompey which 
stood there (generally supposed to be the statue 
now in Palazzo Spada), that Caesar was assas- 
sinated on the Ides of March. — XV. Prisons. 
The only prison in the earliest times was said 
to have been built by Ancus Marcius (Liv. i. 
33), and was on the slope of the Capitoline, 
to the right of the ascent from the Forum. 
It was called Tullianum, Bobur Tullianum, 
Bobur, or Career : the name Career Mamer- 
tinus, or Mamertine Prison, by which it is now 
generally known, dates only from the middle 
ages, and was derived from a statue of Mars 
which stood near it and gave the name also to 



the Via del Marforio. The name Tullianum 
has nothing to do with any additions by Servius 
Tullius, as old etymologists supposed, but is 
derived from tullius (a spring), and means 'the 
well-house,' the lower chamber having been 
originally a cistern for the use of the Capitol 
excavated in the rock to collect the water of the 
spring which still exists there. It is a circular 
chamber partly hollowed in the rock, partly 
built up with blocks of stone, forming originally 
a vaulted or conical roof closed at the top by a 
stone which was removed to let the prisoners 
down into the lower chamber (or Tullianum 
proper) : this is now reached by a modern stair- 
case. Above was a larger room, of a later date, 
but still very old. Above the whole has been 
built the church of S. Pietro in Carcere. In 
this lower prison Jugurtha was confined and 
probably died of the cold : in one or other 
of the chambers captives were slain as the 
triumphal procession went up to the Capitol, 
and criminals were executed (e.g. the Catiline 
conspirators). (Liv. xxix. 22, xxxiv. 44 ; Sail. 
Cat. 55.) Near this prison were the Scalae 
Gemoniae or steps down which the bodies of 
those who had been executed were thrown into 
the Forum, to be exposed to the gaze of the 
Roman populace. It is said (Liv. iii. 57) that 
App. Claudius built a new prison. It is of 
course possible that this may be the upper 
chamber over the Tullianum : or it may have 
been the prison called Lautumiae : or the 
Lautumiae may have been a third state prison. 
Seme writers believe the Lautumiae to have 
been merely another name for the Tullianum, 
or for the upper part of it, but it is more likely 
that it was a separate and more recent build- 
ing. (Liv. xxxii. 26, xxxvii. 3 ; Juv. iii. 212.) It 
was, no doubt, near the Tullianum, and derived 
its name from the district Lautumiae, in which 
there had once been quarries. This is more 
likely than the derivation of the name from the 
Syracusan Xarofuai. — XVI. Castra or Bar- 
racks. 1. Castra Praetoria, in the NE. corner 
of the city, on the slope of the Quirinal and 
Viminal, and beyond the Thermae of Diocletian, 
were built by the emperor Tiberius in the form 
of a Roman camp. Here the Praetorian troops 
or imperial guards were always quartered. This 
camp was outside the city limits when it was 
first made, but was incorporated in the Aure- 
lian walls [see above, p. 801, a]. 2. Castra Pere- 
grina, on the Caelian, probably built by Septi- 
mius Severus for the use of the foreign troops, 
who might serve as a counterpoise against the 
Praetorians. 3. The barracks (castra) of the 
Equites Singulares or imperial cavalry guard, 
were on the Caelian hill. The remains of the 
building, with many inscriptions, have been 
found in the Via Tasso, near the Lateran, 
4. Traces of barracks of the Cohortes urbanae 
have been found in the Campus Agrippae : 
there were others near the Thermae of Titus, 
but the exact position for each region is un- 
certain. 5. Remains of the buildings forming 
the stationes or headquarters of the cohorts 
of Vigiles have been found on the Quirinal, 
Esquiline, Aventine, and Caelian ; and inter- 
esting remains of smaller barracks (exoubi- 
toria) near the church of S. Crisogono in 
Trastevere. — XVII. Aqueducts. The Aque- 
ducts (Aquaeductus) supplied Rome with an 
abundance of pure water from the hills which 
surround the Campagna. The Romans at first 
had recourse to the Tiber and to wells sunk in 
the city. It was not till B.C. 313 that the first 
aqueduct was constructed, but their number 



ROMA 



815 



was gradually increased till they amounted to 
eleven. 1. Aqua Appiia, was begun by the 
censor Appius Claudius Caecus in B.C. 313. Its 
sources were near the Via Praenestina, between 
the seventh and eighth milestones, and its 
termination was at the Salinae by the Porta 
Trigemina. Its length was 11,190 passus ; for 
11,130 of which it was carried under the earth, 
and for the remaining sixty passus, within the 
city, from the Porta Capena to the Porta Tri- 
gemina, it was on arches. No traces of it re- 
main. 2. Anio Vetus, commenced B.C. 273, by 
the censor M'. Curius Dentatus, and finished 
by 31. Fulvius Flaccus. The water was de- 
rived from the river Anio, above Tibur, at a dis- 
tance of twenty Roman miles from the city ; 
but on account of its windings its actual length 
was forty-three miles, of which length less than 
a quarter of a mile only (viz. 221 passus) was 
above the ground. There are considerable re- 
mains of this aqueduct on the Aurelian wall, 
near the Porta Maggiore, and also in the 
neighbourhood of Tivoli. 3. Aqua Marcia, 
which brought the coldest and most wholesome 
water to Rome, was built by the praetor Q. 
3Iarcius Rex, by command of the senate, in 
B.C. 144. It started at the side of the Via 
Valeria, thirty-eight miles from Rome ; its 
length was 61,710^ passus, of which only 7463 
were above ground : namely, 528 on solid sub- 
structions, and 6935 on arcbes. It ended near 
the Porta Capena. It was repaired by Agrippa 
in his aedileship, B.C. 33 [see below No. 5], and 
the volume of its water was increased by Au- 
gustus, by means of the water of a spring 800 
passus from it : the short aqueduct which con- 
veyed this water was called Aqua Augusta, 
but is never enumerated as a distinct aqueduct. 
The supply of the 3Iarcian water was restored 
by Pius IX. in 1870, and is called ' Acqua Pia.' 
4. Aqua Tepula, which was built by the censors 
Cn. Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus 
in B.C. 127, began in a spot in the Lucullan or 
Tuscnlan land, two miles to the right of the 
tenth milestone on the Via Latina. 5. Aqua 
Julia. Among the splendid public works exe- 
cuted by Agrippa in his aedileship, B.C. 33, was 
the formation of a new aqueduct, and the resto- 
ration of all the old ones. From a source two 
miles to the right of the twelfth milestone on 
the Via Latina he constructed his aqueduct 
(the Aqua Julia), which was carried for some 
distance on the same arches as Nos. 3 and 4. 
The water was carried along three distinct 
channels, on the same substructions (which 
were probably the original substructions of the 
Aqua Marcia and Aqua Tepula newly restored), 
the lowest channel being the Aqua Marcia, the 
middle Aqua Tepula, and the upper the Aqua 
Julia. In the city the channels were separated 
and carried to different quarters. The arch 
built by Augustus where the triple aqueduct 
crosses a road is still to be seen close to the 
Porta S. Lorenzo. It bears an inscription refer- 
ring to the repairs under Caracalla. The whole 
course of the Aqua Julia, from its source, 
amounted to 15,426 passus, partly on massive 
substructions and partly on arches. 6. Aqua 
Virgo, built by Agrippa to supply his baths. 
Its water was as highly esteemed for bathing as 
that of the Aqua 3Iurcia was for drinking. It 
commenced by the eighth milestone on the 
Via Collatina, and was conducted by a very 
circuitous route, chiefly under the ground, to 
the M. Pincius, whence it was carried on arches 
to the Campus Martins : its length was 14,105 
passua, of which 12,865 were under ground. 



7. Aqua Alsietina, sometimes called also Aqua 
Augusta, on the other side of the Tiber, was 
constructed by Augustus from the Lacus Alsie- 
tinus (Lago di Martignano) which lay 6500 
passus to the right of the fourteenth milestone 
on the Via Claudia, and was brought to the 
part of the Regio Transtiberina below the Jani- 
culum. Its length was 22,172 passus, of which 
only 354 were on arches ; and the water was so 
bad that it could only have been intended for 
the supply of Augustus's Naumachia, and for 
watering gardens. 8, 9. Aqua Claudia, and 
Anio Novus (or Aqua Aniena Nova), the two 
most magnificent of all the aqueducts, both 
begun by Caligula in A.D. 36, and finished by 
Claudius in a.d. 50. The Aqua Claudia com- 
menced near the thirty-eighth milestone on the 
Via Sublacensis. Its water was reckoned the 
best after the Marcia. Its length was 46,406 
passus (nearly 46j miles), of which 9567 were 
on arches. The Anio Novus began at the 
forty-second milestone on the Via Sublacensis. 
Its length was 58,700 passus (nearly 59 miles), 
and some of its arches were 109 feet high. In 
the neighbourhood of the city, these two aque- 
ducts were united, forming two channels on the 
same arches, the Claudia below and the Anio 
Novus above. An interesting monument con- 
nected with these aqueducts is the gate now 
called Porta 3Iaggiore, which was originally a 
magnificent double arch by means of which the 
aqueduct was carried over the Via Labicana 
and the Via Praenestina. Over the double 
arch are three inscriptions, which record the 
names of Claudius as the builder, and of Ves- 
pasian and Titus as the restorers, of the aque- 
duct. By the side of this arch the aqueduct 
passes along the wall of Aurelian for some 
distance, and then it is continued upon the 
Arcus Neroniani or Caelimontani, which were 
added by Nero to carry the water on over the 
Caelian to the Palatine, with a branch passing 
toward the Colosseum. 10. Aqua Trajana, 
was brought by Trajan from the Lacus Saba- 
tinus (now Bracciano) to supply the Janiculum 
and the Regio Transtiberina. 11. Aqua Alex- 
andrina, constructed by Alexander Severus ; 
its source was in the lands of Tusculum, about 
fourteen miles from Rome, between Gabii and 
the lake Regillus. Its small height shows that 
it was intended for the baths of Severus, which 
were in one of the valleys of Rome. These 
eleven were the separate aqueducts of Rome : 
Procopius brings the number up to fourteen by 
reckoning branches drawn ofT from some of 
them. The Aqua Crabra was a small brook 
which flowed under the wall between Porta La- 
tina and the Lateran, and was enclosed in a 
euripus or open channel at the Circus 3Iaximus. 
I Several of these aqueducts have been restored 
I for modern use. (1) The Acqua Vergine, the 
ancient Aqua Virgo, which was restored by 
! Pope PiuB IV. and further embellished by 
Benedict XIV. and Clement XIII. The chief 
portion of its waters gushes out through the 
beautiful Fontana di Trevi, but it also sup- 
plies twelve other public fountains and the 
I greater part of the lower city. (2) The Acqua 
1 Felice, named after the conventual name of 
its restorer Sixtus V. (Fra Felice), is a part 
of the ancient Aqua Alexandrina. It sup- 
plies twenty-seven public fountains and the 
eastern part of the city. (3) The Acqua 
Paola, the ancient Trajana, supplies the 
Trastevere and the Vatican, and feeds, among 
others, the splendid fountains before St. Peter's. 
I (4) The Acqua I'ia, restored in 1870 by 



816 



EOMA 



Pius IX. to convey the water of the Aqua 
Marcia. — XVIII. Sewers. Of these the most 
celebrated was the Cloaca Maxima, constructed 
by Tarquinius Priscus, which was formed to 
carry off the waters brought down from the ad- 
jacent hills into the Velabrum and valley of the 
Forum. It empties itself into the Tiber nearly 
opposite one extremity of the Insula Tiberina. 
This cloaca was formed by three arches, one 
within the other, the innermost of which is a 
semicircular vault about fourteen feet in 
diameter. It is still extant in its original state. 
Even larger than the so-called Cloaca Maxima 
is the cloaca which drained the valley of the 
Circus Maximus and the ground at the base of 
the Caelian, and has its opening about one 
hundred yards below the Cloaca Maxima. That 
which drains the Campus Martius was possibly 
the largest of all. (Plin. xxxvi. 104 ; Dionys. 
iii. 68 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Cloacae.) — XIX. Pa- 
laces. The house of Augustus was built on 
the site of the house of Hortensius on the S. of 
the Palatine overhanging the Circus Maximus, 
where the Villa Mills now stands. The Domus 
Tiberiana, which was originally a separate 
house of Tiberius on the Palatine and was 
afterwards united to the palace of Augustus. 
It was on the W. side of the hill turned towards 
the Velabrum, where a long row of vaulted 
chambers, supposed to be guard-rooms, exist. 
The Palatium was considerably enlarged by 
Caligula, who extended the buildings a long 
way beyond the Domus Tiberiana, across the 
Clivus Victoriae, thus occupying the NW. angle 
of the Palatine ; but it did not satisfy Nero's 
love of pomp and splendour. Nero built two 
magnificent palaces, which must be distinguished 
from one another. The first, called the Domus 
Transitoria Neronis, covered the whole of the 
Palatine, and extended as far as the Esquiline 
to the gardens of Maecenas. This palace was 
burnt to the ground in the great fire of Eome, 
thereupon Nero commenced a new palace, 
known by the name of Domus Aurea, which 
embraced the whole of the Palatine, the Velia, 
the valley of the Colosseum and the heights of 
the Thermae of Titus, extended near the 
Esquiline gate, and was cut through not only 
by the Via Sacra but also by other streets. The 
whole building, however, was not finished at the 
time of Nero's death ; and Vespasian confined 
the imperial palace to the Palatine, converting 
the other parts of the Domus Aurea into public 
or private buildings. The palace itself was not 
finished till the time of Domitian, who adorned 
it with numerous works of art. This, which is 
called the Flavian palace, occupied and filled 
up the depression which divided the summits of 
the Palatine. The emperor Septimius Severus 
added buildings on the S. side of the Palatine, 
extending into the valley towards the Caelian. 
A part of this palace at the SE. base of the lull 
was especially lofty and splendid, and was 
called Septizonium, probably because it had 
seven stories of colonnades. There were con- 
siderable remains of this Septizonium down to 
the end of the sixteenth century, when Six- 
tus V. caused them to be destroyed, and the 
pillars brought to the Vatican. The buildings 
variously called the Souse of Germanicus or 
of Livia stand E. of the remains of the Domus 
Tiberiana, and are remarkable for the preserva- 
tion of its form and even of some of its paint- 
ings ; a crypto-porticus, or covered passage, led 
from it to the palace of Caligula. The Domus 
Gelotiana (Suet. Cat. 18) stood on the SW. 
slope of the Palatine, above the Circus, and 



contains curious writings and drawings cut into 
the plaster, some of which seem to show that at 
one time it was used as a paedagogium for 
the imperial pages. Domus Vectiliana, near 
the Colosseum, was a palace of Commodus. 
Among the numerous private palaces at Eome 
the following were some of the most important. 
Domus Ciceronis, close to the Porticus Catuli, 
on the N. slope of the Palatine, was built by 
M. Livius Drusus, and purchased by Cicero of 
one of the Crassi. It was destroyed by Claudius 
after the banishment of Cicero, but was subse- 
quently rebuilt at the public expense. D. Pom- 
peii, the palace of Pompey, was situated in the 
Carinae near the temple of Tellus. It was 
afterwards the residence of M. Antonius. 
D. Crassi, the palace of L. Crassus the orator, 
on the Palatine. D. Scauri, also on the Pala- 
tine, celebrated for its magnificence, subse- 
quently belonged to Clodius. D. Lateranorum, 
on the E. confines of the Caelian, was a palace 
originally belonging to the distinguished family 
of the Plautii Laterani ; but after the execution 
of Plautius Lateranus under Nero, it became 
imperial property. It was given by Septimius 
Severus to his friend Lateranus, and was sub- 
sequently the palace of Constantine, who 
adorned it with great magnificence. The mo- 
dern Basilica and palace of the Lateran occupies 
most of its site, but there are remains of the 
older palace. — XX. Horti. The Horti were 
parks or gardens which were laid out by 
wealthy Eoman nobles on the hills around the 
city, and were adorned with beautiful buildings 
and works of art. (1) Horti Luculliani, on M. 
Pincius, which hill was hence called Collis 
Hortorum. They were laid out by Lucullus, 
the conqueror of Mithridates. In the reign of 
Claudius they belonged to Valerius Asiaticus, 
who was put to death through the influence of 
Messallina, chiefly because she coveted the 
possession of these gardens. From this time 
they appear to have belonged to the imperial 
house. (2) H. Sallustiani, laid out by the 
historian Sallust, on his return from Numidia, 
in the valley between the Quirinal and the 
Pincius. (3) H. Caesaris, bequeathed by Julius 
Caesar to the people, were situated on the right 
bank of the Tiber at the foot of the Janiculum, 
where Augustus afterwards constructed his 
great Naumachia. (4) H. Maecenatis, in the 
Campus Esquilinus, "bequeathed by Maecenas 
to Augustus and frequently used by the im- 
perial family [see above, p. 805, a]. (5) H. Agrip- 
pinae, on the right bank of the Tiber, at the 
base of the Vatican hill, in which Caligula built 
his Circus. It was here that Nero burnt the 
Christians in tunics covered with pitch to serve 
as lights for his nocturnal games. (Tac. Ann. xv. 
44 ; Juv. i. 155.) Adjoining these were : (6) H. 
Domitiae, also on the right bank of the Tiber, 
in which Hadrian built his Mausoleum. 

(7) H. Pallantiani, on the Esquiline, laid out 
by Pallas, the powerful freedman of Claudius. 

(8) H. Getae, on the other side of the Tiber, 
laid out by Septimius Severus. — XXI. Sepul- 
chral Monuments. (1) Mausoleum Augusti, 
was situated in the Campus Martius and was 
built by Augustus as the burial-place of the 
imperial family. It was surrounded with an 
extensive garden or park, and was considered 
one of the most magnificent buildings of his 
reign; but there are only some insignificant 
ruins of it still extant. (2) Mausoleum Hadri- 
ani, was commenced by Hadrian in the gardens 
of Domitia on the right bank of the Tiber, and 
was connected with the city by the Pons 



ROMA 817 
Aelius ; it was finished and dedicated by Anto- I round the pillar, which represents the emperor's 
ninus Pius, a.d. 140. Here were buried Hadrian, I wars against Decebalus and the Dacians, and 



Antoninus Pius, L. Verus, Commodus, and prob- 
ably also Septimius Severus, Geta, and Cara- 
calla. This building, stripped of its ornaments 
and converted into a fortress before the time 
of Procopius (it is said, by Belisarius), is 



is one of the most valuable authorities for 
archaeological inquiries. (4) Col. Antonini Pii, 
erected in honour of Antoninus Pius after his 
death, consisted of a column of red granite on 
a pediment of white marble, and was situated 




^Qv^j .Trjrji 




T-^tr ---- ^^M ^SSteP |g^-r 



Castle of S. Angelo (Mausoleum ol Hadrian). 



the Castle of S. Angelo. (3) Sepulcrum Scipi- 
onum, the burial-place of the Scipios, was 
situated, left of the Via Appia, near the Porta 
Capena. Mostof the tombs of the distinguished 
Roman families during the Republican period lay 
on the Via Appia. The tomb of the Scipios was 
discovered in 1780, about 400 paces within the 
modern Porta S. Sebastiano. Itcontained many 
interesting monuments and inscriptions, which 
were deposited in the Museo Pio-Clementino. 

(4) Sepulcrum Caeciliae Metellae. [See p. 55G.] 

(5) Sepulcrum Cestii, situated S. of the Aven- 
tine, near the Porta Ostiensis, being partly 
within and partly without the walls of Aurelian. 
This monument, which is still extant, is in the 
form of a pyramid, and was built in the time 
of Augustus for a certain C. Cestius. — XXII. 
Columns. Columns {Columnae) were fre- 
quently erected at Rome to commemorate 
persons and events. (1) Columna Maeniana, 
in the Forum, was erected to the honour of the 
consul C. Maenius, who conquered the Latins 
and took the town of Antium, B.C. 838. (2) Col. 
Rostrata, also in the Forum, erected in honour 
of the consul C. Duilius, to commemorate his vic- 
tory over the Carthaginian fleet, B.C. 260. The 
name of Rostrata was given to it from its being 
adorned with the beaks of the conquered ships. 
Part of its inscribed base was found near 
the Arch of Severus in the sixteenth cent., and 
is preserved in the Capitoline Museum. (3) Col. 
Trajani, in the Forum (also called C. Cochlis, 
from its spiral staircase), in which the ashes of 
the emperor Trajan were deposited. This 
column is still extant, and is one of the most 
interesting monuments of ancient Rome. It 
is, including the pedestal, 117 feet high. The 
top was originally crowned with the statue of 
the emperor ; it is now surmounted by that of 
the apostle Peter. A spiral bas-relief is folded 



in the Campus Martius, near the temple dedi- 
cated to this emperor. It stood not far from 
the Curia Innocenziana on Monte Citorio, in 
the garden of the Casa della Missione. At 
present the basis only is extant, and is pre- 
served in the garden of the Vatican. (5) Col. 
M. Aurelii Antonini, generally called the 
Antonine Column, erected to the memory of 
the emperor M. Aurelius, also in the Campus 
Martius, and still extant. It is an imitation of 
the Column of Trajan, and contains bas-reliefs 
representing the wars of M. Aurelius against 
the Marcomanni. — XXIII. Obelisks. The Obe- 
lisks (Obelisci) at Rome were mostly works of 
Egyptian art, which were transported from 
Egypt to Rome in the time of the emperors. 
Augustus caused two obelisks to be brought to 
Rome, one of which was erected in the Circus 
and another in the Campus Martius. The 
former was restored in 1589, and is called at 
present the Flaminian Obelisk. Its whole 
height is about 110 feet, and without the base 
about 78 feet. The obelisk in the Campus 
Martius was set up by Augustus as a sun-dial. 
It stands at present on the Monte Citorio, 
where it was placed in 1792. Its whole height 
is about 110 feet, and without its base 71 feet. 
Another obelisk was brought to Rome by Cali- 
gula, and placed on the Vatican in the Circus 
of Caligula. It stands at present in front of St. 
Peter's, where it was placed in 1586, and its 
whole height is about 132 feet, and without the 
base and modern ornaments at top about 83 
feet. But the largest obelisk at Rome is that 
which was originally transported from Holio- 
polis to Alexandria by Constantino, and con- 
veyed to Rome by his son Constantius, who 
placed it in the Circus Maximus. Its present 
position is before the north portico of the 
Lateran church, where it was placed in 1588. 

8 O 



818 



KOMULEA 



ROMULUS 



Its whole height is about 149 feet, and without 
the base about 105 feet. There are nine other 
obelisks at Rome, besides those mentioned 
above. — H. Roads leading out of Rome. Of 
these the most important were : (1) ViaLatina, 
the most ancient of the south roads, which 
issued at first from the Porta Capena, and after 
the time of Aurelian from the Porta Latina. 
It joined the Via Appia at Casilinum. (2) Via 
Appia, the Great South Road, also issued from 
the Porta Capena, and was the most cele- 
brated of all the Roman roads. It was com- 
menced by Appius Claudius, when censor, and 
was eventually carried to Brundusium. [Appia 
Via.] (3) Via Ostiensis, originally passed 
through the Porta Trigemina, afterwards 
through the Porta Ostiensis, and kept the left 
bank of the Tiber to Ostia. (4) Via Portaensis, 
issued from the same gate as the Via Ostiensis, 
and kept the right bank of the Tiber to Portus, 
the new harbour founded by Claudius, near 
Ostia. (5) Via Labicana, issued from the Porta 
Esquilina, and passing Labicum fell into the 
Via Latina at the station ad Bivium, thirty 
miles from Rome. (6) Via Praenestina, ori- 
ginally the Via Gabina, issued at first from 
the Porta Esquilina, and subsequently from 
the Porta Praenestina. Passing through Gabii 
and Praeneste, it joined the Via Latina just 
below Anagnia. (7) Via Tiburtina, issued 
originally from the Porta Esquilina, or from 
the Porta Viminalis, and subsequently from 
the Porta Tiburtina, and proceeded to Tibur, 
from which it was continued under the name 
of the Via Valeria, past Corfinium to Adria. 
(8) Via Nomentana, anciently Ficulnensis, ran 
from the Porta Collina, subsequently from the 
Porta Nomentana, across the Anio to Nomen- 
tum, and a little beyond fell into the Via 
Salaria at Eretum. (9) Via Solaria, ran from 
the Porta Collina, subsequently from the Porta 
Salaria, past Pidenae to Reate and Asculum 
Picenum. At Castrum Truentinum it reached 
the coast, which it followed until it joined the 
Via Flaminia at Ancona. (10) Via Flaminia, 
the Great North Road (commenced in the cen- 
sorship of C. Flaminius), issued from the Porta 
Flaminia, and proceeded past Ocriculum, Nar- 
nia and Pisaurum to Ariminum, from which 
town it was continued under the name of the 
Via Aemilia to Placentia and Aquileia. (11) 
Via Aurelia, the Great Coast Road, issued 
originally from the Porta Janiculensis. It 
reached the coast at Alsium, and followed the 
shore of the Lower Sea along Etruria and 
Liguria by Genoa, as far as Forum Julii in 
Gaul. [For the construction of Roman roads, 
see Diet, of Ant. art. Viae.'] 

Romulea, a town of Samnium taken by the 
Romans in the third Samnite war, B.C. 297, 
after which it seems to have fallen into decay 
(Liv. x. 17 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.). Its site seems to 
have been near the modern Bilaccia, on the 
Via Appia, between Aeclanum and Aquilonia. 

Romulus, was the traditional founder of 
Rome, whose name expressed that of the city, 
and whose story grew up out of a number of 
legends connected with the origin of the city 
and of the Roman people, or attempting to 
explain it. [For the meaning of his other name, 
Quikinus, see that article.] The story of 
Romulus commonly accepted by ancient writers 
(Liv. i. 4-15 ; Dionys. i. 72— ii. 76 ; Plut. Romu- 
lus ; Fest. s.v. Roma) runs as follows : — At Alba 
Longa there reigned a long line of kings 
[Silvius] descended from Aeneas. The last of 
these left two sons, Numitor and Amulius. 



Amulius, who was the younger, deprived Nu- 
mitor of the kingdom, but left him his life. 
Fearful, however, lest the heirs of Numitor 
might assert their rights, he murdered the only 
son, and made the daughter, Silvia, or Rhea 
Silvia, one of the Vestal virgins. Silvia was 
violated by Mars, and in course of time gave 
birth to twins. Amulius doomed the guilty 
Vestal and her babes to be drowned in the 
river. [Rhea Silvia.] The stream carried the 
cradle in winch the children were lying into the 
Tiber, which had overflowed its banks far and 
wide. It was stranded at the foot of the Pala- 
tine, and overturned on the root of a wild fig- 
tree, which, under the name of the Ficus Rumi- 
nalis, was preserved and held sacred for many 
ages after. [For the origin of this tradition 
see Rumzna.] A she-wolf, which had come to 
drink of the stream, carried them into her den 
hard by, and suckled them, where they were 
discovered by Faustulus, the king's shepherd, 
who took the children to his own house, and 




Romulus and Remus suckled by the Wolf. (From the 
Etruscan bronze statue in the Capitol.) 



gave them to the care of his wife, Acca Laren- 
tia. They were called Romulus and Remus, 
and were brought up with the other shepherds 
on the Palatine hill. As they grew up, they 
became distinguished by the beauty of their 
person and the bravery of their deeds, and 
fought boldly against wild beasts and robbers. 
A quarrel having arisen between these shep- 
herds and the herdsmen of Numitor, who stalled 
their cattle on the neighbouring hill of the 
Aventine, Remus was taken by a stratagem, 
during the absence of his brother, and carried 
off to Numitor. This led to the discovery of 
the parentage both of Romulus and Remus, 
who now slew Amulius, and placed their grand- 
father Numitor on the throne. — Romulus and 
Remus loved their old abode, and therefore 
left Alba to found a city on the banks of the 
Tiber. A strife arose between the brothers 
where the city should be built, and after whose 
name it should be called. Romulus wished to 
build it on the Palatine, Remus on the Aven- 
tine. It was agreed that the question should 
be decided by augury ; and each took his 
station on the top of his chosen hill (cf. Enn. 
i. 106). The night passed away, and as the day 
was dawning Remus saw six vultures ; but at 
sunrise, when these tidings were brought to 
Romulus, twelve vultures flew by him. Each 
claimed the augury in his own favour ; but the 
shepherds decided for Romulus, and Remus 
was obliged to yield. Romulus now proceeded 
to mark out the pomerium of his city (see 
Diet, of Antiq. s.v.), and to raise the wall. 
Remus, who still resented the wrong he had 
suffered, leapt over the wall in scorn, where- 
upon he was slain by his brother (cf. Ov. Fast. 
iv. 842). As soon as the city was built, Romulus 



ROMULUS 



819 



found his people too few in numbers. He 
therefore set apart, on the Capitoline hill, an 
asylum, or a sanctuary, in which homicides and 
runaway slaves might take refuge. The city 
thus became filled with men, but they wanted 
women. Romulus, therefore, tried to form 
treaties with the neighbouring tribes, in order 
to obtain conubium, or the right of legal 
marriage with their citizens ; but his offers were 
treated with disdain, and according to the 
story, which seems to be an attempt to explain 
the ancient custom of ' marriage by capture,' 
he resolved to obtain by force what he could 
not gain by entreaty. In the fourth month 
after the foundation of the city, he pro- 
claimed that games were to be celebrated 
in honour of the god Consus, and invited 
his neighbours, the Latins and Sabines, to the 
festival (cf. Ov. Fast. iii. 199). Suspecting no 
treachery, they came in numbers, with their 
wives and children. But the Roman youths 
rushed upon their guests, and carried off the 
maidens. Their parents returned home and 
prepared for vengeance. The inhabitants of 
three of the Latin towns, Caenina, Antemnae, 
and Crustumerium, took up arms one after the 
other, and were successively defeated by the 
Romans. Romulus slew with his own hand 
Acron, king of Caenina, and dedicated his arms 
and armour, as spolia opima, to Jupiter. At 
last the Sabine king, Titus Tatius, advanced 
with a powerful army against Rome. The 
fortress of the Saturnian (afterwards called the 
Capitoline) hill, was surrendered to the Sabines 
by the treachery of Tarpeia, the daughter of 
the commander of the fortress. [Tabpeia.] On 
the next day the Romans endeavoured to re- 
cover the lull, and a long and desperate battle 
was fought in the valley between the Palatine 
and the Capitoline. At length, when both 
parties were exhausted with the struggle, the 
Sabine women rushed in between them, and j 
prayed their husbands and fathers to be reeon- ! 
ciled. Their prayer was heard ; the two people 
got only made peace, but agreed to form only 
one nation. The Romans continued to dwell 
bp the Palatine under their king Romulus ; the 
Sabines built a new town on the Capitoline and 
Quirinal hills, where they lived under their king 
Titus Tatius. The two kings and their senates 
met for deliberation in the valley between the 
Palatine and the Capitoline hills, which was ■ 
hence called comitium, or the place of meeting. 
But this union did not last long. Titus Tatius 
was slain at a festival at Lavinium by some 
Laurentines, to whom he had refused satisfac- 
tion for outrages which had been committed by 
his kinsmen. Henceforward Romulus ruled 
alone over both Romans and Sabines. After 
reigning thirty-seven years, he was at length 
taken away from the world. One day as he 
was reviewing his people in the Campus Mar- 
tins, near the Goat's Pool, the sun was suddenly 
eclipsed, darkness overspread the earth, and a 
dreadful storm dispersed the people (a story 
which may have been invented to explain the 
name of the festival Poplifugium or Populi- 
fugium : Diet, of Ant. s.v.). When daylight 
had returned, Romulus had disappeared, for his 
father, Mars, had carried him up to heaven in a 
fiery chariot (Qnirinus Mart is cquis Ache- 
ronta fug it, Hor. Od. iii. 8, 15 ; cf. Ov. Fast. ii. 
496 ; Liv. i. 16 ; Cic. deliep. i. 16, 25). Shortly 
afterwards he appeared in more than mortal 
beauty to Proculus Julius, and bade him tell 
the Romans to worship him as their guardian 
god under the name of Quirinus. Such was 



the glorified end of Romulus in the genuine 
legend. But as it staggered the faith of a later 
age, a tale was invented to account for his 
mysterious disappearance. It was related that 
the senators, discontented with the tyrannical 
rule of their king, murdered him during the 
gloom of a tempest, cut up his body, and carried 
home the mangled pieces under their robes. — 
As Romulus was regarded as the founder of 
Rome, its most ancient political institutions 
and the organisation of the people were ascribed 
to him. Thus he is said to have divided the 
people into three tribes, which bore the names 
Ranines, Tities, and Luceres. The Ramnes 
were supposed to have derived their name from 
Romulus, the Tities from Titus Tatius, the Sa- 
bine king, and the Luceres from Lucumo, an 
Etruscan chief who had assisted Romulus in 
the war against the Sabines. Each tribe con- 
tained ten curiae, which received their names 
from the thirty Sabine women who had brought 
about the peace between the Romans and their 
own people. Further, each curia contained 10 
gentes, and each gens 100 men. Thus the 
people, according to the general belief, were 
divided originally into 3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 
300 gentes, which mustered 3000 men, who 
fought on foot, and were called a legion. Be- 
sides those there were 300 horsemen, called 
Celeres, the same body as the Equites of a 
later time. To assist him in the government 
of the people Romulus is said to have selected 
a number of the aged men in the state, who 
were called Patres or Senatores. The council 
itself, which was called the Senatus, originally 
consisted of 100 members; but this number 
was increased to 200 when the Sabines were in- 
corporated in the state. In addition to the 
senate, there was another assembly, consisting 
of the members of the gentes, which bore the 
name of comitia curiata, because they voted in 
it according to their division into curiae. — This 
legendary account of the eponymous hero of 
the Romans derived from stories of old folk- 
lore and old records interwoven with some 
myths of Greek origin and others invented to 
account for ancient names, customs or rites, 
seems to have been first written in a historical 
form by the annalist Q. Fabius Pictor, who 
lived in the time of the second Punic war. The 
probable origin of Rome has been mentioned 
at the beginning of the article Roma. The 
personality of Romulus seems to have been 
imagined to account for the Latin settlement 
predominating at Rome instead of at the more 
ancient Alba; his name appears to be formed 
(as was the case with most traditions of ancient 
towns, especially in Greece) from that of the 
town itself : very possibly it is connected with 
that of the Ramnes (whose name some interpret 
as meaning ' foresters '). Some writers take 
Romulus and the Ramnes to represent one of 
three races whose union or ' synoikismus ' 
formed the Roman people, the Sabine Titius 
and Titienses representing the second, and the 
Luceres the third ; but there is no ground for 
this supposition : all traditions agree in ascrib- 
ing this triple division to Romulus himself. 
It is not unlikely that the idea of the twin 
brothers Romulus and Remus may have arisen 
from the ancient worship of two Lares [see p. 
474, a], especially as the mother in the story is 
connected with the worship of the state-hearth. 
Similarly connected with a religion perhaps 
even older may be the introduction of tho 
wolf into the story, which may represent a 
tribal observance akin to totemism [cf. HxRPXMI ; 

3 o 2 



820 



BOMULUS 



BUBICO 



Liipebcus]. But the idea of the twins being 
miraculously preserved and suckled by the wolf 
is merely the reappearance of a myth or fairy- 
tale which is met with in Greece and in the 
East, and of which the story of Cyrus the Great 
is an instance. It is possible that it may be 
one of the Greek elements in the story, the 
very fact of an eponymous hero worshipped as 
a god being rather Greek than Italian in cha- 
racter. The rape of the Sabines is probably 
what is called an ' aetiological ' myth, i.e. it was 
an attempt (as was said above) to explain the 
custom of marriage by capture [see Diet, of 
Ant. art. Matrimonium~\. Similarly the story 
of the asylum may be an explanation of the 
sacred spot between the Arx and the Capi- 
tolium [see p. 804, a]. 

Romulus Augustulus. [Augustulus.] 

Romulus Silvlus. [Silvius.] 

Roscianum (Bossano), a fortress on the E. 
coast of Bruttium, between Thurii and Pater- 
num (Procop. B.G. iii. 30). 

Roscillus. [Aegus.] 

Roscius. 1. L., is said to have been sent as 
ambassador by the Romans to Pidenae in B.C. 
438. He and his three colleagues were killed 
by the inhabitants of Pidenae, at the instiga- 
tion of Lar Tolumnius, king of the Veientes. 
The statues of all four were erected in the 
Bostra at Borne. (Liv. iv. 17 ; Plin. xxxiv. 23.) 
— 2. Sex., of Ameria, a town in Umbria. The 
father of this Boscius had been murdered at 
the instigation of two of his relations and fel- 
low-townsmen, T. Boscius Magnus and T. 
Boscius Capito, who coveted the wealth of 
their neighbour. These two Boscii struck a 
bargain with Chrysogonus, the freedman and 
favourite of Sulla, to divide the property of 
the murdered man between them. But as the 
proceeding excited the utmost indignation at 
Ameria, and the magistrates of the town made 
an effort to obtain from Sulla the restitution of 
the property to the son, the robbers accused 
young Boscius of the murder of his father, and 
hired witnesses to swear to the fact. Boscius 
was defended by Cicero (b.c. 80) in an oration 
which is still extant, and was acquitted (Cic. 
pro Bosc. Am.). Cicero's speech was greatly 
admired at the time, and though at a later 
period he found fault with it himself, as bear- 
ing marks of youthful exaggeration and rhe- 
torical embellishment, it displays abundant 
evidence of his great oratorical powers (Cic. 
Orat. 30, 107; Quintil. xii. 6, 4).— 3. Gallus, 
Q., the most celebrated comic actor at Borne, 
was a native of Solonium, a small place in the 
neighbourhood of Lanuvium (Cic. Div. i. 36, 
79, ii. 31, 66). His histrionic powers procured 
him the favour of many of the Boman nobles, 
and, among others, of the dictator Sulla, who 
presented him with a gold ring, the symbol of 
equestrian rank. Boscius enjoyed the friend- 
ship of Cicero, who constantly speaks of him 
in terms both of admiration and affection. 
Boscius was considered by the Bomans to have 
reached such perfection in his own profession 
that it became the fashion to call everyone 
who became particularly distinguished in his 
own art by the name of Boscius (de Or. i. 28, 
130, iii. 26, 101, Brut. 84, 289 ; cf. Hor. Ep. ii. 
1, 82). In his younger years Cicero received 
instruction from Boscius ; and at a later time 
he and Boscius often used to try which of them 
could express a thought with the greatest 
effect, the orator by his eloquence, or the actor 
by his gestures. These exercises gave Boscius 
so high an opinion of his art, that he wrote a i 



work in which he compared eloquence and 
acting. It is possible that Boscius introduced 
the custom, borrowed from the Greeks, of 
acting in masks (cf. Cic. de Or. iii. 69, 221). 
Like his celebrated contemporary, the tragic 
actor Aesopus, Boscius realised an immense 
fortune by his profession (Plin. vii. 129 ; 
Macrob. ii. 10). He died in 62.— One ef Cicero's 
extant orations is entitled Pro Q. Boscio 
Comoedo. It was delivered before the judex 
C. Piso, probably in 68, and relates to a claim 
for 50,000 sesterces, which one C. Fannius 
Chaerea brought against Boscius. — 4. Fabatus. 
[Fabatus.] — 5. Otfio. [Otho.] 

Rotomagus (Bouen), a town on the Sequana 
[Seine), the capital of the Velloeasses, in 
Ptolemy called "ParSfiayos (Amm. Marc. xv. 
11 ; Ptol. ii. 8, 8). 

Roxana ('Pai^dvri), daughter of Oxyartes the 
Bactrian, fell into the hands of Alexander on 
his capture of the hill-fort in Sogdiana, named 
' the rock,' B.C. 327. Alexander was so capti- 
vated by her charms, that he married her. 
(Arrian, An. iv. 18; Curt. viii. 4; Plut. Alex. 
47.) Soon after Alexander's death (323), she 
gave birth to a son (Alexander Aegus), who 
was admitted to share the nominal sovereignty 
with Arrhidaeus, under the regency of Per- 
diccas. Before the birth of the boy she had 
drawn Statira, or Barsine, to Babylon by a 
friendly letter, and there caused her to be mur- 
dered. Boxana afterwards crossed over to 
Europe with her son, and placed herself under 
the protection of Olympias. She shared the 
fortunes of Olympias, and threw herself into 
Pydna along with the latter, where they were 
besieged by Cassander. In 316 Pydna was 
taken by Cassander; Olympias was put to 
death ; and Boxana and her son were placed in 
confinement in Amphipolis. Here they were 
detained under the charge of Glaucias till 311, 
in which year, soon after the general peace 
then concluded, they were murdered in accord- 
ance with orders from Cassander. (Plut. Alex. 
77 ; Arrian. An. vii. 27 ; Diod. xviii. 3, 39, xix. 
11, 52, 105 Strab. pp. 517, 794.) 

Roxolani. [Bhoxolani.] 

Rubellius Blandus. 1. A Boman knight of 
Tibur, who taught rhetoric at Bome in the 
reign of Augustus (Tac. Ann. vi. 27 ; Sen. Gontr. 
i. 7, 13). — 2. Grandson of No. 1, who married 
Julia, daughter of Drusus and grand-daughter 
of Tiberius (Tac. Ann. vi. 27, 45). — 3. Grandson 
of No. 2, and son of Rubellius Plautus, as- 
sumed the surname of his grandfather, and 
was noted for pride in his imperial descent 
(Juv. viii. 39). 

Rubellius Plautus, son of Bubellius 
Blandus (No. 2), and great-grandson of Ti- 
berius. He excited the suspicions of Nero, and 
was ordered to retire to his estates in Asia, a.d. 
60, but by the orders of Nero at the instigation 
of Tigellinus he was murdered there two years 
afterwards. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 19, xiv. 22, 57, 59 ; 
Dio Cass. lxii. 14.) 

Rubi (Rubustinus : Buvo), a town in Apulia 
on the road from Canusium to Brundusium, 
about twenty-eight miles SE. of the former, 
and ten miles from the coast (Hor. Sat. i. 5, 
94 ; Plin. iii. 105). In tombs on the site many 
vases have been found. 

Rubico or Rubicon, a small river in Italy, 
falling'into the Adriatic a little N. of Ariminum, 
formed the boundary in the republican period be- 
tween the province of Gallia Cisalpina and Italia 
proper. [Gallia, p. 354, b.] It is celebrated in 
history on account of Caesar's passage across 



RUBRA 

it at the head of his army, by which act he 
declared war against the republic (App. B.C. 
ii. 35 ; Plut. Caes. 32 ; Suet. Jul. 31 ; Lucan, i. 
185, 213-227). A papal decree, issued in 1756, 
declared the modern Lusa to be the ancient 
Rubico, but the Bugone, a little further N., 
has better claims to this honour. 

Rubra Saxa (Prima Porta), called ' Rubrae 
breves ' (sc. petrae) by Martial, a small place in 
Etruria, nine miles from Rome, near the river 
Cremera, and on the Via Flaminia. It was 
near this spot that the great battle was fought 
in which Maxentius was defeated by Constan- 
tine, a.d. 312. (Liv. ii. 49 ; Cic. Phil. ii. 31 ; 
Tac. Hist. iii. 79 ; Mart. iv. 64, 15.) 

Rubrenus Lappa, a contemporary of Juvenal, 
author of a tragedy called Aireus, obliged 
while he was writing it to live by pawning his 
dress (Juv. vii. 71). 

Rubresus Lacus. [Nabbo.] 

Rubricatus. 1. Or Ubus (Seibous), a con- 
siderable river of Numidia in N. Africa, rising 
in the mountains SE. of Cirta (Constantineh), 
flowing NE., and falling into the Mediterranean 
E. of Hippo Regius (Bonah). (Ptol. iv. 3, 5.) 
— 2. (Llobregat), a small river of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, flowing into the sea W. of Barcino 
{Plin. iii. 21). 

Rubrum Mare. [Erythbaeum Mabe.] 

Rudiae (Rudinus : Bugge), a town of the 
Sallentines or Messapians in Calabria, the 
southernmost part of Apulia, a little W. of Lu- 
piae (Strab. p. 281 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 76). Strabo 
stands alone in calling it a Greek city, and it is 
more likely that it was Messapian. It was after- 
wards a Roman municipium. It had no im- 
portance except as the birthplace of Exkius, 
who is on that account called a ' Calabrian.' 
(Hor. Od. iv. 8, 20 ; Ov. A.A. iii. 409 ; SO. Ital. 
xii. 893.) It is clear, therefore, that Pliny (iii. 
102) and Mela (ii. 4, 7) are wrong in reckon- 
ing it a town of the Pediculi and outside 
Calabria. 

Ruesium or Revessio ('Vviaiov : S. Paulien), 
a town of the Vellavi or Velauni, hence called 
simply Civitas Vellavorum, in Gallia Aquitanica 
(in the modern Velay), on the frontiers of Au- 
vergne (Ptol. ii. 7, 20). 

Rufinus. L P. Cornelius Rufmus, wasconsul 
B.C. 290, with M'. Curius Dentatus, and in con- 
junction with his colleague brought the Samnite 
war to a conclusion, and obtained a triumph in 
consequence. He was consul a second time in 
277, and carried on the war against the Sam- 
nites and the Greeks in Southern Italy. The 
chief event in his second consulship was the 
capture of the important town of Croton. In 
275, Rufinus was expelled from the senate by 
the censors C. Fabricius and Q. Acmilius Papus, 
on account of his possessing ten pounds of 
silver plate. The dictator Sulla was descended 
from this Rufinus. His grandson was the first 
of the family who assumed the surname of 
Sulla. (Liv. Bp. 11, 14 ; Eutrop. ii. 9 ; Veil. 
Pat. ii. 17 ; Plu. Sull. 1 ; Cic. de Or. ii. 66.V— 
2. Licinius Rufinus, a jurist, who lived under 
Alexander Severus. There are in the Digest 
seventeen excerpts from twelve books of Begu- 
lae by Rufinus.— -3. The chief minister of stato 
under Theodosius the Great, was an able, but 
at the same time a treacherous and dangerous 
man. He instigated Theodosius to those cruel 
measures which brought ruin upon Antioch, 
a.d. 890. After the death of Theodosius in 895, 
Rufinus exercised paramount influence over 
the weak Areadius ; but towards the end of the 
year a conspiracy was formed against him by 



RUFUS 



821 



Eutropius and Stilicho, who induced Gainas, 
the Gothic ally of Areadius, to join in the plot. 
Rufinus was in consequence slain by the troops 
of Gainas. (Claudian, Rufinus ; Zos. iv. and v.) 
— 4. Surnamed TyTannius or Turranius, or 
Toranus, an ecclesiastical writer of the fourth 
j century. [Diet, of Christian Biogr.] — 5. A 
grammarian of Antioch, whose treatise Be 
Metris Comicis (or rather extracts from it) 
is contained in the Grammaticae Latinae 
Auctores Antiqui of Putschius, Hannov. 1605. 
He was possibly also the author of a little poem 
in twenty-two lines, Pasiphaes Fabula ex 
omnibus Metris Horatianis, which, as the 
name imports, contains an example of each of 
the different metres employed by Horace. Some 
have also ascribed to him the Carmen de 
Ponderibus (ed. by Hultsch, Script. Metrol.). 
— 6. The author of thirty-eight epigrams in the 
Greek Anthology. His date is uncertain ; but 
there can be no doubt that he was a Byzantine. 
His verses are of the same light amatory cha- 
racter as those of Agathias, Paulus, Macedo- 
nius, and others. [Plantjdes.] 

Rufrae or Rufrium, a town of the Samnites, 
on the borders of Campania (Verg. Aen. vii. 
739 ; Liv. viii. 25 ; Sil. Ital. viii. 568). 

Rufus, Antonius, a Latin grammarian 
(Quintil. i. 5, 43) and poet (Schol. ad Hor. 
A. P. 268) : possibly the lyric poet mentioned by 
Ovid (Pont. iv. 16, 28). 
Rufus, Curtrus. [Cubitus.] 
Rufus Ephesius, so called from the place 
of his birth, a Greek physician, lived in the 
reign of Trajan (a.d. 98-117), and wrote 
several medical works, some of which are still 
extant. 

Rufus, L. Caecilius, brother of P. Sulla by 
the same mother, but not by the same father, 
j He was tribune of the plebs, B.C. 63, when he 
rendered warm support to Cicero, and in parti- 
| cular opposed the agrarian law of Rullus. In 
his praetorship, 57, he joined most of the other 
I magistrates in proposing the recall of Cicero 
from banishment. (Cicero Sull. 22, 23} Dio 
I Cass, xxxvii. 25.) 

j Rufus, M. Caelms, a young Roman noble, 
I distinguished as an elegant writer and eloquent 
speaker, but equally conspicuous for his profli- 
' gacy and extravagance. Notwithstanding his 
I vices he lived on intimate terms with Cicero, 
who defended him in B.C. 56 in an oration still 
extant. The accusation was brought against 
him by Sempronius Atratinus. at the instigation 
I of Clodia Quadrantaria, whom he had lately 
I deserted. Clodia charged him with having 
borrowed money from her in order to murder 
Dion, the head of the embassy sent by Ptolemy 
Auletes to Rome; and with having made an 
attempt to poison her (Cic.^ro Caelio). In 52 
Caelius was tribune of the plebs, and in 50 
aedile. During the years CI and 50 he carried 
on an active correspondence with Cicero, who 
was then in Cilicia, and some of the letters 
which lie wrote to Cicero at that time are pre- 
served in the collection of Cicero's letters (Cic. 
ail Fam. viii. 12, 14). On the breaking out of 
the Civil war in 49 he espoused Caesar's side, 
and was rewarded for his services by the 
praetorship, in 48. Being at this time over- 
whelmed with debt, he availed himself of 
Caesar's absence from Italy to bring forward a 
law for the abolition of debts. He was, how- 
ever, resisted by the other magistrates and 
deprived of his office ; whereupon lie went into 
the S. of Italy to join Milo, whom he had 
secretly sent for from Massilia. Milo was killed 



822 



BUFUS 



BUTILIUS 



near Thurii before Caelius could join him 
[Mho] ; and Caelius himself was put to death 
shortly afterwards at Thurii. (Caes. B. O. iii. 
20-22 ; App. B. C. ii. 22 ; Dio Cass. xiii. 22.) 

Rufus, Minucius. [Minucius.] 

Rufus, Munatius, a friend of Cato the 
younger, about whom he wrote a memoir. In 
58 B.C. he accompanied Cato to Cyprus. (Plut. 
Cat. Min. 9, 30 ; Val. Max. iv. 3, 2.) 

Rufus, Musonius. [Musonius.] 

Rufus, Sextus. [Sextus Rufus. 

Rufus, Valgius. [Valgius.] 

Rugli, an important people in Germany, origi- 
nally dwelt on the coast of the Baltic between 
the Viadus (Oder) and the Vistula (Tac. Germ. 
43). After disappearing a long time from his- 
tory, they are found at a later time in Attila's 
army ; and after Attila's death they founded a 
new kingdom on the N. bank of the Danube in 
Austria and Hungary, the name of which is 
still preserved in the modern Bugiland. (Prop. 
B. G. ii. 14 ; Sidon. Paneg. ad Avit. 319.) They 
have left traces of their name in the country 
which they originally inhabited in the modern 
Biigen, Biigenwalde, Bega, Begenwalde. 

Rullus, P. Servillus, tribune of the plebs 
B.C. 63, proposed an agrarian law, which Cicero 
attacked in three orations which have come 
down to us. It was the most extensive agrarian 
law that had ever been brought forward, in- 
cluding the creation of a board of ten commis- 
sioners to carry it out, each of whom was to 
have military and judicial powers like those of 
a praetor, and powers to raise great sums by 
sale of lands and of the booty in the hands of 
Pompey ; there was moreover a scheme of 
colonisation on a large scale, like that of C. 
Gracchus. The whole measure was an attack 
on the power of the senate, and was instigated 
by Caesar. Cicero's attacks on it had great 
effect, and the bill was so unpopular that it was 
withdrawn by Bullus himself. 

Rumina (from ruma, the breast), the goddess 
who presided over the suckling of children, one 
of the old Italian deities worshipped in the 
Indigitamenta [see p. 443, a]. She had an 
ancient sanctuary on the NW. side of the Pala- 
tine — a shrine with the fig-tree sacred to her 
(Ficus Buminalis), which a (probably) later 
tradition connected with Bomulus : that is to 
say, the story of the suckling of Bomulus and 
Bemus probably grew out of the worship paid 
to Bumina. (Varro, B. B. ii. 2, 5, ii. 11, 5 ; Plut. 
Q. B. 57, Bom. 4, 6 ; cf. Varro, L. L. v. 54 ; Liv. 
i. 4 ; Plin. xv. 77 ; Tac. Ann. xiii. 58.) 

P, RupillUS, consul B.C. 132, prosecuted with 
the utmost vehemence all the adherents of Tib. 
Gracchus, who had been slain in the preceding 
year. In his consulship he was sent into Sicily 
against the slaves, and brought the Servile war 
to a close. He remained in the island as pro- 
consul in the following year ; and, with ten 
commissioners appointed by the senate, he 
made various regulations for the government of 
the province, which were known by the name 
of Leges Bupiliae. [Diet, of Ant. s. v.] Bupi- 
lius was condemned in the tribunate of C. 
Gracchus, 123, on account of his illegal and 
cruel acts in the prosecution of the friends of 
Tib. Gracchus (Veil. Pat. ii. 7). He was an 
intimate friend of ScipioAfricanus the younger, 
who obtained the consulship for him, but who 
failed in gaining the same honour for his brother 
Lucius. He is said to have taken his brother's 
failure so much to heart as to have died in 
consequence. (Cic. de Amic. 19, 71, Tusc. iv. 
17, 40.) 



Ruscino (Bousillon), a town of the Tecto- 
sages in the SE. part of Gallia Narbonensis, 
at the foot of the Pyrenees, on the river 
Buscino (Tet), and on the road from Spain to 
Narbo. A salt-water lake near it was famed 
for mullets. (Liv. xxi. 24 ; Strab. p. 182 ; PtoL 
ii. 10, 9.) 

Rusellae (Busellanus: near Grosseto, Ru.), 
one of the most ancient cities of Etruria, prob- 
ably one of the twelve cities of the Etruscan 
League, situated on an eminence E. of the lake 
Prelius and on the Via Aurelia. It is first 
mentioned in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. 
(Dionys. iii. 51). It was taken by the Bomans 
in B.C. 294, when 2000 of its inhabitants were 
slain, and as many more made prisoners (Liv. 
x. 37). It was subsequently a Roman colony, 
(Plin. iii. 51) and continued in existence till 
1138, when its inhabitants were removed to 
Grosseto. The walls of Busellae still remain, 
and are among the most ancient in Italy. 
They are formed of enormous masses of traver- 
tine, piled up without regard to form, with 
small stones inserted in the interstices. The 
masses vary from six to eight feet in length, 
and from four to eight in height. The area 
enclosed by the walls forms an irregular quad- 
rangle, between 10,000 and 11,000 feet, or about 
two miles in circuit. 

Rusicada (SE. of Storah, Ru.), a seaport 
and Boman colony in Numidia, used especially 
as the port of Cirta (Plin. v. 22; Plot. iv. 
3, 3). 

Ruspinum, a town of Africa Propria (Byza- 
cium), two miles from the sea, between Leptis 
Parva and Hadrumetum (Strab. p. 831 ; Plin. 

v. 25 ; Bell. Afr. 6). 

Russadir (Bas-ud-Dir, or C. di Tres Foreas : 
Bus in ancient Punic, and Bas in Arabic, alike 
mean cape), a promontory of Mauretania 
Tingitana, in N. Africa, on the coast of the 
Metagonitae. SE. of it was a city of the same 
name (prob. Melillah). (Plin. v. 9; Ptol. iv. 1, 

Rusticus, FablUS, a Boman historian, in the 
reigns of Claudius and Nero, and a friend of 
Seneca (Tac. Agr. 10, Ann. xiii. 20, xiv. 2). 

Rusticus. 1. L. Junius Arulenus, more 
usually called Arulenus Rusticus, but some- 
times Junius Busticus. He was a friend and 
pupil of Paetus Thbasea, and an ardent, 
admirer of the Stoic philosophy. He was put 
to death by Domitian, because he had written 
a panegyric upon Thrasea. (Tac. Ann. xvi. 
25, Hist. iii. 90, Agr. 2 ; Dio Cass, lxvii. 13 ; 
Plin. Ep. i. 5, iii. 11 ; Suet. Dom. 10.)— 2. Q. 
Junius, probably a grandson of the above, a 
Stoic philosopher, and one of the teachers of 
M. Aurelius, who had a great regard for him, 
and raised him to the consulship (Dio Cass. 
Ixxi. 35 ; Capitol. M. Ant. Phil. 2, 6 ; C. I. L- 

vi. 858). 

Rusucurrum (Coleah, opposite Algier), a 
considerable seaport in the E. part of Mau- 
retania Caesariensis, constituted a Boman 
colony under Claudius (Ptol. iv. 2, 2; Plin. 
v. 20). 

Ruteni, a people in Gallia Aquitanica on the 
frontiers of Gallia Narbonensis in the modern 
Bovergne. Their chief town was Segodunum,. 
afterwards Civitas Butenorum (Bodez). The 
country of the Ruteni contained silver mines, 
and produced excellent flax. (Plin. iv. 109 ; 
Ptol. ii. 7, 21 ; Strab. p. 191.) 

Rutilius Lupus. [Lupus.] 

Rutilius Namatianus, Claudius, a Boman 
poet, and a native of Gaul, lived at the 



KUTILIUS 

beginning of the fifth century of the Christian 
era. He resided at Rome a considerable time, 
where he attained the dignity of praefectus 
urbi, about a.d. 413 or 414 {Cod. Theod. vi. 26, 
8). He afterwards returned to his native 
country, and has described his return to Gaul 
in an elegiac poem, which bears the title of 
Itinerarium, or Be Beditu. Of this poem the 
first book, consisting of 644 lines, and a small 
portion of the second, have come down to us. 
It is superior both in poetical colouring and 
purity of language to most of the productions of 
the age ; and the passage in which he celebrates 
the praises of Eome is not unworthy of the pen 
of Claudian. Its versification is admirable. 
Butilius was a heathen, and attacks the Jews 
and monks with no small severity. — Editions 
by L. Miiller, 1870, and in Poet. Lat. Min. by 
A. W. Zumpt, Berlin, 1840. 

P. Butilius Rufus, a Roman statesman and 
orator. He was military tribune under Scipio 
in the Numantine war, praetor B.C. Ill, consul 
105, and legatus in 95, under Q. Mucius 
Scaevola, proconsul of Asia. While acting in 
this capacity he displayed so mucb honesty and 
firmness in repressing the extortions of the 
publicani, that he became an object of fear and 
hatred to the whole body. Accordingly, on his 
return to Rome, he was impeached of malver- 
sation (de repetundis), found guilty, and com- 
pelled to withdraw into banishment, 92. (Cic. 
Brut. 22, 85 ; 30, 113 ; pro Ball. 11, 28 ; Tac. 
Ann. iv. 43.) He retired first to Mytilene, and 
from thence to Smyrna, where he fixed his 
abode, and passed the remainder of his days in 
tranquillity, having refused to return to Rome, 
although recalled by Sulla. Besides his ora- 
tions, Rutilius wrote an autobiography, and a 
History of Rome in Greek, which contained an 
account of the Numantine war, but we know 
not what period it embraced. (Charis. i. 120, 
125 ; Isid. Or. xxii. 11 j Liv. xxxix. 52 ; Gell. 
vi. 14.) 

Rutilus, C. Marclus, was consul B.C. 357, 
when he took the town of Privernum. In 356 
he was appointed dictator, being the first time 
that a plebeian had attained this dignity. In 
his dictatorship he defeated the Etruscans with 
great slaughter. In 352 he was consul a 
second time ; and in 351, he was the first ple- 
beian censor. He was consul for the third time 
in 344, for the fourth time in 342. (Liv. vii. 
16, 21, 88.) The son of this Rutilus took the 
surname of Censorinus, which in the next 
generation entirely supplanted that of Rutilus, 
and became the name of the family. [Censo- 
rinus.^ 

Butuba (Boya), a river which rises in the 
Col di Tenda and flows into the sea at Albium 
Intemelium (Ventimiglia), on the coast of 
Liguria (Luc.'ii. 422; Plin. iii. 48). 

Butuli, an ancient people in Italy, inhabit- 
ing a narrow slip of country on the coast of 
Latium a little to the S. of the Tiber. Their 
chief town was Ardea, which was the residence 
of Turnus. They were subdued at an early 
period by the Romans, and disappear from 
history (Dionys. v. 61 ; Liv. i. 56 ; Tubnus). 

Butupaeor Biitupiae (Bichborough), a port 
town of the Cantii in the SE. of Britain, from 
whicli the passage was commonly made to the 
harbour of Gessoriacum in Gaul (Lucan, vi. 
67 ; Ptol. ii. 8, 27 ; Amm. Marc. xx. 1, xxvii. 8). 
Excellent oysters were obtained in the neigh- 
bourhood of this place (Butupino edita fundo 
ostrea, Juv. iv. 141). There are still several 
Boman remains at Bichborough. 



SABINA 



823 



Saba. [Sabaei.] 

Sabacon iSa/Safcwj^Shabaka or Shabatak), 
according to Herodotus (ii. 137-140), a king oi 
Ethiopia who invaded Egypt in the reign of 
the blind kingAnysis, whom he dethroned and 
drove into the marshes. The Ethiopian con- 
queror then reigned over Egypt for fifty years, 
but at length quitted the country in conse- 
quence of a dream ; whereupon Anysis regained 
his kingdom. In Manetho's account there 
were three Ethiopian kings who reigned over 
Egypt, named Sabacon, Sebichus, and Tara- 
cus, whose collective reigns amount to forty or 
fifty years, and who form the twenty-fifth 
dynasty of that writer. The Ethiopian dynasty 
was the twenty-fifth, which displaced and put to 
death Bakenraf (Bocchoris), having invaded and 
occupied Egypt from Napata in Ethiopia 
about 733 B.C. The invasion was led by the 
priest-king Piankhi, who overthrew the various 
petty princes who ruled in different parts of 
Egypt. The other kings of the dynasty were 
Shabaka (Sabacon) about 700 B.C., Shabataka, 
and Taharaqa ( = Tirhakah), who reigned at 
Thebes B.C. 693-666 and fought against the in- 
vading Assyrian kings Sennacherib, Esarhaddon 
and Assurbanipal. 

Sabaei or Sabae (Saftaioi, 2aj3at : O. T. She- 
baiim), one of the chief peoples of Arabia, 
dwelt in the SW. corner of the peninsula, in 
the most beautiful part of Arabia Felix, the N. 
and centre of the province of El-Yemen. The 
Sabeans of El-Yemen were celebrated for their 
wealth and luxury. (Ptol. vi. 7, 23 ; Catull. xi. 
5; Propert. ii. 10, 16 ; Verg. Georg.i. 57, Aen. 
i. 416 ; Hor. Od. i. 29, 2, ii. 12, 24.) Their 
country produced all the most precious spices 
and perfumes of Arabia, and they carried on an 
extensive trade with the East. Their capital 
was at Saba, where we are told that their king 
was kept a close prisoner in his palace. (Dio 
Cass. liii. 29 ; Strab. p. 771.) The Homeritae 
were subsequently the dominant tribe in their 
district. [Arabia, p. 96, a ; Homeritae.] 

Sabate (Trevignano), a town of Etruria, on 
the road from Cosa to Rome, and on the N"W. 
corner of a lake which was named after it 
Lacus Sabatinus (Lago diBracciano). (Strab. 
p. 226 ; Liv. vi. 4.) 

Sabatini, a people in Campania, who derived 
their name from the river Sabatus (Sabbato), a 
tributary of the Calor, which flows into the 
Vulturnus (Liv. xxvi. 38). 

Sabaria or Savaria I Stein, on the Anger) a 
town in the N. of Upper Pannonia, which in 
the time of Augustus and Tiberius, like 
Carnuntum, belonged to Noricum. Claudius 
made it a colony (Plin. iii. 146; Ptol. ii. 15, 4). 
Sept. Severus was proclaimed emperor here 
(Aurel. Vict. Ep. 19). 

Sabazius I2a/3o(ios) a Thracian and Phry- 
gian deity, identified sometimes with Zeus but 
usually with Dionysus [pp. 293, b, 295, a], and 
worshipped in connexion with Rhea-Cybele. 
The snake was sacred to him (Theophrast. 
Char. 28), either because it was taken as a 
symbol of the earth and its reproduction of 
fruits, or in allusion to the story of Dionysus 
Zagreus [p. 290, a]. 

Sabelli. [Sabini.] 

Sabina, the wife of the emperor Hadrian, 
was the grand-niece of Trajan, being the 
daughter of Matidia, who was the daughter of 
Marciana, the sister of Trajan. Sabina was 
married to Hadrian about a.d. 100, through the 



824 



SABINA 



influence of Plotina, the wife of Trajan. The 
marriage did not prove a happy one. Sabina 
at length put an end to her life : for no 
credence need be attached to the report that 
she had been poisoned by her husband. She 
was alive in 136, and probably did not die till 
138, a few months before Hadrian. She was 
enrolled among the gods after her decease. 
(Spart. Badr. 1, 2, 11, 23 ; Aurel. Vict. Ep. 14 ; 
Oros. vii. 13.) 

Sabina, Poppaea, a woman of surpassing 
beauty, but licentious morals, was the daughter 
of T. Ollius, but assumed the name of her 
maternal grandfather, Poppaeus Sabinus, who 
had been consul in A.D. 9. She was first 
married to Rufius Crispinus, and afterwards to 
Otho, who was one of the boon companions of 
Nero. The latter soon became enamoured of 
her, and in order to get Otho out of the way 
Nero sent him to govern the province of Lusi- 
tania (58). Poppaea now became the acknow- 
ledged mistress of Nero, over whom she 
exercised absolute sway. Anxious to become 
the wife of the emperor, she persuaded Nero 
first to murder his mother, Agrippina (59), who 
was opposed to such a disgraceful union, and 
■next to divorce and shortly afterwards put to 
death his innocent and virtuous wife, Octavia 
(62). Immediately after the divorce of Octavia, 
Poppaea became the wife of Nero. In the 
following year she gave birth to a daughter at 
Antium ; but the infant died at the age of four 
months. In 65 Poppaea was pregnant again, 
but was killed by a kick from her brutal 
husband in a fit of passion. She was enrolled 
among the gods, and a magnificent temple was 
dedicated to her by Nero. Poppaea was in- 
ordinately fond of luxury and pomp, and took 
immense pains to preserve the beauty of her 
person. Thus we are told that all her mules 
were shod with gold, and that 500 asses were 
daily milked to supply her with a bath. (Tac. 
Ann. xiii. 45, xiv. 1, 60, xv. 23, xvi. 6, 21 ; Suet. 
Ner. 35 ; Dio Cass. lxi. 11, lxii. 27, lxiii. 26.) 

Sabini, one of the most ancient and powerful 
of the peoples of central Italy, for whom the 
ancients found an eponymous hero in Sabinus, 
a son of the native god Sancus. The word 
Sabellus is an adjective applied to the Samnites 
and also used as an equivalent for the adjectival 
Sabinus. (Liv. viii. 1 ; Verg. Georg. ii. 167, 
Aen. vii. 665 ; Hor. Od. iii. 6, 37.) The Sabini, 
or Sabellian race, though having a common 
parentage with the Oscans and Latins, were 
more closely connected with the Umbrians, 
from whom they branched off at a later period 
[see p. 453, a]. Eventually the Umbrian branch 
of the Umbro- Sabellian stock settled on the 
East of the Apennines in the district thence- 
forth called Umbkia ; the Sabellian branch mi- 
grated further southward and was again sub- 
divided ; the Sabini proper retaining the 
country between the Nar, the Anio and the 
Tiber, between Latium, Etruria, Umbria and 
Picenum. This district was mountainous, and 
better adapted for pasturage than corn. The 
chief towns were Amiternum (according to Cato, 
ap. Dionys. i. 14, ii. 49, the oldest town of the 
Sabines), Eeate, Nursia, Cutiliae, Cures, Ere- 
trum and Nomentum. Prom this district at 
various times other migratory bands went forth, 
who are described in separate articles : the 
Vestini, Marsi, Marrucini, Paeligni, Frentani, 
Hirpini, Picentes, and (most important and 
powerful of all) the Samnites. [Samnium.] 
The Sabellian tribes adopted a peculiar system 
of emigration. In times of great danger and 



SABINUS 

distress they vowed a Ver Sacrum, or Sacred 
Spring, and all the children born in that 
spring were regarded as sacred to the god, and 
were compelled, at the end of twenty years, to 
leave their native country and seek a new home 
in foreign lands. [Diet, of Ant. art. Ver 
Sacrum.^ The Sabines were distinguished by 
their hardy and frugal manner of life (Liv. i. 
18; Cic. Vatin. 15, 37; Hor. Od. iii. 6, 38, 
Epod. 2, 41 ; Juv. iii. 169), and their piety, 
which in their use of incantations took the form 
of extreme superstition (Hor. Epod. 17, 28, 
Sat. i. 9, 29). [For the union of the Sabines and 
Latins see Roma.] The Sabini proper were 
subdued by M'. Curius Dentatus, b.c. 290 (Liv. 
Ep. 11 ; Flor. i. 15), and in 268 received the 
Roman franchise, after which date they 
reckoned as part of the Roman state with full 
citizenship (Veil. Pat. i. 14). 

Sabinus. 1. A contemporary poet and a 
friend of Ovid. Ovid informs us that Sabinus 
had written answers to six of the Epistolae 
Heroidum of Ovid (Ov. Am. ii. 18, 27, Pont. 
iv. 16, 13.) Three answers enumerated by Ovid 
in this passage are printed in many editions of 
the poet's works as the genuine poems of 
Sabinus, but they were written by a modern 
scholar, Angelus Sabinus, about the year 1467. 
— 2. M. Caelius, a Roman jurist, who succeeded 
Cassius Longinus, was consul a.d. 69. He was 
not the Sabinus from whom the Sabiniani took 
their name [see below, No. 7]. He wrote a 
work, Ad Edictum Aedilium Curulium. 
There are no extracts from Caelius in the 
Digest, but he is often cited, sometimes as 
Caelius Sabinus, sometimes by the name of 
Sabinus only (Cell. iv. 2, vi. 4). — 3. C. CalvMus, 
one of Caesar's legates in the Civil war, B.C. 48 
(Caes. B. C. iii. 34). In 45 he received the 
province of Africa from Caesar. Having been 
elected praetor in 44, he obtained from Antony 
the province of Africa again ; but he did not 
return to Africa, as the senate, after the depar- 
ture of Antony for Mutina, conferred the pro- 
vince upon Q. Cornificius. Sabinus was consul 
39, and in the following year commanded the fleet 
of Octavian in the war with Sex. Pompeius. He 
was superseded by Agrippa in the command of 
the fleet. He is mentioned at a later time as 
one of the friends of Octavian. (Dio Cass, 
xlviii. 34, 46 ; App. B. C. v. 81, 96, 132.)— 4. T. 
Flavius, father of the emperor Vespasian, was 
one of the farmers of the taxes in Asia, and 
afterwards carried on business as a money- 
lender among the Helvetians (Suet. Vesp. 1). — 
5. Flavius, elder son of the preceding, and 
brother of the emperor Vespasian. He governed 
Moesia for seven years during the reign of 
Claudius, and held the important office of prae- 
fectus urbi during the last eleven years of 
Nero's reign. He was removed from this office 
by Galba, but was replaced in it on the acces- 
sion of Otho, who was anxious to conciliate 
Vespasian, who commanded the Roman legions 
in the East. He continued to retain the dig- 
nity under Vitellius, but when Vespasian was 
proclaimed imperator by the legions in the East, 
and Antonius Primus and his other generals in 
the West, after the defeat of the troops of 
Vitellius, were marching upon Rome, Vitellius, 
despairing of success, offered to surrender the 
empire, and to place the supreme power in the 
hands of Sabinus till the arrival of Vespasian 
The German soldiers of Vitellius, however, 
refused submission to this arrangement, and 
resolved to support their sovereign by arms. 
Sabinus thereupon took refuge in the Capitol, 



SABIS 

where he was attacked by the Vitellian troops. 
In the assault the Capitol was burnt to the 
ground, Sabinus was taken prisoner, and put to 
death by the soldiers in the presence of Vitellius, 
who endeavoured in vain to save his life. Sa- 
binus was a man of distinguished reputation, 
and of unspotted character. He left two sons, 
Flavius Sabinus, and Flavins Clemens. (Tac. 
Hist. i. 46, ii. 55, iii. 64-74, iv. 47 ; Dio Cass. lv. 
17; Suet. Vesp. 1, Vitell. 15.)— 6. Flavius, 
son of the preceding, married Julia, the daugh- 
ter of Ins cousin Titus. He was consul 82, with 
his cousin Domitian, but was afterwards slain 
by the latter. (Dio Cass. lxv. 17 ; Suet. Horn. 

10. ) — 7. Masurlus, a hearer of Ateius Capito, 
was a distinguished jurist in the time of Ti- 
berius (Gell. iv. 1, v. 6 ; Macrob. iii. 6, 11). 
This is the Sabinus from whom the school of 
the Sabiniani took its name. [Capito.] There 
is no direct excerpt from Sabinus in the Digest, 
but he is often cited by other jurists, who com- 
mented upon his Libri tres Juris Civilis. It 
is conjectured that Persius means to refer to 
this work [Sat. v. 90), when he says, ' Excepto 
si quid Masuri rubrica vetavit.' Masurius also 
wrote numerous other works, which are cited by 
name in the Digest. — 8. Nymphldius. [Nyji- 
phtdils.] — 9. Poppaeus, consul a.d. 9, was 
appointed in the lifetime of Augustus governor 
of Moesia, and was not only confirmed in this 
government by Tiberius, but received from the 
latter the provinces of Achaia and Macedonia 
in addition. He continued to hold these pro- 
vinces till his death, in 35, having ruled over 
Moesia for twenty-four years. He was the 
maternal grandfather of Poppaea Sabina, the 
mistress, and afterwards the wife, of Nero. 
(Suet. Vesp. 2; Tac. Ann. i. 80, iv. 46, xiii. 45.) 
— 10. T. Sicinius. consul B.C. 487, fought 
successfully against the Volsci. (Liv. ii. 40; 
Dionys. viii. 64, 67.) — 11. Titius, a Roman 
knight, friend of Germanicus, executed through 
the influence of Sejanus (Tac. Ann. iv. 18, 68, 
70, vi. 4; Dio Cass, lviii. 1).— 12. Q. Titurius, 
one of Caesar's legates in Gaul, who perished 
along with L. Aurunculeius Cotta in the attack 
made upon them by Ambiorix in B.C. 54 (Caes. 
B. G. ii. 5, iii. 17, v. 24 ; Suet. Jul. 26). 

Sabis (Sambre). 1. A broad and deep river 
in Gallica Belgica and in the territory of the 
Ambiani, falling into the river Mosa (Caes. B. G. 

11. 16). — 2. A small river on the coast of Car- 
mania (Mel. iii. 8). — 3. See Sapis. 

Sabrata. [Abrotonum.] 

Sabrina, also called Sabriana (Severn), a 
river in the W. of Britain, which flowed by 
Venta Silurum into the ocean (Ptol. ii. 8 ; 
Tac. Ann. xii. 81). 

Sacadas (5outo8os), of Argos, an eminent 
Greek musician, was one of the masters who 
established at Sparta the second great school 
of music, of which Thaletas was the founder, as 
Terpander had been of the first. He gained 
the prize for flute-playing at the first of the 
musical contests which the Amphictyons es- 
tablished in connexion with the Pythian games 
(B.C. 590), and also at the next two festivals in 
succession (586, 582). Sacadas was a composer 
of elegies, as well as a musician (Plut. tie Mas. 
8-12, pp. 1134,1185). 

Sacae (Zdiecu), one of the most numerous and 
most powerful of the Scythian nomad tribes, 
had their abodes E. and NE. of the Massagetae, 
as far as Serica, in the steppes of Central Asia, 
which are now peopled by the Kirnhiz Khasaks, 
in whose name that of their ancestors is traced 
by some geographers. They wero very warlike, 



SAETABIS 



625 



and excelled especially as cavalry, and as 
archers both on horse and foot. Their women 
shared in their military spirit ; and, if we are 
to believe Aelian, they had the custom of 
settling before marriage whether the man or 
woman should rule the house, by the result of 
a combat between them. In early times they 
extended their predatory incursions as far W. 
as Armenia and Cappadocia. They were made 
tributary to the Persian empire, to the army 
of which they furnished a large force of cavalry 
and archers, who were among the best troops 
that the king of Persia had. (Hdt. iv. 6, v. 113, 
vii. 64 ; Xen. Cyr. v. 3, 32 ; Strab. p. 511 ; Arr. 
An. iii. 8, 11.) It should be remembered that 
the name of the Sacae is often used loosely for 
other Scythian tribes, and sometimes for the 
Scythians in general. 

Sacasene (ScucaoTjWj), a fertile district of Ar- 
menia Major, on the river Cyrus and the con- 
fines of Albania, so called from its having been 
at one period conquered by the Sacae (Strab. 
pp. 73, 509, 511, 529). 

Sacastene (ScuccktttjWj), a district of Drangi- 
ana, apparently, at one time occupied by the 
Sacae (Arr. Peripl. Mar. Enjth. 38). It is 
conjectured that the name Seistan is formed 
from Sacastene. 

Sacer Mons, an isolated hill in the country 
of the Sabines, on the right bank of the Anio 
and W. of the Via Nomentana, three miles 
from Pome, to which the plebeians repaired in 
their secessions (Liv. ii. 32 ; Dionys. vi. 45). 
The hill is not called by any special name at 
the present day, but there is upon its summit 
the Torre di Specchio. 

Sacili, with the surname Martialium, a town 
of the Turduli in Hispania Baetica (Plin. iii. 
11). 

Sacra Via. [Roma, p. 805, a.] 

Sacraria, a town in Umbria on the road be- 
tween Treba and Spoletium, supposed to be 
identical with Clitumni Fanum on the river 
Clitujinus. 

SacriportUS, a small place in Latium, of un- 
certain site, memorable for the victory of Sulla 
over the younger Marius, B.C. 82 (App. B. C. 
i. 87; Veil. Pat. ii. 26; Lucan, ii. 144). 

Sacrum Promontorium. 1. (C. St. Vincent), 
on the W. coast of Spain, said by Strabo to be 
the most westerly point in the whole earth 
(Strab. p. 137).— 2. (C. Khelicloni), a pro- 
montory in Lycia, near the confines of Pam- 
phylia, and opposite the Chelidoniun islands, 
whence it was also called Prom. Chelidonium 
(Strab. p. 682). 

Sadocus (2o5o(coj), son of Sitalces, king of 
Thrace, was made a citizen of Athens B.C. 431 
(Thuc. ii. 29, 67 ; Sitalces). 

Sadyattes i2a8uoTT7js), king of Lydia, suc- 
ceeded his father, Ardys, and reigned B.C. 629- 
617 (Hdt. i. 16, 18). He carried on war with 
the Milesians for six years, and at his death 
bequeathed the war to his eon and successor, 
Alyattes. [Alyattes.] 

Saepinum or Sepinum (Sepinas, -atis: Se- 
pino), a municipium in Samnium on the road 
from Allifao to Beneventum (Liv. x. 14 ; Plin. 
iii. 107). 

Saetabis. 1. (Alcoy?), a river on the S. 
coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, S. of the Sucro 
(Ptol. ii. 6, 14).— 2. Or Setabis (Setabitanus: 
Jativa), an important town of the Contestant 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a Roman muni- 
cipium, was situated on a hill S. of the Sucro, 
and was celebrated for its manufacture of linen 
(Strab. p. 160 ; Plin. iii. 25, xix. 9 ; Catull. 12, 14). 



82G 



SAGALASSUS 



SALAMIS 



Sagalassus (ZayaAcuraos, or SeA/yijtnrds : 
Aghlasuri), a large fortified city of Pisidia, near 
the Phrygian border, a day's journey SE. of 
Apamea Cibotus. It lay, as its large ruins still 
show, in the form of an amphitheatre on the 
side of a hill, and had a citadel on a rock thirty 
feet high. It was taken by assault by Alex- 
ander the Great (Arr. An. i. 18). Its inhabi- 
tants were reckoned the bravest of the Pisidians, 
and seem, from the word AaKeSa'i/xwv on their 
coins, to have claimed a Spartan origin (Strab. 
p. 569; Liv. xxxviii. 15; Steph. s. v.). Among 
the ruin3 of the city are the remains of a very 
fine temple, of an amphitheatre, and of fifty- 
two other large buildings. 

Saganus (~2,a.yav6s), a small river on the coast 
of Carmania (Ptol. vi. 8, 4). 

Sagaris, a river of Sarmatia Europaea, falling 
into a bay in the NW, of the Euxine, which 
was called after it Sagaricus Sinus, and which 
also received the river Axiaces (Ov. Pont. iv. 
10, 47 ; Plin. iv. 82). The bay appears to be 
that on which Odessa now stands, and the rivers 
the Bol-Eouialnik and the Mal-Eouialnik. 

Sagartii ('Saydprioi), according to Herodotus, 
a nomad people of Persia. Afterwards they 
are found, on the authority of Ptolemy, in 
Media and the passes of M. Zagros. (Hdt. i. 125.) 

Sagra, a small river in Magna Graecia on the 
SE. coast of Bruttium, falling into the sea be- 
tween Caulonia and Locri, on the banks of 
which [see p. 258, b] a memorable victory was 
gained by 10,000 Locrians over (as it was said) 
120,000 Crotoniates (Strab. p. 261 ; Cic. N. D. 

iii. 5 ; Just, xx. 3; Plin. iii. 95). This victory 
appeared so extraordinary that it gave rise to 
the proverbial expression, ' It is truer than what 
happened on the Sagra,' when a person wished 
to make any strong asseveration (Suid. s. v.). 

Sagrus (Sangro), a river of Samnium, which 
rises in the Marsian and Paelignian hills, and 
flows, with a course of about seventy miles, into 
the Adriatic N. of Histonium (Strab. p. 242 ; 
Ptol. iii. 1, 19). 

Saguntia. 1. (Xigonza or Gigonza, NW. of 
Medina Sidonia), a town in the W. part of His- 
pania Bastica, S. of the Baetis (Liv. xxxiv. 12 ; 
Plin. iii. 16). — 2. A town of the Arevaci in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, SW. of Bilbilis, near the 
Mons Solarius (App. B. C. i. 110 ; Plut. Sert. 21). 

Saguntum, more rarely Saguntus (Sagunti- 
nus : Murviedro), a town of the Edetani or Sede- 
tani in Hispania Tarraconensis, S. of the Iberus 
on the river Palantias, about three miles from 
the coast. It is said to have been founded by 
Greeks from Zacynthus, with whom Rutulians 
from Ardea were intermingled, whence it is 
sometimes called Ausonia Saguntus. (Strab. 
p. 159 ; Liv. xxi. 7 ; Sil. Ital. i. 332.) It was 
situated on an eminence in the midst of a 
fertile country, and became a place of great 
commercial importance. Although S. of the 
Iberus, it had formed an alliance with the Ro- 
mans; and its siege by Hannibal, B.C. 219, was 
the immediate cause of the second Punic war. 
The inhabitants defended their city with the 
utmost bravery against Hannibal, who did not 
succeed in taking the place till after a siege of 
nearly eight months (Liv. xxi. 14). The greater 
part of the city was destroyed by Hannibal ; 
but it was rebuilt by the Bomans eight years 
afterwards, and made a colony (Liv. xxviii. 39 ; 
Plin. iii. 20). Saguntum was celebrated for its 
manufacture of beautiful drinking-cups (Mart. 

iv. 46, xiv. 108 ; Plin. xxxv. 160) ; and the figs 
of the surrounding country were much valued 
in antiquity (Plin. xv. 72). The ruins of the I 



ancient town, consisting of a theatre and a. 
temple of Bacchus, are extant at Murviedro, 
which is a corruption of Muri veteres. 

Sals (2ai's,2aiT?7s : Sa-el-Hajjar, Bu.), a great 
city of Egypt, in the Delta, on the E. side of 
the Canopic branch of the Nile in lower Egypt 
(Hdt. ii. 169). It was the capital of the twenty- 
fourth and twenty-sixth dynasties, and under 
the twenty-sixth dynasty (b.c. 666-528) became 
the capital of all Egypt and both the residence 
and the burial-place of the kings of these two 
dynasties. Its accessibility to Greek traders 
increased its wealth, but after the foundation 
of Alexandria all its importance passed to that, 
city. It was the chief seat of the worship of 
the Egyptian goddess Nit, who had here a 
splendid temple in the middle of an artificial 
lake, where a great feast of lamps was cele- 
brated yearly by worshippers from all parts of 
Egypt. The city gave its name to the Sa'ites 
Nomos. 

Saitis (2a?T(s), a surname of Athene, under 
which she had a sanctuary on Mount Pontinus, 
near Lerna in Argolis (Paus. ii. 36). The name 
was traced by the Greeks to the Egyptians, 
among whom Athene was said to have been 
called Sais (cf. Hdt. ii. 175). 

Sala. 1. (Saale), a river of Germany, be- 
tween which and the Rhine Drusus died (Strab. 
p. 291 ; Liv. Ep. 140). It was a tributary of 
the Albis {Elbe). — 2. (Saale), also a river of 
Germany, and a tributary of the Moenus (Main), 
which formed the boundary between the Her- 
munduri and Chatti, with great salt springs in 
its neighbourhood, for the possession of which 
these two peoples frequently contended (Tac. 
Ann. xiii. 57). — 3. (Burargag), a river in the 
N. part of the W. coast of Mauretania Tingi- 
tana, rises in the Atlas Minor, and falls into the 
Atlantic, N. of a town of the same name (Ptol. 
iv. 1, 2). — 4. A town in Pannonia, on the road 
from Sabaria to Poetovio. — 5. (Sheila), a town 
in the N. part of the W. coast of Mauretania 
Tingitana, S. of the mouth of the river of the 
same name mentioned under No. 3 (Plin. v. 5). 
This town was the furthest place in Mauretania 
towards the S. possessed by the Romans ; for 
although the province nominally extended 
further S., the Romans never fully subdued 
the nomad tribes beyond this point. 

Salacia. [Neptunus.] 

Salacia (Alcacer do Sal), a municipium of 
Lusitania, in the territory of the Turdetani, NW. 
of Pax Julia and SW. of Ebora, with the sur- 
name of Urbs Imperatoria, celebrated for its 
woollen manufactures (Strab. p. 144 ; Ptol. ii. 
5, 3). 

Salamis (ZaAa/xis : 2,aAa[itvios). 1. (Eoluri), 
an island off the W. coast of Attica, from which 
it is separated by a narrow channel. It forms 
the S. boundary of the bay of Eleusis. Its form 
is that of an irregular semicircle towards the 
W., with many small indentations along the 
coast. Its greatest length, from N. to S., is 
about ten miles, and its width, in its broadest 
part, from E. to W., is a little more (Strab. p. 
393). In ancient times it is said to have been 
called Pityussa, from the pines which grew in 
it, and also Sciras and Cychrea, from the names 
of two native heroes (Paus. i. 36, 1). It is 
further said to have been called Salamis from 
a daughter of Asopus of this name (Paus. i. 35, 
2). It was colonised at an early time by the 
Aeacidae of Aegina. Telamon, the son of 
Aeacus fled thither after the murder of his 
half-brother Phocus, and became sovereign of 
the island. His son Ajax accompanied the 



SALAMIS 

Greeks with twelve Salamirrian ships to the 
Trojan war (II. ii. 557). Salamis continued an 
independent state till about the beginning of 
the fortieth Olympiad (B.C. 620;, when a dispute 
arose for its possession between the Megarians 
and the Athenians. After a long struggle it 
fell into the hands of the Megarians, but was 
finally taken possession of by the Athenians 
through a stratagem of Solon [Solon], and be- 
came one of the Attic demi. It continued to 
belong to Athens till the time of Cassander, 
when its inhabitants voluntarily surrendered it 
to the Macedonians, 318 (Diod. xviii. 69 ; Paus. 
i. 35, 2). The Athenians recovered the island 
in 232 through means of Aratus, and punished 
the Salaminians for their desertion to the Mace- 
donians with great severity (Plut. Arat. 34). 
The old city of Salami's stood on the S. side of 
the island, opposite Aegina ; but this was after- 



S A T , A PIA 



827 



galeos. (Hdt. viii. 83-90.)— 2. A city of Cyprus, 
situated in the middle of the E. coast a little 
N. of the river Pediaeus. It is said to have 
been founded by Teucer, the son of Telamon, 
who gave it the name of his native island, from 
which he had been banished by his father. 
[Teucek.] Salamis possessed an excellent 
harbour, and was by far the most important 
city in the whole of Cyprus. It became subject 
to the Persians with the rest of the island ; but 
it recovered its independence about 385 under 
Evagoras, who extended his sovereignty over 
the greater part of the island. [Cypbxs.J Under 
the Romans the whole of the E. part of the 
island formed part of the territory of Salamis. 
In the time of Trajan a great part of the town 
was destroyed in an insurrection of the Jews ; 
and under Constantine it suffered still more 
from an earthquake, which buried a large por- 




Map ol Saluiuib. 

AAA, Persian fleet; DDI), Grecian fleet: C C C. the Persian army; I). Throne of Xerxes; E. New Salamis; 
F, Old Salamis ; G, the Island of Psyttaieia ; H, Peiraceus ; I, Phalerum ; 1 , Athenian ships ; 2, Lacedaemonian 
and other Peloponnesian ships; 3. 4eginetan and Eubocan ships; i, Phoenician ships; fl. Cyprian ships; 
6, CUlclan and Paraphylian ships; 7. Ionian ships; H, Persian ships; ii, Egyptian ships; a, Prom. Sileniae or 
Tropaea (Cape of St. Barbara) ; ft. Prom. Sciradlum ; c. Prom. Budorus. 



wards deserted, and a new city of the same 
name built on the E. coast opposite Attica, on 
a small bay now called Ambelakia. Even this 
new city was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. 
At the extremity of the S. promontory forming 
this bay was the small island of Psyttalia 
(Lypsokutali), which is about a mile long, and 
from 200 to 300 yards wide (Hdt. viii. 95 ; 
Aesch. Pers. 447). — Salamis is chiefly memor- 
able on account of the great battle fought off 
its coaBt, in which the Persian fleet of Xerxes 
was defeated by the Greeks, 480. The battle 
took place in the strait between the E. part of 
the island and the coast of Attica, and the 
Greek fleet was drawn up in the small bay 
in front of the town of Salamis. The battle 
was witnessed from the Attic coast by Xerxes, 
who had erected for himself a lofty throne on 
one of the projecting declivities of Mt. Ac- 



tion of the inhabitants beneath its ruins. It 
was, however, rebuilt by Constantine, who gave 
it the name of Constantia, and made it the 
capital of the island (Hierocl. p. 706). A 
systematic exploration of the site of Salamis 
was begun by Mr. Tubbs under direction of the 
British School of Athens in 1890, when the 
plan of the Agora and its colonnades, the 
Temenus of Zeus, and other buildings were 
discovered, besides valuable finds of pottery 
and some of sculpture. It is probable that the 
complete excavation of the site may produce 
results of great value to archaeology. 

Salapla (Salapinus : Salpi), an ancient town 
of Apulia, in the district Daunia, was situated S. 
of Sipontum on a lake named after it (Strab. 
p. 284). According to the common tradition it 
was founded by Diomedes, though others ascribe 
ita foundation to the Rhodian Elpias (Vitruv. 



828 



SALAPINA 



SALLUSTIUS 



i. 4, 12 ; Strab. p. 654). It is not mentioned 
till the second Punic war, when it revolted to 
Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, but it subr 
sequently surrendered to the Eomans, and 
delivered to the latter the Carthaginian garrison 
stationed in the town (Liv. xxiv. 20, xxvi. 88). 
The original site of Salapia was at some dis- 
tance from the coast ; but in consequence of 
the unhealthy exhalations arising from the lake 
above mentioned, the inhabitants removed to a 
new town on the sea coast, which was built by 
M. Hostilius with the approbation of the Roman 
senate, about B.C. 200 (Vitruv. I. c). This new 
town served as the harbour of Arpi. The ruins 
of the ancient town still exist at some distance 
from the coast at the village of Salpi. 

Salapina Palus (Lago di Salpi), a lake of 
Apulia, between the mouths of the Cerbalus 
and Aufidus, which derived its name from the 
town of Salapia situated upon it, and which 
M. Hostilius connected with the Adriatic by 
means of a canal (Strab. p. 284 ; Lucan, v. 377). 

Salaria, a town of the Bastetani in Hispania 
Tarraconensis and a Roman colony. 

Salaria Via. [Roma, p. 818.] 

Salassi, a brave and warlike people in Gallia 
Transpadana, in the valley of the Duria (Vol 
(V Aosta) at the foot of the Graian and Pennine 
Alps, whom some regarded as a branch of the 
Salyes or Salluvii in Gaul. The approaches to 
the Alpine passes of the Great and Little St. 
Bernard lay through their territory, which was 
itself rendered difficult of access from the plain 
of the Po by the narrowness of the remarkable 
gorge (at the modern Fort de Bard) which 
forms the only entrance to the valley. (Liv. xxi. 
39 ; cf. Alpes, p. 56, a.) The Salassi defended 
their territory with such obstinacy and courage 
that it was long before the Romans were able 
to subdue them. At length in the reign of 
Augustus the country was permanently occu- 
pied by Terentius Varro with a powerful Roman 
force ; the greater part of the Salassi were 
destroyed in battle, and the rest, amounting to 
36,000, were sold as slaves. Their chief town 
was Augusta Praetoria {Aosta), which Augustus 
colonised with soldiers of the Praetorian co- 
horts. (Dio Cass. liii. 25 ; Strab. p. 205 ; Liv. 
Ep. 135.) 

Saldae (SaASai : Bougie), a large seaport town 
of N. Africa, originally the E. frontier town of 
the kingdom of Mauretania, afterwards in 
Mauretania Caesariensis, and, after the division 
of that province, the W. frontier town of 
Mauretania Sitifensis. Augustus made it a 
colony. (Strab. p. 831; Ptol. iv. 2, 9; Plin. 
v. 21.) ^ 

Salduba. 1. (Bio Verde), a river in the terri- 
tory of the Turduli in Hispania Baetica, at the 
mouth of which was situated a town of the 
same name (Ptol. ii. 4, 11). — 2. See Caesah- 

AUGUSTA. 

Sale (SaA/r)), a town on the coast of Thrace, a 
little W. of the mouth of the Hebrus (Hdt. vii. 
59). 

Salebro, a place in Etruria between Cosa and 
Populonium. 

Saleius Bassus. [Bassus.] 

Salentini or Sallentini, a people in the S. 
X>art of Calabria, who dwelt around the promon- 
tory Iapygium, which is hence called Salenti- 
num or Salentina (Strab. p. 282). They laid 
claim to a Greek origin and pretended to have 
come from Crete into Italy under the guidance 
of Idomeneus (Strab. I. c. ; Verg. Aen. iii. 400.) 
They were subdued by the Romans at the con- 
clusion of their war with Pyrrhus, and having 



revolted in the second Punic war were again 
easily reduced to subjection (Liv. Ep. 15; 
Flor. i. 20 ; Zonar. viii. 7). 

Salernum (Salernitanus : Salerno), an an- 
cient town in Campania, at the innermost corner 
of the Sinus Paestanus, was situated on a height 
not far from the coast, and possessed a harbour 
at the foot of the hill (Liv. xxxii. 29 ; Strab. p. 
251 ; Hor. Ep. i. 15, 1). It was made a Roman 
colony at the same time as Puteoli, B.C. 194 ; 
but it attained its greatest prosperity in the 
middle ages, after it had been fortified by the 
Lombards (Paul. Hist. Lang. ii. 17). 

Salices (Ad), a town in Moesia, not far from 
the mouth of the Danube, sixty-two Roman 
miles from Tomi (Amm. Marc. xxxi. 7). 

Salganeus or Salganea (2a\yavevs : SoVya- 
vios, %a\yave'nris), a small town of Boeotia on 
the Euripus (the N. entrance of which it com- 
manded), and on the road from Anthedon to 
Chalcis. (Strab. p. 403 ; Liv. xxxv. 37, 51.) 

Salinae, salt-works, the name of several 
towns which possessed salt-works in their 
vicinity. 1. A town in Britain, probably on the 
E. coast, in the S. part of Lincolnshire (Ptol. 
iii. 8, 7). — 2. A town of the Suetrii in the Mari- 
time Alps in Gallia Narbonensis, E. of Reii 
(Ptol. iii. 1, 42). 

Salinator, Livius. 1. M., consul b.c. 219, 
with L. Aemilius Paulus, carried on war along 
with his colleague against the Dlyrians. On 
their return to Rome, both consuls were brought 
to trial on the charge of having unfairly 
divided the booty among the soldiers. Paulus 
escaped with difficulty, but Livrus was con- 
demned. The sentence seems to have been an 
unjust one, and Livius took his disgrace so 
much to heart that he left the city and retired 
to his estate in the country, where he lived 
some years without taking any part in public 
affairs. (Ptol. iii. 19 ; Zonar. viii. 20 ; App. 
Illyr. 8 ; Liv. xxii. 35.) In 210 the consuls 
compelled him to return to the city, and in 207 
he was elected consul a second time with 
C. Claudius Nero. He shared with his col- 
league in the glory of defeating Hasdrubal on 
the Metaurus. [For details, see Nero, Clau- 
dius, No. 2.] Next year (206) Livius was sta- 
tioned in Etruria, as proconsul, with an army, 
and his imperium was prolonged for two suc- 
cessive years. In 204 he was censor with his 
former colleague in the consulship, Claudius 
Nero. The two censors had long been ene- 
mies, and their long-smothered resentment 
now burst forth, and occasioned no small scan- 
dal in the^tate. Livius, in his censorship 
imposed a tax upon salt, in consequence of 
which he received the surname of Salinator, 
which seems to have been given him in derision, 
but which became, notwithstanding, hereditary 
in his family. (Liv. xxix. 37 ; Val. Max. ii. 9, 6, 
vii. 2, 6.)-^2. C, curule aedile 203, and praetor 
202, in which year he obtained Bruttii as his 
province. In 193 he fought under the consul 
against the Boii, and in the same year was an 
unsuccessful candidate for the consulship. (Liv. 
xxix. 38, xxxv. 5, 10.) — 3. C, praetor 191, when 
he had the command of the fleet in the war 
against Antiochus. He was consul 188, and 
obtained Gaul as his province. (Liv. xxxvi. 42, 
xxx vii. 9-25 j App. Syr. 22.) 

Sallentini. [Salentini.] 

Sallustius or Salustius (2aA.oiWtos), prae- 
fectus praetorio under the emperor Julian. 
He was probably the author of a treatise Ilepl 
deav Kal icSafjLov, which is still extant, of the 
school of the Neo-Platonists. Edited by Orellius. 



SALLTJSTIUS 

C. Sallustius Crispus, or Salustius. 1. The 
Eoman historian, belonged to a plebeian family, 
and was born B.C. 86, at Amiternum, in the 
country of the Sabines. He was quaestor about 
59, and tribune of the plebs in 52, the year in 
which Clodius was killed by Milo. In his tri- 
bunate he joined the popular party, and took an 
active part in opposing Milo. It is said that he 
had been caught by Milo in the act of adultery 
with his wife, Fausta, the daughter of the dic- 
tator Sulla ; that he had received a sound 
whipping from the husband ; and that he had 
been only let off on payment of a sum of money 
(G-ell. xvii. 18). In 50 Sallust was expelled 
from the senate by the censors, probably be- 
cause he belonged to Caesar's party, though 
some give as the ground of his ejection from the 
senate the act of adultery already mentioned 
(Dio Cass. xl. 63). In the Civil war he followed 
Caesar's fortune. In 47 we find him praetor 
elect, by obtaining which dignity he was restored 
to his rank. He nearly lost his life in a mutiny 
of some of Caesar's troops in Campania, who 
had been led thither to pass over into Africa 
(App. B. C. ii. 92). He accompanied Caesar in 
his African war, 46, and was left by Caesar as 
the governor of Numidia, in which capacity he 
is charged with having oppressed the people, 
and enriched himself by unjust means {Bell. 
Afr. 8, 34 ; Dio Cass, xliii. 9). He was accused 
of maladministration before Caesar, but it does 
not appear that he was brought to trial ( [Cic] 
Invect. in Sallust. 19). The charge is some- 
what confirmed by the fact of his becoming 
immensely rich, as was shown by the expensive 
gardens which he formed (horti Sallustiani) 
on the Quirinalis (cf. Hor. Od. ii. 2 ; Tac. Ann. 
iii. 30). He retired into privacy after he re- 
turned from Africa, and he passed quietly 
through the troublesome period after Caesar's 
death (Sail. Cat. 4). He died 34, about four 
years before the battle of Actium. The story 
of his marrying Cicero's wife, Terentia, ought 
to be rejected. [Terentia.] It was probably 
not till after his return from Africa that Sallust 
wrote his historical works. (1) The Catilina, 
or Bellum Catilinariv.m, is a history of the 
conspiracy of Catiline during the consulship of 
Cicero, 68. The introduction to this history is 
a somewhat overstrained effort to introduce 
philosophy and morals, but the writing is not 
without vigour, and there is no reason to regard 
the remarks as insincere. The history, though 
not clear in its chronology, is valuable. Sallust 
was a living spectator of the events which he 
describes, and considering that he was not a 
friend of Cicero, and was a partisan of Caesar, 
he wrote with fairness. The speeches which 
he has inserted in his history are certainly his 
own composition. [As regards his representa- 
tion of Caesar's action, see p. 181, b.] Editions 
by Cook, 1884 ; Turner, 1887 ; Eussner, Leips. 
1887. (2) The Jugurtha, or Bellum Jugurthi- 
num, contains the history of the war of the 
Romans against Jugurtha, king of Numidia, 
which began 111, and continued until 106. It 
is likely enough that Sallust was led to write 
this work from having resided in Africa, and 
that he collected some materials there. He 
cites the Punic Books of King Hiempsal as 
authority for his general geographical descrip- 
tion {Jug. c. 17). The Jugurthine War has a 
philosophical Introduction of the same stamp 
as that to the Catilina. As a history of the 
campaign, the Jugurthine. War is not very 
trustworthy : there is a total neglect of geo- 
graphical precision, and apparently not a very 



SALMONA 



829 



strict regard to chronology. Editions by Her- 
zog, Leips. 1840 ; Schmalz, Gotha, 1886 ; Brook, 
Lond. 1885. (3) His greatest work, which has 
perished almost entirely, was the Histories, in 
five books, which were dedicated to Lucullus, a 
son of L. Licinius Lucullus. The work com- 
prised the period from the consulship of M. 
Aemilius Lepidus and Q. Lutatius Catulus, 78, 
the year of Sulla's death, to the consulship of 
L. Vulcatius Tullus and M. Aemilius Lepidus, 
66, the year in which Cicero was praetor. Thiti 
work was intended as a continuation of Sis- 
enna's History; the history of Sulla was omitted 
{Jug. 95). The few remaining fragments com- 
prise four speeches and two letters. These frag- 
ments are included in Jordan's edition of 
Sallust, 1887. (4) Duae Epistolae de Be Pub- 
lica orditianda, which appear to be addressed 
to Caesar at the time when he was engaged in 
his Spanish campaign (49) against Petreius and 
Afranius, and the Invectiva (or Declamatio) in 
Ciceronem are attributed to Sallust, but are 
probably works of a rhetorical writer of the 
first century, a.d., as is also the supposed retort 
of Cicero, Invect. in Sallustium. These are 
also printed in Jordan's Sallust, Berl. 1887, 
which is the best complete edition. — Some of 
the Boman writers considered that Sallust 
imitated the style of Thucydides (Quint, x. 1). 
His language is generally concise and per- 
spicuous : perhaps his love of brevity may have 
caused the ambiguity that is sometimes found 
in his sentences. He also affected archaic 
words. Though he has considerable merit as a 
writer, his art is always apparent. He had no 
pretensions to great research or precision about 
facts. His reflections have often something of 
the same artificial and constrained character as 
his expressions ; yet several are forcible and 
suggestive, and are familiar aphorisms, e.g. 
' Idem velle idem nolle, ea demum firma 
amicitia est. 1 One may judge that his object 
was to obtain distinction as a writer: that style 
was what he thought of more than matter. He 
has, however, probably the merit of being the 
first Roman who aimed at writing philosophical 
history, and who was successful in depicting 
character. In his view of the times he was a 
pessimist, who painted the vices of the patri- 
cians in the darkest colours, with, perhaps, 
something of bitterness from the retrospect of 
his own life. Caesar and Cato alone are ex- 
cepted from the general reprobation. — 2. The 
grandson of the 6ister of the historian, was 
adopted by the latter, and inherited his great 
wealth. In imitation of Maecenas, he pre- 
ferred remaining a Roman eques. On the fall 
of Maecenas he became the principal adviser of 
Augustus. He died in a.d. 20, at an advanced 
age. (Tac. Ann. i. 6, ii. 40, iii. 30 ; Sen. de Clem. 
10.) One of Horace's odes (Od. ii. 2) was 
addressed to him after he was in favour with 
the imperial court: he is satirised for his 
profligacy in Sat. i. 2, 48. 

Salmacis. [Heiimapiikoditus.] 

Salmantlca I Salamanca), called Helmantica 
oi Hermandica by Livy, and Elmantica by 
Polybius, an important town of the Vettones in 
Lusitania, S. of the Durius, on the road from 
Emerita to Caesaraugusta. It was taken by 
Hannibal. A bridge was built here by Trajan, 
of which the piers still exist. (Pol. iii. 14 ; Liv. 
xxi. 5 ; Ptol. ii. 5, 9.) 

Salmona or Salmonla. 1. (2,a\/xwi>ri, 2a\- 
fioivia), a town of Elis, in the district Pisa- 
tis, on the river Enipeus, said to have been 
founded by Salmoneus (Diod. iv. 68). — 



830 



SALMONEUS 



SALUS 



2. (Salme), a branch of the Mosella (Aus. Mos. 
366). 

Salmoneus ('Sak/j.aivevs), son of Aeolus and 
Enarete, and brother of Sisyphus (Apollod. i. 
7, 3). He was first married to Alcidice and 
afterwards to Sidero ; by the former of whom 
he became the father of Tyro (Od. xi. 235 ; 
Diod. iv. 68). He originally lived in Thessaly, 
but emigrated to Elis, where he built the town 
of Salmone (Strab. p. 356). His presumption 
and arrogance were so great that he deemed 
himself equal to Zeus, and ordered sacrifices to 
be offered to himself; nay, he even imitated 
the thunder and lightning of Zeus, but the 
father of the gods killed him with his thunder- 
bolt, destroyed his town, and punished him in 
the lower world. This story of impiety is later 
than the Odyssey, where he is called d J uu J u.cu^ '. 
(Apollod. i. 9, 7 ; Verg. Aen. vi. 585 ; Claud, in 
Bufin. ii. 514 ; Hyg. Fab. 60, 61.) His daughter 
Tyro bears the patronymic Sabnonis. 

Salmonium or Salmona {ZaKfuiviov, 2aA- 
jjL&vri : C. Salmon), the most easterly pro- 
montory of Crete (Strab. pp. 106, 474). 

Salmydessus, called Halmydessus also in 
later times ('2,a\fivii)ffa6s, 'A\fj.v8ri<T<r6s : 
fivSriacrios : Midja or Midjeh), a town of Thrace, 
on the coast of the Euxine, S. of the promon- 
tory Thynias (Ptol. iii. 11, 4). Aeschylus 
wrongly places it in Asia on the Thermodon 
{Prom. 726). The name was originally applied 
to the whole coast from this promontory to the 
entrance of the Bosporus ; and it was from this 
coast that the Black Sea obtained the name of 
Pontus Axenos ("A|evos), or inhospitable. The 
coast itself was rendered dangerous by shallows 
and marshes, and the inhabitants were accus- 
tomed to plunder any ships that were driven 
upon them. (Strab. p. 319 ; Xen. An. v. 4, 12 ; 
Hdt. iv. 93.) 

Salo (Xalon), a tributary of the Iberus in 
Celtiberia, which flowed by Bilbilis, the birth- 
place of Martial, who frequently mentions it 
in his poems (Mart. i. 49, x. 20, 103). 

Salodurum (Solothurn or Soleure), a town in 
the E. of Gallia Belgica, on the Arurius (Arar), 
and on the road from Aventicum to Vindonissa. 
[Helvetii.] 

Salona, Salonae, or Salon (Salona), an im- 
portant town of Illyria and the capital of Dal- 
matia, was situated on a small bay of the sea 
(Lucan, viii. 104). It was strongly fortified by 
the Romans after their conquest of the country, 
and was at a later time made a Roman colony, 
and the seat of a conventus juridicus (App. 
Illyr. 11 ; Caes. B.C. iii. 9; Plin. iii. 141). The 
emperor Diocletian was born at the small village 
Dioclea near Salona [p. 288J ; and after his abdi- 
cation he retired to the neighbourhood of this 
town, and here spent the rest of his days. The 
magnificent remains of his huge palace are still 
to be seen at Spalatro (Palatium), three miles S. 
of Salona, where they form a town in themselves. 

Salonina, Cornelia, wife of Gallienus and 
mother of Salonius. She witnessed with her 
own eyes the death of her husband before 
Milan, in a.d. 268. [Gallienus.] 

SalonTnus, P. Licinius Cornelius Vale- 
rianus, son of Gallienus and Salonina, grandson 
of the emperor Valerian. When his father and 
his grandfather assumed the title of Augustus, 
in A.D. 253, the youth received the designation 
of Caesar. Some years afterwards he was left 
in Gaul, and was put to death upon the capture 
of Colonia Agrippina by Postumus in 259, 
being about 17 years old. (Trebell. Poll. 
Salonin. ; Zosim. i. 38.) 



Salpensa, a Latin colony in Baetica between 
Hispalis {Seville) and Gades (Cadiz). The laws 
of Domitian regulating its government and that 
of Malaca were found in 1851 (C.I.L. 1963), 
and are important for the knowledge of Roman 
municipal affairs. (Diet, of Ant. art. Lex 
Salpensana.) 

Salpenum, an ancient city of Etruria, not far 
from Volsinii, possibly where Orvieto now 
stands (Liv. v. 31). 

Salsum Flumen, a tributary of the Baetis in 
Hispania Baetica, between Attegua and Attubis 
{Bell. Afr. 7). 

Salvianus, an accomplished ecclesiastical 
writer of the fifth century A.D., was born in the 
vicinity of Treves, and passed the latter part of 
his life as a presbyter of the church at Mar- 
seilles. The following works of Salvianus are 
still extant : — (1) Ad.versus Avaritiam Libri 
IV ad JEcclesiam Catholicam, published under 
the name of Timotheus, about a.d. 440. (2) Be 
Providentias.de Gubernatione Bei et deJusto 
Bei praesentique J udicio Libri VIII, written 
during the inroads by the barbarians upon the 
Roman empire, 451-455. (3) Fpistolae IX, 
addressed to friends upon familiar topics. Apart 
from their bearing on theological and eccle- 
siastical questions, these writings are valuable 
for their vivid description of the life and morals 
of the period. — The best editions of these works 
are by Halm, Berl. 1877, and Paully, Vienna, 
1883. 

Q. Salvidienus Kufus, one of the early 
friends of Octavian (Augustus), whose fleet he 
commanded in the war against Sex. Pompeius, 
B.C. 42. In the Perusinian war (41-40) he took 
an active part as one of Octavian's legates 
against L. Antonius and Fulvia. He was after- 
wards sent into Gallia Narbonensis, from 
whence he wrote to M. Antonius, offering to 
induce the troops in his province to desert 
from Octavian. But Antonius, who had just 
been reconciled to Octavian, revealed the 
treachery of Salvidienus. The latter was forth- 
with summoned to Rome on some pretext, and 
on his arrival was accused by Octavian in 
the senate, and condemned to death, 40. (App. 
B.C. iv. 85, v. 20-35, 66; Dio Cass, xlviii. 13, 
18, 33.) 

Salvias, the leader of the revolted slaves in 
Sicily, better known by the name of Tryphon, 
which he assumed. [Tbyphon.] 

Salvius Julianus. [Julianus.] 

Salvius Otho. [Otho.] 

Salus, an Italian goddess, the personification 
of health, prosperity, and the public welfare. 
She was invoked by all communities for pro- 
sperity and safety in whatever might be their 
undertakings : for instance, by agriculturists 
(Ov. Fast. iii. 882 ; Macrob. i. 16). At Rome 
in especial she was the goddess who gave 
public welfare {Salus Publica or Bomana), to 
whom a temple had been vowed in the year 
B.C. 305 by the censor C. Junius Bubulcus 
on the Quirinal hill, which was afterwards (in 
501) decorated with paintings by C. Fabius 
Pictor (Liv. ix. 43, x. 1; Val. Max. viii. 14). 
The temple was destroyed by fire in the reign 
of Claudius (Plin. xxxv. 19). She was wor- 
shipped publicly on April 30, in conjunction 
with Pax, Concordia, and Janus. It had been 
customary at Rome every year, about the time 
when the consuls entered upon their office, for 
the augurs and other high priests to observe 
the signs for the purpose of ascertaining the 
fortunes of the republic during the corning 
year ; this observation of the signs was called 



SALUSTIUS 

augurium Salutis (Cic. de Leg. ii. 8, 20, Div. 
i. 47,105; Tac. Ann. xii. 23; Suet. Aug. 31J. 
In the time of Cicero this ceremony had be- 
come neglected ; but Augustus restored it, and 
the custom afterwards remained as long as 
paganism was the religion of the state. She 
was also petitioned for particular persons by a 
port of state prayer, as for Pompey B.C. 49 (Dio 
Cass. xli. 6) ; and this was constantly done for 
the emperor, who represented the state itself, 
so that Salus Augusta = Salus Publica. As 
goddess of health Salus was identified with 
Hygeea, after the Greek influence was felt, and 
was represented with the same attributes [see 
p. 433, a]. 

Salustius. [Sallusttus.] 

Salyes or Salluvii, the most powerful and 
most celebrated of all the Ligurian tribes, 
inhabited the S. coast of Gaul from the Rhone 
to the Maritime Alps (Strab. p. 203J. They 
were troublesome neighbours to Massilia, with 
which city they frequently carried on war. 
They were subdued by the Romans in B.C. 123 
after a long and obstinate struggle, and the 
colony of Aquae Sextiae was founded in their 
territory by the consul Sextius [p. 94, b]. 

SamachonitisLacus. [SejiechonitisLacus.] 

Samara. [Samabobbiya.] 

Samaria ('S.apApeia : Heb. Shomron, Chaldee, 
Shamrai'n : 2a/j.aptvs, 'S.ajxaptlrqs , Samarltes, 
pi. Scrape??, ^afiape'irai, Samarltae), aft. Se- 
"baste (iefSao-T*) : Sebustieh, Ru.l, one of the 
chief cities of Palestine, built by Omri, king of 
Israel on a hill in the midst of a plain sur- 
rounded by mountains, just in the centre of 
Palestine W. of the Jordan. For its history 
before the Roman occupation, see Dictionary of 
the Bible. Pompey assigned the district to 
the province of Syria, and Gabinius fortified 
the city anew. Augustus gave the district to 
Herod, who greatly renovated the city of Sa- 
maria, which he called Sebaste in honour of his 
patron. It had its own administration, under 
control of the Roman authority. As Sebaste it 
received a colony in the reign of Septimius 
Severus. [For the political history see Palaes- 
ttna.] 

Samarobrlva, afterwards Ambiani (A miens), 
the chief town of the Ambiani in Gallia Bel- 
gica, on the river Samara : whence its name, 
which signifies Samara-Bridge (Caes. B. G. v. 
24, 4G, 53 ; Ptol. ii. 9, 8 ; Amm. Marc. xv. 11). 

Sambana (Zd/xfiava), a city of Assyria, two 
days' journey N. of Sittace. In its neighbour- 
hood dwelt the people called Sambatae 
(Sa^oToi). (Diod. xvii. 27.) 

Sambastae (2aii$aTTa't), a people of India 
intra Gangem, on the Lower Indus, near the 
island Pattalene. The fort of Sevistan or 
Sehoim in the same neighbourhood has been 
thought to preserve their name, and is by some 
identified with the Brahman city taken by 
Alexander. (Arr. An. vi. 15.) 

Same or Samoa (2dny, 2d/j.os), the ancient 
name of Cephallenia. [Cephallenia.] It was 
also the name of one of the four towns of 
Cephallenia. The town Same or Sumos was 
situated on the E. coast, opposite Ithaca, and 
waB taken and destroyed by the Romans B.C. 
189. (Strab. p. 455 ; Liv. xxxviii. 28.) 

Samla (Sa^iia : Khaiaffa), a town of Elis in 
the district Triphylia, S. of Olympiu, between 
Lepreum and the Alpheus, with u citadel 
called Samicum {2afjuK6v), the same us the 
Homeric Arene {II. ii. 591, xi. 723 ; Strab. pp. 
846. 847 ; Paus. v. 5, 3). 

Snminthus {XdfuvOos: nr. Phiklia), a place 



SAMNIUM 



831 



in Argolis, on the W. edge of the Argive plain, 
opposite Mycenae (Thuc. v. 58). 

Sammonius. [Sebenus]. 

Samnium (Samnites, more rarely Samnltae, 
pi.), a country in the centre of Italy, bounded 
on the N. by the Marsi, Paeligni, and Marrucini, 
on the W. by Latium and Campania, on the S. 
by Lucania, and on the E. by the Frentani and 
Apulia. The Samnites were an offshoot of the 
Sabines (Strab. p. 250 ; Varro, L. L. vii. 29 ; 
Gell. xi. 1), who emigrated from their country 
between the Nar, the Tiber, and the Anio, 
before the foundation of Rome, and settled in 
I the country afterwards called Sanmium. 
[Sabixi.] This country was at the time of 
! their migration inhabited by Opicans, whom 
the Samnites conquered, and whose language 
I they adopted. Sanmium is a country marked 
[ by striking physical features. The greater 
part of it is occupied by a huge mass of moun- 
tains, called at the present day the Matese, 
which stands out from the central line of the 
Apennines. The circumference of the Matese 
is between seventy and eighty miles, and its 
greatest height is 6000 feet. The two most 
important tribes of the Samnites were the 
Caudini and Peiltri, of whom the former occu- 
pied the S. side, and the latter the N. side of 
the Matese. To the Caudini belonged the 
towns of Allifae, Telesia, and Beneventum ; to 
the Pentri, those of Aesernia, Bovianum, and 
Sepinum. Besides these two chief tribes, we 
find mention of the Caraceni, who dwelt N. of 
the Pentri, and to whom the town of Aufidena 
belonged ; and of the Hirpini, who dwelt SE. of 
the Caudini, but who are sometimes men- 
tioned as distinct from the Samnites. The 
Samnites were distinguished for their bravery 
and love of freedom. Issuing from their 
mountain fastnesses, they overran a great part 
of Campania ; but it has been remarked that 
these bands of adventurers gained or lost for 
themselves, and their conquests did not really 
extend the dominion of the parent state as did 
those which the Romans made. The reason of 
the difference lay partly in the looseness of the 
Samnite confederacy, which was formed of a 
number of communes of herdsmen and agricul- 
turists who nominated representatives in an 
assembly, and only on occasion of need ap- 
pointed a federal general. In one of the 
Samnite expeditions Capua applied to the 
Romans for assistance against the Samnites, 
and this led to the war which broke out 
between the Romans and Samnites in B.C. 813. 
The Romans found the Samnites the most war- 
like and formidable enemies whom they had 
yet encountered in Italy, and the war which 
commenced in 843 was continued with few 
interruptions for the space of fifty-three years. 
It was not till 290, when all their bravest troops 
had fallen, and their country had been 
repeatedly ravaged in every direction by the 
Roman legions, that the Samnites sued for 
peace and submitted to the supremacy of 
Rome. They never, however, lost their love of 
freedom ; and accordingly they not only joined 
the other Italian allies in the war against Rome 
(90), but, even after the other allies had sub- 
mitted, they still continued in arms. The 
civil war between Marius and Sulla gave them 
hopes of recovering their independence ; but 
they were defeated by Sulla before the gates of 
Rome (82), the greater part of their troops fell 
in battle, and the remainder were put to death. 
Their towns were laid waste, the inhabitants 
sold as slaves, and their place Supplied by 



832 



SAMOS 



Roman colonists. (App. B. C. i. 93 ; Strab. p. 
249 ; Plut. Sail. 30.) 

Samos or Samus (ZZdfios : 2,dfiios, Samius : 
Grk. Samos), one of the principal islands 
of the Aegean Sea, lying in that portion 
of it called the Icarian Sea, off the coast of 
Ionia, from which it is separated only by 
a narrow strait formed by the overlapping 
of its E. promontory Posidium (C. Golonna) 
with the westernmost spur of M, Mycale, Pr. 
Trogilium {C. S. Maria). This strait, which is 
little more than three-fourths of a mile wide, 
was the scene of the battle of Mycale. The 
island is formed by a range of mountains 
extending from E. to W., whence it derived its 
name, for 2,dfios was an old Greek word 
signifying a mountain : and the same root is 
seen in Same, the old name of Cephallenia, and 
Samothrace, i.e. the Thracian Samos. The 
circumference of the island is about eighty 
miles. It was and is very fertile, and some of 
its products are indicated by its ancient names, 
Dryusa, Anthemura, Melamphyllus and Cypa- 
rissia (Plin. v. 135). According to the earliest 
traditions, it was a chief seat of the Carians 
and Leleges, and the residence of their first 
king, Ancaeus, and was afterwards colonised 
by Aeolians from Lesbos, and by Ionians from 
Epidaurus (Paus. vii. 4, 1 ; Strab. p. 637). In 
the earliest historical records, we find Samos 
decidedly Ionian, and a powerful member of 
the Ionic confederacy. Thucydides tells us 
that the Samians were the first of the Greeks, 
after the Corinthians, who paid great atten- 
tion to naval affairs (Thuc. i. 13). The 
Samian Colaeus is said to have discovered 
the passage of the Straits of Gibraltar (Hdt. 
iv. 152). They early acquired such power 
at sea that, besides obtaining possession of 
parts of the opposite coast of Asia, they 
founded many colonies : among which were 
Bisanthe and Perinthus, in Thrace ; Celenderis 
and Nagidus, in Cilicia ; Cydonia, in Crete; 
Dicaearchia (Puteoli), in Italy ; and Zancle 
(Messana), in Sicily. After the government by 
a heroic monarchy followed, at the end of the 
seventh century B.C., an oligarchy of the land- 
owners (Geomori), who sent a colony to Perin- 
thus and defeated the Megarians ; but a revo- 
lution followed about 565 B.C., in which it is 
said that the oppressed people of Samos joined 
with the Megarian prisoners against the olig- 
archs : thus the island became subject to a 
democracy (Plut. Q. Or. 57), but not long 
afterwards the power fell into the hands of the 
most distinguished of the so-called tyrants, 
Polycbates (b.c. 532), under whom its power 
and splendour reached their highest pitch, and 
Samos would probably have become the 
mistress of the Aegaean, but for the murder of 
Polycrates. At this period the Samians had 
extensive commercial relations with Egypt, and 
they obtained from Amasis the privilege of a 
separate temple at Naucratis. Their com- 
merce extended into the interior of Africa, 
partly through their relations with Cyrene, 
and also by means of a settlement which they 
effected in one of the Oases, seven days' 
journey from Thebes. The Samians now 
became subject to the Persian empire : the 
island was 'netted' in Persian fashion, 
nearly all the men hunted down and destroyed, 
and then Samos was handed over to Syloson, 
brother of Polycrates. (Hdt. iii. 120-125.) The 
Samians were governed by tyrants, with a 
brief interval at the time of the Ionic revolt, 
until the battle of Mycale, which made them 



independent, B.C. 479. They now joined the 
Athenian confederacy, of which they continued 
independent members until B.C. 440, when an 
opportunity arose for reducing them to entire 
subjection and depriving them of their fleet, 
which was effected by Pericles after an obsti- 
nate resistance of nine months' duration. (For 
the details see the Histories of Greece.) In the 
Peloponnesian war, Samos held firmly to Athens 




Coin of Samos, late in 4th century B.C. 
Obv. lion's scalp; rev. 2A: hthsianaS (magistrate's 
name) ; forepart of an ox. 



to the last, and in the history of the latter 
part of that war the island becomes extremely 
important as the head-quarters of the exiled 
democratical party of the Athenians. Trans- 
ferred to Sparta after the battle of Aegos- 
potami, 405, it was soon restored to Athens by 
that of Cnidus, 394, but went over to Sparta 
again in 390. Soon after, it fell into the hands 
of the Persians, being conquered by the satrap 
Tigranes ; but it was recovered by Timotheus 
for Athens. In the Social war, the Athenians 
successfully defended it against the attacks of 
the confederated Chians, Rhodians, and Byzan- 
tines, and placed in it a body of 2000 cleruchi, 
b.c. 352. After Alexander's death, it was taken 
from the Athenians by Perdiccas, 323; but 
restored to them by Polysperchon 319. In the 
subsequent period, it seems to have been 
rather nominally than really a part of the 
Greco-Syrian kingdom : we find it engaged in 
a long contest with Priene on a question of 
boundary, which was referred to Antiochus II., 
and afterwards to the Roman senate. In the 
Macedonian war, Samos was taken by the 
Rhodians, then by Philip, and lastly by the 
Rhodians again, B.C. 200. In the Syrian war, 
the Samians took part with Antiochus the 
Great against Rome. Little further mention 
is made of Samos till the time of Mithridates, 
with whom it took part in his first war against 
Rome, on the conclusion of which it was finally 
united to the province of Asia, B.C. 84. Mean- 
while it had greatly declined, and during the 
war it had been wasted by the incursions of 
pirates. Its prosperity was partially restored 
under the propraetorship of Q. Cicero, B.C. 62, 
but still more by the residence in it of Antony 
and Cleopatra, 32, and afterwards of Oetavi- 
anus, who made Samos a free state. (Plin. v. 
135). It was favoured by Caligula, but was 
deprived of its freedom by Vespasian, and it 
sank into insignificance as early as the second 
century, although its departed glory is found 
still recorded, under the emperor Decius, by 
the inscription on its coins, ~S,afxiu>v irp&raiv 
'laivias. — Samos may be regarded as among the 
chief centres of Ionian manners, energies, 
luxury, science, and art. In very early times, 
there was a native school of archaic sculpture, 
at the head of which was Rhoecus, to whom 
tradition ascribed the invention of casting in 
metal. [Rhoecus ; Telecles ; Theodobus.J 
In the hands of the same school architecture 
flourished greatly ; the Heraeum, one of the 



SAMOSATA 



SANDROCOTTUS 



833 



finest of Greek temples, was erected in a marsh, 
on the W. side of the city of Samos ; and the 
city itself, especially under the government of 
Polycrates, was furnished with other splendid 
works, among which was an aqueduct pierced 
through a mountain. In pottery Samos has 
given its name to the ' Samian ' ware, a red 
pottery with reliefs (the successor perhaps of a 
black pottery with reliefs made at Samos), which 
was in vogue both in Greece and Italy in the 
second century B.C., and was imitated by 
potters of Gaul and Britain. In philosophy 
Pythagoras has made the name of Samos 
famous; among the lesser men of literature 
born in the island were the poets Asius and 
Choerilus and the historian Duris. — The 
capital city, also called Samos, stood on the 
SE. side of the island, opposite Pr. Trogilium, 
partly on the shore, and partly rising on the 
hills behind in the form of an amphitheatre. 
It had a magnificent harbour, and numerous 
splendid buildings, among which, besides the 
Heraeum and other temples, the chief were the 
senate-house, the theatre, and a gymnasium 
dedicated to Eros. The Heraeum of Samos, 
which commemorated the tradition that Hera 
was bom by the river Imbrasus in Samos (Paus. 
vii. 4, 4), was built by RHOECUS (as principal 
architect), in the middle of the seventh century 
B.C., or (as some maintain) at the end of 
that century, possibly on the site of a still 
older temple. It was seen by Herodotus, who 
speaks of it as the largest existing temple 
(Hdt. iii. 60 ; cf. Paus. vii. 4), and in fact the 
report of the excavations of 1880 showed a 
facade of fully fifty metres. It was of the 
Ionic order, as may be seen by the existing 
remains — not Doric as Vitruvius states (vii. 
praef. 12). 

Samosata (rot 2a,ud(TOTo: 2a,uo<raT€i/s, Samo- 
satensis : Samisat), the capital of the \ rovince, 
and afterwards kingdom, of Commagene, in the 
N. of Syria, stood on the right bank of the Eu- 
phrates, NW. of Edessa (Strab. p. 74!)). It was 
taken by Antony in his Syrian campaign (Jos. 
Ant. xiv. 15). It was strongly fortified as a 
frontier post against Osroene (Jos. B. J. vii. 7, 
1). In the first century of our era, it was the 
capital of the kings of Commagene. It is cele- 
brated, in literary history, as the birthplace of 
Lucian, and, in Church history, as that of the 
heretic Paul, bishop of Antioch, in the third 
century. 

Samothrace, Samothraca, or Samothracla 
[see Liv. xlii. 50, xliv. 45, 46] (2o,uo0po*77, 
SafiodpaKta, Ep. 2dfios ©pTji'Ki'r) : 2afi60paKes : 
Samothraki), a small island in the N. of the 
Aegaean sea, opposite the mouth of the Hebrus 
in Thrace, from which it was thirty-eight miles 
distant. It is about thirty-two milts in cir- 
cumference, and contains in its centre a lofty 
mountain, called Saccc, from which Homer 
says that Troy could be seen. (II. xiii. 12 ; 
Plin. iv. 78.) Samothrace bore various names 
in ancient times. It is said to have been called 
Melite, Saonnesus, and more frequently Dar- 
dania, from Dardanus, the founder of Troy, who 
is reported to have settled here. (Strab. pp. 
457, 472 ; Paus. vii. 4, 3.) Homer calls the 
island simply Samos ; sometimes the Thracian 
Samos, because it was colonised, according to 
some accounts, from Samos on the coast of 
Asia Minor. Samothrace was the chief seat of 
the worship of the Cabiri, and was celebrated 
for its religious mysteries, which were among 
the most famous in the ancient world. [See 
Cabiri, and Did. of Ant. art. Cabiria.] The 



I political history of Samothrace is of little im- 
portance. The Sarnothracians fought on the 

I side of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis (Hdt. 

j viii. 90), and at this time they possessed on 
the Thracian mainland a few places, such as 
Sale, Serrhion, Mesambria, and Tempyra (Hdt. 

i vii. 108). In the time of the Macedonian kings, 
Samothrace appears to have been regarded as 
a kind of asylum, and Perseus accordingly fled 
thither after his defeat by the Romans at the 
battle of Pydna (Liv. xlv. 6). 

Sampsiceramus, the name of two princes of 
Emesa in Syria [Emesa], a nickname given by 
Cicero to Cn. Pompeius, in allusion probably 
to his talking much of his Eastern victories, 
this name being selected as particularly high- 
sounding (Cic. ad Att. ii. 14, 16, 17, 23). 

Sanchuniathon (Sc^xowmfW), said to have 
been an ancient Phoenician writer, whose works 
were translated (as was pretended) into Greek 
by Philo Byblius, who lived in the latter half 
of the first century of the Cliristian era. A 
considerable fragment of the translation of 
Philo is preserved by Eusebius in the first book 
of his Praeparatio Evangelica. Philo was 
one of the many adherents of the doctrine of 
Euhemerus, that all the gods were originally 
men who had distinguished themselves in their 
lives as kings, warriors, or benefactors of 
man, and were worshipped as divinities after 
their death. This doctrine Philo applied to the 
religious system of the Oriental nations, and 
especially of the Phoenicians; and in order to 
gain more credit for his statements, he pre- 
tended that they were taken from an ancient 
Phoenician writer. Sanchuniathon, he says, 
was a native of Berytus, lived in the time of 
Semiramis,and dedicated his work to Abibalus, 
king of Berytus. It is probable that Sanchu- 
niathon never existed, and that the name was 
formed from the Phoenician god Sanchon, and 
was invented for an imaginary Phoenician 
writer to whom Philo professed to ascribe the 
materials which he had gathered from tra- 
ditions of various religions, Egyptian, Greek, 
and especially Phoenician. — The fragments of 
this work have been published separately by J. 
C. Orelli, Lips. 1826. In 1835 a manuscript, 
purporting to be the entire translation of Philo 
Byblius, was discovered in a convent in Por- 
tugal. The Greek text was published by 
Wagenfeld, Bremae, 1837. 

Sancus, or Semo Sancus, an Italian di- 
\ inity, originally a Sabine god, and identical 
with Hercules and Dius Fidius. The name, 
which is etymologically the same as Sanctus. 
and connected with Sancire, seems to justify 
this belief, and characterises Sancus as a 
divinity presiding over oaths (Ov. Fast. vi. 
218; Propert. v. 9, 71). Sancus also had a 
temple at Rome, on the Mucialis (the S. slope 
of the Quirinal), which was said to have been 
consecrated in 466 B.C. by Postumius Rcgil- 
lensis (Dionys. ix. 60) : near it was the ' Gate 
of Semo ' (Porta Sanqualis ; Fest. p. 845). There 
was also an altar on the island in the Tiber 
dedicated to Snnco (C.I. L. vi. 567), from which 
Christian writers derived their fallacious notion 
that Simon Magus was worshipped at Rome 
(TertnlL A /ml. 18; Euseb. H. E. ii. 18). [See 
further under Fiwus, and Heracles, pp. 400, 
401, b.l 

Sandrdcottus CSavSpd/foTTos), an Indian king 
at the time of Seleucus Nicator, ruled over the 
powerful nation of the Gangaridae and l'rasii 
on the banks of the Ganges. He was a mun of 
mean origin, and was the leader of a band of 

8 H 



83-i 



SANGALA 



robbers, before he obtained the supreme power. 
In the troubles which followed the death of 
Alexander, he extended his dominions over the 
greater part of northern India, and conquered 
the Macedonians who had been left by Alex- 
ander in the Punjab. His dominions were 
invaded by Seleucus, who did not, however, suc- 
ceed in the object of his expedition, for, in the 
peace concluded between the two monarchs, 
Seleucus ceded to Sandrocottus not only his 
conquests in the Punjab, but also the country 
of the Paropamisus. Seleucus in return re- 
ceived 500 war elephants. (Plut. Alex. 62; 
Just. xv. 4 ; Arr. An. v. 6, 2 ; Strab. pp. 702, 709, 
724 ; App. Syr. 55 ; Athen. p. 18.) Megasthenes 
subsequently resided for many years at the 
court of Sandrocottus as the ambassador of 
Seleucus. [Megasthenes.] Sandrocottus is 
probably the same as the Chandragupta of 
the Sanscrit writers. 

Sangala ('SdyyaAa), a town taken by Alex- 
ander in the country of the Punjab (Arr. An. 
v. 22). Some identify it with Lahore. 

Sangarius, Sangaris, or Sagaris ('Sayyd- 
pios, 3>dyyapis, ~2,dyapis ' Sakariyeh), the 
largest river of Asia Minor after the Halys, 
had its source in a mountain called Adoreus, 
near the little town of Sangia, on the borders 
of Galatia and Phrygia, whence it flowed first 
N. through Galatia, then W. and NW. through 
the NE. part of Phrygia, and then N. through 
Bithynia, of which it originally formed the E. 
boundary. It fell at last into the Euxine, 
about half way between the Bosporus and 
Heraclea. It was navigable in the lower part 
of its course. Its chief tributaries were the 
Thymbres or Thymbrus, the Bathys, and the 
Gallus, flowing into it from the W. (II. iii. 187, 
xvi. 719; Hes. Th. 344; Strab. p. 543; Ov. 
Pont. iv. 10, 17.) 

Sangia. [Sangabius.] 

Sannyrion (~2,avvvpiuv), an Athenian comic 
poet, belonging to the latter years of the Old 
Comedy, and the beginning of the Middle. He 
flourished B.C. 407 and onwards. We know 
nothing of his personal history, except that his 
excessive leanness was ridiculed by Strattis and 
Aristophanes. (Athen. p. 551.) 

Santones or Santoni, a powerful people in 
Gallia Aquitanica, dwelt on the coast of the 
ocean, N. of the Garumna. Under the Bomans 
thsy were a free people. Their chief town was 
Mediolanum, afterwards Santones (Saintes). 
(Caes. B. G. i. 10, iii. 11, vii. 75 ; Ptol. ii. 7, 17.) 
Their country produced a species of wormwood 
which was much valued, and also a thick 
woollen cloth (Plin. xxvii. 60 ; Mart. ix. 95 ; 
Juv. viii. 145). 

Saocoras. [Mascas ] 

Sapaei (Sairtuoi, 'Sdiraioi), a people in Thrace, 
on Mt. Pangaeus, between the lake Bistonis 
and the coast (Hdt. vii. 110 ; Strab. p. 549). 

Sapaudia, a district of E. Gaul, S. of the 
Lake of Geneva, and extending to Grenoble 
(Amm. Marc. xv. 11). Its name is preserved in 
Savoy. 

Saphar, Sapphar, or Taphar CSdcpap or"A<pap, 
"Zdircpap, Tdipapov : Dliafar, Bu.), one of the 
chief cities of Arabia, stood on the S. coast of 
Arabia Felix, opposite to the Aromata Pr. in 
Africa (C. Guardafui). It was the capital of 
the Homeritae, a part of which tribe bore the 
nameof Sapharitae or Sappharitae ('Zair <f>ap~LTai). 
(Ptol. vi. 6, 25.) 

Santra, a Boman grammarian, who lived 
;ibout the end of the Bepublic, and wrote on 
the history of literature. He is cited frequently 



SAPPHO 

by later writers. (Mart. xi. 2, 7; Suet. Gr. 14; 
Gell. vii. 15; Quint, xii. 10, 16; Pest. p. 277; 
Non, 170, 21.) 

Sapis (Savio), a small river in Gallia Cisal- 
1 pina, rising in the Apennines, and flowing into 
the Adriatic S. of Bavenna, between the Po 
and the Aternus (Strab. p. 217; Lucan, ii. 406). 

Sapor. [Sassanidae.] 

Sappho (2,aircpii, or, in her own Aeolic dialect, 
VaTripa), one of the two great leaders of the 
Aeolian school of lyric poetry (Alcaeus being 
the other), was a native of Mytilene, or, as some 
said, of Eresos in Lesbos. Her father's name 
was Scamandronymus, who died when she was 
only six years old (Hdt. ii. 135). She had three 
brothers, Charaxus, Larichus, and Eurigius. 
Gharaxus was violently upbraided by his sister 
in a poem, because he became so enamoured of 
the courtesan Bhodopis at Naucratis in Egypt, 
as to ransom her from slavery at an immense 
price. [Bhodopis.] It is probably an entire 
mistake to deduce from Fr. 85 (where Sappho 
calls Kleis ' a fair daughter ') that the poetess 
was married and had children. She is speak- 
ing in the character of the poetical subject, not 
in her own person. Sappho was contemporary 
with Alcaeus, Stesichorus, and Pittacus. That 
she was not only contemporary, but lived in 
friendly intercourse, with Alcaeus, is shown by 
existing fragments of the poetry of both. Of 
the events of her life we have scanty informa- 
tion. From the Parian marble (36) we learn 
that political troubles drove her from Lesbos, 
like other partisans of the aristocracy, and 
that she went to Sicily (cf. Ov. Her. xv. 51). 
As regards the well-known story, that being in 
love with Phaon, and finding her love unre- 
quited, she leapt down from the Leucadian 
rock, it seems to have been an invention of later 
times evolved out of a • misunderstanding of 
some of her verses, and a confusion with the 
popular legend of Phaon's love for Aphrodite 
[p. 686, b]. It is even possible that in one of her 
poems she may have addressed Phaon in the 
character of Aphrodite (though his name does 
not occur in any existing fragment), and that, 
as in the case of Kleis, a too prosaic interpreter 
started the error, which was first promulgated 
by the comedians. (Strab. p. 452 ; Athen. pp. 
69, 441.) As for the leap from the Leucadian 
rock, it is a fiction, which arose from an 
expiatory rite connected with the worship of 
Apollo [p. 486, a]. At Mytilene Sappho appears 
to have been the centre of a female literary 
society, most of the members of which were her 
pupils in poetry. [Erinna.] Upon the mention 
of these younger pupils and followers a foolish 
love of scandal in a later age based an attack 
against the moral character of Sappho, which 
should be dismissed as a groundless fabrica- 
tion. This also was started by the comedians. 
It may have been suggested in the first instance 
partly by the incapacity of the Athenians to 
imagine any such freedom of women in society 
as was possible without any taint among the 
Aeolians and Dorians, and partly from the 
prurient imagination of the comedians. Bead 
with an intelligent mind, the poems which have 
survived imply no want of purity in Sappho, 
and Aristotle's approbation of the reply which 
Sappho made to Alcaeus does not suggest a dis- 
belief in her nobility of character. Of her poeti- 
cal genius, however, there cannot be a question. 
The ancient writers agree in expressing the 
most unbounded admiration for her poetry. 
Even in her own age the recitation of one of 
her poems so affected Solon that he expressed 



SARANCAE 

an earnest desire to learn it before he died 
(Ael. ap. Stob. Serm. xxix. 58). The Alexan- 
drian school numbered her among the nine 
great lyric poets, and in force and passion she 
probably surpassed tliem all. Her lyric poems 
formed nine books, but of these only fragments 
have come down to us. The longest is a splen- 
did ode to Aphrodite.— The fragments are 
edited by Neue, Berl. 1827, and in Bergk's 
Poetae Lyrici, 1867. 

Sarancae, Sarangaeor -es i'S.apayyai, 2apay- 
yees Herod. ), a people of Sogdiana (Hdt. 
iii. 93). 

Saravus (Saar), a small river in Gaul, flow- 
ing into the Mosella on its right bank (Auson. 
Mosell. 367)._ 

Sardanapalus tZapoavd-rrakos), the last king 
of the Assyrian empire of Nineveh. The 
familiar account of his life, as derived from 
Ctesias, gives a false view both of his date and 
his character. It asserts that he passed his 
time in his palace unseen by any of his sub- 
jects, dressed in female apparel, and surrounded 
by concubines. At length Arbaces, satrap of 
Media, and Belesys, the noblest of the Chal- 
daean priests, resolved to renounce allegiance 
to such a worthless monarch, and advanced at 
the head of a formidable army against Nineveh. 
But all of a sudden the effeminate prince threw 
off his luxurious habits, and appeared an un- 
daunted warrior. Placing himself at the head 
of his troops, he twice defeated the rebels, but 
was at length worsted and obliged to shut him- 
self up in Nineveh. Here he sustained a siege 
for two years, till at length, finding it impossible 
to hold out any longer, he collected all his 
treasures, wives, and concubines, and placing 
them on an immense pile which he had con- 
structed, set it on fire, and thus destroyed both 
himself and them. The enemies then obtained 
possession of the city, in the eighth century B.C. 
This is the account of Ctesias, which has been 
preserved by Diodorus Siculus and which has 
been followed by most subsequent writers and 
chronologists (Diod. ii. 21 ; Syncell. p. 35'J ; , 
Agath. p. 120; August. CD. xviii. 21). Modern 
writers have shown that the narrative of Ctesias 
is mythical, and must not be received as a 
genuine history. The legend of Sardanapalus, 
who so strangely appears at one time sunk in 
the lowest effeminacy, and immediately after- 
wards a heroic warrior, lias perhaps been com- 
posed from popular stories of the god Sandon, 
who was worshipped in Asia both as a heroic 
and a female divinity. The real Sardanapalus 
was the king Assur-bani-pal, son of Esarhaddon, 
who is described in the cuneiform record as 
making two successful expeditions against 
Egypt, about the years 670-050 B.C. In the 
first he defeated Taharqa (Tirhakah) who had 
oombined with some of the petty kings set up 
in Egypt by Esarhaddon, to drive out all who 
favoured Assyria ; in the second, besides de- 
feating Urdameneh, Taharqa's successor, he 
carried Neku [Nkco, No. 1] prisoner to Nine- 
veh. But meantime his own empire had been 
■weakened by dissensions. The end came in 
606 B.C., when the governor of Babylon in al- 
liance with Cyaxares, king of Media, brought 
an army against Nineveh, took the city and 
rased it to the ground. Sardanapalus, or Assur- 
bani-pal, with all his family perished with the 
city. [See also pp. 185, 150. | 
• Sardemisus, a branch of M. Taurus, extend- 
ing southwards on the borders of Pisidia and 
Pamphylia, as far us Phaselis in Lycia, whence 
it was continued in the chain railed Climax. I 



SARDINIA 



835 



It divided the district of Milyas from Pisidia 
Proper (Plin. v. 96). 
Sardi. [Sabdinia.] 

Sardinia (f] 2ap5ai or 2apSwv, gen. SapSrWr, 
dat. 2ap8o7, acc. 2.apSu> : subsequently 2ap5toWa, 
SapSavia, or SapS^vi'a : 2ap8a>os, 2apS6vios, 2ap- 
Savios, Sardus : Sardiyiia), a large island in the 
Mediterranean, is in shape in the form of a 
parallelogram, upwards of 140 nautical miles 
in length from N. to S. with an average breadth 
of sixty. It was regarded by many of the an- 
cients as the largest of the Mediterranean 
islands (Hdt. i. 170, v. 106; Scyl. p. 56; cf. 
Strab. p. 654), and this opinion, though usually 
considered an error, is now found to be correct, 
since it appears by actual measurement that 
Sardinia is a little larger than Sicily. Sardinia 
lies in almost a central position between Spain, 
Gaul, Italy, and Africa. The ancients derived 
its name from Sardus, a son of a native deity 
identified by the Greeks with Heracles (Paus. 
x. 17, 2), who was worshipped in the island 
under the name of Sardus Pater. The Greeks 
called it Ichnusa ('Ixvovad) from its resem- 
blance to the print of a foot, and Sandaliotis 
iSavbaAiuTis) from its likeness to a sandal (Sil. 
It. xii. 358; Paus. I.e. ; Plin. iii. 85). A chain 
of mountains runs along the whole of the E. 
side of the island from N. to S., occupying about 
one third of its surface. These mountains were 
called by the ancients Insani Montes (Liv. xxx. 
39; Claud. Bell. Gild. 513; to MaW/ueya "Op7j, 
Ptol. iii. 3, 6), a name which they probably de- 
rived from their wild and savage appearance, 
and from their being the haunt of numerous 
robbers. In the W. and S. parts of Sardinia 
there are numerous plains, intersected by ranges 
of smaller hills, but this part of the island 
was in antiquity, as in the present day, exceed- 
ingly unhealthy, owing to the extensive marshes 
and lagunes. (Strab. p. 225 ; Paus. x. 17, 11 ; 
Mart. iv. 60, 6; Tac. Ann. ii. 85.) The princi- 
pal rivers are the Termus (Temw) in the N., 
the Thyrsus (Oristano) on the W. (the largest 
river in the island), and the Flumen Sacrum 
(Uras) and the Saeprus iFlumendoso) on the 
E. The chief towns in the island were : on the 
N. coast, Tibula [Porto Polio) and Turris Li- 
byssonis; on the S. coast, Sulci and C'aralis 
(Cagliari) ; on the E. coast, Olbia ; and in the 
interior, Cornus (Corneto) and Nora (Nurri). 
—Sardinia was very fertile, but was not exten- 
sively cultivated, in consequence of the uncivi- 
lised character of itc inhabitants. Still the 
plains in the W. and S. parts of the island 
produced a great amount of corn, of which 
a large quantity was exported to Rome 
every year. Among the products of the island 
one of the most celebrated was the Sardonica 
hcrba, a poisonous plant, which was said to 
produce fatal convulsions in the persons who 
ate of it. These convulsions, it was said, agi- 
tated and distorted the mouth, so that the 
person appeared to laugh, though in excruc ra- 
ting pain : hence the well-known risttt Sardo- 
nieus. (Paus. x. 17, 13 ; Sen . ad Eel. vii. 41 ; 
Suid. s.w. 5ap8e£i/ios ytkws). No plant pos- 
sessing these properties is found at present in 
Sardinia; and it is not impossible that the 
whole tale may have arisen from a piece of bad 
etymology, since we find mention in Homer of 
the SapSai/ios -yf'Awi, which cannot have any 
reference to Sardinia, but is probably connected 
with the verb rraipnv, ' to grin. 1 The bitterness 
of the Sardinian honey, which was supposed 
to be caused by thiB herb, is Htill observed. 
Another of the principal productions of Sar- 

8 B 2 



836 



SARDINIA 



ditiia was its wool, which was obtained from a 
breed of domestic animals between a sheep and 
ji goat, called musmones (uovcriJ.on> : moufflon; 
Htrab.p.225; Paus. Z.c; Ael. S. A. xvi. 34).' The 
skins of these animals were used by the in- 
habitants as clothes, whence we find them often 
called Pettiti and Mastrticati. Sardinia also 
contained a large quantity of the precious 
metals, especially silver, the mines of which 
were worked in antiquity to a great extent 
(Solin. 4, 4). There were likewise numerous 
mineral springs ; and large quantities of salt 
were manufactured on the W. and S. coasts. — 
The population of Sardinia was of a very 
mixed kind. To what race the original inhabi- 
tants belonged we are not informed; most 
likely they were Iberians, i.e. of the same race 
as the non- Aryan element in Spain and Sicily. 
Phoenicians, Tyrrhenians, and Carthaginians 
settled in the island at different periods. The 
Greeks are also said to have planted colonies 
in the island, but this account is very sus- 
picious. The first Greek colony is said to have 
been led by Iolaus, a son of Heracles. The 
story probably arose from the name of a tribe 
in the island, called Iolai ('\6\aoi, 'loXdeioi, 
'IoAaeis), or Ilienses ('Wieis) [see p. 445, a]. 
These were some of the most ancient inhabi- 
tants of Sardinia, and were probably not of 
Greek, but of Iberian origin. Their name is 



SAKDES 

event, the Romans availed themselves of the 
dangerous war which the Carthaginians were 
carrying on against their mercenaries in Africa, 
to take possession of Sardinia, B.C. 238 (Pol. 
i. 88, iii. 10; Liv. xxi. 1). It was now formed 
into a Roman province under the government 
of a praetor ; but a large portion of it was only 
nominally subject to the Romans ; and it was 
not till after many years and numerous revolts, 
that the inhabitants submitted to the Roman 
dominion. It was after one of these revolts 
that so many Sardinians were thrown upon the 
slave market as to give rise to the proverb, 
' Sardi venales,' to indicate any cheap and 
worthless commodity (Aurel. Vict. Vir. III. 65). 
After 122 B.C. the island was governed by a 
propraetor, whose title in 27, when the province 
was given to the senate, became proconsul. In 
a.d. 6 it was placed under an imperial procura- 
tor (Dio Cass. lxv. 28) : after Diocletian under a 
praeses. The inhabitants of the mountains in 
the E. side of the island were never completely 
subdued, and gave trouble to the Romans even 
in the time of Tiberius. Sardinia continued to 
belong to the Roman empire till the fifth cen- 
tury, when it was taken possession of by the 
Vandals. 

Sardes or Sardis (plural) [at SetpSeis, Ion. 
SapSies, contracted SapSfj : 2ap5(0s, SapSiavSs, 
'SapSL-rji/ds, Sardianus: Sart, Ru.], one of the 




Nuraghe in Sardinia. 



still preserved in the modern town of Iliola, in 
the middle of the W. coast. We also find in 
the island Corsi, who had crossed over from 
Corsica, and Balari, who, according to Pau- 
sanias, were descendants of Libyan mercenaries 
of the Carthaginians, who had settled in the 
mountains. Probably it is to the Iberian in- 
habitants that the peculiar towers (called 
Nuraghe) are due. Greek writers evidently re- 
garded them as of great antiquity. ([Aristot.] 
de Mirab. 100 = p. 838 ; cf. Diod. iv. 30.) They 
are built of massive stones in the form of a 
truncated cone, and contain vaulted chambers 
with a staircase in the thickness of the wall. At 
a later time all these names became merged under 
the general appellation of Sardi, although even 
in the Roman period we still find mention of 
several tribes in the island under distinct names. 
The Sardi are described as a rude and savage 
people, addicted to thievery and lying. — Sar- 
dinia was known to the Greeks as early as B.C. 
545 (Hdt. i. 170) ; and a generation later His- 
tiaeus of Miletus promised Darius that he 
would render the island of Sardo tributary to 
his power (Hdt. v. 106, 124). It was conquered 
by trie Carthaginians at an early period (Diod. 
v. 35), and continued in their possession till the 
end of the first Punic war. Shortly after this 



most ancient and famous cities of Asia Minor, 
and the capital of the great Lydian monarchy, 
stood on the S. edge of the rich valley of the 
Hermus, at the N. foot of M. Tmolus, on the 
little river Pactolus, thirty stadia (three geogr. 
miles) S. of the junction of that river with the 
Hermus (Hdt. v. 101 ; Aesch. Pers. 45 ; Strab. 
p. 625). On a lofty precipitous rock, forming 
an outpost of the range of Tmolus, was the 
almost impregnable citadel which some suppose 
to be the Hyde of Homer, who, though he never 
mentions the Lydiansor Sardis byname, speaks 
of M. Tmolus and the lake of Gyges (II. xx. 
385 ; Strab. p. 626). The erection of this citadel 
was ascribed to Meles, an ancient king of Lydia 
(Hdt. i. 81) ; but it was probably first a western 
outpost of the great Hittite empire. It was 
surrounded by a triple wall, and contained the 
palace and treasury of the Lydian kings. At 
the downfall of the Lydian empire, it resisted 
all the attacks of Cyrus, and was only taken by 
surprise. The story is told by Herodotus, who 
relates other legends of the fortress. The rest 
of the city, which stood in the plain on both 
sides of the Pactolus, was very slightly built,- 
and was repeatedly burnt down, first by the 
Cimmerians, then by the Greeks in the great 
Ionic revolt, and again, in part at least, by 



SARDOmi 



SABNUS 



837 



Antiochus tlie Great (Pol. v. 15, viii. 23) ; but Bussia in Europe), a name first used by Mela 
on each occasion it was restored. For its bis- j (ii. 4) for the part of X. Europe and Asia ex- 
tory as the capital of the Lydian monarchy , tending from the Vistula ( Wisla) and the Sab- 
see Lydia. Under the Persian and Greco- iiatici JIoxtes on the W., which divided it 
Syrian empires, it was the residence of the from Germany, to the Rha (Volga) on the E., 
satrap of Lydia. The rise of Pergamum greatly which divided it from Scythia ; bounded on the 
diminished its importance ; but under the Ro- SW. and S. by the rivers Ister (Danube), 
mans it was still a considerable city, and the Tibiscus (Theiss\, and Tyras (Dniester), which 
seat of a conventus juridicus (Plin. v. Ill), and \ divided it from Pannonia and Dacia, and, fur- 
a place where the religious festivals of the ther, by the Euxine, and beyond it by M. 
province of Asia (koivov ' Aa ias) were held for Caucasus, which divided it from Colchis, Iberia, 
the worship of Rome and Augustus iC.I.G. and Albania; and extending on the N. as far 
5918). In the organisation of Diocletian it was as the Baltic and the unknown regions of 
the capital of Lydia. In the reign of Tiberius, N. Europe. The part of this country which 
it was almost entirely destroyed by an earth- ; lies in Europe corresponds to the Scythia of 
quake, but it was restored by the emperor's aid. Herodotus. The people from whom the name 
(Tac. Ann. ii. 47 ; Strab. p. 027.) It was one of ( of Sarmatia was derived inhabited at first only 
the earliest seats of the Christian religion, and a small portion of the country. [Sarmatae.] 
one of the seven Churches of the province of The greater part oi it was peopled by Scythian 
Asia. [Diet, of the Bible. ] In 1402 the city tribes, who, before the Christian era, had 
was destroyed by Tamerlane, and its site now yielded to a great extent to the Sarmatian 
presents a melancholy scene of desolation. The power and name ; but some of the inhabitants 
triple wall of the acropolis can still be traced, of its TV. part seem to have been of German 
and remains of the temple of Cybele, the theatre, origin, as the Vexedi on the Baltic, and the 
stadium and other buildings. The necropolis j Lvzyges, Rhoxolani, and Hamaxobii in S. 
of the city stood on the banks of the lake of t Bussia : the chief of the other tribes TV. of the 
Gyges [Gygaeus LacusJ, near which the sepul- Tanais were the Alauni or Alani Scythae, a 
chre of Alyattes may still be seen. [Alyattes.j | Scythian people who came out of Asia and 

Sardoum or Sardonicum Mare (rh 2apdc£ov settled in the central parts of Bussia. [Alani.] 
or laphuviov ireKayos), the part of the Medi- The people E. of the Tanais were not of suffi- 
Urranean sea on the TV. and S. of Sardinia, cient importance in ancient history to require 
m parated from the Libyan sea by a line drawn ! specific mention. The whole country was divi- 
from the promontory Lilybaeum in Sicily ded by the river Tanais (Don) into two parts, 
(Hdt. i. 166; Strab. pp. 50, 54 ; Plin. iii. 75). , called respectively Sarmatia Europaeaand Sar- 

Sarepta or Sarephtha (Sapeirra, 2ape<p0a, matia Asiatica (t) iv Eipdirri and r\ iv 'A<rto 
idpairra: O. T. Zarephath : Surafend, Sir- 2ap/xarla) ; but it should be observed that, 
jihant, or Tzarphand), a city of Phoenicia, according to the modern division of the con- 
about ten miles S. of Sidon, to the territory of tinent, the whole of Sarmatia belongs to Europe, 
which it belonged (Jos. Ant. viii. 13, 2; Plin. It should also be noticed that the Chersonesus 
v. 76; Diet, of the Bible). Taurica [Crimea), though falling within the 

Sargetia (Strel or Strey, a tributary of the specified limits, was not considered as a part of 
Marosch), a river in Dacia, on which was situ- Sarmatia, but as a separate country, 
ated the residence of Decebalus (Dio Cass. Sarmaticae Portae [at 2<xpp.aTiKa! -nvAai : 
lxviii. 14). | Pass of Dariel), the central pass of the Cau- 

Sarlphi MontesfTa 2dpirpa opi)l,a mountain- casus, leading from Iberia to Sarmatia (Pol. v. 
range in the N. of Parthia, running eastward 9,11). It was more commonly called Caucasiae 
from the SE. comer of the Caspian. Portae. [Caucasus.] It was also called Cas- 

Sarmatae or Sauromatae i2ap/iaTcu, Strabo; piae Portae (Suet. Ner. 19; Tac. Mist. i. 6), ap- 
'S.avpo^a.rai, Hdt.), a people of Asia, dwelling parently through a cov.fusion with the pass of 
on the NE. of the Pains Maeotis (Sea of Azov), that name at the E. end of the Caucasus. 
E. of the river Tanais (Do n) which separated [Caspiae Portae.] The remains of an ancient 
them from the Scythians of Europe. This is wall are still seen in the pass, 
the account of Herodotus, who tells us that the Sarmatici Montes ra 2apjuaTi«a vprf. part 
Sarmatians were allied to the Scythians, and of the Carpathian Mountains), a range of 
spoke a corrupted form of the Scythian lan- mountains in Central Europe, extending from 
guage, and that their origin was ascribed to the sources of the Vistula to the Danube, be- 
the intercourse of Scythians with Amazons tween Germany on the W. and Sarmatia on 
(Hdt. iv. 21, 110-117). Strabo also places the the E. (Ptol. ii. 11, 6). 

Sauromatae proper between the Tanais and the Sarmaticus Oceanus and Pontus, Sarmatl- 
Caspian (pp. 197, 500, 507) ; but in many cum Mare (2ap/iaT(«is wKtavus : Baltic), a 
passages he makes no very distinct separation great sea, washing the N. coast of European 
between Sarmatians and Scythians The Sar- Sarmatia (Ptol. vii. 5, 2), but Roman poets 
niatae had before his time invaded and occupied applied the name sometimes to the Black Sea 
much of what had been Scythian territory, and (Ov. Pont. iv. 10, 38 ; Val. Place, viii. 207). 
continued to push their influence further, so ' Sarmizegethusa (near Vachcly, also called 
that Tacitus (Germ. l)speaksof them as neigh- i Gradischtc, Ru.), the most important town of 
hours of the Germans i i.r. n-.v -liing to Poland Dari.t, and tin; residence of its kings, was situ- 
nnd E. Prussia), and Ptolemy brings them up ated on the river Sargetia (Strel or Strey) 
to the Vistula. At the same time their power (Dio Cass, lviii. 9, lxviii. 8, 14). Alter Trajan's 
was roving and fluctuating : there were nu- conquests [Dacia] it was made a Roman colony 
nierons independent and dominant tribes within under the name of Col. Ulpia. Trajana Aug., 
these limits who are spoken of under their own and the capital of the province in which a legion 
name, and Sarmatia in its extended sense is had its head-quarters (Dio Cass. Iv. 23 ; C.I.L. 
rather a geographical expression than a country iii. p. 228). 

of one ruling nation. [Sahmatia.1 Sarnus (Sarno),a. river in Campania, flowing 

Sarmatia (i) 2ap^an'a: Zapudrai, 'Savpofii- by Naceria, and falling into the Sinus Puteola- 
rcu : the E. part of Poland, and S. part of nus near Pompeii. Its course was changed by 



838 



SAKON 



SASSANIDAE 



the great eruption of Vesuvius, a.d. 79. On its 
banks dwelt a people named SarrasteS, who are 
said to have migrated from Peloponnesus. 
(Strab. p. 247 ; Verg. Aen. vii. 738 ; Serv. ad loc.) 

Saron, [Saronicus Sinus.] 

Saron (Sdpciv : O. T. Sharon), a fertile plain 
of Palestine, extending along the coast N. of 
Joppa towards Caesarea. [Diet, of the Bible.] 

Saronicus Sinus CSapwuiKbs k6\wos, also 
irdpos, neKayos, and tt6vtos : G. of Egina), a 
bay of the Aegaean sea lying between Attica 
and Argolis, and commencing between the 
promontory of Sunium in Attica and that of 
Seyllaeum in Argolis. It contains within it the 
islands of Aegina and Salamis. (Aesch. Ag. 
317; Strab. pp. 335, 369.) Its name was tra- 
ditionally derived from Saron, king of Troezen, 
who was supposed to have been drowned in this 
part of the sea while swimming in pursuit of a 
stag. The story, founded apparently in part on 
the name, and in part on the rites of Artemis, 
tells that he was buried in the precincts of the 
temple which be had built for Artemis, and the 
neighbouring sea was called Saronis instead of 
Phoebaea (Paus. iii. 30, 7). 

Sarpedon (SapirriSc&v). 1. Son of Zeus and 
Europa, and brother of Minos and Rhadaman- 
thus. Being involved in a quarrel with Minos 
about Miletus, he took refuge with Cilix, whom 
he assisted against the Lycians. He after- 
wards became king of the Lycians, and Zeus 
granted him the privilege of living three 
generations. (Hdt. i. 173; Apollod. iii. 1, 2; 
Paus. vii. 3, 4 ; Miletus.) — 2. Son of Zeus and 
Laodamia, or, according to others, of Evander 
and Deidamia, and a brother of Clarus and 
Themon (II. vi. 199; Apollod. iii. 1, 1; Verg. 
Aen. x. 125). He was a Lycian prince, and a 
grandson of No. 1, with whom he is confused 
in Eur. Bhes. 29. In the Trojan war he was 
an ally of the Trojans, and distinguished him- 
self by his valour, but was slain by Patroclus 
(II v. 479, xii. 292, xvi. 480). Apollo, by the 
command of Zeus, cleansed Sarpedon's body 
from blood and dust, covered it with ambrosia, 
and gave it to Sleep and Death to carry into 
Lycia, there to be honourably buried (II. xvi. 
667; Mors). 

Sarpedon Promontorium (~Zapin)$wv : C. Lis- 
san el Kapeh), a promontory of Cilicia, in 
long. 34° E., eighty stadia W. of the mouth 
of the Calycadnus. In the peace between the 
Romans and Antiochus the Great, the W. 
boundary of the Syrian kingdom was fixed 
here. (Strab. p. 670 ; App. Syr. 39 ; Liv. 
xxxviii. 38.) 

Sarpedonmm Prom. (r/ 2apir?)5<m'7) &Kpa: 
Gremia), a promontory of Thrace between the 
mouths of the rivers Melas and Erginus, oppo- 
site the island of Imbros (Hdt. vii. 58). 

Sarrastes. [Sarnus.] 

Sars (Sar), a small river on the W. coast of 
Hispania Tarraconensis, between the Prom. 
Nerium and the Minius (Mel. iii. 1). 

Sarsina (Sarsinas, -atis: Sarsina), an ancient 
town of Umbria, on the river Sapis, SW. of 
Ari minum, and subsequently a Roman munici- 
piura (Strab. p. 227 ; Plin. iii. 114), celebrated 
as the birthplace of the comic poet Plautus. 

Sarta (Sap-nj : Sykia), a town on the E. 
coast of the Sithonian promontory of Chalci- 
dice (Hdt. vii. 122). 

Saras (6 Sapos : Seihan), a considerable 
river in the SE. of Asia Minor. Rising in the 
Anti-Taurus, in the centre of Cappadocia, it 
flows S. past Comana to the borders of Cilicia, 
where it receives a W. branch that has run 



nearly parallel to it ; and thence, flowing- 
through Cilicia Campestris in a winding course, 
it falls into the sea a little E. of the mouth of 
the Cydnus, and SE. of Tarsus. Xenophon 
gives three plethra (303 feet) for its width at its 
mouth. (Xen. An. i. 4, 1 ; Strab. p. 535.) 

Saso or Sasonis Insula (Saseno, Sassono, 
Sassa), a small rocky island off the coast of 
Illyria, N. of the Acroceraunian promontory, 
much frequented by pirates (Pol. v. 110; 
Strab. p. 281 ; Plin. iii. 152). 

Saspires, or -i, or Saplres (Sacnreipes, 5acr- 
ireipoi, SoTreipes, 2a7r7reiper), a Scythian peoph 
of Asia, S. of Colchis and N.. of Media, in the 
district of N. Armenia called Hysparatis, along 
the river Acampsis (Hdt. i. 104, iv. 37, vii. ,79 ; 
Amm. Marc. xxii. 8, 21). Apollonius Rhod. (ii. 
397, 1242), wrongly places them on the coast, 
of the Euxine. 

Sassanidae, the name of a dynasty which 
reigned in Persia from a.d. 226 to a.d. 651. 
1. Artaxerxes (the Ardashir or Ardshir of 
the Persians), the founder of the dynasty of 
the Sassanidae, reigned a.d. 226-241. He was 
a son of one Papak or Pabek, an inferior 
officer, who was the son of Sassan, and his 
ancestors had been viceroys of the Persian 
province, i.e. of the centre of the Iranian 
people, under the supremacy of the Arsacidae. 
Artaxerxes had served with distinction in the 
army of Artabanus, the king of Parthia, was 
rewarded with ingratitude, and took revenge in 
revolt. He obtained assistance from several 
grandees, and having met with success, claimed 
the throne on the plea of being descended from 
the ancient kings of Persia, the progeny of the 
great Cyrus. The people warmly supported 
his cause as he declared himself the champion 
of the ancient Persian religion. In 226 Arta- 
banus was defeated, in a decisive battle ; and 
Artaxerxes thereupon assumed the pompous 
but national title of ' King of Kings.' Perse- 
polis was the nominal capital of the Parthian 
empire, but Ctesiphon was the real seat of 
government. Henceforth the Sassanid kings 
held themselves as equals of the Caesars, 
which had never been fully the case with the 
Arsacidae. It is noticed, among other things, 
that the Sassanidae from the first struck gold 
coins, which the Arsacidae never had done. 
One of the first legislative acts of Artaxerxes 
(Ardashir) was to restore the pure religion of 
Zoroaster and fire-worship, and the power of 
the Magian order. The reigning branch of the 
Parthian Arsacidae was exterminated, but 
some collateral branches were suffered to live 
and to enjoy the privileges of Persian gran- 
dees, who, along with the Magi, formed a sort, 
of senate. Having succeeded in establishing 
his authority at home, Artaxerxes demanded 
from the emperor Alexander Severus the im- 
mediate cession of all those portions of the 
Roman empire that had belonged to Persia in 
the time of Cyrus and Xerxes — that is, the 
whole of the Roman possessions in Asia as 
well as Egypt. A war between the two empires 
was the direct consequence. After a severe 
contest, peace was restored, shortly after the 
murder of Alexander, in 235, each nation retain- 
ing the possessions which they held before the 
breaking outof the war.— 2. Sapor I. (Shapur), 
the son and successor of Artaxerxes I., reigned 
241-272. He carried on war first against 
Gordian, and afterwards against Valerian. 
The latter emperor was defeated by Sapor, 
taken prisoner, and kept in captivitj' for the 
remainder of his life. After the capture of 



SASSANIDAE 839 

Valerian, Sapor conquered Syria, destroyed | licho going to Persia. Owing to these diplo- 
Antioch, and having made himself master of j matic transactions, an arrangement was made 
the passes in the Taurus, laid Tarsus in ashes j in 384, according to which Armenia and Iberia 
and took Caesarea. His further progress was recovered theirindependence. — 12. Varanes IV. 
stopped by Odenathus and Zenobia, who drove : (Bahram), reigned a.d. 300-404, or perhaps not 
the king back beyond the Euphrates, and 1 so long. He was the brother of Sapor III., and 
founded a new empire, over which they ruled founded Kermanshah. still a flourishing town, 
at Palmyra. In his reign lived the celebrated — 13. Yesdigerd I. (Yezdijird), surnamed 
Mani, who, endeavouring to amalgamate the Ulathim, or the Sinner, son or brother of the 
Christian and Zoroastrian religions, gave rise preceding, reigned 404-420 or 421. He was on 
to the famous sect of the Manichaeans, who | friendly terms with the emperor Arcadius, who 
spread over the whole East, exposing them- ! is said to have appointed him the guardian of 
selves to most sanguinary persecutions from his infant son and successor, Theodosius the 
both Christians and fire-worshippers. — 3. Hor- Younger. He concluded a peace with Arcadius 
misdas I. (Hormuz), son of the preceding, who for 100 years. — 14. Varanes V. (Bahrain), son 
reigned only one year, and died 274. — 4. ' of Yesdigerd I., sumamed G-our, or the '"Wild 
Varanes or Vararanes I. (Bahram or Baha- Ass,' on account of his passion for the chase of 
ram), son of Hormisdas I., reigned 274-277. j that animal, reigned 420 or 421-448. He perse- 
He carried on unprofitable wars against Zeno- cuted his Christian subjects with such severity 
bia, and, after her captivity, was involved in a i that thousands of them took refuge within the 
contest with Aurelian, which, however, was I Roman dominions. He carried on war with 
not attended with any serious results, on 1 Theodosius, which was terminated by a peace 
account of the sudden death of Aurelian in , for 100 years, which peace lasted till the twelfth 
275. In his reign Mani was put to death. — year of the reign of the emperor Anastasius. 
5. Varanes II. (Bahram), son of Varanes I. | During the latter part of his reign Varanes 
reigned 277-294. He was defeated by Carus, | earned on wars against the Huns, Turks, and 
who took both Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and Indians, in which he is said to have achieved 
his dominions were only saved from further ] those valorous deeds for which he has ever 
conquests by the sudden death of Carus since continued to be a favourite hero in 
(283).— 6. Varanes III. (Bahram), elder son Persian poetry. He was accidentally drowned 
of Varanes II. died after a reign of eight in a deep water-tank together with his horse, 
months, 294. — 7. Narses (Narsi), younger and neither man nor beast ever rose again. — 
son of Varanes II., reigned 294-303. He j 15. Yezdigerd II., son of the preceding, 
carried on a formidable war against the em- t reigned 448-458. The persecutions against the 
peror Diocletian. The Roman army was com- j Christians were renewed by him with unheard 
manded by Galerius Caesar, who in the first of cruelty. His relations with Borne were 
campaign ( 290) sustained most signal defeats in peaceful. — 16. Hormisdas III. (Hormuz), and 
Mesopotamia, and fled in disgrace to Antioch. 17. Peroses (Firoze), sons of the preceding, 
In the second campaign Narses was defeated claimed the succession, and rose in arms against 
with great loss, and was obliged to conclude a j each other. Peroses gained the throne by the 
peace with the Romans, by which he ceded to assistance of the White Huns, against whom he 
Diocletian Mesopotamia, S. Armenia as far as turned his sword in after years. He perished 
lake Thospitis, including all the valley of the | in a great battle with them in 484, together 
Upper Tigris, that river being in its lower with all of his sons except Pallas and Cobades. — 
course the boundary between the two empires. 18. Pallas (Pallashj, who reigned 484-488. 
The Romans had also the supremacy over Iberia, had to contest the throne with Cobades. He fell 
In 303 Narses abdicated in favour of his son, in battle fighting against his brother Cobades 
and died soon afterwards.— 8. Hormisdas II. in 4bW.— 19. Cobades (Kobad), reigned 488-498, 
(Hormuz , son of Narses, reigned 303-310. and again 501 or 502-531. The years from 49H 
During kis reign nothing of importance till 502, were filled up by the short reign of, 
happened regarding Rome— 9. Sapor II. Pos- 20. Zames iJamaspes). The latter was the 
tumus (Shapur), son of Hormisdas II., was brother of Cobades, whom he dethroned and 
born after the death of his father, and was compelled to fly to the Huns, with whose assist - 
crowned in his mother's womb, the Magi placing ance Cobades recovered his throne about 502. 
the diadem with great solemnity upon the body He carried on war with success against the 
of his mother. He reigned 310^-881. His reign emperor Anastasius ; but in consequence of the 
was signalised by a cruel persecution of the Huns, who had previously been his auxiliaries, 
Christians. He carried on war for many years turning their arms against him, he made peace 
against Constantius II. and his successors, with Anastasius in 505, on receiving 11,000 
The armies of Constantius were repeatedly pounds of gold as an indemnity. He also re- 
defeated ; Julian, as is related elsewhere stored Mesopotamia and his other conquests to 
[Julianus], perished in battle, and the war the Romans, being unable to maintain his 
was at length brought to a conclusion by Jovian authority there on account of the protracted 
ceding to the Persians the five provinces be- war with the Huns. About this time the Ro- 
yond the Tigris, and the fortresses of Nisibis, mans constructed the fortress of Dara, the 
Singara, &c. Iberia and Armenia were left to strongest bulwark against Persia, and situated 
their fate, and were completely reduced by in the very face of Ctesiphon. The war with 
Sapor in 8(!5 and the following year. Sapor , Constantinople was renewed in 521, in the: 
has been surnamed the Great, and no Persian reign of the emperor Justin I. — 21. Chosroea I. 
king had ever caused such terror to Rome as iKhosru or Khosrew), surnamed Nushirwan, 
this monarch. — 10. Artaxerxes II. lArdishir), or 'the generous mind,' reigned 531-579. He 
the successor of Sapor II., reigned 881-3H5. carried on several wars against the Romans. 
He was a prince of royal blood, but was not a The first war was finished in 532 or 538, Juh- 
non of Sapor. — 11. Sapor III. I Shapur), reigned tinian having purchased peace by an annual 
385-390. He sent an embassy to Theodosius j tribute of 440,000 pieces of gold. One of the 
tho Groat, with splendid presents, which was conditions of Chosrocs was, that seven Greek, 
returned by a Greek embassy headed by Sti- but Pagan, philosophers who had resided some 



840 



SASSANIDAE 



SATURNINUS 



time at the Persian court, should be allowed to 
live in the Roman empire without being subject 
to the imperial laws against Pagans. The 
second war lasted from 540 to 561. Peace was 
concluded on condition of Justinian promising 
an annual tribute of 40,000 pieces of gold, and 
receiving in return the cession of the Persian 
claims upon Colchis and Lazica. The third 
war broke out in 571, in the reign of Justin II., 
but Chosroes died before it was concluded. 
Chosroes was one of the greatest kings of 
Persia. In his protracted wars with the Ro- 
mans he disputed the field with the conquerors 
of Africa and Italy, and with those very generals, 
Tiberius and Mauricius, who brought Persia to 
the brink of ruin but a few years after his 
death. His empire extended from the Indus 
to the Red Sea, and large tracts in Central Asia, 
perhaps a portion of eastern Europe, recognised 
him for a time as their sovereign. He re- 
ceived embassies and presents from the re- 
motest kings of Asia and Africa. His internnl 
government was despotic and cruel, but of that 
firm description which pleases Orientals, so 
that he still lives in the memory of the Persians 
as a model of justice. He provided for all the 
wants of his subjects, and agriculture, trade, 
and learning were equally protected by him. 
He caused the best Greek, Latin, and Indian 
works to be translated into Persian. — 22. Hor- 
misdas IV. (Hormuz), son of Chosroes, reigned 
579-590. He continued the war with the Ro- '• 
mans, which had been bequeathed him by his 
father, but was defeated successively by Mau- 
ricius and Heraclius. Hormisdas was deprived I 
of his sight, and subsequently put to death 
by the Persian aristocracy. — 23. Varanes VI. 
(Bahrain) Shubin, a royal prince, usurped the 
throne on the death of Hormisdas, and reigned 
590-591. Unable to maintain the throne 
against Chosroes, who was supported by the 
emperor Mauricius, he fled to the Turks. — 

24. Chosroes II. (Khosru) Purwiz, reigned 
590 or 591-628. He was the son of Hormisdas 
IV., and recovered his father's throne with the | 
assistance of the emperor Mauricius. After the j 
murder of Mauricius, Chosroes declared war I 
against the tyrant Phocas, and met with extra- 
ordinary success. In several successive cam- 
paigns he conquered Mesopotamia, Syria, 
Palestine, Egypt, Asia Minor, and finally 
pitched his camp at Chalcedon, opposite Con- 
stantinople. At length Heraclius saved the 
empire from the brink of ruin, and in a series 
of splendid campaigns not only recovered the 
provinces which the Romans had lost, but 
carried his victorious arms into the heart of the 
Persian empire. Borne down by his mis- 
fortunes, and worn out by age and fatigue, 
Chosroes resolved, in 628, to abdicate in favour 
of his son Merdaza ; but Shirweh, or Siroes, 
his eldest son, anticipated his design, and at 
the head of a band of conspirators seized upon 
the person of his father, deposed him, and put 
him to death. The Orientals say that Chosroes 
reigned six years too long. No Persian king lived 
in such splendour as Chosroes ; and however 
extraordinary the Eastern accounts respecting 
his^ magnificence may be, they are true in the 
main, as is attested by the Western writers. — 

25. Siroes (Shirweh), reigned only eight months, 
628. He concluded peace with the emperor 
Heraclius. The numerous captives were re- 
stored on both sides. Siroes also restored the 
holy cross which had been taken at the con- 
quest of Jerusalem. — 26. Artaxerxes III. 
(Ardashir), the infant son of Siroes, was 



murdered a few days after the death of his 
father. He was the last male Sassanid. After 
him the throne was disputed by a hose of 
candidates of both sexes and doubtful descent, 
who had no sooner ascended the throne than 
they were hurried from it into death or cap- 
tivity. — The last king was Yesdigerd III., who 
was defeated and slain in 651 by Kaleb, the 
general of the khalif Abu-Bekr. Persia now 
became a Mohammedan country. 

Sassula, a town in Latium, belonging to the 
territory of Tiber (Liv. vii. 19). 

Satala (to. 'Sdra^a, -q SaraAa). 1. (Sadagh), a 
considerable town in the NE. of Armenia Minor, 
important as the key of the mountain passes 
into Pontus. It stood at the junction of four 
roads leading to places on the Euxine, a little 
N. of the Euphrates, in a valley surrounded by 
mountains, 325 Roman miles from Caesarea in 
Cappadocia, and 135 from Trapezus. Under the 
later Roman empire, it was the station of the 
15th legion. (Ptol. i. 15, 9 ; Dio Cass, lxviii. 18 ; 
Procop. Aed. iv. 3.) — 2. (Sandal), a town in 
Lydia, near the Hermus, and on the road from 
Sardis to Ceramon Agora. 

Satarchae, a Scythian tribe on the E. coast 
of the Tauric Chersonesus (Mel. ii. 1). 

Satlcula (Saticulanus), a town of Samnium, 
situated upon a mountain on the frontiers of 
Campania, probably upon one of the furthest 
heights of the mountain chain of Cajazzo (Liv. 
vii. 32). It was conquered by the Romans and 
colonised B.C. 313 (Liv. ix. 21, 22 ; Veil. Pat. 
i. 14). 

Satniols ('Sa.Tvideis : Tuzla), a river in the S. 
of the Troad, rising in M. Ida, and flowing W. 
into the Aegean N. of Prom. Lectum, between 
Larissa and Hamaxitus. (II. vi. 34, xxi. 87 : 
Strab. p. 605.) 

Satrae (Sarpai), a Thracian people in the 
hill country between the Nestus and the Stry- 
mon (Hdt. vii. 110). 

Satrlcum (Satricanus : Casale di Conca), a 
town in Latium, near Antium, to the territory 
of which it belonged (Dionys. v. 61 ; Liv. ii. 
39, vi. 7). It was destroyed by the Romans in 
B.C. 348 (Liv. vii. 27), but was rebuilt by the An- 
tiates (Liv. viii. 1). It was taken by Papirius 
in 320, after which time it seems to have had 
no importance (Liv. ix. 12, xxviii. 11). 

Saturae Palus (Lago di Paola), a lake or 
marsh in Latium, formed by the river Nym- 
phaeus, and near the promontory Circeium. 

[POMPTINAE PaLUDES.] 

Saturium or Satureium, the name of a dis- 
trict near Tarentum (Steph. Byz. s.v.), possibly 
an old native name for the region in which 
Tarentum was built (cf. Strab. p. 279 ; Verg. 
Georg. ii. 197). There is no good authority for 
the statement that there was a town of that 
name. Horace uses the adjective Satureianus 
(of a breed of horses : Sat. i. 6, 59) as equivalent 
to Tarentinus. 

Saturnia. 1. An ancient name of Italy 
[Italia]. — 2. (Saturninus : Saturnia), formerly 
called Aurinia, an ancient town of Etruria, 
said to have been founded by the Pelasgians, 
was situated in the territory of Caletra, on the 
road from Rome to Cosa, about twenty miles 
from the sea (Dionys. i. 20 ; Plin. iii. 52). It 
was colonised by the Romans, B.C. 183 (Liv. 
xxxix. 55 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 49). The ancient town 
was rather more than two miles in circuit, and 
there are still remains of its walls and tombs. 
The tombs are not of the Etruscan type, and 
probably were the work of an earlier race. 

Saturninus I., one of the Thirty Tyrants, was 



SATURNINDS 



SATURNUS 



841 



a general of Valerian, by whom he was much 
beloved. Disgusted by the debauchery of Gal- 
lienus, he accepted from the soldiers the title of 
emperor, but was put to death by the troops, who 
could not endure the sternness of his discipline. 
(Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tijr. 22.)— II., a native of 
Gaul, and an able officer, was appointed by 
Aurelian commander of the Eastern frontier, 
and was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria 
during the reign of Probus. He was eventually 
slain by the soldiers of Probus, although the 
emperor would willingly have spared his life. 
(Vopisc. Saturn.) 

Saturninus, L. Antonius, governor of Upper 
Germany in the reign of Domitian, raised a re- 
bellion against that emperor, a.d. 91, but was 
defeated and put to death by Appius Maximus. 
the general of Domitian (Suet. Dom. 0, 7 ; 
Dio Cass, lxvii. 11 ; Mart. iv. 111. 

Saturninus, L. Appuleius, was quaestor 
B.C. 104, and tribune of the plebs lor the first 
time 102. He entered into a close alliance 
with Mai'ius and his friends, and soon acquired 
great popularity. He became a candidate for 
the tribunate for the second time 100. At the 
same time Glaucia, who next to Saturninus was 
the greatest demagogue of the day, offered him- 
self as a candidate for the praetorship, and 
Marius for the consulship. Marius and Glau< :ia 
carried their elections; but A. Nonius, a parti- 
san of the aristocracy, was chosen tribune 
instead of Saturninus. Nonius, however, was 
murdered on the same evening by the emissaries 
of Glaucia and Saturninus ; and early the 
following morning, Saturninus was chosen to 
ii 11 up the vacancy. As soon as he had entered 
upon his tribunate, he brought forward an 
agrarian law which led to the banishment of 
Metellus Numidicus, as is related elsewhere. 
IMetellus, No. 10.1 Saturninus proposed 
other popular measures, with the object of 
embarrassing the senate, such as a Lex Fru- 
mentaria, reducing the price fixed in 123 B.C. 
for the dole of corn, and a law for founding 
new colonies in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia. 
By these measures he and his associates 
won over the populace to their side, but 
were opposed by the aristocracy and by the 
moneyed classes. Saturninus and Glaucia 
went further in their schemes than Marius, 
and were no longer supported by him, so 
that loss of office would have been fatal to 
them. In the coniitia for the election of the 
magistrates for the following year, Saturninus 
obtained the tribunate for the third time, and 
along with him there was chosen a certain 
Equitius, a runaway slave, who pretended to In- 
a son of Tib. Gracchus. Glaucia was at the 
same time a candidate for the consulship ; the 
two other candidates were M. Antonius and C. 
Memmius. The election of M. Antonius was 
certain, and the struggle lay between Glaucia 
and Memmius. As the latter seemed likely to 
carry his election, Saturninus and Glaucia hired 
some ruffians who murdered him openly in tin- 
comitia. This last act produced a complete 
reaction against Saturninus and his associates. 
The senate declared them public enemies, and 
ordered the consuls to put them down by force. 
Marius was unwilling to act against his friends, 
but he had no alternative, and his backwardness 
wa9 compensated by the zeal of others. Driven 
out of the forum, Saturninus, Glaucia, and the 
quaestor Saufeins took refuge in the Capitol, 
but the partisans of the senate cutoff the pipes 
which snpplied the Capitol with water. Unable 
to hold out any longer, they surrendered to 



Marius. The latter did all he could to save 
their lives : as soon as the} - descended from the 
Capitol, he placed them for security in the 
Curia Hostilia, but the mob pulled off the roof 
of the senate-house, and pelted them witli the 
tiles till they died. The senate gave their 
sanction to these proceedings by rewarding with 
the citizenship a slave of the name of Scaeva 
who claimed the honour of having killed Satur- 
ninus. (App. B. C. i. 28-32 ; Plut. Mar. 28-30 ; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 12 ; Cic. pro liahir.) Nearly forty 
years after these events, the tribune T. La- 
I bienus accused an aged senator Rabirius, of 
. having been the murderer of Saturninus. An 
account of this trial is given elsewhere. [Ra- 
Bmrus.] 

Saturninus. Claudius, a jurist, from whose 
Liber Singularis de Pocnis Paganorum there 
is a single excerpt in the Digest. He was 
praetor under Antoninus Pius. 

Saturninus, Pompeius, a contemporary of 
the younger Pliny, by whom he is praised as 
a distinguished orator, historian, and poet. 
Several of Pliny's letters are addressed to him 
iPlin. Ep. i. 8, v. 9, vii. 7). 

Saturninus, C. Sentius. 1. Propraetor of 
Macedonia during the Social war, and probably 
lor some time afterwards. He defeated the 
Thracians, who had invaded his province. 
(Oros. v. 18; Cic. Verr. iii. 93.1 — 2. One of the 
persons of distinguished rank who deserted Sex. 
Pompeius in B.C. 35, and passed over to Oc- 
tavian (Veil. Pat. ii. 77 ; App. B. C. v. 139). 
He was consul in 19, and was afterwards ap- 
pointed to the government of Syria. Three 
sons of Saturninus accompanied him as legati 
to Syria, and were present with their father at 
the trial of Herod's sons at Berytus in B.C. 6. 
i Dio Cass. liv. 10 ; Jos. Ant. xvi. 11, 3.) — 3. Cn. 
Sentius, consul suffectus a.d. 4, governor of 
Syria a D. 19 (Tac. Ann. ii. 74, 79, 81, iii. 7). 
Saturninus, Venuleius, a Roman jurist, is 
( said to have been a pupil of Papinianus, and a 
] consiliarius of Alexander Severus. There are 
I seventy-one excerpts from his writings in the 
I Digest. 

Saturninus, L. Volusius. 1. Consul suffec- 
| tus B.C. 12, accumulated great wealth (Tac. 
| Aim. iii. 30). — 2. His son, consul suffectus 
i a.d. 3 (Tac. Ann. xiii. 30). — 3. Q., consul a.d. 56, 
' and a commissioner for the census in Gaul 
a.d. 61 (Tac. Ann. xiii. 25, xiv. 46). 

Saturnius, that is, a son of Saturnus, and 
accordingly used as a surname of Jupiter, Nep- 
tune, and Pluto. For the same reason the 
name of Saturnia is given both to Juno and 
Vesta. 

Satumus, an old Italian god of agriculture, 
especially connected with seed-time and har- 
vest, his name being a contraction of Sae- 
tunius from severe, 'to sow' (C. I. L. i. 58). 
He was naturally represented as wedded to the 
earth-goddess Ops [cf. Lua], and with her as 

' presiding over all forms of tillage and fruit- 
growing (Varro, L. L. v. 57 ; Fest. p. 186 ; 
Macrob. i. 7, 24). The tendency of popular 
tradition to change gods of the country into 
ancient kings who had benefited the land, pro- 

\ duced the version of the myth which makes 
Saturn an old king of Latium or of Italy who 
taught agriculture and civilisation, and in 
whose reign was the golden age. When Greek 
mythology was adopted, Saturn was identified 
with Ckoni.'s, who in one of his aspects was a 
harvest god. Accordingly it was imagined that 
Cmnns, deposed by X'-us, reigned in Ijiitium as 
Kuturnns. The story ran that the god came to 



842 



SATYEI 



Italy in the reign of Janus, by whom he was 
hospitably received, and that he formed a settle- 
ment on the Capitoline hill, which was hence 
called the Saturnian hill. At the foot of that 
hill, on the road leading up to the Capitol, there 
stood in after times the temple of Saturn. 
(Dionys. i. 19 ; Varro, L. L. v. 74 ; Macrob. i. 
7, 28 ; Just, xliii. 1.) Saturn then taught the 
people agriculture, suppressed their savage 
mode of life, and introduced among them 
civilisation and morality. The result was that 
the whole country was called Saturnia or the 
land of plenty. Saturn was suddenly removed 
from earth to the abodes of the gods, whereupon 
Janus erected an altar to him in the Forum. 
(Verg. Aen. viii. 319-329; Ov. Fast. i. 233; 
Macrob. I. c, Arnob. iv. 24.) [As regards the 
old theory that Latium derived its name from 
Saturn's concealment there, see p. 475, b.] The 
connexion of Saturnus with Janus is indicated 
in this story. It was natural that the god of 
harvest should be connected with the god who 
presided over the year and its seasons [see 
p. 457, a]. Saturn, like other deities of the 
earth, was also worshipped as a god of the 
underworld and the dead, which accounts for 
the dedication of funeral urns to him. Respect- 
ing the festival solemnised by the Romans in 
honour of Saturn, see Diet, of Ant. s. v. Satur- 
nalia. The statue of Saturnus was hollow and 
filled with oil (Plin. xv. 32), probably to denote 
the fertility of Latium in olives, and woollen 
fillets were wrapped about its feet, except on 
the days of his festival (Macrob. i. 8, 5 ; Strab. 
Silv. i. 6, 4). This custom arose from the old 
superstition of binding the image of a god to 
secure his presence and favour : at his festival 
he was attracted by other means. The god was 
represented with a pruning knife or with a 
sickle, like that of Cronus (Verg. Aen. vii. 
179 ; Mart. vi. 6, 1). The temple of Saturn was 
built in a very early period at the foot of the 
slope leading up from the Forum to the Capitol, 
on the site of an altar to Saturn of unknown 
antiquity, traditionally erected by Hercules 
(Dionys. i. 31, vi. 1 ; Liv. ii. 21). This temple 
was rebuilt in 42 B.C. by Munatius Plancus 
(Suet. Aug. 29 ; C.I.L. vi. 1316). In it was the 
State treasury (aerarium Saturni), presided 
over at first by quaestors and then by praefecti 
[see p. 807, b]. 

Satyri (2ctTi>poi), were nature-deities or dae- 
mons of mountain forests and streams, of a sub- 
ordinate or subaltern character [cf. Daemon], 
and therefore especially the attendants of 
Dionysus, like whom they represented the 
luxuriant vital powers of nature. They are not 
mentioned by Homer, but this does not prove 
that they were invented after his time. On the 
contrary, it is probable that their deformity is 
due to traditions handed down from the most 
primitive times when the powers of nature 
were conceived in the form of animals of forests 
and mountains. The uglier parts of mytho- 
logy are often passed over by Homer and re- 
appear in Hesiod. By Hesiod (ap. Strab. p. 
471) Satyrs are described as akin to the moun- 
tain nymphs and the Curetes, and as a good- 
for-nothing, idle race, By later writers (Xen. 
Symp. v. 7 ; Nonn. Dionys. xiv. 113) they are 
said to be the sons of Hermes and Iphthima, 
or of the Naiads. The Satyrs are represented 
with bristly hair, the nose broad and somewhat 
turned upwards, the ears pointed at the top 
like those of animals, with small horns growing 
out of the top of the forehead, and with a tail 
like that of a horae or goat. In works of art 



SATYRUS 

they are represented at different stages of life ; 
the older ones were commonly called Sileni, 
and the younger ones are termed Satyrisci. 
The Satyrs are always described as fond of 




Satyr and Maenad swinging the infant Dionysus. 
(From a terra-cotta in the British Museum.) 

wine (whence they often appear either with a 
cup or a thyrsus in their hand), and of every 
kind of sensual pleasure, whence they are seen 
sleeping, playing musical instruments, or en- 
gaged in voluptuous dances with nymphs. 
Later writers, especially the Roman poets, con- 
found the Satyrs with 
the Italian Fauni, and 
accordingly both Satyrs 
and Fauns were repre- 
sented, like Pan, with 
horns and goat's feet, 
although originally they 
were quite distinct [p. 
340, b]. Satyrs usually 
appear with flutes, the 
thyrsus, syrinx, the 
shepherd's staff, cups 
or bags filled with wine ; 
they are dressed with 
the skins of animals, and 
wear wreaths of vine, 
ivy or fir. The most 
celebrated representa- 
tion in antiquity was 
the Satyr of Praxiteles 
at Athens, which led 
the way in represent- 
ing Satyrs in a less 
repulsive form. In this 
type they are youthful, 
with a wanton or roguish 
expression, and of their animal form nothing 
remains but the pointed ears and the hair 
coming down over the forehead. [See also cut 
on p. 754.] 

Satyrus (Sdrvpos). 1. I., king of Bosporus, 
was son of Spartacus I., and reigned B.C. 407 
or 406-393. He maintained friendly relations 
with Athens. He was slain at the siege of 
Theudosia in 393, and was succeeded by his son 
Leucon (Diod. xiv. 93).— 2. II., king of Bospo- 
rus, was the eldest of the sons of Paerisades I., 
whom he succeeded in 311, but reigned only 
nine months (Diod. xx. 22-26).— 3. A comic 
actor at Athens, is said to have given instruc- 
tion to Demosthenes in the art of giving full 
effect to his speeches by appropriate action 
(Plut. Dem. 1). Demosthenes praises him for 
his generosity in choosing as his gift from Philip 
the liberation of Olynthian captives (Dern. F. L. 




Satyr. (From a statue in 
the Louvre.) 



SATJCOXNA 



SCAEVOLA 



843 



p. 401, § 213).— 4. A distinguished Peripatetic 
philosopher and historian, who Uved in the 
time of Ptolemy Philopator, and wrote a collec- 
ion of biographies, among which were Lives of 
Philip and Demosthenes, frequently cited by 
ancient writers. 
Sauconna [Abai 

Saufeius. 1. C, quaestor B.C. 100, was one 
of the partisans of Saturninus, took refuge 
with him in the Capitol, and was slain along 
with his leader, when they were obliged to sur- 
render to Marius (Cic. pro Bab. 7 ; App. B. C. 

1. 32). — 2. L., a Roman eques, was a friend of 
Atticus, and an admirer of the Epicureun 
philosophy. He had valuable property in Italy, 
which was confiscated by the triumvirs, but 
was restored to him through the exertions of 
Atticus. (Cic. ad Att. i. 3, vii. 1, xv. 4 ; Nep. 
Att. 12.) 

Sauromatae. [Sabmatae.] 

Sauromates CSaupo/jArris), the name of seve- 
ral kings of Bosporus, who are for the most 
part known only from their coins. We find 
kings of this name reigning over Bosporus from 
the time of Augustus to that of Constantine. 

Saverrlo, P. Sulpicius. 1. Consul b.c. 304, 
when he carried on the war against the Sam- 
uites. He was censor in 229 with Sempronius 
Sophus, his former colleague in the consulship. 
In their censorship two new tribes were formed, 
the Aniensis and Terentina (lav. ix. 49, x. 9). — 

2. Son of the preceding, consul 279 with P. De- 
cisis Mus, commanded, with his colleague, 
against Pyrrhus (Flor. i. 18, 21 ; Val. Max. ix. 1). 

Savo (Savone), a river in Campania, which 
flows into the sea S. of Sinuessa (Plin. iii. 6; 
Stat. Silv. iv. 3, 36). 

Savus (Save or Sau), a navigable tributary 
of the Danube, which rises in the Carnic Alps, 
forms first the boundary between Noricum and 
Italy, and afterwards between Pannonia and 
Illyria, and falls into the Danube near Singi- 
dunnm (Strab. pp. 207, 314 ; Plin. iii. 139). 

Saza, Decidius, a native of Celtiberia, was 
originally one of Caesar's common scldiers 
(Caes. B. C. i. 66). He was tribune of the plebs 
in 44, and after Caesar's death in this year he 
took an active part in supporting the friends of 
his murdered patron. He served under M. 
Antonius in the siege of Mutina, and subse- 
quently under both Antonius and Octavianus 
in their war against Brutus and Cassius. After 
the battle of Philippi Saxa accompanied An- 
tony to the East, and was made by the latter 
governor of Syria. Here he was defeated by 
the younger Labienus and the Parthians, and 
was slain in the flight after the battle (40). 
(App. B. C. iv. 87, v. 102-107 ; Dio Cass, xlvii. 
85, xlviii. 24; Cic. Phil. viii. 3, ix. 26, xii. 8, 
xiv. 4.) 

Saxa, Q. Voconlus, tribune of the plebs ex. 
169, proposed the Voconia Lex, defining a wo- 
man's rights of property and inheritance, which 
was supported by the elder Cato, who spoke in 
its favour, when he was sixty-five years of age. 
Respecting this law, see Diet, of Ant. s.v. 

Saxa Rubra. [Rubra Saxa.] 

Saxones, a powerful people in Germany, who 
originally dwelt in the S. part of the Cimbric 
Chersonesus, between the rivers Albis and Cha- 
lusus (Trave), in the modem Hohtrin. They 
are not mentioned by Tacitus and Pliny, since 
these writers appear to have comprehended all 
the inhabitants of the Cimbric Chersonesus 
under the general name of Cimbri. The 
Saxones first occur in history in a.d. 886, when 
they are mentioned as brave and skilful Bailors, 



who often joined the Chauei in piratical expe- 
ditions against the coast of Gaul (Eutrop. vii. 

| 13 ; Oros. vii. 25). The Saxones afterwards ap- 

| pear at the head of a powerful confederacy of 
German peoples who became united under the 

i general name of Saxous, and who eventually 

| occupied the country between the Elbe, the 
Rhine, the Lippe, and the German Ocean (Ptol. 

| ii. 11, 11). The history of their part in the 
conquest of Britain does not fall within the 

' period here treated of. 

Scaeva, Cassius, a centurion in Caesar's 
army", who distinguished himself by his valour 
at the battle of Dyrrhachiuni (Caes. B. C. iii. 

!53; Suet. Jul. 68;' Val. Max. iii. 2, 23). He 
survived his numerous wounds and is men- 
tioned as one of the partisans of Caesar, after 
the death of the latter (Cic. ad Att. xiii. 23, 
xiv. 10). 

Scaevola, Q. Cervidius, a Roman jurist, 
lived under Antoninus Pius. He wrote several 
! works, and there are 307 excerpts from him in 
j the Digest. 

Scaevola, Mucius. 1. C, the hero of a 
celebrated story in early Roman history. [For 
the probable history of the war, see Pobsexxa.] 
When King Porsenna was blockading Rome, 
C. Mucius, a young man of the patrician class, 
resolved to rid his county of the invader. He 
went out of the city with a dagger hid beneath 
his dress, and approached the place where 
Porsenna was sitting, with a secretary by his 
side, dressed nearly in the same style as the 
king himself. Mistaking the secretary for the 
king, Mucius killed him on the spot. Being 
seized, he declared his name, and his design to 
kill the king himself, adding that there were 
300 Roman youths ready to attempt his life. 
In reply to the threats of Porsenna, Mucius 
thrust his right hand into a fire which was 
already lighted for a sacrifice, and held it there 
without flinching. The king, who was amazed 
at his firmness, bade him go away free. Por- 
senna being alarmed for his life, which he 
could not secure against so many desperate 
men, made proposals of peace to the Romans, 
and evacuated the territory. Mucius received 
the name of Scaevola, or left-handed, from the 
loss of his right hand. The patricians gave 
him a tract of land beyond the Tiber, which 
was thenceforth called Mucia Prata (Liv. ii. 
13). The Mucius of this story was a patrician ; 
but the Mucii of the historical period were ple- 
] beians. — 2. Q., praetor B.C. 215, had Sardinia 
j for his province, where he remained for the 
next three years. He was decemvir sacrorum, 
and died 209. (Liv. xxiii. 24, xxvii. 8.)— 3. Q 
probably son of No. 2, was praetor 179, with 
I Sicily for his province, and consul 174 (Liv. 
I xl. 44). — 4. P., brother of No. 3, was praetor 
with his brother 179, and consul 175. In his 
' consulship he gained a victory over the Ligu- 
! rians. (Liv. xl. 44, xli. 19.)— ^5. P., called by 
Plutarch 6 vouobtUrris, probably son of No. 4, 
■ was tribune of the plebs 141, praetor urbanu^ 
; 186, and consul 188, the year in which Tib 
| Gracchus h>st his life (Plut. Graceh. 9). In 
I 181 he succeeded his brother Mucianus [Mucia 
nub] as Pontifex Maximus (Cic. dc Or. K. 12. 
! 52). Scaevola was distinguished for his know 
ledge of the Jus Bontificium. He was alsi 
fumed for his skill in playing at ball, as well V 
' at the game called Duodecim Scripta (Cic. d- 
Or. i. 50, 217 ; Val. Max. viii. 8, 2 ; Quint, xi. 2, 
38). His fame as a lawyer is recorded b; 
Cicero in several passages (Cic. de Leg. h 
19, 47, de Or. i. 37, 170). There is no excerp' 



844 SCAEVOLA 

from bis writings in the Digest, but he is cited 
several times by the jurists whose works were 
used for that compilation. — 6. called the 
Augur, was son of No. 3, and married the 
daughter of C. Laelius, the friend of Scipio 
Africanus the younger (Cic. de Amic. 8, 26, 
Brut. 26, 101). He was tribune of the plebs 
128, plebeian aedile 125, and as praetor was 
governor of the province of Asia in 121, the 
year in which C. Gracchus lost his life. He 
was prosecuted after his return from his pro- 
vince for the offence of repetundae, in 120, by 
T. Albucius, but was acquitted. He was consul 
117. He lived at least to the tribunate of P. 
Sulpicius Rufus, 88. Cicero, who was born 106, 
informs us that, after he had put on the toga 
virilis, his father took him to Scaevola, who 
was then an old man, and that he kept as close 
to him as he could, in order to profit by his 
remarks (Cic. de Amic. 1). After his death 
Cicero became a hearer of Q. Mucius Scaevola, 
the Pontifex. The Augur was distinguished 
for his knowledge of the law (Veil. Pat. ii. 9, 
2 ; Cic. Brut. 58, 212), but none of his writings 
are recorded. — Mucia, the Augur's daughter, 
married L. Licinius Crassus, the orator, who 
was consul 95, with Q. Mucius Scaevola, the 
Pontifex Maximus ; whence it appears that the 
Q. Mucius who is one of the speakers in the 
treatise de Oratore, is not the Pontifex and 
the colleague of Crassus, but the Augur, the 
father-in-law of Crassus. He is also one of the 
speakers in the Laelius sive de Amicitia (c. 1), 
and in the de Bepublica <i. 12). — 7. Q., Ponti- 
fex Maximus, was son of No. 5, and is quoted 
by Cicero as an example of a son who aimed at 
excellence in that which had given his father 
distinction {de Off. i. 32, 116). He was tribune 
of the plebs in 106, curule aedile in 104, and 
consul 95, with Licinius Crassus, the orator, as 
his colleague. After his consulship Scaevola 
was the governor (proconsul) of the province of 
Asia, in which capacity he gained the esteem of 
the people who were under his government. 
Subsequently he was made Pontifex Maximus, 
by which title he is often distinguished from Q. 
Mucius the Augur. He lost his life in the con- 
sulship of C. Marius the younger and Cn. 
Papirius Carbo (82), having been proscribed by 
the Marian party, from which we may conclude 
that he belonged to Sulla's party. His body 
was thrown into the Tiber. (Veil. Pat. ii. 26 ; 
Flor. iii. 21 ; Cic. de Or. iii. 3, 9 ; Lucan, ii. 
126 ; App. B. O. i. 88.) The virtues of Scae- 
vola are recorded by Cicero, who, after the 
death of the Augur, became an attendant 
{auditor) of the Pontifex. The purity of his 
moral character (Cic. de Off. iii. 15, 62), his 
exalted notions of equity and fair dealing, his 
abilities as an administrator, an orator, and a 
jurist, place him among the first of the illus- 
trious men of all ages and countries. He was, 
says Cicero, the most eloquent of jurists, and 
the most learned jurist among orators {de Or. 
i. 39, 180; cf. Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 89). He is cited 
by Quintilian (xi. 2, 38) as an instance of a 
man with a strong memory. Q. Scaevola the 
Pontifex is the first Roman to whom we can 
attribute a scientific and systematic handling 
of the Jus Civile, which he accomplished in a 
work in eighteen books. He also wrote a Liber 
Singularis 7rep! opa>v, a work on Definitions, or 
perhaps, rather, short rules of law, from which 
there are four excerpts in the Digest. This is 
the oldest work from which there are any ex- 
cerpts in the Digest, and even these may have 
been taken at second hand. 



SCAPTIUS 

Scaevus, or Scaevius Memor, a tragic poet 
of the time of Domitian (Mart. xi. 9, 10 ; Schol. 
ad Juv. i. 20). 

Scaldis {Scheldt), an important river in the 
N. of Gallia Belgica, flowing into the ocean, 
but which Caesar erroneously makes a tribu- 
tary of the Mosa {B. G. vi. 33 ; Plin. iv. 98, 
105). Ptolemy calls this river Tabudas or 
T abulias, which name it is said to have borne 
in the middle ages under the form of Tabid or 
Tabula (Ptol. ii. 3, 9). 

Scallabis {Santarem), a town in Lusitania, 
on the road from Olisipo to Emerita and 
Bracara, also a Roman colony with the sur- 
name Praesidium Julium, and the seat of one of 
the three Conventus Juridici of the province 
| (Plin. iv. 117). The town is erroneously called 
j Scalabiscus by Ptolemy (ii. 5, 7). 

Scamander (~2 l Ka.p.avZpos), the celebrated 
river of the Troad. [Tboas.] As a mytho- 
logical personage, the river-god was called 
Xanthus by the gods. His contest with 
Achilles is described by Homer {II. xxi. 136. 
foil.). 

Scamandrius. [Astyanax.] 
Scambonidae (2Ka J u/3ui'i'Sai), a dermis in 
Attica, between Athens and Eleusis, belonging 
to the tribe Leontis. 

Scampa (Sfcajcnra: Skumbi or Iscampi), a 
town in the interior of Greek Illyria, on the 
Via Egnatia between Clodiana and Lychnidus. 
[Illyeicum.] 

Scandea {'SicdvSeta), a port-town on the E. 
side of the island Cythera, forming the harbour 
of the town of Cythera, from which it was ten 
stadia distant. [Cythera]. 

Scandia, Scandinavia or Scatinavia, the 
name given by the ancients to the islands in the 
Baltic, Fiinen, Zealand and Laala.nd, and 
vaguely also to the coasts of Sweden and Nor- 
way. Even the later Romans had a very im- 
perfect knowledge of the Scandinavian penin- 
sula, though some knowledge of the Baltic had 
probably been gathered by Pytheas [seep. 781, bj. 
They supposed it to have been surrounded by 
the ocean, and to have been composed of several 
islands called by Ptolemy Scandiae. Of these 
the largest bore especially the name of Scandia 
or Scandinavia. It was said to have a lofty 
mountain called Sevo, and to be washed by the 
Sinus Codanus {Caltegat ?). (Mel. iii. 3, 6 ; 
Ptol. ii. 11, 33; Plin. iv. 96.) This country 
was inhabited by the Hilleviones, of whom the 
Suiones and Sitones appear to have been tribes 
(Plin. I. c. ; Tac. Germ. 44). 

Scandila (Scandole), a small island in the 
NE. of the Aegaean sea, between Peparethos 
and Scyros (Plin. iv. 72 ; Mel. ii. 7, 8). 

Scantia Silva, a wood in Campania, in 
which were probably the Aquae Scantiae men- 
tioned by Pliny (Cic. de Leg. Agr. i. 1, 3 ; Plin. 
ii. 240). 

Scapte Hyle (SKairrr; u'Atj), also called, but 
less correctly, Scaptesyle ('S.icairTqcrvKrj), a 
small town on the coast of Thrace opposite the 
island of Thasos. It contained celebrated gold 
mines, which were originally worked by the 
Thasians. Thucydides, who had some property 
in these mines, retired to this place after his 
banishment from Athens, and here arranged 
the materials for his history. (Plut. Cim. 4, de 
Exil. p. 605 ; Marcell. Thuc. 19.) 

Scaptia (Scaptiensis or Scaptius), an ancient 
town in Latium, which gave its name to a 
Roman tribe, but disappeai'ed at an early period 
(Dionys. v. 61 ; Liv. viii. 17 ; Plin. iii. 68). 
Scaptius, P., a Roman trader in Cilicia who 



SCAPULA 

lent money to people of Salamis in Cyprus, 
and enforced usurious terms by the aid of the 
troops of App. Claudius. Cicero very properly 
refused to support him, and deprived him 
of the prefecture of Salamis, which Clau- 
dius had given him (Cic. ad Att. v. 21, vi. 1-3, 
xv. 13). 

Scapula, P. Ostorius. 1. Succeeded A. Plau- 
tius as governor of Britain, about a.d. 50. He 
defeated the powerful tribe of the Silures, took 
prisoner their king Caractacus, and sent him in 
chains to Rome. In consequence of this 
success he received the insignia of a triumph, 
but died soon afterwards in the province. 
(Tac. Ann. xii. 31-39, Agr. 14.;— 2. Son of the 
preceding, fought with distinction under his 
father ; was accused of treason by Sosianus and 
condemned to death by Nero (Tac. Ann. xii. 31, 
xiv. 48, xvi. 14). 

Scarbantia, or Scarabaittia i Oedenburg), a 
town in Pannonia Superior on the road from 
Vindobona to Poetovio, and a municipium with 
the surname Flavia Augusta (Ptol. ii. 15, 5 ; 
Plin. iii. 146; C. I. L. iii. 419-2). 

Scardona (S/capScuj/o. or StcdpoW : Skar- 
clona or Skardin), the chief town of Liburnia 
in Hlyria, on the right bank of the Titius, 
twelve miles from its mouth, the seat of a 
Conventus Juridicus (Strab. p. 815; Plin. iii. 
139). 

Scardus, Scodrus or Scordus Mons (to 
SxapSof opos : Schar), a range of lofty moun- 
tains to the E. of Scodra, between Hlyria and 
Dardania, and dividing the head waters of the 
Axius from the Drilou (Ptol. ii. 16, 1 ; Pol. 
xxviii. 8 ; Liv. xliii. 20, xliv. 31.) 

Scarphe, Scarphea or Scarphla (2icap<p7j, 
2/capipfia, 2<cap<pi'a : 2Kap(pevs, 2/cap<pieus, 2/cap- 
(paios, 2«ap<pios), a town of the Epicnemidii 
Locri, ten stadia from the coast, at which the 
roads united leading through Thermopylae. It 
possessed a harbour on the coast, probably at i 
the mouth of the river Boagrius. (II. ii. 532 ; 
Strab. p. 426 ; Paus. viii. 15, 3 ; Liv. xxxiii. 3.) ' 

Scarponna (Charj)eigne), a town in Gallia 
Belgica on the Mosella, and on the road from 
Tullum to Divodurum (Amm. Marc, xxvii. 2). 

Scato or Cato, Vettius, one of the Italian 
generals in the Marsic war, B.C. 90. He de- , 
feated the consuls L. Julius Caesar and P. 
Rutilius Lupus in two successive battles. He 
was afterwards taken prisoner, and was stabbed 
to death by his own slave as he was being 
dragged before the Roman general, being thus 
delivered from the ignominy and punishment 
that awaited him. (App. B. C. i. 40-43 ; Sen. de 
Iienef. iii. 23.) 

Scaarus, Aemilius. 1. M., raised his family 
from obscurity to the highest rank among the 
Raman nobles. He was bom in B.C. 163. His 
father, notwithstanding his patrician descent, 
had been obliged, through poverty, to carry on the 
trade of a charcoal-merchant, and left his son a 
very slender patrimony. The latter had thought 
at first of carrying on the trade of a money- 
lender ; but he finally resolved to devote him- 
self to the study of eloquence, with the hope of 
rising to the honours of the state. (Aurel. Vict, i 
de Vir. III. 72 ; Val. Max. iv. 4, 11 ; Plut. Q.It. 
50.) Cicero speaks highlv of his eloquence 
(Brut. 29, 111). He was curule aedile in 128. 
He obtained the consulship in 115, when he 
carried on war with success against several of 
Mir Alpine tribes. In 112 he was sent at the 
head of an embassy to Jugurtha; and in 111 
he accompanied the consul L. Calpumius 
Bestia aB one of his legates in the war against 



SCAURUS 



845 



Jugurtha. The Numidian king bestowed large 
sums of money upon both Bestia and Scaurus, 
in consequence of which the consul granted the 
king most favourable terms of peace. This 
disgraceful transaction excited the greatest 
indignation at Rome, and C. Mamilius, the 
tribune of the plebs, 110, brought forward a 
bill by which an inquiry was to be instituted 
against all those who had received bribes from 
Jugurtha. Although Scaurus had been one of 
the most guilty, such was his influence in the 
state that he contrived to be appointed one of 
the three quaesitores who were elected under 
the bill for the purpose of prosecuting the 
criminals. But though he thus secured him- 
self, he was unable to save any of his accom- 
plices. Bestia and many others were con- 
demned (Sull. Jug. 15, 25, 28, 40). In 109 
Scaurus was censor with M. Livius Drusus. In 
his consulship he restored the Milvian bridge, 
and constructed the Aemilian road, which ran 
by Pisae and Luna as far as Dertona (Strab. p. 
217). In 107, he was elected consul a second 
time, in place of L. Cassius Longinus, who had 
fallen in battle against the Tigurini. In the 
struggles between the aristocratical and popular 
parties, Scaurus was always a warm supportei 
of the former. He was several times accused 
of different offences, chiefly by his private 
enemies, but such was his influence in the 
state that he was always acquitted. He died 
about 89. By his wife, Caecilia, Scaurus had 
three children, two sons mentioned below, and 
a daughter, Aemilia, first married to M\ Gla- 
brio, and next to Cn. Pompey, subsequently 
the triumvir. He wrote an autobiography, of 
which nothing rtmains (Cic, Brut 29 112 , 
Plin. xxxiii. 21). — 2. M., eldest son of the pre- 
ceding, and stepson of the dictator Sulla, whom 
his mother, Caecilia, married after the death of 
his father. In the third Mithridatic war he 
served under Pompey as quaestor. The latter 
sent him to Damascus with an army, and from 
thence he marched into Judaea, to settle the 
disputes between the brothers Hyrcanus and 
Aristobulus. Scaurus was left by Pompey in 
the command of Syria with two legions. During 
his government of S5'ria he made a predatory 
incursion into Arabia Petraea, but withdrew on 
the payment of 300 talents by Aretas, the king 
of the country. (Jos. Ant. xiv. 3, B. J. i. 7 ; 
App. Syr. 51.) He was curule aedile in 58, 
when he celebrated the public games with extra- 
ordinary splendour. The temporary theatre 
which he built accommodated 80,000 spectators, 
and was adorned in the most magnificent 
manner. The combats of wild beasts were 
equally astonishing : 150 panthers were ex- 
hibited in the circus, and five crocodiles and 
a hippopotamus were 6een for the first time 
at Rome. (Cic. Sest. 54, 116, de Off. ii. 16, 
57 ; Plin. xxxvi. 114.) In 56 he was praetor, 
and in the following year governed the pro- 
vince of Sardinia, which he plundered with- 
out mercy. On his return to Rome he was 
accused of the crime of re.petundae. He was 
defended by Cicero, in the speech of which 
fragments only remuin, Hortensius, and others, 
and wus acquitted, notwithstanding his guilt. 
(Ascon. Argu in. ad Scaur.) He was accused 
again in 52, under Pompey 's new law against 
ambitus, and was condemned. [See also refer- 
ences in Index to Cicero.] He married Muciu, 
who had been previously the wife of Pompey, 
and by her he had one son [No. 4]. —3. Younger 
son of No. 1, fought under the proconsul Q. 
Catulus against the Ciinbri at the Athesis, and 



846 



SCAUEUS 



SCIONE 



having fled from the field, was indignantly com- 
manded by his father not to come into his 
presence ; whereupon the youth put an end to 
his life (Val. Max. v. 8, 4 ; Front. Strat. iv. 1, 
3). — 4. BE., son of No. 2 and Mucia, the former 
wife of Pompey the triumvir, and consequently 
the half-brother of Sex. Pompey. He accom- 
panied the latter into Asia, after the defeat of 
his fleet in Sicily, but betrayed him into the 
hands of the generals of M. Antonius, in 35. 
After the battle of Actium, he fell into the 
power of Octavian, and escaped death, to which 
he had been sentenced, only through the inter- 
cession of his mother, Mucia. (App. B. C. v. 142 ; j 
Dio Cass. li. 2, lvi. 38.)— 5. Mamercus, son of 
No. 5, was a distinguished orator and poet, but 
of a lazy and dissolute character (Tac. Ann. 
iii. 66, vi. 29 ; Sen. Contr. x. praef. 2). He was 
a member of the senate at the time of the 
accession of Tiberius, a.d. 14, when he offended 
this suspicious emperor by some remarks which 
he made in the senate. Being accused of 
majestas in 34, he put an end to his own life 
(Dio Cass, lviii. 24). 

Scaurus, M. Aurelius, consul suffectus b.c. 
108, and three years afterwards consular legate 
in Gaul, where he was defeated by the Oimbri, 
taken prisoner, and put to death (Liv. Ep. 67 ; 
Tac. Germ. 37 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 12). 

Scaurus, Q. Terentius, a celebrated gramma- 
rian who flourished under the emperor Hadrian, 
and whose son was one of the preceptors of the 
emperor Verus. He was the author of an Ars 
Grammatica and of commentaries upon Plau- 
tus, Virgil, and the Ars Poetica of Horace. 
(Gell. xi. 15 ; Capitol. Ver. 2, 5 ; Charis. i. 133, 
136.) An abstract survives of a treatise en- 
titled Q. Terentii Scauri de Orthographia ad 
Theseum, and of another on Adverbs and Pre- 
positions. They are included in the Gramma- 
ticae Latinae Auctores Antiqui of Putschius 
<Hannov. 1605); 

Sceleratus Campus. [Eoma, p. 804, b.] 

Scenae (Sic^rai, i.e. the tents), a town of Meso- 
potamia, on the borders of Babylonia, on a canal 
of the Euphrates, twenty-five days' journey 
below Zeugma (Strab. p. 748). It belonged to 
the Scenitae, and was probably only a collec- 
tion of tents or huts. 

Scenitae (2/c?ji/iTai, i.e. dwellers in tents), the 
general name used by the Greeks for the Be- 
dawee (Bedouin) tribes of Arabia Deserta (Plin. 
vi. 125). 

Scepsis (5k: rji|/is : prob. Eski- Upshi or Eski- 
Shupshe, En.), an ancient city in the interior 
of the Troad, SE. of Alexandria Troas, in the 
mountains of Ida. Its inhabitants were re- 
moved by Antigonus to Alexandria, but being 
permitted by Lysimachus to return to their 
homes, they built a new city, called r) vea K(ifiri, 
and the remains of the old town were then 
called na\ai(TK.^is (Strab. pp. 603, 607, 635). 
Scepsis is celebrated in literary history as the 
place where certain MSS. of Aristotle and 
Theophrastus were buried, to prevent their 
transference to Pergamum. When dug up again, 
they were found nearly destroyed by mould and 
worms, and in this condition they were re- 
moved by Sulla to Athens. (Strab. p. 608 ; Abi- 
stoteles.J The philosopher Metrodorus and 
the grammarian Demetrius were natives of 
Scepsis. 

Scerdilaidas, or Scerdilaedus (StcepSiAalSas 
or ~2>cep5'iAai$os) , king of Illyria, was in all proba- 
bility a son of Pleuratus, and younger brother 
of Agron, both of them kings of that country. 
After the defeat and abdication of Teuta (b.c. 



229), he probably succeeded to a portion of her 
dominions, but did not assume the title of king 
till after the death of his nephew Pinnes (PoL 
ii. 5, 6). He carried on war for some years 
against Philip, king of Macedonia, and thus 
appears as an ally of the Romans. He probably 
died about 205, and was succeeded by his son 
Pleuratus. (Pol. v. 95-110 ; Liv. xxvi. 24, xxvii. 
30, xxix. 12.)' 

Schedia (Sx^Sia), a town of Lower Egypt, on 
the canal which connected Alexandria with the 
Canopic arm of the Nile (Strab. pp. 800, 803). 

Schedlus (Sx^'Stos). 1. Son of Iphitus and 
Hippolyte, commanded the Phocians in the war 
against Troy, along with his brother Epi- 
strophus. He was slain by Hector, and his re T 
mains were carried from Troy to Anticyra in 
Phocis. (II. ii. 517, xvii. 306 ; Paus. x. 4, 1.)— 
2. Son of Perimedes, likewise a Phocian, who 
was killed at Troy by Hector (II. xv. 515 ; 
Strab. p. 424). 
Scheria. [Phaeaces.] 
Schoenus (~2,x°w o '< '■ ^x otvl ^ s )> a town of 
Boeotia, on a river of the same name, and on 
the road from Thebes to Anthedon (II. ii. 497 ; 
Strab. p. 408). It was (in the Boeotian story) 
the birthplace of Atalanta (Paus. viii. 35, 10 ; 
Stat. Theb. vii. 267). 

Schoenus (tx olvo vs, -ovvros). 1. A harbour 
of Corinth, N. of Cenchreae, at the narrowest 
part of the isthmus (Strab. pp. 369, 380). — 2. A 
place in the interior of Arcadia near Methy- 
drium (Paus. viii. 35, 10). 

Sciathus (2/aa0os : ^Kiddios: Skiatho), a, small 
island in the Aegaean sea, N. of Euboea and E. 
of the Magnesian coast of Thessaly, with a town 
of the same name upon it. It is said to have 
been originally colonised by Pelasgians from 
Thrace (Strab. p. 436 ; Plin. iv. 72). It is fre- 
quently mentioned in the history of the inva- 
sion of Greece by Xerxes, since the Persian and 
Grecian fleets were stationed near its coasts 
(Hdt. vii. 176, viii. 7). It subsequently became 
one of the subject allies of Athens, but attained 
I such little prosperity that it only had to pay 
the small tribute of 200 drachmae yearly. Its 
chief town was destroyed by the last Philip of 
; Macedonia. At a later time it was restored 
by Antonius to the Athenians (App. B. C. v. 7). 

Scidrus (Sin'Spos), a place in the S. of Italy 
of uncertain site, in which some of the Sybarites 
settled after the destruction of their own city 
(Hdt. vi. 21). 

Scillus (2/aAA.oCy, -ovvros : SkiAAoiVtios , 
SkiAAouctios), a town of Elis, in the district 
Triphylia, on the river Selinus, twenty stadia 
S. of Olympia. It was destroyed by the Eleans 
in the war which they carried on against the 
Pisaeans, whose cause had been espoused by 
the inhabitants of Scillus (Paus. v. 6, 43, vi. 22, 
4). The Lacedaemonians subsequently took 
possession of the territory of Scillus ; and al- 
though the Eleans still laid claim to it, it was 
! given to Xenophon after his banishment from 
Athens. Xenophon resided at thiB place for 
' more than twenty years, and erected here 
a sanctuary to Artemis, which he had vowed 
j during the retreat of the Ten Thousand. A 
statue of Xenophon was seen here by Pausanias. 
' (Xen. An. v. 3, 7 ; Paus. v. 6, 5 ; Strab. p. 344.) 
Scingomagus (Cesanne), a small place in 
the Cottian Alps, on the Italian side of the 
pass of Mt. Genevre [Alpes], about five miles 
above Ocelum (Oulx). 

Scione (%Kicivr] : Ztniavcuos, S/ciaij/eus), the 
j chief town in the Macedonian peninsula of Pal- 
I lene, on the W. coast. It ia said to have been 



SCIPIO 



847 



founded by some Pellenians of Acbaia, who 
settled here after their return from Troy. It 
revolted from the Athenians in the Peloponne- 
sian war, but was taken by Cleon ; whereupon 
all the men were put to death, the women and 
children sold as slaves, and the town given to 
the Plataeans. (Hdt. vii. 123, viii. 128 ; Thuc. iv. 
120, 133. v. 32 ; Strab. p. 330.) 

Scipio, the name of an illustrious patrician 
family of the Cornelia gens. This name, which 
signifies a stick or staff, is said to have been 
given to the founder of the family because lie 
served as a staff in directing his blind father 
(Macrob. i. 6). This family produced some of the 
greatest men in Rome. The family tomb of the 
Scipios was discovered in 1780, on the left of 
the Appia Via, about 400 paces within the 
modern Porta S. Sebastiano. The inscriptions, 
of the greatest interest as specimens of early 
Latin, are printed in C. I. L. i. 29-39. — 1. P. 
Cornelius Scipio, magister equitum b.c. 396, and 
consular tribune 395 and 394 (Liv. v. 19, 24, 31, 

vi. 1). — 2. L. Corn. Scipio, consul 350 (Liv. 

vii. 2lj.— 3. P. Corn. Scipio Barbatus, consul 
328, and dictator 306. He was also pontifex 
maximus (Liv. ix. 44, 46;. — i. L. Corn. Scipio 
Barbatus, consul 298, when he carried on war 
against the Etruscans, and defeated them near 
Volaterrae. He also served under the consuls 
in 297, 295, and 293 against the Samnites. 
This Scipio was the great-great-grandfather of 
the conqueror of Hannibal. (Liv. x. 11, 12, 14, 
25, 20, 40, 41.) His epitaph, written in Satur- 
nian verse, records victories in Samniuin and 
Lucania (C. I. L. i. 29). The genealogy of the 
family can be traced with more certainty from 
this time. — 5. Cn. Corn. Scipio Asina, son of 
No. 4, was consul 260, in the first Punic war. 
In an attempt upon the Liparaean islands, he 
was taken prisoner with seventeen ships. He 
probably recovered his liberty when Regulus 
invaded Africa, for he was consul a second 
time in 254. In this year he and his colleague 
A. Atilius Calatinus crossed over into Sicily, 
and took the town of Punornius. He obtained 
a triumph. (Pol. i. 21, 38 ; Val. Max. vi. 6, 2, vi. 
9, 11 ; Macrob. i. G.J— -6. L. Corn. Scipio, also 
son of No. 4, was consul 259. He drove the 
Carthaginians out of Sardinia and Corsica, de- 
feating Hanno, the Carthaginian commander. 
He was censor in 258. (Liv. Ej>. 17 ; Eutrop. ii. 
20; Val. Max. v. 1, 2; C. I. L. i. 31.)— 7. P. 
Corn. Scipio Asina, son of No. 5, was consul 
221, and carried on war, with his colleague M. 
Minucius Rufus, against the Istri, who were 
subdued by the consuls. He is mentioned again 
in 211, when he recommended that the senate 
should recall all the generals and armies from 
Italy for the defence of the capital, because 
Hannibal was marching upon the city (Liv. xxii. 
34, xxvi. 8; Oros. iv. 13; Eutrop. iii. 7). — 8. P. 
Corn. Scipio, son of No. 6, was consul, with Ti. 
Sempronins Longus, in 218, the first year of 
the second Punic war. He sailed with an army 
to Gaul, in order to encounter Hannibal before 
he crossed the Alps ; but finding that Hannibal 
had crossed the Rhoni', and hud got tin- start 
of him by u three days' inarch, he resolved to 
sail back to Italy, and await Hannibal's arrival 
in Cisalpine Gaul. But as the Romans had an 
army of 25,000 men in Cisalpine Gaul, under 
the command of two praetors, Scipio sent into 
Spain the army which he had brought with 
him, under the command of his brotlur, Cn. 
Scipio. On his return to Italy, Scipio took the 
command of the army in Cisalpine Gaul, and 
hastened to meet Hannibal. An engagement I 



| took place between the cavalry and light-armed 
! troops of the two armies. The Romans were 
! defeated ; the consul himself received a severe 
wound, and was only saved from death by the 
courage of his young son, Publius, the future 
conqueror of Hannibal. Scipio now retreated 
across the Ticinus, crossed the Po also, first 
took up his quarters at Placentia, and subse- 
quently withdrew to the hills on the left bank 
of the Trebia, where he was joined by the other 
consul, Sempronius Longus. The latter re- 
solved upon a battle, in opposition to the advice 
of his colleague. The result was the complete 
defeat of the Roman army, which was obliged 
to take refuge within the walls of Placentia. 
In the following year 217, Scipio, whose impe- 
rium had been prolonged, crossed over into 
Spain. He and his brother Cneius continued 
in Spain till their death in 211, and did the 
' most important service to their country by pre- 
venting reinforcements being sent to Hannibal 
from Spain. Li 215 they transferred the war 
from the Ebro to the Guadalquivir and won two 
great victories at Hliturgis and Intibilis. They 
fortified an important harbour at Tarraco and 
regained Saguntum, and by adroit policy in- 
duced Syphax to turn against the Carthagini- 
ans in Africa; but in 212, having to confront 
three armies under Hasdrubal Barca, Has- 
drubal Gisgo and Mago, they enlisted 20,000 
Celtiberians and divided their armies. This 
was a fatal step : the Spaniards were on trust- 
worthy, and the amiies of the Scipios were de- 
feated separately and both the brothers were 
slain by the Carthaginians. (Pol. iii. ; Liv. xxi- 

xxv. ; App. Annib. 5-8, Hisp. 14-16.) — 9. Cn. 
Corn. Scipio Calvus, son of No. C, and brother 
of No. 8, was consul 222, with M. Claudius 
Marcellus. In conjunction with his colleague 
he carried on war against the Insubriaus. In 
218 he carried on war as the legate of his 
brother Publius for eight years in Spain, as has 
been related above. (Pol. ii. 34 ; Plut. Marcell. 
6, 7.) — 10. P. Corn. Scipio Africanus Major, 
son of No. 8, was born in 237. (According to 
Liv. xxvi. 18 and Val. Max. iii. 7, 1, lie was bom 
in 234, but the authority of Polybius should 
be followed, who says that he was twenty-seven 

I when he went to Spain.) He was unquestion- 
, ably one of the greatest men of Rome, and he 
acquired at an early age the confidence and 
admiration of his countrymen. His enthusi- 
astic mind led him to believe that he was a 
special favourite of the gods; and he never 
engaged in any public or private business 
without first going to the Capitol, where he 
sat some time alone, enjoying communication 
with the gods. For all he proposed or exe- 
cuted he alleged the divine approval ; and 
the Roman people gave credit to his assert- 
tions and regarded him as a being almost 
superior to the common race of men (Liv. 

xxvi. 19). There can be no doubt that Scipio 
believed himself in the divine revelations 
which he asserted to have been vouchsafed 
to him ; and the extraordinary success which 
attended all his enterprises must have deepened 
this belief, and his faith in himself bellied him 
to inspire enthusiasm in others. He is first 
mentioned in 218 at the battle of the Ticinus, 
when he saved the life of his father, as has 
already been related. Ho fought at Cannae 
two years afterward (216), when ho was already 
a tribune of the soldiers, and wus one of the 
few Roman officers who Survived that fatal day. 
He whs chosen along with Appius Claudius to 
command the remains of the army, which had 



848 



SCIPIO 



taken refuge at Canusium ; and it was owing 
to his youthful heroism and presence of mind 
that the Roman nobles, who had thought of 
leaving Italy in despair, were prevented from 
carrying their rash project into effect (Liv. 
xxii. 53 ; Val. Max. v. 6, 7). He had already 
gained the favour of the people to such an ex- 
tent that he was elected aedile in 212, although 
he had not yet reached the legal age. In 210, 
after the death of his father and his uncle in 
Spain, the Romans resolved to increase their 
army in that country, and to place it under the 
command of a proconsul. But when the people 
assembled to elect a proconsul, none of the 
generals of experience ventured to sue for so 
dangerous a command. At length Scipio, who 
was then barely twenty-seven (Pol. x. 6), offered 
himself as a candidate, and was chosen with 
enthusiasm to take the command. His suc- 
cess in Spain was striking and rapid. In the 
first campaign (210) he took the important city 
of Carthago Nova, and in the course of the 
next three years he drove the Carthaginians 
entirely out of Spain, and became master of 
that country. He returned to Rome in 206, 
and was elected consul for the following year 
(205), although he had not yet filled the office 
of praetor, and was only thirty years of age. 
He was anxious to cross over at once to Africa, 
and bring the contest to an end at the gates of 
Carthage ; but the oldest members of the 
senate, and among them Q. Fabius Maximus, 
opposed his project, partly through timidity 
and partly through jealousy of the youthful 
conqueror. All that Scipio could obtain was 
the province of Sicily, with permission to- cross 
over to Africa ; but the senate refused him an 
army, thus making the permission of no practi- 
cal use. The allies had a truer view of the 
interests of Italy than the Roman senate, and 
from all the towns of Italy volunteers flocked 
to join the standard of the youthful hero. 
The senate could not refuse to allow him to 
enlist volunteers, and such was the enthusiasm 
in his favour that he was able to cross over to 
Sicily with an army and a fleet, contrary to the 
expectations and even the wishes of the senate. 
After spending the winter in Sicily, and com- 
pleting all Ms preparations for the invasion of 
Africa, he crossed over to the latter country in 
the following year. Success again attended 
his arms. The Carthaginians and their ally 
Syphax were defeated with great slaughter, 
and the former were compelled to recall Hanni- 
bal from Italy as the only hope of saving their 
country. The long struggle between the two 
peoples was at length brought to a close by the 
battle fought near the city of Zama on the 
19th of October, 202, in which Scipio gained a 
decisive and brilliant victory over Hannibal. 
Carthage had no alternative but submission ; 
but the final treaty was not concluded till the 
following year (201). Scipio returned to Italy 
in 201, and entered Rome in triumph. He was 
received with universal enthusiasm, and the 
surname of Africanus was conferred upon him. 
The people wished to make him consul and 
dictator for life, and to erect his statue in the 
comitia, the rostra, the curia, and even in the 
Capitol, but he prudently declined all these in- 
vidious distinctions (Liv. xxxviii. 56 ; Val. Max. 
iv. 1, 6). As he did not choose to usurp the 
supreme power, aud as lie was an object of 
suspicion and dislike to the majority of the 
senate, he took no prominent part in public 
affairs during the next few years. He was 
censor in 199 with P. Aelius Paetus, and consul 



a second time in 194 with Ti. Sempronius 
Longus. In 193 he was one of the three com- 
missioners who were sent to Africa to mediate 
between Masinissa and the Carthaginians ; and 
in the same year he was one of the ambassa- 
dors sent to Antiochus at Ephesus, at whose 
court Hannibal was then residing. The tale 
runs that he had there an interview with the 
great Carthaginian, who declared him the great- 
est general that ever lived. The compliment 
was paid in a manner the most flattering to 
Scipio. The latter had asked, ' Who was the 
greatest general ? ' ' Alexander the Great,' 
was Hannibal's reply. ' Who was the second ? ' 
'Pyrrhus.' 'Who the third?' 'Myself,' re- 
plied the Carthaginian. ' What would you 
have said, then, if you had conquered me ? ' 
asked Scipio, in astonishment. ' I should then 
have placed myself before Alexander, before 
Pyrrhus, and before all other generals.' (Liv. 
xxxv. 14.) It should be noticed that Scipio 
alone in the senate opposed the persecution of 
Hannibal after his fall (Liv. xxxiii. 47). — In 190 
Africanus served as legate under his brother 
Lucius in the war against Antiochus the Great. 
Shortly after his return, he and his brother 
Lucius were accused of having received bribes 
from Antiochus to let the monarch off too 
leniently, and of having appropriated to their 
own use part of the money which had been 
paid by Antiochus to the Roman state. It ap- 
pears that there were two distinct prosecutions, 
and the following is the most probable history 
of the transaction. In 187 two Petilii, tribunes 
of the people, instigated by Cato and the other 
enemies of the Scipios, required L. Scipio to 
render an account of all the sums of money 
which he had received from Antiochus. L. 
Scipio accordingly prepared his accounts, but 
as he was in the act of delivering them up, the 
proud conqueror of Hannibal indignantly 
snatched them out of his hands, and tore them 
up before the senate. But this haughty 
conduct appears to have produced an un- 
favourable impression, and his brother, when 
brought to trial in the course of the same year, 
was declared guilty, and sentenced to pay a 
heavy fine. The tribune C. Minucius Auguri- 
nus ordered him to be dragged to prison and 
there detained till the money was paid ; where- 
upon Africanus rescued his brother from the 
hands of the tribune's officer. The contest 
would probably have been attended with fatal 
results had not Tib. Gracchus, the father of 
the celebrated tribune, and then tribune him- 
self, had the prudence to release Lucius from 
the sentence of imprisonment. The successful 
issue of the prosecution of Lucius emboldened 
his enemies to bring the great Africanus himself 
before the people. His accuser was M. Naevius, 
the tribune of the people, and the accusation 
was brought in 185. When the trial came on, 
and Africanus was summoned, he proudly re- 
minded the people that this was the anniversary 
of the day on which he had defeated Hannibal 
at Zama, and called upon them to follow him to 
the Capitol, in order there to return thanks to 
the immortal gods, and to pray that they would 
grant the Roman state other citizens like him- 
self. Scipio struck a chord which vibrated on 
every heart, and was followed by crowds to the 
Capitol. Having thus set all the laws at de- 
fiance, Scipio immediately quitted Rome, and 
retired to his country seat at Liternum. The 
tribunes wished to renew the prosecution, but 
Gracchus wisely persuaded them to let it drop. 
(Liv. xxxviii. 50-60 ; Gell. iv. 18, vii. 19 ; Val. 



SCIPIO 



849 



Max. iii. 7, 1.) Scipio never returned to Rome. 
He passed his remaining days in the cultivation 
of his estate at Litemum ; and at his death is 
said to have requested that his body might be 
buried there, and not in his ungrateful country 
(Sen. Hp. 86). Some accounts represent his 
burial-place as being at Rome, but there was at 
any rate amonument to his memory at Litemum, 
which Livy saw (Liv. xxxviii. 56). The year of 
his death is uncertain ; but he probably died 
in 183. Scipio married Aemilia, the daughter 
of L. Aemilius Paulus, who fell at the battle of 
Cannae, and by her he had four children — two 
sons [Nos. 12, 13], and two daughters, the elder 
of whom married P. Scipio Nasica Corculum 
[No. 17], and the younger Tib. Gracchus, and 
thus became the mother of the two celebrated 
tribunes. [Cornelia.] — 11. L. Corn. Scipio 
Asiaticus, also called Asiagenes or Asiagenus, 
was the son of No. 8, and the brother of the 
great Africanus. He served under his brother 
in Spain ; was praetor in 198, when he obtained 
the province of Sicily, and consul in 190, with 
C Laelius. The senate had not much con- 
fidence in his abilities, and in truth his capacity 
was small. It was only through the offer of 
his brother Africanus to accompany him as a 
legate that he obtained the province of Greece 
and the conduct of the war against Antiochus. 
He defeated Antiochus at Mt. Sipylus in 190, 
entered Rome in triumph in the following 
year, and assumed the surname of Asiaticus. 
(Liv. xxviii. 3, 4, 17, xxxiv. 54, xxxvi. 45, 
xxxvii. 1.) The history of his accusation and 
condemnation has been already related in the 
Life of his brother. He was a candidate for the 
censorship in 184, but was defeated by the old 
enemy of his family, M. Porcius Cato, who 
deprived Asiaticus of his horse at the review of 
the equites. (Liv. xxxix. 22, 40, 44.)— 12. 
P. Corn. Scipio Africanus, elder son of the 
great Africanus, was prevented by his weak 
health from taking any part in public affairs, 
but he was elected augur in 180 B.C. (Liv. zL 42). 
Cicero praises his oratiunculae and his Greek 
History, and remarks that with the greatness 
of his father's mind he possessed a larger 
amount of learning (Cic. Brut. 19, 77, tie Off. 
i. 33 ; Veil. Pat. i. 10). He had no son of liis 
own, but adopted the son of L. Aemilius Paulus 
[see below, No. 15]. His epitaph has great 
poetic merit (C. J. L. i. 38). — 13. L orCn. Corn. 
Scipio Africanus, younger 6on of the great 
Africanus. He accompanied his father into 
Asia in 190, and was taken prisoner by Antio- 
chus. This Scipio was a degenerate son of an 
illustrious sire, and only obtained the praetor- 
ship, in 174, through Cicereius, who had been a 
scriba of his father, giving way to him. In the 
same year lie was expelled from the senate by 
the censors. (Liv. xli. 27 ; Val. Max. iii. 5, 1, 
iv. 5, 3.) — 14. L. Corn. Scipio Asiaticus. a 
descendant of No. 11, belonged to the Marian 
party, and was consul in 83 with C. Norbanus. 
In this year Sulla returned to Italy : Scipio 
was deserted by his troops, and taken prisoner 
in his camp along with his son Lncius, but was 
dismissed by Sulla uninjured. He was, how- 
ever, included in the proscription in the follow- 
ing year (82), whereupon he fled to Massilia, and 
passed there the remainder of his life. His 
daughter was married to P. Sestius. (App. 
B. C. i. 82, 85 ; Plut. Hull. 28 ; Flor. iii. 21 ; 
Cic. pro Hub. Peril. 7, 21, Phil. xii. 11, 27.) 
15. P Corn. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus 
Minor was the younger son of L. Aemilius 
Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia, and was 



adopted by P. Scipio [No. 12], the son of the 
conqueror of Hannibal. He was born about 
185. In his seventeenth year he accompanied 
his father Paulus to Greece, and fought under 
him at the battle of Pydna, 168. (Plut. Aemil. 22. 1 
Scipio devoted h im self with ardour to the study 
of literature, and formed an intimate friendship 
with Polybius when the latter came to Rome 
along with the other Achaean exiles in 167. 
[Polybil'S.] At a later period he also cultivated 
the acquaintance of the philosopher Panaetius, 
and he admitted the poets Lucilius and Terence 
to his intimacy, and is said to have assisted 
the latter in the composition of his comedies. 
[Terentics.] His friendship with Laelius. 
j whose tastes and pursuits were so congenial to 
I his own, has been immortalised by Cicero's 
celebrated treatise entitled Laelius sive de 
Amicitia. Although thus devoted to the study 
of literature, Scipio cultivated the virtues which 
distinguished the older Romans, and made 
1 Cato the model of his conduct. If we may 
believe his panegyrists, he possessed all the 
simple virtues of an old Roman, mellowed by 
the refining influences of Greek civilisation. 
Scipio first served in Spain with great distinc- 
tion as military tribune, under the consul L. 
Lucullus in 151. (Veil. Pat, i. 12; Flor. ii. 17.) 
On the breaking out of the third Punic war in 
149 he accompanied the Roman army to Africa, 
again with the rank of military tribune. By 
his personal bravery and military skill he re- 
paired, to a great extent, the mistakes of the 
consul Manilius, whose army on one occasion 
he saved from destruction. He returned to 
Rome in 148, and had already gained such 
popularity that when he became a candidate 
for the aedileship for the following year (147) 
he was elected consul, although he was only 
thirty-seven, and had not, therefore, attained the 
legal age. (Pol. xxxv. 4.) The senate assigned 
to him Africa as his province, to which he forth- 
with sailed, accompanied by his friends Poly- 
bius and Laelius. He prosecuted the siege of 
Carthage with the utmost vigour. The Car- 
thaginians defended themselves with the 
courage of despair, and the Romans were unable 
to force their way into the city till the spring 
of the following year (146). The fate of this 
once magnificent city moved Scipio to tears, 
and anticipating that a similar catastrophe 
might one day befall Rome, he repeated the 
lines of the Iliad (vi. 448) in which Hector 
j bewails the appioaching fall of Troy. After 
reducing Africa to the form of a Roman pro- 
vince, Scipio returned to Rome in the same 
year, and celebrated a splendid triumph on 
account of his victory. (App. Pun. 113-131 ; 
Pol. xxxix.) The surname of Africanus which 
j he had inherited by adoption from the cou- 
1 queror of Hannibal, had now been acquired by 
him by his own exploits. In 142 Scipio was 
censor, and in the administration of the duties 
of his office he attempted to redress the 
growing luxury and immorality of his con- 
temporaries. His efforts, however, were 
thwarted by his colleague Mummius, who had 
himself acquired a love of Greek and Asiatic 
luxuries. (Val. Max. vi. 4, 2 : Gel), iv. 20, v. 19.) 
In 139 Scipio was accused by Ti. Claudius 
Asellus of majestas. Asellus attacked him 
out of private animosity, because he had been 
deprived of his horse and reduced to the 
condition of an aerarian by Scipio in his cen- 
sorship. Scipio was acquitted, and the speeches 
which he delivered on the occasion were held in 
high esteem in a later age. fGell. ii. 20, iii. 4, 

3 I 



850 



SCIPIO 



vii. 11 ; Cic. de Or. ii. 64, 258 ; 66, 268.) It 
appears to have been after this event that 
Scipio was sent on an embassy to Egypt and 
Asia to attend to the Roman interests in those 
countries. The long continuance of the war in 
Spain again called Scipio to the consulship. 
He was appointed consul in his absence, and 
had the province of Spain assigned to him in 
134. His operations were attended with 
success ; and in 133 he brought the war to a 
conclusion by the capture of the city of Nu- 
mantia after a long siege. (App. Hisp. 48-98 ; 
Eutrop. iv. 17.) He now received the surname 
of Numantius in addition to that of Africanus. 
During his absence in Spain Tib. Gracchus 
had been put to death. Scipio was married to 
Sempronia, the sister of the fallen tribune, but 
he had no sympathy with his reforms, and no 
sorrow for his fate. On receiving the news of 
the death of Gracchus he is said to have quoted 
the line of the Odyssey (i. 47) — 

a>s cwniAoiTO Kal &KKos oris Toiavra y€ fre^oi, 

and upon his return to Rome in 132, when he 
was asked in the assembly of tribes by C. Papi- 
rius Carbo, the tribune, what he thought of the 
death of Tib. Gracchus, he replied that he was 
justly slain (jure caesitm). His reply to the 
murmurs of the populace which greeted this 
expression of opinion, ' Taceant quibus Italia 
noverca est,' showed his aristocratic spirit of 
contempt for the Roman mob, whom he 
seemed to think unfit to reckon as Roman 
citizens, and may have contributed to the feel- 
ing against him which afterwards caused his 
death. He now took the lead in opposing the 
efforts of the commissioners to make the 
agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus apply also to 
the lands of Latin citizens, and he proposed in 
the senate (129) that all disputes respect- 
ing the lands of the allies should be taken out 
of the hands of the commissioners appointed 
under the law of Tib. Gracchus, and should be 
committed to other persons. Fulvius Flaccus, 
Papirius Carbo and C. Gracchus, the three 
commissioners, offered the most vehement 
opposition to his proposal. In the Forum he 
was accused by Carbo with the bitterest invec- 
tives as the enemy of the people, and upon his 
again expressing his approval of the death of 
Tib. Gracchus, the people shouted out, 'Down 
with the tyrant.' In the evening he went home 
with the intention of composing a speech for 
the following day ; but next day he was found 
dead in his room. It is clear that the assassi- 
nation was contrived by some of the Gracchan 
party ; but who committed the murder or who 
instigated it was never established. Suspicion 
fell upon various persons : even upon his wife, 
Sempronia, and her mother, Cornelia. Carbo, 
Fulvius, and C. Gracchus were suspected by 
many. Of these Carbo was most generally 
believed to have been guilty, and is expressly 
mentioned as the murderer by Cicero. (App. 
B. C. i. 19, 20; Veil. Pat. ii. 4; Plut. C, 
Graceh. 10 ; Cic. de Or. ii. 40, 170, ad Fam. ix. 
21, ad Q. Fr. ii. 3.) The general opinion enter- 
tained by the Romans of a subsequent age 
respecting Scipio is given by Cicero in his work 
on the Republic, in which Scipio is introduced 
as the principal speaker. — 16. P. Corn. Scipio 
Nasica, that is, ' Scipio with the pointed nose,' 
was the son of Cn. Scipio Calvus, who fell in 
Spain in 211. [No. 9.] He is first mentioned 
in 204 as a young man who was judged by the 
senate to be the best citizen in the state, and 
was therefore sent to Ostia along with the 



Roman matrons to receive the statue of the 
Idaean Mother, which had been brought from 
Pessinus (Liv. xxxv. 10). He was curule aedile 
196; praetor in 194, when he fought with 
success in Further Spain ; and consul 191, 
when he defeated the Boii, and triumphed over 
them on his return to Rome. Scipio Nasica 
was a celebrated jurist, and a house was 
given him by the state in the Via Sacra, in 
order that he might be more easily consulted. 
(Pomp. Dig. i. 2, 2, 37.) — 17. P. Corn. Scipio 
Nasica Corculum, son of No. 16, inherited 
from his father a love of jurisprudence, and 
became so celebrated for his discernment and 
for his knowledge of the pontifical and civil 
law that he received the surname of Corcu- 
lum (i.e. 'acute': Fest. s.v.). He married a 
daughter of Scipio Africanus the elder. He 
was consul for the first time 162, but abdicated, 
together with his colleague, almost immediately 
after they had entered upon their office, on 
account of some fault in the auspices. He was 
censor 159 with M. Popillius Laenas, and was 
consul a second time in 155, when he subdued 
the Dalmatians (Liv. Ep. 47). He was a firm 
upholder of the old Roman habits and manners, 
and in his second consulship he induced the 
senate to stop the building of a theatre, as 
injurious to public morals. When Cato re- 
peatedly expressed his desire for the destruc- 
tion of Carthage, Scipio, on the other hand, 
declared that he wished for its preservation, 
since the existence of such a rival would prove 
a useful check upon the licentiousness of the 
multitude (Plut. Cat. Maj. 27; Aurel. Vict. 
Vir. III. 44; App. Pun. 69, B. C. i. 28). He 
was elected pontifex maximus in 150. — 18. P. 
Corn. Scipio Nasica Serapio, son of No. 17, is 
chiefly known as the leader of the senate in 
the murder of Tib. Gracchus. He was consul 
in 138, and in consequence of the severity with 
which he and his colleague conducted the levy 
of troops, they were thrown into prison by C. 
Curiatius, the tribune of the plebs. It was 
this Curiatius who gave Nasica the nickname 
of Serapio, from his resemblance to a person of 
low rank of this name ; but though given him 
in derision, it afterwards became his distin- 
guishing surname. (Liv. Ep. 55 ; Val. Max. 
ix. 14, 3; Plin. vii. 54.) In 133, when the 
tribes met to re-elect Tib. Gracchus to the 
tribunate, and the utmost confusion prevailed 
in the Forum, Nasica called upon the consuls to 
save the republic ; but as they refused to have 
recourse to violence, he exclaimed, ' As the 
consul betrays the state, do you who wish to 
obey the laws follow me,' and so saying he 
rushed forth from the temple of Fides, where 
the senate was sitting, followed by the greater 
number of the senators. The people gave way 
before them, and Gracchus was assassinated as 
he attempted to escape. (App. B. C. i. 16 ; 
Plut. Tib. Graceh. 19.) In consequence of his 
conduct on this occasion Nasica became an 
object of such detestation to the people, that 
the senate found it advisable to send him on a 
pretended mission to Asia, although he was 
pontifex maximus, and ought not, therefore, 
to have quitted Italy. He did not venture 
to return to Rome, and, after wandering about 
from place to place, died soon afterwards at 
Pergamum. (Plut. Tib. Graceh. 21 ; Cic. Flacc. 
31, 75.) — 19. P. Corn. Scipio Nasica, son of No. 
18, was consul 111, and died during his consul- 
ship (Sail. Jug. 27 ; Cic. de Off. i. 30).— 20. P. 
Corn. Scipio Nasica, son of No. 19, praetor 94, 
is mentioned by Cicero as one of the advocates. 



SCIRAS 



SCOPAS 



851 



of Sex. Roscius of Ameria. He married 
Licinia, the second daughter of L. Crassus the 
orator. (Cic. Rose. Am. 28, 77, Brut. 58, 212.) 
He had two sons, both of whom were adopted, 
one by his maternal grandfather, L. Crassus, in 
his testament, and is therefore called L. 
Licinius Crassus Scipio ; and the other by Q. 
Caecilius Metellus Pius, consul 80, and is 
therefore called Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius 
Scipio. This Scipio became the father in-law 
of Cn. Pompey the triumvir, and fell in Africa 
in 47. His Life is given under Metellus, No. 

15. — 21. Cn. Corn. Scipio Hispallus, son of L. 
Scipio, who is only known as a brother of the 
two Scipios who fell in Spain. Hispallus was 
praetor 179, and consul 171. (Liv. xl. 44, xli. 

16. ) — 22. Cn. Corn. Scipio Hispallus, son of 
No. 21, was praetor in 139, when he published 
an edict that all Chaldaeans (i.e. astrologers) 
should leave Rome and Italv within ten days 
(Val. Max. i. 3, 2).— 23. P. Corn. Scipio, hus- 
band of Scribonia, who afterwards married 
Octavianus (Suet. Oct. 62).— 24. P. Corn. 
Scipio, son of No. 21, was consul b.c. 16 
(Dio Cass. liv. 19; Propert. v. 11, 67.)— 25. 
Corn. Scipio, first son of No. 21, served under j 
Junius Blaesus against Tacfarinas (Tac. Ann. 
iii. 74). — 26. P. Corn. Scipio, son of the prece- 
ding, husband of Poppaea Sabina, was consul 
a.d. 56 (Tac. Ann. xi. 2, xii. 53, xiii. 25). 

Sciras or Sclerias. [Rhi.nthox.] 

Sciras (2/c<pai), a surname of Athene, under 
which she had a temple in the Attic port of 
Phaleron, and in the island of Salamis. The 
foundation of the temple at Phaleron is ascribed 
by Pausanias to a soothsayer, Scirus of Dodona, 
who is said to have come to Attica at the time 
when the Eleusinians were at war with Erech- 
theus (Paus. i. 1, 4, i. 36, 3). 

Sciritis (SKipTVis), a wild and mountainous 
district in the N. of Laconia, on the borders of 
Arcadia, with a town Scirus (2ic?pos), (also 
called Scirtonium) on the road from Sparta to 
Tegea, originally belonging to Arcadia. Its 
inhabitants, the Sciritae (2Kiprrcu), formed a 
special division of the Lacedaemonian arm}'. 
This body, which in the time of the Pelopou- 
nesian war was 600 in number, was stationed in 
battle at the extreme left of the line, formed on 
march the vanguard, and was usually employed 
on the most dangerous kinds of service. (Thuc. 
v. 88, 67 ; Xen. Cyr. iv. 2, 1, Hell. v. 2, 24 ; 
Diod. xv. 82.) 

Sciron (^Kipwv or 'S.Kt'tpwvj, in the Athenian 
story, was a famous robber who infested the 
frontier between Attica and Megaris. He not 
only robbed the travellers who passed through 
the country, but compelled them on the Sciro- 
nian rock to wash his feet, and kicked them 
into the sea while they were thus employed. 
At the foot of the rock (according to Pausanias, 
and the Schol. on Eur. Hipp. 979), there was 
a tortoise, which devoured the bodies of the 
robber's victims. He was slain by Theseus. 
It is noticeable that Plutarch makes no sugges- 
tion of the tortoise, and it has been suggested 
that this part of the story grew out of vase- 
paintings, where the painter put in a tortoise 
(as in the British Museum vase) to indicate the 
sea shore upon which Sciron was about to full. 
Diodorus supplies another explanation when he 
says that the precipice over which he fell was 
called XfAwfi) (tortoise). Plutarch mentionsalso 
the Mcgarean story, which is totally different. 
They said that Sciron was a good and just 
prince, no robber, but a punisher of robbers, 
son-in-law of Cychrcus and father-in-law of 



Aeacus, and that he was slain bv Theseus in 
war. (Plut. Thes. 10; Paus. i.44,'l2; Diod. iv. 
59 ; Strab. p. 391 ; Ov. Met. vii. 445.) 

Scironia Saxa (S/cipojfi'Sej irerpai, also 2ki- 
pa5es : Derveni Bouno), large rocks on the E. 
coast of Megaris, between which and the sea 
there was only a narrow dangerous pass, called 
the Scironian road (t) ^Kipuv-q or SKipowls 656s : 
Kaki Skala). (Strab. p. 391 ; Paus. i. 44.) 
This road was afterwards enlarged by the 
emperor Hadrian. The name of the rocks was 
said to be derived from the celebrated robber 
Scmox. 

Scironides {XKipuviSns), an Athenian general 
who acted at the siege of Miletus and against 
Chios in B.C. 412, 411 (Thuc. viii. 25, 30, 54). 

Scirri or Sciri, a people placed by Pliny in 
European Sarmatia, on the N. coast, imme- 
diately E. of the Vistula, in the modern Cur- 
land and Samogitien; but by others described 
as a Scythian tribe beyond the Danube, which 
afterwards joined the Huns, and to which be- 
longed Odoacer, the conqueror of Italv (Plin. 
iv. 97 ; Jornand. B. G. 49 ; Sidon. vii. 322). 
Scirtonium. [Sclritis.] 
Scirtus 12/cipTos : Daisari), a river in Meso- 
potamia, flowing past Edessa into a small lake 
near Charrae. Its name, which signifies leap- 
ing, was derived from its rapid descent in a 
series of small cascades. (Procop. Aed. ii. 7.) 
Sclerias. [Rhtnthon.] 
Scodra (Scodrensis: Scodar or Scutari), one 
of the most important towns in JJlyiicum, on 
the left bank of the river Barbana, at the SE. 
corner of the Lacus Labeatis, and about 
seventeen miles from the coast. It was strongly 
fortified, and was the residence of the Dlyrian 
king Gentius (Liv. xliv. 31, xlv. 26). It was a 
populous town uader the Romans (Plin. iii. 144) 
and the capital of the district, called Praevali- 
tana, of Dalmatia in the time of Diocletian. 
Scodrus. [Scabdus.] 

Scoedises, Scydisses, or Scordiscus (2/coi- 
5i'<njs, 2,KvSi<T(rris, UxopS'iTKos : Dassim Dagh, or 
Chamhu-Bel Dagh), a mountain in the NE. of 
Asia Minor, dividing Pontus Cappadocius from 
Anneuia Minor, and forming a part of the same 
range as M. Parvades (Strab. pp. 497, 548 ; 
Ptol. v. 6, 8). 

Scollis (2koAAis : Santameri), a rocky moun- 
tain between Elis and Achaia, 3330 feet high, 
which joins on the E. the mountain Lampea 
(Strab. p. 341). Strabo identifies it with the 
Olenian rock of II. ii. 617 (Strab. p. 887). 

Sc616ti. [SCYTHIA.] 

Scdlus i2ko>a<<$ : 2kw\ios, 2kwKmvs). 1. An 
ancient town in Boeotia, on the road from 
Thebes to Aphidna in Attica, was situated on 
the N. slope of Mt. Cithaeron, five or six miles 
S. of the Asopus and NW. of Hysiae (II. ii. 497 ; 
Strab. p. 408 : Hdt. ix. 15 ; Paus. ix. 4, 4). The 
site is traceable to the right of the road from 
Athens to Thebes. — 2. A small place in Mace- 
donia, near Olvnthus (Thuc. v. 18; Strab. p. 
408). 

Scombraria (Islote), an island in front of the 
bay, on the SE. coast of Spain, which formed 
the harbour of Carthago Nova. It received its 
name from the scombri, or mackerel, taken off 
its coast, from which the Romans prepared 
their garutn. (Strab. p. 159.) 

Scomius or Scombru8 Mons (rb ?.k6hwv lipos), 
a mountain in Macedonia, which runs E. of Mt. 
Scardus, in the direction of N. to S. towards 
Aft. Haemus (Thuc. ii 96). 

Scopas i2K<$irat). 1. One of the greatest 
Greek sculptors, was a native of Paros, and 

8 I 2 



852 



SCOPAS 



appears to have belonged to a family of artists 
in that island (Strab. p. 604 ; Paus. viii. 45, 5). 
The period of his work extended over forty-four 
years at least, for this was the interval be- 
tween his work at Tegea in 394 and that at 
Halicarnassus in 351. He was probably some- 
what older than Praxiteles, with whom he 
stands at the head of that second period of 
perfected art which is called the later Attic 
school (in contradistinction to the earlier Attic 
school of Phidias), and which arose at Athens 
after the Peloponnesian war. Scopas was an 
architect and a statuary as well as a sculptor. 
He was the architect of the temple of Athene 
at Tegea, in Arcadia, which was built to replace 
an older temple burnt down in B.C. 394. From 
the sculptures which Scopas executed for this 
temple, two heads— mutilated, but still of great 
beauty and valuable for judging of the style of 
Scopas— have been discovered at Tegea and are 
in the Museum at Athens. The subjects of the 
sculptures mentioned by Pausanias are the 
Calydonian Hunt, and the fight of Telephus 
and Achilles. He was one of the artists em- 
ployed in executing the bas-reliefs which deco- 
rated the frieze of the Mausoleum at Hali- 
carnassus in Caria. A portion of these bas- 
reliefs is now deposited in the British Museum 
[Diet, of Ant. art. 
Mausoleum^] A 
noticeable feature 
in the style of 
Scopas was that 
he introduced the 
representation of 
passion which was 
afterwards car- 
ried further by 
the Pergamene 
sculptors and by 
later schools. 
Pliny states that 
the famous group 
of figures repre- 
senting the de- 
struction of the 
sons and daugh- 
ters of Niobe was ascribed by some to Scopas, 
by others to Praxiteles. It has been remarked 
since the discovery of the original statue by 
Praxiteles of Hermes [see p. 557], and of the 
original head by Scopas, that the heads of the 
Niobe group bear more resemblance to the style 
of Praxiteles than to that of Scopas. On the 
other hand, the passion of the subject is more 
like the style of Scopas. But possibly the 
group in question was merely assigned by Bo- 
man critics to the period of these two great 
sculptors, and was not the genuine work of 
either. In Pliny's time the statues stood in 
the temple of Apollo Sosianus (Plin. xxxvi. 28). 
The remaining statues of this group, or copies 
of them, are all in the Florence Gallery. The 
most esteemed of all the works of Scopas, in 
antiquity, was his group which stood in the 
shrine of Cn. Domitius in the Flaminian Circus, 
representing Achilles conducted to the island 
of Leuce by the divinities of the sea. It con- 
sisted of figures of Neptune, Thetis, and Achilles, 
surrounded by Nereids, and attended by Tri- 
tons, and by an assemblage of sea monsters 
(Plin. xxxvi. 26). Pliny mentions among the 
famous single statues by Scopas an Apollo 
Palatinus, and it is argued by many that the 
Apollo Citharoedus [see p. 90] is a copy of this 
statue, with alterations in all probability of the 
drapery. Of his other statues a colossal seated 




Head by Scopas. from Tegea. 
(Athens.) 



SCBIBONIA 

Ares (Plin.t'6.), and a statue of Apollo Smintheus 
(Strab. p. 604 ; cf. Apollo, p. 89, b), was par- 
ticularly famous in ancient times. — 2. An Aeto- 
lian, who held a leading position among his 
countrymen in the war with Philip and the 
Achaeans, B.C. 220. He commanded the 
Aetolian army in the first year of the war ; and 
,he is mentioned again as general of the Aeto- 
lians when the latter people concluded an 
; alliance with the Bomans: (211). (Pol. iv. 5-13, 
'62, v. 11 ; Liv. xxxvi. 24.) After the close of 
ithe war with Philip, Scopas and Dorimachus 
were appointed to reform the Aetolian consti- 
tution (204). Scopas had only undertaken the 
^charge from motives of ambition ; on finding 
i himself disappointed in this object, he with- 
drew to Alexandria. Here he was received 
with favour by the ministers of the young 
king Ptolemy V., and appointed to the com- 
mand of the army against Antiochus the Great. 
At first he was successful, but was afterwards 
defeated by Antiochus at Panium, and reduced 
to shut himself up within the walls of Sidon, 
where he was compelled by famine to surrender. 
(Pol. xiii. 1, xvi. 18, 39; Jos. Ant. xii. 3, 3.) 
Notwithstanding this ill success he continued 
in favour at the Egyptian court ; but having 
formed a plot in 296 to obtain the chief adminis- 
tration of the kingdom, he was arrested and 
put to death (Pol. xviii. 36-38). 

Scopas (~Zk6tto.s : Aladan), a river of Galatia, 
falling into the Sangarius, from the E., at J ulio- 
polis (Procop. Aed. v. 4). 

Scordisci, a people in Pannonia Superior, 
are sometimes classed among the Illyrians, but 
were the remains of an ancient and powerful 
Celtic tribe. They dwelt between the Savus 
andDravus. (Strab. pp. 293, 313 ; Liv. xlv. 23.) 
Scordiscus. [Scoedisbs.] 
Scoti, a people whom the later Boman 
writers mention as dwelling in Ireland. Thus 
Claudian contrasts the Picti dwelling in Thule 
with the Scoti dwelling in Ierne (de IV. Cons. 
Hon. 3, cf. de Laud. Stil. ii. 251 ; Oros. i. 2 ; 
Amm. Marc, xxvii. 8, 4 ; Isid. Or.xiv. 6). _ At a 
later period the migration of the Scoti into 
Caledonia transferred the names Scotia and 
Scoti to that country. 

Scotitas (2/coTn-cts), a woody district in the 
N. of Laconia, on the frontiers of Tegeatis 
(Paus. iii. 10, 6). 

Scotussa ('ZtcdTovaaa: ^KOTOvaffaios), a very 
ancient town of Thessaly, in the district Pelas- 
giotis, near the source of the Onchestus, and 
not far from the hills Cynoscephalae, where 
Flamininus gained his celebrated victory over 
Philip, B.C. 197 (Strab. pp. 329, 441; Diod. 
xv. 75 ; Liv. xxxiii. 6, xxxvi. 9, 14). The ruins 
of the ancient fortifications may be seen at 
Supli, five miles N. of the railway which runs 
from Volo (Iolcus) to Phersala (Pharsalus). 

Scribonia, wife of Octavianus (afterwards 
the emperor Augustus), had been married twice 
before. By one of her former husbands, P. 
Scipio, she had two children, P. Scipio, who 
was consul B.C. 16, and a daughter, Cornelia, 
who was married to Paulus Aemilius Lepidus, 
censor B.C. 22, and whose death is lamented in 
the beautiful elegy of Propertius (v. 11 ; ci. p. 
483, b). Scribonia was the sister of L. Scribo- 
nius Libo, who was the father-in-law of Sex. 
Pompey. Augustus married her in 40, on the 
advice of Maecenas, because he was then afraid 
that Sex. Pompey would form an alliance With 
Antony to crush him ; but having renewed his 
alliance with Antony, Octavian divorced her in 
the following year (39)— on the very day on 



SCRIBONIUS 



SCYLITZES 



853 



which she had borne liim a daughter, Julia — in 
order to marry Livia. Seribonia long survived 
her separation from Octavian. In A.D. 2 she 
accompanied, of her own accord, her daughter 
Julia into exile, to the island of Pandataria. 
(Suet. Aug. 62, 69; App. B. C. v. 53; Veil. 
Pat. ii. 100; Tac. Arm. ii. 27.) 
Scribonius Curio. jCuRio.] 
Scribonius Largus. [Largus.] 
Scribonius libo. [Libo.] 
Scribonius Proculus. [Proculus.] 
Scriptores Historiae Augustae. " Under 
this title a collection was made, how or under 
whose authority and editorship is not known, of 
biographies of the emperors from Hadrian to 
Numerian (117-284), by six contributors. The 
Lives of Philip — Valerian have not been handed 
down entire. There is considerable doubt as 
to the authorship of the different biographies. 
The Lives of Hadrian, Aelius, Didius Julianus, 
Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, Cara- 
calla and Geta have been commonly printed 
as the work of SPABTIANUS ; those of Antoninus 
Pius, IVf . Antoninus Philosophus (M. Aurelius), 
Verus, Pertinax, Clodius Albums, Macrinus, 
the two Maximins, the three Gordians, Maxi- 
mus and Balbinus, as the work of Capitolinus 
the Life of Avidius Cassius, as the work of 
Vulcacius ; the Lives of Commodus, Diadume- 
nus, Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, as the 
work of L AMPRn>ru s [these Lives, whoever 
were their respective authors, seem to have 
been written in the time of Diocletian]; the 
Lives of Aurelianus, Tacitus, Florianus, Probus, 
Firmus, Saturninus, Proculus, Bonosus, Carus 
and his sons, as the work of Vopiscus ; the 
Lives of Valerian, Gallienus, the so-called 
Thirty Tyrants, Claudius and the fragments of 
Philip, Decius, Galius and Aemilian, as the 
work of Trebellius Pollio. [These Lives 
aeem to have been written in the first decade 
of the fourth century.] The assignment to the 
authors mentioned above is grounded upon the 
titles to the various biographies ; but these titles 
have in many cases clearly been confused and 
miscopied by the scribes, and therefore it is a 
matter of great uncertainty which are correct 
and which are misplaced. This confusion 
belongs to the earlier Lives (Hadrian — Gordian 
III.). Hence the apportionment of the works 
of Spartianus, Capitolinus, Larapridius and 
Vulcacius lacks authority, while there is more 
warrant for the assignment to Vopiscus and 
Trebellius Pollio of the Lives which are 
ascribed to them. At the same time for con- 
venience and conciseness of reference the 
names generally used are often retained, and 
there seems no reasonable objection to that 
course. The collection has value as supplying 
details othenvise unattainable ; but the bio- 
graphies are all feeble in style and composition, 
and, worse still, they are so distinctly tlie work 
of Court historians that their view of history is 
limited and partial, and often altogether un- 
trustworthy. 

Scultenna (Panaro), a river in Gallia Cis- 
padana, rising in the Apennines, and flowing to 
the E. of Mutina into the Po (Strab. p. 218 ; 
Plin. iii. 118; Liv. xli. 16). 

Scupi ( Uskub), a town in Moesia Superior, 
on the Axius, and the capital of Dardania. It 
was a frontier town towards Macedonia, and 
was a Roman colony under Trajan. (Ptol. iii. 
6; Procop. Acd. iv. 4.) 
Scydisses. [Scoedibes.] 
Scylace (2kv\4ki)), or Scylaceion, nn ancient 
city on the coast of Mysia Minor, E. of Cyzicus, 



| at the foot of M. Olympus (Plin. v. 142 ; Mel. 

I i. 19). It is one of the places whose inhabit - 

I ants Herodotus mentions as speaking the lan- 
guage or dialect, differing from any Greek of 

J his own day, which he calls Pelasgian (Hdt. i. 
57 ; Pelasgi). 

Scylaclum, also Scylaceum, or Scylletlum 
('S.kvKo.kiov , 2k vKaKtlov, ~2,Kv\\-r)Tiov : Squil- 
la.ee), a Greek town on the E. coast of Brut- 
tium, was situated on two adjoining hills at a 
short distance from the coast, between the 
rivers Caecinus and Carcines. The common 
tradition was that it was founded by Athenians 
under Menestheus (Strab. p. 261 ; Plin. iii. 95), 

'but others referred it to Odysseus (Serv. ad 
Aen. iii. 5, 53). There is, however, no evidence 
of its ever having been Greek in historical 
times, and it is not mentioned among Greek 
colonies in the Periplus attributed to Scylax. 
It was a dependency of Crotona and afterwards 

j belonged to Locri. It was colonised by th^ 
Romans B.C. 124, and again under Nerva. It 
is described by Cassiodorus (Var. xii. 15), who 
was born there. It had no harbour, whence 
Virgil {Aen. iii. 553) speaks of it as navifra- 
gum Scylaceum. From this town the Scyla- 
cius or Scylleticus Sinus (2kvaa7)tik&s 
k6\ttos) derived its name. The isthmus which 
separated this bay from the Sinus Hipponiates 
on the W. coast of Bruttium, was only twenty 
miles broad, and formed the ancient boundary 
of Oenotria. 

Scylax (2/cuAa£), of Caryanda in Caria, 
was sent by Darius Hystaspis on a voyage of 
discovery down the Lidus. Setting out from 
the city of Caspatyrus and the Pactyican 
district, Scylax reached the sea, and then sailed 
W. through the Indian Ocean to the Red Sea, 
performing the whole voyage in thirty months. 
(Hdt. iv. 44.) — There is still extant a Periplus. 
containing a brief description of certain 
countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa, around 
the coasts of the Mediterranean and Euxine. 
and bearing the name of Scylax of Caryanda. 
This work has been ascribed by some writers to 
the Scylax mentioned by Herodotus, and by 
others to Scylax, an astronomer of Halicar- 
nassus, and friend of Panaetius (Cic. Div. ii. 
42). Suidas (s. v.) appears to confuse the two 
It is clear from internal evidence that the 
Periplus must have been composed long after 
the time of Herodotus ; whilst, from its 
omitting to mention any of the cities founded 

' by Alexander, such as Alexandria in Egypt, we 
may conclude that it was drawn up before the 
reign of Alexander. Hence it is probably right 
to assume that the author lived about 400-350 

j B.C., and to suppose that he prefixed to his 
work the name of Scylax of Caryanda, on 
account of the celebrity of this navigator. — 
This Periplus is edited by Fabricius, 1878, and 
in Geogr. Graec. Minor, by C. Miiller, 1861. 
Scylax (2kia\o£: Choterlek-Irmuk), a river 

j in the S\V. of Pontus, falling into the Iris, 
between Amasia and Gaziura (Strab. p. 547). 

Scylitzes or Scylitza, Joannes, a Byzan- 
tine historian, surnamed, from his office, Curo- 
palates, flourished a.d. 1081. His work extends 
from the death of Nicephorus L (811), down to 
the reign of Nicephorus Botaniotes (1078-1081). 
The portion of the History of Cedrenus which 
extends from the death of Nicephorus I. 
1811) to the close of the work (1057) is found 
almost verbatim in the History of Scylitzes. 
It is a question which was the original. The 

] works of Cedrenus and Scylitzes are edited 

! together by Bekker, 1888. 



854 



SCYLLA 



SCYROS 



Scylla (SkuAAci), the personification of the 
danger to mariners from a rock-bound coast. 
In the Homeric account Scylla and Charybdis 
are opposite to each other, but the place of 
their dwelling is not very clear, nor is 
Charybdis distinctly personified. In later 
writers Scylla and Charybdis are localised in 
the Straits of Messina between Italy and 
Sicily (Strab. p. 24 ; Plin. iii. 87), Scylla being 
placed at the Promontory Scyllaeum (the name 
of which may very possibly have reached 
Homer). Charybdis is the whirlpool (which 
does actually exist now sufficiently to be a 
difficulty for undecked boats) just outside the 
spit of land which forms the harbour of* 
Messana (Strab. p. 268) : but the whirlpool 
was apparently often supposed to be immedi- 
ately opposite Scyllaeum Pr. at Cape Pelorus, 
nine miles further N., where there is no 
doubt often a strong current (Thuc. iv. 24). 
The myth which grew out of these perils of the 
sea was that in a cave high up on a rock dwelt 
Scylla, a daughter of Crataeis, a fearful 
monster, barking like a dog, with twelve feet, 
and six long necks and heads, each of which 
contained three rows of sharp teeth. The 
opposite rock, which was much lower, con- 
tained an immense fig-tree, under which dwelt 
Charybdis, who thrice every day swallowed 
down the waters of the sea, and thrice threw 




Scylla. (From a coin of AgL-igentum.) 



them up again : both were formidable to the 
ships which had to pass between them. (Od. 
xii. 73-110, 235-259, 430-444.) Hence the pro- 
verb, versified by a writer of the thirteenth ceu- 
tury (the Alexandreis of Philip Gualtier) : 
' Incidis in Scyllam cupiens vitare Charybdim.' 
(For Charybdis as a proverb for danger cf. 
Hor. Od. i. 27, 19 ; Athen. p. 558 ; Cic. Phil. ii. 
27, 67.) This is the Homeric account. Later 
traditions give different accounts of Scylla's 
parentage. Some describe her as a monster 
with six heads of different animals, or with 
three heads (Tzetz. ad Lyc. 650 ; Eustath. p. 
1719). One tradition relates that Scylla was 
originally a beautiful maiden, who often played 
with the nymphs of the sea, and was beloved 
by the marine god G-laucus, who applied to 
Circe for means to make Scylla return his 
love ; but Circe, jealous of the fair maiden, 
threw magic herbs into the well in which 
Scylla was wont to bathe, by means of which 
the lower part of her body was changed into 
the tail of a fish or serpent, surrounded by 
dogs, while the upper part remained that of a 
woman. (Ov. Met. xiii. 732, 905, xiv. 40-67; 
Tibull. iii. 4, 89.) Another tradition related 
that Scylla was beloved by Poseidon, and that 
Amphitrite, from jealousy, metamorphosed her 
into a monster (Serv. ad Aen. iii. 420). 
Heracles is said to have killed her, because 
she stole some of the oxen of Geryon ; but 



Phorcys is said to have restored her to life 
(Hygr. Fab. praef. ; Eustath. I. c). Virgil (Aen. 
vi. 286) speaks of several Scyllae, and places 
them in the lower world. Charybdis is de- 
scribed as a daughter of Poseidon and Gaea, 
and a voracious woman, who stole oxen from 
Heracles, and was hurled by the thunderbolt 
of Zeus into the sea (Serv. ad Aen. iii. 420). 
It is likely that her voice like a dog's bark in 
the Odyssey, improved by later myths into 
dogs surrounding her lower limbs, was imagined 
partly from her name being connected with 
o"KuAa|, partly from the noise of waves upon 
the rocks. 

Scylla, daughter of king Nisus of Megara. 
For details see Nisus. 

Scyllaeum (tKvWaiov). 1. (Sciglio), a pro- 
montory on the coast of Bruttium, at the N. 
entrance of the Sicilian straits, where the 
monster Scylla was supposed to live [Scylla]. 
— 2. (Scilla or Sciglio), a town in Bruttium, 
on the above-named promontory. There are 
still remains of the ancient citadel. (Plin. iii. 
73.) — 3. A promontory in Argolis, on the coast 
of Troezen, forming, with the promontory of 
Sunium in Attica, the entrance to the Saronic 
gulf (Paus. ii. 34, 7; Strab. p. 373). It is 
said to have derived its name from Scylla, the 
daughter of Nisus. [Nisus.] 

Scylleticus Sinus. [Scylacium.] 

Scylletium. [Scylacium.] 

Scyllis. [Dipoenus.] 

Scymnus (^kv/xvos), of Chios, wrote a Peri- 
egesis, or description of the earth, which is 
referred to by later writers (Steph. Byz. s. vv. 
Tldpos, 'Epfidvatrffa; Schol. ad Ap. Rh. iv. 284). 
This work was in prose, and consequently 
different from the Periegesis in iambic metre 
which has come down to us, and which many 
modem writers have erroneously ascribed to 
Scymnus of Chios. The poem is dedicated to 
king Nicomedes, whom some modern writers 
suppose to be the same as Nicomedes III., king 
of Bithynia, who died B.C. 74 ; but this is quite 
uncertain. — The poem is edited by Meineke, 
Berlin, 1846, and in C. Miiller, Qeogr. Graec. 
Mill. 

Scyros (Licvpos : ~2.Kvpi.os : Scyro), an island 
in the Aegaean sea, E. of Euboea, and one of 
the Sporades. It contained a town of the same 
name, and a river called Cephissus. (Strab. 
pp. 424, 436 ; Scyl. p. 23 ; Ptol. iii. 13, 47.) Its 
ancient inhabitants are said to have been 
Pelasgians, Carians, and Dolopians. The 
island is frequently mentioned in the stories of 
the mythical period. Here Thetis concealed 
her son Achilles in woman's attire among the 
daughters of Lycomedes, in order to save him 
from the fate which awaited him under the 
walls of Troy. (PausT i. 22, 6 ; Strab. p. 436 ; 
Apollod. iii. 13, 8.) It was here also that 
Pyrrhus, the son of v Achilles by Deidamla, was 
brought up, and it was from this island that 
Odysseus fetched him to the Trojan war (II. 
xix. 326, Od. xi. 509; Soph. Phil. 239). 
According to another tradition, the island was 
conquered by Achilles, in order to revenge the 
death of Theseus, who is said to have been 
treacherously destroyed in Scyros by Lyco- 
medes (II. ix. 664; Paus. I. c.\ Plut. Thes. 
35). The bones of Theseus were discovered by 
Cimon in Scyros, after his conquest of the 
island in B.C. 470, and were conveyed to 
Athens, where they were preserved in the 
Theseum (Thuc. i. 98; Diod. xi. 60). From 
this time Scyros continued subject to Athens 
till the period of the Macedonian supremacy ; 



SCYTHIA 



855 



but the Eomans compelled the last Philip to ' gold actually found in the Ural mountains 
restore it to Athens in 196 (Liv. xxxiii. 301. [Hyperborei]. The Scythians were believed by 
The soil of Scyros was unproductive ; but it Herodotus to be of Asiatic origin, and his 
was celebrated for its breed of goats, and for 1 account of them, taken in connexion with the 
its quarries of variegated marble. J description given by Hippocrates of their 

Scythia (5^ SfcufiKT), r\ 2/cvdia, Ion. 2/cufli7), physical peculiarities, leaves the impression 
ri twv 'SKudtwv x<t>py, Hdt. : ~2.kvBt)s, Scythes, 1 that they were a part of the great Mongol race, 
Scytha, pi. ~S.Kv6ai, Scythae ; fem. ! who have wandered, from unknown antiquity, 

Scythis, Scythissa), a name applied to very | over the steppes of Central Asia. Driven out 
different countries at different times. The of their abodes in Asia, N. of the Araxes, by the 
Scythians are not named by Homer, though it 1 Massagetae, and migrating into Europe, they 
is probable that they are those whom he calls i pressed upon the Cimmerians, who passed over 
'I-mnj/ioAyoi and YaAaxTofyayoi (mare-milkers into Asia Minor, occupied the country about 
and feeders on milk ; II. xiii. 7,1. Hesiod (Fr. Sinope, sacked Magnesia and took Sardis in 
63) speaks of Scythians as dwelling in waggons the reign of Ardys, B.C. 640-629 (Hdt. i. 6-15, 
and living on mares' milk, and Alcaeus (Fr. 49) iv. 12 ; Callin. Fr. 2, 3 ; Strab. pp. 627, 647, 
calls Achilles 1 ruler of Scythia ' (i.e. at Leuce). 648). Except for the occupation of the N. 
From the Greek colonies on the Euxine 1 coast, this inroad of Cimmerians was temporary 
founded in the seventh century B.C. more ! and brief. The Scythians themselves made a 
knowledge of the Scythians was gained by j more formidable invasion of Asia about the same 
Hecataeus, Hippocrates and Herodotus, who time. They swept over the country to Media, 
had also visited the coasts of the Euxine. The where they defeated Cyaxares, who had re- 
Scythia of Herodotus comprises, to speak ! turned from the siege of ±sineveh to meet them, 
generally, the SE. parts of Europe between the [ They spread over Asia as far as Palestine and 
Carpathian mountains and the river Tanai's ! the borders of Egypt, from the invasion of which 
(Don). He describes the country as a square j they were bought off by Psammetichus. At 
of 4000 stadia (400 geog. miles) each way, the Ascalon they sacked the temple of Aphrodite, 
"W. boundar-y being the Ister (Danube) and the who was supposed to have visited them with 
mountains of the Agathyrsi ; the S. the shores a hereditary disease as a punishment. After 
of the Euxine and Palus Maeotis, from the twenty-eight years of invasion they were driven 
mouth of the Ister to that of the Tanai's, this i out by Cyaxares 007 B.C. (Hdt. i. 105). Hero- 
side being divided into two equal parts, of 2000 j dotus adds that on their return to their own 
stadia each, by the mouth of the Borysthenes 1 country they found that their slaves had inter- 
(Dnieper) ; the E. boundary was the Tanai's, married with their wives, and they reduced 
and on the N. Scythia was divided by them to submission by meeting them with whips 
deserts from the Melanchlaeni, Androphagi, 1 instead of weapons of wai\ [For the subsequent 
and Budini. It corresponded to the S. part ; invasion of Scythia by Darius, see p. 271, b.] 
of Russia in Europe. Herodotus says that j The Scythians were a nomad people, shep- 
the inhabitants, whom the Greeks named . herds or herdsmen, who had no fixed habita- 
Scythians, called themselves Scoloti C2,k6\otoi). tions, but roamed over a vast tract of country 
He gives as the legend prevalent among the at their pleasure, and according to the wants 
Scythians themselves about their origin, that of their cattle. They lived in a kind of covered 
Targitaus, the son of Zeus by a daughter of the waggons, which Aeschylus describes as 'lofty 
river Borysthenes, was the father of Leipoxais, houses of wicker-work, on well-wheeled 
Arpoxais, and Colaxais. In their reign, there chariots' (Prom. 710; of. Hor. Od. iii. 24, 9). 
fell from heaven a yoke, an axe (adyapis), a They kept large troops of horses, and were 
plough-share, and a cup, all of gold. The two most expert in cavalry exercises and archery ; 
elder failed in taking them up, for they burnt and hence, as the Persian king Darius found 
when they approached them. But the younger when he invaded their country (b.c. 507), it 
did not fail, and retained the kingdom. From was almost impossible for an invading army to 
Leipoxais descended the Auchaetae (yevos) ; act against them. They simply retreated, 
from Arpoxais the Catiari and Traspies ; from waggons and all, before the enemy, harassing 
Colaxais the Paralatai. The general name for him with their light cavalry, and leaving 
all is Scoloti. This was exactly 1000 years famine and exposure, in their bare steppes, to 
before the invasion of Darius. The gold was do the rest. Like all the Mongol race, they 
sacred ; the country large. It extended so far were divided into several hordes, the chief of 
north that the continual fall of feathers (snow) whom were called the Royal Scythians, and to 
prevented things from being seen. The these all the rest owned some degree of allegi- 
number of the kingdoms was three, the ance. As regards their religion, they wor- 
greatest of which had charge of the gold. Of shipped chiefly the war-god whose symbol was 
this legend, the elements seem partly Scythian, a sword, displayed aloft on a platform and 
and partly due to the country in which the honoured by sacrifices of sheep and horses, 
Scythians settled. The descent from the and of prisoners taken in war. They took 
Borysthenes belongs to this latter class. The scalps from their foes and used the skulls of 
story of the sons of Targitaus is found, in its the slain as drinking cups (Hdt. iv. 62-75). 
main features, among the present Tartars. A Their government was a sort of patriarchal 
tradition of the Pontic Greeks brought Heracles monarchy or chieftainship. An important 
with the cattle of Geryones to Scythia. Three modification of their habits had, however, 
sons of Heracles and Echidna were mentioned, taken place, to a certain extent, before Hero- 
Agathersus, Gelonus and Scythes. The test dotus described them. The fertility of the 
of supremacy was being able to bend the bow plains on the N. of the Euxine, and the 
which Heracles had left. This Scythes did, influence of the Greek settlements at the 
and remained as ruler (Hdt. iv. 8-10). Aristeas mouth of the Borysthenes, and along the coast, 
tells also of the Scythians as neighbours of hod led the inhabitants of this part of Scythia 
Hyperborei, Arimaspi, and gold-guarding to settle down as cultivators of the soil, and 
(Iriflins (Hdt. iv. 18). This (like the Scythian had brought thein into commercial and oilier 
legend) had probably a connexion with the , relations with the Greeks. Accordingly, Hero- 



856 



SCYTHINI 



SEDETANI 



dotus mentions two classes or hordes of 
Scythians who had thus abandoned their 
nomad life : first, on the W. of the Borysthenes, 
two tribes of Hellenised Scythians, called 
Callipidae and Alazones ; then, beyond these, 
' the Scythians who are ploughers {Sxvdcu 
apoTrjpes), who do not grow their corn for food, 
but for sale ; ' these dwelt about the river 
Hypanis (Bug) in the region now called the 
Ukraine, which is still, as it was to the Greeks, 
a great corn-exporting country. Again, on the 
E. of the Borysthenes were ' the Scythians 
who are husbandmen ' (~2,K.v9ai yeccpyoi), i.e. 
who grew corn for their own consumption : 
these were called Borysthenltae by the Greeks : 
their country extended three days' journey E. 
of the Borysthenes to the river Panticapes. 
Beyond these, to the E., dwelt 'the nomad 
Scythians (vo/xaSss %K.v9ai), who neither sow 
nor plough at all.' (Hdt. iv. 16-20.) Herodotus 
expressly states that the tribes E. of the Bory- 
sthenes were not Scythian. As regards the 
history of these Scythian tribes after the time 
of Herodotus, it is clear from the notice of 
Thucydides that they were regarded as formid- 
able — indeed, irresistible — if they should ever 
unite in one common purpose (Thuc. ii. 95). 
Scythian slaves were sent from the Greek 
cities of the Bosporus to Athens and were used 
by the state as a police (SKvdai or to£6tcu) 
[Diet, of Ant. art. Demosii]. In later times 
they were gradually overpowered by the 
neighbouring people, especially the Sarma- 
tians, who gave their name to the whole 
country. [Sarmatia.] At the same time the 
name of Scythian was still applied in Roman 
literature to the people and places N. of the 
Euxine : and not, perhaps, incorrectly, since 
there can be little doubt that the inhabitants 
of those lands were in great measure descend- 
ants of the Herodotean Scythians. This use of 
Scythian is particularly noticeable in Ovid's 
description of Tomi and the neighbouring 
districts ; and it became geographically correct 
when Diocletian formed the province of Scy- 
thia (as part of the diocese of Thrace), con- 
sisting of the district between the mouths of 
the Danube and Odessns (Varna), with the 
chief towns Dionysopolis, Tomi and Calates. 
Meanwhile, the conquests of Alexander and 
his successors in Central Asia had made the 
Greeks acquainted with tribes beyond the 
Oxus and the Jaxartes who resembled the 
Scythians, and belonged, in fact, to the same 
great Mongol race, and to whom, accordingly, the 
same name was applied. [Some tribes of these 
Scythians were encountered and defeated by 
Alexander in Sogdiana (Arr. An. iv. 6, 11 ; Curt, 
vii. 9, 22).] Hence in writers of the time of 
the Roman empire the name of Scythia 
(except as regards Diocletian's province of 
Scythia Minor, mentioned above) denotes the 
whole of N. Asia, from the river Rha (Volga) 
on the "W., which divided it from Asiatic 
Sarmatia, to Serica on the E., extending to 
India on the S. It was divided, by M. Imaus, 
into two parts, called respectively Scythia 
intra Imaum, on the NW. side of the range, 
and Scythia extra Imaum on the SE. side 
(Ptol. vi. 13-16). With the history of these 
countries we are not here concerned. 

Scythini (~2,kv6ivo'i), a people on the W. border 
of Armenia, through whose country the Greeks 
under Xenophon marched four days' journey. 
Their territory was bounded on the E. by the 
river Harpasus, and on the W. by the river 
Apsarus. (Xen. An. iv. 7, 18 ; Diod. xiv. 29.) 



Scythinus (SkvKi'os), of Teos, turned into 
verse the great work of the philosopher Hera- 
clitus, of which a considerable fragment is 
preserved by Stobaeus (Diog. Laert. ix. 16 ; 
Miiller, Fr. Hist. Graec). 

Scythopolis (SKv66iro\ts) : O. T. Bethshan : 
Beisan, Ru.), an important city of Palestine, in 
the SE. of Galilee. It stood on a hill in the 
Jordan valley, W. of the river, and near one of 
its fords. Its site was fertilised by numerous 
springs ; and to this advantage, as well as to its 
being the centre of several roads, it owed its 
great prosperity and its importance in the his- 
tory of Palestine. It had a mixed population 
of Canaanites, Philistines, and Assyrian settlers, 
with perhaps some remnants of the Scythians. 
Its name is probably a relic of the Scythian 
incursion (p. 855, b ; cf. Plin. v. 74 ; Diet, of the 
Bible, art. Bethshan). Under the later Roman 
empire, it became the seat of the archbishop of 
Palaestina Secunda, and it continued a flourish- 
ing city to the time of the first Crusade. 

Scythotauri, Tauri Scythae, or Tauro- 
scythae, a people of Sarmatia Europaea, just 
without the Chersonesus Taurica, between the 
rivers Carcinites and Hypanis, as far as the 
tongue of land called Dromos Achilleos (Ptol. 
hi. 5, 25 ; Plin. iv. 85). 

Sebaste (2e/3acrT^ = Augusta : ~2,zf}a<TT7iv6s). 
1. (Ay ash, Ru.), a city on the coast of Cilicia 
Aspera, built for a residence by Arehelaus, king 
of Cappadocia, to whom the Romans had granted 
the sovereignty of Cilicia, and named in honour 
of Augustus. It stood W. of the river Lamus, 
on a small island called Eleousa, the name of 
which appears to have been afterwards trans- 
ferred to the city. (Strab. p. 671.) — 2. (Segikler), 
a city of Phrygia, NW. of Eumenia. — 3. [Cabiea.] 
— 4. [Samaria.] 

Sebastea (2e/3a<n-ei'a : Sivas), a city of Pontus, 
on the upper part of the river Halys, at a 
junction of roads from Comana Pontica, Nico- 
polis, Melitene, Comana Cappadociae, Mazaca 
and Tavium (Strab. pp. 559, 560). 

Sebastopolis (2e/3ao"r(i7roAis : Suhe Serai),. 
a city of Pontus, SE. of Zela. 

Sebennytus (Se/ScVj'utos, t] 'Se^vvuTiK^i ir6- 
\is : Semennout, Ru.), a considerable city of 
Lower Egypt, in the Delta, on the W. side of 
the branch of the Nile called after it the Se- 
bennytic Mouth, just at the fork made by this 
and the Phatnitic Mouth, and S. of Busiris. It 
was the capital of the Nomos Sebennytes or 
Sebennyticus (Strab. p. 802 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 50). 

Sebethus (Maddalena), a small river in Cam- 
pania, flowing round Vesuvius, and falling into 
the Sinus Puteolanus at the E. side of Nea- 
polis (Stat. Silv. i. 2, 263 ; Colum. x. 134). 

Seblnus Lacus (Lago Seo or Tseo), a lake in 
Gallia Cisalpina, formed by the river Ollius be- 
tween the lakes Larius and Benacus (Plin. ii. 
224). 

Secundus, P. Pomponms, a tragic poet in 
the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius. 
He was one of the friends of Sejanus, and on 
the fall of that minister, in a.d. 31, was thrown 
into prison, where he remained till the accession 
of Caligula, in 37, by whom he was released. 
He was consul in 41, and in the reign of 
Claudius commanded in Germany, when be 
defeated the Chatti. (Tac. Ann. v. 8, xi. 13, xii. 
28.) Secundus was an intimate friend of the 
elder Pliny, who wrote his Life in two books 
(Plin. vii. 8 ; Quintil. x. i. 98). His tragedies 
were the most celebrated of his literary compo- 
sitions. 

Sedetani. [Edetani. 



SEDIGITUS 

Sedigitus, Volcatius, a didactic poet in the 
middle of the second century B.C., from whose 
work De Poet is A. Gellius (xv. 24) has preserved 
thirteen Iambic senarians, in which the principal 
Latin comic dramatists are enumerated in the 
order of merit. In this ' Canon,' as it has been 
termed, the first place is assigned to Caecilius 
Statius, the second to Plautus, the third to 
Naevius, the fourth to Licinius, the fifth to 
Attilius, the sixth to Terentius, the seventh to 
Turpilius, the eighth to Trabea, the ninth to 
Luscius, the tenth, ' causa antiquitatis,' to En- 
nius (Gell. I.e.). 

Sedullus, Coelius, of Seville, a Christian poet, 
about a.d. 430. His works are : — (1) Paschale 
Carmen s. Mirabilium Divvnorum Libri V, 
in heroic measure. (2) Veteris et Novi Testa- 
menti Collatio, a sort of hymn containing a 
selection of texts from the Old and New Testa- 
ments, arranged in such a manner as to enable 
the reader to compare the two dispensations. 
(3) Symnus de Christo, an account of the life 
and miracles of Christ. (4) De Verbi Incarna- 
tione, a Cento Virgilianus. He follows classical 
rhythm and diction. — Editions are by Cellarius, 
Hal. 1704 and 1739; Arevalus, Rome, 1794; 
Hulmer, Vienna, 1885. 

Sedtilli, an Alpine people in Gallia Belgica. 
E. of the lake of Geneva, in the valley of the 
Ehone, in the modern Vallais, who lived further 
up the valley than the Veragri. Then- chief 
town was called Civitas Sedunorum, the modem 
Sion or Sitten. (Caes. B. G. iii. 1, 7 ; Plin. iii. 
137.) 

Sedusli, a German people, forming part of 
the army of Ariovistus when he invaded Gaul, 
B.C. 58. They are not mentioned at a later 
period, and consequently their site cannot be 
determined. (Caes. B. G. i. 51.) 

Segesama or Segisamo (Segisanionensis : ,S'«- 
samo), a town of the Murbogi or Turmodigi in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Tar- 
raco to Asturica (Strab. p. 102 : Plin. iii. 25). 

Segesta (Segestanus : nr. Alcamo. Ru.), the 
later Roman name of the town called by the 
Greeks Egesta or Aegesta ("Zyeara, Aiye<TTa. 
in Virg. Acesta: 'EyearaTos, Alytaravos, Ace- 
staeus), situated in the NW. of Sicily, near the 
coast between Panormus and Drepanum. It 
was a town of the Elymi, and is said to have 
been founded by Trojans on two small rivers, 
to which they gave the names of Simois and 
Scamander ; hence the Romans made it a colony 
of Aeneas. (Thuc. vi. 2 ; Dionys. i. 52 ; Strab. 
p. 608 : see Sicilia.) Its inhabitants were 
constantly engaged in hostilities with Selinus ; 
and it was at their solicitation that the Athe- 
nians were led to embark in their unfortunate 
expedition against Sicily. The town was taken 
by Agathocles, who destroyed or sold as slaves 
all its inhabitants, peopled the city with a body 
of deserters, and changed its name into that of 
Dicaeopolis; but after the death of this tyrant, 
the remains of the ancient inhabitants returned 
to the city and resumed their former name. In 
the neighbourhood of the city, on the road to 
Drepanum, were celebrated mineral springs, 
called Aquae Seyestanae or .{quae Pintinnac. 
Its ruins are of great beauty, especially those 
of its Doric temple dating from the sixth 
century b.c. 

Segestes, aCheruscan chieftain, the opponent 
of Anninius. Private injuries embittered their 
political feud, for Arminius carried off the 
daughter of Segestes. In a.d. 9 Segest<", warned 
Quintilius Varus of the movement of Arminius 
■gainst him ; but his warning was disregarded, 



SEJANUS 



857 



and Varus perished. In 14 Segestes was forced 
by his tribesmen into a war with Rome ; but he 
afterwards made his peace with the Romans, 
and was allowed to live at Narbonne. (Tac. 
Ann. i. 55-59 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 118 ; Flor. iv. 12.) 
His son's name was Seginiundus (Tac. Ann. i. 
57). 

Segetla or Segesta. [Ixdigetes, p. 443, a.] 
Segni, a Gerrnan people in Gallia Belgica, 

between the Treveri and Eburones (Caes. B.G. 

vi. 32). 

Segobriga, the chief town of the Celtiberi, in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, S"W. of Caesaraugusta, 
probably in the neighbourhood of the modem 
Prieyo (Ptol. ii. 6, 58; Strab. p. 162). 

Segontia or Segnntia, a town of the Celti- 
beri, in Hispania Tarraconensis, sixteen miles 
from Caesaraugusta (Liv. xxxiv. 19). 

Segovia. 1. (Segovia), a town of the Arevaci, 
on the road from Emerita to Caesaraugusta. 
A magnificent Roman aqueduct is still extant 
at Segovia. (Ptol. ii. 6, 56.) — 2. A town in His- 
pania Baetica on the Flumen Silicense, near 
Sacili. 

Segusiani, one of the most important peoples 
in Gallia Lugduneusis, bounded by the Alio- 
broges on the S., by the Sequani on the E., by 
the Aedni on the N., and by the Arvemi on the 
W. In the time of Caesar they were dependent 
on the Aedui. (Caes. B. G. i. 10, vii. 64 ; Strab. 
p. 186.) In their territory was the town of 
Lugdunum, the capital of the province. 

Segusio (Susa), the capital of the Segusini 
and the residence of king Cottius, was situated 
in Gallia Transpadana, at the foot of the Cottian 
Alps. The triumphal arch erected at this 
i place by Cottius in honour of Augustus is still 
I extant. After the death of the younger Cottius 
' in the reign of Nero it became a Roman muni- 
1 cipal town. (Suet, Ker. 18 ; Strab. pp. 179, 204.) 
Seius Strabo. [Sejanus.] 
Sejanus, Aelms, was born at Vulsinii, in 
Etruria, and was the son of Seius Strabo, who 
was commander of the praetorian troops at the 
close of the reign of Augustus, a.d. 14 (Tac. 
Ann. iv. 1 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 127). In the same 
year Sejanus was made the colleague of his 
, father in the command of the praetorian bands, 
and upon his father being sent as governor to 
1 Egypt, he obtained the sole command of these 
' troops. He ultimately gained such influence 
over Tiberius that he made him his confidant. 
, Not content with this position of influence, 
: Sejanus formed the design of obtaining the 
j imperial power. With this view he sought to 
| make himself popular with the soldiers, and 
| gave posts of honour and emoluments to his 
creatures and favourites. With the same object 
he reiolvcd to get rid of all the members of the 
, imperial family. He seduced Li via, the wife 
of Drusus, the son of Tiberius, and by promis- 
] ing her marriage and a participation in the 
imperial power, he was enabled, in a.d. 23, to 
poison Drusus with her connivance and assist- 
, once. (Tac. Ann. iv. 8, 10.) An accident in- 
creased the credit of Sejanus, and confirmed 
the confidence of Tiberius. The emperor, with 
| Sejanus and others, was feasting in a cave be- 
tween Amyclae and the hills of Fundi. The 
' entrance of the cave suddenly fell in, and 
crushed some of the slaves; and all the gneste, 
in alarm, tried to make their escape. Kejanut-, 
resting his knees on the couch of Tiberius, and 
placing his shoulders under the falling rock, 
protected his master, and was discovered in 
this posture by the soldiers who came to their 
relief. After Tiberius had shut himself up in 



858 



SELENE 



SELEUCIS 



the island of Capreae, Sejanus had full scope 
for his machinations ; and the death of Livia, 
the mother of Tiberius (29), was followed by 
the banishment of Agrippina and her sons Nero 
and Drusus. Tiberius at last began to suspect 
the designs of Sejanus, and felt that it was 
time to rid himself of a man who was almost 
more than a rival. To cover his schemes and 
remove Sejanus from about him, Tiberius made 
him joint consul with himself, in 31. He then 
sent Sertorius Macro to Rome, with a commis- 
sion to take the command of the praetorian 
cohorts. Macro, after assuring himself of the 
troops, and depriving Sejanus of his usual 
guard, produced a letter from Tiberius to the 
senate, in which the emperor expressed his 
apprehensions of Sejanus. The consul Regulus 
conducted him to prison, and the people loaded 
him with insult and outrage. The senate on 
the same day decreed his death, and he was 
immediately executed. His body was dragged 
about the streets, and finally thrown into the 
Tiber. Many of the friends of Sejanus perished 
at the same time, and his son and daughter 
shared his fate. (Tac. Ann. iv. 41-59, 74, v. 
6-9 ; Suet. Tib. ; Dio Cass. lvii. lviii. ; Juv. x. 
65-86.) 

Selene (SeA^c??), called Luna by the Romans, 
was the goddess of the moon, or the moon 
personified as a divine being. She is called a 
daughter of Hyperion and Thia, and accord- 
ingly a sister of Helios (Sol) and Eos (Aurora) ; 
but others speak of her as a daughter of 
Hyperion by Euryphaessa, or of Pallas, or of 
Zeus and Latona (Hes. Th. 371 ; Hymn, in 
Merc. 100; Apollod. i. 2, 2). By Endymion, 
whom she loved, and whom she sent to sleep 
in order to kiss him, she became the mother of 
fifty daughters ; and to Zeus she bore Pandia, 
Ersa, and Nemea. [For this myth see Endy- 
mion.] Pan is said to have wooed her in the 
shape of a white ram. Selene was represented 
at Elis with a crescent moon above her head 
(Paus. vi. 24, 5). She drove, like her brother 
Helios, across the heavens in a chariot drawn 
by two white horses. In later myths Selene 
was identified with Artemis or Diana, and the 
worship of the two became amalgamated. At 
Rome Luna had an ancient temple on the 
Aventine and another on the Palatine. 

Selene. [Cleopatra, No. 9.] 

Seleuda, (2eA6u«:e(a : SeAeu/ceys : Seleucen- 
sis, Seleucenus), the name of several cities in 
Asia, built by Seleucus I., king of Syria. 1. S. 
ad Tigrin (rj iiri tov TiypriTOS iroTa/xov, irpbs 
Tlypei, a-wb Tlypios), also called S. Babylonia 
(2. v Ba(Sv\<ivi), S. Assyriae, and S. Par- 
thorum, a great city on the confines of Assyria 
and Babylonia, and for a long time the capital 
of W. Asia, until it was eclipsed by Cte siphon. 
It stood on the W. bank of the Tigris, N. of its 
junction with the Royal Canal, opposite to the 
mouth of the river Delas or Silla {Diala), and 
to the spot where Ctesiphon was afterwards 
built by the Parthians. It was a little to the 
S. of the modern city of Bagdad. Perhaps a 
better site could not be found in W. Asia. It 
commanded the navigation of the Tigris and 
Euphrates, and the whole plain of those two 
rivers ; and it stood at the junction of all the 
chief caravan roads by which the traffic 
between E. andW. Asia was carried on. (Strab. 
p. 738 ; App. Syr. 57 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 42 ; Jos. 
Ant. xviii. 4, 8 ;' Ptol. v. 18, 8.) In addition to 
these advantages, its people had, by the gift of 
Seleucus, the government of their own affairs. 
It was built in the form of an eagle with ex- 



panded wings, and was peopled by settlers 
from Assyria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Syria, 
and Judaea. It rapidly rose, and eclipsed 
Babylon in wealth and splendour. Even after 
the Parthian kings had become masters of the 
banks of the Tigris, and had fixed their resi- 
dence at Ctesiphon, Seleucia, though deprived 
of much of its importance, remained a very 
considerable city, and preserved its Greek 
character. In the reign of Titus, it had, 
according to Pliny, 600,000 inhabitants (Plin. 
vi. 122). It was burned by Trajan in his 
Parthian expedition, and again by L. Verus, 
the colleague of M. Aurelius Antoninus, when 
its population is given by different authorities 
as 300,000 or 400,000. It was again taken by 
Severus, and from this blow it never recovered. 
In Julian's expedition it was found entirely 
deserted. (Amm. Marc. xxiv. 5.) — 2. S. Pieria (2. 
rhepia, i) iv Iliepi'a, r) irpbs 'Avnoxei'?, '0 irpbs 
OaXaooa, y] tiridahao aia. : Ru., called Seleukeh. 
or Kepse, near Suadeiah), a great city and 
fortress of Syria, founded by Seleucus in April 
B.C. 300, one month before the foundation of 
Antioch. It stood on the site of an ancient 
fortress, on the rocks overhanging the sea, at 
the foot of M. Pieria, about four miles N. of the 
Orontes, and twelve miles W. of Antioch. Its 
natural strength was improved by every known 
art of fortification, to which were added all the 
works of architecture and engineering required 
to make it a splendid city and a great seaport, 
while it obtained abundant supplies from the 
fertile plain between the city and Antioch. 
(Strab. pp. 656, 749, 750; Pol. v. 58.) The 
remains of Seleucus I. were interred at Seleu- 
cia, in a mausoleum surrounded by a grove. 
In the war with Egypt which ensued upon the 
murder of Antiochus II. Seleucia surrendered 
to Ptolemy III. Euergetes (b.c. 246). It was 
afterwards recovered by Antiochus the Great 
(219). In the war between Antiochus VIII. and 
Antiochus IX. the rjeople of Seleucia made them- 
selves independent (109 or 108). Afterwards, 
having successfully resisted the attacks of 
Tigranes for fourteen years (84-70), they were 
confirmed in their freedom by Pompey. The 
city had fallen entirely into decay by the sixth 
century of our era. There are considerable 
ruins of the harbour and mole, of the walls of 
the city, and of its necropolis. The surround- 
ing district was called Seleucis. — 3. S. Tra- 
cheotis [Selefkeh, Ru.), an important city of 
Cilicia Aspera, was built by Seleucus I. on the 
W. bank of the river Calycadnus, about four 
miles from its mouth, and peopled with the 
inhabitants of several neighbouring cities. It 
had an oracle of Apollo, and annual games in 
honour of Zeus Olympius. (Strab. p. 670 ; 
Plin. v. 93 ; Zos. i. 57 ; Amm. Marc. xiv. 25.) 
It vied with Tarsus in power and splendour, 
and was a free city under the Romans. It was 
| the birthplace of the philosophers Athenaeus 
and Xenarchus, and of the sophist Alexander. 
— There were other cities of the name, of less 
importance, in Pisidia, Pamphylia, Palestine, 
Elymais. 

Seleucis (2eAeu/ns). A beautiful and fertile 
district of Syria, containing the NW. part of 
the country, between M. Amanus on the N., 
the Mediterranean on the W., the districts of 
Cyrrhestice and Chalybonitis on the NE., the 
desert on the E. and Coelesyria and the moun- 
tains of Lebanon on the S. It included the 
valley of the lower Orontes, and contained the 
four great cities of Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea ; 
and Apamea, whence it was also called Tetra- 



SELEUCUS 



859 



polis. In later times, the name was confined 
to the small district N. of the Orontes ; the S. 
part of the former Seleucis being divided into 
CassiotiR, W. of the Orontes, and Apamene, E. 
of the river. (Ptol. v. 5, 15 ; Strab. p. 749.) 

Seleucus (ScAeu/cos), the name of several 
kings of Syria. I., surnamed Nicator, the 
founder of the Syrian monarchy, reigned B.C. 
312-280. He was the son of Antiochus, a 
Macedonian of distinction among the officers of 
Philip II., and was born about 358. He accom- 
panied Alexander on his expedition to Asia, 
and distinguished himself in the Indian cam- 
paigns. (Ar. An. v. 13, 16.) After the death of 
Alexander (323) he espoused the side of 
Perdiccas, whom he accompanied on his ex- 
pedition against Egypt ; but he took a leading 
part in the mutiny of the soldiers which 
ended in the death of Perdiccas (321J. (App. 
Syr. 57 ; Diod. xviii. 3.) In the second parti- 
tion of the provinces which followed, Seleucus 
obtained the satrapy of Babylonia. In the 
war between Antigonus and Eumenes, Seleucus 
afforded support to the former ; but after 
the death of Eumenes (316), Antigonus 
began to treat the other satraps as his 
subjects. Thereupon Seleucus fled to Egypt, 
where he induced Ptolemy to unite with 
Lysimachus and Cassander in a league 
against their common enemy. In the war 
that ensued Seleucus took an active part. 
At length, in 312, he recovered Babylon ; and 




Coin of Seleucus I. Nicator, King of Syria, B.C. 312-2*0. 
Cbv., head of Seleucus in helmet adorned with a horn and 
an ear; ran., BAIIAE02 ieaeykoy; Victory crowning a 
trophy. 

it is from this period that the Syrian monarchy 
is commonly reckoned to commence. (Diod. 
xix. 58-91 ; App. Syr. 64.) The Seleucian era 
on their coins dates from Oct. 1st B.C. 312. 
Soon afterwards Seleucus defeated Nicanor, 
the satrap of Media, and followed up his 
victory by the conquest of Susiana, Media, and 
lome adjacent districts. For the next few 
years he gradually extended his power over all 
the eastern provinces which had formed part 
of the empire of Alexander, from the Eu- 
phrates to the banks of the Oxus and the Indus. 
In 306 Seleucus followed the example of 
Antigonus and Ptolemy, by formally assuming 
the regal title and diadem (Diod. xx. 53). In 
302 he joined the league formed for the second 
time by Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. 
against Antigonus. The united forces of Seleu- 
cus and Lysimachus gained a decisive victory 
over Antigonus at Ipsus (801), in which 
Antigonus himself was slain. In the division 
of the spoil, Seleucus obtained the largest 
share, being rewarded for his service with a 
great part of Asia Minor (which was divided 
between him and Lysimachus) as well as witli 
the whole of Syria, from the Kuphr. '„es to the 
Mediterranean. The empire of Seleucus was 
now by far the moHt extensive and powerful of j 
those which hod been formed out of the 
dominions of Alexander. It comprised the | 



whole of Asia, from the remote provinces cf 
Bactria and Sogdiana to the coasts of Phoenicia, 
and from the Paropamisus to the central 
plains of Phrygia, where the boundary which 
separated him from Lysimachus is not clearly 
defined. It formed a realm much larger but, 
full of discordant elements, far less compact 
and united than that of the Ptolemies. Seleu- 
i cus appears to have felt the difficulty of exer- 
cising a vigilant control over so extensive an 
empire, and accordingly, in 293, he consigned 
the government of all the provinces beyond 
the Euphrates to his son Antiochus, upon 
whom he bestowed the title of king, as well as 
the hand of his own youthful wife, Stratonice, 
for whom the prince had conceived a violent 
attachment. (App. Syr. 55-62.) In 288, the 
ambitious designs of Demetrius (now become 
king of Macedonia) once more aroused the 
common jealousy of his old adversaries, and 
led Seleucus again to unite in a league with 
Ptolemy and Lysimachus against him. After 
Demetrius had been driven from his kingdom 
by Lysimachus, he transported the seat of war 
into Asia Minor, but he was compelled to sur- 
render to Seleucus in 286. The Syrian king 
kept Demetrius in confinement till three years 
I afterwards, but during the whole of that time 
treated him in a friendly manner. (Plufc. 
j Demetr. 44-50). For some time jealousies had 
existed between Seleucus and Lysimachus; 
but the immediate cause of the war between 
, the two monarchs, which terminated in the 
defeat and death of Lysimachus (281), is 
related in the life of the latter. Seleucus now 
crossed the Hellespont in order to take posses- 
sion of the throne of Macedonia, which had 
been left vacant by the death of Lysimachus; 
but he had advanced no farther than Lysima- 
! chia, when he was assassinated by Ptolemy 
Ceraunus, to whom, as the son of his old friend 
and ally, he had extended a friendly protection. 
His death took place in the beginning of 280, 
only seven months after that of Lysimachus, 
and in the thirty-second year of his reign. He 
was in his seventy-eighth year. (App. Syr. 62, 
63; Just. xvii. 1; Paus. i. 16, 2.) Seleucus 
appears to have carried out with great energy 
\ and perseverance the projects originally 
formed by Alexander himself for the Helleni- 
j sat ion of his Asiatic empire; and we find him 
: founding, in almost every province, Greek or 
Macedonian colonies, which became so many 
centres of civilisation and refinement. Of 
these no less than sixteen are mentioned as 
bearing the name of Antiochia after his father; 
five that of Laodicea, from his mother; seven 
were called after himself Seleucia ; three from 
the name of his first wife, Apamea : and one 
Stratonica, from his second wife, the daughter 
of Demetrius. Numerous other cities, whose 
names attest their Macedonian origin — Beroea, 
Edessa, Pella, &c. — likewise owed their first 
found. ition to Seleucus. — II., surnamed Calli- 
nicus 1216-226), was the eldest son of Antio- 
chus II. by his first wife, Laodice. The first 
measure of his administration, or rather that of 
his mother, was to put to death his stepmother 
Berenice, together with her infant son. (Just, 
xxvii. 1.) This act of cruelty produced the 
most disastrous effects. In order to avenge 
his sister, Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt, 
invaded the dominions of Seleucus, and not 
only made himself master of Antioch and the 
whole of Syria, but carried his arms unopposed 
beyond the Euphrates and the Tigris. During 
these operations Seleucus kept wholly aloi 



860 SELEUCUS 

but when Ptolemy had been recalled to his 
own dominions by domestic disturbances, he 
recovered possession of the greater part of the 
provinces which he had lost. (Just, xxvii. 2 ; 
Polyaen. viii. 61). Soon afterwards Seleucus 
became involved in a dangerous war with his 
brother, Antiochus Hierax, who attempted to 
obtain Asia Minor as an independent kingdom 
for himself. This war lasted several years, 
but was at length terminated by the decisive 
defeat of Antiochus, who was obliged to quit 
Asia Minor and take refuge in Egypt. Seleucus 
undertook an expedition to the East, with the 
view of reducing the revolted provinces of 
Parthia and Bactria, which had availed them- 
selves of the disordered state of the Syrian 
empire to throw off its yoke. He was, how- 
ever, defeated by Arsaces, king of Parthia, in a 
great battle which was long afterwards cele- 
brated by the Parthians as the foundation of 
their independence. After the expulsion of 
Antiochus, Attalus, king of Pergamus, extended 
his dominions over the greater part of Asia 
Minor; and Seleucus appears to have been 
engaged in an expedition for the recovery of 
these provinces when he was accidentally 
killed by a fall from his horse, in the twenty- 
first year of his reign, 226. He left two sons, 
who successively ascended the throne, Seleucu ^ 
Ceraunus and Antiochus, afterwards surnameJ 
the Great. (Just, xxvii. 3 ; App. Syr. 66.) His 
own surname of Callinicus was probably as- 
sumed after his recovery of the provinces that 




Coin of Seleucus II. Callinicus, King of Syria, B.C. 246-226. 

Obv., head of Seleucus; rev., BAE1AE02 2EAEYKOY: Apollo 
standing by tripod. 



had been overrun by Ptolemy. — III., surnamed 
Ceraunus (226-223), eldest son and successor 
of Seleucus II. The surname of Ceraunus was 
given him by the soldiery, apparently in deri- 
sion, as he appears to have been feeble both in 
mind and body. He was assassinated by two 
of his officers, after a reign of only three years, 
and was succeeded by his brother, Antiochus 
the Great. (Pol. iv. 48, v. 40 ; App. Syr. 66.)— 
IV., surnamed Philopator (187-175), was the 
son and successor of Antiochus the Great. 
The defeat of his father by the Romans, and 
the ignominious peace which followed it, had 
greatly diminished the power of the Syrian 
monarchy, and the reign of Seleucus was in 
consequence feeble and inglorious, and was 
marked by no striking events. He was assassi- 
nated in 175 by one of his own ministers. He 
left two children : Demetrius, who subse- 
quently ascended the throne ; and Laodice, 
married to Perseus, king of Macedonia. (App. 
Syr. 45, 66.) — V., eldest son of Demetrius II., 
assumed the royal diadem on learning the 
death of his father, 125 ; but his mother, Cleo- 
patra, who had herself put Demetrius to death, 
was indignant at hearing that her son had 
ventured to take such a step without her 
authority, and caused Seleucus also to be 
assassinated (App.' Syr. 68, 69 ; J ust. xxxix. 
1). — VI., surnamed Epiphanes and also 



SELINUS 

Nicator (95-93), was the eldest of the five sons 
of Antiochus VIII. Grypus. On the death of 
his father, in 95, he ascended the throne, and 
defeated and slew in battle his uncle Antiochus 
Cyzicenus, who had laid claim to the kingdom. 
But shortly after Seleucus was in his turn de- 

j feated by Antiochus Eusebes, the son of Cyzi- 
cenus, and expelled from Syria. He took 

! refuge in Cilicia, where he established himself 

1 in the city of Mopsuestia ; but in consequence 
of his tyranny, the citizens attacked and burnt 
the palace, and Seleucus perished in the flames. 
(App. Syr. 69 ; Jos. Ant. xiii. 13, 4.) 

Selge (2eA.77j : SeA/yeus : Siirk, Bu.), one of 
the chief of the independent mountain cities of 
Pisidia, stood on the S. side of M. Taurus, on 
the Eurymedon, just where the river breaks 
through the mountain chain. On a rock above 

[ it was a citadel named KtafieSiov; in which was 
a temple of Hera. Its inhabitants, who were 

i the most warlike of all the Pisidians, claimed 
descent from the Lacedaemonians, and inscribed 
the name AaiceSa'i/j.a>v on their coins (Strab. p. 
570). They could bring an army of 20,000 men 
into the field, and, as late as the fifth century, 
we find them beating back a horde of Goths 
(Zos. v. 15). Prom a valley near the city, in the 
heart of lofty mountains, came wine and oil and 

i other products of the most luxuriant vegetation. 
The site of the ancient city is marked by fine 
ruins. 

Selinus (SzAlvovs, -ovvtos : ~Zs\ivovvtios, 2c- 
Ai vovcrios), one of the most important towns in 




Coin of Selinus, of 5th cent. B.C. 



Oil'., Apollo and Artemis in chariot; rev., 2EAINONTION ; 
the river-god Selinus with patera sacrificing at altar, 
by which is a cock, sacred to Asclepius ; behind is a 
bull (for the river-god), and parsley, the emblem of the 
city. 

Sicily, situated upon a hill on the SW. coast, 
and upon a river of the same name. It is said 
to have derived its name from the quantity of 
wild parsley (creKiv6s) which grew in the neigh- 
bourhood. It was founded by the Dorians from 
Megara Hyblaea on the E. coast of Sicily, about 
B.C. 628. (Thuc. vi. 4, vii. 57 ; Strab. p. 272.) It 
soon attained great prosperity. In 480 it took 

j part with the Carthaginians (Diod. xi. 21). In 
416 the dispute with the Segestans, who sought 

I the aid of Athens, occasioned the Athenian ex- 
pedition to Sicily. After the defeat of the 
Athenians, the Carthaginians came to help 
Segesta, and took Selinus in 409, when most of 
its inhabitants were slain or sold as slaves, and 
the greater part of the city destroyed. The 
population of Selinus must at that time have 
been very considerable, since we are told that 
16,000 men fell in the siege and conquest of the 
town, 5000 were carried to Carthage as slaves, 
2600 fled to Agrigentum, and many others took 
refuge in the surrounding villages. The Car- 
thaginians, however, allowed the inhabitants to 
return to Selinus in the course of the same year, 
and it continued to be a place of secondary im- 
portance till 249, when it was again destroyed 
by the Carthaginians and its inhabitants trans- 



SELLASIA 

ferred to Lilybaeurn. (Diod. xiii. 43-59, xxiv. 1.) 
The surrounding country produced excellent 
wheat. East of Selinus on the road to Agri- 
gentum, were celebrated mineral springs called 
Aquae Selinuntiae, subsequently Aquae La- 
hodae or Labodes, the modern Baths of 
Sciacca. The ruins of Selinus are of great 
magnificence and important in archaeology. The 
oldest temple, of a date early in the sixth cent. 
B.C., had remarkable sculptures of an archaic 
type on the metope (now at Palermo) ; and the 
gradual refinement of art is traced in the me- 
topes of the later temples. The great Doric- 
temple of Zeus in the Agora with seventeen 
columns at the sides is one of the largest Greek 
temples, of which very considerable remains 
are extant, 359 feet in length [see Diet, of Ant, 
art. Templum]. — 2. (Sele?iti), a town in Cilicia, 
situated on the coast and upon a rock which 
was almost entirely surrounded by the sea. In ' 
consequence of the death of the emperor Trajan 
in this town, it was for a long time called 
Trajanopolis. (Strab. p. 682 ; Hierocl. p. 709.) 

Sellasia (2eAAa(ria or 2fA.a<ri'a), a town in ! 
Laconica, N. of Sparta, was situated near the 
river Oenus, and commanded one of the prin- 
cipal passes leading to Sparta. Here the cele- 
brated battle was fought between Cleome- j 
nes m. and Antigonus Doson, B.C. 221, in which 
the former was defeated. (Pol. h. 65-70.) 

Selleis (2fA.Aije(s). 1. A river in Elis, on 
which the Homeric Ephyra stood, rising in I 
mount Pholo'e and falling into the sea, S. of the 
Peneus (II. ii. 659, xv. 531 J. — 2. A river near 
Sicyon. — -3. A river in Troas, near Arisbe, and a ' 
tributary of the Rhodius. 

Selli or Helli. [Dodona.] 

Selymbria oi-Selybria (SnKvuPpia, 27jAv£pia, 
Dor. 2aKafi$pla: 27jA.ujt)3pia>'Oj : Selivria), an 
important town in Thrace, situated on the Pro- 
pontis. It was a colony of the Megarians, and 
was founded about 660 b. c, two years before 
Byzantium. (Hd. vi. 33; Xen. An. vii. 2, 15; 
Strab. p. 319.) It was taken bv Alcibiades in 
410 (Xen. Hell. i. 1, 21). It continued to be a 
place of considerable importance till its con- 
quest by Philip, the father of Alexander, from 
which time its decline may be dated. Under 
the later emperors it was called Eudoxiapolis, in 
honour of Eudoxia, the wife of Arcadius (Hierocl. 
p. 632) ; but it afterwards recovered its ancient 
name. 

Semechonltis or Samaehonitis Lacus (2*^6- 
X^vlrts, 2aimxwvirn and -irav X'iy.vr\: O. T. 
Waters of Merom : Nahr-el-Huleh), a small lake 
in the N. of Palestine, the highest of the three 
formed by the Jordan, both branches of which 
fall into its N. end, while the river flows out of 
its S. end in one stream. [Diet, of the Hible, 
art. Merom.] 

Semele. [Dionysus.] 

Semiramis (2(nlpafiis) and Nlnus iN'iVos), the j 
mythical founders of the Assyrian empire of 
Ninus or Nineveh. Ninus was the Greek name 
for the historical Rimmon Mirari who lived 
about 1330 B. c. [see p. 135, b]. According to 
the Greek legends about him, related by Dio- j 
dorus, who derives his account from Ctesias, j 
Ninus was a great warrior, who built the town | 
of Ninus or Nineveh, about B. c. 2182, and sub- 
dued the greater part of Asia. Semiramis was t 
the daughter of the fish-goddess Derceto of j 
Ascalon in Syria by a Syrian youth ; but being i 
ashamed of her frailty, she made away with the 
youth, and exposed her infant daughter. But 
the child was miraculously preserved by doves, 
who fed her till she was discovered by the 



-EX A 



661 



shepherds of the neighbourhood. She was then 
brought up by the chief shepherd of the royal 
herds, whose name was Simmas, and from whom 
she derived the name of Semiramis. Her beauty 
attracted the notice of Onnes, one of the 
king's generals, who married her. He subse- 
quently sent for his wife to the army, which 
was engaged in the siege of Bactra. Upon 
her arrival in the camp she planned an attack 
upon the citadel of the town, mounted the 
walls with a few brave followers, and ob- 
tained possession of the place. Ninus was so 
charmed by her bravery and beauty, that he re- 
solved to marry her, whereupon her husband 
put an end to his life. By Ninus Semiramis 
had a son, Ninyas, and on the death of Ninus 
she succeeded him on the throne (Diod. ii. 1-20). 
According to another account, Semiramis had 
obtained from her husband permission to rule 
over Asia for five days, and availed herself of this 
opportunity to cast the king into a dungeon, or, 
as is also related, to put him to death, aiid thus 
obtained the sovereign power (Diod. ii. 20 ; Ael. 
V. H. vii. 1). Her fame threw into the shade 
that of Ninus ; and later ages loved to tell of 
her marvellous deeds and her heroic acliieve- 
ments. She built numerous cities, and erected 
many wonderful buildings ; and several of the 
most extraordinary works in the East which 
were extant in a later age, and the authors of 
which were unknown, were ascribed by popular 
tradition to this queen. In Nineveh she erected 
a tomb for her husband, nine stadia high, and 
ten wide ; she built the city of Babylon, with 
all its wonders ; and she constructed the hang- 
ing gardens in Media, of which later writers give 
us such strange accounts (Hdt. i. 184). Besides 
conquering many nations of Asia, she subdued 
Egypt and a great part of Ethiopia, but was 
unsuccessful in an attack which she made upon 
India. After a reign of forty-two years she re- 
signed the sovereignty to her son Ninyas, and 
disappeared from the earth, taking her flight to 
heaven in the form of a dove. It is probable 
that some of the myths connected with the 
worship of Ishtar or Astarte, the Eastern Aphro- 
dite, gathered round the name of Semiramis. 

Semnones, more rarely Senndnes, a German 
people, described by Tacitus as the most 
powerful tribe of the Suevic race, dwelt be- 
tween the rivers Viadus (Oder) and Albis (Elbe), 
from the Riesengebirge in the S. as far as the 
country around Frankfurt on the Oder and 
Potsdam in the N. (Tac. Germ. 39 ; Strab. p. 
290; Ptol. ii. 11, 15). 

Semo Sancus. [Sancus.] 

Semprdnla. 1. Daughter of Tib. Gracchus, 
censor B.C. 16U, and sister of the two cele- 
brated tribunes, married Scipio Africanus 
minor. [Scipio.^ — 2. Wife of D. Junius Brutus, 
consul 77, was a woman of great personal at- 
tractions and literary accomplishments, but of 
a profligate character. She took part in Cati- 
line's conspiracy, though her husband was not 
privy to it (Sail. Cat. 25, 40). 

Sempronla Gens, was of great antiquity, and 
one of its members, A. Sempronius Atratinus. 
obtained the consulship as early as B.C. 497, 
twelve years after the foundation of tho re- 
public. The Sempronii were divided into many 
families, of which the Athatini were patrician, 
but all the others were plebeian : their names 
arc Asellio, Blaesus, Gracchus, Sofhus, 

TUDITANUS. 

Sena (Senensis). 1. (Scniqaglia), BUinamed 
Gallica, and sometimes called Senogallin, a 
town on the coast of Umbria, at the mouth of 



862 



SENA 



SENECA 



the small river Sena, was founded by the Se- 
nones, a Gallic people, and was made a colony 
by the Romans after the conquest of the Se- 
nones, B.C. 283 (Ptol. ii. 19 ; Sil. It. viii. 453). 
Near it was fought the battle in which Has- 
drubal was defeated and slain. [Metaubus.] 
In the Civil war it espoused the Marian party, 
and was taken and sacked by Pompey (App. 
B. C. i. 88). — 2. (Sieyia), a town in Etruria and 
a Roman colony, on the road from Clusium to 
Florentia, is only mentioned in the times of 
the emperors (Tac. Hist. iv. 45). Its import- 
ance, as a great city of Tuscany, dates from the 
middle ages. 

Sena Insula (I. de Sein), an island off the 
coast of the Osismii, the W. point of Brittany, 
%vhich possessed an oracle of a Celtic goddess 
tended by nine maidens, who could raise or lull 
storai6 by their chants (Mel. iii. 6). 

Seneca. 1. M. Annaeus, the rhetorician, was 
born at Corduba (Cordova) in Spain, about B.C. 
61. Seneca was at Rome in the early period of 
the power of Augustus, for he says that he had 
heard Ovid declaiming before Arellius Fuscus. 
He afterwards returned to Spain, and married 
Helvia, by whom he had three sons, L. Annaeus 
Seneca, L. Annaeus Mela or Mella, the father 
of the poet Lucan, and M. Novatus. Novatus 
was the eldest son, and took the name of Junius 
Gallio, upon being adopted by Junius Gallic 
Seneca was rich, and he belonged to the eques- 
trian class. At a later period Seneca returned 
to Rome, where he resided till his death, which 
probably occurred near the end of the reign of 
Tiberius. In character he was strict and con- 
servative of the old school (Sen. ad Helv. 17, 3). 
In his writings he aimed at maintaining the 
style of Cicero. Two of Seneca's works have 
come down to us. (1) ControversiarnmLibri 
decern, which he addressed to his three sons. 
The first, second, seventh, eighth, and tenth 
books only are extant, and these are somewhat 
mutilated : of the other books only fragments 
remain. These Controversiae are rhetorical 
exercises on imaginary cases, filled with cita- 
tions and anecdotes which bear out his reputa- 
tion for having a wonderful memory. (2) Suaso- 
riarum Liber, which is not complete. We 
may collect from its contents what the subjects 
were on which the rhetoricians of that age 
exercised their wits : one of them is, ' Shall 
Cicero apologise to M. Antonius ? Shall he 
agree to burn his Philippics, if Antonius re- 
quires it ? ' Another is, 1 Shall Alexander em- 
bark on the ocean ? ' The rhetorical themes 
in themselves are trivial ; but this and the 
preceding work are valuable for the history of 
rhetoric in the age of Augustus and Tiberius. 
Editions by Gronovius, 1649 : Kiessling, 1872 ; 
H. J. Miiller, Prague, 1887.— 2. L. Annaeus, the 
philosopher, the son of the preceding, was born 
at Corduba, probably a few years B.C., and 
brought to Rome by his parents when he was 
a child. Though he was naturally of a weak 
body, he was a hard student from his youth, 
and he devoted himself with great ardour to 
rhetoric and philosophy. He also soon gained 
distinction as a pleader of causes, and he 
excited the jealousy of Caligula by the ability 
with which he conducted a case in the senate 
before the emperor. In the first year of the 
reign of Claudius (a.d. 41) Seneca was banished 
to Corsica, on account of his intimacy with 
Julia, the niece of Claudius, of whom Messallina 
was jealous (Tac. Ann. xiii. 42 ; Dio Cass. Ixi. 
10). After eight years' residence in Corsica, he 
was recalled (49) by the influence of Agrippina, 



who had just married her uncle, the emperor 
Claudius. He now obtained a praetorship, and 
was made the tutor of the young Domitius, 
afterwards the emperor Nero, who was the son 
of Agrippina by a former husband. On the 
accession of his pupil to the imperial throne 
(54) after the death of Claudius, Seneca be- 
came one of his chief advisers (Suet. Ner. 7). 
He exerted his influence to check Nero's vicious 
propensities, but at the same time he profited 
from his position to amass an immense fortune 
(Tac. Ann. xiii. 2, 11, 13, 42; Dio Cass. I.e.). 
He supported Nero in his contests with his 
mother, Agrippina, and was not only a party to 
the death of the latter (60), but he wrote the 
letter which Nero addressed to the senate in 
justification of the murder (Tac. Ann. xiv. 11). 
After the death of his mother Nero abandoned 
himself without any restraint to his vicious 
propensities, and the presence of Seneca soon 
became irksome, while his wealth excited the 
emperor's cupidity. Burrus, the prefect of the 
praetorian guards, who had always been a firm 
supporter of Seneca, died in 63. His death 
broke the power of Seneca, and Nero now fell 
into the hands of persons who were exactly 
suited to his taste. Tigellinus and Pennius 
Rufus, who succeeded Burrus in the command 
of the praetorians, began an attack on Seneca. 
His enormous wealth, his gardens and villas, 
more magnificent than those of the emperor, 
his exclusive claims to eloquence, and his dis- 
paragement of Nero's skill in driving and sing- 
ing, were all urged against him; and it was 
time, they said, for Nero to get rid of a teacher. 
Seneca heard of the charges against him : he 
was rich, and he knew that Nero wanted money. 
He asked the emperor for permission to retire, 
and offered to surrender all that he had. Nero 
affected to be grateful for his past services, 
refused the proffered gift, and sent him away 
with perfidious assurances of his respect and 
affection. Seneca now altered his mode of 
life, saw little company, and seldom visited 
the city, on the ground of feeble health (he 
suffered from asthma) or of being occupied 
with his philosophical studies. The conspi- 
racy of Piso (65) gave the emperor a pretext 
for putting Seneca to death, though there was 
not complete evidence of his being a party to 
the conspiracy. Seneca was at the time re- 
turning from Campania, and had rested at a 
villa four miles from the city. Nero sent a 
tribune to him with the order of death. With- 
out showing any sign of alarm, Seneca cheered 
his weeping friends by reminding them of the 
lessons of philosophy. Embracing his wife, 
Pompeia Paulina, he prayed her to moderate 
her grief, and to console herself for the loss of 
her husband by the reflection that he had lived 
an honourable life. But as Paulina protested 
that she would die with him, Seneca consented, 
and the veins in the arms of both were opened. 
Seneca's body was attenuated by age and 
meagre diet, perhaps also from his attacks of 
asthma ; the blood would not flow easily, and 
he opened the veins in his legs. His torture 
was excessive ; and to save himself and his 
wife the pain of seeing one another suffer, he 
bade her retire to her chamber. His last words 
were taken down in writing by persons who 
were called in for the purpose, and were after- 
wards published. Seneca's torments being still 
prolonged, he took hemlock from his friend and 
physician, Statius Annaeus, but it had no effect. 
At last he entered a warm bath, and as he 
sprinkled some of the water on the slaves 



SENECA 



863 



nearest to him he said, that he made a libation 
to Jupiter the Liberator. He was then taken 
into a vapour stove, where he was quickly suffo- 
cated. (Tac. Ann. xv. 60-61.) Seneca died, as 
was the fashion among the Romans, with the 
courage of a Stoic, but with somewhat of a 
theatrical affectation which detracts from the 
dignity of the scene. Seneca's great misfortune 
was to have known Nero ; and though we cannot 
say that he was a truly great or a truly good 
man, his character will not lose by comparison 
with that of many others who have been placed 
in equally difficult circumstances. — Seneca's 
fame rests on his numerous writings, of which 
the following are extant : — (lj De Ira, in three 
books, addressed to Novatus, probably the 
earliest of Seneca's works. In the first book he 
combats what Aristotle says of Anger in his 
Ethics. (2) De Consolatione ad Helviam Ma- 
trem Liber, a consolatory letter to his mother, 
written during his residence in Corsica. It is 
one of his best treatises. (3) De Consolatione 
ad Polybium Liber, also written in Corsica. 
If it is the work of Seneca, it does him no credit. 
Polybius was the powerful freedman of Claudius, 
and the Consolatio is intended to comfort him 
on tbe occasion of the loss of his brother. But 
it also contains adulation of the emperor, and 
man} - expressions unworthy of a true Stoic or 
of an honest man. (4) Liber de Consolatione 
ad Mordant, written after his return from 
exile, was designed to console Marcia for the 
loss, of her son. Marcia was the daughter of A. 
Cremutius Cordus. (5) De Provident in Liber, 
or Quare bonis viris mala accidant cum sit 
Providentia, is addressed to the younger Lu- 
cilius, procurator of Sicily. The question that 
is here discussed often engaged the ancient 
philosophers : the Stoical solution of the diffi- 
culty is that suicide is the remedy when mis- 
fortune has become intolerable. In this dis- 
course Seneca says that he intends to prove 
' that Providence hath a power over all things, 
and that God is always present with us.' (6) De 
Animi Tranquillitate, addressed to Serenus, 
probably written soon after Seneca's return 
from exile. It is in the form of a letter rather 
than a treatise : the object is to discover the 
means by which tranquillity of mind can be 
obtained. (7) De Constantia Sapientis seu 
quod in sapientem non cadit injuria, also 
addressed to Serenus, is founded on the Stoical 
doctrine of the impassiveness of the wise man. 
(8) De dementia ad Keronem Caesarem Libri 
duo, written at the beginning of Nero's reign. 
There is too much of the flatterer in this ; but 
the advice is good. The second book is incom- 

Elete. It is in the first chapter of this second 
ook that the anecdote is told of Nero's un- 
willingness to sign a sentence of execution, and 
his exclamation, ' I would I could neither read 
nor write.' (9) DeBrevitateVitaeadPauliumn 
Liber, recommends the proper employment of 
time and the getting of wisdom as the chief 
purpose of life. (10) De Vita Beata ad Gal- 
lionem, addressed to his brother, Ij. Junius 
Gallio, is probably one of the luter works of 
Seneca, in which he maintains the Stoical doc- 
trine that there is no happiness without virtue ; 
but he does not deny that other things, as health 
and riches, have their value. The conclusion 
of the treatise is lost. (11) De Otto aut Secessu 
Sapientis, is sometimes joined to No. 10. (12) De 
Beneficiis Libri septem, addressed to Aebucius 
Liberalis, is an admirable treatise on the way 
Of conferring a favour, and of the duties of the 
giver and of the receiver. (13) Epistolac ad 



Ludlium, 124 in number, are not the corre- 
spondence of daily life, like that of Cicero, but a 
collection of moral maxims and remarks with- 
out any systematic order. They contain much 
good matter, and have been favourite reading 
with many distinguished men. It is possible 
that these letters, and indeed many of Seneca's 
moral treatises, were written in the latter part 
of his life, and probably after he had lost the 
favour of Nero. That Seneca sought consola- 
tion and tranquillity of mind in literary occu- 
pation is manifest. (14) Apocolocyntosis, is a 
satire against the emperor Claudius. The word 
is a play on the term Apotheosis or deification, 
and is equivalent in meaning to Pumpkinifica- 
tion, or the reception of Claudius among the 
pumpkins. The subject was well enough, but 
the treatment has no great merit ; and Seneca 
probably had no other object than to gratify his 
spite against the emperor. (15) Quaestionum 
Katuralium Libri septem, addressed to Lu- 
cilius Junior, is not a systematic work, but a 
collection of natural facts from various writers, 
Greek and Roman, many of which are curious. 
The first book treats of meteors, the second oi 
thunder and lightning, the third of water, the 
fourth of hail, snow and ice, the fifth of winds, 
the sixth of earthquakes and the sources of the 
Nile, and the seventh of comets. Moral re- 
marks are scattered through the work; and 
indeed the design of the whole appears to be to 
find a foundation for ethics, the chief part of 
philosophy, in the knowledge of nature (physics). 
(16) Tragoediae, nine in number. They are 
entitled Hercules Furens, Thyestes, Thebais or 
Phoenissae, Hippolytus or Phaedra, Oedipus, 
Troades or Hecuba, Medea, Agamemnon, and 
Hercules Oetaeus. The titles themselves indi- 
cate sufficiently what the tragedies are — Greek 
mythological subjects treated in a peculiar 
fashion. They are written in Iambic senarii, in- 
terspersed with choral parts in anapaestic and 
other metres. The Octavia, which describes 
Nero's ill-treatment of his wife, his passion for 
Poppaea, and the exile of Octavia, is included 
among Seneca's writings in one recension, but 
is not his work ; for it mentions Nero's death. 
These tragedies are not adapted, and certainly 
were never intended for the stage. They were 
designed for reading or for recitation after the 
Roman fashion, and they bear the stamp of a 
rhetorical age. They contain many striking 
passages, and have some merit as poems. 
Moral sentiments and maxims abound, and the 
style and character of Seneca are as conspicuous 
here as in his prose works. — The judgments on 
Seneca's writings have been as various as the 
opinions about his character; and both in ex- 
tremes. It has been said of him that he looks 
best in quotations ; but this is an admission 
that there is something worth quoting, which 
cannot be said of all writers. That Seneca 
possessed great mental powers cannot be 
doubted. He had seen much of human life, 
and he knew well what man was. His philo- 
sophy, so far as lie adopted a system, was the 
Stoical, but it was rather an eclecticism of 
Stoicism than pure Stoicism. His style is anti- 
thetical, and apparently laboured ; and when 
there is much labour, there is generally affecta- 
tion. Yet his language is clear and forcible ; 
it is not mere words : there is thought always. 
It would not be easy to name any modern 
writer who has treated on morality and has 
said so much that is practically good and true, 
or has treated the matter in so attractive a way. 
Beyond question he is, with the exception of 



864 



SENECIO 



Tacitus, the most important writer of the post- 
Augustan age. From the tone and expression 
of some of his writings, especially of the letters 
to Lucilms, some have imagined that he was 
acquainted with and influenced by Christian 
teaching, and there was once a tradition of 
friendship with the Apostle Paul. This may 
be set aside as improbable and absolutely with- 
out evidence. The sentiments of a Christian 
character which are found in his treatises are 
merely the expression of his philosophy, which 
was a gentler form of Stoicism. — Editions of 
Seneca are by J. F. Gronovius, Leiden, 1649- 
1658 ; by Ruhkopf, Leipzig, 1797-1811 : by 
Fickert, Leips. 1845 ; by Haase, Leips. 1852. 
The Dialogues of Seneca are edited by Gertz, 
Copenh. 1886 ; the Letters by Schweighauser, 
1809, and by Biicheler (in part), Bonn, 1879 : 
editions of the Tragedies by Peiper and Richter, 
Leips. 1867, and by Leo, Berl. 1878. 

Seneclo, Herennius, was a native of Baetica 
in Spain, where he served as quaestor. He was i 
put to death by Domitian on the accusation of j 
Metius Carus, in consequence of his having i 
written the Life of Helvidius Priscus, which he j 
composed at the request of Fannia, the wife of | 
Helvidius. (Dio Cass, lxvii. 13; Tac. Agr. 2, i 
45 ; Plin. Hp. i. 5, iv. 7, vii. 33.) 

Senia (Senensis : Segno, or Zengg), a Roman 
colony in Liburnia in Illyricum, on the coast, 
and on the road from Aquileia to Siscia (Tac. 
Hist. iv. 45). 

Senones. 1. A powerful people in Gallia 
Lugdunensis, dwelt along the upper course of 
the Sequana (Seine), and were bounded on the 
N. by the Parisii, on the W. by the Camutes, 
on the S. by the Aedui, and on the E. by the 
Lingones and Mandubii. Their chief town was 
Agedincum, afterwards called Senones (Sens). 
(Caes. B.G. ii. 2, v. 54, vi. 37.)— 2. A branch (no 
doubt) of the same stock at an earlier period, 
which crossed the Alps about B.C. 400, in order to 
settle in, Italy ; and as the greater part of Upper 
Italy was already occupied by other Celtic 
tribes, the Senones were obliged to penetrate a 
considerable distance to the S., and took up 
their abode on the Adriatic sea between the 
rivers Utis and Aesis (between "Ravenna and 
Ancona), after expelling the Umbrians (Liv. v. 
35). In this country they founded the town of 
Sena. They extended theii ravages into Etruria ; 
and it was in consequence of the interference 
of the Romans while they were laying siege to 
Clusium, that they marched against Rome and 
took the city, b. c. 390. From this time we 
find them engaged in constant hostilities with 
the Romans, till they were at length completely 
subdued and the greater part of them destroyed 
by the consul Dolabella, 284. [Gallia Cisal- 

PINA.] 

Sentinum (Sentinas, Sentinatis : nr. Sasso- 
ferrato, Ru.), a fortified town in Umbria, not 
far from the river Aesis, famous for the battle 
in the third Samnite war, B. c. 295, when Q. 
Fabius defeated the Samnites and Gauls, 
Decius having devoted himself (Liv. x. 27 ; Pol. 
ii. 19). 

Sentms Saturninus. [Satubninus.] 

Sepias (SrjTrias : St. George), a promontory 
in the SE. of Thessaly in the district Magnesia, 
on which a great part of the fleet of Xerxes was 
wrecked (Hdt. vii. 113, 188 ; Strab. p. 443). 

Seplasia, one of the principal streets in 
Capua, where perfumes and luxuries of a similar 
kind were sold (Cic. Pis. 11, 24 ; Plin. xvi. 40). 

Sepphdris (^ir<pwpis : Sefurieh), a city of 
Palestine, in the middle of Galilee, about half- 



SEQUESTER 

way between M. Carmel and the lake of Tiberias, 
was an insignificant place until Herod Antipas 
fortified it and made it the capital of Galilee 
under the name of Diocaesarea. It was the 
seat of one of the five Jewish Sanhedrim ; and 
continued to flourish until the fourth century, 
when it was destroyed by the Caesar Gallus, on 
account of a revolt of its inhabitants. (Jos. Ant. 
xiv. 15, 4, B.J. ii. 18, 11 ; Socr. Hist. Heel, ii. 
33.) 

Septem Aquae, a place in the territory of the 
Sabini, near Reate. 

Septem Fratres ("Eirra a.fe\<po'i : Jebel 
Zatout, i.e. Apes' Hill), a mountain on the N. 
coast of Mauretania Tingitana, at the narrowest 
part of the Fretum Gaditanum (Straits of 
Gibraltar), connected by a low tongue of land 
with the promontory of Abyla, which is also in- 
cluded under the modern name (Strab. p. 827). 

Septem Maria, the name given by the an- 
cients to the lagoons formed at the mouth of 
the Po by the frequent overflows of this river. 
Persons usually sailed through these lagoons 
from Ravenna to Altinum. (Plin. iii. 120 ; Hero- 
dian, viii. 7.) 

Septempeda (Septempedanus : San Seve- 
rino), a Roman municipium in the interior of 
Picenum, on the road from Auximum to Urbs 
Salvia (Plin. iii. Ill ; Strab. p. 241). 

Septimius Geta. [Geta.] 

Septrnuus Serenus. [Serenus.] 

Septimius Severus. [Seveeus.] 

Septlmius Titius, a Roman poet, whom 
Horace (Hp. i. 3. 9, 14) represents as having ven- 
tured to quaff a draught from the Pindaric 
spring, and as having been ambitious to achieve 
distinction in tragedy. In this passage Horace 
speaks of him under the name of Titius ; and 
he is probably the same individual with the 
Septimius who is addressed in the sixth Ode of 
the second book, and who is introduced in the 
ninth Epistle of the first book. 

Sequana (2rj/coaras : Seine), one of the prin- 
cipal rivers of Gaul, rising in the central parts 
of that country, and flowing through the pro- 
vince of Gallia Lugdunensis into the ocean op- 
posite Britain. It is 346 miles in length. Its 
principal affluents are the Matrona (Marne), 
Esia (Oise) with its tributary the Axona (Aisne) 
and Incaunus (Yonne). This river has a slow 
current, and is navigable beyond Lutetia Pari- 
siorum (Paris). (Caes. B.G. i. 1 ; Ptol. ii. 8, 2; 
Strab. pj>. 192, 193.) 

Sequani, a powerful Celtic people in Gallia 
Belgica, separated from the Helvetii by Mons 
Jurassus, from the Aedui by the Arar, and 
from the province Narbonensis by the Rhone, 
inhabiting the country called Franche Comte 
and Burgundy. In the later division of the 
provinces of the empire, the country of the 
Sequani formed a special province under the 
name of Maxima Sequanorum. They derived 
their name from the river Sequana, which had 
its source in the NW. frontiers of their terri- 
tory ; but their country was chiefly watered by 
the rivers Arar and Dubis. Their chief town 
was Vesontio (Besancon). They were governed 
by kings of their own, and were constantly at 
war with the Aedui. (Caes. B.G. i. 1, 3, 10-12, 
iv. 10 ; Strab. p. 192 ; Lucan, i. 425.) 

Sequester, Vibius, the name attached to a 
glossary which professes to give an account of 
the geographical names contained in the 
Roman poets. The tract is divided into seven 
sections: — (1) Flumina; (2) Fontes; (3) 
Lacus ; (4) Nemora; (5) Paludes; (&)Montes; 
(7) Gentes. To which in some MSS. an eighth. 



SERA 



SERGIUS 



865 



is added, containing a list of the seven wonders 
of the world. Concerning the author person- 
ally we know nothing ; and he probably lived 
not earlier than the middle of the fifth century 
a.d. — Ed. by Bursian, Zurich, 1867. 
Sera. [SericaJ 

Serapio, a surname of P. Cornelius Scipio 
Nasiea, consul B.C. 138. [Scepio, No. 18.] 

Serapion (ScpcnriW), a physician of Alex- 
andria, who lived in the third century B.C. He 
belonged to the sect of the Empirici, and so 
much extended and improved the system of 
Philinus that the invention of it is by some 
authors attributed to him. Serapion wTote 
against Hippocrates with much vehemence; 
but neither this, nor any of his other works, 
are now extant. He is several times mentioned 
and quoted by Celsus, Galen, and others. 

Serapis or Sarapis (Sapams : Serapis is the 
correct Latin form), an Egyptian divinity, 
whose worship was introduced into Greece in 
the time of the Ptolemies, and into Rome with 
that of Isis. The Egyptian Serapis was 
originally the manifestation of Osiris on earth 
in the form of a bull ; but his separate worship 




SerapU. (From a Btatuo In the Vatican.) 



was introduced as the special Alexandrian 
religion in the time of the Ptolemies, and 
gradually superseded that of Osiris, whose 
functions were transferred to him. Hence, like 
Osiris [see p. 685J, he was regarded as the god 
of the dead and of the underworld, worshipped 
with all the mysteries belonging to that reli- 
gion, and as the husband of Isis. He was also 
honoured, not only us born from the sun-god, 
but as the sun-god himself, and hence as god 
of healing, and thus identified by the Greeks 
not only with Hudes, as god of the dead, and 
with Zeus (Zeus-Serapis), as god of heaven, 
but also with AaclepiUB, as god of healing. 
His worship in all these characters was 
accepted from Alexandria (where his temple, 
the Serapienm, was particularly famous) 
through Asia Minor, the islands, Greece, and at 
Rome in the same manner and period as that 
of Isis [see p. 450]. In art he was represented 
like Hades or Pluto with a three-headed dog 
and a serpent by his side ; but is distinguished 
from Hades or Pluto by the modius or rula- 
thus upon his head. Similarly the head of 



Zeus-Serapis resembles the Zeus type, but is 
distinguished by the modius. 
Serbonis Lacus. [Sirboms Lacus.] 
Serdica or Sardica (Sofia), an important town 
in Upper Moesia, and the capital of Dacia 

I Mediterranea, situate in a fertile plain near 
the sources of the Oeseus, and on the road 
from Naissus to Philippopolis. It was the 
birthplace of the emperor Maximianus ; it was 
destroyed by Attila, but was soon afterwards 
rebuilt ; and it bore in the middle ages the 
name of Triaditza. Serdica derived its name 
from the Thracian people Serdi. (Ptol. iii. 11, 
12 ; Eutrop. ix. 14, 22 ; Procop. Aed. iv. 1 ; 
Amm. Marc. xxx. 16.) 

Serena, niece of Theodosius the Great, 
foster-mother of the emperor Honorius, and 
wife of Stilicho. 

Serenus, Annaeus, one of the most inti- 

' mate friends of the philosopher Seneca, who 
dedicated to him his works De Tranquillitate 
and De Constantia. He was praefectus vigi- 
lum under Xero. (Sen. Ep. 63 ; Tac. Ann. xiii. 

I 13.) 

Serenus. Q. Sammonicus (or Samonicus), 

enjoyed a high reputation at Rome, in the early 
part of the third century after Christ, as a man 
of taste and varied knowledge. As the friend 
of Geta, by whom his compositions were 
studied with great pleasure, he was murdered 
while at supper, by command of Caracalla, a.d. 
212, having written many learned works, of 
which nothing remains. (Macrob. iii. 16, 6 ; 
Spartian. Get. 5, Carac. 4.) His son, who bore 
the same name, was the preceptor of the 
younger Gordian, and bequeathed to his pupil 
the magnificent library which he had inherited 
from his father. A medical poem, extending 
to 115 hexameter lines, has descended to us 
under the title Q. Sereni Sammonici de 
Medicina praccepta saluberrima, or Prae- 
cepfa de Medicina parvo pretio parabili, 
which is usually ascribed to the elder Sam- 
monicus. It contains a considerable amount 
of information, extracted from the best authori- 
ties, on natural history and the healing art, 
and mixed up with a number of puerile super- 
stitions, the whole expressed in plain and 
almost prosaic language. — Edited by Burmann 
and by Biihrens among the Poetae hat. 
Minores. 

Serenus, A. Septlnrius, a Roman lyric poet, 
who exercised his muse chiefly in depicting the 
charms of the country and the delight of rural 
pursuits. His works are lost, but are fre- 
quently quoted by the grammarians. — Frag- 
ments in Wemsdorf, Poet. Lat. Min. 

Seres. rSF.nicA.] 

Sergia Gens, patrician. The Sergii traced 
their descent from the Trojan Sergestus (Virg. 
Aen. v. 121). The Sergii were distinguished in 
the early history of the republic, and the first 
member of the gens who obtained the consul- 
ship was L. Sergius Fidenas, in B.C. 487. 
Catiline belonged to this gens. [Catilina.] 
The Sergii bore also the surnames of Esquili- 
mil, Fi<linas, Grata, Paulas, Plancus, and 
Situs; but none of them are of sufficient im- 
portance to require a separate notice. 

Sergius, a grammarian of uncertain date, but 
later than the fourth century after Christ, the 
author of two tracts; the first entitled In 
primam Donati Editionem Comment arium ; 
the second, In secuntlam Donati Editionnn 
Commentaria. They are printed in the 
tirnmmatirnr Latin/ie Aurturrs antiqui of 
l'utschius (Hannov. 1005, pp. 1H10-1888). 

8 K 



866 



SERICA 



Serica (7; ~2,t)piKT], 2rjp«; Seres, also rarely 
in the sing, 25) p, Ser), a country in the extreme 
E. of Asia, famous as the native region of the 
silkworm, which was also called <r?)p ; and hence 
the adjective ' sericus ' for silken. The name 
was known to the W. nations at a very early 
period, through the use of silk, first in W. 
Asia, and afterwards in Greece. It is clear, 
however, that, until some time after the com- 
mencement of our era, the name had no distinct 
geographical signification. Serica and Seres 
were simply the unknown country and people, 
in the far East, from whom the article of com- 
merce, silk, was obtained. [Diet, of Ant. art. 
Sericum.] At a later period, some knowledge 
of the country was obtained from the traders, 
the results of which are recorded by Ptolemy, 
who names several positions that can be identi- 
fied with reasonable probability, but the 
detailed mention of which does not fall within 
the object of this work. (Ptol. vi. 16, 1-6, vii. 
2, 1, viii. 24, 5.) The Serica of Ptolemy cor- 
responds to the HW. part of China, and the 
adjacent portions of Thibet and Chinese Tar- 
tary. The capital, Sera, is supposed by most 
to be Singan, on the Hoang-ho, but by some 
Peking. The country was bounded, according 
to Ptolemy, on the N. by unknown regions, on 
the W. by Scythia, on the S. and SE. by India 
and the Sinae. The people were said by some 
to be of Indian, by others of Scythian, origin, 
and by others to be a mixed race (Paus. vi. 22, 
2; Strab. p. 701; Plin. vi. 88). The Great 
Wall of China is mentioned by Ammianus 
Marcellinus under the name of Aggeres Serium 
(Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6, 64) 



SERTORIUS 

lesia as ludi scenici. He was praetor 185. 
(Liv. xxxiv. 54.) — 3. A., praetor 192, when he 
obtained as his province Macedonia and the 
command of the fleet. He was praetor a 
second time in 173. He was consul in 170. 
(Liv. xxxv. 10, xli. 28, xlii. 37-47.) — i. HI., 
praetor 174, when he obtained the province of 
Sardinia (Liv. xli. 21). — 5. M., praetor 152, in 
Further Spain, defeated the Lusitani. — 6. Sex. , 
consul 136. — 7. C, consul 106 with Q. Servilius 
Caepio, the year in which Cicero and Pompey 
were born. Although a ' stultissimus homo,' 
according to Cicero, he was elected in prefer- 
ence to Q. Catulus. He was one of the 
senators who took up arms against Saturninus 
in 100. (Cic. pro Plane. 5 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 53 ; 
Gell. xv. 28.)— 8. Sex., surnamed Gavianus, 
because he originally belonged to the Gavia 
gens. He was quaestor in 63 in the consulship 
of Cicero, who treated him with distinguished 
favour ; but in his tribunate of the plebs, 57, he 
took an active part in opposing Cicero's recall 
from banishment. After Cicero's return to 
Rome he put his veto upon the decree of the 
senate restoring to Cicero the site on which his 
house had stood, but he found it advisable to 
withdraw his opposition. (Cic. Sest. 33-43, Post 
Bed. 5, ad Att. iv. 2.) 

Serrhlum (tipptiov), a promontory of Thrace 
in the Aegaean Sea, opposite the island of 
Samothrace, with a fortress of the same name 
upon it (Hdt. vii. 59 ; Liv. xxxi. 16). 

Q. Sertorius, one of the most extraordinary 
men in the later times of the republic, was a 
native of Nursia, a Sabine village, and was 
born of obscure but respectable parents. He 



Seriphus (Septcpos : 'kepicpios : Serpho), an : served under Marius in the war against the 



island in the Aegaean sea, and one of the 
Cyclades, lying between Cytlrnus and Siphnus. 
It was a small rocky island about twelve miles 
in circumference. (Strab. p. 487.) It is cele- 
brated in mythology as the island where Danae 
and Perseus landed after they had been exposed 
by Acrisius, where Perseus was brought up, 
and where he afterwards turned the inhabitants 
into stone with the Gorgon's head. [Danae ; 
Perseus.] Seriphus was colonised by Ionians 
from Athens, and it was one of the few islands 
which refused submission to Xerxes. At a later 
time the inhabitants of Seriphus were noted 
for their poverty and wretchedness, and for this 
reason the island was employed by the Roman 
emperors as a place of banishment for state cri- 
minals. (Tac. Ann. ii. 85, iv. 21 ; Juv. x. 170.) 

Sermyla (2,epfj.vXr) : 2,ep[ivKios), a town in 
Macedonia on the isthmus of the peninsula 
Sithonia (Hdt. vii. 122 ; Thuc. v. 18). 

Serranus, Atilius. Serranus was originally 
an agnomen of C. Atilius Regulus, consul B.C. 
257, but afterwards became the name of a 
distinct family of the Atilia gens. Most of the 
ancient writers derive the name from severe, 
and relate that Regulus received the surname 
of Serranus because he was engaged in sowing 
when the news was brought him of his eleva- 
tion to the consulship (Virg. Aen. iv. 845). It 
appears, however, from coins, that Saranus is 
the proper form of the name, and it is possibly 
derived from Sara.num, a town of Urnbria. — 1. 
C, praetor B.C. 218, the first year of the second 
Punic war, was sent into northern Italy. At 
a later period of the year he resigned his com- 
mand to the consul P. Scipio. He was an un- 
successful candidate for the consulship for 216. 
{Liv. xxi. 26, 62 ; Pol. iii. 40.)— 2. C, curule 
aedile 193, with L. Scribonius Libo. They 
were the first aediles who exhibited the Mega- 



Teutones; and before the battle of Aquae 
Sextiae (Aix), B.C. 102, he entered the camp of 
the Teutones in disguise as a spy, for which 
hazardous undertaking his intrepid character 
and some knowledge of the Gallic language 
well qualified him. He also served as tribunus 
militum in Spain under T. Didius (97). He 
was quaestor in 91, and had before this time 
lost an eye in battle. On the outbreak of the 
Civil war in 88, he declared himself against the 
party of the nobles, though he was by no 
means an admirer of his old commander, C. 
Marius, whose character he well understood. 
He commanded one of the four armies which 
besieged Rome under Marius and Cinna (App. 
B.C. i. 67). He was, however, opposed to the 
bloody massacre which ensued after Marius 
and Cinna entered Rome, and he was so 
indignant at the horrible deeds committed by 
the slaves whom Marius kept as guards, that 
he fell upon them in their camp, and slew 
4000 of them (Plut. Sert. 5, Mar. 44). In 83 
Sertorius was praetor, and either in this year 
or the following he went into Spain, which had 
been assigned to him as his province by the 
Marian party. After collecting a small body 
of troops in Spain, he crossed over to Maure- 
tania, where he gained a victory over Paccia- 
nus, one of Sulla's generals. In consequence of 
his success in Africa, he was invited by the 
Lusitani, who were exposed to the invasion of 
the Romans, to become their leader. He 
gained great influence over the Lusitanians 
and the other barbarians in Spain, and soon 
succeeded in forming an army, which for some 
years successfully opposed all the power of 
Rome. He also availed himself of the super- 
stitious character of the people among whom 
he was, to strengthen his authority over them. 
A fawn was brought to him by one of the 



SEKVILIA 



SESTUS 



867 



natives as a present, which soon became so 
tame as to accompany him in his walks, and 
attend him on all occasions. After Sulla had 
become master of Italy, Sertorius was joined 
by many Romans who had been proscribed by 
the dictator, and this not only added to his 
consideration, but brought him many good 
officers. In 79 Metellus Pius was sent into 
Spain with a considerable force against Ser- 
torius ; but Metellus could effect nothing 
against the enemy. He was unable to bring 
Sertorius to any decisive battle, but was con- 
stantly harassed by the guerilla warfare of the 
latter. In 77 Sertorius was joined by M. 
Perperna with fifty-three cohorts [Perperna]. 
To give some show of form to his formidable 
power, Sertorius established a senate of 300, 
into which no provincial was admitted ; but to 
soothe the more distinguished Spaniards, and 
to have some security for their fidelity, he 
established a school at Huesca (Oaca), in 
Aragon, for the education of their children in 
Greek and Roman learning. The continued 
want of success on the part of Metellus induced 
the Romans to send Pompey to his assistance, 
but with an independent command. Pompey 
arrived in Spain in 76 with 30,000 infantry and 
1000 cavalry, but even with this formidable 
force he was unable to gain any decisive advan- 
tages over Sertorius. (App. B. C. i. 110.) For 
the next five years Sertorius kept both Metellus 
and Pompey at bay, and cut to pieces a large 
number of their forces. Sertorius was at 
length assassinated in 72 at a banquet by 
Perperna and some other Roman officers, who 
had long been jealous of the authority of their 
commander. (Pint. Sertorius.) 

Servilia. 1. Daughter of Q. Servilius Caepio 
and the daughter of Livia, the sister of the 
celebrated M. Livius Drusus, tribune of the 
plebs B.C. 91. Servilia was married twice : 
first to M. Junius Brutus, by whom she became 
the mother of the murderer of Caesar, and 
secondly to D. Junius Silanus, consul 62. She 
was the favourite mistress of the dictator 
Caesar, and it is reported that Brutus was her 
son by Caesar (Plut. Cat. 24, Brut. 5). This 
tale, however, cannot be true, as Caesar was 
only fifteen years older than Brutus, the former 
having been born in 100, and the latter in 85. 
She survived both her lover and her son. After 
the battle of Philippi, Antony sent her the 
ashes of her son. (Suet. Jul. 50; Plut. Brut. 
2, 5, 53.) — 2. Sister of the preceding, was the 
second wife of L. Lucullus, consul 74. She 
bore Lucullus a son, but, like her sister, she 
was faithless to her husband, and the latter, 
after putting up with her conduct for some 
time from regard to M. Cato Uticensis, her 
half-brother, at length divorced her. (Plut. 
Lucull. 38, Cat. 54.) 

ServiHa Gens, was one of the Alhan houses 
removed to Rome by Tullus Hostilius. This 
gens was very celebrated during the early ages 
of the republic, and it continued to produce 
men of influence in the state down to the 
imperial period. It was divided into numerous 
families, of which the. most important bore the 
names of Ahala, Caepio, Casca, Glaucia, 
Rui.lus, Vatia. 

Servius Maurus Honoratua, or Servius 
Marias Honoratua, a Latin grammarian of 
the fourth century, contemporary with Macro- 
bius, who introduces him among the dramatis 
personoe of the Saturnalia. His most cele- 
brated production was a Commentary upon 
Virgil. This, the original work of Servius, has 



j been largely added to. The Commentary of 
| Servius was supplemented by an anonymous 
, writer with a great deal of useful information, 
drawn from earlier authorities, about Greek 
and Roman legends, customs, and religion. It 
is attached to many of the earlier editions of 
Virgil, but it is edited separately by Thilo and 
Hagen, Leips. 1878. We possess also the follow- 
ing treatises bearing the name of Servius : — 
(1) In secundam Donati Editionem Inter- 
jjretatio. (2) De Batione ultimarum Syllab- 
arum ad Aquilinum Liber. (3) Ars de centum 
Metris s. Centimetrum. 
Servius Tullius. [Tullius.] 
Sesamus (2?7(ra/i<Js), a little coast river of 
Paphlagonia, with a towTi of the same name : 
both called afterwards Amastris. 

Sesostris i2e'<rw<rTpis), the name given by the 
Greeks to the great king of Egypt, Ramses II. 
(Ra-messu Meri-Amen), son of Seti or Menep- 
tah I., and father of Meneptah II. From his 
popular name, Ses or Setesu, the Greeks de- 
veloped the name Sesostris (in Manetho ' Se- 
thosis, who is called Ramesses '). He belonged 
to the nineteenth dynasty, and reigned about 
1333 B.C. He was a great conqueror. In the 
Greek historians he is said to have subdued 
Ethiopia, a great part of Asia, Thrace, and 
Scythia (Hdt. ii. 102-11; Diod. i. 53-59). It 
must not, however, be supposed that he ever 
reached any part of Europe. From the Egyptian 
monuments, including the epic poem of Pen- 
taur, the court scribe, we learn that, besides his 
successful campaigns into Ethiopia, he over- 
ran Syria, and in the fifth year of his reign 
began his great campaigns against the Kheta — 
that is, the Hittite — empire [Cetei], in the 
course of which he won a great victory at 
Kadesh on the Orontes. The struggle, how- 
ever, between the two empires was not pushed 
to an end, and a treaty of alliance was event- 
ually made between Ramses and the Hittite 
king. Some of the victories of Ramses are 
recorded also in the rock tablets at Beyrout ; 
t but the monuments which Herodotus believed 
I him to have set up between Smyrna and 
] Ephesus (ii. 106) are Hittite. As a builder, he 
was no less great than as a conqueror. He 
built at Abydos, Memphis, and Thebes, espe- 
, cially at Karnak, Luxor, and the rock temples 
Abu-Simbel. He built himself also a new city, 
fortress and palace at Pa Ramessu (=Zoan) in 
the Delta, on the way to Palestine. 

Sestianae Arae (C. Villano), the most 
westerly promontory on the N. coast of His- 
; pania Tarraconensis in Gallaecia, with three 
altars consecrated to Augustus. 

Sestinum (Sestinas, -atia: Scstino), a town 
in Umbria on the Apennines, near the sources 
of the Pisaurus. 
Sestius. [Sexttds.] 

Sestus I27j<n-<is : 2?)<mos : Ialova), a town in 
Thrace, situated at the narrowest part of the 
Hellespont opposite Abydos in Asia, from which 
it was only seven stadia distant (Strub. p. 591). 
It was founded by the Aeolians (Hdt. vii. 33). 
It was celebrated in Grecian poetry on account 
of the loves of Leander and Hero [Leandeh 1 , 
and in history on account of the bridge of boats 
which Xerxes here built across the Hellespont. 
Sestus was always reckoned a place of import- 
ance in consequence of its commanding to a 
j great extent the passage of the Hellespont. It 
was for some time in the possession of the 
Persians, but was retaken by the Greeks, B.C. 
478, after a long siege. The Athenians held it 
till 404 B.C., and captured it again in 887 (Diod. 

3 K 2 



868 



SETABIS 



SEVEBUS 



xvi. 34). It was taken by the Komans in 190 
(Liv. xxxvii. 9). 
Setabis. [Saetabis.] 

Sethon (2e0tav), seems to nave been a priest 
of Ptab (-—Hephaestus) about the time of 
Taharaqa I. (Tirhakah = Taracus), and the end 
of the Ethiopian dynasty (twenty-fifth) in 
Egypt (about 690 B.C.), who lived on into the 
reign of Psamtheh or Psammetiehus I. in the 
twenty-sixth dynasty. He thus might have 
been living in the wars with Sennacherib. [For 
the history see Sabaco ; Psammetichus.] Hero- 
dotus relates (ii. 141) that in Sethon's reign 
Sanacharibus, king of the Arabians and 
Assyrians, advanced against Egypt, at which 
Sethon was in great alarm, as he had insulted 
the warrior class, and deprived them of their 
lands, and they now refused to follow him to 
the war. But the god Hephaestus came to bis 
assistance ; for while the two armies were en- 
camped near Pelusium, the field-mice in the 
night gnawed to pieces the bow-strings, the 
quivers, and the shield-handles of the Assyrians, 
who fled on the following day with great loss. 
The recollection of this miracle was perpetuated 
by a statue of the king in the temple of He- 
phaestus, holding a mouse in his hand, and 
saying, ' Let everyone look at me and be pious.' 
In this account Herodotus seems to have 
wrongly made Sethon, or Sethos, a king, whereas 
he was only a priest, though at a time when the 
priestly power was great. The statue to which 
he refers was probably one with a mouse upon 
it as an emblem, as in the statues of Apollo 
Smintheus, and possibly with the same mean- 
ing [see p. 89, b]. 

Setla (Setinus : Sezza or Sesse), an ancient 
town of Latium in the E. of the Pontine 
Marshes, originally belonged to the Volscian 
confederacy, but was subsequently taken by the 
Bomans and colonised (Dionys. v. 61 ; Liv. vi. 
30; Veil. Pat. i. 14). It was here that the 
Bomans kept the Carthaginian hostages (Liv. 
xxxii. 26). It was celebrated for the excellent 
wine produced in the neighbourhood of the town, 
which was reckoned in the time of Augustus 
the finest wine in Italy (Mart. x. 36, xiii. 112 ; 
Juv. x. 27 ; Strab. pp. 234, 237). 

Severus, M. Aurelius Alexander, usually 
called Alexander Severus, Roman emperor, 
a.d. 222-235, the son of Gessius Marcianus and 
Julia Mamaea, and first cousin of Elagabalus, 
was born at Arce, in Phoenicia, in the temple 
of Alexander the Great, to which his parents 
had repaired for the celebration of a festival, 
October 1, a.d. 205. His original name appears 
to have been Alexianus Bassianus, the latter 
appellation having been derived from his ma- 
ternal grandfather. Upon the elevation of 
Elagabalus, he accompanied his mother and 
the oourt to Rome, a report having been spread 
abroad that he also, as well as the emperor, 
was the son of Caracalla. In 221 he was 
adopted by Elagabalus and created Caesar. The 
names Alexianus and Bassianus were laid 
aside, and those of M. Aurelius Alexander 
substituted : M. Aurelius in virtue of his 
adoption; Alexander in consequence, as was 
asserted, of a direct revelation on the part of 
the Syrian god. [Elagabalus.] On the death 
of Elagabalus, on March 11, a.d. 222, Alexander 
ascended the throne, adding Severus to his 
other designations, in order to mark more 
explicitly the descent which be claimed from 
the father of Caracalla. After reigning in peace 
some years, during which he reformed many 
abuses in the state, he was involved in a war 



with Artaxerxes, king of Persia, who had lately 
founded the new empire of the Sassanidae on 
the ruins of the Parthian monarchy. Alexander 
gained a great victory over Artaxerxes in 232 ; 
but he was unable to prosecute his advantage 
in consequence of intelligence having reached 
him of a great movement among the German 
tribes. He celebrated a triumph at Borne in 
233, and in the following year (234) set out for 
Gaul, which the Germans were devastating ; 
but before he had made any progress in the 
campaign, he was waylaid by a small band of 
mutinous soldiers, instigated, it is said, by 
Maximinus, and slain, along with his mother, in 
the early part of 235, in the thirtieth year of his 
age, and the fourteenth of his reign. Alexander 
Severus was distinguished by justice, wisdom, 
and clemency in all public transactions, and by 
the simplicity and purity of his private life. (Hero- 
dian, v. 5, 17-23, vi. 1-18 ; Lamprid. Alex. Sever.; 
Zos. i. 11-13 ; Dio Cass, lxxviii. 30, lxxx. Fr.) 

Severus, A. Caecina. [Caecina.] 

Severus, CassiUS, an orator and satirical writer 
in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, was 
born about B.C. 50 at Longula, in Latium. He 
was a man of low origin and dissolute character, 
but was much feared from the severity of 
his attacks upon the Roman nobles. Towards 
the end of the reign of Augustus, Severus 
was banished by Augustus to the island of 
Crete on account of his libellous verses ; but 
as he still continued to write libels, he was 
removed by Tiberius in A.D. 24 to the desert 
island of Seriphos, where he died in great 
poverty in the twenty-fifth year of his exile, 
a.d. 33. (Tac. Ann. i. 72, iv. 21 ; Sen. Contr. 3, 
praef. 2 ; Tac. Dial. 19 ; Quint, x. i. 116.) He 
cannot have been, as some commentators 
thought, the subject of Horace's sixth Epode, 
since he can hardly have been more than a 
boy when the Epodes were written. 

Severus, Cornelius, the author of a poem 
entitled Belliim Siculum, was contemporary 
with Ovid, by whom he is addressed in one of 
the Epistles written from Pontus (Ov. Pont. iv. 
16, 9; Quint, x. 1, 89). 

Severus, Plavius Valerius, Roman emperor, 
a.d. 306-307. He was proclaimed Caesar by 
Galerius in 305 ; and on the death of Constan- 
tius Chlorus, in the following year, he was 
further proclaimed Augustus by Galerius. Soon 
afterwards he was sent against Maxentius, who 
had assumed the imperial title at Rome. The 
expedition, however, was unsuccessful ; and 
Severus having surrendered at Ravenna, was 
taken prisoner to Rome and compelled to put 
an end to his life. [Maxentius.] 

Severus LiMus, Roman emperor, a.d. 461-465, 
was a Lucanian by birth, and owed his acces- 
sion to Ricimer, who placed him on the throne 
after the assassination of Majorian. During 
his reign the real government was in the hands 
of Ricimer. Severus died a natural death. 
(Jordan, de Beb. Goth. 45 ; Evagr. ii. 7.) 

Severus Sanctus Endelechius, a Gothic 
rhetorician and poet at the end of the fourth 
century. A poem of his on cattle, and on a 
plague from which they suffered, in the form of 
a pastoral dialogue (de Mortibus Bouin) has 
considerable merit. — Ed. by Giles, London, 
1838, and in Wernsdorf, Poet. Bat. Min. 

Severus, L. Septimius, Roman emperor, a.d. 
193-211, was born 146, near Leptis in Africa. 
After holding various important military com- 
mands under M. Aurelius and Commodus, he 
was at length appointed commander-in-chief of 
the army in Pannonia and Illyria. By this 



SEVEEUS 

army lie was proclaimed emperor after the 
death of Pertinax (193). He forthwith marched 
upon Rome, where Julianus had been made 
emperor by the praetorian troops. Julianus 
was put to death upon his arrival before the 
city. [Julianus.] Severus then turned his 
arms against Pescennius Niger, who had been 
saluted emperor by the Eastern legions. The 
struggle was brought to a close by a decisive 
battle near Issus, in which Niger was de- 
feated by Severus, and having been shortly 
afterwards taken prisoner was put to death 
(194). Severus then laid siege to Byzantium, 
which refused to submit to him even after 
the death of Niger, and which was not taken 
till 196. The city was treated harshly by 
Severus. Its walls were levelled with the earth, 
its soldiers and magistrates put to death, and 
the town itself, deprived of all its political privi- 
leges, made over to the Perinthians. During 
the continuance of this siege, Severus had 
crossed the Euphrates (195) and subdued the 
Mesopotamian Arabians. He returned to Italy, 
in 196, and in the same year proceeded to Gaul 
to oppose Albinus, who had been proclaimed 
emperor by the troops in that country. Albinus 
was defeated and slain near Lyons on the 19th 
of February, 197. Severus returned to Rome 
in the same year ; but after remaining a short 
time in the capital, he set out for the East to 
repel the invasion of the Parthians, who were 
ravaging Mesopotamia. He crossed the Eu- 
phrates early in 198 ; Seleucia and Babylon 
were evacuated by the enemy ; and Ctesiphon 
was taken and plundered after a short siege. 
After spending three years in the East, and 
visiting Arabia, Palestine, and Egypt, Severus 
returned to Rome in 202. For the next seven 
years he remained tranquilly at Rome, but in 
208 he went to Britain with his sons Caracalla 
and Geta, and carried on war against the Cale- 
donians. After remaining two years in Britain 
he died at Eboracum (York) on the 4th of 
February, 211, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, 
and the eighteenth of his reign. (Dio Cass, 
lxxiv., lxxv., lxxvi. ; Eutrop. viii. 10 ; Aurel. 
Vict. xx. ; Spartian. Sever.) 

Severus, Sulpicrus, chiefly celebrated as an 
ecclesiastical historian, was a native of Aqui- 
tania, and flourished towards the close of the 
fourth century under Arcadius and Honorius. 
He was descended from a noble family, and was 
originally an advocate ; but he eventually 
became a presbyter of the church, and attached 
himself closely to St. Martin of Tours. The 
extant works of Severus are : — (1) Historia 
Sacra, an epitome of sacred history, extending 
from the creation of the world to the consulship 
of Stilicho and Aurelianus, a.d. 400. (2) Vita 
8. Martini Twoncnsis. ($) Tres Epistolae. 

(4) Dialogi duo, containing a review of the dis- 
sensions which had arisen among ecclesiastics 
in the East regarding the works of Origen. 

(5) Epistolae Sex. — The best edition of the 
complete works of Severus is by C. Hahn, 
Vienna, 1886. 

Seutb.es (2« ufojs), the name of several kings 
of the Odrysians in Thruce. Of these the most 
important was the nephew of Sitalces, whom he 
succeeded on the throne in 424. During a long 
reign he raised his kingdom to a height of 
power and prosperity, which it had never pre- 
viously attained (Thuc. ii. 97, iv. 101). 

Sextla or Seatla Gens, plebeian, one of whose 
members — namely, L. Sextius SextinuB Late- 
ranus — was the first plebeian who obtained the 
consulship, B.C. 866. 



SIBAE 



869 



Sextiae Aquae. [Aquae Sextiae.] 
Sextius or Sestius. 1. P., quaestor b.c. 63, 
and tribune of the plebs 57. In the latter year 
he took an active part in obtaining Cicero's 
recall from banishment. Like Milo, he kept a 
band of armed retainers to oppose P. Clodius 
and his partisans ; and in the following year 
(56) he was accused of Vis on account of his 
violent acts during his tribunate. He was de- 
fended by Cicero in an oration still extant, and 
was acquitted on the 14th of March, chiefly in 
consequence of the powerful influence of 
Pompey. In 53, Sextius was praetor. On the 
breaking out of the Civil war in 49, Sextius first 
espoused Pompey's party, but he afterwards 
joined Caesar, who sent him, in 48, into Cappa- 
docia. He was alive in 43, as appears from 
Cicero's correspondence. (Cic. pro Sestio, ad 
Att. iii. 19, 20, 23, iv. 3, ad Fam. v. 6.)— 2. L., 
son of the preceding by his first wife, Postumia. 
He served under M. Brutus in Macedonia, but 
subsequently became the friend of Augustus. 
One of Horace's Odes (i. 4) is addressed to him. 
{Bell. Alex. 34 ; Cic. ad Att. xiii. 2, xv. 17, 27.) 
— 3. T., one of Caesar's legates in Gaul, and 
afterwards governor of the province of Numidia, 
or New Africa, at the time of Caesar's death 
(44). Here he carried on war against Q. Cor- 
nificius, who held the province of Old Africa, 
and whom he defeated and slew in battle. (Caes. 
B.G. vi. 1, vii. 49 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 21-24 ; App. 
B.C. iv. 53, v. 75.) 

Sextius Calvinus. [Calytnus.] 

Sextus Empiricus, was a physician, and re- 
ceived his name Empiricus from belonging to 
the school of the Empirici. He was a contem- 
porary of Galen, and lived in the first half of 
the third century of the Christian era. Nothing 
is known of his life. He belonged to the Scep- 
tical school of philosophy. Two of his works are 
extant : — (1) Tlvppdviai iirorvTruaeis ?) (rKtffTiKa 
virotiviiiiara, containing the doctrines of the 
Sceptics in three books. (2) Tlpbs tovs /MiBriixa- 
riKovs av TippTjTi/coi, against the Mathematici, in 
eleven books, is an attack upon all positive philo- 
sophy. The first six books are a refutation of 
the six sciences of grammar, rhetoric, geometry, 
arithmetic, astrology, and music. The remain- 
ing five books are directed against logicians, phy- 
sical philosophers, and ethical writers, and form, 
in fact, a distinct work, which may be viewed 
as belonging to the 'TirorvirJicreis. The two 
works are a great repository of doubts ; the lan- 
guage is as clear and perspicuous as the subject 
will allow. — Edited by Fabricius, Lips. 1718. 

Sextus Eufus Festus, or perhaps more cor- 
rectly Rufius Festus alone, is the name prefixed 
to an abridgment of Roman History in twenty- 
eight short chapters, entitled Breviarium de 
Victoriis ct Provinciis Populi Bontani, and 
executed by command of the emperor Vulens, 
to whom it is dedicated. This work is usually 
printed with the larger editions of Eutropius, 
and of the minor Roman historians. I Eutko- 
prus.] Some have suggested that Rufus or 
Rufius Festus the historian and Rufius Festus 
Avienus are the same person ; but there is no 
probability in this, though they may poBsibly 
be father and son. [Avienus.] 

Siatutandai 5iaToi^rav5o),isgiven by Ptolemy 
(ii. 1, 27) as the name of a town in Germany, 
but there is little doubt that this is an amusing 
and instructive mistake, and that Ptolemy 
invented the town from misunderstanding the 
words of Tacitus (Ann. iv. 73) 'ad sua tutan- 
da digressis rebellibus.' 

Sibae or Sibi (Si'fltu, 2i'j3oi), a rude people in 



870 



SIBYLLAE 



SICILIA 



tlie NW. of India (in the Punjab), above the 
confluence of the rivers Hydaspes (Jelum) and 
Acesines (Chenab), who were clothed in skins 
and armed with clubs, and whom therefore the 
soldiers of Alexander regarded as descendants 
of Heracles (Arrian, Ind. 5 ; Diod. xvii. 96 ; 
Strab. p. 688). 

Sibyllae (Si'jSuAAai), the name by which seve- 
ral prophetic women are designated. The first 
Sibyl, from whom all the rest are said to have 
derived their name, is called a daughter of 
Dardanus and Neso (cf. Heracleit. Fr. 12). 
Some authors mention only four Sibyls, the 
Erythraean, the Samian, the Egyptian, and the 
Sardian ; but as time went on the number grew 
to ten : namely, the Babylonian, the Libyan, 
the Delphian, the Cimmerian, the Erythraean, 
the Samian, the Cumaean, the Hellespontian 
or Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Tiburtine. 
The most celebrated of these Sibyls is the Cu- 
maean, who is mentioned under the names of 
Herophile, Demo, Phemonoe, Deiphobe, De- 
mophile, and Amalthea. She was consulted by 
Aeneas before he descended into the lower world. 
She is said to have come to Italy from the East, 
and she is the one who, according to tradition, 
appeared before king Tarquinius, offering him 
the Sibylline books for sale (Varro, ap. Lactant. 
Inst. Div. i. 6 ; Dionys. iv. 62 ; Isid. Orig. viii. 
815). Bespecting the Sibylline books, see Diet, 
of Antiq. art. Sibyllini Libri. 

Sicambri. [Sugambbi.] 

Sicani, Siceli, Siceliotae. [Sicilia.] 

Sicca, a friend of Cicero, who had a country 
house at Vibo in Bruttium. Cicero took refuge 
there twice, in 58 B.C. and in 44. (Cic. ad Att. 
hi. 2, 4, viii. 12, xvi. 6.) 

Sicca Veneria (prob. Al-Kaff), a consider- 
able city of N. Africa, on the frontier of Nu- 
midia and Zeugitana, built on a hill near the 
river Bagradas. It derived its name from 
a temple of Venus in which the goddess was 
worshipped with rites peculiar to the corre- 
sponding Eastern deity Astarte, whence it may 
be inferred that the place was a Phoenician 
settlement. (Val. Max. ii. 6, 15 ; Sail. Jug. 56; 
Ptol. iv. 3, 30.) 

Sichaeus, also called Acerbas. [Acbebas.] 

Sicilia (SuceAi'a : Sicily), except Sardinia, is 
the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. 
It is probable that its original name to the 
Greeks was Thrinacia (©pivaida). [The idea 
that Thrinacia was the Peloponnese is unten- 
able.] It is probable also that the name of the 
island Thrinacia in the Odyssey (xi. 107, xii. 127) 
is borrowed from it ; but it is clear that the 
Homeric Thrinacia was conceived by the poet 
as different from Sicily. It was a small island, 
and it was reached after Scylla was passed : 
moreover it was not the island of the Cyclopes. 
The name ~2,tKaviri also appears in Od. xxiv. 
307 (by many considered a later addition). 
The names Trinacria or Trinacris (Verg. Aen. 
iii. 440, &c.) were believed by the ancients 
to express the triangular shape of the island 
(Ov. Fast. iv. 420). Recently it has been 
strongly urged that these names are merely 
corruptions of the old Thrinacia, and them- 
selves gave the notion, not absolutely correct, 
that the island was a perfect triangle. This 
maybe to some extent true. At the same time 
it should not be forgotten that the words 0piVa£ 
and Tpiraf are the same, and therefore that, 
though Thrinacia may have been the original 
Greek name, there is no reason why it should 
express any idea different from Trinacria. The 
island is of course not a regular triangle, but 



an irregular quadrilateral with a short fourth 
side to the W. between Eryx and Libybaeum. 
Still there is a rough resemblance to a three- 
pointed island (which navigators even as early 
as the writing of the Odyssey may have per- 
ceived) sufficient to give rise to the name, 
whether Thrinacia or Trinacria, and it is on 
the whole more likely that it was so called for 
this reason than because it was sacred to Pos- 
eidon, the god of the trident. It is very likely 
that the name did tend to strengthen the con- 
ception of a regular triangle, which found ex- 
pression in the name Triquetra (Lucret. i. 718 ; 
Hor. Sat. ii. 6, 55) ; but, when all is said, even 
those who have a modern map before them may 
well recognise an approach to a triangular shape. 
Its more usual name was also its proper name, 
derived from its inhabitants, the Siceli, whence it 
wa,s called Sicelia (2i/ceAi'a), which the Romans 
changed into Sicilia. And from the Sicani 
[see below] the island was also called Sicania 
(5i/caei'a). — Sicily is separated from the S. coast 
of Italy by a narrow channel called Fretum 
Siculum, sometimes simply Fretum (n.op6fi6s), 
and also Scyllaeum Fretum, of which the 
modern name is Faro di Messina. The sea on 
the E. of the island was also called Mare 
Siculum, which was regarded as the W. portion 
of the Mare Ionium. The sea on the S. was 
called Mare Africum. The N. and S. sides 
of the island are about 175 miles each in 
length, not including the windings of the coast ; 
and the length of the E. side is about 115 miles ; 
the short western side, from Eryx to Lilybaeum, 
which blunts the triangle and makes it a quadri- 
lateral, is about thirty miles. The NW. end, 
the Prom. Lilybaeum, is about ninety miles 
from C. Bon on the coast of Africa ; the NE. 
point, Prom. Pelorus, is about three miles 
from the coast of Calabria in Italy ; and the 
SE. point, Prom. Pachynus, is sixty miles from 
the island of Malta. Sicily formed originally 
part of Italy, and was torn away from it oy 
some volcanic eruption, as the ancients gene- 
rally believed. [Rhegium.] A range of moun- 
tains, which are a continuation of the Apen- 
nines, extends throughout the island from E. 
to W. The general name of this mountain- 
range was Nebrodes Montes (Madonia), which 
rise to a height of about 3000 feet, and of which 
the Heraei Montes of Diodorus seem to be part. 
But the most important feature of the island is 
the separate volcanic mountain Aetna, which 
rises to a height of 10,874 feet on the east coast, 
with a base of elevated ground ninety miles in 
circumference. The detached mass of Mt. Eryx 
also, in the extreme W. near Drepanum, pre- 
sents a bold appearance, though its height is 
only 2184 feet. Otherwise the coasts at the 
W. end of the island are comparatively low 
and shelving. In the centre of Sicily a moun- 
tain-range branches off to the S. from the Ne- 
brodes and from the hill}' country about Enna. 
The SE. part of the island is an elevated lime- 
stone tract, broken up by valleys and ravines 
with a gradual slope towards the S. and SE. 
A large number of rivers flow down from the 
mountains, but most of them are dry, or nearly 
so, in the summer. The soil of Sicily was very 
fertile, and produced in antiquity an immense 
quantity of wheat, on which the population of 
Rome relied to a great extent for their subsis- 
tence (Strab. p. 273 ; Diod. v. 2). So celebrated 
was it even in early times on account of its 
corn, that it was represented as sacred to 
Demeter, and as the favourite abode of this 
goddess. Hence it was in this island that her 



SICILIA 



871 



daughter, Persephone, was carried away by 
Pluto. [Demeter ; Persephone.] Besides 
corn the island produced excellent wine, saffron, 
honey, almonds, and the other southern fruits. — 
It is probable that the mention of the Cyclopes 
and Laestrygones in the Odyssey was due to 
reports of a rough and savage people dwelling 
in Sicily. Apart from these legends the preva- 
lent tradition was that the Sicani, being hard 
pressed by the Ligyes (Ligures), crossed the 
Alps and settled in Latium ; that, being driven 
out of this country by the Aborigines with the 
help of Pelasgians, they migrated to the S. of 
the peninsula, where they lived for a consider- 
able time along with the Oenotrians ; and that 
at last they crossed over to Sicily, to which 
they gave their name (Sicania). They spread 
over the greater part of the island, but in later 
times were found chiefly in the interior and in the 
W. and NW. parts, having been driven thither 
by the later invasion of Sicels. The next im- 
migrants into the island are said to have been 
the Elymi ("EKvfioi), who are described as a i 
Trojan race who came there after the fall of 
Troy and settled in the country about Eryx. 
The Sicels (2i(ceA.oi', Siculi) are described as hav- 
ing been driven out of Italy by the Oscans, and 
as having crossed the Straits of Messina on 
rafts. (Thuc. vi. 2 ; Dionys. i. 22, v. 6.) There is 
much controversy as to the real origin and 
nationality of these races ; but Freeman is I 
probably right in not rejecting the views of 
Thucydides and Philistus (ap. Diod. v. 6), that 
the Sicani were Iberians (i.e. of the same race 
as the Ligurians and the Basques), and that 
they were distinct from the Sicels (though 
Schwegler and Holm regard them as identical 
and as both being Iberian). According to this 
view, the Sicani were a non-Aryan race and the 
earliest inhabitants ; the Sicels were the van- 
guard of the Aryan settlers, who, pressed out 
of Italy by later immigrants, passed over the 
straits and dispossessed the Sicani and Elymi of 
most of the island. There is still more doubt 
about the Elymi. Some say they were a mixed 
race of Asiatic barbarians and Ionians from 
Asia Minor : some say they were Elamites. , 
On the whole, it is most likely that there was 
an element of truth in the story about the 
Trojans, and that they were of Phrygian origin. 
The chief cities of Elymaean origin were Eryx, 
Segesta, and Entella. Besides these settlements, 
there was possibly an invasion from Crete at 
a period earlier than the foundation of the 
Greek colonies, which may be indicated in the 
legend that Cretans came to Sicily under their 
king, Minos, in pursuit of Daedalus, and that 
they settled on the S. coast in the neighbour- 
hood of Agrigentum, where they founded Minoa 
(afterwards Heraclea Minoa). [Minos.] The 
Phoenicians likewise at an early period formed 
settlements, for the purposes of commerce, on 
all the coasts of Sicily, but more especially on 
the N. and NW. parts. They were subse- 
quently obliged to retire from the greater part 
of their settlements before the increasing power 
of the Greeks, and to confine themselves to 
Motya, Solus, and Panormus. But the most 
important of all the immigrants into Sicily 
were the Greeks, The first body of Greeks 
who landed in the island were Chalcidians from 
Enboca, and Megarians led by the Athenian 
Thucles. These Greek colonists built the town 
of Naxos, B.C. 735. They were soon followed 
by other Greek colonist*, who founded a num- 
ber of very flourishing cities : Syracuse, founded 
by Corinthians in 734 ; Leontini and Catana by 



the Sicilian Naxos in 730 ; Megara Hyblea by 
Megarians from Greece in 728 ; Gela by Liu- 
dians from Rhodes and by Cretans in 690 ; 
Zancle, afterwards Cai larina, by Cumaeans and 
Chalcidians about 700 ; Himera, a colony from 
Zancle in 648 ; Acrae, Casmenae and Camarina 
from Syracuse between 650 and 599 ; Selinus 
from Megara Hyblaea in 630, Acragas or Agri- 
gentum from Gela in 582. The Greeks soon 
became the ruling race in the island, and re- 
ceived the name of Siceliotae (SiKeAiajrai) to 
distinguish them from the earlier inhabitants. 
The Sicel towns were mostly inland : a few, of 
small importance, on the N. coast. Their fusion, 
and that of the other inhabitants, with the 
Greeks was fairly complete before the Roman 
conquest, each nationality to some extent having 
influenced the other, but Greek influence and 
character predominating. Meantime the Car- 
thaginians obtained a firm footing in Sicily. 
Their first attempt was made in 480 ; but they 
were defeated by Gelo of Syracuse, and 
obliged to retire with great loss. It is remark- 
able that the Asiatic nationalities, Persia and 
the Phoenician Carthaginians, attacked the 
Greek states simultaneously at opposite quar- 
ters : nor is it to be supposed that this was 
without design and concert. In the period 
after this invasion occurred the Athenian expe- 
dition of 415 [SyracusaeJ. The second Cartha- 




Coin of Sicily, third cent. B.C. 

Obv.. head of Deraeter, -whose worship was especially 
prevalent in Sicily ; rev., Z1KEAIOTAN : Victory in a 
quadriga. 



ginian invasion, in 409, was more successful 
than the first. They took Selinus in this year, 
and four years afterwards (405) the powerful 
city of Agrigentum. They now became the 
permanent masters of the W. part of the island, 
and were engaged in frequent wars with Syracuse 
and the other Greek cities. The struggle be- 
tween the Carthaginians and Greeks continued, 
with a few interruptions, down to the first Punic 
war ; at the close of which (241) the Cartha- 
ginians were obliged to evacuate the island, the 
W. part of which now passed into the hands of 
the Romans, and was made a Roman province. 
The E. part still continued under the rule of 
Hiero of Syracuse as an ally of Rome ; but 
after the revolt of Syracuse in the second 
Punic war, and the conquest of that city by 
Marcellus, the whole island was made a Roman 
province, and was administered by a praetor. 
Under the Roman dominion more attention 
was paid to agriculture than to commerce, and 
consequently the Greek cities on the coast 
gradually declined in prosperity and in wealth. 
Augustus, after his conquest of Sex. Pompey, 
who had held the island for several years, 
founded colonies at Messana, Tauromenium, 
Catana, Syracuse, Thermae, and Panormus 
(Strab. p. 272). On the downfall of the Roman 
empire, Sicily formed part of the kingdom of 
the Ostrogoths ; but it was taken from them by 
Beliaarius in A.n. 536, and annexed to the By- 
zantine empire. It continued a province of 



872 



SICIMA 



SICYONIA 



this empire till 828, when it was conquered by 
the Saracens. 

Sicima. [Neapolis, No. 5.] 

Sicinius. 1. L. Sicinius Bellutus, the leader 
of the plebeians in their secession to the Sacred 
Mount in B.C. 494. He was chosen one of the 
first tribunes. — 2. L. Sicinius DeiltatUS, called 
by some writers the Roman Achilles (Gell. ii. 
11). He is said to have fought in 120 battles, 
to have slain eight of the enemy in single combat, 
to have received forty-five wounds on the front 
of his body, and to have accompanied the 
triumphs of nine generals, whose victories were 
principally owing to his valour. He was tri- 
bune of the plebs in 454. He was put to death 
by the decemvirs in 450, because he endeavoured 
to persuade the plebeians to secede to the 
Sacred Mount. The persons sent to assassinate 
him fell upon him in a lonely spot, but he 
killed most of them before they succeeded in 
despatching him. (Dionys. x. 48, xi. 25-27 ; 
Liv. iii. 43 ; Val. Max. ii. 3, 24.) 

Sicinus (Sikicos : Sikiv'ittis : Sikino), a small 
island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades, 
between Pholegandrus and Ios, with a town of 
the same name (Strab. p. 484 ; Scyl. p. 19). It 
is said to have been originally called Oenoe 
from its cultivation of the vine, but to have 
been named Sicinus after a son of Thoas and 
Oenoe (Ap. Rh. i. 623 ; Steph. Byz. s. v.). It 
was probably colonised by the Ionians. During 
the Persian war it submitted to Xerxes (Hdt. 
viii. 4), but it afterwards formed part of the 
Athenian maritime empire. 

Sicoris (Segre), a river in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, which had its source in the territory of 
the Cerretani, divided the Ilergetes and Lace- 
tani, flowed by Ilerda and, after receiving the 
river Cinga (Cinca), fell into the Iberus, near 
Octogesa (Caes. B. C. i. 40, 48 ; Lucan, iv. 13). 

Siculi. [Sicilia.] 

Siculum Freturh, Siculum Mare. [Sicilia.] 

Siculus Flaccus. [Flaccus.] 

Sicyonla (Si/cuawia), a small district in the 
NE. of Peloponnesus, bounded on the E. by the 
territory of Corinth, on the W. by Achaia, on 
the S. by the territory of Phlius and Cleonae, 
and on the N. by the Corinthian gulf. The 
area of the country was probably somewhat less 
than 100 square miles. It consisted of a plain 
near the sea with mountains in the interior. 
Its rivers, which ran in a north-easterly direc- 
tion, were Sythas on the frontier of Achaia, 
Helisson, Selleis, and Asopus in the interior, 
and Nemea on the frontier of the territory of 
Corinth. The land was fertile, and produced 
excellent oil. Its almonds and its fish were 
also much prized. Its chief town was Sicyon 
(Si/cuav : ^iKvdvios), which was situated a little 
to the W. of the river Asopus, and at the dis- 
txnce of twenty stadia from the sea. It is 
situated on a plateau with steep sides, afford- 
ing a defensible position. The harbour, which, 
according to some, was connected with the city 
by means of long walls, was well fortified, and 
formed a town of itself. Sicyon was regarded 
as one of the most ancient cities of Greece. It 
is said to have been originally called Aegialea 
or Aegiali (AlyiaXeia, Alyia\oi), after an ancient 
king, Aegialeus (a name clearly formed from 
the tribe or district); to have been subse- 
quently named Mecone (MriKwvri), and to have 
been finally called Sicyon from an Athenian of 
this name, who became king of the city. (Hes. 
Th. 535; Strab. p. 382; Paus. ii. 6, 5.) The 
story suggests that the district of Sicyon was 
originally only a part of the Achaean Aegalia, 



and became an independent state when Athe- 
nian influence and aid withdrew it from the 
rest of Achaea. Sicyon is represented by Homer 
as forming part of the empire of Agamemnon 
(17. ii. 572, xxiii. 299) ; but on the invasion of 
Peloponnesus it became subject to Phalces, the 
son of Temenus, and was henceforward a Dorian 
state. The ancient inhabitants, however, were 
formed into a fourth tribe, called Aegialeis, which 
possessed equal rights with the three tribes of 
the Hylleis, Pamphyli, and Dymanatae, into 
which the Dorian conquerors were divided. 
Sicyon, on accouut of the small extent of its 
territory, never attained much political import- 
ance, and was generally dependent either on 
Argos or Sparta. At the time of the second 
Messenian war it became subject to a succes- 
sion of tyrants, who administered their power 
with moderation and justice for 100 years (Ar. 
Pol. v. 9, 21). The first of these tyrants was 
Andreas, who began to rule b.c. 676. He was 
followed in succession by Myron, Aristonymus, 
and Clisthenes, on whose death, about 576, a 
republican form of government was established. 
Clisthenes had no male children, but only a 
daughter, Agariste, who was married to the 
Athenian Megacles (Hdt. vi. 126 ; Paus. ii. 8, 1). 
In the Persian war the Sicyonians sent fifteen 
ships to the battle of Salamis, and 300 hoplites 




Coin of Sicyon, fourth cent. B.C. 

Obv., 2E : Chimaera ; rev., dove in olive-wreath. (The 
Chimaera refers to the legend of the local hero Bellero- 
phon ; the dove to Aphrodite, in -whose temple at Sicyon 
stood a statue by Canachus.) 



to the battle of Plataea (Hdt. viii. 43, ix. 28). 
In the interval between the Persian and the 
Peloponnesian wars, the Sicyonians were twice 
defeated and their country laid waste by the 
Athenians, first under Tolmides in 456, and 
again under Pericles in 454. In the Pelopon- 
nesian war they took part with the Spartans. 
Sicyon was occupied by Ptolemy in 308, and by 
Demetrius Poliorcetes in 303, when its name 
was changed (but only for a short time) to 
Demetrias (Diod. xx. 102). In the middle of 
the third century Sicyon took an active part in 
public affairs in consequence of its being the 
native town of Aratus, who united it to the 
Achaean League in 251 (Plut. Arat. 9 ; Pol.ii.43). 
Under the Romans it gradually declined ; and in 
the time of Pausanias, in the second century of 
the Christian era, many of its public buildings 
were in ruins. — Sicyon was for a long time one 
of the chief seats of Grecian art. It gave its 
name to one of the great schools of painting, 
which was founded by Eupompus, and which 
produced Pamphilus and Apelles. It is also 
said to have been the earliest school of statuary 
in Greece, which was introduced into Sicyon by 
Dipoenus and Scyllis from Crete about 560; 
but its earliest native artist of celebrity was Can- 
achus. Lysippus was also a native of Sicyon. — 
There are considerable ruins of the ancient city, 
showing the position of the Acropolis, the 
temple of the Dioscuri, the Stadion and the 
Theatre, in which the tiers of seats and the 



SIDA 



SIGNIA 



878 



stage have in recent years been completely 
excavated by the American School at Athens. 

Sida, Side (2i'Stj, 2i5i't7)s, and 2i57)Trjs, Sidites, 
and Sidetes). 1. (Eski Adalia, Ru.), a city of 
Pamphyha, on the coast, a little W. of the river 
Melas. It was an Aeolian colony from Cyme in 
Aeolis, and was a chief seat of the worship of 
Athene, who is represented on its coins holding 
a pomegranate (a'iSrt) as the emblem of the 
city. In the division of the provinces under 
Constantine, it was made the capital of Pam- 
phylia Prima. (Xen. An. i. 2, 12 ; Athen. p. 
350 ; Paus. viii. 17, 31 ; Cic. ad Fam. iii. 6.) — 
2. The old name of PoLEMONruii, from which a 
flat district in the NE. of Pontus Polemoniacus, 
along the coast, obtained the name of Sidene 
CS.iit]vt)). 
Sidenus. [Poleiioniuh.] 
SldlCini, an Ausonian people in the NW, of 
Campania and on the borders of Samnium, who, 
being hard pressed by the Samnites, united 
themselves to the Campanians (Liv. vii. 29 ; 
Strab. p. 237). Their chief town was Teanum. 

Sidon, gen. -onis {2tSdv, gen. SiScuvos, 2i5<Ws, 
O.T. Zidon ; 2i8<iv, 'StScCvios, ~2i86i>ws, Sidonius : 
Saida), for a long time the most powerful, and 
probably the most ancient, of the cities of 
Phoenice. It stood in a plain, about a mile 
wide, on the coast of the Mediterranean, 200 
stadia (20 geogr. miles) N. of Tyre, 400 stadia 
(40 geogr. miles) S. of Berytus, 66 miles W. of 
Damaacus, and a day's journey NW. of the 
source of the Jordan at Paneas. It had a fine 
double harbour, now almost filled with sand ; 
and was strongly fortified. It was the chief 
seat of the maritime power of Phoenice, until 
eclipsed by its own colony, Tyre [Tyrus] ; and 
its power on the land side seems to have I 
extended over all Phoenice, and at one period 
over a part of Palestine. In the expedition of 
Xerxes against Greece, the Sidonians furnished 
the best ships in the whole fleet, and their king 
obtained the highest place, next to Xerxes, in 
the council, and above the king of Tyre. Sidon 
received a great blow to her prosperity in the 
reign of Artaxerxes III. Ochus, when the Si- 
donians, having taken part in the revolt of 
Phoenice and Cyprus, and being betrayed to 
Ochus by their own king, Tennes, burnt them- 
selves with their city, B.C. 351. The city was 
rebuilt, but the fortifications were not restored, 
and the place was therefore of no further im- 
portance in military history. It shared the 
fortunes of the rest of Phoenicia, and under the 
Romans it retained much of its commercial im- 
rtance, which it has not yet entirely lost. 

HOENICE.] 

Sidonius Apollinaris, whose full name was 
C. Sollius Modestus Apollinaris Sidonius, was 
born at Lyons about a.d. 431. At an early 
age he married Papianilla, the child of Flavius 
Avitus ; and upon the elevation of his father- 
in-law to the imperial dignity (456), he accom- 
panied him to Rome, and celebrated his consul- 
ship in a poem still extant. Avitus raised 
Sidonius to the rank of a senator, nominated 
liim prefect of the city, and caused his statue to 
be placed among the effigies which graced the 
library of Trajan. The downfall of Avitus 
threw a cloud over the fortunes of Sidonius, 
who having been shut up in Lyons, and having 
endured the hardships of the siege, purchased 
pardon by u complimentary address to the 
victorious Majorian. The poet was not only 
forgiven, but was rewarded with a laurelled 
bust, and with the title of count. After passing 
some years in retirement during the reign of 



Severus, Sidonius was despatched to Rome 
(467) in the character of ambassador from the 
Arverni to Anthemius, and on this occasion 
delivered a third panegyric in honour of a third 
prince, which proved not less successful than 
his former efforts, for he was now raised to the 
rank of a patrician, again appointed prefect of 
the city, and once more honoured with a statue. 
But a still more remarkable tribute was soon 
afterwards rendered to his talents ; for although 
he was not a priest, the vacant see of Clermont 
in Auvergne was forced upon his reluctant 
acceptance (472) at the death of the bishop 
Eparchius. During the remainder of his life 
he devoted himself to the duties of his sacred 
office, and especially resisted with energy the 
progress of Arianism. He died in 482, or, ac- 
cording to others, in 484. The extant works of 
Sidonius are : — (1) Carmina, twenty-four in 
number, composed in various measures upon 
various subjects. Of these the most important 
are the three panegyrics already mentioned. 
(2) Epistolarum Libri IX, containing 147 
letters, many of them interspersed with pieces 
of poetry. They are addressed to a wide circle 
of relatives and friends upon topics connected 
with politics, literature and domestic occur- 
rences, but seldom touch upon ecclesiastical 
matters. They are imitations of the letters of 
Pliny and Symmachus. The writings of Si- 
donius are characterised by great subtlety of 
thought, expressed in phraseology abounding 
with harsh and violent metaphors, and full of 
learned mythology. Hence he is generally 
obscure ; but his works throughout bear the 
impress of an acute and highly cultivated 
intellect.- — The best editions of his works are 
by Sirmond, Paris, 1652, and by C. Liitjohann, 
Berl. 1887. 

Sidus (2i8o0s, -ovvros : 2i5oiWior), afortified 
place in the territory of Corinth, on the bay of 
Cenchreae, and a little to the E. of Crommyon. 
It was taken by the Lacedaemonians in the 
Corinthian war, and retaken by Iphicrates. 
(Xen. Hell. iv. 4, 13, iv. 5, 19.) 

Sidussa ISiSovaaa), a small place in Lydia, 
belonging to the territory of the Ionian city of 
Erythra (Thuc. viii. 24). 

Sidyma (to 2l5v/j.a: Tortoorcar Hisar, Ru.), 
a town in the interior of Lycia, on a mountain, 
N. of the mouth of Xanthus (Plin. v. 101 ; Ptol. 
v. 3, 5 ; Hierocl. p. 684). There are interesting 
remains of the town, with valuable inscriptions. 
Slga (2170), a considerable seaport town of 
[ Mauretania Caesariensis, on a river of the same 
j name, the mouth of which opened into a large 
I bay, which formed the harbour of the town 
(Ptol. iv. 2, 2 ; Strab. p. 829). 
Sigeum ( Yenisheri), the NW. promontory of 
i the Troad, of Asia Minor, and of all Asia, and 
the S. headland at the entrance of the Helles- 
, pont, opposite to the Prom. Mastusium (C. 
Helles), at the extremity of the Thracian Cher- 
sonese. It is here that Homer places the 
Grecian fleet and camp during the Trojan war 
ITbojaI. Near it was a seaport town of the 
same name, which was the object of contention 
between the Aeoliuns and the Athenians in the 
war in which Pittacus distinguished himself by 
his valour and in which Alcaeus lost his shield. 
[Pittacus ; Alcaeus.] It was afterwards the 
residence of the Pisistratidae, when they were 
expelled from Athens. (Strab. p. 599 ; Hdt. 
v. 95.) 

Sigma (Signinus : Scr/ni), a town in Latium 
on the E. side of the Volscian mountains, said 
to have been founded by Tanjuinius Priscus 



874 



SIGEIUM 



SILARUS 



(Liv. i. 55 ; Dionys. iv. 63). It held a strong 
position on a hill commanding the valley of the 
Trerus and overlooking the plain towards 
Praeneste. It was a Latin colony in the time 
of the Punic wars, and was faithful to Borne 
(Liv. xxi. i. 10) ; and it was afterwards an im- 
portant municipal town. It was celebrated for 
its temple of Jupiter Urius, for its astringent 
•wine (Mart. xiii. 116; Strab. p. 237), for its 
pears, and for a particular kind of tesselated 
pavement, called opus Signinum. There are 
still remains of the polygonal walls of the 




Gate of Signia. 



ancient town, including a gate which is a 
remarkable instance of Cyclopean building. 

Sigrium (Siypiov : Sigri), the W. promontory 
of the island of Lesbos (Strab. p. 616). 

Sila Silva (Aspromonte), a large forest in 
Bruttium on the Apennines, extending S. of 
Consentia to the Sicilian straits, a distance of 
700 stadia. It was celebrated for the excellent 
pitch which it yielded. (Strab. p. 261.) 

Silanion (SiAai/iW), a distinguished Greek 
sculptor, was an Athenian and a contemporary 
of Lysippus, about 324. The statues of Silanion 
belonged to two classes, ideal and actual por- 
traits. Of the former the most celebrated was 
his dying Jocasta, in wbich a deadly paleness 
was given to the face by the mixture of silver 
with the bronze (Plin. xxxiv. 82). His statue 
of Sappho, which stood in the prytaneum at 
Syracuse in the time of Verres, is alluded to 
by Cicero in terms of the highest praise (Cic. 
Verr. iv. 57, 125). 

Silanus, Junius. 1. M., was praetor 212. 
In 210 he accompanied P. Scipio to Spain, and 
served under him with great distinction during 
the whole of the war in that country. He fell 
in battle against the Boii in 196, fighting under 
the consul M. Marcellus. (Liv. xxv. 2, xxviii. 1 ; 
Pol. xi. 20-26; App. Hisp. 28, 32.)— 2. D., sur- 
named Manlianus, son of the jurist T. Manlius 
Torquatus, but adopted by aD. Junius Silanus. 
He was praetor 142, and obtained Macedonia 
as his province. Being accused of extortion 
by the inhabitants of the province, the senate 
referred the investigation of the charges to his 
own father, Torquatus, who condemned his son, 
and banished him from his presence ; and when 
Silanus hanged himself in grief, his father 
would not attend his funeral. (Val. Max. v. 8, 
3 ; Cic. Fin. i. 7.)— 3. M., consul 109, fought in 
this year against the Cimbri in Transalpine 



Gaul, and was defeated. He was accused in 
104, by the tribune Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
in consequence of this defeat, but was acquitted. 
(Liv. Ep. 65 ; Sail. Jug. 43 ; Flor. iii. 3, 4.) — 

4. D., stepfather of M. Brutus, the murderer of 
Caesar, having married his mother Servilia. 
He was elected consul in 63 for the following 
year; and in consequence of his being consul 
designatus, he was first asked for his opinion 
by Cicero in the debate in the senate on the 
punishment of the Catilinarian conspirators. 
He was consul 62, with L. Licinius Murena, 
along with whom he proposed the Lex Licinia 
Julia. (Sail. Cat. 50 ; App. B. C. ii. 5 ; Plut. 
Cic. 20, 21 ; Cic. Off. ii. 16, ad Att. i. 1, ii. 9.)— 

5. M., son of No. 4 and of Servilia, served in 
Gaul as Caesar's legatus in 53. After Caesar's 
murder in 44, he accompanied M. Lepidus over 
the Alps, and. in the following year Lepidus 
sent him with a detachment of troops into Cis- 
alpine Gaul, where he fought on the side of 
Antony. He was consul in 25. He had two 
sisters, one married to M. Lepidus, the triumvir, 
and the other to C. Cassius, one of Caesar's 
murderers. (Caes. B. G. vi. 1 ; Dio Cass. xlvi. 
38, 51, liii. 25 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 77.)— 6. M., consul 
19, with L. Norbanus Balbus. In 33 his 
daughter Claudia was married to C. Caesar, 
afterwards the emperor Caligula. Silanus was 
governor of Africa in the reign of Caligula, but 
was compelled by his father-in-law to put an 
end to his life. Julius Graecinus, the father of 
Agricola, had been ordered by Caligula to 
accuse Silanus, but he declined the odious 
task. (Tac. Ann. ii. 59, iii. 24, vi. 20, Hist. iv. 48, 
Agr. 4 ; Suet. Cal. 12, 23.) — 7. App., consul a.d. 
28 with Silius Nerva. Claudius soon after his 
accession gave to Silanus in marriage Domitia 
Lepida, the mother of his wife Messallina, and 
treated him otherwise with the greatest dis- 
tinction. But shortly afterwards, having re- 
fused the embraces of Messallina, he was put to 
death by Claudius, on the accusations of Mes- 
sallina and Narcissus. (Dio Cass. ix. 14 ; Tac. 
Ann. iv. 68, vi. 9, xi. 29 ; Suet. Claud. 37.) The 
first wife of Silanus was Aemilia Lepida, the 
proneptis or great-grand-daughter of Augustus. 
— 8. M., son of No. 7., consul 46. Silanus was 
proconsul of Asia at the succession of Nero in 
54, and was poisoned by command of Agrippina, 
who feared that he might avenge the death of 
his brother [No. 9] and that his descent from 
Augustus might lead him to be preferred to the 
youthful Nero. (Dio Cass. lx. 27 ; Tac. Ann. xiii. 
1.) — 9. L., also a son of No. 7, was betrothed to 
Octavia, the daughter of the emperor Claudius, 
which roused the jealousy of Agrippina, and 
when, through her influence,Octavia was married 
to Nero, in 48, Silanus knew that his fate was 
sealed and therefore put an end to his life 
(Tac. Ann. xii. 3, 8 ; Dio Cass. lx. 5, 31).— 10. 
D. Junius Torquatus Silanus, probably also a 
son of No. 7, was consul 53. He was compelled 
by Nero in 64 to put an end to his life, because 
he had boasted of being descended from Augus- 
tus. (Tac. Ann. xii. 58, xv. 35.)— 11. L. Junius; 
Torquatus Silanns, son of No. 8, and conse- 
quently the atnepos, or great-great-great-grand- 
son of Augustus. His descent from Augustus, 
rendered him an object of suspicion to Nero. 
He was accordingly accused in 65, was sen- 
tenced to banishment, and was shortly after- 
wards put to death at Barium in Apulia. (Tac* 
Ann. xv. 52, xvi. 7-9.) 

Silarus (Sele), a river in lower Italy, forming 
the boundary between Lucania and Campania, 
rises in the Apennines, and after receiving the 



SILENUS 

Tanager (Negri) and Calor (Calore), falls into 
the Sinus Paestanus a little to the N. of Paes- 
tum. Its water is said to have petrified plants. 
(Strab. pp. 251, 252 ; Mel. ii, 4, 9.) 

Silenus (SeiA-nerfs). 1. (Mythological.) Si- 
lenus, who is familiar in Greek and Roman 
literature and art as the satyr- like half-drunken 
attendant of the youthful Dionysus, or foster- 
father of the infant Dionysus, was originally 
something quite different. In Lydia, which was 
always recognised as his home (Lucian, Deor. 
Cone, 4) he was the god of springs and running 
water, and even the personification of water. 
In popular belief there were several Sileni, who 
were, in fact, male Naiads (among whom may 
be reckoned Mabsyas), and also inventors of 
the flute ; but one Silenus had a separate per- 
sonality, and was regarded as the Lydian water- 
god. As was the case with nymphs and other 
nature-deities in Greece, Silenus was credited 
with prophetic power. This attribute, as well 
as his connexion with springs, appears in the 
Lydian story of Midas capturing him by mixing 
wine with the spring, and so extorting a pro- 



SILSILIS 



875 




Silenus on a wine-akin. (From a bronze statue at 
Naples : originally belonging to a fountain.) 

phecy. [Midas.] It is probubly right to under- 
stand the ass in the Asiatic myth of Silenus as 
symbolising his prophetic power, since Pindar 
speaks of the ass as the animal sacrificed to 
the Hyperborean Apollo (Pyth. x. 83). Even 
in Greece and Italy there were traces of the 
belief in Sileni as water-deities. In the Homeric 
Hymn to Aphrodite (262) they are companions 
of nymphs. At Malea in Laconia the people 
believed that Silenus gave them their water, 
and that he was the son of a Malean naiad 
(Paus. iii. 25, 21; and in Italy fountains were 
called ' silani,' and the water was made to flow 
from the head or from the water skin of a 
sculptured Silenus (Lucr. vi. 12(11). When 
the worship of Dionysus prevailed, it was 
natural that Silenus should be brought into 
connexion with that deity as the tree-god, 
since water gives vitality to trees; and when 
Dionysus was worshipped specially as the god 
of the vine and of wine, a transformation came 
upon Silenus. Instead of being the deity of 
springs, lie was the drunkun attendant of tlin 



wine-god, himself a demigod or demon, like 
the Satyrs : his water-skin became a wine- 
skin, and the ass, instead of a symbol of 
prophetic power, was travestied in Bacchic 
processions, and was supposed to be needed to 
carry Silenus, a drunken old man supported 
by other satyrs. (Ov. A. A. i. 543 ; Lucian, 
Bacch. 2.) His parentage, too, is Grecised: 
he is the son of Hermes (Serv. ad Eel. vi. 13), 
or of Pan (Norm. DioJiys. xiv. 97). In art he 
is represented as an oldish man with shaggy 
hair and beard, crowned with ivy : sometimes 
he is seated astride on his wine-skin ; some- 
times he has the infant Dionysus in his anus ; 
in the pictures and reliefs of Bacchic proces- 
sions he is riding on an ass ; sometimes also 
playing on a flute (as in the cut on p. 297). 
— 2. I Literary.) A native of Calatia, and a 
writer upon Roman history in the second 
century B.C. (Cic. Div. i. 49 ; Athen. p. 542). 

Silicense Slumen, a river in Hispania Baetica 
in the neighbourhood of Corduba, probably the 
Guadajoz, or a tributary of the latter (Bell. 
Alex. 57). 

C. Silius Italicus, whose full name seems to 
have been C. Catius Silius Italicus (C. I. L. vi. 
19x4 1, a Roman poet, was bom about a.d. 25. 
The place of his birth is uncertain, as is also 
the import of his surname Italicus. Some 
have taken it to mean that he was born at 
Italica in Spain ; but if that had been so 
Martial would probably have claimed him as a 
fellow-countryman. From his early years he 
devoted himself to orator) - and poetry, taking 
Cicero as his model in the former, and Virgil 
in the latter. He acquired great reputation 
as an advocate, and was afterwards one of the 
Centumviri. He was consul in 68, the year in 
which Nero perished ; he was admitted to 
familiar intercourse with Vitellius, and was 
subsequently proconsul of Asia. (Tac. Hist. 
iii. 65.) His two favourite residences were a 
mansion near Puteoli, formerly the Academy 
of Cicero, and the house in the vicinity of 
Naples once occupied by Virgil (Mart. vii. 68, 
xi. 48) ; and here he continued to live until he 
had completed his seventy-fifth year, when, 
suffering from an incurable disease, he starved 
himself to death (Plin. Ep. iii. 7). The great 
work of Silius Italicus was a heroic poem in 
seventeen books, entitled Punica, which lias 
descended to us entire. It contains a narrative 
of the events of the second Punic war, from the 
capture of Saguntum to the triumph of Scipio 
Africanus. The materials are derived almost 
entirely from Envy and Polybius. It is a dull, 
heavy performance, with little in it that can 
be called poetry. — Editions are by Drakenborch, 
•lto, Traj. ad Rhen. 1717 ; Ruperti, 2 vols. 8vo, 
Goetting. 1795 ; Bauer, Leips. 1890 ; and in 
Weber's Ci>rp. Poet. Lat. 

Silo, Q. Pompaedius, the leader of the Marsi 
in the Social war, and the soul of the whole 
undertaking. He fell in battle against Q. 
Metcllus Pius, B.C. 88, and witli his death the 
war came to an end. (App. B. C. i. 40-53 ; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 16.) 

Silo (2i\w, 27]Aui, StjAoV, 2iAo0i/: O. T. Shi- 
loh and Shilon : Seilun), a city of Palestine, in 
the mountains of Ephraim. [See Diet, of the 
Bible.] 

Silsilis (2i'A<riAi5 : Hnjjnr Sehelch or Jcbcl 
Srlnilfli, Ru.),n fortified station in Upper Egypt, 
on the W. bank of the Nile, S. of Apollinopolis 
the Greut. The name signifies the Back or 
Hill of a Chain, and is derived from the cir- 
cumstance of the river flowing here in a ravine 



876 



SILUBES 



SIMONIDES 



so narrow that a chain can easily be stretched 
across it to command the navigation. 

Silures, a powerful people in Britain, in- 
habiting South Wales, long offered a formidable 
resistance to the Eomans, and were the only 
people in the island who at a later time main- 
tained their independence against the English 
(Tac. Ann. xii. 2 ; Beda, H.E. i. 12). 

Silvanus, an Italian deity of the country, very 
nearly akin to Faunus and also to the agri- 
cultural Mars [see pp. 340, 529]. From Paunus 
he differed little in attributes, except that 
woods and trees were his especial province 
(Tibull. ii. 5, 30) ; but he also presided over 
flocks and herds (Verg. Aen. viii. 600), from 
which, like Faunus, he drove off wolves. As god 
of the fields and homestead, he was regarded 
as defender of boundaries (Hor. Epod. ii. 22). 
By agriculturists lie was therefore worshipped 
as their protector in three ways : (1) as Sil- 
vanus Domesticus, who guarded the homestead ; 
(2) as Silvanus Agrestis, who gave fertility to 
the fields ; (3) as Silvanus Orientalis, who 
watched over the place where the boundary- 
fence started. From the guardianship of the 
house he assumed a character like that of a Lar 
or of a Genius, so that he appears in inscriptions 
with the name of some family attached (G.I.L. 
vi. 645). For some reason not easy to explain, 
Silvanus was specially connected with the 
pine-tree and cypress (Verg. Georg. i. 20) 
Some have supposed that this implied a super- 
intendence of the dead and of fnneral rites, 
and that the Collegia Silvani had this function, 
but there is no clear evidence of this. The 
attribute of the pine-tree gave him the name 
Silvanus Dendrophorus (C. I. L. vi. 641), and 
brought him into connexion with the dendro- 
phori, or pine-bearers of Cybele. A tradition 
sprang up, to explain his bearing a pine or a 
cypress branch, that Silvanus loved the youth 
Cyparissus, who was turned into a cypress-tree. 
(Serv. ad Georg. i. 20 ; cf. Ov. Met. x. 120.) 

Silvium (Silvinus), a town of the Peucetii in 
Apulia on the borders of Lucania, twenty miles 
SE. of Venusia (Strab. p. 283 ; Diod. xx. 80). 

Silvius, the son of Ascanius, is said to have 
been so called because he was born in a wood. 
All the succeeding kings of Alba bore the cog- 
nomen Silvius. The first trace of this line of 
Alban kings is found in Alexander Polyhistor 
(ap. Serv. ad Aen. viii. 330), who wrote early 
in the first century B.C. The series of these 
mythical kings is given somewhat differently 
by Livy, Ovid, and Dionysius, as the following 
list will show : 



Livy. 


Ovid. 


Dionysius. 


1. Aeneas. 


Aeneas. 


Aeneas. 


2. Ascanius. 


Ascanius. 


Ascanius. 


3. Silvius. 


Silvius. 


Silvius. 


4. Aeneas Silvius. 




Aeneas Silvius. 


5. Latinus Silvius. 


Latinus. 


Latinus Silvius. 


6. Alba. 


Alba. 


Alba. 


7. Atys. 


Epytus. 


Capetus* 


8. Capys. 


Capys. 


Capys Silvius. 


9. Capetus. 


Capetus. 


Calpetus. 


10. Tiberinus. 


Tiberinus. 


Tiberinus. 


11. Agrippa. 


Bemulus. 


Agrippa. 


12. Bomulus Silvius. 


Acrota. 


Alladius. 


13. Aventinus. 


Aventinus 


Aventinus. 


14. Proca 


Palatinus. 


Procas. 


15. Amulius. 


Amulius. 


Amulius. 



But the lists are all due to the same cause. 
The date of the fall of Troy having been fixed 
at 400 years before the first Olympiad, the 
inference was that Borne was founded 432 



years after Aeneas started on his voyage. When 
the story of the connexion of Aeneas with the 
origin of Borne was first popularised (apparently 
by Waevius) it was imagined that Bomulus 
directly succeeded him [see p. 797] ; but it be- 
came necessary to reconcile this with the, 
chronology which made several centuries inter- 
vene. To fill up this gap, and at the same time 
to maintain the descent from Aeneas, and the 
colonisation of Borne from Alba, fifteen gene- 
rations of Alban kings were invented, with no 
distinct personality or legendary history, and 
with names partly (as Ascanius and Capys) 
taken from Homeric or Trojan legends, partly 
connected with Boman local or tribal names. 
(Liv. i. 3 ; Dionys. i. 70, 71 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 609- 
624.) 

Simmias (Zi^'ias). 1. Of Thebes, first the 
disciple of the Pythagorean philosopher Philo- 
laiis, and afterwards the friend and disciple of 
Socrates, at whose death he was present, having 
come from Thebes, with his brother Cebes 
(Plat. Phaedr. p. 242). The two brothers are 
the principal speakers, besides Socrates him- 
self, in the Phaedo. Simmias wrote twenty- 
three dialogues on philosophical subjects, all of 
which are lost. — 2. Of Bhodes, a poet and gram- 
marian of the Alexandrian school, flourished 
about B.C. 300. The Greek Anthology contains 
six epigrams ascribed to Simmias, besides three 
short poems of that fantastic species called 
griphi or carmina figurata — that is, pieces in 
which the lines are so arranged as to make the 
whole poem resemble the form of some object ; 
those of Simmias are entitled, from their forms, 
the Wings (wrepuyes) [comp. the poem of 
George Herbert], the Egg {u6i/) } and the Hatchet 
(ireAe/cus). 

Simois. [Tpoas.] As a mythological person- 
age, the river-god Simois is the son of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and the father of Astyochus and 
Hieromneme (Hes. Th. 342 ; cf. II. v. 774, xii. 
22;^Verg. Aen. v. 261). 

Simon (XifJ-av). 1. One of the disciples of 
Socrates, and by trade a leather-cutter. Socrates 
was accustomed to visit his shop, and converse 
on various subjects. These conversations 
Simon afterwards committed to writing, in 
thirty-three dialogues, all of which are lost. 
(Diog. Laert. ii. 122.) — 2. Of Aegina, a cele- 
brated statuary in bronze, who flourished about 
b.c. 475. 

Simonides {tifJ-aviSris). 1. Of Amorgos, was 
the second, both in time and reputation, of the 
three principal iambic poets of the early period 
of Greek literature : namely, Archilochus, Si- 
monides, and Hipponax ; but in merit there is a 
wide interval between the vigour of the warlike 
and roving Archilochus and the stay-at-home, 
somewhat commonplace Simonides. He was a 
native of Samos, whence he led a colony to the 
neighbouring island of Amorgos, where he 
founded three cities, Minoa, Aegialus, and 
Arcesine, in the first of which he fixed his own 
abode. He lived about B.C. 664. The iambic 
poems of Simonides were of two species, gnomic 
and satirical. The most important of his extant 
fragments is a satire upon women, in which he 
derives the various, though generally bad, 
qualities of women from the variety of their 
origin : thus the uncleanly woman is formed 
from the swine ; the cunning woman, from the 
fox ; the talkative woman, from the dog, and so 
on. — The best separate edition of the fragments 
of Simonides of Amorgos is by Welcker, Bonn, 
1835 ; also in Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Graec. 1866.— 
2. Of Ceos, one of the most celebrated lyric 



SIMPLICITY 



SIXGIDTJXUM 



877 



poets of Greece, was the perfecter of the Elegy 
and Epigram, and the rival of Lasu3 and Pindar 
in the Dithyramb and the Epinician Ode. He 
was born at Iulis, in Ceos, B.C. 556, and was the 
son of Leoprepes. He appears to have been 
brought up to music and poetry as a profession. 
From his native island he proceeded to Athens, 
probably on the invitation of Hipparchus, who 
attached him to his society by great rewards 
([Plat.] Hipparch. p. 228; Ael. V.H. viii. 2). 
After remaining at Athens some time, probably 
even after the expulsion of Hippias, he went to 
Thessaly, where he lived under the patronage 
of the Aleuads and Scopads (Theocr. xvi. 34). 
He afterwards returned to Athens, and soon 
had the noblest opportunity of emptying his 
poetic powers in the celebration of the great 
events of the Persian wars. In 489, he con- 
quered Aeschylus in the contest for the prize 
which the Athenians offered for an elegy on 
those who fell at Marathon [p. 28, a]. Ten 
years later, he composed the epigrams which 
were inscribed upon the tomb of the Spartans 
who fell at Thermopylae, as well as an enco- 
mium on the same heroes (Paus. iii. 8, 2 ; Time, 
i. 132) ; and he also celebrated the battles of 
Artemisium and Salamis, and the great men 
who commanded in them. He had completed 
his eightieth year when his long poe tical career 
at Athens was crowned by the victor}' which he 
gained with the dithyrambic chorus (477), being 
the fifty-sixth prize which he had carried off. 
Shortly after this he was invited to Syracuse by 
Hiero, at whose court he lived till his death in 467. 
Simonides was a great favourite with Hiero, 
and was treated by the tyrant with the greatest 
munificence. He still continued, when at Syra- 
cuse, to employ his muse occasionally in the 
service of other Grecian states. Simonides is 
said to have been the inventor of the mnemonic 
art (cf. Cic. de Or. ii. 86, 352), and of the long 
vowels and double letters in the Greek alphabet. 
He made literature a profession, and is said to 
have been the first who took money for his 
poems ; and the reproach of avarice is too often 
brought against him by his contemporary and 
rival, Pindar, as well as by subsequent writers, 
to be altogether discredited. The chief cha- 
racteristics of the poetry of Simonides were 
melodious sweetness and elaborate finish, com- 
bined with the truest poetic conception and per- 
fect power of expression, though in originality 
and fervour he was far inferior, not only to the 
early lyric poets, such as Sappho and Alcaeus, 
but also to his contemporary Pindar. He was 
probably both the most prolific and the most 
generally popular of the Grecian lyric poets. — 
The best edition of his fragments in a separate 
form is by Schneidewin, Bruns. 1H35 ; also in 
Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Graec. 1866. The Lamen- 
tatio Danaae is separately edited by Ahrens, 
Hanov. 1853. 

Simplicius f'2i/u7r\cKios), one of the last philo- 
sophers of the Neo-Platonic school, was a 
native of Cilicia and a disciple of Ammonius 
and Damascius. In consequence of the perse- 
cutions to which the pagan philosophers were 
exposed in the reign of Justinian, Simplicius 
was one of the seven philosophers who took 
refuge at the court of the Persian king Chosroiis. 
[Prihcianuh.] These philosophers returned 
home about a.d. 538 in consequence of a treaty 
of peace concluded between Chosroes and .Jus- 
tinian, in which the former ha»l stipulated that 
the philosophers should be allowed to return 
without risk, and to practise the rites of their 
paternal faith. Of the subsequent fortunes of 



the seven philosophers we learn nothing ; nor 
do we know where Simplicius lived and taught. 
Simplicius wrote commentaries on several of 
Aristotle's works. His commentaries on the 
Categories, on the De Coelo, on the Physica 
Auscultatio, and on the De Anima are extant, 
and are of great value for the history of philo- 
sophy. In explaining Aristotle, Simplicius 
endeavours to show that Aristotle substantially 
agrees with Plato even on those points which 
the former controverts ; but though he attaches 
himself too much to the Neo-Platonists, his 
writings are marked by sound sense and real 
learning. — Ed. Karsten, 1865. He also wrote a 
commentary on the Enchiridion of Epictetus, 
which is likewise extant : ed. Enk, Vienna, 
1867. The complete works by Schweighiiuser, 
Leips. 1800. 

Simyra (to 2i'/xupa: Zamnra or Sumore), a 
fortress on the coast of Phoenice, a little way 
N. of the mouth of the Eleutherus, of no im- 
portance except as being the point from which 
the X. part of Lebanon was usually approached 
(Strab. 753). 

Sinae (2?ycu), the easternmost people of Asia, 
of whom nothing but the name was known to the 
western nations, till about the time of Ptolemy, 
who describes their country as bounded on the 
X. by Serica, and on the S. and W. by India 
extra Gangem. It corresponded to the S. part 
of China and the E. part of the Burmese 
peninsula. (Ptol. vii. 3.) 

Sinai or Sina (LXX 2teS : Jebel-et-Tur), a 
cluster of dark, lofty, rocky mountains in the S. 
angle of the triangular peninsula enclosed 
between the two heads of the Red Sea, and 
bounded on the X. by the deserts on the borders 
of Egypt and Palestine. [See Diet, of the Bible.} 

Sillda (2iV8a: 2(v5eus, Sindensis). 1. A city 
of Pisidia, X. of Cibyra, near the river Caularis 
(Strab. pp. 570, 630; Liv. xxxviii. 15).— 2, 3. 
[Snpi.] 

Sindi CSiuSoi). 1. A people of Asiatic Sar- 
matia, on the E. coast of the Euxine, and at the 
j foot of the Caucasus. They probably dwelt in 
and about the peninsula of Taman (between 
the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea), and to the 
S. of the river Hypanis (Kouban). They had a 
capital called Sillda (Anapa?) with a harbour 
{2,iv8ikus \i[iT)v). Their country is called 
2ii'5iK7). They are also mentioned by the 
names of Sindones and Sindiani. (Hdt. iv. 28 ; 
i Mel. ii. 19; Strab. p. 495.) — 2. A people on the 
I E. coast of India extra Gangem (in Cochin 
China), also called Sindae (ZivSai), and with a 
capital city Sinda (Ptol. vii. 2, 7). 
Sindlce. [Sixdi.J 

Sindomana (Sihwan), a city of India, on the 
lower course of the Indus, near the island of 
Pattalene (Arr. An. vi. 15; Strab. p. 701). 

Sindus (ii'vSos), a town in the Macedonian 
district of Mygdonia on the Thermaic gulf, and 
at the mouth of the Ecliedorus (Hdt. vii. 128). 

Singara (to. 2'iyyapa: Sinjar), a strongly 
fortified city and Roman colony in the interior 
of Mesopotamia, eighty-four Roman miles S. of 
1 Nisibis. It lay in a dry plain, at the foot of M. 
Singaras (Sinjar), an E. prolongation of M. 
Musius. It was the scene of the defeat of Con- 
stant ins by Sapor, through which tho place 
1 was lost to the Romans. (Dio Cass, xviii. 22 ; 
Amm. Marc, xviii. 5.) 

Singidunum ( JM grade), a town in Moesia 
Superior at the confluence of the Savus and the 
Danube, was a strong fortress, and the head- 
quarters of a legion (Ptol. iii. 9, 8 ; Procop. 
Aed. iv. 6). 



£78 



SINGITICUS 



SIPONTUM 



Singiticus Sinus. [Singus.] 

Singus (21770s '• ^,iyycuos), a town in Mace- 
donia on lie E. coast of the peninsula Sithonia, 
which gave its name to the Sinus Singiticus 
(Hclt. vii. 122; Thuc. v. 18). 

Sinis or Sinnis (2fws or ~2iwis), son of Poly- 
pemon, Pemon or Poseidon by Sylea, the 
daughter of Corinthus. He was a robber who 
frequented the isthmus of Corinth and killed 
the travellers whom he captured, by fastening 
them to the top of a fir-tree, which he bent 
down and then let spring up again. He him- 
self was killed in this manner by Theseus. The 
name is connected with sivo^ai. (Apollod. iii. 
16, 2 ; Paus. ii. 1, 3 ; Eur. Hipp. 977 ; Ov. Met. 
vii. 440.) 

Sinon (SiVcue), son of Aesimus, or, according 
to Virgil, of Sisyphus, and grandson of Auto- 
lycus, was a relation of Odysseus, whom he 
accompanied to Troy. After the Greeks had 
constructed the wooden horse, Sinon mutilated 
himself, in order to make the Trojans believe 
that he had been maltreated by the Greeks, 
and then allowed himself to be taken prisoner 
by the Trojans. He informed the Trojans that 
the wooden horse had been constructed as an 
atonement for the Palladium which had been 
carried off by the Greeks, and that if they 
would drag it into their own city, Asia would 
gain the supremacy over Greece. The Trojans 
believed the deceiver, and dragged the horse 
into the city ; whereupon Sinon in the dead of 
night let out the Greeks, who thus took Troy. 
(Verg. Aen. ii. 77, 259 ; Diet. Cret. v. 12 ; Hyg. 
Fab. 108.) 

Sinope (tivw-rrr) : ^ivcottzvs, Sinopensis : Si- 
nope, Sinoub, Bu.), the most important of the 
Greek colonies on the shores of the Euxine, 
stood on the N. coast of Asia Minor, on the W. 
headland of the great bay of which the delta 




Coin of Sinope, of 5th cent, B.C. 
Obv., head of nymph Sinope; rev., 2INQ ; sea-eagle with 
dolphin. 

of the river Halys forms the E. headland, and a 
little E. of the northernmost promontory of 
Asia Minor. Thus placed, and built on a pen- 
insula, the neck of which formed two fine har- 
bours, it had every advantage for becoming a 
great maritime city. Its foundation was re- 
ferred mythically to the Argonaut Autolycus, 
who was worshipped in the city as a hero, and 
had an oracle ; but it appears in history as a 
very early colony of the Milesians. (Strab. p. 
546; Ap. Eh. ii. 947; Hdt. iv. 12.) Having 
been destroyed in the invasion of Asia by the 
Cimmerians, it was restored by a new colony 
from Miletus, B.C. 632, and soon became the 
greatest commercial city on the Euxine. Several 
colonies were established by the Sinopians on 
the adjacent coasts, the chief of which were 
Cotyora, Trapezus, and Cerasus. Its territory, 
called Sinopis (%wa>wis, also ~2,ivu>tutis), ex- 
tended to the banks of the Halys. At the 
beginning of the Peloponnesian war the Athe- 
nians sent 600 colonists to strengthen it after 
the Sinopians had expelled their tyrant (Plut. 
Pericl. 20). Xenophon in his retreat found it 
a prosperous city (Xen. An. v. 5, 3; cf. Diod. 



xiv. 30). It remained an independent state till, 
it was taken by Pharnaces I., king of Pontus. 
It was the birthplace and residence of Mithri- 
dates the Great, who enlarged and beautified it. 
After an obstinate resistance to the Romans 
under Lucullus, it was taken and plundered, 
and proclaimed a free city. Shortly before the 
murder of Julius Caesar, it was colonised by 
the name of Julia Caesarea Felix Sinope, and 
remained a flourishing city, though it never re- 
covered its former importance. At the time of 
Constantine, it had declined so much as to be 
ranked second to Amasia. In addition to its 
commerce, Sinope was greatly enriched by its 
fisheries. It was the native city of the renowned 
Cynic philosopher Diogenes, of the comic poet 
Diphilus, and of the historian Baton. (Strab. 
p. 477 ; Plin. Bp. x. 91.) 

Sintlca, a district in Macedonia, inhabited by 
the Thracian people Sinti, extended E.of Cres- 
tonia and N. of Bisaltia as far as the Strymon 
and the lake Prasias. Its chief town was Hera- 
clea Sintica. The Sinti were spread over other 
parts of ancient Thrace, and are identified by 
Strabo with the Sintians (SiVries) of Homer, 
the ancient inhabitants of Lemnos. (Thuc. ii. 
98 ; Liv. xlii. 51, xlv. 29 ; Strab. p. 331.) 

Sinuessa (Sinuessanus : Mocca di Mandra- 
gone), the last city of Latium on the confines of 
Campania, to which it originally belonged, was 
situated on the sea-coast, about six miles N. of 
the mouth of the Volturnus, and on the Via Appia, 
in the midst of a fertile country. It was colonised 
by the Romans, together with the neighbouring 
town of Minturnae, B.C. 296. (Liv. x. 21.) It 
possessed a good harbour, and was a place of 
considerable importance (Cic. adAtt. ix. 15, ad 
Fam. xii. 20; Hor. Sat. i. 5, 40). In its neigh- 
bourhood were celebrated warm baths, called 
Aquae Sinuessanae (Tac. Ann. xii. 66). 

Siphnus : ~S,'i<\>vlos : Siphno), an island 

in the Aegaean sea, forming one of the Cyclades, 
SE. of Seriphus. It is of an oblong form, and 
about forty miles in circumference. Its original 
name was Merope ; and it was colonised by 
Ionians from Athens (Hdt. viii. 48). In conse- 
quence of their gold and silver mines, of which 
the remains are still visible, the Siphnians 
attained great prosperity, and were regarded in 
the time of Polycrates as the wealthiest of the 
islanders. Their treasury at Delphi, in which 
they deposited the tenth of the produce of their 
mines, was equal in wealth to that of any other 
Greek state. (Paus. x. 11, 2.) Their riches, 
however, exposed them to pillage ; and a party 
of Samian exiles in the time of Polycrates 
invaded the island, and compelled them to pay 
100 talents (Hdt. iii. 57). Siphnus was one of 
the few islands which refused tribute to Xerxes ; 
and one of its ships fought on the side of the 
Greeks at Salamis. At a later time the mines 
were less productive; and Pausanias relates 
that in consequence of the Siphnians neglecting 
to send the tithe of their treasure to Delphi, the 
god destroyed their mines by an inundation of 
the sea. (Strab. p. 448 ; Paus. x. 11, 2.) The 
moral character of the Siphnians stood low, 
and hence to act like a Siphnian (~2,i<f>via£zw) 
became a term of reproach. 

Sipontum or Sipuntum (Sipontinus : Si- 
ponto), called by the Greeks Sipus (tiirovs, 
-ovvtos), an ancient town in Apulia, in the dis- 
trict of Daunia, on the S. slope of Mt. Garganus, 
and on the coast. It is said to have been 
founded by Diomede, and was of Greek origin. 
(Strab. p. 284.) It was colonised by the Eomans, 
under whom it became a place of some com- 



SIPYLUS 

mercial importance (Liv. xxxiv. 25 ; App. B. C. 
v. 56 ; Luean, v. 377). The inhabitants were 
removed from the town by king Manfred in the 
thirteenth century, in consequence of the un- 
healthy nature of the locality, and were settled 
in the neighbouring town of Manfredonia, 
founded by this monarch. 

Slpylus (2i7ruAos: Sipuli-Dagh), a moun- 
tain of Lydia, in Asia Minor, of volcanic 
formation, and rent by frequent earthquakes. 
It is a branch of the Tmolus, from the main 
chain of which it proceeds NW. along the 
course of the river Hermus, as far as Magnesia 
and Sipylum. It is mentioned by Homer (II. 
xxiv. 16). The ancient capital of Maeonia was 
said to have been situated in the heart of the 
mountain chain, and to have been called by the 
same name ; but it was early swallowed up by 
an earthquake, and its site became a little lake 
called Sale or Saloe, near which was a tumulus, 
supposed to be the grave of Tantalus. The 
mountain was rich in metals, and many mines 
were worked in it. (Strab. pp. 58, 579, 680 ; 
Paus. vii. 24, 7.) 

Siracene (2ipa/c7/Wj). 1. A district of Hyr- 
cania. — 2. A district of Armenia Major. — 

3. [SlBAUEXI.] 

Siraeeni, Siraci, Siraces (2ipaxrii/oi, 2ipa«oi, 
Si'pa/res), a powerful people of Sarmatia Asia- 
tica, dwelt in the district of Siracene, E. of the 
Palus Maeotis, as far as the river Rha ( Volga). 
The Romans were engaged in a war with them 
in a.d. 50. (Ptol. v. 9, 17 ; Strab. p. 504 ; Tac. 
Ann. xii. 15.) 

Sirbonis Lacus (2,ip/2wv'i.8os Kitivy, aft. 5ip/3o;- 
vis Klfj.fi] and 'ZipBuv : Sabakat Bardowal), a 
large and deep lake on the coast of Lower 
Egypt, E. of M. Casius. Its circuit was 1000 
stadia. It was strongly impregnated with as- 
phaltus. A connexion (called rb Zxpey/jji) exis- 
ted between the lake and the Mediterranean ; 
but this being stopped up, the lake grew con- 
tinually smaller by evaporation, and it is now 
nearly dry. (Hdt. ii. 6 ; Strab. pp. 760-763 ; 
Plin. v. 63.) Part of the army of Darius Ochus 
was swallowed up in it B.C. 350 (Diod. i. 30). 

Sirenes iZeiprives), sea-nymphs who had the 
power of charming by their songs all who heard 
them. When Odysseus came near the island 
on the beach of which the Sirens were sitting, 
and endeavouring to allure hiin and his com- 
panions, he stuffed the ears of his companions 
with wax, and tied himself to the mast of his 
vessel, until he was so far off that he could no 
longer hear their song. [For a vase-painting 
of this scene, see Odysseus.] According to 
Homer, the island of the Sirens was situated 
between Aeaea and the rock of Scylla, near the 
SW. coast of Italy {Oil. xii. 39) ; but the Roman 
poets place them on the Campanian coast. 
Homer says nothing of their number, but later 
writers mention both their names and number: 
some state that they were two, Aglaopheme 
and Thelxiepla; and others, that there were 
three, Pisiniie, Aglaope, and Thelxiepia, or Par- 
thenope, Ligia, and Leucosia. They aro called 
daughters of Phorcus, of Achelous and Sterope, 
of Terpsichore, of Melpomene, of Calliope, or of 
Gaea. (Strab. pp. 22, 246, 252; Ap. Rh. iv. 
893 ; Serv. ad Georej. iv. 562.) The Sirens are 
also connected with the legends of the Argo- 
nauts and the rape of Persephone. When the 
Argonauts sailed by the Sirens, tho latter began 
to sing, but in vain, for Orpheus surpassed 
them; and as it had been decreed Hint they 
should live only till some one Injuring their son;; 
should pass by unmoved, they threw them- 



SISCIA 



879 



selves into the sea, and were changed into 
rocks. (Apollod. i. 9, 25 ; Hyg. Fab. 141.) 
Later poets represent them as provided with 
wings, which they are saidi to have received at 
their own request, in order to be able to search 
after Persephone (Ov. Met. v. 552-563). Once, 
however, they allowed themselves to be pre- 
vailed upon by Hera to enter into a contest 
with the Muses, and being defeated, were de- 
prived of their wings (Paus. ix. 34, 2). The 
idea of the Homeric Sirens seems to arise from 
an attempt to express the deceptive beauties of 
a calm sea luring men to destruction. But 
there is a distinct character of the Sirens 
which appears in the Attic representations of 
them in epitaphs (Atith. Pal. vii. 491), and in 
sculptures on tombstones. Why a Siren should 
be the commonest mythological figure for 
monuments of the dead is not quite clear. The 
connexion may be with the destructive char- 
acter of the Homeric Siren, or with the myth of 
Persephone and the underworld, or the Siren 
of the tombstone may merely represent the 
wail of the mourner. 

Sirenusae, called by Virgil (Aen. v. 864) Si- 
renum scopuli, three small uninhabited and 
rocky islands near the S. side of the Prom. 
Misenum, off the coast of Campania, which 
were, according to tradition, the abode of the 
Sirens (Strab. p. 22). 

Siris. 1. (Sinno), a river in Lucania flowing 
into the Tarentine gulf, memorable for the vic- 
tory which Pyrrhus gained on its banks over 
the Romans. — 2. (Torre di Senna), an ancient 
Greek town in Lucania at the mouth of the 
preceding river. It was apparently an old 
Oenotrian city, though Strabo notices a tra- 
dition of its foundation by Trojans (p. 264). 
It was occupied by Ionian colonists from Colo- 
phon about 690 B.C. Siris was destroyed by 
the people of Sybaris and Crotona about 550 
B.C., and when the country was re-settled by 
Athenians from Thurii a hundred years later, 
the city was built at first on the site of Siris 
and then transferred to Heraclea, three miles 
distant (Diod. xii. 36 ; Strab. I.e.). 

Sirmio (Sirmione), a beautiful promontory 
on the S. shore of the Lacus Benacus (Lugo 
di Garda), on which Catullus had an estate 
(Catull. ii. 31). 

Sirmlum [Mitrovitz), an important city in 
Pannonia Inferior, was situated on the left bank 
of the Savus. It was founded by the Taurisci, 
and under the Romans became the capital of 
Pannonia, and the head-quarters of all their 
operations in their wars against the Dacians 
and the neighbouring barbarians. It contained 
a large manufactory of arms, a spacious forum, 
an imperial palace, &c. It was the residence 
of the admiral of the first Flavian fleet on the 
Danube, and the birthplace of the emperor 
Probus. (Herodian, vii. 2; Amm. Marc. xvii. 13, 
xix. 11.) 

Slsapon (Almaden,m the Sierra Morena), an 
important town in Hispania Baetica, N. of Cor- 
duba, between the Baetis and Anas, celebrated 
for its siher mines and cinnabar (Strab. p. 142 ; 
Cic. Phil. ii. 19). 

Siscia tSixHvk), called Segesta by Appian, an 
important town in Pannonia Superior, situated 
■ i ] ii >n an island formed by the ri\eis Savus, Co- 
lapis, and Odra, and on the road from Aemona 
to Sirmium (Dio Cass. xlix. 37 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 
113; Strab. pp. 202, 214). It was a strongly 
fortified place, and was conquered by Tiberius 
in the reign of Augustus, from which time it 
became the most important town in all Pan- 



880 



SISENNA 



SITONES 



ncmia. It was probably made a colony by 
Tiberius, and was colonised anew by Septimius 
Severus. At a later time its importance de- 
clined, and Sirmium became the chief town in 
Pamionia (Zosim. ii. 48). 

Sisenna, L. Cornelius, a Roman annalist, 
was praetor in B.C. 78, the year when Sulla died 
(C.I.L. i. p. 110; Cic. Fragm. Gomel, i. 18). 
Daring the piratical war (67) he acted as the 
legate of Pompey, and having been despatched 
to Crete in command of an army, died in that 
island at the age of about 52 (Dio Cass, xxxvi. 
1 ; App. Mithr. 95). He is mentioned also as 
a friend and defender of Verres in conjunction 
with Hortensius (Cic. Verr. ii. 45, 100). His 
great work, entitled Historiae, extended to more 
than twelve books, which contained the history 
of his own time. Cicero pronounces Sisenna 
superior as a historian to his predecessors, but 
adds that he belonged to a period when the 
true method of writing history was not under- 
stood (Brut. 64, 228 ; cf. cle Leg. i. 7). In ad- 
dition to his Historiae, Sisenna translated the 
Milesian tales of Aristides (Ov. Trist. ii. 443 ; 
Veil. Pat. ii. 9, 5). He is probably not the same 
as the Sisenna who wrote a commentary on 
Plautus, cited by grammarians ; since in one 
place Charisius (p. 221) cites this commentator 
as quoting from Virgil. 

Sisygambis (tiavyaiifiis), mother of Darius 
Codomannus, the last king of Persia, fell into 
the hands of Alexander, after the battle of Issus, 
B.C. 333, together with the wife and daughters 
of Darius. Alexander treated these captives 
with the greatest generosity, and displayed 
towards Sisygambis in particular a delicacy of 
conduct which is one of the brightest orna- 
ments of his character (Arrian, An. ii. 11 ; Plut. 
Alex. 21 ; Curt. iii. 11, 21). On her part, Sisy- 
gambis became so strongly attached to her 
conqueror, that she felt his death as a blow not 
less severe than that of her own son, and, 
overcome by this long succession of misfor- 
tunes, put an end to her own life by voluntary 
starvation (Curt. x. 5, 19 ; Diod. xvii. 118). 

Sisyphus {XurvQos), son of Aeolus and En- 
arete, whence he is called Aeolides (II. vi. 154 ; 
Hor. Ocl. ii. 14, 20). He was married to Merope, 
a daughter of Atlas or a Pleiad, and became by 
her the father of Glaucus, Ornytion (or Porphy- 
rion), Thersander and Halmus (Apollod. i. 7, 3 ; 
Paus. x. 31, 2). In post-Homeric writers, as 
the type of a crafty man, he is also called a son 
of Autolycus (Serv. ad Aen. ii. 79), and the 
father of Odysseus by Anticlea [Anticlea] ; 
whence we find Odysseus sometimes called 
Sisyphides (Soph. Aj. 190, Phil. 417). The 
myths which make Sisyphus father of Glaucus, 
and the mention of the worship of a deity 
named 6 Tapd^inros at the Isthmus, whom 
Pausanias (vi. 20, 8) believes to be Poseidon, 
make it not improbable that Sisyphus was 
originally a deity of that district, who, when 
his worship was superseded b}' that of Poseidon, 
appeared in fable as a man characterised by 
the wiliness and treachery of the sea. In the 
various stories about him Sisyphus is said to 
have built the town of Ephyra, afterwards 
Corinth. As king of Corinth he promoted 
navigation and commerce, but he was fraudu- 
lent, avaricious, and deceitful. His wickedness 
during life was punished in the lower world, 
where he had to roll up hill a huge stone, which 
as soon as it reached the top always rolled down 
again. (Od. xi. 593 ; cf. Cic. Tusc. i. 5, 10 ; Lu- 
cret. iii. 1013 ; Verg. Georg. iii. 39 ; Ov. Met. iv. 
459.) The reasons for this punishment are not 



the same in all authors ; some relate that it 
was because he had betrayed the designs of the 
gods (Serv. ad Aen. vi. 16) ; others, because 
he had betrayed to Asopus that Zeus had car- 
ried off Aegina, the daughter of the latter 
(Apollod. i. 9, 3, iii. 12, 6 ; Paus. ii. 5, 1). It 
appears that there was an early legend of his 
having escaped from Hades by his craft; for 
Theognis (703) speaks of his coming back to 
earth, 'having persuaded Persephone by cun- 
ning words.' This may have been the subject 
of the satyric play ^.iffvcpos Apairerrjs, which 
existed besides the drama called 2,i<rv<pos IleTpo- 
/cuAktt^s. The story was further developed 
in later writers (Eustath. ad Horn. pp. 631, 
1702). Sisyphus contrived by his arts to chain 
Death, whom Zeus had sent to fetch him', so 
that neither he himself nor other men could 
die, and there was no longer any fear of the 
gods, until Ares was sent and delivered Death. 
Even then Sisyphus secured himself by direct- 
ing his wife not to bury him, and when she 
complied with his request, Sisyphus in the 
lower world complained of this seeming neglect, 
and obtained from Pluto or Persephone per- 
mission to return to the upper world to punish 
his wife. He then refused to return to the 
lower world, until Hermes carried him off by 
force ; and this deceit is said to have been the 
cause of his punishment. 

Sitace or Sitta.ce (2it<£<c?], Siti-oki)), a great 
and populous city of Babylonia, near the Tigris, 
a little above Seleucia. It gave the name of 
Sittacene to the district on the lower course of 
the Tigris E. of Babylonia and NW. of Susiana. 
(Strab. pp. 524, 744.) 

Sitalces (SiTaAmjs), king of the Thracian tribe 
of the Odrysians, was a son of Teres, whom he 
succeeded on the throne. He increased his do- 
minions by successful wars, so that they ulti- 
mately comprised the whole territory from 
Abdera to the mouths of the Danube, and from 
Byzantium to the sources of the Strymon (Thuc. 
ii. 29, 97 ; Diod. xii. 50). At the beginning of 
the Peloponnesian war he entered into an al- 
liance with the Athenians, to whom he showed 
his friendship by giving up to them Corinthian 
and Spartan ambassadors (Thuc. ii. 67 ; cf . Hdt. 
vii. 137), and in 429 he invaded Macedonia with 
a vast army, but was obliged to retire through 
failure of provisions (Thuc. ii. 95-101 ; Diod. 
xii. 51). He was defeated and killed in 424, 
fighting against the Triballi (Thuc. iv. 101). 

Sithonia (2i(Wia), the central one of the 
three peninsulas running out from Chalcidice 
in Macedonia, between the Toronaic and Sin- 
gitic gulfs. The Thracians originally extended 
over the greater part of Macedonia; and the 
ancients derived the name of Sithonia from a 
Thracian king Sithon. We also find mention of 
a Thracian people, Sithonii, on the shores of 
the Pontus Euxinus ; and the poets frequently 
use Sithonis and Sithonius in the general sense 
of Thracian. (Hdt. vii. 123 ; Verg. Eel. x. 66 ; 
Hor Od. i. 18, 9.) 

Sitifis (~S,lri(pa: Setif), an inland city of 
Mauretania Caesariensis, on the borders of Nu- 
midia, stood upon a hill, in an extensive and 
beautiful plain. It first became an important 
place under the Romans, who made it a colony ; 
and, upon the subdivision of M. Caesariensis 
into two provinces, it was made the capital of 
the eastern province, which was called after it 
Mauretania Sitifensis. (Ptol. iv. 2, 34 ; Amm. 
Marc, xxviii. 6.) 

Sitones, a German tribe in Scandinavia, be- 
longing to the race of the Suevi, whom Tacitue 



SITTACE 



SMYRNA 



881 



asssrts to have been ruled by queens (Germ. 
45). 

Sittace, Sittacene. [Sitace.] 

Sittius or Sitius, P., of Nuceria in Campania, 
was connected with Catiline, and went to Spain 
in B. c. 64, from which country he crossed over 
into Mauretania in the following year. It was 
said that P. Sulla had sent him into Spain to 
excite an insurrection against the Roman go- 
vernment ; and Cicero, when he defended SuUa, 
in 62, was obliged to deny the truth of the 
charges that had been brought against Sittius 
(pro Still. 20). Sittius did not return to Rome. 
His property in Italy was sold to pay his debts, 
and he continued in Africa, where he fought in 
the wars of the kings of the country. He 
joined Caesar when the latter came to Africa, in 
46, to prosecute the war against the Pompeian 
party. He was of great service to Caesar in 
this war, and at its conclusion was rewarded by 
Caesar with the western part of Numidia, where 
he settled down, distributing the land among 
his soldiers. After the death of Caesar, Arabio, 
the son of Masinissa, returned to Africa, and 
killed Sittius by stratagem. (Sail. Cat. 21 ; 
Bell. Afr. 25, 93-96 ; App. B.C. iv. 54; Cic. ad 
Att. xv. 17.) 

Siuph CZioiHp), a city of Lower Egypt, in the 
Saitic nome, only mentioned by Herodotus (ii. 
172). 

Smaragdus Mons (2.fjLapayZov upos : Jebel 
Zaburah), a mountain of Upper Egypt, near 
the coast of the Red Sea, N. of Berenice. The 
extensive emerald mines from which it obtained 
its name were worked under the ancient kings 
of Egypt, under the Ptolemies, and under the 
Romans. (Strab. p. 815 ; Plin. xxxvii. 65.) They 
seem to have been exhausted, as few emeralds 
of any value are now found in the neighbour- 
hood. 

Smerdis CS/xepSis), according to Herodotus, 
was the name of the son of Cyrus, and was mur- 
dered by order of his brother, Cambyses. His 
true name was Bardes, which appears in Aesch. 
Pers. 780 as Mardus, and in Just. i. 4 as Merdis. 
Ctesias calls him Tanyoxarces. The death of 
Smerdis was kept a profound secret; and ac- 
cordingly, when the Persians became weary of 
the tyranny of Cambyses, one of the Magians, 
-whom Herodotus calls Patizithes, who had 
been left by Cambyses in charge of his palace and 
treasures, availed himself of the likeness of his 
brother to the deceased Smerdis, to proclaim 
this brother as king, representing him as the 
younger son of Cyrus. Cambyses heard of the 
revolt in Syria, but he died of an accidental 
wound in the thigh, as he was mounting his 
horse to march against the usurper. According 
to Herodotus this Magian usurper was also called 
Smerdis ; but this is an error. His name appears 
on Persian inscriptions as Gomates or Guumuta. 
The name of Sphendates which Ctesias (Pers. 
8-14) gives to him is really only a priestly title. 
The false Smerdis was acknowledged as king 
by the Persians, and reigned for seven months 
without opposition. The leading Persian nobles, 
however, were not quite free from suspicion ; and 
this suspicion was increased by the king never 
inviting any of them to the palace, and never 
appearing in public. Among the nobles who 
entertained these suspicions was Otanes, whose 
daughter Phaedima had been one of the wives 
of Cambyses, and had been transferred to his 
■accessor. The new king had Home years be- 
fore been deprived of his ears by Cvrus for 
some offence ; and Otanes persuaded his 
daughter to ascertain whether her master had 



! really lost his ears. Phaedima found out that 
such was the fact, and communicated the deci- 
sive information to her father. Otanes there- 
upon formed a conspiracy, and in conjunction- 
with six other noble Persians, succeeded in 
forcing his way into the palace, where they slew 
the false Smerdis with his brother Patizithes in 
the eighth month of his reign, 521. (Hdt. iii. 
30, 61-79.) The story of the usurpation of this 
Magian pretender and the combination of nobles 
which overthrew him is confirmed in its leading 
facts by the inscriptions. But the character of 
the struggle, which is represented as political and 
national between Medes and Persians, has some- 
times been misunderstood. It is tolerably clear 
from the inscriptions that Gomates (the real 
name, as has been said, of the false Smerdis) 
was not a Mede. His attempt was a religious 
movement of the Magians to establish more 
firmly their religion and the power of the priestly 
caste, by placing one of their own order on the 
throne. This attempt was defeated by the 
nobles, who disliked the innovation of a priest- 
king. The Aryan religion was l'estored after 
the slaughter of Gomates and the leading Magi, 
and this slaughter was kept in memory, for the 
terror of the Magian priests, by an annual 
festival called Magophonia, during which no 
Magian was allowed to show himself in public. 

Smilis (2/CuA.is), son of Euclides, of Aegina, 
a sculptor of the legendary period, whose name 
appears to be derived from 07x1*77, a knife for 
carving wood, and afterwards a sculptor's 
chisel. Smilis is the legendary head of the 
Aeginetan school of sculpture, just as Daedalus 
is the legendary head of the Attic and Cretan 
schools. He is said to have carved the £6avov 
of Hera at Samos. (Paus. vii. 4, 4.) 
Smintheus. [Apoleo, p. 89, b.] 
Smyrna (2,/j.vpva), or Myrrha. For details 
see Adonis. 

Smyrna and in many MS8. Zmyrna CS/xipva, 
Ion. 2yut'p»<7) : 2^vpi/cuos, Sinymaeus : Smyrna, 
Turk. Izmir), one of the most ancient and 




Coin of Smyrna, of 2nd cent. B.C. 
Obr.,headof the Amazon Smyrna with turroted crown : 
rev., 2MYPNAIQN : hpakaeiah2 (magistrate's name) ; 
lion, surrounded by oak-wreath. 



flourishing cities of Asia Minor, and the only 
one of the great cities on its W. coast which 
has survived to this day, stood in a position 
alike remarkable for its beauty and for other 
natural advantages. Lying just about the 
centre of the W. coast of Asia Minor — on the 
banks of the little river Meles, at the bottom of 
a deep bay, the Sinus Hermaeus or Smyrnaeus 
(G. of Smyrna), which formed a safe and im- 
mense harbour for the largest ships up to the 
very walls of the city ; at the foot of the rich 
slopes of Tmolus and at the entrance to the 
great and fertile valley of the Hennus, in which 
lay the great and wealthy city of Sardis — and 
in the midst of the Greek colonies on the E. 
shore of the Aegoean ; it was marked out by na- 
ture as one of the greatest emporiums for tho 
i trade between Europe and Asia, and has pre- 

8 L 



882 



SMYENA 



SOCEATES 



served that character to the present day. There 
are various accounts of its origin. The most 
probable is that which represents it as an 
Aeolian colony from Cyme. (Hdt. i. 150 ; Paus. 
vii. 5, 1.) At an early period it fell, by a strata- 
gem, into the hands of the Ionians of Colophon, 
and remained an Ionian city from that time 
forth : this appears to have happened before 
01. 23 (b.c. 688). Smyrna from its position 
commanded the trade of the Herrnus valley, and 
thus became a dangerous rival of the Lydian 
kings at Sardis. An attempt upon the city by 
Gyges was repulsed, but Smyrna was taken and 
destroyed by Alyattes ; its inhabitants were 
left dwelling in village communities (uwij.ri$6v, 
Strab. p. 616) for three centuries, but with 
something that could still be called a town, as 
is clear from the mention in Pindar (Fr. 155). 
At length, at the end of the fourth cent. B. c. 
Antigoaus rebuilt the city on the SE. side of 
the bay on which the old city had stood. The 
new city was enlarged and beautified by Lysi- 
maclius, standing partly on the sea-shore and 
partly on a hill called Mastusia. It had a 
magnificent harbour, with such a depth of water 
that the largest ships could He alongside the 
quays. The city soon became one of the 
greatest and most prosperous in the world. It 
was especially favoured by the Eomans on ac- 
count of the aid it rendered them in the Syrian 
and Mithridatic wars. It was the seat of a 
conventus juridicus. In the civil wars it was 
taken and partly destroyed by Dolabella, but it 
soon recovered. It occupies a distinguished 
place in the early history of Christianity, as one 
of the ODly two among the seven Churches of 
Asia which St. John addresses, in the Apo- 
calypse, without any admixture of rebuke, and 
as the scene of the labours and martyrdom of 
Polycarp. In the years a.d. 178-180, a succes- 
sion of earthquakes, to which the city has always 
been much exposed, reduced it almost to ruins ; 
but it was restored by the emperor M. Aurelius 
(Dio Cass. lxxi. 32). In the successive wars 
under the Eastern empire it was frequently 
much injured, but always recovered ; and, under 
the Turks, it has survived repeated attacks of 
earthquake, fire, and plague, and still remains 
the greatest commercial city of the Levant. In 
addition to all her other sources of renown 
Smyrna stood at the head of the cities which 
claimed the birth of Homer. The poet was 
worshipped as a hero in a magnificent building 
called the Homereum ('0/Ar)peiov). Near the 
sea-shore there stood a magnificent temple of 
Cybele, whose head appears on the coins of the 
city. Smyrna built a temple for the imperial 
worship, and was a place where the festivals of 
the province of Asia belonging to Koivhv 'Afflas 
were celebrated. (Tac. Ann. iv. 56 ; cf. Peb- 
gamum ; Sabdes.) 

Smyrna Trachea. [Ephesus.] 

Smymaeus Sinus (2,/j.vpvaiwv k6\ttos, 2/uup- 
vaiicbs k6Kttos '. G. of Smyrna), the great gulf 
on the W. coast of Asia Minor, at the bottom of 
which Smyrna stands. Its entrance lies be- 
tween Pr. Melaena (C. Kara Burnu) on the 
W., and Phocaea (Fokia) on the E. Its depth 
was reckoned at 350 stadia. It received the 
river Hermus, whence it was called Hermeus 
Sinus ("Ep/j.eios k6Attos). It is sometimes also 
called MeArj-rou k6\ttos, from the little river 
Meles, on which Old Smyrna stood. (Strab. p. 
■645 ; Met. i. 17.) 

Socrates (ScuKpaTjjs). 1. The great Athe- 
nian philosopher, was born in the demus 
Alopece, in the immediate neighbourhood of 



Athens, B.C. 469. His father, Sophroniscus, was a 
sculptor, of whose proficiency nothing is known : 
his mother Phaenarete was a midwife. In his 
youth Socrates seems for a time to have fol- 
lowed the profession of his father. The group 
of clothed Graces which was preserved in the 
Acropolis was shown as his work down to the 
time of Pausanias (Paus. i. 22, 8, ix. 25,2). But 
there is reason to believe that this is a confusion 
of names. Pliny (xxxvi. 32) clearly never enter- 
tained the idea that the author of that group 
was the great philosopher. He does not even 
allude to such a tradition, but says that some 
considered the sculptor to be the same as the 
painter Socrates. Socrates is not made in the 
dialogues to speak as if he had been himself an 
eminent sculptor. Some knowledge of the art 
is implied in Xen. Mem. iii. 10, but not more 
than a brief period of work with his father 
would secure. There would surely be more 
reference made to the fact if he had been 
eminent enough as a sculptor to be selected for 
an important public work. It has been sug- 
gested that the idea arose from coins of Athens 
with figures of the Graces, on some of which 
the magistrate's name is Socrates. But there 
is no improbability in this group being the 
work of a Socrates distinct from the philoso- 
pher. It is thought by some that the relief of 
those draped Graces in the Museo Chiaramonti 
represents the Athenian group. If so, it must 
have belonged to a more archaic period of art 
than the age of the philosopher Socrates. All 
that can be said is that Socrates probably 
worked, like his father, as a sculptor for a time, 
but certainly soon gave up that occupation for 
the work which has made him famaus, and 
which he thought most beneficial to himself 
and his fellow-men. The personal qualities of 
Socrates were marked and striking. His physi- 
cal constitution was healthy, robust, and en- 
during to an extraordinary degree. He was 
capable of bearing fatigue or hardship, and in- 
different to heat or cold, in a measure which 
astonished all his companions. He went bare- 
foot in all seasons of the year, even during the 
winter campaign at Potidaea, under the severe 
frosts of Thrace ; and the same homely clothing 
sufficed for him in winter as well as in summer. 
In features he is represented as having been 
singularly, and even grotesquely, ugly — with a 
flat nose, thick lips, and prominent eyes, like a 
Satyr or Silenus (Plat. Symp. p. 215, a, Theaetet. 
p. 143, e ; Xen. Symp. 5). Of the circum- 
stances of his life we are almost wholly 
ignorant ; he served as a hoplite at Potidaea, 
Delium, and Amphipolis with great credit to 
himself. He seems never to have filled any 
political office until 406, in which year he was a 
member of the senate of Five Hundred, and 
one of the Prytanes, when he refused, on the 
occasion of the trial of the six generals, to put 
an unconstitutional question to the vote, in 
spite of all personal hazard. He displayed the 
same moral courage in refusing to obey the 
order of the Thirty for the apprehension of 
Leon the Salaminian. (Plat. Symp. p. 219, 
Ale. p. 194, Charm, p. 153, Lack. p. 181, Apol. 
p. 32 ; Xen. Mem. i. 1, 18, iv. 4, 2 ; Diog. Laert. 
ii. 22-24.) All the middle and later part of 
his life at least was devoted exclusively to the 
self-imposed task of teaching; excluding all 
other business, public or private, and to the 
neglect of all means of fortune. His wife, 
Xanthippe, is represented as a woman of a 
peevish and quarrelsome disposition. He never 
opened a school, nor did he, like the sophists 



SOCRATES 



863 



of his time, deliver public lectures. Every- 
where, in the market-place, in the gymnasia, 
and in the workshops, he sought and found 
opportunities for awakening and guiding, in 
boys, youth, and men, moral consciousness and 
the impulse after self-knowledge respecting the 
end and value of our actions. His object, 
however, was only to aid them in developing 
the germs of knowledge which were already 
present in them, not to communicate to them 
ready-made knowledge; and he therefore pro- 
fessed to practise a kind of mental midwifery, 
just as his mother, Phaenarete, exercised the 
corresponding corporeal art. (Plat. Theaet. 
p. 149.) Unweariedly and inexorably did he 
fight against all false appearance and conceit 
of knowledge, in order to pave the way for 
correct knowledge. Consequently to the men- 
tally proud and the mentally idle he appeared 
an intolerable bore, and often experienced their 
bitter hatred and calumny. This was probably 
the reason why he was selected by Aristophanes 
and the other comic writers to be attacked as 
a general representative of philosophical and 
rhetorical teaching ; the more so as his grotesque 
physiognomy admitted so well of being imitated 
in the mask which the actor wore. (See Aristoph. 
Nubes, and cf. Av. 1282 ; Eupolis, Fr. 9, 10, 11 ; 
Diog. Laert. ii. 28.) The audience at the 
theatre would more readily recognise the pecu- 
liar figure which they were accustomed to see 
every day in the market-place than if Prodicus 
or Protagoras, whom most of them did not 
know by sight, had been brought on the stage ; 
nor was it of much importance either to them 
or to Aristophanes whether Socrates was re- 
presented as teaching what he did really teach, 
or something utterly different. Attached to 
none of the prevailing parties, Socrates found 
in each of them his friends and his enemies. 
Hated and persecuted by Critias, Charicles, 
and others among the Thirty Tyrants, who 
specially referred to him in the decree which 
they issued forbidding the teaching of the 
art of oratory, he was impeached after their 
banishment and by their opponents. An orator 
named Lycon, and a poet (a friend of Thrasy- 
bulus) named Meletus, had united in the 
impeachment with the powerful demagogue 
Anytus, an embittered antagonist of the sophists 
and their system, and one of the leaders of the 
band which, setting out from Phyle, forced 
their way into the Piraeus, and drove out the 
Thirty Tyrants. The judges also are described 
as persons who had been banished, and who 
had returned with Thrasybulus. The chief 
articles of impeachment were, that Socrates 
was guilty of corrupting the youth, and of 
despising the tutelary deities of the state, 
putting in their place other new divinities. 
At the same time it had been made a matter 
of accusation against him that Critias, the 
most ruthless of the Tyrants, had come forth 
from his school. Some expressions of his, 
in which he had found fault with the demo- 
cratical mode of electing by lot, had also 
been brought up against him ; and there can 
be little doubt that use was made of his friendly 
relations with Theramenes, one of the most 
influential of the Thirty, with Plato's uncle, 
Charmides, who fell by the side of Critias in 
the straggle with the popular party, and with 
other aristocrats, in order to irritate against 
him the party which at that time was dominant. 
The substance of the speech which Socrates 
delivered in his defence is probably preserved 
by Plato in the piece which goes under the 



name of the 'Apology of Socrates.' Being con- 
demned by a majority of only six votes, he 
expresses the conviction that he deserved to be 
maintained at the public cost in the Prytaneum, 
and refuses to acquiesce in the adjudication of 
imprisonment, or a large fine, or banishment. 
He will assent to nothing more than a fine of 
sixty minae, on the security of Plato, Crito, 
and other friends. Condemned to death by 
the judges, who were incensed by this speech, 
by a majority of eighty votes, he departs from 
them with the protestation that he would 
rather die after such a defence than live after 
one in which he should have endeavoured to 
excite their pity. The sentence of death could 
not be carried into execution until after the 
return of the vessel which had been sent to 
Delos on the periodical Theoric mission. The 
thirty days which intervened between the con- 
demnation of Socrates and its return were de- 
voted by him to poetic attempts (the first he had 
made in his life), and to his usual conversation 
with his friends. One of these conversations, 
on the duty of obedience to the laws, Plato has 
reported in the Crito, so called after the 
faithful follower of Socrates, who had en- 
deavoured without success to persuade him to 
make his escape. In another, imitated or 
worked up by Plato in the Phaedo, Socrates 
immediately before he drank the cup of hem- 
lock developed the grounds of his immovable 
conviction of the immortality of the soul. H* 
died with composure and cheerfulness in his 
seventieth year, B.C. 399. Mr. Grote, whose 
account of Socrates is here followed in many 
particulars, has well described Socrates as dis- 

I tinguished by three peculiarities : — (1) His long 
life passed in contented poverty and in public 
dialectics, of which we have already spoken. 
(2) His persuasion of a special religious mission. 
He had been accustomed constantly to hear, 
even from his childhood, what he spoke of as 
a divine voice — interfering, at moments when 
he was about to act, in the way of restraint, 
but never in the way of instigation. Such 
prohibitory warning was wont to come upon 

j him very frequently, not merely on great, but 
even on small occasions, intercepting what ho 
was about to do or to say. Though later writers 
speak of this as the Daemon or Genius of 
Socrates, he himself does not personify it, but 
treats it merely as a ' divine sign, a prophetic 
or supernatural voice.' It may be interpreted 

i as being a prompting of conscience or of quick 
and intuitive judgment. He was accustomed 
not only to obey it implicitly, but to speak of 
it publicly and familiarly to others, so that the 
fact was well known both to his friends and to 
his enemies. (Plat. Apol. pp. 31, 40, Phaedr. 
p. 242, Theaet. p. 151, Hep. p. 496 ; Xen. Mem. 
i. 1, 4, iv. 8, 1-5.) (8) His great intellectual ori- 
ginality, both of subject and of method, and 
his power of stirring and forcing the germ of 
inquiry and ratiocination in others. He was 
the first who turned his thoughts and discus- 
sions distinctly to the subject of ethics, and 
was the first to proclaim that ' the proper study 
of mankind is man.' With the philosophers' 
who preceded him the subject of examina- 
tion had been Nature, or the Kosmos as one 
undistinguishable whole, blending together cos- 

i mogony, astronomy, geometry, physics, meta- 
physics, &c. In discussing ethical subjects 

i Socrates employed the dialectic method, and 
thus laid the foundation of formal logic, which 
was afterwards explained by Plato, and system- 
atised by Aristotle. The originality of Socrates 

8 I. 2 



884 



SODOMA 



SOLICINIUM 



ia shown by the results he achieved. Out of 
his intellectual school sprang, not merely Plato, 
himself a host, but all the other leaders of 
Grecian speculation for the next half century, 
and all those who continued the great line of 
speculative philosophy down to later times. 
Euclid and the Megaric school of philosophers 
— Aristippus and the Cyrenaic Antisthenes and 
Diogenes, the first of those called the Cynics — 
all emanated more or less directly from the 
stimulus imparted by Socrates, though each 
followed a different vein of thought. Ethics 
continued to be what Socrates had first made 
them, a distinct branch of philosophy, along- 
side of which politics, rhetoric, logic, and other 
speculations relating to man and society, gra- 
dually arranged themselves ; all of them more 
popular as well as more keenly controverted 
than physics, which at that time presented 
comparatively little charm, and still less of 
attainable certainty. There can be no doubt 
that the individual influence of Socrates per- 
manently enlarged the horizon, improved the 
method, and multiplied the ascendant minds, 
of the Grecian speculative world in a manner 
never since paralleled. Subsequent philoso- 
phers may have had a more elaborate doctrine, 
and a larger number of disciples who imbibed 
their ideas ; but none of them applied the same 
stimulating method with the same efficacy, and 
none of them in an equal degree struck out of 
other minds that fire which sets light to original 
thought. — 2. The ecclesiastical historian, was 
born at Constantinople about a.d. 379. He was 
a pupil of Ammonius and Helladius, and fol- 
lowed the profession of an advocate in his na- 
tive city, whence he is surnamed Scholasticns. 
The Ecclesiastical History of Socrates extends 
from the reign of Constantine the Great, 306, 
to that of the younger Theodosius, 439. He 
appears to have been a man of less bigotry 
than most of his contemporaries, and the very 
difficulty of determining from internal evidence 
some points of his religious belief may be con- 
sidered as arguing his comparative liberality. 
His History is divided into seven books. — His 
work is included in the editions of the ancient 
Greek ecclesiastical historians by Valesius, 
Paris, 1668, reprinted at Mentz, 1677; by 
Eeading, Camb. 1720. 

Sodoma, gen. -orum and -ae, also -um, gen. -i, 
and -i, gen. -orum (rd 'SSSo/xa : 'SoSofilrris, 
Sodomita), an ancient city of Canaan. [See 
Diet, of the Bible.'] 

Soemis or Soaemlas, Julia, daughter of Julia 
Maesa, and mother of Elagabalus, either by 
her husband, Sextus Varius Marcellus, or, 
according to the report industriously circulated 
with her own consent, by Caracalla. After the 
accession of her son, she became his chosen 
counsellor, and seems to have encouraged and 
shared his follies and enormities. She took a 
place in the senate, which then for the first 
time witnessed the intrusion of a woman, and 
was herself the president of a sort of female 
parliament, which held its sittings in the 
Quirinal, and published edicts for the regula- 
tion of all matters connected with the morals, 
dress, etiquette, and equipage of the matrons. 
She was slain by the praetorians, in the arms 
of her son, on the 11th of March, a.d. 222. 
(Lamprid. Elagab. 2 ; Dio Cass, lxxviii. 30, 38 ; 
Herodian, v. 5.) 

Sogdiana (rj f 2,oy8tav?i : ~26y$ioi, ~2oy8iavoi : 
parts of Turkestan and Bokhara, including the 
district still called Sogd), the NE. province of 
the ancient Persian empire, separated on the 



S. from Bactriana and Margiana by the upper 
course of the Oxus (Jihouri) ; on the E. and N. 
from Scythia by the Sogdii Comedarum and 
Oscii M. {Kara-Dagh, Alatan and Ah Tagh) 
and by the upper course of the Jaxartes 
(Sihouri) ; and bounded on the NW. by the 
great deserts E. of the Sea of Aral. The S. 
part of the country was fertile and populous. 
It was conquered by Cyrus, and afterwards by 
Alexander, both of whom marked the extreme 
limits of their advance by cities on the 
Jaxartes, Cyreschata and Alexandreschata. 
After the Macedonian conquest, it was subject 
to the kings, first of Syria, and then of Bactria, 
till it was overrun by the barbarians. The 
natives of the country were a wild warlike 
people of the great Aryan race, resembling the 
Bactrians in their character and customs. 
(Arrian, An. iii. 30, iv. 16, 18 ; Curt. iii. 2, 9 ; 
Strab. pp. 516, 517.) 

Sogdianus (2,oyStav6s), was one of the illegi- 
timate sons of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus. 
The latter, on his death in B.C. 425, was suc- 
ceeded by his legitimate son, Xerxes II., but 
this monarch, after a reign of only two months, 
was murdered by Sogdianus, who now became 
king. Sogdianus, however, was murdered in 
his turn, after a reign of seven months, by his 
brother, Ochus. Ochus reigned under the name 
of Darius II. (Diod. xii. 71.) 

Sogdii Montes. [Sogdiana]. 

Sol. [Helios.] 

Soletum (Soleto), a town of Calabria, twelve 
miles S. of Lupiae (Lecce). It was ruined 
before the time of Pliny, but the survival of its 
name shows that it must have been occupied . 
again (Plin. iii. 101). 

Soli or Soloe (2<SAo(). 1. (Ethnic, 2oA.ew, 
Solensis : Mezetlu, Ru.), a city on the coast of 
Cilicia, SW. of Tarsus, between the rivers Lamus 
and Cydnus, said to have been colonised by 
Argives and Lydians from Rhodes (Strab. pp. 
671, 675; Xen. An. i. 2, 24; Mel. i. 13 ; Liv. 
xxxvii. 56). It was a flourishing city in the 
time of Alexander, who fined its people 200 
talents for their adhesion to the Persians 
(Arrian, An. ii. 5, 5). The city was destroyed by 
Tigranes, who probably transplanted the in- 
habitants to Tigranocerta (Dio Cass, xxxvi. 
20; Plut. Pomp. 28). Pompey restored the 
city after his war with the pirates, and peopled 
it with the survivors of the defeated bands ; 
and from this time forth it was called Pom- 
peiopolis (UofiTrri'iovTroAis.) It was celebrated 
in literary history as the birthplace of the Stoic 
philosopher Chrysippus, of the comic poet 
Philemon, and of the astronomer and poet 
Aratus. Its name has been curiously per- 
petuated in the grammatical word solecism 
{soloecismus), which is said to have been first 
applied to the corrupt dialect of Greek spoken 
by the inhabitants of this city — or, as some say, 
of Soli in Cyprus. (Diog. Laert. i. 2, 4; 
Strab. p. 683 ; Suid. s. v. S6\ot).—2. (Ethnic, 
2<f/Vios: Paleokhora, in the valley of Solea, 
Ru.), a considerable seaport town in the W. 
part of the N. coast of Cyprus, on a little river 
(Strab. p. 683). According to some, it was a 
colony of the Athenians; while others ascribed 
its erection to a native prince acting under the 
advice of Solon (Plut. Sol. 26). The visit of 
Solon to Cyprus is mentioned by Herodotus 
(v. 113). It had temples of Isis and Aphrodite, 
and there were mines in its vicinity. 

Solicinrum, a town in Roman Germany (the 
Agri Decumates), on the mountain Pirus, 
I where Valentinian gained a victory over the 



SOLINUS 



SOLON 



885 



Alemanni in a.d. 369, perhaps in the neighbour- 
hood of the modern Heidelberg, but the posi- 
tion is uncertain (Amm. Marc, xxvii. 10, xxviii. 
2, xxx. 7). 

Solmus, C. Julius, the author of a geo- 
graphical compendium, divided into fifty-seven 
chapters, containing a brief sketch of the world 
as known to the ancients, diversified by histori- 
cal notices, remarks on the origin, habits, 
religious rites and social condition of various 
nations enumerated. The arrangement, and 
frequently the very words, are derived from the 
Natural History of Pliny, but little knowledge, 
care or judgment is displayed in the selec- 
tion. We know nothing of Solinus himself, 
but he must have lived after the reign of 
Alexander Severus, and before that of Constan- 
tine. He may perhaps be placed in the reigns 
of Valerian and Gallienus. It was called 
Collectanea Eerum Memorabilium; but it 
was revised in the sixth century with the title of 
Polyhistor. — The most notable edition is that 
of Salmasius, published at Utrecht in 1689, 
prefixed to his Plinianae Ejcercitationes; 
critical edition by Th. Mommsen, Berl. 1864. 

Solis Pons. [Oasis, No. 3.] 

Solis Mons. [Solois.] 

Solis Promontorium (&Kpa 'HAi'ou Upa : Has 
Anfir), a promontory of Arabia Felix, near 
the middle of the Persian Gulf (Ptol. vi. 7, 14). 

Soloe. [Soli]. 

Sollium (S^AAiov), a town on the coast of 
Acarnania, S. of Palaerus and opposite the 
island of Leucas (Thuc. ii. 30, iii. 95). 

Solois (SoAo'eis : C. Cantin, Arab. Has el 
Houdik), a promontory running far out into 
the sea, in the S. part of the W. coast of 
Mauretania. Herodotus believed it to be the 
westernmost headland of all Libya. Upon it 
was a Phoenician temple of Poseidon. 

Solon i'S.SKwv), the great Athenian legislator, 
was born about B.C. 638. By birth he was a 
Eupatrid. His father, Execestides, was a de- 
scendant of Codrus, and his mother was a 
cousin of the mother of Pisistratus. Execes- 
tides had seriously crippled his resources by a 
too prodigal expenditure ; and Solon found it 
either necessary or convenient in his youth to 
betake himself to the life of a foreign trader. 
It is likely enough that while necessity com- 
pelled him to seek a livelihood in some mode 
or other, his active and inquiring spirit led him 
to select that pursuit which would furnish the 
amplest means for its gratification. Solon early 
distinguished himself as a poet. His first 
poems were in a light and amatory strain, 
which afterwards gave way to the more digni- 
fied and earnest purpose of inculcating pro- 
found reflections and sage advice, or inciting 
his countrymen to deeds of patriotism as 
Tyrtaeus had done by his warlike songs. So 
widely, indeed, did his reputation spread that 
his name appears in all the lists of the Wise Men. 
The occasion which first brought Solon promi- 
nently forward as an actor on the political 
stage was the contest between Athens and 
Megara respecting the possession of Salamis. 
The ill success of the attempts of the Athe- 
nians to make themselves masters of tho 
island had led to the enactment of a law for- 
bidding the writing or saying anything to urge 
the Athenians to renew the contest. Solon, 
indignant at this dishonourable renunciation of 
their claims, hit upon the device of feigning to 
be mad : and causing a report of his condition 
to be spread over the city, lie rushed into the 
Agora, and there recited a short elegiac poem 



of 100 lines, in which he called upon the Athe- 
nians to retrieve their disgrace and reconquer 
the lovely island. Pisistratus (who, however, 
must have been extremely young at the time) 
came to the support of his kinsman ; the pusil- 
lanimous law was rescinded ; war was declared, 
and Solon himself appointed to conduct it. The 
Megarians were driven out of the island, but a 
tedious war ensued, which was finally settled 
by the arbitration of Sparta. Both parties ap- 
pealed, in support of their claim, to the authority 
of Homer (Arist. Ehet. i. 16), and there is an 
improbable story, which was currently believed 
in antiquity, that Solon had surreptitiously in- 
serted the line (II. ii. 558J which speaks of Ajax 
as ranging his ships with the Athenians. Solon's 
character was not that of a literary forger, nor 
would the argument have helped his cause. 
The Spartans decided in favour of the Athe- 
nians, about B.C. 596. Solon himself, probably, 
was one of those who received grants of ltind in 
Salamis, and this may account for his being 
termed a Salaminian. Soon after these events 
(about 595) Solon took a leading part in pro- 
moting hostilities on behalf of Delphi against 
Cirrha, and was the mover of the decree of the 
Amphictyons by which war was declared. Ac- 
cording to a common story, which, however, 
rests only on the authority of a late writer, 

1 Solon hastened the surrender of the town by 
causing the waters of the Plistus to be poisoned. 
(Paus. x. 37, 7 ; Polyaen. Strat. vi. 13.) It was 
about the time of the outbreak of this war that, 
in consequence of the distracted state of Attica, 
which was rent by civil commotions. Solon was 
called upon by all parties to mediate between 

I them, and alleviate the miseries that prevailed 

i (Plut. Sol. 12; 'AB. IloA. 5). He was chosen 
archon 594, and under that legal title was in- 
vested with unlimited power for adopting such 
measures as the exigencies of the state de- 
manded. In fulfilment of the task entrusted 
to him, Solon addressed himself to the relief of 
the existing distress. This he effected with the 
greatest discretion and success by his celebrated 
disburdening ordinance {<Ttura.xQtta\,a. measure 
consisting of various distinct provisions calcu- 
lated to relieve the debtors with as little in- 
fringement as possible on the claims of the 
wealthy creditors. He showed his sense of the 
emergency by the extreme step of cancelling 
outstanding debts : for the future he made it 
illegal to lend money on the security of the 
borrower's person, so that the selling into 

! slavery for debt became impossible ; a limit 
was placed to the rate of interest, and also to 

I the accumulation of land. (Arist. 'AB. IloA. 6 ; 
Plut. Sol. 15-23.) With a view to facilitate 
and increase trade and commerce, he altered 
the standard of coinage from the Phidonian, 
which circulated in the Peloponnesus and 

I Boeotia, to the Euboic, which was used in 
Chalcis and Eretria, then great channels of 
commerce, so that the Attic currency was 
adapted to that of the chief Ionian trading 
centres (Arist. 'AB. IloA. 10). [For these 
standards Bee Diet, of Ant. art. Pondera.'] 
It is a mistake to connect his monetary changes 
with the reliefs for debtors, and to suppose that 
he was debasing the coinage. The success of the 
Seisachtheiaand his improvements of commerce 
procured for Solon such confidence and popu- 
larity that ho was further charged with tho 
task of entirely remodelling the constitution. 
Asa preliminary step, he repealed all the laws of 
Draco except those relating to bloodshed. Our 
limits only allow us to glance at the principal 



886 



SOLON 



SOLUS 



features of the constitution established by Solon. 
It must be premised that, Solon's laws being 
the origin of political liberty at Athens, it be- 
came customary to ascribe to him all old con- 
stitutional measures of which the authors were 
unknown. His constitution was based upon 
the timocratic principle — that is, the title of 
citizens to the honours and offices of the state 
was regulated by their wealth. All the citizens 
were distributed into four classes. The first 
class consisted of those who had an annual in- 
come of at least 500 medimni of dry or liquid 
produce (equivalent to 500 drachmae, a medim- 
nus being reckoned at a drachma), and were 
called Pentacosiomedimni. The second class 
consisted of those whose incomes ranged be- 
tween 300 and 500 medimni or drachmae, and 
were called Hippeis ('l7nre(s, 'Iirn-rjy), from their 
being able to keep a horse, and being bound to 
perform military service as cavalry. The third 
class .consisted of those whose incomes varied 
between 200 and 300 medimni or drachmae, and 
were termed Zeugitae (ZeuyiTai). The fourth 
class included all whose property fell short of 
200 medimni or drachmae, and bore the name of 
Thetes. The first three classes were liable to 
direct taxation, in the form of a graduated in- 
come tax. A direct tax, however, was an extra- 
ordinary, and not an annual, payment. The 
fourth class were exempt from direct taxes, but 
of course they, as well as the rest, were liable 
to indirect taxes. In this arrangement the 
archonship was restricted to the first class (i.e. 
practically to Eupatrids), the second and third 
classes were admitted to other offices, but the 
Thetes to none. He thus limited the demo- 
cracy. To Solon has been ascribed the institu- 
tion of the Boule (jSouAtj), or deliberative as- 
sembly of Four Hundred ; but it appears from 
Aristotle's 'A0. IToA. that this council existed 
before [see under Draco]. Solon, however, 
transferred to it some of the functions of the 
Areopagus— the initiation of proposals for the 
Ecclesia, and the dealings with foreign ambas- 
sadors, and he made its number 400 (100 from 
each tribe) instead of 401, as Draco had con- 
stituted it. (Arist. 'Ad. UoK. 8.) He greatly 
enlarged the functions of the Ecclesia (e/c- 
/cATjtri'a), which no doubt existed before his time, 
though it probably possessed scarcely more 
power than the assemblies which we find de- 
scribed in the Homeric poems. He gave it the 
right of electing the archons and other magis- 
trates, and what was even more important, 
made the archons and magistrates accountable 
directly to it when their year of office was ex- 
pired. He also gave it what was equivalent to 
a veto upon any proposed measure of the Boule, 
though it could not itself originate any measure. 
Besides the arrangement of the general political 
relations of the people, Solon was the author of 
a great variety of special laws, which do not 
seem to have been arranged in any systematic 
manner. Those relating to debtors and credi- 
tors have been already referred to. Several 
had for their object the encouragement of trade 
and manufactures. Foreign settlers were not 
to be naturalised as citizens unless they carried 
on some industrious pursuit. If a father did 
not teach his son some trade or profession, the 
son was not liable to maintain his father in his 
old age. The council of Areopagus had a 
general power to punish idleness. Solon for- 
bade the exportation of all produce of the Attic 
soil except olive oil. He was the first who gave 
lo those who died childless the power of dis- 
posing of their property by will. He enacted 



several laws relating to marriage, especially 
with regard to heiresses. The rewards which, 
he appointed to be given to victors at the 
Olympic and Isthmian games are for that age 
unusually large (500 drachmae to the former 
and 100 to the latter). One of the most curious 
of his regulations was that which denounced 
atimia against any citizen who on the outbreak 
of a sedition remained neutral. (Arist. 'Ad. 
no\. 8 ; Gell. ii. 12.) The laws of Solon were 
inscribed on wooden rollers (&f oves) and trian- 
gular tablets {Kvpfitts), and were set up at first 
in the Acropolis, afterwards in the Prytaneum. 
The Athenians were also indebted to Solon 
for some rectification of the calendar. Jt is. 
said that Solon exacted from the people a 
solemn oath, that they would observe his laws 
without alteration for a certain space — 10 years 
according to Herodotus — 100 years according to 
other accounts. It is related that he was him- 
self aware that he had been compelled to leave 
many imperfections in his system and code. 
He is said to have spoken of his laws as being, 
not the best, but the best which the Athenians 
would have received. After he had completed 
his task — being, we are told, greatly annoyed 
and troubled by those who came to him with 
all kinds of complaints, suggestions or criticisms 
about his laws — in order that he might not him- 
self have to propose any change, he absented 
himself from Athens for ten years, after he had 
obtained the oath referred to. (Arist. 'Ad. TIoX. 
11; Plut. Sol. 25; Hdt. i. 29.) He first visited 
Egypt ; and from thence proceeded to Cyprus, 
where he was received with great distinction by 
Philocyprus, king of the little town of Aepea. 
Solon persuaded the king to remove from the 
old site, and build a new town on the plain. 
The new settlement was called Soli, in honour 
of the illustrious visitor. (Hdt. v. 113.) He is 
further said to have visited Lydia, and his 
interview with Croesus was one of the most 
celebrated stories in antiquity. [Croesus.] 
During the absence of Solon the old dissensions 
were renewed, and shortly after his arrival at 
Athens the supreme power was seized by Pisi- 
stratus, who, after his usurpation, is said to 
have paid considerable court to Solon, and on 
various occasions to have solicited his advice. 
[PiSlSTRATUS.] Solon probably died about 558, 
two years after the overthrow of the constitu- 
tion, at the age of eighty. There was a story 
current in antiquity that, by his own directions, 
his ashes were collected and scattered round 
the island of Salamis. (Diog. Laert. i. 62 ; cf . 
Plut. Sol. 32, where doubt is expressed.) Of 
the poems of Solon several fragments remain. 
They do not indicate any great degree of 
imaginative power, but their style is vigorous 
and simple. Those that were called forth by 
special emergencies appear to have been 
marked by no small degree of energy. The 
fragments of these poems are incorporated in 
the collections of the Greek gnomic poets and 
in Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Grace. 1866 ; and there is 
also a separate edition of them by Bach, Lugd. 
Bat. 1825. 

Solus (SoAoOs, -ovuros, contr. of 2oA<Jeis: 2o- 
XzvtIvos), called Soluntum (Solentinus) by the 
Romans, an ancient town on the N. coast of 
Sicily, between Panormus and Thermae, a colony 
of the Phoenicians (Thuc. vi. 2). It fell into 
the hands of Dionysius in 396 (Diod. xiv. 78), 
but was recovered by the Carthaginians some 
time afterwards. Under the Bomans it was a 
municipal town (Cic. Verr. ii. 42 ; cf. Ptol. iii. 
4,3). 



SOLYMA 



SOPHOCLES 



887 



Solyma (to. '2.6\v/xa). 1. (Taktalu-Dagh), I Sophocles was chosen to lead, naked and with 
the mountain range which runs parallel to the lyre in hand, the chorus which sang the songs of 
E. coast of Lycia, and is a southern continua- triumph (480). (Athen. p. 20.) His first appear- 
tion of M. Climax. Sometimes the whole range ance as a dramatist took place in 468, under 
is called Climax, and the name of Solyma is peculiarly interesting circumstances — not only 
given to its highest peak. — 2. Another name of from the fact that Sophocles, at the age of 
Jerusalem (Strab. p. 666J. twenty-seven, came forward as the rival of the 

Solymi. [Lycia.] j veteran Aeschylus, whose supremacy had been 

Somnus ("Ttivos), the personification and god : maintained during an entire generation, but also 
of sleep, is described as a brother of Death , from the character of the judges. The solemni 
(Qavaros, Mors), and as a son of Night. In ties of the Great Dionysia were rendered more 
works of art Sleep and Death are represented , imposing by the occasion of the return of Cimon 
alike as two youths, sleeping or holding inverted from his expedition to Scyros, bringing with 
torches in their hands. [Moks.] i him the bones of Theseus. Public expectation 

Sontius (Isonzo), a river in Venetia in the N. : was so excited respecting the approaching dra- 
of Italy, rising in the Carnic Alps and falling ; matic contest, and party feeling ran so high, 
into the Sinus Tergestinus E. of Aquileia. | that Apsephion, the Archon Eponymus, whose 

Sopater (Stiirarpos). 1. Of Paphos, a writer of duty it was to appoint the judges, had not yet 
parody and burlesque (<p\va.poypa<pos), between ventured to proceed to the final act of drawing 
B.C. 323 and 283 (Athen. p. 71). — 2. Of Apamea, the lots for their election, when Cimon, with 
and the head for some time of the school of his nine colleagues in the command, having 
Plotinus, was a disciple of Iamblithus, after j entered the theatre, the Archon detained them 
whose death (before a.d. 330) he went to Con- at the altar, and administered to them the oath 
stantinople. Here he enjoyed the favour and 1 appointed for the judges in the dramatic con- 
personal friendship of Constantine, who after- [ tests. Their decision was in favour of Sopho- 
wards, however, put him to death (between a.d. cles, who received the first prize, the second 
330 and 337), wishing, as was alleged, to give a only being awarded to Aeschylus, who was so 
proof of the sincerity of his own conversion to mortified at his defeat that he left Athens and 
Christianity. (Sozom. H. E. i. 5 ; Suid. s.v.) — : retired to Sicily. (Plut. Cim. 8 ; C.I. G. 2374 ; 
3. The younger sophist, of Apamea, or of Alex- Aeschylus.) From this epoch Sophocles held 
andria, is supposed to have lived about 200 ' the supremacy of the Athenian stage, not with- 
years later than the former. Besides his extant 1 out rivals by whom he was sometimes defeated — 
works ^sometimes wrongly ascribed to No. 2), even the Oedipus Tyrannus only obtained the 
Photius has preserved an extract of a work, en- second prize — but even against so formidable a 
titled the Historical Extracts (iK\oyri), which rival as Euripides (whose first victory was in 
contained a vast variety of facts and figments, 441) he maintained his place till his death as 
collected from a great number of authors. The the favourite poet of the Athenians. In 442 
remains of his rhetorical works are contained in he was on the board of the Hellenotamiae, 
Walz's Rhetores Graed. or treasurers of the tribute paid by allies 

Sophene CS.ia<prtVT[, later ~2.w<$>a.vr\vr,), a district (C. I. A. i. 237). The year 440 is a most im- 
of Armenia Major, lying between the ranges of portant era in the poet's life. In the spring of 
Antitaurus and Masius ; separated from Meli- that year he brought out the earliest of his 
tene in Armenia Minor by the Euphrates, from extant dramas, the Antigone, and in the same 
Mesopotamia by the Antitaurus, and from the E. year, but probably for reasons apart from 
part of Armenia Major by the river Nymphius poetical merit, he was appointed one of the ten 
(Strab. pp. 521, 532). In the time of the Greek strategi, of whom Pericles was the chief, in the 
kings of Syria, it formed, together with the war against Samos. It would seem that in 
adjacent district of Acilisene, an independent this war Sophocles neither obtained nor sought 
W. Armenian kingdom, which was subdued for any military reputation : he is represented 
and united to the rest of Armenia by Ti- as good-humouredly repeating the judgment of 
granes. It was taken from Tigranes by Pom- Pericles concerning him, that he understood 
pey and given by Nero to Sohaemus (Sac. Ann. the making of poetry, but not the commanding 
xiii. 7). of an army. It was probably for this reason 

SdphlluB (2<£4>iAos), a comic poet of ' ne that Pericles sent him to look after supplies at 
Middle Comedv, was a native of Sicvon or of Lesbos, where Ion records a meeting with him 
Thebes, and lived about B.C. 848 (Suid. s.v.).— I (Athen. p. 604). The family dissensions which 
Fragments in Meineke, Fr. Com. Graec. troubled bis last years are connected with n 

Sophocles (2o<Pok\tis)- 1. The great tragic , well-known and beautiful story, concerning the 
poet, was born at Colonus. a village little more exactness of which, however, there is some 
than a mile to the NW. of Athens, B.C. 495. He doubt. His family consisted of two sons, Ioplion, 
was thirty years younger than Aeschylus, and the offspring of Nicostrate, who was n _free 
fifteen years older than Euripides. His father's I Athenian woman, and Anston, his son by Theo- 
name was Sophilus, or Sophillus, who traded ris of Sicyon ; and Anston had a son named 
as an iron-worker, i.e. he employed slaves as Sophocles, for whom his grandfather showed 
smiths. Sophocles received an education not the gr.-at.-t arte, ti-.n. Ioplion, who was by the 
inferior to that of the sons of the most di*- laws of Athens his father's rightful heir, jealous 
tinguished citizens of Athens. In both of the of his love for the young Sophocles, and appre- 
two leading branches of Greek education, musir bending that Sophocles purposed to bestow 
and gymnastics, he was carefully trained, and upon his grandson a large proportion of his 
in botli he gained the prize of a garland. Of property, is said to have summoned his father, 
the skill which he had attained in music and as being mentally incompetent, before the 
dancing in his sixteenth year, and of the perfec- Phratores [the jurisdiction in such matters 
tion of his bodily form, we have conclusive would belong to the Archon'. As his only reply, 
evidence in the fact that, when the Athenians Sophocles exclaimed, ' If I am Sophocles, I am 
were assembled in solemn festival around the not beside myself ; and if I am beside myself, 
trophy which they had set up in Salamis to I am not Sophocles ; ' and then he read from 
celebrate their victory over the fleet of Xerxes, his Oedipus at Colonus, which was lately 



888 



SOPHOCLES 



SOPHRON 



written, but not yet brought out, the magnifi- 
cent chorus, beginning — 

Emirnov, £eVe, ratrSe x<^P as y 

whereupon the judges at once dismissed the 
case, and rebuked Iophon for his undutiful con- 
duct. (Plut. An Seni sit gerend. Bespubl. 3, p. 
775.) Sophocles died soon afterwards, in 406, 
in his ninetieth year. All the various accounts 
of his death and funeral are of a fictitious and 
legendary character. According to a foolish 
story he was choked by a grape, which is 
probably a too literal interpretation of the epi- 
gram by Simonides saying that Socrates died 
' Olviowbv Bd.t<x ov ft&Tpw ipeirr6ftevos t ' a para- 
phrase for ' working at a tragedy ' (Anth. Pal. 
vii. 20). Another writer related that in a public 
recitation of the Antigone he sustained his 
voice so long without a pause that, through the 
weakness of extreme age, he lost his breath and 
his life together ; while others ascribed his 
death to excessive joy at obtaining a victory. — 
In considering the development of the Greek 
drama it is important to notice that Sophocles 
first increased the number of actors from two 
to three : and this he must have done early in 
his career, since the change was adopted by 
Aeschylus in his Oresteia in b.c. 460. Sophocles 
also raised the number of the chorus from twelve 
to fifteen. Of the three additional members one 
was intended to act as coryphaeus of the whole, 
the other two to lead the sections in a divided 
chorus. [See Diet, of Ant. art. Tragoedia.~] 
His chorus takes a less leading part than the 
chorus of Aeschylus : it is entirely subordinate 
to the actors and does not develop the action 
of the play. The subjects and style of Sophocles 
are human, while those of Aeschylus are essen- 
tially heroic. The latter excite terror, pity, and 
admiration, as we view them at a distance; 
the former bring those same feelings home to 
the heart, with the addition of sympathy and 
self- application. No individual human being 
can imagine himself in the position of Prome- 
theus, or derive a personal warning from the 
crimes and fate of Clytemnestra ; but every- 
one can, in feeling, share the self-devotion of 
Antigone in giving up her life at the call of 
fraternal piety, and the calmness which comes 
over the spirit of Oedipus when he is reconciled 
to the gods. In Aeschylus, the sufferers are 
the victims of an inexorable destiny ; but So- 
phocles brings more prominently into view 
those faults of their own which form one ele- 
ment of the destiny of which they are the 
victims, and is more intent upon inculcating, as 
the lesson taught by their woes, that wise 
calmness and moderation, in desires and actions, 
in prosperity and adversity, which the Greek 
poets and philosophers celebrate under the 
name of ouxpporrvvw. On the other hand, he 
does not, in the same manner as Euripides, 
bring tragedy to the level of everyday life, nor 
does he in a like degree use a miserable con- 
dition of life as a means of exciting pity [see 
p. 334, b]. A characteristic difference between 
the two poets is illustrated by the saying of 
Sophocles that ' he himself represented men as 
they ought to be, but Euripides exhibited them 
as they are ' (Aristot. Poet. 25). A great 
modern critic has well said : ' There is no other 
Greek poet whose genius belongs so peculiarly 
to the best Greek time. Aeschylus has an ele- 
ment of Hebrew grandeur : Euripides has strong 
elements of modern pathos and romance ; these 
things come easily home to us. But in order 
fully to appreciate Sophocles we must place 



ourselves in sympathy with the Greek mind in 
its most characteristic modes of thought, and 
with the Greek sense of beauty in its highest 
purity.' — The number of plays ascribed to So- 
phocles was 130. He contended not only with 
Aeschylus and Euripides, but also with Choe- 
rilus, Aristias, Agathon, and other poets, 
among whom was his own son Iophon ; and 
he carried off the first prize twenty or twenty- 
four times, frequently the second, and never 
the third. It is remarkable, as proving his 
growing activity and success, that, of his 130 
dramas, eighty-one were brought out after his 
fifty-fourth year, and also that all his extant 
dramas, which of course in the judgment of the 
grammarians were his best, belong to this latter 
period of his life. The seven extant tragedies 
were probably brought out in the. following 
chronological order : — Antigone, Electro,, Tra- 
chiniae, Oedipus Tyrannus, Ajax, Philoctetes, 
Oedipus at Colonus : the last of these was 
brought out, after the death of the poet, by his 
grandson. — Of the numerous editions of Sopho- 
cles, the best is that of Professor Jebb, now 
nearly complete. — 2. Son of Ariston, and grand- 
son of the elder Sophocles, was also an Athe- 
nian tragic poet. The love of his grandfather 
towards him has been already mentioned. In 
401 he brought out the Oedipus at Colonus of 
his grandfather ; but he did. not begin to ex- 
hibit his own dramas till 396. — 3. Son of Sostra- 
tides, was an Athenian commander in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, sent to reinforce the fleet in 
Sicily and to aid the popular party at Corcyra ; 
was banished because he assented to the peace 
in Sicily in B.C. 424 (Thuc. iii. 115, iv. 2, 46, 65). 

Sophonisba, daughter of the Carthaginian 
general, Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco. She had 
been betrothed by her father, at a very early 
age, to the Numidian prince Masinissa, but at a 
subsequent period Hasdrubal, being desirous to 
gain over Syphax, the rival monarch of Nu- 
midia, to the Carthaginian alliance, offered him 
the hand of his daughter in marriage. The 
beauty and accomplishments of Sophonisba pre- 
vailed over the influence of Scipio : Syphax 
married her, and from that time became, under 
her influence, the zealous supporter and ally of 
Carthage. After the defeat of Syphax, and the 
capture of his capital city of Cirta by Masinissa, 
Sophonisba fell into the hands of the conqueror, 
upon whom her beauty exercised so powerful an 
influence, that he determined to marry her 
himself. Their nuptials were accordingly cele- 
brated without delay, but Scipio (who was ap- 
prehensive lest she should exercise the same in- 
fluence over Masinissa which she had previously 
done over Syphax) refused to ratify this ar- 
rangement and, upbraiding Masinissa with his 
weakness, insisted on the immediate surrender 
of the princess. Unable to resist this com- 
mand, the Numidian king spared her the 
humiliation of captivity, by sending her a bowl 
of poison, which she drank without hesitation, 
and thus put an end to her own life. (Liv. xxix. 
23. xxx. 3-15 ; Pol. xiv. 1, 7 ; App. Pun. 10, 27, 
28 ; Zonar. ix. 11-13.) 

Sophron (2&(ppoiu), of Syracuse, was the prin- 
cipal writer of that species of composition called 
the Mime (ixi/j.os), which was one of the nume- 
rous varieties of the Dorian Comedy. He lived 
about b. c. 460-420. When Sophron is called 
the inventor of mimes, the meaning is, that he 
reduced to the form of a literary composition a 
species of amusement which the Greeks of 
Sicily, who were pre-eminent for broad humour 
and merriment, had practised from time imme- 



SOPHEONISCUS 



SOTADES 



889 



xnorial at their public festivals, and probably 
also in private society. They consisted in a 
delineation of ordinary character brought out 
in a dramatic dialogue representing some scene 
of social life. The second Idyll of Theocritus is 
borro%ved from the 'Pjcearpicu of Sophron, and 
the fifteenth (Adoniazusae) from Sophron's 
'lad/ud^ovaat. There is, however, some diffi- 
culty in determining whether Sophron's were 
in mere prose, or in mingled poetry and prose, 
or in prose with a peculiar rhythmical move- 
ment but no metrical arrangement. Plato 
was a great admirer of Sophron, and is said to 
have been the first who made the Mimes known 
at Athens. (Suidas, s.vv. 2wcppiov, 'Priylvovs ; 
Arist. Poet. i. 8 ; Athen. p. 505 ; cf. Heroxdas.) 
The best collection of the fragments of Sophron 
is by L. Botzon, Marienburg, 1867. 

Sophroniseus. [Socrates.] 

Sophus, P. Semprorrius, consul 304, and one 
of the first plebeian pontifices B. c. 300 (Liv. 
xi. 45, x. 9), is mentioned as one of the earliest 
jurists, and is said to have owed his name of 
Sophus or "Wise to his great merits (Pompon. 
Dig. i. 2, 2, 37). 

Sopianae (Funfkirchen), a town in Pannonia 
Inferior, on the road from Mursa to Vindobona, 
the birthplace of the emperor Maximums 
(Aram, Marc, xxviii. 1). 

Sora. 1. (Soranus : Sora), a town in Latium, 
on the right bank of the river Liris and N. of 
Arpinum, with a strongly fortified citadel. It 
was the most northerly town of the Volsci in La- 
tium, and afterwards joined the Samnites; but 
it was conquered by the Romans, and was twice 
colonised by them, since the inhabitants had 
destroyed the first body of colonists. (Liv. ix. 
23, 43, x. 1 ; Diod. xix. 72, xx. 90.) Juvenal 
speaks of it as a quiet country town (iii. 223). 
There are still remains of the polygonal walls 
of the ancient town. — 2. (Zora) A town in 
Paphlagonia, near Andrapa and X W. of Tavium. 
It is possibly the same as Sebaste Paphlagoniae. 

Soracte (Monte di S. Oreste), a celebrated 
mountain in Etruria, in the territory of the 
ITalisci, near the Tiber, about twenty-six miles 
from Rome, the summit of which, in winter 
covered with snow, was clearly visible from the 
city. (Vides ut alta stet nive candidum 
Soracte, Hor. Od. i. 9.) It rises in a bold and 
abrupt form, but to a height of only 2420 feet. 
On its summit was a temple of Apollo Soranus. 

Soranus. 1. A Sabine divinity worshipped 
on Mt. Soracte, the name of which was possibly 
derived from this worship. Soranus was ap- 
parently a sun-god of the district, and hence 
was identified with Apollo as Apollo Soranus. 
At his festival the worshippers were supposed 
to pass over burning embers without injury. 
(Verg. Aen. vii. 785-790 ; Sil. It. v. 175 ; Plin. 
yii. 19.) The rite may have been originally a 
sun-charm, like the ' St. John's fires,' and had 
the additional meaning of purification from 
evil influences which belonged to the similar 
rites of Pai.es. — 2. The name of several phy- 
sicians, of whom the most celebrated seems to 
have been a native of Ephesus, and to have 
practiced his profession first at Alexandria, und 
afterwards at Rome, in the reigns of Trujan and 
Hadrian, a.d. 98-18H. There are several medi- 
cal works still extant under the name of SoranuH, 
but whether they were written by the native of 
Ephesus cannot be determined. 

Sordlce (Etang fit- Lincntr), a lake in Gallia 
Narbonensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees, formed 
by the river Sordis (Avien. Or. Mar. 'M)). 

Sordones or Sordi, a small people in Gallia 



Narbonensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees, whose 
chief town was Ruscino (Plin. iii. 35 ; Mel. ii. 5). 

Sosihlus (2a>(Ti'/3ios), a distinguished Lacedae- 
monian grammarian, who flourished in the reign 
of Ptolemy Philadelphus (about b. c. 251), and 
was contemporary with Callimachus (Suid. 
s. v. ; Athen. p. 493). 

Sosigenes (2a><riyeV?)s), the Peripatetic philo- 
sopher, was the astronomer employed by Julius 
Caesar to superintend the correction of the 
calendar (b. c. 46). He is called an Egyptian, 
but may be supposed to have been an Alexan- 
drian Greek. (See Diet, of Antiq. art. Calen- 
darium.) 

Sosiphanes (2a><n(£aV7)s), the son of Sosicles, 
of Syracuse, was one of the seven tragedians 
who were called the Tragic Pleiad. He lived 
about B. c. 340-280. (Suid. s. v.) 

Sositheus I2a><n'0eosl, of Syracuse or Athens, 
or Alexandria in the Troad, was a distinguished 
tragic poet, one of the Tragic Pleiad, and the 
antagonist of the tragic poet Homer. He lived 
about B. c. 284. (Suid. s. v.) 

SosistratOS CZoia'iarparos). 1. Held the 
chief power at Syracuse before the rise of 
Agathocles ; he was expelled by a revolution 
and retired to Agrigentum, where he was assas- 
sinated B.C. 314 (Diod. xix. 71). — 2. Divided the 
chief power at Syracuse with his rival, Thynion, 
about B.C. 277. They called in Pyrrhus to aid 
them when they were besieged by the Cartha- 
ginians (Plut. Pyrrh. 23). 

Sosius. 1. C, quaestor, b. c. 66, and praetor 
49. He was afterwards one of Antony's prin- 
cipal lieutenants in the East. He was appointed 
by Antony, in 38, governor of Syria and Cilicia 
in the place of Ventidius. Like his predecessor 
in the government, he carried on the military 
operations in his province with great success. 
In 37, he advanced against Jerusalem along 
with Herod, and after hard fighting became 
master of the city, and placed Herod upon the 
tlirone. In return for these services, Antony 
obtained for. Sosius the honour of a triumph in 
34, and the consulship in 32. Sosius commanded 
the left wing of Antony's fleet at the battle of 
Actium. He was afterwards pardoned by Octa- 
vian, at the intercession of L. Arruntius. (Suet. 
Aug. 17; App. B.C. v. 73; Veil. Pat. ii. 85.) 
— 2. The name of two brothers (Sosii), book- 
sellers at Rome in the time of Horace. They 
were probably freedmen, perhaps of the Sosius 
mentioned above. (Hor. Ep. i. 20, 2 ; A. P. 345.) 

Sospita. [Juno.] 

SoBthenes {'S.waBivris), a Macedonian officer 
of noble birth, who obtained the supreme direc- 
tion of uffairs during the period of confusion 
which followed the invasion of the GaulB. He 
defeated the Gauls in 280. (Just. xxiv. 5, 6.) 

Sostratus CS.warpa.roi), the son of Dexi- 
phanes, of Cnidus, was one of the great archi- 
tects who flourished during and after the life of 
Alexander the Great. He built for Ptolemy I., 
the son of Lagus, the celebrated Pharos of 
Alexandria. He also embellished his native 
city, Cnidus, with a work which was one of the 
wonders of ancient architecture : numely, a 
portico, or colonnude, supporting a terrace, 
which served as a promenade. (Strab. p. 791 ; 
Plin. xxxvi. H8.) 

Sotades {lurrihr^^. 1. An Athenian comic 
poet of the so-called Middle Comedy, who must 
not be confounded with the more celebrated 
poet of Maronea (Athen. pp. 298, 808 1 . — 2. A 
native of Maronea in Thrace, flourished ut 
Alexandria about H.c 280. He wrote InMcivious 
poems (called tpAvoxf s or nivaiim) iii the Ionic 



890 



SOTI01N 



SPARTA 



dialect, whence they were also called 'IoivikoI 
\6yoi (Suid. s.v. ; Athen. p. 620). They were 
also called Sotadean poems (^wrdSeia aap-aTa). 
It would seem that Sotades carried his lascivi- 
ous and abusive satire to the utmost lengths, 
and the freedoms which he took at last brought 
him into trouble (Mart. ii. 86, 2). According to 
Plutarch (Op. Moral, p. 11), he made a vehe- 
ment and gross attack on Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
on the occasion of his marriage with his sister 
Arsinoe, and the king threw him into prison, 
where he remained for a long time. According to 
Athenaeus, the poet attacked both Lysimachus 
and Ptolemy, and, having fled from Alexandria, 
he was overtaken at Caunus by Ptolemy's 
general Patroclus, who shut him up in a leaden 
chest and cast him into the sea. 

Sotion (ScutiW). 1. A philosopher and a na- 
tive of Alexandria, who flourished at the close 
of the third century B.C. He is chiefly remark- 
able as the author of a work (entitled Aia8ox<«) 
on the successive teachers in the different philo- 
sophical schools (Athen. p. 162 ; Diog. Laert. v. 
86). — 2. A philosopher, and also a native of 
Alexandria, who lived in the age of Tiberius. 
He was the instructor of Seneca, who derived 
from him his admiration of Pythagoras. It was 
perhaps this Sotion who was the author of a 
treatise on anger, quoted by Stobaeus (Sen. Ep. 
108). 

Sottiates or Sotiates, a powerful and warlike 
people in Gallia Aquitanica, on the frontiers of 
Gallia Narbonensis, were subdued by P. Crassus 
Caesar's legate, after a hard-fought battle. The 
modem Sos probably represents the ancient 
town of this people. (Caes. E.G. iii. 20 ; Athen. 
p. 249 ; Oros. vi. 8.) 

Sozomenus (%w£6n£vos), usually called Sozo- 
men in English, was a Greek ecclesiastical his- 
torian of the fifth century. He was probably a 
native of Bethelia or Bethel, a village near 
Gaza in Palestine. His parents were Chris- 
tians. He practised as an advocate at Constan- 
tinople, like his predecessor, Socrates, and he 
was still engaged in his profession when he 
wrote his History. His Ecclesiastical History, 
which is extant, is in nine books, and is dedi- 
cated to the emperor Theodosius II. It begins 
with the reign of Constantine, and comes down 
a little later than the death of Honorius, a.d. 
423. The work is incomplete, and breaks off in 
the middle of a chapter. The author, we know, 
had proposed to bring it down to 439, the year 
in which the History of Socrates ends. Sozo- 
men excels Socrates in style, but is inferior to the 
latter in soundness of judgment. The History 
of Sozomen is printed along with the other Greek 
ecclesiastical historians. [Socbates, No. 2.] 

Sozopolis, aft. Sozupolis (~$ce(6iroAis, 5cu£ou- 
iroAis : Susu, Ru.), a considerable city of Pisidia, 
in a plain surrounded by mountains, N. of Ter- 
messus (Hierocl. p. 672). 

Sparta {2,irdprq, Dor. ~S,Tvdpra : SmxpTiaTTjy, 
Spartiates, Spartanus) also called Lacedaemon 
(AcuceSat'iUou' : AaKe5aifi6i/tos, Lacedaemonius), 
the capital of Laconica and the chief city of 
Peloponnesus, was situated on the right bank 
of the Eurotas (Iri), about twenty miles from 
the sea. It stood on a plain which contained 
within it several rising grounds and hills. It 
•was bounded on the E. by the Eurotas, on the 
NW. by the small river Oenus (Kelesina), and 
on the SE. by the small river Tisia (Magula). 
Both of these streams fell into the Eurotas, 
which here for some distance is less narrowly 
enclosed by the mountains on either side. 
Below its confluence with the Oenus the river 



runs for eighteen miles in a valley or plain 
about four miles broad. On its left bank the 
ground is marshy ; on its right there are low 
spurs running down from Taygetus, and form- 
ing a space of ground elevated above the river 
upon which Sparta was built. Below, the river 
is again confined by mountain gorges. The 
actual plain of Sparta was therefore difficult of 
approach and easily defended against invaders. 
The city was about six miles in circumference, 
and consisted of several distinct quarters, 
which were originally separate villages, and 
which were never united into one regular town. 
(Thuc. i. 10 ; Paus. iii. 16, 9.) Its site is occu- 
pied by the modern villages of Magula and 
Psykhiko, and the principal modem town in 
the neighbourhood is Mistra, which lies about, 
two miles to the W. on the slopes of Mt. Tayge- 
tus. During the flourishing times of Greek 
independence, Sparta was never surrounded by 
walls, since the bravery of its citizens, and the 
difficulty of access to it, were supposed to ren- 
der such defences needless. It was first fortified 
by the tyrant Nabis, B.C. 195 (Paus. vii. 8, 5 ; 
Liv. xxxiv. 27), but it did not possess regular 
walls till the time of the Bomans. Sparta, 
unlike most Greek cities, had no proper Acropo- 
lis, but this name, after the fortification of the 
city by Nabis, was given to one of the steepest 
hills of the town, on the summit of which stood 
the temple of Athene Poliuchos, or Chalcioecus. 
Five quarters (originally distinct villages) are 
mentioned : (1) Pitane (niTacij), towards the N. 
of the city, in which was situated, the Agora, 
containing the council-house of the senate, and 
the offices of the public magistrates (Hdt. iii. 
55 ; Pind. 01. vi. 46 ; Eur. Troad. 1112 ; Plut. 
Ages. 32, de Exsil. p. 601). It was also sur- 
rounded by temples and other public buildings. 
Of these the most splendid was the Persian 
Stoa or portico, originally built of the spoils 
taken in the Persian war, and enlarged and 
adorned at later times. (2) Limnae (Aifivai), a 
suburb of the city in which stood the famous 
temple of Artemis Orthia, on the banks of the 
Eurotas, probably NE. of Pitane, was originally 
low ground covered with water. (3) Mesoa or 
or Messoa (Me<r6a, MeoWa), also by the side 
of the Eurotas, probably in the SE. part of 
the city, containing the Dromus and the 
Platanistas, which was a spot nearly surrounded 
with water, and so called from the plane-trees 
growing there. (4) Cynosiira (KvvScrovpa.: Kvvoa- 
ovpevs), in the SW. of the city, and S. of 
Pitane. (5) Aegldae (Ai'yeiScti), in the NW. of 
the city, and W. of Pitane. — The two principal 
streets of Sparta ran from the Agora to the 
extreme end of the city : these were, (1) Aphe- 
tae or Aphetais ('A$eTai, 'AQerdts sc. 686s), 
extending in a south-easterly direction, past the 
temple of Dictynna (which stood on the rising 
ground included in New Sparta) and the tombs 
of the Eurypontidae ; and (2) Skias (2(aas), run- 
ning nearly parallel to the preceding one, but fur- 
ther to the E., and which derived its name from 
an ancient tholos or skias (a circular building). 
The hills on the outskirts of the city were the 
Dictynnaeum (above mentioned) on the S., the 
Issorion on the W., and the Alpion on the N. 
To the SE., on the left bank of the Eurotas, 
was the hill Menelaium (Sag. Elias), so called 
from the sanctuary of Menelaus and Helen 
which stood upon it (Pol. v. 22 ; Paus. iii. 19, 9 ; 
Liv. xxxiv. 28). The most important remains 
of ancient Sparta are the ruins of the theatre, 
which was near the Agora. — In the Homeric 
period, Argos was the chief city in Peloponne- 



SPARTA 

bus, and Sparta is represented as subject to it. 
Here reigned Menelaus, the younger brother of 
Agamemnon ; and, according to tradition, by 
the marriage of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, 
with Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus, the 
two kingdoms of Argos and Sparta became 
united. The Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus 
made Sparta the capital of the country. La- 
conica fell to the share of the two sons of 
Aristodemus, Eurysthenes and Procles, who 
took up their residence at Sparta, and ruled 
over the kingdom conjointly. The old inhabi- 
tants of the country maintained themselves at 
Amyclae, which was not conquered for a long 
time. After the complete subjugation of the 
country we find three distinct classes in the 
population : the pure Dorians, who resided in 
the capital, and who were called Spartiatae or 
Spartans ; the Perioeci or old Achaean inhabi- 
tants (but probably with some admixture of 
Dorian blood), who became tributary to' the 
Spartans, and possessed no political rights ; and 
the Helots, who were also a portion of the old 
Achaean inhabitants, but were reduced to a 
state of slavery. [See also Diet, of Ant. art. 
Perioeci.] From various causes the Spartans 
became distracted by intestine quarrels, till at 
length Lycurgus, who belonged to the royal 
family, was selected by all parties to give a new 
constitution to the state. [See Lycurgus.] 
Sparta extended her sway over the greater part 
of Peloponnesus. In B.C. 743 the Spartans 
attacked Messenia, and after a war of twenty 
years subdued this country, 723. In 685 the 
Messenians again took up arms, but at the end 
of seventeen years were again completely sub- 
dued ; and their country from this time forward 
became an integral portion of Laconia. [Por 
details see Messenia.] After the close of the 
second Messenian war the Spartans continued 
their conquests in Peloponnesus. They de- 
feated the Tegeans, and wrested the district of 
Thyreae from the Argives. At the time of the 
Persian invasion, they were confessedly the first 
people in Greece, and to them was granted by 
unanimous consent the chief command in the 
war. But after the final defeat of the Persians 
the haughtiness of Pausanias disgusted most 
of the Greek states, particularly the Ionians, 
and led them to transfer the supremacy to 
Athens (477). From this time the power of 
Athens steadily increased, and Sparta possessed 
little influence outside the Peloponnesus. The 
Spartans, however, made several attempts to 
check the rising greatness of Athens, and their 
jealousy of the latter led at length to the Pelo- 
ponnesian war (431). This war ended in the 
overthrow of Athens, and the restoration of the 
supremacy of Sparta over the rest of Greece 
(404). But the Spartans did not retain this 
supremacy more than thirty years. Their de- 
cisive defeat by the Thebans under Epaminon- 
da« at the battle of Leuctra (371) gave the 
Spartan power a shock from which it never 
recovered ; and the restoration of the Messenians 
to their country two years afterwards completed 
the humiliation of Sparta. Thrice was tho 
Spartan territory invaded by the Thebans, and 
the Spartan women saw for the first time the 
watch-fires of an enemy's camp. The Spartans 
now finally lost their supremacy over Greece, 
but no other Greek state succeeded to their 
power, and about thirty years afterwards the 
greater part of Greece was obliged to yield to 
Philip of Macedon. The Spartans, however, 
kept haughtily aloof from the Macedonian con- 
queror, and refused to tuko part in tho Asiatic 



SPARTACUS 



891 



expedition of his son. Alexander the Great. 
Under the latsr Macedonian monarchs the 
power of Sparta still lnrther declined ; the in- 
stitutions of Lycureus were neglected, luxury 
crept into the state, the number of citizens 
diminished, and the landed property became 
vested in a few families. Agis endeavoured to 

j restore the ancient institutions of Lycurgus, 
but he perished in the attempt (240). Cleo- 
menes III., who began to reign 236, was more 
successful. He succeeded in putting the Ephors 
to death, and overthrowing the existing govern- 
ment (225) ; and he then made a redistribution 
of the landed property, and augmented the 

■ number of the Spartan citizens by admitting 
some of the Perioeci to this honour. His re- 
forms infused new blood into the state ; and 
for a short time he carried on war with success 
against the Achaeans. But the mistaken policy 
of Aratus, the general of the Achaeans, called 
in the assistance of Antigonus Doson, the king 
of Macedonia, who defeated Cleomenes at the 
decisive battle of Sellasia (2211, and followed 
up his success by the capture of Sparta. Sparta 
now sank into insignificance, and was ruled by 
a succession of native tyrants till at length it 
was compelled to abolish its peculiar institu- 
tions, and to join the Achaean League. Shortly 
afterwards it fell, with the rest of Greece, 
under the Roman power. 

Spartacus, the name of several kings of the 
Cimmerian Bosporus. 1. Succeeded the d5masty 
of the Archaeanactidae in B.C. 438, and reigned 
until 431. He was succeeded by his son Se- 
leucus. (Diod. xii. 31.) — 2. Began to reign in 
427 and reigned twenty years. He was suc- 
ceeded in 407 by his son Satyrus. (Diod. xiv. 
93. 1 — 3. Succeeded his father, Leucon, in 353, 
and died, leaving his kingdom to his son, Pary- 
sades, in 348 (Diod. xvi. 31, 52). — 4. Son of 
Eumelus, began to reign in 304, and reigned 
twenty years (Died. xx. 100). 

Spartacus, by birth a Thracian, was suc- 

1 cessively a shepherd, a soldier, and a chief of 
banditti. On one of his predatory expeditions 

I he was taken prisoner, and sold to a trainer of 

) gladiators. In 73 he was a member of the 
company of Lentulus, and was detained in his 
school at Capua in readiness for the games at 
Rome. He persuaded his fellow-prisoners to 

' make an attempt to gain their freedom. About 

! seventy of them broke out of the school of 
Lentulus, and took refuge in the crater of 
Vesuvius. Spartacus was chosen leader, and 
was soon joined by a number of runaway slaves. 
They were blockaded by C. Claudius Pulcher 
at the head of 8000 men, but Spartacus at- 
tacked the besiegers and put them to flight. 

I His numbers rapidly increased, and for two 
years (B.C. 73-71) he defeated one Roman army 
after another, and laid waste Italy from the 

I foot of the Alps to the southernmost corner of 
the peninsula. After both the consuls of 72 

' had been defeated by Spartacus, M. Licinius 
Crassus, the praetor, was appointed to the 
command of the war. Crassus carried on the 
contest with vigour and success, and after 
gaining several advantages over the enemy, at 
length defeated them on the river Silarus in a 
decisive battle, in which Spartacus was slain. — 
The character of Spartacus has been maligned 
by the Roman writers. Cicero compares the 

! vilest of his contemporaries to him ; Horace 

| (Od. iii. 14, 19) speaks of him as a common 

i robber; none recognise his greatness, but the 
terror of hiB name survived to a late period of 

I the empire. Accident made Spartacus a free- 



892 



SPABTAKIUS 



SPOLETIUM 



footer and a gladiator; nature had given him 
many of the qualities of a hero. The excesses 
of his followers he could not always repress, 
and his efforts to restrain them often cost him 
his popularity. But he was in himself not less 
just than he was able and valiant. (Plut. 
Crass. 8-12, Pomp. 21 ; Liv. Ep. 95-97 ; App. 
B.C. i. 116-121 ; Cic. Verr. v. 2, 5, ad Att. vi. 2.) 
Spartarius Campus. [Cabthago Nova.] 
Sparti ('Xwapro't from ffireipci}), the Sown-men, 
was the name given to the armed men who 
sprang from the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus, 
and who were believed to be the ancestors of 
the five oldest families at Thebes. [Cadmus; 
Thebae.] 

Spartianus, Aelius. [Scbiptobes Histobiae 

AUGUSTAE.] 

Spartolus (2rapTcwAos), a town in the Mace- 
donian peninsula of Chalcidice, N. of Olynthus 
(Thuc. ii. 79, v. 18). 

Spauta or Capauta ('S.-waina : L. of TJrmi), a 
large salt lake in the W. of Media, whose waters 
were singularly bitter and acrid. It was also 
called Matiana (Martavr] A'ifivri) from the name 
of the people who dwelt round it. (Strab. p. 523.) 

Speos Artemidos. [Peos Aet.] 

Spercheus (2irepxet(Ss : Elladha), a river in 
the S. of Thessaly, which rises in Mt. Tym- 
phrestus, runs in an easterly direction through 
the territory of the Aenianes and through the 
district Malis, and falls into the innermost corner 
of the Sinus Maliacus (Hdt. vii. 198 ; Strab. 
p. 433). As a river-god Spercheus is a son of 
Oceanus and Ge, and the father of Menesthius 
by Polydora, the daughter of Peleus. To this 
god Peleus dedicated the hair of his son Achilles, 
in order that he might return in safety from 
the Trojan war. (II. xvi. 174, xxiii. 142 ; Apollod. 
hi. 14, 4 ; Paus. i. 37, 2.) 

Spes, the personification of Hope, was wor- 
shipped at Eome, where she had several temples, 
the most ancient of which was built in B.C. 
354, by the consul Atilius Calatinus, near the 
Porta Carmentalis in the Forum Olitorium, 
and was rebuilt in 17 a.d. (Liv. xxiv. 47 ; Tac. 
Ann. ii. 49). The goddess Spes represented 
especially the hope and promise of gardens, 
over which she presided, as Venus did also 
(with whom she was sometimes identified in art). 
Hence the vegetable- market was a fitting place 
for her sanctuary (cf. Tibull. i. 1, 9). She was 
represented, like Flora, crowned with flowers, 
and with ears of corn. She bore also the 
cornucopia, like Fortune, in conjunction with 
whom she is often addressed on monumental 
inscriptions : ' Speset Fortuna valete' (cf. 'EAttIs 
Kal av Tvxr) fieya xai'peTe, Anth. Pal ix. 49). 

Speusippus (2,Trev<rnrnos), the philosopher, 
was a native of Athens, and the son of Eury- 
medon and Potone, a sister of Plato (Diog. 
Laert. iv. 1). He accompanied his uncle Plato 
on his third journey to Syracuse, where he 
displayed considerable ability and prudence 
(Plut. Dion, 22). He succeeded Plato as pre- 
sident of the Academy, but was at the head 
of the school for only eight years (b.c. 347-339). 
He died, as it appears, of a lingering paralytic 
illness. He wrote several works, all of which 
are lost, in which he developed the doctrines of 
his great master. 

Sphacteria. [Pylos, No. 1.] 

Sphaeria (2<paip!a: Pons), an island off the 
coast of Troezen in Argolis, and between it and 
the island of Calauria, with the latter of which 
it was connected by a sand-bank. Here Sphae- 
rus, the charioteer of Pelops, is said to have 
been buried. (Paus. ii. 33, 1, v. 10, 2.) 



Sphaerus (2<paipos), a Stoic philosopher, 
studied first under Zeno of Citium, and after- 
wards under Cleanthes. He lived at Alexandria 
during the reigns of the first two Ptolemies. 
(Diog. Laert. viii. 177 ; Athen. p. 334.) He also 
taught at Lacedaemon, and was believed to have 
had considerable influence in moulding the 
character of Cleomenes (Plut. Cleom. 2). He 
was in repute among the Stoics for the accu- 
racy of his definitions (Cic. Tusc. 24, 53). He 
was the author of several works, all of which 
are lost. 

Sphendale (2<pev8aAn : 2<pei/5a\euy), a demus 
in Attica belonging to the tribe Hippothoontis, 
on the frontiers of Boeotia between Tanagra 
and Decelea. 

Sphettus (2(p7)TT<Ss : 2<p^ttios), a demus in 
the S. of Attica, near the silver mines of Sunium, 
belonging to the tribe Acamantis. 

Sphinx (2<pi'7f, gen. ~2,<piyy6s), according to 
the ' Greek tradition, a she-monster, daughter 
of Orthus and Chimaera, born in the country 
of the Arimi, or of Typhon and Echidna, or 
lastly of Typhon and Chimaera. She is said to 
have proposed a riddle to the Thebans, and to 
have murdered all who were unable to guess 
it. Oedipus solved it, whereupon the Sphinx 
slew herself. [For details see Oedipus.] The 
legend appears to have come from Egypt, but 
the figure of the Sphinx is represented some- 
what differently in Greek mythology and art. 
The Egyptian Sphinx is the figure of a lion 
without wings in a lying attitude, the upper 
part of the body being that of a human being. 
This Sphinx was male, and represented the god 
Hor-em-khu (= Horus, Harmachis, or Kheper). 
The statue existed before the time of Khufu (as 
is mentioned in an inscription), i.e. before the' 
Fourth Dynasty, which probably began about 
3700 B.C. The common idea of a Greek Sphinx, 
on the other hand, is that of a winged body of a 
lion, the breast and upper part being the figure 
of a woman. The winged type, probably derived 
from Assyria, was the commoner ; but some terra- 
cotta figures of a wingless Sphinx have been 
found in Boeotia. The Sphinx in Greece was 
primarily an emblem of the mysterious power 
of death. Hence she is represented, like the 
Harpy or the Siren, bearing a slain body; and 
especially she is the slayer of those who die 
prematurely. Her appearance in the Theban 
story is due to her being regarded as both 
pitiless and mysterious. Among the most re- 
markable Greek sculptures of the Sphinx are 
those which appear in a relief recently found 
at Assos. The figure of the Sphinx is a common 
emblem on tombs. 

Spina, a town in Gallia Cispadana, in the 
territory of the Lingones, on the most southerly 
of the mouths of the Po, which was called after 
it Ostium Spineticum. It was a very ancient 
town (Dionys. i. 18, 28), but in the time of 
Strabo had ceased to be a place of any import- 
ance (Strab. pp. 214, 421). 

Spintharus (Smudapos), of Heraclea on the 
Pontus, a tragic poet, contemporary with Ari- 
stophanes, who designates him as a barbarian 
and a Phrygian. He was also ridiculed by the 
other comic poets. (Aristoph. Av.lGB; Suid. s.v.) 

Spolatum. [Salona.] 

Spoletium or Spoletum (Spoletinus: Spo- 
leto), a town in Umbria, on the Via Flaminia, 
colonised by the Bomans B.C. 242. It suffered 
severely in the civil wars between Sulla and 
Marius. At a later time it was taken by 
Totila ; but its walls, which had been de- 
stroyed by the Goths, were restored by Narses. 



SPORADES 



STATIUS 



893 



(Liv. xxii. 9; App. B.C. i. 89; Strab. p. 227; | 
Procop. B.G. iii. 12.) 

Sporades (ZwopdSes, sc. vfjaoi, from mrei'peo), 
a group of scattered islands in the Aegaean sea, 
off the island of Crete and the W. coast of Asia 
Minor, so called in opposition to the Cyclades, 
which lay in a circle around Delos. The 
division, however, between these two groups of 
islands was not always defined, and we find some 
of the islands at one time described as belong- 
ing to the Sporades, and at another time as 
belonging to the Cyclades. (Strab. pp. 484, 485 ; 
Plin. iv. 71.) 

Spurinna, Vestritlus. 1. The haruspex who 
warned Caesar to beware of the Ides of March. 
It is related that, as Caesar was going to the 
senate-house on the fatal day, he said to 
Spurinna in jest, ' Well, the Ides of March are 
come,' upon which the seer replied, ' Yes, they 
are come, but they are not past.' (Suet. Jul. 81 ; 
glut. Caes. 63; Val. Max. viii. 11, 2.)— 2. A 
Roman general, who fought on the side of Otho 
against the Vitellian troops in the N. of Italy 
(Tac. Hist. ii. 11, 18, 26; Plut. Oth. 5). In the 
reign of Trajan he gained a victory over the 
Bructeri. Spurinna lived upon terms of the 
closest friendship with the younger Pliny, who 
gives a valuable and interesting account of the 
manner in which Spurinna passed his day 
(Plin. Ep. iii. 1). In the same letter Pliny 
mentions that Spurinna wrote lyric poems ; but 
there is no doubt that the four poems pub- 
lished as Spurinna's by Barth in 1613 are for- 
geries (see Wernsdorf , Poet. Lat. Min. hi. 825). 

Spurinus, Q. Petillius, praetor urbanus in 
B.C. 181, in which year the books of king Numa 
Pompilius are said to have been discovered 
upon the estate of one L. Petillius. Spurious 
obtained possession of the books, and upon his 
representation to the senate that they ought 
not to be read and preserved, the senate 
ordered them to be burnt. [Numa.] Spurinus 
was consul in 176, and fell in battle against the 
Ligurians. (Liv. xl. 18, 26, 29; Val. Max. i. 
1, 12.) 

Stabiae (Stabianus : Castel a Mare di Sta- 
bia), an ancient town in Campania, between 
Pompeii and Surrentum, which was destroyed 
by Sulla in the Social war, but which con- 
tinued to exist as a small place down to the 
great eruption of Vesuvius in a.d. 79, when it 
was overwhelmed along with Pompeii and 
Herculaneum. It was at Stabiae that the 
elder Pliny perished. (Ov. Met. xv. 711 ; Plin. 
Ep. vi. 16.) Remains of some interest have 
been excavated there [cf. Diet, of Ant. art. 
Torcular]. 

Stagirus, subsequently Stagira (2To7€ipos, 
rck Srayeipa, t\ 2.Tayeipa : STaytiplrris : Stavro), 
a town of Macedonia, in Chalcidice, on the 
Strymonic gulf and a little N. of the isthmus 
which unites the promontory of Athos to Chal- 
cidice. It was a colony of Andros, was founded 
B.C. 656, and was originally called Orthagoria 
(Hdt. vii. 115 ; Thuc. iv. 88). It is celebrated 
as the birthplace of Aristotle, and was in con- 
sequence restored by Philip, by whom it had 
been destroyed (Plut. Alex. 7 ; Diog. Lae'rt. v. 
4 ; Ael. V. H. iii. 17). 

Staienus, C, one of the judices at the trial 
of Oppianicus. It was believed that he took 
bribes from both sides. He claimed, without 
right, to belong to the Aelian gens, and there- 
fore adopted the Aelian cognomen Paetus. He 
was condemned for exciting a mutiny among 
the soldiers in his quaeutorship. (Cic. fluent. 
30, 98, Brut. 68.) 



Staphylus (2Ta<puA.os), son of Dionysus and 
Ariadne, or of Theseus and Ariadne, and was 
one of the Argonauts. By Chrysothemis he 
became the father of three daughters, Molpa- 
dia, Rhoeo, and Parthenos. (Apollod. i. 9, 16 ; 
Diod. v. 52 ; Dioxysus.) 

Stasinus (^.Taaivos), of Cyprus, an epic poet, 
to whom some of the ancient writers attributed 
the poem of the Epic Cycle entitled Cypria 
(Kvwpia), because Cyprus was the birthplace of 
its supposed author. In the earliest historical 
period of Greek literature the Cypria was 
accepted without question as a work of Homer ; 
and it is not till we come down to the times of 
Athenaeus and the grammarians that we find 
any mention of Stasinus (Athen. pp. 35, 334, 
682). Stasinus was said to be the son-in-law 
of Homer, who, according to one story, com- 
posed the Cypria and gave it to Stasinus as 
his daughter's marriage portion (Procl. Chrest. 
p. 471 ;Ael. V. H. ix. 15) : manifestly an attempt 
to reconcile the two different accounts, which 
ascribed it to Homer and Stasinus. The Cypria 
was the first, in the order of the events con- 
tained in it, of the poems of the Epic Cycle 
relating to the Trojan war. It embraced the 
period antecedent to the beginning of the Iliad, 
to which it was designed to form an intro- 
duction, relating the marriag of Thetis, the 
judgment of Paris to award the golden apple, 
the rape of Helen, and the first nine years of 
the war. Its substance is preserved in the 
prose summary by Pkoclus. 

Stata Mater, the deity at Rome who was 
invoked to stay the progress of fires, and was 
therefore worshipped in each vicus, under the 
direction of the Magistri Vicorum (C. I. L. vi. 
763-766). Her statue stood in the Forum 
(Fest. s.v.). It is probable that her worship 
was merely one aspect of the worship of Vesta. 
[Vesta.] 

Statielli, Statiellates, or Statiellenses, a 

small tribe in Liguria, S. of the Po, whose chief 
town was Statiellae Aquae (Acqui), on the road 
from Genua to Placentia (Liv. xlii. 7, 21 ; Cic. 
ad Fam. xi. 11). 

Statilia Messallina. [Messallina.] 

Statilius Taurus. [Taurus.] 

Statlra (2-raTeipa). 1. Wife of Artaxerxes 
H., king of Persia, was poisoned by Parysatis, 
the mother of the king, who was a deadly 
enemy of Statira (Plut. Artax. 2-19). — 2. Sister 
and wife of Darius LIL, celebrated as the most 
beautiful woman of her time. She was taken 
prisoner by Alexander, together with her 
mother-in-law, Sisygambis, and her daughters, 
after the battle of Issus, B.C. 383. They wero 
all treated with the utmost respect by the 
conqueror, but Statira died shortly before the 
battle of Arbela, 381 (Curt. iii. 3, 22-26, iv. 10, 
18-34; Arr. An. ii. 11, iv. 19).— 3. Also called 
Barsine, elder daughter of Darius III. [Bab- 
bine.] 

Statins Murcus. [Murcus.] 

Statlus, P. Papinius, was born at Neapolis, 
about a.d. 61 (cf. Stat. Silo. v. 8, 235), and was 
the son of a distinguished grammarian. He 
accompanied his father to Rome, where the 
latter acted as the preceptor of Domitian, who 
held him in high honour. Under the skilful 
tuition of his father, the young Statius speedily 
rose to fame, and became peculiarly renowned 
for the brilliancy of his extemporaneous effu- 
sions, so that he gained the prize three times 
in the Alban contests (Silv. iii. 5, 28); but 
having, after a long career of popularity, been 
vanquished in the quinquennial Capitoline 



894 



STATONIA 



STESICHOBUS 



games, he retired to Neapolis, the place of his 
nativity, along with his wife, Claudia, whose 
virtues he frequently commemorates (Silv. iii. 
5, 31). It is likely, however, that the cause of 
his retirement was, not personal pique, but 
rather weariness of the state of Boman society, 
of the recitations, and of the necessity of seek- 
ing court favour and patronage. He died about 
a.d. 96. It has been inferred from a passage in 
Juvenal (vii. 82) that Statius, in his earlier 
years at least, was forced to struggle with 
poverty : but the passage, rightly understood, 
expresses no more than the circumstances 
under which poets had to find a sale for their 
work, without any reference to the wealth or 
poverty of Statius in particular. Statius also, 
no doubt, profited by the patronage of Dorni- 
tian (Silv. iv. 2), whom he addresses in strains 
of the most fulsome adulation. The story of 
the secret conversion of Statius to Christianity, 
mentioned by Dante (Pnrgat. xxii. 89), rests on 
no authority, and is in itself extremely im- 
probable. Dante was glad to believe possible 
for the most eminent imitator of Virgil what he 
was obliged to recognise as impossible for 
Virgil himself. The extant works of Statius 
are : — (1) Silvarum Libri V, a collection of 
thirty-two occasional poems, many of them of 
considerable length, divided into five books. 
To each book is prefixed a dedication in prose, 
addressed to some friend. The metre chiefly 
employed is the heroic hexameter, but four of 
the pieces (i. 6, ii. 7, iv. 3, 9) are in Phalaecian 
hendecasyllabics, one (iv. 5) in the Alcaic, and 
one (iv. 7) in the Sapphic stanza. (2) Thebaidos 
Libri XII, a heroic poem in twelve books, 
embodying the ancient legends with regard to 
the expedition of the Seven against Thebes. 
(3) Achilleidos Libri II, a heroic poem break- 
ing off abruptly. According to the original 
plan, it would have comprised a complete 
history of the exploits of Achilles, before and 
after the time embraced by the Iliad, but was 
never finished. Statius may justly claim the 
praise of standing in the foremost rank among 
the heroic poets of the Silver Age. He is in a 
great measure free from extravagance and 
pompous pretensions, though he draws too 
largely on his store of mythological learning ; 
but, on the other hand, in no portion of his works 
do we find the impress of high natural talent 
or power ; the pieces which form the Silvae, 
although evidently thrown off in haste, are 
better than the ambitious poems of the Thebaid 
or the Achilleid. — Editions of the Silvae by 
Markland, Lond. 1728, and by Sillig, Dresd. 
1827 : of the Thebais and Achilleis by O. 
Miiller, 1870 : of the complete works of Statius 
by Bahrens and Kohlmann, Leips. 1876-1884. 

Statonia (Statoniensis), a town in Etruria, 
and a Boman Praefectura, on the river Albinia, 
and on the Lacus Statoniensis, in the neigh- 
bourhood of which were stone quarries, and ex- 
cellent wine was produced. Near it was a lake, 
which is probably the L. di Mezzano, a little 
"W. of _ the L. di Bolsena (L. Volsiniensis) ; 
Statonia was probably between this and Tar- 
<juinii. (Strab. p. 226 ; Plin. ii. 209 ; Vitruv. ii. 
7, 3.) 

Stator. _ [Jupiter, p. 464, a.] 

Stectormm (~2,TtKTopiou : Emir Hisar) a city 
of Great Phrygia, between Peltae and Syn- 
nada (Ptol. v. 2, 22 ; Paus. x. 27, 1). 

Stellas or Stellatinus Campus, a part of the 
Campania plain, N. of M. Tifata, between Cales 
and the Volturnus (Liv. xxii. 13). 

Stentor (Xrivrup), a herald of the Greeks in 



the Trojan war, whose voice was as loud as that 
of fifty other men together. His name has 
become proverbial for anyone shouting with 
an unusually loud voice. (II. v. 783 ; Juv. xiii. 
112.) 

Stentoris Lacus. [Hebbus.] 

Stenyclarus ('SrevvKAripos, Dor. Srei/u/cAapos : 
'SrevvKAiipios), a town in the N. of Messenia, 
NE. of Messene, which was the residence of the 
Dorian kings of the country. After the time of 
the third Messenian war the town is no longer 
mentioned ; but its name continued to be given 
to an extensive plain in the N. of Messenia. 
(Paus. iv. 3, 7 ; Strab. p. 361 ; Hdt. ix. 64.) 

Stephane or -is (2Te<pae?j, 'SrecpUvis : Stefa- 
nio), a seaport town of Paphlagonia, on the 
coast of the Mariandyni, W. of Sinope (Ptol. v. 
4, 2)._ 

Stephanus (2T6<paeos). 1. An Athenian comic 
poet of the New Comedy, was probably the son 
of Antiphanes, some of whose plays he is said 
to have exhibited (Athen. p. 469).— 2. Of By- 
zantium, the author of the geographical lexicon 
entitled Ethnica ('EBvikol), of which unfortu- 
nately we only possess an Epitome. Stephanus 
was a grammarian at Constantinople, and lived 
after the time of Arcadius and Honorius, and 
before that of Justinian II. His work was re- 
duced to an Epitome by a certain Hermolaus, 
who dedicated his abridgment to the emperor 
Justinian H. According to the title, the chief 
object of the work was to specify the gentile 
names derived from the several names of places 
and countries in the ancient world. But, while 
this is done in every article, the amount of 
information given went far beyond this. Nearly 
every article in the Epitome contains a reference 
to some ancient writer as an authority for the 
name of the place ; but in the original, as we see 
from the extant fragments, there were consider- 
able quotations from the ancient authors, be- 
sides a number of very interesting particulars, 
topographical, historical, mythological, and 
others. Thus the work was not merely what it 
professed to be, a lexicon of a special branch of 
technical grammar, but a valuable dictionary 
of geography. How great would have been its 
value to us if it had come down to us un- 
mutilated may be seen by anyone who com- 
pares the extant fragments of the original with 
the corresponding articles in the Epitome. 
These fragments, however, are unfortunately 
very scanty, being only the last part of the 
letter A, the article 'l&riplcu Si5o and an account 
of Sicily. — The best editions of the Epitome of 
Stephanus are by Dindorf, Lips. 1825, &c, 
4 vols. ; by Westermann, Lips. 1839, 8vo ; and 
by Meineke, Berlin, 1849. 

Sterculius, Stercutrus, or Sterquilinus. 
[Picumnus ; cf. Indigitamenta, p. 443, a.] 

Steropes. [Cyclopes.] 

Stesichorus (%rri<r'ixopos), of Himera in Sicily, 
a celebrated Greek poet, contemporary with 
Sappho, Alcaeus, Pittacus, and Phalaris, is 
said to have been born B.C. 632, and to have 
died in 552 at the age of eighty. His real name 
was Tisias, the name by which he is known 
being merely a surname, meaning ' organiser of 
choruses ' (Suid. s.v.). Of the events of his life 
we have only a few obscure accounts. Like 
other great poets, his birth is fabled to have 
been attended by an omen : a nightingale sat 
upon the babe's lips and sang. He is said to 
have been carefully educated at Catana, and 
afterwards to have enjoyed the friendship of 
Phalaris, the tyrant of Agrigentum. Many 
writers relate the fable of his being miraculously 



STESIMBROTUS 



STIMULA 



895 



struck with blindness after writing an attack I 
upon Helen, and recovering his sight when he 
had composed a Palinodia. [Helena.] Another 
story told of him is that he warned the citizens 
of the designs of Phalaris by telling them the 
fable of the horse and the stag, and in conse- 
quence had to fly from Agrigentum to Catana 
(Ar. Bhet. ii. 20). He is said to have been 
buried at Catana near a gate of the city which 
was called after him the Stesichorean gate. 
Stesichorus was one of the nine chiefs of lyric 
poetry recognised by the ancients. He stands, 
with Alcman, at the head of one branch of the ' 
lyric art, the choral poetry of the Dorians. He 
was the first to break the monotony of the 
strophe and antistrophe by the introduction of 
the epode, and his metres were much more 
varied, and the structure of his strophes more 
elaborate, than those of Alcman. His odes con- 
tained the elements of the choral poetry per- | 
fected by Pindar and the tragedians. The [ 
subjects of bis poems were chiefly heroic (hence I 
' graves Camenae,' Hor. Od. iv. 9, 8) ; he trans- j 
ferred the subjects of the old epic poetry to the 
lyric form, dropping, of course, the continuous 
narrative, and dwelling on isolated adventures 
of his heroes. He also composed poems on other 
subjects. His extant remains may be classi- 
fied under the following heads : — (1) Mythical 
Poems ; (2) Hymns, Encomia, Epithalamia, 
Paeans; (3) Erotic Poems, and Seolia ; (4) A 
pastoral poem, entitled Daphnis ; (5) Fables ; 
(6) Elegies. The dialect of Stesichorus was 
Dorian, with an intermixture of the Epic. — The 
best edition of his fragments is by Kleine, 
Berol. 1828. 

Stesimbrotus (2T7jtn7t/3poTos), of Thasos, a 
rhapsodist and historian in the time of Cimon 
ind Pericles, who is mentioned with praise by 
Plato and Xenophon, and who wrote a work 
upon Homer, the title of which is not known. 
He also wrote some historical works. (Plat. 
Ion, p. 550 ; Xen. Mem. iv. 2, 10; Plut. Cim. 4, 
14. 10, Per. 8, 26.) 

Stheneboea (Zdevefioia), called Antea by 
many writers, was a daughter of the Lycian 
king Iobates, and the wife of Proetus. Re- 
specting her love for Bellerophon, see Bellero- 
phoxtes. 

StheneluB (284vf\os). Son of Perseus and 
Andromeda, king of Mycenae, and husband of 
Nicippe, by whom he became the father of 
Alcinoe, Medusa, and Eurystheus (27. xix. 116 ; 
Apollod. ii. 4, 5). Eurystheus, as the great enemy 
of Heracles, is called by Ovid Sthenele'ius 
kostis (Ov. Her. ix. 25, Met. ix. 273).— 2. Son 
of Androgeos and grandson of Minos. He ac- 
companied Heracles from Paros on his expedi- 
tion against the Amazons, and together with 
his brother Alcaeus he was appointed by Hera- 
cles ruler of Thasos (Apollod. ii. 5, 9). — 3. Son 
of Actor, likewise a companion of Heracles in 
his expedition against the Amazons ; but !»*• 
died and was buried in Paphlagonia, where he 
afterwards appeared to the Argonauts (Ap. Rh. 
ii. 911). — 4. Son of Capaneus and Evadne, 
belonged to the family of the Anaxagoridae in 
Argos, and was the father of Cylarabes (27. v. 
109 ; Pans. ii. 18, 4). He was one of the Epigoni, 
by whom Thebes was taken, and he commanded 
the Argives under Diomedes, in the Trojan war, 
being the faithful friend and companion of Dio- 
medes. (II. ii. 564, ix. 367, 505, xxiii. 511 ; Hor. 
Od. i. 15, 8, iv. 9, 20.) He was one of the Greeks 
concealed in the wooden horse (Hyg. Fab. 10H), 
and at the distribution of the booty ho was 
said to have received an image of a three-eyed 



Zeus, which was in after-times shown at Argos 
(Paus. ii. 45, 5, viii. 46, 2). His own statue and 
tomb also were believed to exist at Argos. — 
5. Father of Cycnus, who was metamorphosed 
into a swan. Hence we find the swan called by 
Ovid Stlieneleis vohtcris and Sthetieleia proles 
(Ov. Met. ii. 368). — 6. A tragic poet, contempo- 
rary with Aristophanes, who attacked him in 
the Wasps (Aristoph. Vesp. 1312). 
Stheno. [Gorgoxes.] 

StLUcho, son of a Vandal captain under the 
emperor Valens, became one of the most dis- 
tinguished generals of Theodosius I. On the 
death of Theodosius, a.d. 395, Stilicho became 
the real ruler of the West under the emperor 
Honorius ; and his power was strengthened by 
the death of his rival, Eufinus [RuFrxrs], and 
by the marriage of his daughter Maria to 
Honorius. His military abilities saved the 
Western empire ; and after gaining several 
victories over the barbarians, he defeated Alaric 
at the decisive battle of Pollentia, 403, and 
compelled him to retire from Italy. In 405 he 
gained another great victory over Radagaisus, 
who had invaded Italy at the head of a formid- 
able host of barbarians. It was alleged that, 
these victories raised the ambition of Stilicho, 
and that he aspired to make himself master of 
the Roman empire ; but there is no proof of 
this. The influence of Stilicho was undermined 
by the intrigues of Olympius, who, for his own 
purposes, persuaded Honorius to regard Stilicho 
as dangerous and disloyal. Stilicho was appre- 
hended and put to death at Ravenna in 408. 
(Claudian, Stilicho, Serena, Rufinus ; Zosim. 
iv., v.) 

Stilo, L. Aelius Praeconinus, a Roman 
grammarian, one of the teachers of Varro and 
Cicero. He received the surname of Praeco- 
ninus because his father had been a praeco, and 
that of Stilo on account of his compositions. 
He himself was a knight, and, as one of the 
aristocratical party, accompanied Q. Metellus 
Numidicus into exile in B.C. 100. He wrote 
Commentaries on the Songs of the Salii and on 
the Twelve Tables, a work De Proloquiis, &c. 
He and his son-in-law, Ser. Claudius, may be 
regarded as the founders of the study of gram- 
mar at Rome. (Suet. Gram. 2; Cic. Brut. 56, 
205 ; Quint, x. 1, 99 ; Gell. i. 18, x. 21.) Some 
modern writers suppose that the work on Rhe- 
toric ad C. Herennium, which is printed in the 
editions of Cicero, is the work of this Aelius, 
but this is probably erroneous [see Cornifi- 
crus]. 

Stilpo ^STi'Airwv), the philosopher, was a 
native of Megara, and taught philosophy in 
his native town. According to one account, 
he engaged in dialectic encounters with Dio- 
dorus Cronus at the court of Ptolemaeus Soter ; 
while, according to another, he did not comply 
with the invitation of the king to visit Alex- 
andria. Ho acquired a great reputation ; and 
so high was the esteem in which he was held 
that Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, spared 
| his house at the capture of Megara. He is said 
I to have surpassed his contemporaries in inven- 
tive power and dialectic art, and to have inspired 
almost all Greece with a devotion to the Me- 
garian philosophy. He made the idea of virtue 
the especial object of his consideration. He 
maintained that the wise man ought not only 
to overcome every evil, but not even to be 
affected by any. (Diog. Lai : rt. ii. 113-118; Sen. 
Bp. 9.) 

Stimula, originally an Italian deity wor- 
shipped among tlie Indigetes as the Power 



896 



STIRIA 



STKABO 



which in childhood and youth incited to emula- 
tion or love (Aug. C. D. iv. 11) ; but, perhaps 
only from some similarity of sound, this name 
was applied also to Semele after the introduc- 
tion of the Bacchanalian worship into Italy. 
This Stimula ( = Semele) had a sanctuary near 
Ostia. (Liv. xxxix. 12 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 503.) 

Stlria (Sreipi'a : 5re<pjeus : Ru. on the bay 
Porto Bafti), a demus in Attica, SE. of Brauron, 
belonging to the tribe Pandionis, to which there 
was a road from Athens called SreipiaK^ oSo's. 
It is the birthplace of Theramenes and Thra- 
sybulus. (Paus. x. 45, 8 ; Strab. p. 399.) 

Stobaeus, Joannes {'Iwaw-qs 6 Sto/Soios), de- 
rived his surname apparently from being a 
native of Stobi in Macedonia. Of his personal 
history we know nothing. Even the age in 
which he lived cannot be fixed with accuracy ; 
but he must have been later than Hierocles of 
Alexandria, whom he quotes. Probably he 
lived not very long after him, as he quotes no 
writer of a. later date. We are indebted to Sto- 
baeus for a very valuable collection of extracts 
from earlier Greek writers. Stobaeus was a 
man of very extensive reading, in the course of 
which he noted down the most interesting pas- 
sages. The materials which he had collected 
in this way he arranged, in the order of subjects, 
for the use of his son Septimius. This collec- 
tion of extracts has come down to us, divided 
into two distinct works, of which one bears the 
title of ''EKKoyoX (pvcriKal SiaAe/cri/cal Kal T)8iKa'i 
(Eclogae Physicae, etc.). and the other the title 
of 'Av8o\6ywv (Florilegiuin or Sermones). The 
Eclogae consist for the most part of extracts 
conveying the views of earlier poets and prose 
writers on points of physics, dialectics, and 
ethics. The Florilegium or Sermones is de- 
voted to subjects of a moral, political, and 
economical kind, and maxims of practical 
wisdom. Each chapter of the Eclogae and 
Sermones is headed by a title describing its 
matter. The extracts quoted in illustration 
begin usually with passages from the poets, 
after whom come historians, orators, philo- 
sophers and physicians. To Stobaeus we are 
indebted for a large proportion of the fragments 
that remain of the lost works of poets. Eu- 
ripides seems to have been an especial favourite 
with him. He has quoted above 500 passages 
from him in the Sermones, 150 from Sophocles, 
and above 200 from Menander. In extracting 
from prose writers, Stobaeus sometimes quotes 
verbatim, sometimes gives only an epitome of 
the passage. — Editions of the Eclogae are by 
Heeren, Gotting. 1792-1801, and by Meineke, 
Leips. 1860; and of the Florilegium by Gais- 
ford, Oxon. 1822, and by Meineke, Leips. 1857. 

Stobi (2t<Sj8oi: Zroficuos), a town of Mace- 
donia, and the most important place in the dis- 
trict Paeonia, was situated on the river Erigon, 
at its junction with the Axius, NE. of Heraclea 
(Strab. p. 329 ; Ptol. iii. 13, 4 ; Liv. xxxiii. 19, 
xlv. 29). It was made a Roman colony and a 
municipium, and under the later emperors was 
the capital of the province Macedonia II. or 
Salutaris (Plin. iv. 34 ; C. I. L. iii. 629). It was 
destroyed at the end of the fourth century by 
the Goths ; but it is still mentioned by the 
Byzantine writers as a fortress under the name 
of Stypeum ('Srinreiov). Its ruins are near the 
modern GradsJco. 

Stoechades Insiilae (I. d'Hyires) a group of 
five small islands in the Mediterranean, off the 
coast of Gallia Narbonensis and E. of Massilia, 
on which the Massiliotes kept an armed force 
to protect their trade against pirates. The 



three larger islands (mentioned by Pliny) were 
called Prote, Mese or Pomponiana, and Hypaea, 
the modern Porquerolle, Port Croz, and Isle 
de Levant or du Titan ; the two smaller ones 
are probably the modern Batoneau and 
Promegne. (Strab. p. 184 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 43 ; 
Lucan, iii. 516 ; Plin. iii. 35.) 

Stoeni, a Ligurian people in the Maritime 
Alps, conquered by Q. Marcius Eex B.C. 118, 
before he founded the colony of Narbo Martius 
(Liv. Ep. 62 ; Val. Max. 10, 3). 

Strabo, a cognomen in many Boman gentes, 
properly signified a person who squinted, and is 
accordingly classed with Paetus, though the 
latter word did not indicate such a complete 
distortion of vision as Strabo (Hor. Sat. i. '3, 
45 ; Cic. N. D. i. 29 ; Plin. xi. 150). 

Strabo, the geographer, was a native of 
Amasia in Pontus. The date of his birth is un- 
known, but may perhaps be placed about b.c. 
54. He lived during the whole of the reign of 
Augustus, and during the early part, at least, 
of the reign of Tiberius. He is supposed to 
have died about a.d. 24. He received a careful 
education. He studied grammar under Aristo- 
demus at Nysa in Caria, and philosophy under 
Xenarchus of Seleucia in Cilicia and Boethus 
of Sidon. (Strab. pp. 650, 670.) He lived some 
years at Rome, and also travelled much in 
various countries. We learn from his own 
work that he was with his friend Aelius Gallus 
in Egypt in B.C. 24 (pp. 110, 818). He wrote a 
historical work ('lcrropiKa VwofiU-lifiaTa) in forty- 
three books, which is lost. It began where the 
History of Polybius ended, and was probably 
continued to the battle of Actium. (Strab. p. 
13 ; Plut. Lucull. 28, Sull. 26.) But his work 
on Geography (rwypacpiicd), in seventeen books, 
has come down to us entire, with the exception 
of the seventh, of which we have only a meagre 
epitome. Strabo's work, according to his own 
expression, was not intended for the use of all 
persons. It was designed for all who had had 
a good education, and particularly for those 
who were engaged in the higher departments 
of administration. Consistently with this view, 
his plan does not comprehend minute descrip- 
tion, except when the place or the object is of 
great interest or importance; nor is his 
description limited to the physical characteristics 
of each country : it comprehends the important 
political events of which each country has been 
the theatre, a notice of the chief cities and the 
great men who have illustrated them ; in short, 
whatever was most characteristic and interest- 
ing in every country. Strabo's Geography is 
the most important ancient work on that 
subject which has been preserved, and forms a 
striking contrast with the Geography of 
Ptolemy, and the dry list of names, occasion- 
ally relieved by something added to them, in 
the geographical portion of the Natural His- 
tory of Pliny. It is in short a book intended 
for reading, and it may be read : a kind of 
historical geography. Strabo's language is 
generally clear, except in those passages where 
the text has been corrupted ; it is appropriate 
to the matter, simple and without affectation. 
From this it will be understood that, while his 
work is naturally of no value in its mathemati- 
cal geography, it is interesting and extremely 
valuable for its notices of topography (where, 
however, he deals only with those places which 
he considers most important), of history and of 
customs. The first two books of Strabo are an 
introduction to his Geography, and contain that 
in which he was weakest, his views on the form 



STEABO 



STRATONICEA 



897 



and magnitude of the earth, and other subjects 
connected with mathematical geography. In 
the third book he begins his description : he 
devotes eight books to Europe ; six to Asia ; 
and the seventeenth and last to Egypt and 
Libya. Strabo adopted the geography of 
Eratosthenes as his basis, but in his own work 
he aimed at something much more complete, 
comprising, as was said above, historical as well 
as physical geography. With the W. of Europe 
he was naturally better acquainted than Erato- 
sthenes had been, though it is strange to find 
that he conceived the Pyrenees as running 
from N. to S. parallel with the Rhine (p. 177). 
In his views of the geography of Asia and 
Africa he departs little from those of Erato- 
sthenes, nor does he differ much in his concep- 
tion of the map of the world, which he regarded 
as ' shaped like a chlamys,' an oblong measur- 
ing about 9000 miles in length from E. to W. 
and 4000 in breadth (p. 113), the habitable 
earth extending about 400 X. of Borysthenes to 
a latitude corresponding with the N. of Ierne 
(Ireland). It is to be regretted that in his 
judgment of his predecessors he not only 
unduly discredits Herodotus but also (from 
following Polybius implicitly in this point) 
altogether rejects the authority of Pytheas. 
Yet Pytheas might have saved him from some 
erroneous ideas about the X. of Europe. 
Pytheas, for instance, was nearer the truth as 
regards the geography of Britain, when he 
described it as an island stretching away length- 
wise to the X., with Thule to the X. of it (Strab. 
p. 114), than Strabo himself, who believed 
Britain to be a triangle with its longest side, 
500 miles long, opposite the whole Gallic coast 
from the Rhine to the Pyrenees (that coast 
being, as it were, flattened out into a continuous 
line facing mainly X.), and who placed Ireland 
N. of Britain, as the most northerly point of 
the world. — The best editions of Strabo are 
by Kramer, Berl. 1847-1852 ; by C. Miiller and 
Diibner, Paris, 1857, and the text by Meineke, 
Leips. 1866 ; selections by H. F. Tozer, 1893. 

Strabo. Fanrrius. 1. C, consul b.c. 161 with 
Valerius Messalla. In their consulship the 
rhetoricians were expelled from Rome. (Gell. xv. 
11.) — 2. C, son of the preceding, consul 122 
(C I. L. i. 560). He owed his election to the 
consulship chiefly to the influence of C. Grac- 
chus, who was anxious to prevent his enemy 
Opimius from obtaining the office. But in his 
consulship Fannius supported the aristocracy, 
and took an active part in opposing the mea- 
sures of Gracchus. He spoke against the pro- 
posal of Gracchus, who wished to give the 
Roman franchise to the Latins, in a speech 
which was regarded as a master-piece in the 
time of Cicero (Cic. Brut. 26, 99). He served 
in Africa, under Scipio Afriranus, in 146, and in 
Spain under Fabius Maximtis in 142 (Plut. 
77. Gr. 4 ; App. Hisp. 67). He owed his cele- 
brity in literature to his History, which was 
written in Latin, and of which Brutus made an 
abridgment (Cic. de Or. ii. 67, 270, Brut. 
87, 299). — 3. The son-in-law of Loelius, whom 
Cicero introduces as one of the speakers in the 
ile Republica and de Amicitia, was stated in 
the Brutus (26, 101 1 to be the same as the 
historian Fannius, but Cicero himself corrects 
this statement (ad Aft. xii. 5, 8). 

Strabo Seius. [Sejanub.] 

Stratocles (2tpotokA7)j). 1. An Athenian 
orator, and a friend of the orator Lyeurgus. 
He was a virulent opponent of Demosthenes, 
whom he charged with having accepted bribes 



from Harpalus. Stratocles especially distin> 
guished himself by his extravagant flattery of 

'Demetrius. (Plut. Demetr. 11, 24; Vit. X. 
Or. p. 852.) — 2. An actor at Rome (Juv. iii. 99 ; 
Quintil. xi. 3, 178). 

Straton i2.Tpd.raiv). 1. Son of Arcesilaus, of 
Lampsacus, was a distinguished Peripatetic 
philosopher, and the tutor of Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus. He succeeded Theophrastus as head of 
the school in B.C. 288, and, after presiding over 
it eighteen years, was succeeded by Lycon. He 
devoted himself especially to thestudy of natural 
science, whence he obtained the appellation of 
Physicus. Cicero, while speaking highly of his 
talents, blames him for neglecting the most 
necessary part of philosophy — that which 
has respect to virtue and morals — and giving 
himself up to the investigation of nature. 
Straton appears to have taught a pantheistic 
system, the specific character of which cannot, 
however, be determined. He seems to have 
denied the existence of any god outside the 
material universe, and to have held that every 
particle of matter has a plastic and seminal 
power, but without sensation or intelligence ; 
and that life, sensation, and intellect, are but 
forms, accidents, and affections of matter. 
(Diog. Laert. v. 58 ; Cic. Acad. i. 9, 34, de Fin. 
v. 5, 13.) — 2. Of Sardis, an epigrammatic poet, 
and the compiler of a Greek Anthology devoted 
to licentious subjects. [Planudes.] — 3. A 
physician of Berytus in Phoenicia, one of 
whose medical formulae is quoted by Galen. — 4. 
Also a physician, and a pupil of Erasistratus in 
the third century B.C. (Diog. Laert. v. 3, 61). 

Stratonice drparov'iKri). 1. Wife of Anti- 
gonus, king of Asia, by whom she became 
the mother of Demetrius Poliorcetes (Plut. 
Demetr. 2). After the battle of Ipsus she fled 
to Salamis in Cyprus with her son Demetrius. 
— 2. Daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes and 
Phila, the daughter of Antipater. In 300, at 
which time she could not have been more than 
seventeen years of age, she was married to 
Seleucus, king of Syria. Notwithstanding the 
disparity of their ages, she lived in harmony 
with the old king for some years, when it was 
discovered that her stepson, Antiochus, was 
deeply enamoured of her, and Seleucns, in 
order to save the life of his son, which was en- 
dangered by the violence of his passion, gave up 
Stratonice in marriage to the young prince. 
She bore three children to Antiochus: (1) 
Antiochus EL, surnamed Theos ; (2) Apama, 
married to Magas, king of Cyrene; and (3) 
Stratonice. (Plut. Demetr. 31, 82, 88; App. 
Syr. 59.) — 3. Daughter of the preceding and of 
Antiochus I., was married to Demetrius II., 
king of Macedonia. She quitted Demetrius in 

I disgust, on account of his second marriage with 

' Phthia, the daughter of Olympias, and retired 
to Syria. Here hhe was put to death by her 
nephews Seleucus II., against whom she had 
attempted to raise a revolt. (Just, xxviii. 1.) 
— 4. Daughter of Antiochus II., king of Syria, 
married to Ariarathes III., king of Cappadocia 
(Diod. xxxi. p. 518). — 6. One of the favourite 

I wives of Mithridates the Great (App. Mithr. 
107). 

Stratonlcea CSrpaTov'iKfta, iTparoviKt) : 2rpo- 
ToviKiis, Stratoniceus, Stratonicensis : Kski- 
Hisar, Ru.), one of the chief inland cities of 
Caria, built by Antiochus I. Soter, who forti- 
fied it strongly, and named it in honour of his 
1 wife, Stratonice (Strab. p. 660). It stood E. of 
■ Mylasa and S. of Alabanda, near the river 
i Marnyas, a S. tributary of the Maeander, and 

:; U 



898 STBATONIS TURRIS 



STYX 



on the road from Alabanda to Idyrnus. It 
afterwards belonged to Rhodes (Liv. xxxiii. 18, 
30). Under the Romans it was a free city; and 
it was improved by Hadrian, who called it 
Hadrianopolis (Steph. Byz. s. v. ; Tac. Ann. iii. 
62 ; Dio Cass, xlviii. 26). Near it stood the 
great temple of Zeus Chrysaoreus, the centre 
of the national worship of the Carians. There 
is some reason to believe that Stratonicea 
stood on the site of a former city, called Idrias 
and, still earlier, Chrysaoris. (Steph. Byz. s. v. 
'iSpi'as.) 

Stratonis Turris. [Caesaeea, No. 3.] 
Strattis CS.rpa.TTis or SrpaTis), an Athenian 
poet of the Old Comedy, from B.C. 412 to 380, 
who parodied plays of Euripides (Ath. p. 551 ; 
Suid. s. v.). 

Stratus (2tp<xtoj). 1. (XrpaTios: Sourovigli 
near Lepanu), the chief town in Acarnania, 
ten stadia W. of the Achelous. Its territory 
was called Stratice. It was a strongly fortified 
town, and commanded the ford of the Achelous 
on the high road from Aetolia to Acarnania. 
(Strab. p. 450 ; Thuc. ii. 82, iii. 106 ; Xen. Hell. 
iv. 6.) Hence it was a place of military im- 
portance, and was at an early period taken 
possession of by the Aetolians (Pol. iv. 63 ; 
Liv. xxxvi. 11). There are remains of its walls 
and gates. — 2, A town in Achaia, afterwards 
called Dyme. 

Strombichides (Stpo/xjSixi'Stjs), son of Dioti- 
mus, was an Athenian admiral on the coast of 
Asia B.C. 412. He recovered Lampsacus, which 
had revolted, in 411. He was put to death by 
the Thirty, because he opposed the policy of 
Therarnenes in his dealings with Sparta. (Thuc. 
viii. 15, 30-40, 60-79; Lys. c. Agor. p. 130.) 

Strongyle. [Naxos.] 

Strongylion (tTpoyyvXitav), a distinguished 
Greek sculptor during the last thirty or forty 
years of the fifth century B.C. He was famous 
for his statues of oxen and horses. (Paus. ix. 
30, 1.) 

Strophades Insulae (S,rpocpa.5es), formerly 
called Plotae {UXonai : Strofadia and Strivali), 
two islands in the Ionian sea, off the coast of 
Messenia and S. of Zacynthus (Strab. p. 359 ; 
Verg. Aen. iii. 210). The Harpies were pursued 
to these islands by the sons of Boreas ; and it 
was from the circumstance of the latter return- 
ing from these islands after the pursuit, that 
they are supposed to have obtained the name of 
Strophades. [Hahpyiae.] 

StropMus (%Tp6<pios), king of Phocia, son of 
Crissus and Antiphatia, and husband of Cydra- 
gora, Anaxibia or Astyochia, by whom he 
became the father of Astydamia and Pylades. 
See Orestes. 

Struchates (2Tpoux<""es), one of the six tribes 
of ancient Media (Hdt. i. 101). 

Strymon (Struma, by the Turks Kara-Su), 
an important river in Macedonia, forming the 
boundary between that country and Thrace 
down to the time of Philip. It. rose in Mt. 
Scomius, flowed first S. and then SE., passed 
through the lake Prasias, and, immediately S. 
of Amphipolis, fell into a bay of the Aegaean 
sea called after it Strymonicus Sinus (Hes. 
Th. 339; Aesch. Ag. 192; Hdt. vii. 75; Thuc. 
ii. 96 ; Strab. p. 323). The numerous cranes on 
its banks are frequently mentioned by ancient 
writers (Verg. Aen. x. 269 ; Juv. xiii. 167). 

Strymonii {2t pvfj.6v to i), the old name, accord- 
ing to Herodotus, of the Bithynians, who mi- 
grated into Asia Minor from the banks of the 
river Strymon. Bithynia was sometimes called 
Strymonis (Hdt. vii. 75). 



Stubera or Stymbara (2Tu/8epa, 2TiV/8apa), a 

town of Macedonia in the district Paeonia, on 
the river Erigon (Strab. p. 327 ; Pol. xxviii. 8 ; 
Liv. xxxi. 39). 

Stura (Stura), a river of N. Italy, which rises 
in the glaciers of the Levanna, and flows into 
the Po from the N. a few miles below Turin 
(Plin. iii. 118). 

Stymphalides. [StymphaIjUS.] 

Stymphalis (ZrvfupaXis). 1. A lake in Ar- 
cadia. [Stymphalus.] — 2. A district in Mace- 
donia, between Atintania and Elimiotis (Liv. 
xlv. 30). 

Stymphalus (S,Tvp.<paXos, Sru/xcpijAos : Stu/x- 
(pdXws), a town in the NE. of Arcadia. The 
territory of Stymphalus is a plain about six 
miles in length, bounded by Achaia on the N., 
Sicyonia and Phliasiaon the E., the territory of 
Mantineia on the S. and that of Orchomenus 
and Pheneus on the W. This plain is shut in 
on all sides by mountains. On the N. rises the 
gigantic mass of Cyllene, from which a project- 
ing spur, called Mt. Stymphalus, descends into 
the plain. (S,Tv/j.<paXos opos, Ptol. iii. 16, § 14 ; 
Hesych.s.D. ; 1 nivalis Stymphalus,' Stat. Silv. iv. 
6, 100.) The mountain at the southern end of 
the plain, opposite Cyllene, was called Apelau- 
rum (rb AireAaupoe, Polyb. iv. 69), and at its 
foot is the Jcatavothra or subterraneous outlet 
of the lake of Stymphalus (ri S,rvp.(j>aXls Xi/xfrt, 
Strab. viii. p. 371 ; v 'S,TVfKpt]Xi7) Xifivi), Herod, 
vi. 76). This lake is formed partly by the rain- 
water descending from Cyllene and Apelaurum, 
and partly by three streams which flow into it 
from different parts of the plain, the waters of 
which have not sufficient outlet by the kata- 
vothra. It is now called Zaraka. ■ The water 
which flows from it, after an underground 
course of twenty-two miles, appears again a few 
miles from Argos (where its ancient name wa9 
Erasmus), and now turns several mills belong- 
ing to that city. The district was one of mili- 
tary importance, since it commanded one of the 
chief roads from Arcadia to Argolis. Its name 
is said to have been derived from Stymphalus, 
a son of Elatus and grandson of Areas (Paus. 
viii. 4, 4, viii. 22, i). It is mentioned by Homer 
(H. ii. 608), and by Pindar (01. vi. 169). On the 
shores of the lake dwelt, according to tradition, 
the birds called Stymphalides (STUjtwpaAi'Ses), 
destroyed by Heracles. [For details, see p. 
397, b.] Stymphalus was one of the cities of 
the Achaean League (Pol. ii. 55, iv. 68). There 
are ruins extant of the polygonal walls of the 
citadel, and the foundations of two temples : 
one of these is probably the temple of Artemis, 
on which were sculptures of the birds (Paus. 
viii. 22, 5). 

Styra (rd'Srvpa: ^rvpetis: Stura), a town in 
Euboea on the SW. coast, not far from Carystus, 
and nearly opposite Marathon in Attica. The 
inhabitants were originally Dryopes, though 
they subsequently denied their descent from 
this people (II. ii. 539 ; Hdt. viii. 46 ; Paus. iv. 
34, 11; Strab. p. 446). They took an active 
part in the Persian war, and fought at Artemi- 
sium, Salamis and Plataea. They afterwards 
became subject to the Athenians, and paid a 
yearly tribute of 1200 drachmae (Thuc. vii. 57). 
The town was destroyed in the Lamian war by 
the Athenian general Phaedrus ; and its terri- 
tory was annexed to Eretria (Strab. I.e.). 

Styx (2tu£), connected with the verb crTvyiu), 
to hate or abhor, is the name of the principal 
river in the nether world, around which it flows 
seven times (II. ii. 755, viii. 369, xiv. 271 ; Verg. 
Georg. iv. 480, Aen. vi. 439). Styx is described 



STYX 

as a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. As a 
nymph she dwelt at the entrance of Hades, in 
a lofty grotto which was supported bv silver 
columns (Hes. Th. 361, 778). In the Iliad the 
Styx is the only river of the lower world, but in 
the Odyssey (x. 513), the Acheron is the chief 
river, into which Periphlegethon and Styx with its 
affluent Cocytus flow. Styx was regarded as 
flowing out of Oceanus (Hes. Th.789). By Pallas 
Styx became the mother of Zelus (zeal), Nike 
(victory), Bia (strength), and Kratos (power). 
She was the first of all the immortals who took 
her children to Zeus to assist him against the 
Titans ; and in return for this her children 
were allowed for ever to live with Zeus, and 
Styx herself became the divinity by whom the 
most solemn oaths were sworn. When one of 
the gods had to take an oath by Styx, Iris 
fetched a cup full of water from the Styx, and 
the god, while taking the oath, poured out the 
water. (17. ii. 755, xiv. 271, Od. v. 185, xv. 37 ; 
Hes. Th. 775; Verg. Aen. vi. 324 ; Ov. Met. iii. 
290.) 

Styx (2tu| : Mavra-neria), a river in the -ST. 
of Arcadia, near Nonacris, descending from a 
high rock, and falling into the Crathis. The 
description of the mythical Styx, as falling 
from a high rock (17. viii. 369, xv. 37 ; Hes. Th. 
785, 805), evidently suits this real stream, and 
the wild and gloomy character of its ravine led 
to the superstitious romance attached to it 
(Pans. viii. 17, 6; Hdt. vi. 74). It is a mere 
thread of water except when it is swelled by 
the melting snow. The ancients believed that 
the water of this river was poisonous ; and ac- 
cording to one tale Alexander the Great was 
poisoned by it. It was said also to break all 
vessels made of glass, stone, metal and any 
other material except of the hoof of a horse 
or a mule (Arr. An. vii. 27 ; Plut. Alex. 77 ; 
Strab. p. 389 ; Ael. H.A. x. 40). 

Suada, Suadela. [Pitho.] 

Suagela (Soi/ayeAa), an ancient city of Caria, 
near Myndus, was the burial-place of the old 
kings of the country, and thence derived its 
name, the Carian word aova signifying toinb, 
ytkas king (Steph. Byz. s.v.). Strabo calls it 
Syangela (p. Gil). 

Suana (Sovana), a town of S. Etruria in the 
valley of the Arminia (Fiord) and about twenty 
miles W. of Volsinii (Bolsena). It was a muni- 
cipium under the empire (Plin. iii. 52). There 
are numerous ancient rock-tombs in the valleys 
round the town. 

Suasa (Suasanus : ruins near S. Lorenzo), a 
municipium in Umbria on the Sena. 

Suastus, a river of India, an affluent of the 

CoPHEN. 

Subertum or Sudertum (Sudertanus : So- 
rano ?), a town in the interior of Etruria (Liv. 
xxvi. 28). 

Sublaqueum (Sublacensis : Subiaco),a place 
on the Anio near its source, where stood the 
celebrated villa of Claudius and Nero (Villa 
Sublacensis), from which was derived the name 
of the Via Sublacensis, a branch of the Via 
Tiburtina (Toe. Ann. xiv. 22). It derived its 
name from three lakes called Simbrivii Lacus 
or Simbruina Stagna, which have now disap- 
peared (Plin. iii. 109; Frontin. Aquaed. 93). 
It is doubtful if in ancient times there was 
anything here which could be called a town, 
and the district was included in the territory of 
the Tibur. It was more celebrated in a later 
age as the cradle of the Benedictine order. 
Subliclus Pone. [Roma, p. 801, b.] 
Subur. 1. A town of the Lacetani in His- 



SUESSULA 



899 



pania Tarraconensis, E. of Tarraco. — 2. (Subu), 
a river in Mauretania Tingitana, flowing past 
the colony Banasa into the Atlantic Ocean 
(Ptol. ii. 6, 17). 

Subura or Suburra. [Roma, p. 805, b.] 

Subzupara (Zarvi), a town in Thrace on the 
road from PhilippopoUs to Hadrianopolis. 

Succabar (2ovxd0appi, Ptol. : Mazuna ?), an 
inland city of Mauretania Caesariensis, SE. of 
the mouth of the Chinalaph. It was a colonia, 
and is mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus 
under the name of ' oppidum Sugar-baritanum.' 
(Amm. Marc. xxix. 5). 

Succi or Succorum Angustiae. [Haemtjs.] 

Sucro. 1. (Xucar), a river in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, rising in a S. branch of Mt. 
Idubeda in the territory of the Celtiberi, and 
falling S. of Valentia into a gulf of the Mediter- 
ranean called after it Sinus Sucronensis [Gulf 
of Valencia). (Strab. pp. 158, 163, 167.)— 2. 
(Cullera), a town of the Edetani in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, on the preceding river, and be- 
tween the Iberus and Carthago Nova (Strab. p. 
158 ; Liv. xxviii. 24). 

Sudertum. [Subebttjm.] 

Sudeti Montes, a range of mountains in the 
SE. of Germany, in which the Albis takes its 
rise. 

Suebi. [Suevi.] 

Suel (Fucngirola), a town in Hispania Bae- 
tica on the road from Malaca to Gades (Ptol. 
ii. 4, 7). 

Suessa Auruiica (Suessanus : Sessa), a town 
of the Aurunci in Latium, E. of the Via Appia, 
between Minturnae and Teanum, on the W. 
slope of Mons Massicus. It was situated in a 
beautiful district called Vescinus ager, whence 
it has been supposed that the town itself was 
at one time called Vescia. It was made a 
Roman colony in the Samnite wars, but must 
have been afterwards colonised afresh, since we 
find it called in inscriptions Col. Jztlia Felix 
(Liv. ix. 28 ; Veil. Pat. i. 14 ; Plin. iii. 64). It 
was the birthplace of the poet Lucilius (Juv. 
i. 20). 

Suessa Pometia iSuessanus, also called P6- 
metia simply, an ancient and important town 
of the Volsci in Latium, S. of Forum Appii, 
conquered by the Romans under Tarquinius 
Priscus, and taken a second time and sacked 
by the consul Servilius. (Liv. i. 53, ii. 25 ; 
Dionys. iv. 50; Tac. Hist. iii. 72; Verg. Aen. 
vi. 776.) It was one of the twenty-three cities 
situated in the plain afterwards covered by the 
Pomptine Marshes, which are said indeed to 
have derived their name from this town, which 
had ceased to exist in historical times (Fest. 
s.v. Pomptina). 

Suessetani, a people in Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, mentioned in connexion with the Sede- 
tani (Liv. xxv. 34, xxviii. 24). 

Suessiones or Suessones, a powerful people 

I in Gallia Belgica, who were reckoned the 
bravest of all the Belgic Gauls after the Bello- 
vaci, and who could bring 50,000 men into the 
field in Caesar's time. Their king Divitiacus, 
shortly before Caesar's arrival in the country, 

i was reckoned the most powerful chief in all 
Gaul, and had extended his sovereignty even 
over Britain. The Suessiones dwelt in an ex- 

[ tensive and fertile country E. of the Bellovaci, 
S. of the Veromandui, and W. of the Remi. 

i They possessed twelve towns, of which the 
capital was Noviodunum, subsequently Augusta 
SuesHonum or Suessones (Soissons). (Cues. 

■ IS. <!. ii. 8, 12, vii. 75, viii. 6 ; Ptol. ii. 9, 11.) 
Suessula iSuessulanus : Torre di Scssola), 



900 



SUETONIUS 



SUIDAS 



a town in Samnium, on the S. slope of Mt. 
Tifata (Liv. iii. 37, xxiii. 14, 31, xxv. 7, xxvi. 9). 
Suetonius Paullnus. [Paulinus.] 
C. Suetonius Tranquillus, the Roman his- 
torian, was born about the beginning of the 
reign of Vespasian (Suet. Ner. 57). His father 
was Suetonius Lenis, who was a tribune of the 
thirteenth legion in the battle of Bedriacum, in 
which Otho was defeated (Suet. Oth. 12). Sue- 
tonius practised as an advocate at Rome in the 
reign of Trajan. He lived on intimate terms 
with the younger Pliny, many of whose letters 
are addressed to him. (Plin. Bp. i. 18, 24, 
iii. 8, v. 10, ix. 34, ad Traj. 94.) At the request 
of Pliny, Trajan granted to Suetonius the jus 
trium liberorum, for though he was married 
he had not three children, which number was 
necessary to relieve him from various legal 
disabilities. Suetonius was afterwards ap- 
pointed private secretary (Magister Episto- 
larum) to Hadrian, but was deprived of this 
office by the emperor, along with Septicius 
Clarus, the Praefect of the Praetorians, on the 
ground of his showing too little respect to 
Sabina, the emperor's wife (Spart. Hadr. 12). 
Suetonius wrote many works, of which those 
-textant &ve:—Vitae Duodecim Caesarum, or 
the Twelve Emperors, of whom the first is C. 
Julius Caesar and the last is Domitian ; Liber 
de illustribus Grammatieis ; Liber de Claris 
Bhetoribus ; Vitae Terentii, Horatii, Lucani, 
Plinii Majoris. His chief work is his Lives of 
the Caesars. Suetonius does not follow the 
chronological order in his Lives, but he groups 
together many things of the same kind. His 
language is very brief and precise, sometimes 
obscure, without any affectation of ornament. 
He certainly tells a prodigious number of 
scandalous anecdotes about the Caesars, but 
though many were probably exaggerations, 
there is no reason to doubt that Suetonius him- 
self believed them. As a great collection of 
facts of all kinds, the work on the Caesars is 
invaluable for the historian of this period. His 
judgment and his honesty have both been 
attacked by some modern critics, but on both 
grounds a careful study of his work will justify 
him The treatise De illustribus Grammatieis, 
that De Claris Bhetoribus, and the Lives above 
mentioned belonged to a series De Viris illus- 
tribus, which comprised the Lives of poets, 
orators, and historians. Among the lost works 
was one in several books called Praia, (the name 
is a translation of Aet l ucuv = patchwork or flowery 
embroidery ; cf. Gell. Praef. 6), which was a 
miscellany of information about antiquities, 
natural history, &c. It is likely that some of 
the works cited under separate titles by Suidas 
(e.g. the book about games, of which Tzetzes 
made a paraphrase, Hist. Var. vi. 874) were 
merely parts of this encyclopaedic work. — The 
best edition of Suetonius is by C. Roth, Leips. 
1858 : the edition of Burmann, Amsterd. 1736, 
is useful. 

Suevi or Suebi (2ou7)/3oi), one of the greatest 
and most powerful peoples of Germany, or, 
more properly speaking, the collective name of 
a great number of German tribes, who were 
grouped together. The Suevi are described by 
ancient writers as occupying the greater half of 
Germany ; but the accounts vary respecting 
the part of the country which they inhabited, 
because the migrations of these tribes altered 
at various times their geographical limits. 
Caesar represents them as dwelling E. of the 
Ubii and Sugambri, and W. of the Cherusci, 
and their country as divided into 100 cantons. 



Strabo makes them extend in an easterly direc- 
tion beyond the Albis, and in a southerly as far 
as the sources of the Danube. Tacitus gives 
the name of Suebia to the whole of the E. of 
Germany from the Danube to the Baltic. The 
name, as used by the Romans, applied first, and 
especially, to the leading tribe, the Semnones, 
who dwelt between the Elbe and the Oder, and 
this may have been the home or centre from 
which the Suevi known to Caesar had for a 
time extended their settlements westward ; but 
in the wider use of the name, when it referred, 
as it does in Tacitus, to all upper and central 
Germany, it included, besides the Semnones, 
the Rugii, the Varini, the Hermanduri, the 
Marcomanni, and the Quadi. (Caes. B. G. i. 
37, 51, 54, iii. 7, iv. 1 ; Tac. Ann. i. 44, Germ. 
38-45 ; Strab. p. 290.) At a later time the col- 
lective name of the Suevi gradually disap- 
peared ; and the different tribes of the Suevic 
race were each more usually called by their 
distinctive names. In the second half of the 
third century, however, we again find a people 
called Suevi, emigrants probably, or adven- 
turers from the more eastern Suebia, dwelling 
between the mouth of the Main and the Black 
Forest, whose name is still preserved in the 
modern Suabia. (Amm. Marc. xvi. 10 ; Jordan. 
Get. 55.) As regards the relations of the Suevi 
to the Roman empire, there was no period at 
which more than a few of the tribes so desig- 
nated were in any sense subject to Rome. In 
the first century the Suebian peoples of Bo- 
hemia and Moravia recognised the Roman 
power [see Vannius], but the Suebians of the 
Danube were always independent. [See also 
Gebmania.] 

Sufenas, M. Nonius, tribune of the plebs in 
b.c. 56, fought on Pompey's side at the battle of 
PharBalia (Cic. ad Att. iv. 15, vi. 1, viii. 15). 

Sufes {Sbiba), a city of N. Africa, in the Car- 
thaginian territory (Byzacena). 

Sufetfila (Sbitla), a city of Byzacena, S. of 
Sufes, of which its name is a diminutive. It be- 
came, however, a much more important place, 
as a chief centre of the roads in the interior of 
the province of Africa. Its ruins are magnifi- 
cent. 

Sugambri, Sygambri, Sigambri, Sycambri, 
or Sicambri, one of the most powerful peoples 
of Germany at an early time, belonged to the 
Istaevones, and dwelt originally N. of the Ubii, 
on the Rhine, from whence they spread towards 
the N. as far as the Lippe. The Sugambri 
are mentioned by Caesar, who invaded their 
territory. (Caes. B. G. iv. 16, vi. 35.) They are 
described as warlike people (Hor. Od. iv. 2, 36, 
iv. 14, 51). They were conquered by Tiberius 
in the reign of Augustus, and a large number 
of them were transplanted to Gaul, where they 
received settlements between the Maas and the 
Rhine as Roman subjects. The portion of the 
Sugambri who remained in Germany withdrew 
further S., probably to the mountainous country 
in the neighbourhood of the Taunus. (Tac. Ann. 
ii. 26, iv. 47, xii. 39; Dio Cass. liv. 20-36.) 
Shortly afterwards they disappear from his- 
tory, and are not mentioned again till the time 
of Ptolemy, who places them much further N., 
close to the Bructeri and the Langobardi, 
somewhere between the Vecht and the Yssel 
(Ptol. ii. 11, 8). At a still later period we find 
them forming an important part of the con- 
federacy known under the name of Pranci. 

Suidas (Soin'Sas), a Greek lexicographer, of 
whom nothing is known. No certain conclu- 
sions as to the age of the compiler can be de- 



suiones 



SULLA 



901 



rived from passages in the work, since it may I throughout life. At the same time he prosecuted 
have received numerous interpolations and pleasure with equal ardour, and his youth, as 
additions ; but it is probable that he lived well as his manhood, was disgra ced by the most 
in either the tenth or the eleventh century a.d. sensual vices. Still his love of pleasure did not 
He is quoted by Eustathius, who lived about ; absorb all his time, nor did it enervate his mind ; 
the end of the twelfth century. The Lexicon for no Roman during the latter days of the re- 
of Suidas is a dictionary of words arranged in public, with the exception of Julius Caesar, had 
alphabetical order, with some few peculiarities a clearer judgment, a keener discrimination of 
of arrangement ; but it contains both words character, or a firmer will. The slender pro- 
which are found in dictionaries of languages perty of Sulla was increased by the liberality 
and also names of persons and places, with of his stepmother and of a courtesan named 
extracts from ancient Greek writers, gram- Nicopolis, both of whom left him all their for- 
marians, scholiasts, and lexicographers, and f tune. His means, though still scanty for a 
some extracts from later Greek writers. The Roman noble, now enabled him to aspire to the 
plan of this work is not well conceived : it is honours of the state. He was quaestor in 
incomplete as to the number of articles, and I 107, when he served under Marius in Africa, 
exceedingly irregular and unequal in the Hitherto he had only been known for his pro- 
execution. Some articles give full informa- fligacy ; but he displayed zeal and ability in the 
tion ; others scarcely any. As to the bio- | discharge of his duties, and gained the appro- 
graphical notices, it has been conjectured that bation of his commander and the affections of 
Suidas or the compiler got them all from one ! the soldiers. It was to Sulla that Jugurtha was 
source, which, it is further supposed, may be delivered by Bocchus ; and the quaestor thus 
the Onomatologos or Pinax of Hesychius of 1 shared with the consul the glory of bringing 
Miletus. The Lexicon, though without merit ' this war to a conclusion. Sulla himself was so 
as to its execution, is extremely valuable both 1 proud of his share in the success, that he had a 
for the literary history of antiquity, for the seal-ring engraved representing the surrender 
explanation of words, and for the citations from of Jugurtha, which he continued to wear till 
many ancient writers. The best editions of the the day of his death. Sulla continued to serve 
Lexicon are by Kiister, Cambridge, 1705 ; by under Marius with great distinction in the cam- 
Gaisford, Oxford, 1834 ; and by Bernhardy, paigns against the Cimbri and Teutones ; but 
Halle, 1834 : text by Bekker, 1854. Marius becoming jealous of the rising fame of 

Suiones, the general name of all the German I his officer, Sulla left Marius in 102, and took a 

tribes inhabiting Scandinavia. [Scandia.] command under the colleague of Marius, Q. 

Sulci (Sulcitanus : S. Antioco), an ancient Catulus, who entrusted the chief management 

town in Sardinia, founded by the Carthaginians, of the war to Sulla. Sulla now returned to 

and a place of considerable maritime and com- Rome, where he appears to have lived quietly 

mercial importance (Paus. x. 17, 9 ; Claudian, for some years. He was praetor in 93, and in 

B.Gild. 518; Strab. p. 225; Zonar. viii. 12). It the following year (92) was sent as propraetor 

was situated on a promontory on the SW. corner into Cilicia, with special orders from the senate 

of the island, and the neighbouring district of to restore Ariobarzanes to his kingdom of Cap- 

the mainland is still called Sulcis. padocia, from which he had been expelled by 

Sulgas (Sorgue), a river in Gaul, descending Mithridates. Sulla met with complete success, 

from the Alps, and flowing into the Rhone near He defeated Gordius, the general of Mithridates, 

Vindalum (Strab. pp. 185, 191). in Cappadocia, and placed Ariobarzanes on the 

Sulla, Cornelius, the name of a patrician throne. The enmity between Marius and Sulla 

family. This family was originally called Ru- now assumed a more deadly form. Sulla's 

finus [Rufinus], and the first member of it who ability and increasing reputation had already 

obtained the name of Sulla was P. Cornelius led the aristocratical party to look up to him a-; 

Sulla, mentioned below [No. 1]. The origin of one of their leaders; and thus political ani 

the name is uncertain. Some writers suppose mosity was added to private hatred. In addi 

that it is a word of the same signification us tion to this, Marius and Sulla were botli anxious 

Rufus or Rufinus, and refers simply to the red to obtain the command of the impending war 

colour of the hair or the complexion ; but it lias against MithridateB ; and the success whicli 

been conjectured with greater probability that attended Sulla's recent operations in the East 

it is a diminutive of Sura, which was a cogno- had increased his popularity, and pointed him 

men in several Roman gentes. There is no out as the most suitable person for tlm im- 

authority for writing the word Sylla, as is done portant command. About this time Bocchus 

by many modern writers. 1. P., great-grand- dedicated in the Capitol gilded figures represent- 

father of the dictator Sulla, and grandson of ing the surrender of Jugurtha to Sulla, at which 

P. Cornelius Rufinus, who was twice consul Marius was ho enraged that he could scarcely 

in the Samnite wars. [Rufinck, Coknklh s. be prevented from removing them by force. 

His father is not mentioned. He was flamcn The exasperation of both parties became so 

dialis, and likewise praetor urbanus in ii.c. violent that they nearly had recourse to arms 

212, when he presided over the first celebra- against each other ; but the breaking out of 

tion of the Ludi Apollinares (Liv. xxv. 2, 12). the Social war hushed all private quarrels for 

— 2. P., son of No. 1, and grandfather of the the time. Marius and Sulla both took an 

dictator Sulla, was praetor in 180 (Liv. xxxix. active part in the war against the common foe. 

0). — 3. L., son of No. 2, and father of the die- But Marius was now advanced in years; and 

tator Sulla, lived in obscurity, and left his son he had the deep mortification of finding that his 

only a slender fortune (Plut. Sull. i.). — 4. L. achievements were thrown into the shade by the 

surnumed Felix, the dictutor, waB born in 138. superior energy of his rival. Sulla gained some 

Although his father left him only a small pro- brilliant victories over the enemy, and took 

perty, his means were sufficient to secure for Bovianum, the chief town of the Sumnitcs. He 

him a good education. He studied Greek and was elected consul for 88, and received from the 

Roman literature with diligence und success, senate the command of the Mithridatic war. 

and appears early to have imbibed that love for The events which followed — his expulsion from 

literature and art by which he was distinguished Rome by MariuB, his return to tho city at the 



902 



SULLA 



head of his legions, and the proscription of 
Marius and his leading adherents — are related 
in the Life of Marius. Sulla remained at 
Borne till the end of the year, and set out 
for Greece at the beginning of 87, in order 
to carry on the war against Mithridates. 
He landed at Dyrrhachiurn, and forthwith 
marched against Athens, which had become 
the head-quarters of the Mithridatic cause in 
Greece. After a long and obstinate siege, 
Athens was taken by storm on March 1, 86, and 
was given up to rapine and plunder. Sulla 
then marched against Archelaus, the general of 
Mithridates, whom he defeated in the neigh- 
bourhood of Chaeronea in Boeotia ; and in the 
following year he again gained a decisive vic- 
tory over the same general near Orchomenus. 
But while Sulla was carrying on the war with 
such success in Greece, his enemies had ob- 
tained the upper hand in Italy. The consul 
Cinna, who had been driven out of Borne by his 
colleague Octavius, soon after Sulla's departure 
from Italy, had entered it again with Marius at 
the close of the year. Both Cinna and Marius 
were appointed consuls 86, and all the regula- 
tions of Sulla were swept away. Sulla, how- 
ever, would not return to Italy till he had 
brought the war against Mithridates to a con- 
clusion. After driving the generals of Mithri- 
dates out of Greece, Sulla crossed the Helles- 
pont, and early in 84 concluded a peace with 
the king of Bontus. He now turned his arms 
against Fimbria, who had been appointed by 
the Marian party as his successor in the com- 
mand. But the troops of Fimbria deserted 
their general, who put an end to his own life. 
Sulla now preparod to return to Italy. After 
leaving his legate, L. Licinius Murena, in 
command of the province of Asia, with two 
legions, he set sail with his own army to 
Athens. While preparing for his deadly struggle 
in Italy, he did nof lose his interest in litera- 
ture. He carried with him from Athens to 
Borne the valuable library of Apellicon of Teos, 
which contained most of the works of Aristotle 
and Theophrastus [Apellicon]. He landed at 
Brundusium with 40,000 soldiers in the spring 
of 83. The Marian party outnumbered him in 
troops, and had every prospect of victory ; but 
Cinna had been murdered the year before, and 
Carbo, the oldest survivor of the Marian 
party, was in Cisalpine Gaul. Two consular 
armies opposed Sulla in S. Italy, but he routed 
one under Norbanus at Capua, and induced the 
troops of the other consul, Scipio, to desert the 
Marian cause and join his standard. In like 
manner by bribes or promises he persuaded 
many of the Italian towns to espouse his cause. 
In the field his efforts were crowned by equal 
success • and he was ably supported by several 
of the Boman nobles, who espoused his cause 
in different parts of Italy. Of these one of the 
most distinguished was the young Cn. Pompey, 
who was at the time only twenty-three years of 
age. [Pompeius, No. 10.] Sulla wintered in 
Campania, and in the following year (82) the 
struggle was brought to a close by the decisive 
victory which he gained over the Samnites and 
Lucanians under Pontius Telesinus before the 
Colline gate of Borne. This victory was fol- 
lowed by the surrender of Praeneste and the 
death of the younger Marius, who had taken 
refuge in this town. In N. Italy his lieutenants, 
Metellus, C. Pompeius and Crassus, had been 
equally successful, and the surviving leaders of 
the opposite party had quitted Italy in despair. 
Sulla was now master of Borne and Italy ; and 



he resolved to take the most ample vengeance 
upon his enemies, and to extirpate the popular 
party. One of his first acts was to draw up a 
list of his enemies who were to be put to death, 
called a Proscriptio. It was the first instance 
of .the kind in Boman history. All persons in 
this list were outlaws who might be killed by 
anyone with impunity, even by slaves ; their 
property was confiscated to the state, and was 
to be sold by public auction; their children 
and grandchildren lost their votes in the 
comitia, and were excluded from all public 
offices. Further, all who killed a proscribed 
person, received two talents as a reward, and 
whoever sheltered such a person was punished 
with death. Terror now reigned, not only at 
Borne, but throughout Italy. Fresh lists of 
the proscribed constantly appeared. No one 
was safe, for Sulla gratified his friends by 
placing in the fatal lists their personal enemies, 
or persons whose property was coveted by his 
adherents. The confiscated property, it is true, 
belonged to the state, and had to be sold by 
public auction, but the friends and dependents 
of Sulla purchased it at a nominal price, as no 
one dared to bid against them. The number of 
persons who perished by the proscriptions is 
stated differently, but it appears to have 
amounted to many thousands. The acts of 
severity and injustice then perpetrated con- 
tinued long afterwards to bear fruit in civil 
strife and violence, since bands of discontented 
men were always ready to follow any unprincipled 
agitator. At the commencement of these 
horrors Sulla had been appointed dictator for 
as long a time as he judged to be necessary. 
This was towards the close of 82. Sulla's chief 
object in being invested with the dictatorship 
was to carry into execution in a legal manner 
the great reforms which he meditated in the 
constitution and in the administration of justice. 
He had no intention of abolishing the republic, 
and consequently he caused consuls to be 
elected for the following year, and was elected 
to the office himself in 80, while he continued 
to hold the dictatorship. At the beginning of 
81, he celebrated a splendid triumph on ac- 
count of his victory over Mithridates. In a 
speech which he delivered to the people at the 
close of the ceremony, he claimed for himself 
the surname of Felix, as he attributed his 
success in life to the favour of the gods. The 
general object of Sulla's reforms was to restore, 
as far as possible, the ancient Boman constitu- 
tion, and to give back to the senate and the 
aristocracy the power which they had lost. He 
enacted that the Senatus auctoritas should be 
necessary for proposals in the popular assem- 
bly; he limited the effect of the tribune's 
intercessio to the right-of protecting plebeians, 
so that they could no longer interfere with 
legislation ; and he made it illegal for anyone 
who had been a tribune to proceed to any 
other office in the state. He restored to the 
senate the sole right of sitting as judices, which 
had been granted before to the equestrian order, 
and in other ways he strengthened the sena- 
torial power. Thus by increasing the number 
of praetors (eight instead of six), which was 
rendered necessary by his alterations in the 
law-courts, he rendered each great officer less 
powerful and more dependent on the senate ; 
and the same result followed from the increase 
in the number of quaestors, though no doubt 
the larger number (20) was required by the 
extended provincial government. His reforms 
in criminal jurisdiction were the wisest and the 



SULLA 

only enduring part of his constitution. He so 
largely extended as practically to reconstitute I 
the system of permanent courts for the trial of 
particular offences (quaestiones perpetuae), in 
■which courts the praetors presided, or, if their 
number was insufficient, a judex quaestionis. 
In order to strengthen his power, Sulla estab- 
lished military colonies throughout Italy. The 
inhabitants of the Italian towns which had 
fought against Sulla were deprived of the full 
Eoman franchise, and were only allowed to 
retain the commercium ; their land was confis- 
cated and given to the soldiers who had fought 
under him. Twenty-three legions, or, accord- 
ing to another statement, forty-seven legions 
received grants of land in various parts of 
Italy. A great number of these colonies was 
settled in Etruria, the population of which was 
thus almost entirely changed. These colonies 
had the strongest interest in upholding the 
institutions of Sulla, since any attempt to 
invalidate the latter would have endangered 
their newly acquired possessions. Sulla like- 
wise created at Rome a kind of body-guard for 
his protection by giving the citizenship to a 
great number of slaves who had belonged to 
persons proscribed by him. The slaves thus 
rewarded are said to have been as many as 
10,000, and were called Cornelii after him as 
their patron. After holding the dictatorship 
till the beginning of 79, Sulla resigned this 
office, to the surprise of all classes. He retired ! 
to his estate at Puteoli, and there, surrounded^ 
by the beauties of nature and art, he passed the 
remainder of his life in those literary and 
BensU&l enjoyments in which he had always 
taken so much pleasure. He died in 78 in the 
sixtieth year of his age. He was honoured with 
a public funeral, and a monument was erected 
to him in the Campus Martius the inscription 
on which had been composed by himself. It 
stated that none of his friends ever did him a 
kindness, and none of his enemies a wrong, i 
without being fully repaid. — Sulla was married 
five times: (1) to Ilia or Julia, who bore him a 
daughter, married to Q. Pompeius Rufus, the 
son of Sulla's colleague in the consulship in 88 ; 
(2) to Aelia; (3) to Coelia ; (4) to Caecilia 
Metella, who bore him a son, who died before ' 
Sulla, and likewise twins, a son and a daughter ; 
(5) Valeria, who bore him a daughter after his 
death. (For the Life of Sulla sec Plutarch's 
SullaanA the references in Indices toCicero and 
Sallust.) Sulla wrote a history of his own life 
and times, called Commentarii lierum Gesta- 
rum or 'TiroyupTj/icn-a (Plut. Sul!. 37, Lucull. 1 ; 
Suet. Gramm. 12 ; Cic. Div. i. 172). It was 
dedicated to L. Lucullus, and extended to 
twenty-two books, the last of which was 
finished by Sulla a few days before his death. 
The Greek Anthology contains a short epigram 
on Aphrodite which is ascribed to him (A pp. 
B. C. i. 97). — 5. Faustus, sou of the dictator by ' 
his fourth wife, Caecilia Metella, ami u twin 
brother of Fausta, was born not long before 88, 
the year in which his father obtained his first 
consulship. He and his sister received the 
names of Faustus and Fausta respectively on 
account of the good fortune of their father. I 
(Plut. Sull, 22, 84, 87.) At the death of his 
father in 78, Faustus and his sister were left | 
under the guardianship of L. Lucullus. Faustus j 
accompanied Pompcy into Asia, and was the 
first who mounted the walls of the Temple of 
Jerusalem, in 68 (Jos. Ant. xiv. 4, 4, B. J. \. 
7, 4). In (i0 he exhibited the gladiatorial games 1 
which hiH father in his last will had enjoined . 



SULPICLA. 



903 



upon him. In 54 he was quaestor. In 52 
he received from the senate the commission 
to rebuild the Curia, which had been burnt 
down in the tumults following the murder of 
Clodius. He married Pompey's daughter, 
and sided with his father-in-law in the Civil 
war. He was present at the battle of Pharsalia, 
and subsequently joined the leaders of his 
party in Africa. After the battle of Thapsus in 
46, he attempted to escape into Mauretania, but 
was taken prisoner by P. Sittius, and carried to 
Caesar. Upon his arrival in Caesar's camp he 
was murdered by the soldiers in a tumult. 
Faustus seems only to have resembled his 
father in his extravagance. We know from 
Cicero that he was overwhelmed with debt at 
the breaking out of the Civil war. (Caes. B. C. 
i. 6 ; Bell. Afr. 87, 95 ; App. B. C. ii. 100.)— 
6. P., nephew of the dictator, was elected 
consul along with P. Autronius Paetus for the 
year 65, but neither he nor his colleague 
entered upon the office, as they were accused of 
bribery by L. Torquatus the younger, and were 
condemned. It was currently believed that 
Sulla was privy to both of Catiline's conspira- 
cies, and he was accordingly accused of this 
crime by his former accuser, L. Torquatus, and 
by C. Cornelius. He was defended by Horten- 
sius and Cicero, and the speech of the latter on 
his behalf is still extant. He was acquitted ; 
but, independent of the testimony of Sallust 
[Cat. 17), his guilt may almost be inferred from 
the embarrassment of his advocate. In the 
Civil war Sulla espoused Caesar's cause. He 
served under him as legate in Greece, and 
commanded along with Caesar himself the 
right wing at the battle of Pharsalia (48). He 
died in 45. (Cic. pro Sulla, ad Fam. ix. 10, x. 
17, ad Aft. xi. 21, 22; Caes. B. C. iii. 51,89; 
App. B. C. ii. 76.)— 7. Serv., brother of No. 6, 
took part in both of Catiline's conspiracies. 
His guilt was so evident that no one was 
willing to defend him ; but we do not read that 
he was put to death along with the other con- 
spirators. (Sail. Cat. 17, 47; Cic. pro Suit. 2.) 

Sulmo (Sulmonensis ; Sitlmona), a town of the 
Paeligni, seven miles S. of Corfinium (Caes. B. 
C. i. 18), and ninety miles from Rome (Ov. Trist. 
iv. 10, 4), on the road to Capua. It stood in the 
upland valley of the Gizio, where some smaller 
streams join that river. The district of the 
Paeligni was very cold in winter (Hor. Ud. iii. 
19, 8) : hence we find the town called by the 
poets gelidus Sulmo. It is celebrated as the 
birthplace of Ovid (Ov. Fast. iv. 81, Am. ii. 16; 
Sil. It. viii. 511). It was destroyed by Sulla 
(Flor. Iii. 21) but was afterwards restored, and 
is mentioned as a Roman colony, 

Sulplcia, a Roman poetess who flourished 
towards the close of the first century a.d., cele- 
brated for sundry amatory effusions, addressed 
to her husband Calenns. Their general character 
may be gathered from the expressions of Mar- 
tial and Sidonius Apollinaris, by whom they are 
noticed (Mart. x. 85, 88; Sidon. ix. 262). 
There is extant a satirical poem, in seventy 
hexameters, on the edict of Domitian, by 
which philosophers were banished from Rome 
and from Italy, which is written in the character 
of Sulpicia, but is evidently the work of a later 
period brought out under her name. It is 
generally appended to the editions of Juvenal 
and Pcrsius, and is included in Wenisdorf's 
Poet. Lat. Min. 

Sulplcia Gens, was one of the most ancient 
Roman gentes, and produced a succession of 
distinguished men. from the foundation of the 



904 



SULPICIUS 



SUEBENTUM 



republic to the imperial period. The chief 
families of the Sulpicii during the republican 
period bore the names of Camebinus, Galba, 
Gallus, Eufus (given below), Savebrio. 

Sulpicius Apollinaris, a teacher of A. 
Gellius, was a grammarian (Gell. iv. 17). He 
wrote epistles on learned subjects and the 
metrical Arguments to the plays of Terence and 
to the Aeneid, and it is possible that the Argu- 
ments to the plays of Plautus may also be by 
his hand. His Arguments to the twelve books 
of the Aeneid (six lines to each book) are 
printed in Wernsdorf's Poet. Bat. Min. 

Sulpicius Eufus. 1. P., one of the most dis- 
tinguished orators of his time, was bom B.C. 
124. He entered public life as a supporter of 
the aristocratical party, and acquired great 
influence in the state by his splendid talents, 
while he was still young. In 93 he was quaes- 
tor, and in 89 he served as legate of the consul 
Cn. Pompeius Strabo in the Marsic war. In 
88, he was elected to the tribunate, but he 
deserted the aristocratical party, and joined 
Marius. The causes of this sudden change are 
not expressly stated, but we are told that he 
was overwhelmed with debt, and there can be 
little doubt that he was bought by Marius. 
Sulpicius brought forward a law in favour of 
Marius and his party, of which an account is 
given under Mabius. When Sulla marched 
upon Eome at the head of his army, Marius and 
Sulpicius took to flight. Marius succeeded in 
making his escape to Africa, but Sulpicius was 
discovered in a villa, and put to death. (App. 
B. G. i. 58, 60 ; Plut. Sull. 10 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 18 ; 
Cic. de Or. iii. 3, Brut. 63, 203.)— 2. P., prob- 
ably son or grandson of the last, was one of 
Caesar's legates in Gaul and in the Civil war. 
He was praetor in 48. Cicero addresses him in 
45 as imperator. It appears that he was at 
that time in Illyricum, along with Vatinius. 
(Caes. B. G. iv. 22, B. C. i. 74, iii. 101 ; Cic. ad 
Fam. xiii. 77.) — 3. Ser., with the surname 
Lemonia, indicating the tribe to which he be- 
longed, was a contemporary and friend of 
Cicero, and of about the same age (Cic. Brut. 
40, 150). He first devoted himself to oratory, 
and he studied this art with Cicero in his youth. 
He afterwards studied law, and he became one 
of the best jurists as well as most eloquent 
orators of his age. He was quaestor of the dis- 
trict of Ostia, in 74 ; curule aedile 69 ; praetor 
65 ; and consul 51 with M. Claudius Marcellus. 
He appears to have espoused Caesar's side in 
the Civil war, and was appointed, about 46, by 
Caesar proconsul of Achaia (Cic. ad Fain. iv. 
3). He died in- 43 in the camp of M. Antony, 
having been sent by the senate on a mission to 
Antony, who was besieging Dec. Brutus in 
Mutina. Sulpicius wrote a great number of 
legal works. He is often cited by the jurists 
whose writings are excerpted in the Digest ; 
but there is no excerpt directly from him. He 
had numerous pupils, the most distinguished 
of whom were A. Ofilius and Alfenus Varus. 
There are extant in the collection of Cicero's 
Epistles two letters from Sulpicius to Cicero, 
one of which (iv. 5) is the well-known letter of 
consolation on the death of Tullia, the daughter 
of the orator ; the other (iv. 12) gives an 
admirable account of the death of Marcellus. 
The same book contains several letters from 
Cicero to Sulpicius. He is also said to have 
written some erotic poetry (Plin. Ep. v. 3, 5 ; 
Ov. Trist. ii. 441). — Sulpicius left a son, Servius, 
who is frequently mentioned in Cicero's corre- 
spondence. 



Summanus, an ancient Eoman or Sabine 
divinity, who may be regarded as the Jupiter 
of the night; for as Jupiter was the god. of 
heaven in the bright day, so Summanus was 
the god of the nocturnal heaven, and hurled 
his thunderbolts during the night (Varro, 
L. L. v. 74). Summanus had a temple at 
Rome near the Circus Maximus (Ov. Fast. vi. 
725; Liv. xxxii. 29; Plin. xxix. 57), and there 
was a representation of him in the pediment of 
the Capitoline temple (Cic. Biv. i. 10 ; Liv. Ep. 

14 )-_ „ 

Sunium (~2,ovviov : tovvievs : G. Colonni), a 
promontory forming the S. extremity of Attica, 
with a town of the same name upon it (Od. 
iii. 278; Soph. Aj. 1235; Paus. i. 1, 1). The 
promontory falls on three sides perpendicularly 
200 feet to the sea, and on it, at the highest 
part of the promontory, was a splendid temple 
of Athene, fully 300 feet above the sea, eleven 
columns of which are still extant, and have 
given the modern name to the cape. It was 
fortified by the Athenians in the Peloponnesian 
war (Thuc. viii. 4), and remains of the ancient 
walls, with the temple of Athene, are still 
extant. There is also a marble platform or 
terrace, which some take to be part of a pro- 
pylaeum, others to be the base of the altar of 
Poseidon (cf. Aristoph. Av. 869, Eq. 557). 

Sunonensis Lacus (L. Sabanjah), a lake in 
Bithynia, between the Ascania Palus and the 
river Sangarius, near Nicomedia (Amm. Marc, 
xxvi. 8). 

Superbus, Tarquinius. [Tabquinius.] 
Sura, Lentulus. [Lentulus, No. 9.] 
Sura, L. Licimus, an intimate friend of 
Trajan, and three times consul, in A.D. 98, 102 
and 107. On the death of Sura, Trajan 
honoured him with a public funeral, and erected 
baths to perpetuate his memory. Two of 
Pliny's letters are addressed to him. (Dio Cass, 
lxviii. 9, 15 ; Plin. Ep. iv. 30, vii. 27.) 

Sura (2,ovpa : Surie), a town of Syria, in the 
district Chalybonitis, on the Euphrates, a little 
I W. of Thapsacus (Ptol. v. 15, 25.)— 2. (Sour) a 
branch of the Mosella, above Treves (Auson. 
Mosell. 354). 

Surani or Suarni (tovpavoi), a people of 
Sarmatia Asiatica, near the Portae Caucasiae 
and the river Eha. Their country contained 
many gold mines. (Ptol. v. 9, 20 ; Plin. vi. 30.) 
Surenas, the general of the Parthians who 
I defeated Crassus in B.C. 54. [Cbassus.] 

Surius ('Sovpws), a tributary of the Phasis in 
' Colchis, the water of which had the power of 
forming petrifactions (Plin. ii. 226, vi. 13.) At 
its confluence with the Phasis stood a town 
named Sunum (2ovptov). The plain through 
which it flows is still called Suram. 
Surrentini Colles. [Subbentum.] 
Surrentum (Surrentinus : Sorrento), an 
ancient town of Campania, opposite Capreae, 
and situated about seven miles from the pro- 
montory (Prom. Minervae) separating the 
Sinus Paestanus from the Sinus Puteolanus. 
It was subsequently a Eoman colony. The 
temple of the Sirens which was supposed (prob- 
ably erroneously) to have given the name to the 
town, stood near it ; and on the hills (Surren- 
tini Colles) in its neighbourhood was produced 
one of the best wines in Italy, which was 
strongly recommended to convalescents, on 
account of its thinness and wholesomeness. 
(Strab. p. 247 ; Plin. iii. 62.) Statius describes 
the villa which his friend Pollius Felix had 
there (Silv. ii. 2), of which considerable re- 
I mains exist. 



SUSA 

Susa, gen. -orum (to: Sovcra : O. T. Shushan : 
2ov<rtos, Susiiinus : Sus, Ru.), the winter resi- 
dence of the Persian kings, stood in the district 
Cissia of the province Susiana, on the E. bank 
of the river Choaspes or Eulaens (the modern 
Kerkhah), and between that river and the 
Pasitigris. Some, with less probability, believe 
that the Eulaeus is the river to the E. of Susa 
and is the Pasitigris or a branch of it. The posi- I 
tion of the city at any rate on the E. of the 
modern Kerkhah is placed beyond doubt by 
the remains which have been discovered. Its 
name was said to be derived from a word signi- 
fying lily, because that flower abounded in the 
neighbouring plain (Athen. p. 513 ; Steph. 
Byz. s.v.). Susa was of a quadrangular form, 
fifteen miles in circuit, and without fortifica- 
tions ; but it had a strongly fortified citadel, 
containing the palace and treasury of the Per- 
sian kings (Strab. p. 728; Arr. An. vii. 7; 
Diod. xix. 18 ; Plin. vi. 133 ; cf. Hdt. i. 188 ; 
Aesch. Pers. 535). The Greek name of this 
citadel, Memnonice or Memnonium (Hdt. v. 
54), is perhaps a corruption of a native name, 
whence may have arisen the idea of connecting 
the place with the myth of Memnon [see 
p. 54G, b] and asserting that Tithonus founded 
the city. It is also possible that the citadel 
may have been built for Cyrus by some Mem- 
non (Cassiod. vii. 15). The climate of Susa 
was very hot, and hence the choice of it for the 
winter palace. It was here that Alexander and 
his generals celebrated their nuptials with the 
• Persian princesses, B.C. 325 (Curt. vii. 4, 5). 
The ruins of the huge palaces of Darius and 
Xerxes, which were first excavated in 1852, pre- 
serve the ancient name. 

Susarion. (Zovarapiwv), to whom the origin of 
the Attic Comedy is ascribed, was a native of 
Megara, whence he removed into Attica, to the 
village of Icaria, a place celebrated as a seat of 
the worship of Dionysus (Plut. Sol. 10 ; 
C. I. A. ii. p. 301 ; cf. Arist. Poet. 3, 5 ; Athen. 
p. 40, b). This account agrees with the claim 
which the Megarians asserted to the invention 
of Comedy, and which was generally admitted. 
Before the time of Susarion there was, no doubt, 
practised, at Icaria and the other Attic villages, 
that extempore jesting and buffoonery which 
formed a marked feature of the festivals of 
Dionysus; but Susarion was the first who so 
regulated this species of amusement, by deve- 
loping the dialogue of the comic chorus and a 
single actor into a kind of short farce, as to lay the 
foundation of Comedy, properly so called. The 
Megaric Comedy appears to have flourished, 
in its full development, soon after B.C. GOO; 
and it was introduced by Susarion into Attica 
between 580-5(54. [See Diet, of Ant. art. 
Comoedia.] 

Susiana, -e, or Susis Irj ~S.ovaia.vM, t\ 2ovals : 
nearly corresponding to Khuzistan), one of the 
thief provinces of the ancient Persian empire, 
lay between Babylonia and I'ersis, and between 
M. Parachoatras and the head of the Persian 
Gulf. It was an alluvial plain formed by the 
rivers Choaspes (Kerkhah) and Pasitigris 
(Karun). On the Persian Gulf its coast ex- 
tended from the junction of the Euphrates 
with the Tigris, to about the mouth of the river 
Oroatis (Tab). (Strab. p. 720; Ptol. vi. 8, 1.) 
It was divided from Persis on the SE. and K. 
by a mountainous tract (Montes Uxii), inhabited 
by independent tribes, who made even the 
kings of Persia pay them for a safe passage. 
The chief pass through these mountains was 
called Susides or Persides Port u i r(5< •. 



SYBARIS 



905 



irvKai, at irvKat at Tleptr'iSes, 2ovo-ttL5es itirpai : 
Polyaen. iv. 3, 27). On the N. it was separated 
from Great Media by the range of Mt. Orontes 
(Elwend), which contained the sources of the 
Copratas, and of one branch of the Choaspes. 
On the W. it was divided from Assyria by the 
range of Mt. Zagros, in which were the sources 
of some affluents of the Choaspes, and by an 
imaginary line drawn S. from the end of that 
range to the Tigris ; and from Babylonia by the 
Tigris itself. The country was mountainous 
and cool in the N., and low and very hot in the 
S. ; and the coast along the Persian Gulf was 
marshy. The mountains were inhabited by 
various wild and independent tribes ; and the 
plains by a quiet agricultural people, of the 
Semitic race, called Susii or Susiani. 

Sutrrum (Sutrlnus: Sutri), an ancient town 
of Etruria, on the E. side of the Saltus Ciminius, 
and on the road from Vulsinii to Rome, from 
which it was distant thirty-two miles. It was 
taken by the Romans at an early period ; and 
in B.C. 383, or seven years after the capture of 
Rome by the Gauls, it was made a Roman 
colony. "(Liv. vi. 3 ; Diod. xiv. 117 ; Veil. Pat. 
i. 14.) It was celebrated for its fidelity to 
Rome, and was in consequence besieged several 
times by the Etruscans (Liv. ix. 82, x. 14). On 
one occasion it was obliged to surrender to the 
Etruscans, but was retaken by Camillus in the 
same day, whence arose the proverb ire Su- 
trium (Liv. vi. 3 ; Plaut. Casin. iii. 1, 10). 
There are still remains of the walls and tombs 
of the ancient town, and of an amphitheatre of 
Roman work. 

Syagrus (~2.tayos &Kpa: Bas Fartak), a pro- 
montory on the SE. of Arabia, near Moscha 
(Ptol. vi. 7, 11). Its importance lay in its being 
the point where land was quitted on the voyage 
to India (Peripl. 30 ; Plin. vi. 100). 

Sybaris (5u/3apis). 1. (Coscile or Sibari), a 
river in Lucania, flowing by the city of the same 
name, and falling into the Crathis. It was said 
to have derived its name from the fountain 
Sybaris, near Bura, in Achaia. (Strab. p. 3K6.) 
— 2. (2u/8apiT)7S, Sybarita), a celebrated Greek 




Coin of Sybaris, curly in bixth cent. B.C. 
Otr., bull with head turned back : VM (=SY) ; rep., same 
Incuse. 

town in Lucania, was situated between the 
rivers Sybaris and Crathis at a short distance 
from the Tarentine gulf, and near the confines 
of Bruttium (Strab. p. 2G3 ; Diod. xii. 9 ; Scymn. 
p. 860). It was founded B.C. 720 by AchaeaiiHaiid 
Troezenians.and soon attained an extraordinary 
degree of prosperity and wealth. It carried on 
an extensive commerce with Asia Minor and 
other countries on the Mediterranean, and its 
inhabitants became so notorious for their love 
of luxury and pleasure, that their name was 
employed to indicate any voluptuary. (Athen. 
pp. 518-521; Hdt. vi. 127; Suid. s.v.) At the 
time of their highest prosperity their city win 
fifty stadia, or nearly six miles, in circum- 
ference, and they exercised dominion over 



906 



SYBOTA 



SYMMACHUS 



twenty-five towns, so that we are told tliey were 
able to bring into the field 300,000 men, a num- 
ber, however, which is obviously incredible 
(Strab. I.e.). But their prosperity was of short 
duration. The Achaeans having expelled the 
Troezenian part of the population, the latter 
took refuge at the neighbouring city of Croton, 
the inhabitants of which espoused their cause. 
In the war which ensued between the two 
states, the Sybarites were completely conquered 
by the Crotoniates, who followed up their vic- 
tory by the capture of Sybaris, which they de- 
stroyed by turning the waters of the river 
Grathis against the town, B.C. 510 (Diod. xii. 9 ; 
Hdt. v. 44 ; Athen. p. 521 ; Scymn. pp. 337-360 ; 
Strab. I.e.). The greater number of the sur- 
viving Sybarites took refuge in other Greek 
cities in Italy ; but a few remained near their 
ancient town, and their descendants formed part 
of the population of Thurii, which was founded 
in 443 near Sybaris. [Thubii.] 

Sybota (to Su/Soto : 2,v/36tios : Syvota), a 
number of small islands off the coast of Epirus, 
and opposite the promontory Leucimne in 
Corcyra, with a harbour of the same name on 
the main land. It was here that a naval battle 
was fought between the Corcyraeans and Corin- 
thians, B.C. 432, just before the commencement 
of the Peloponnesian war. (Thuc. i. 47-54, iii. 
76 ; Strab. p. 324.) 

Sychaeus or Sichaeus, also called Acerbas. 
[Acebbas.] 

Syene (Surjerj : Sutjwt^s and SuryvrjTr/s, Sy- 
enites : Assouan, Bu.), a city of Upper Egypt, 
on the E. bank of the Nile, just below the First 
Cataract. It was the S. frontier city of Egypt 
towards Aethiopia, and under the Bomans it 
was kept by a garrison of three cohorts. From 
its neighbourhood was obtained the fine red 
granite called Syenites la^iis. It was also an 
important point in the astronomy and geo- 
graphy of the ancients, as it lay just under the 
tropic of Cancer, and was therefore chosen as 
the place through which they drew their chief 
parallel of latitude. The sun was vertical to 
Syene at the time of the summer solstice, and 
a well was shown in which the reflection of the 
sun was then seen at noon ; or, as the rheto- 
rician Aristides expresses it, the disc of the sun 
covered the well as a vessel is covered by its 
lid. (Hdt. ii. 30 ; Strab. pp. 133, 317, 797; 
Plin. xxxvi. 13; Ptol. v. 5, 15, viii. 15, 15.) 

Syennesis (SueVpeffis), a common name of 
the kings of Cilicia. Of these the most impor- 
tant are.: — 1. A king of Cilicia who joined with 
Labynetus in mediating between Cyaxares and 
Alyattes, the kings respectively of Media and 
Lydia, probably in B.C. 610 (Hdt. i. 74). — 2. Con- 
temporary with Darius Hystaspis, to whom he 
was tributary. His daughter was married to 
Pixodarus (Hdt. iii. 90, v. 118).— 3. Contem- 
porary with Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon), ruled 
over Cilicia, when the younger Cyrus marched 
through his country in his expedition against 
his brother Artaxerxes (Xen. An. i. 2, 21-27, 
vii. 8, 25, Hell. iii. 1 ; Diod. xiv. 20). 

Sygambri. [Sugambbi.] 

Sylla. [Sulla.] 

Syllium ('XvAAto;/ : prob. Bu. near Bolkassku, 
N. of Legelakhoi), a strongly fortified town of 
Pamphylia, on a mountain, forty stadia (four 
geographical miles) from the coast, between 
Side and Aspendus (Strab. p. 667 ; Arr. An. i. 
25). 

Sylvanus. [Silvanus.] 
Sylvius. [Silvtus.] 

Symaethus (2u,u<*i0os : Simeto,or Giarretta), 



a river on the E. coast of Sicily, which rises in 
the chain of M. Nebrodes, and. first flowing S. 
skirts the base of Aetna ; then turning E., flows 
into the sea eight miles S. of Catania. In the 
lower part of its course it formed the boundary 
between Leontini and Catana. (Thuc. vi. 65 ; 
Strab. p. 272 ; Verg. Aen. ix. 584.) 

Syme CSvfir] : 'Sv/j.alos, 2,v/j.evs : Symi), a small 
island off the SW. coast of Caria, lay in the 
mouth of the Sinus Doridis to the W. of the 
promontory of Cynossema. (Hdt. i. 174 ; Thuc. 
viii. 41 ; Strab. p. 656 ; Athen. p. 296.) It was 
one of the early Dorian states, that existed in 
the SW. of Asia Minor before the time of 
Homer, and Nireus is said to have sailed from 
it (II. ii. 671). Its connexion both with Cnidus 
and with Bhodes, between which it lay, is indi- 
cated by the tradition that it was peopled by 
a colony from Cnidus led by Cthonius, the son 
of Poseidon and of Syme, the daughter of 
Ialysus. Some time after the Trojan war, the 
Carians are said to have obtained possession of 
the island, but to have deserted it again in 
consequence of a severe drought. Its final 

I settlement by the Dorians is ascribed to the 
time of their great migration (Diod. v. 33). The 
island was reckoned at thirty-five miles in 
circuit. It had eight harbours and a town, 
which was also called Syme. 

Symmachus, Q. Aurelius. I. A distinguished 
scholar, statesman, and orator in the latter half 
of the fourth century of the Christian era. By 
his example and authority, he inspired for a 
time new life and vigour into the literature of 
his country. He was educated in G-aul, and 
having discharged the functions of quaestor 
and praetor, he was afterwards appointed (a.d. 
365) Corrector of Lucania and the Bruttii, and 
in 373 he was proconsul of Africa. His zeal for 
the ancient religion of Borne checked for a 
while the prosperous current of his fortunes, 
and involved him in danger and disgrace. 
Having been chosen by the senate to remon- 
strate with Gratian on the removal of the altar 
of Victory (382) from their council hall, and on 
the curtailment of the sums annually allowed 
for the maintenance of the Vestal Virgins, and 
for the public celebration of sacred rites, he 
was ordered by the indignant emperor to quit 
his presence, and to withdraw himself to a dis- 
tance of 100 miles from Borne. Nothing daunted 
by this repulse, when he was appointed prefect 
of the city (384) after the death of his perse- 
cutor, he addressed a letter to Valentinianus, 
again urging the restoration of the pagan deities 
to their former honours. This application was 
resisted by St. Ambrose, and was again un- 
successful. Symmachus afterwards espoused 
the cause of the usurper Maximus (387) ; but 
he was pardoned by Theodosius and raised to 
the consulship in 391. His personal character 

, seems to have been unimpeachable, as he per- 
formed the duties of the high offices which he 
filled in succession with a degree of mildness, 
firmness and integrity seldom found among 
statesmen in that corrupt age. The extant 
works of Symmachus are : (1) Epistolarum 
Libri X, published after his death by his son. 
The last book contains his official corre- 
spondence, and is chiefly composed of the letters 
presented by him when praefect of the city to 
the emperors under whom he served. The re- 
maining books comprise a multitude of epistles, 
addressed to a wide circle of relations, friends, 
and acquaintances. (2) Novem Orationum 
Fragmenta, published for the first time by 
Mai from a palimpsest in the Ambrosian Library, 



STNESIUS SYRACUSAE 907 

Mediolan. 1815. — The best edition of the ex- | broad end of the kind of promontory thus 
tant writings of Symmachus is by Seeck, Berl. formed, which abuts upon the sea for a distance 
1883. — 2. Father-in-law of Boethtos, and put of about 2i miles, may be considered as the 
to death at the same time [Theodoeicus]. base of a triangular plateau which extends for 

Syneslus 2vv4<rios), was a native of Cyrene, above four miles into the interior, having its 
and devoted himself to the study of Greek lite- apex formed by the point now called Mongi- 
rature, first in his own city, and afterwards at bellisi, which was occupied by the ancient fort 
Alexandria, where he was a pupil of Hypatia. of Euryelus. This communicates, as already 
He became celebrated for his skill in eloquence stated, by a narrow ridge with the table-land of 
and poetry, as well as in philosophy, in which the interior, but is still a marked point of sepa- 
he belonged to the Neo-Platonic school. About ration, and was the highest point of the ancient 
a.d. 397, he was sent by his fellow-citizens of city, from whence the table-land slopes very 
Cyrene on an embassy to Constantinople, to gradually to the sea. Though of small eleva- 
present the emperor Arcadius with a crown of tion, this plateau, called Epipolae, is bounded 
gold : on which occasion he delivered an ora- on all sides by precipitous banks or cliffs, vary- 
tion on the government of a kingdom (wepi , ing in height, but only accessible at a few points. 
BacriAeias), which is still extant. Soon after It is divided into two portions by a slight valley 
this he embraced Christianity, and in 410 was ; or depression running across it from N. to S., 
ordained bishop of Ptolemai's, the chief city of j about a mile from the sea. — The SE. angle of 
the Libyan Pentapolis. He presided over his \ the plateau is separated from the Great Har- 
diocese with energy and success for about bour by a small tract of low and level ground, 
twenty years, and died about 4*30. Of his ex- j opposite to which lies the island of Ortygia, a 
tant writings, besides the above-mentioned ora- low islet, extending across the mouth of the 
tion, the most notable are the Dion, in which Great Harbour, and originally divided by only 
he relates how he became a philosopher ; the a narrow strait from the mainland, whilst its 
Aegyptius, which describes the evils of the southern extremity was separated from the 
time under the guise of an Egyptian myth, and nearest point of the headland of Plemmyrium 
the 4>oA.aicpaj ^jkco/xiov (Praise of Baldness), an by an interval of about 1200 yards, forming the 
exercise of wit in reply to the K.6fii)s iyKw/juov | entrance into the Great Harbour. This last 
of Chrysostom. — Edition of his works by Morel, was a spacious bay, of above five miles in cir- 
Paris, 1633-1640. cumference, thus greatly exceeding the dimen- 

Synnada, also Synnas (to 2iWa5a : SvfeaSeus, sions of what the ancients usually understood 
Synnadensis : Tschifut Cassaba), a city in the N. i by a port, but forming a very nearly land-locked 
of Phrygia Salutaris, at first inconsiderable, but i basin of a somewhat oval form, which afforded 
afterwards a place of much importance, and, | a secure shelter to shipping in all weather, and 
from the time of Constantine, the capital of is even at the present day one of the finest 
Phrygia Salutaris. It stood in a fruitful plain, harbours in Sicily. But between the island of 
according to Strabo (p. 577), planted with olives, Ortygia and the mainland to the N. of it was a 
but this is said to be impossible : it was near deep bight or inlet, forming what is called the 
a mountain from which was quarried the Lesser Port or Portus Lacceius, which, though 
celebrated Synnadic marble, which was of a very inferior to the other, was still equal to the 
beautiful white, with red veins and spots {Xvv- ordinary requirements of ancient commerce. — 
vaSiKbs Aidos, Synnadicus lapis, called also S. of the Great Harbour again rose the penin- 
Doeimiticus, from a still nearer place, Docimia). sular promontory of Plemmyrium, forming a 

Syphax (2u<£a4), king of the Massaesylians, table-land bounded, like that on the N. of the 
the westernmost tribe of the Numidians. His bay, by precipitous escarpments and cliffs, 
history is related in the Life of his contempo- though of no great elevation. This table-land 
rary and rival, MasInissa. Syphax was taken was prolonged by another plateau at a some- 
prisoner by Masinissa, B.C. 203, and was sent by what lower level, bounding the southern side 
Scipio, under the charge of Laelius, to Rome, of the Great Harbour, and extending from 
Polybius states that he was one of the captives thence towards the interior. On its NE. angle 
who adorned the triumph of Scipio, and that he and opposite to the heights of Epipolae, stood 
died in confinement shortly after. Livy, on the the Olympieum, overlooking the low marshy 
contrary, asserts that he was saved from that tract which intervenes between the two table- 
ignominy by a timely death at Tibur, whither he lands, and through which the river Anapus 
had been transferred from Alba. (Pol.xvi. 23; finds its way to the sea. The beautiful stream 
Liv. xxx. 13, 16.) , of the Cyane rises in a source about H mile to 

Syraco. [Syracusae.] i the N. of the Olympieum, and joins its waters 

Syracusae (2,updKov<rat : 2,vpa><6<Ttos, Syra- with those of the Anapus almost immediately 
cusanus ; Siracusa in Italian, Syracuse in below the temple. — The town was originally 
English), the wealthiest and most populous confined to the island Ortygia (Thuc. vi. 2; 
town in Sicily, was situated on the S. part of Strab. p. 269; Scymn. pp. 279-282), but it after- 
the E. coast, 400 stadia N. of the promontory wards spread over the neighbouring mainland, 
Plemmyrium, and ten stadia NE. of the mouth and at the time of its greatest extension under 
of the river Anapus, nenr the lake or marsh the elder Dionysius it consisted of four distinct 
called Syraco (Swpcuccul, from which it derived quarters, each surrounded by separate walls, 
its name. It was founded B.C. 781, one year (Cic. Verr. iv. 52 ; Diod. xxvi. 18; Auson. Clar 
after the foundation of Naxos, by a colony of Urb. 11.) When Strabo calls it irffTairoAir, ho 
Corinthians and other Dorians, led by Art-bias perhaps reckoned in Epipolae. These four 
the Corinthian. — Syracuse was situated on a quarters of the city were : 1. Ortygia fOp-ruy/a), 
table-land forming the prolongation of a ridge frequently called simply the Island (Nairo; or 
which branches off from the still more elevated Ntjitoi), an island of an oblong shape, about 
table-land of the interior, and projects quite a mile long and somewhat less than half u 
down to the sea, between the bi>y known as the mile broad, lying between the Great Harbour 
Great Harbour of Syracuse and the more ex- on the W. and the Little Harbour on the E. 
tensive bay which stretches on the N. as far as It was, as has been already remarked, the por- 
the peninsula of Thapsus or Magnisi. The I tion of the city first built, and it afterwards 



908 



SYKACUSAE 



formed the strongest part of the city, and was 
utilised by Dionysius as his fortress. Within it 
he built an interior citadel, and the whole was 
surrounded by double walls, which Timoleon 
caused to be destroyed. It was specially sacred 
to Artemis (Diod. v. 3 ; Pind. Nevi. i. 3), [see 
pp. 127, b, 485, b], and in it was the fountain of 
Arethusa. It was originally separated from the 
mainland by a narrow channel, which was sub- 
sequently filled up by a causeway (Thuc. vi. 3) ; 
but it was severed from the mainland, probably 
by the elder Dionysius, and afterwards con- 
nected with it by means of a bridge. — 2. Achra- 
dina ('AxpaSlvri), or ' the Outer City,' consisted 
probably of the level plain between the Great 
Harbour and the foot of Epipolae, bordered 



stantly use it. It has been argued with proba- 
bility from the language of Diodorus and Livy 
(e.g. Diod. xi. 73, 76 ; Liv. xxv. 30) that Achra- 
dina was, as has been said, the flat ground 
below Epipolae. But it should be mentioned 
that many writers believe it to have included 
the E. part of the plateau of Epipolae ; and the 
question cannot be said to be decided either 
way. Achradina communicated with the Island 
by a fortified entrance called Pentapyla, at the 
end of the isthmus or causeway. At the time 
of the siege of Syracuse by the Athenians in the 
Peloponnesian war (415), the city consisted only 
of the two parts already mentioned, Ortygia 
forming the inner and Achradina the outer 
city. — 3. Tyche (Tvxv), named after the temple' 




Walker &■ Boutall sc. 

Plan of Ancient Syracuse (based on a mop in Freeman's Sicily). 
A, circular fort (kvk\o c ) of Athenian siege ; dotted line from Trogilus to Portella del Fusco, Athenian wall (double 
thence to the) sea 1 ); BA, direction of 1st Syracusan cross-wall; CD, direction of '2nd Syracusan cross-wall; 
EFGH, direction of last Syracusan counter-wall and forts. 



on the W. by the marshes of Lysimeleia. When 
the city, in the time of Gelo, spread beyond its 
original limits in Ortygia, the level plain was 
occupied, and became what Thucydides calls 
the ' Outer City.' The Agora was in the part 
nearest the Island, and was surrounded with 
porticoes by Dionysius the elder (Diod. xiv. 7 ; 
Cic. Verr. iv. 53, 119). Adjoining it was the 
temple of Jupiter (Diod. xvi. 83) and probably 
the Prytaneum (Cic. Verr. iv. 57, 125). The 
name Achradina does not seem to have been 
used before the end of the fifth century B.C., 
and even the later writers Plutarch and Diodo- 
rus use the name t) e£a> ir6\ts in speaking of 
events of the Athenian siege. But in speaking 
of later history Diodorus, Livy, and Cicero con- 



of Tyche or Fortune, was situated W. of Achra- 
dina, in the direction of the port called Trogilus. 
At the time of the Athenian siege of Syracuse 
it was only an unfortified suburb, which is 
mentioned by Diodorus (xi. 68) as existing in 
466 ; but it probably had very few houses until 
Dionysius fortified the N. part of the pla- 
teau, after which time it became the most 
populous part of the city. In this quarter stood 
the gymnasium. — 4. Neapolis (Nea ir<$Ais), 
nearly SW. of Achradina. At the time of the 
Athenian siege of Syracuse, a suburb called 
Temenitis, from having within it the statue and 
consecrated ground of Apollo Temenites, stood 
on the high ground above the site in which the 
theatre was afterwards built. This suburb was 



SYEACUSAE 

temporarily fortified at the time of the siege 
(Thuc. vi. 75). Not many years afterwards the 
city was permanently extended to this district, 
occupying both the high ground of Temenitis 
and the lower slopes to the S. ; and the whole 
was called the ' New City ' (Neapolis). Nea- : 
polis contained the chief theatre of Syracuse, 
which was the largest in all Sicily, and many 
temples, and an amphitheatre of the Eoman 
period of which some remains exist (cf. Tac. 
Ann. xiii. 49). — 5. Epipolae (at 'E7niroA.aO, a 
space of ground rising above the three quarters 
of Achradina, Tyche, and Neapolis, which gra- 
dually diminished in breadth as it rose higher, 
until it ended in a small conical mound. This 
rising ground was surrounded with strong walls 
by the elder Dionysius, and was thus included 
in Syracuse, which now became one of the most 
strongly fortified cities of the ancient world. 
The highest point of Epipolae was called 
Euryelus (Eupi/7)Aos), on which stood the fort 
Labdalum (AdfiSaKov). After Epipolae had 
been added to the city, the circumference of 
Syracuse was 180 stadia or upwards of twenty- 
two English miles ; and the entire population 
of the city is supposed to have amounted to 
500.000 at the time of its greatest prosperity.— 
There were several stone quarries (lautumiae) 
in Syracuse, which are frequently mentioned by 
ancient writers, and in which the Athenian 
prisoners were confined. These quarries were 
in higher ground above Achradina, and in Nea- 
polis under the S. cliff of Epipolae. From them 
was taken the stone of which the city was 
built. (Thuc. vii. 86 ; Diod. xiii. 33 ; Cic. Terr. 
i. 5, 14, v. 27, 68.) The so-called ' Ear of Diony- 
sius,' which is shown in the modern Latomia 
del Paradiso, as a place where the tyrant over- 
heard the conversations of his captives, is 
an invention of a writer of the Renaissance. 
[Diet, of Ant. art. Lautumiae.} Round the 
Olympieum, or Temple of Zeus, which stood on 
a height a mile and a half S. of Neapolis and 
on the other side of the Anapus, grew up a 
collection of houses called f) iroAi'xvT). It was 
important as commanding the passage of the 
Anapus. Some remains of the old bridge and 
of the old road whicli led to Helorus, as well as 
remains of the temple itself, are still visible. 
The city was supplied witli water from an 
aqueduct, which was constructed by Gelo and 
improved by Hiero. It was brought through 
Epipolae and Neapolis to Achradina and Orty- 
gia. — The government of Syracuse was at an 
early period an aristocracy, and the political 
power was in the hands of the landed pro- 
prietors called Geomori or Gamori. In course 
of time the people, having increased in numbers 
and wealth, expelled the Geomori and estab- 
lished a democracy. (Hdt. vii. 155; Dionys. vi. 
C2.) But this form of government did not last 
long. Gelo espoused the cause of the aristo- 
cratical party, and proceeded to restore them by 
force of arms ; but on his approach the people 
opened the gates to him, and he was acknow- 
ledged without opposition tyrant or sovereign 
of Syracuse, B.C. 485. Under his rule and that 
of his brother Hiero, Syracuse was raised to an 
unexampled degree of wealth and prosperity. 
Hiero died in 467, and was succeeded by his 
brother Thrasybulus ; but the rapacity and 
cruelty of the latter soon provoked a revolt 
among his subjects, which led to his deposition 
and the establishment of a democratical form 
of government. The next most important event 
in the history of Syracuse was the siege of the 
city by the Athenians, which ended in the total 



SYRL\ 



909 



destruction of the great Athenian armament in 
413. The democracy continued to exist in 
Syracuse till 406, when the elder Dionysius 
made himself tyrant of the city. After a long 
and prosperous reign he was succeeded in 367 
by his son, the younger Dionysius, who was 
finally expelled by Timoleon in 343. A re- 
publican form of government was again estab- 
lished ; but it did not last long, and in 317 
Syracuse fell under the sway of Agathocles. 
This tyrant died in 280 ; and the city being dis- 
tracted by factions, the Syracusans voluntarily 
conferred the supreme power upon Hiero EL, 
with the title of King, in 270. Hiero cultivated 
friendly relations with the Romans ; but on his 
death in 216, at the advanced age of ninety-two, 
his grandson, Hieronymus, who succeeded him, 
espoused the side of the Carthaginians. A Ro- 
man army under Marcellus was sent against 
Syracuse, and after a siege of two years, during 
which Archimedes assisted his fellow-citizens 
by the construction of various engines of war 
: [Archimedes], the city was taken by Marcellus 
in 212. From this time Syracuse became a 
town of the Roman province of Sicily. Its 
prosperity was greatly diminished by the wars 
of Sex. Pompeius, and, though Augustus sent 
a new colony to it in B.C. 21, these settlers occu- 
pied only the Island and a portion of Achradina 
and Neapolis. (Strab. p. 270 ; Dio Cass. liv. 7.) 

Syrgis (2up7<s)> according to Herodotus, a 
river of European Sarmatia, rising in the 
' country of the Thyssagetae, and flowing through 
the land of the Maeotae into the Palus Maeotis. 
( Hdt. iv. 123). It is possibly the same as the 
Hyrgis which he mentions elsewhere (iv. 57) as 
an affluent of the Tanais. 

Syria Dea (2vpti? 6e6s), ' the Syrian goddess,' 
a name by which the Syrian Atargartis was 
commonly spoken of by Greeks and Romans. 
She was a goddess of the productiveness of 
nature = Derceto = Astarte, and the Eastern 
equivalent of Aphrodite [see p. 85, a]. The 
chief seat of her worship was Hierapolis in 
Syria. The orgiastic and effeminate cult of 
this temple is described by Lueian. Her wor- 
, ship was introduced into Italy under the empire, 
especially by Nero ; and she had a temple at 
Rome in the Transtiberine district. (Lueian, de 
Dea Syria ; Apul. Met. viii. 24 ; Suet. Ner. 56 ; 
| C.I.L. \l 115, 116.) 

Syria irj Supia : 2i!pior, Syrlus : Arab. Esh- 
Sham, Syria) a country of W. Asia, lying along 
the E. end of the Mediterranean sea, between 
Asia Minor and Egypt. In a wider sense the 
word was used for the whole tract of country 
bounded by the Tigris on the E., the mountains 
of Armenia and Cilicia on the N., the Mediter- 
ranean on the W., and the Arabian Desert on 
I the S. ; the whole of which was peopled by the 
] Aramaean branch of the great Semitic (or Syro- 
Arabian) race, who occupied a great part of the 
country which had formerly belonged to the 
Kheta or Hittites : hence this region is in- 
cluded in the O. T. under the name of Aram. 
It may be well described physically as the great 
triangular depression of W. Asia encircled on 
the N. and NE. by the Taurus and its pro- 
longation to the SE., or, in other words, by the 
highlands of Cilicia, Cappadocia, Armenia, and 
Aria; and subsiding on the S. and W. into the 
Mediterranean and the Great Desert of Arabia. 
Even a wider extent than this is often given to 
Syria, so as to include the E. part of Asia 
Minor, as far as the river Halys and the Euxine. 
The people were of the same races, and those 
of the N. of the Taurus in Cappadocia and 



910 



SYRIA 



Pontus are called White Syrians [Leucosyri] 
in contradistinction to the people of darker 
complexion in Syria Proper, who are sometimes 
even called Black Syrians ('Svpiot /teAoves). 
The Greeks thus designated as Syria the 
country lying beyond Phoenicia, and included 
under the same name the country of Canaan 
or Palestine. Greek writers, especially Hero- 
dotus, often not only reckoned the Phoenicians 
as Syrians, but even identified Syrians with 
Assyrians (Hdt. ii. 158, vii. 63). In the nar- 
rower sense, Syria was bounded on the W. 
(beginning from the S.) by M. Hermon, at the 
S. end of Antilibanus, which separated it from 
Palestine, by the range of Libanus, dividing 
it from Phoenice, by the Mediterranean, and 
by M. Amanus, which divided it from Cilicia ; 
on the N. (where it bordered on Cappadocia) 
by the main chain of M. Taurus, almost ex- 
actly along the parallel of 38° N. lat., and 
striking the Euphrates just below Juliopolis, and 
considerably above Samosata : hence the Eu- 
phrates forms the E. boundary, dividing Syria, 
first from a very small portion of Armenia, and 
then from Mesopotamia, to about or beyond the 
thirty-sixth parallel of N. lat., whence the SE. 
and S. boundaries, towards Babylonia and 
Arabia, in the Great Desert, are exceedingly 
indefinite. [Comp. Arabia.] The W. part of 
the S. boundary ran just below Damascus, 
being formed by the highlands of Trachonitis. 
The name Coele Syria (r) koi'Ai) St/pi'a : ' hollow 
Syria ') was first given to the low-lying part 
between Libanus and Antilibanus in the valleys 
of the upper Orontes and the Lita ; but it was 
extended so as to include the country E. of 
Antilibanus up to, and beyond, Damascus. 
The W. part of Syria was intersected by a series 
of mountains, running S. from the Taurus, 
under the names of Amanus, Pieria, Casius, 
Bargylus, and Libanus and Antilibanus ; 
and the N. part, between the Amanus and the 
Euphrates, was also mountainous. The chief 
river of Syria was the Orontes, and the smaller 
rivers Chalus, Chrysorrhoas and Lita, 
were also of importance. The valleys among 
the mountains were fertile, especially in the 
N. part: even the E., which is now merged in 
the Great Desert of Arabia, appears to have 
had more numerous and more extensive spaces 
capable of cultivation, and supported great 
cities, the ruins of which now stand in the 
midst of sandy wastes. — Having been a part 
successively of the Assyrian, Babylonian, Per- 
sian, and Macedonian empires, Syria fell, after 
the battle of Ipsus (b.c. 301), to the share of 
Seleucus Nicator, and formed a part of the 
great kingdom of the Seleucidae, whose history 
is given in the articles Seleucus, Antiochus, 
Demetrius, &c. In this partition, however, 
Coelesyria and Palestine went, not to Syria, 
but to Egypt, and the possession of those pro- 
vinces became the great source of contention 
between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. By 
the irruptions of the Parthians on the E., and 
the unsuccessful war of Antiochus the Great 
with the Romans on the W., the Greek Syrian 
kingdom was reduced to the limits of Syria 
itself, and became weaker and weaker, until it 
was overthrown by Tigranes, king of Armenia, 
B.C. 79. Soon afterwards, when the Romans 
had conquered Tigranes as well as Mithridates, 
Syria was quietly added by Pompey to the em- 
pire of the republic and was constituted a 
province, B.C. 64 ; but its N. district, Comma- 
gene, was not until a later period included in 
this arrangement. [Commagene.] As the E. 



province of the Roman empire, and with its 
great desert frontier, Syria was constantly ex- 
posed to the irruptions of the Parthians, and, 
after them, of the Persians ; but it long re- 
mained one of the most flourishing of the pro- 
vinces. The attempt of Zenobia to make it 
the seat of empire is noticed under Palmyra 
and Zenobia. While the Roman emperors 
defended this precious possession against the 
attacks of the Persian kings with various suc- 
cess, a new danger arose, as early as the fourth 
century, from the Arabians of the Desert, who 
began to be known under the name of Saracens ; 
and, when the rise of Mohammed had given to 
the Arabs that great religious impulse which 
revolutionised the E. world, Syria was the first 
great conquest that they made from the E. 
empire, a.d. 632-638. — In the time immediately 
succeeding the Macedonian conquest, Syria 
was regarded as consisting of two parts ; the 
N., including the whole country down to the 
beginning of the Lebanon range, and the S., 
consisting of Coelesyria in its more extended 
sense. The former, which was called Syria 
Proper, or Upper Syria (r/ &vai 'Svpla, Syria Su- 
perior), was divided into four districts or 
tetrarchies, which were named after their re- 
spective capitals, Seleucis, Antiochene, Laodi- 
cene, and Apamene. The Roman province of 
Syria as originally constituted by Pompey in 
64 B.C. was by no means a single homogeneous 
region. Owing to the different nationalities and 
interests which Syria properly so called com- 
prised, it was at first parcelled out between the 
Roman jurisdiction and a number of indepen- 
dent territories which were allowed to remain 
within it. Under the Roman proconsul of 
Syria were at first Upper Syria (with the chief 
towns Antiochj Seleucia, Apamea, Laodicea, 
Cyrrhus, Hieropolis and Beroea), and the land 
of Phoenicia including Tripolis, Byblus, Tyre 
and Sidon; but Judaea was left for a time 
nominally independent, except for a short time 
when Gabinius broke it up into five districts. 
Caesar made Judaea a client state under its 
own princes, and it did not become a Roman 
province (of the second rank, under a procura- 
tor) until A.D. 6. Similarly Commagene was 
left under its own princes until A.D. 17, and 
again from 38 till 72, when it was finally joined 
to the province of Syria : Chalcis retained its 
own princes till 92, when Domitian added it to 
the province : Abilene till 49 : Arethusa and 
Emesa till 78 : Damascus was not included in 
the province of Syria till 106. The province of 
Syria under the empire was governed by an 
imperial legate residing at Antioch : it was 
eventually divided into ten districts, named 
(mostly after their capital cities) Commagene, 
Cyrrhestice, Pieria, Seleucis, Chalcidice, Chaly- 
bonitis, Palmyrene, Apamene, Cassiotis, and 
Laodicene ; but the last is sometimes included 
under Cassiotis. (See the several articles.) 
Prom 66 a.d. Judaea or Syria Palaestina was 
recognised as a separate province, and at the 
end of the second century Syria was divided 
into two provinces, Syria Magna or Coelesyria, 
and Syria Phoenice. Constantine the Great 
separated the two N. districts — namely, Comma- 
gene and Cyrrhestice — and erected them into a 
distinct province, called Euphratensis or Eu- 
phratesia ; and the rest of Syria was afterwards 
divided by Theodosius II. into the two pro- 
vinces of Syria Prima, including the sea-coast 
and the country N. of Antioch, and having that 
city for its capital; and Syria Secunda, the 
district along the Orontes, with Apamea for its 



SYEIAE PORTAE 

capital : the E. districts no longer formed a 
part of Syria, but had fallen under the power 
of the Persians. 

Syriae Portae (at Svpiai iriKai : Pass of 
Beilan), a most important pass between Cilicia 
and Syria, lying between the shore of the Gulf 
of Issus on the W., and M. Amanus on the E. 
Xenophon, who called the pass (or rather its 
fortifications) the Gates of Cilicia and of 
Syria, describes it as three stadia in length 
and very narrow, with walls built from the 
mountains to the sea at both ends (the Cilician 
and the Syrian), and gates in the walls. These 
walls and gates are not mentioned by the his- 
torians of Alexander. (Xen. An. i. 4, 4 ; Arr. An. 

ii. 8 ; Strab. p. 676.) 

Syrianus (SvpiavSs), a Greek philosopher of 
the Neo-Platonic school, was a native of Alex- 
andria, and studied at Athens under Plutarchus, 
whom he succeeded as head of the Neo-Platonic 
school in the early part of the fifth century. 
The most distinguished of his disciples was 
Proclus, who regarded him with the greatest 
veneration, and gave directions that at his 
death he should be buried in the same tomb 
with Syrianus. Syrianus wrote several works, 
some of which are extant. Of these the most 
valuable are the commentaries on the Meta- 
physics of Aristotle. 

Syrinx, an Arcadian nymph, who being pur- 
sued by Pan, fled into the river Ladon, and at 
her own request was metamorphosed into a 
reed, of which Pan then made his flute. [Pan.] 

Syros, or Syrus (20pos, called Supir) by 
Homer, and 2i!pa by a few writers : 2i!pio$: 
Syra), an island in the Aegaean sea, and one of 
the Cyclades, lying between Rhenea and Cyth- 
nns. It was twenty Roman miles in circum- 
ference, and rich in pastures, wine, and corn. 
It contained two cities in Homer's time, but 
only one in Ptolemy's (Od. xv. 403-414 ; Ptol. 

iii. 15, 80; Strab. p. 487). The philosopher 
Pherecydes was a native of Syros. The fertility 
of Syros, praised by Homer, has disappeared, 
apparently since -the seventeenth century, and 
probably from the destruction of its trees. The 
present prosperity of the island is therefore 
entirely due to the circumstances which made 
it a centre of commerce since the liberation of 
Greece, and the capital of the Cyclades. The 
traces of two towns (confirming the account in 
the Odyssey) are to be seen near the modern 
Delle Grazie. It is conjectured that some time 
after the Homeric age these were abandoned 
for a new city built on the site of the modern 
Bermoupolis, where an inscription relating to 
a temple of Poseidon has been found. 

Syrtes, gen. -idos |2i!pTis, gen. -i5os and -ttus, 
Ion. -ioi), the Greek name for each of the two 
great gulfs in the E. half of the N. coast of 
Africa, is derived by ancient writers from trvpui, 
to draw, with reference to the quicksands by 
which, in the Greater Syrtis at least, ships were 
liable to be swallowed up; but the more prob- 
able derivation is from the Arabic Bert = a 
sandy desert, which is at the present day 
applied to the country along this coast, the 
Regio Syrtica of Hip ancients. Both these 
gulfs were proverbially dangerous: the Greater 
Syrtis from its sandbanks and quicksands, and 
its unbroken exposure to the N. winds; the 
Lesser from its shelving rocky shores, itH expo- 
sure to the NE. winds, and the consequent 
Variableness of the tides in it. 1. Syrtis Major 
(i) fuyiKr\ Uprts : Gulf ol Sidr» i, the K. of the 
two, m a wide and deej» gulf on the shores of 
Xrjpolita and Cyrcnaica, exactly opposite to (be 



SYRUS 



911 



Ionic sea, or mouth of the Adriatic, between 
Sicily and Peloponnesus. Its greatest extent 
inland from N. to S. is about 110 geographical 
miles ; from E. to W. about 230 geographical 
miles, between Cephalae Prom. (Mas Kharra) 
on the W., and Boreum Prom. (Bas Teyonas) 
on the E. The Great Desert comes down close 
to its shores, forming a sandy coast [Sykttca 
Regio]. — 2. Syrtis Minor (^ /xmpa Su'pns : Gulf 
of Gabes), lies in the SW. angle of the great 
bend formed by the N. coast of Africa as it 
drops down to the S. from the neighbourhood 
of Carthage, and then bears again to the E. : 
in other words, in the angle between the E. 
coast of Zeugitana and Byzacena (Tunis) and 
the N. coast of Tripolitana (Tripoli). Its 
mouth faces the E., between Caput Vada or 
Brachodes Prom. (Has Kapoudiah) on the N., 
and the island called Meninx or Lotophagitis 
(Jerbah) on the S. In its mouth, near the N. 
extremity, lie the islands of Cercina and Cer- 
cinitis, which were often regarded as its N. 
extremity. The true width (between Bas Ka- 
poudiah and the E. point of Jerbah) is about 
eighty geog. miles, and the greatest depth, mea- 
sured westward from the line joining those 
points, is about sixty-five geog. miles. (Strab. 
pp. 834, 835 ; Scyl. p. 48 ; Pol. i. 39, ii. 23.) 

Syrtica Regio (rj 2,vpriKrt : W. part of Tri- 
poli), the special name of that part of the N. 
coast of Africa which lay between the two 
Syrtes, from the river Triton, at the bottom of 
the Syrtis Minor, on the W., to the Philaenorum 
Arae, at the bottom of the Syrtis Major, on the 
E. it was for the most part a very narrow 
strip of sand, interspersed with salt marshes, 
between the sea and a range of mountains 
forming the edge of the Great Desert (Sahara), 
with here and there a few spots capable of 
cultivation, especially about the river Cinyps. 
It was peopled by Libyan tribes, the chief of 
whom were the Lotophagi, Macae, Psylli, and 
Nasamones ; and several Egyptian and Phoe- 
nician colonics were settled on the coast at an 
early period. The Greeks of Cyrene disputed 
with the Carthaginians the possession of this 
district until it was secured to Carthage by the 
self-devotion of the Philaeni. Under the Ro- 
mans it formed a part of the province of Africa. 
It was often called Tripolitana, from its three 
chief cities, Abrotonum, Oea, and Leptis 
Magna ; and this became its usual name under 
the later empire, and has been handed down to 
our own time in the modern name of the Re- 
gency of Tripoli. (Strab. p. 834 ; Hdt. iv. 198 ; 
Ov. Pont. iii. 7, 25.) 

Syrus, Publilius, a slave brought from 
Antioeh to Rome some years before the downfall 
of the republic, and designated, according to the 
usual practice, from the country of hi^ birth. 
He attracted attention while yet a youth, by 
his beauty and his wit, was manumitted by his 
master, who probably belonged to the Clodia 
gens, assumed the name of Publilius from his 
patron (sometimes incorrectly given as Publius), 
and soon became celebrated as a nomographer, 
about B.C. 46, and still more as an improvisa- 
tore. His mimic improvisations Were com- 
mitted to writing, and extensively circulated at 
an early period ; and a collection of pithy moral 
sayings extracted from his workB appears to 
have been used as a school-book in the boyhood 
of St. Jerome. A compilation of this descrip- 
tion, extending to upwards of 800 lines in 
iambic and trochaic measures, every apo- 
phthegm being comprised in a single line, and 
the whole ranged alphabeticully, according to tho 



912 



SYTHAS 



TACITUS 



initial letter of the first word in each, is now 
extant under the title Publii Syri Sententiae. 
These proverbs have been drawn from various 
sources, and are evidently the work of many 
different hands ; but a considerable number 
may be ascribed to Syrus and his contem- 
poraries. (Plin. xxxv. 199 ; Macrob. ii. 7, 6 ; 
Gell. xvii. 14 ; Sen. de Tranq. An. 11, 8 ; Cic. ad 
Fain. xii. 18 ; Hieron. ad Euseh. Chron. 1974). — 
The best edition of the Sententiae is by 
Wolfflin, Leips. 1869. ' 

Sythas (2u0as), a river on the frontiers of 
Achaia and Sicyonia (Paus. vii. 27, 12). 



T. 

Tabae (TctjSai : TajSrjvo's). 1. (Dawas), a city 
of Caria, on the borders of Phrygia (Strab. pp. 
570, 576 ; Liv. xxxviii. 13). — 2. (Tabbas), a city 
of Persis, in the district of Paraetacene, E. of 
Ecbatana. 

Tabernae. [Tees Tabehnae.] 

Tabuda. [Scaldis.] 

Taburnus (Taburno), a mountain belonging 
half to Campania and half to Samnium. Its 
S. side was very fertile, and was celebrated for 
its pastures and olive grounds (Verg. Georg. 

ii. 38, Aen. xii. 715). It shut in the Caudine 
pass on its S. side. 

Tacape (Tatcairrj : Gabes), a city of N. Africa, 
in the fiegio Syrtica, at the innermost angle of 
the Syrtis Minor, to which the modern town 
gives its present name. Under the Romans it at 
first belonged to Byzacene, but it was afterwards 
raised to a colony and made the W. town of 
Tripolitana. It had an indifferent harbour. 
A little to the W. was the bathing place (Plin. 
v. 30) called, from its warm mineral springs, 
Aquae Tacipitanae (El Hammat-el-Khabs) . 

Taofarinas, a Numidian in the reign of Ti- 
berius, had originally served among the auxili- 
ary troops in the Roman army, but he deserted ; 
and, having collected a body of freebooters, he 
became at length the acknowledged leader of 
the Musulamii, a powerful people in the interior 
of Numidia, bordering on Mauretania. For 
some years he defied the Roman arms, in spite 
of the successful campaign of Blaesus against 
him ; but he was at length defeated and slain 
in battle by Dolabella, a.d. 24. (Tac.^4?m. ii. 52, 

iii. 73, iv. 24.) 

Tachompso (Taxo/xipd, also Tacompsos, Plin., 
and MeTaKo^ci, Ptol.), aft. Contrapselcis, a 
city in the Dodecaschoenus (that is, the part of 
Aethiopia immediately above Egypt), built on 
an island (Derarl) near the E. bank of the 
river, a little above Pselcis, which stood on the 
opposite bank. [Pselcis.] 

Tachos (Tax&>s), king of Egypt, succeeded 
Acoris, and maintained the independence of 
his country for a short time towards the end 
of the reign of Artaxerxes II., B.C. 364-361. 
He invited Chabrias, the Athenian, to take the 
command of his fleet, and Agesilaus to under- 
take the supreme command of all his forces. 
Both Chabrias and Agesilaus came to Egypt ; 
but the latter was much aggrieved in having 
only the command of the mercenaries entrusted 
to him. Accordingly, when Nectanabis laid 
claim to the Egyptian crown, Agesilaus deserted 
Tachos, and espoused the cause of Nectanabis, 
who thus became king of Egypt, B.C. 361. (Diod. 
xv. 92 ; Nep. Chabr. 2 ; Xen. Ages. ii. 28 ; Plut. 
Ages. 36-40.) 

Tacitus. 1. Cornelius, the historian : 



whether his praenomen was C. or P. remains 
doubtful. The time and place of his birth are 
unknown. He was a little older than the 
younger Pliny, who was born a.d. 61. His 
father was probably Cornelius Tacitus, a Roman 
eques, who is mentioned as a procurator in 
Gallia Belgica, and who died in 79 (Plin. vii. 
76). Tacitus was first promoted by the em- 
peror Vespasian, and he received other favours 
from his sons, Titus and Domitian (Hist. i. 1). 
The most probable account is that Tacitus was 
appointed tribunus militum laticlavus by Ves- 
pasian, quaestor by Titus, and praetor by 
Domitian. In 78 he married the daughter of 
C. Julius Agricola, to whom he had been be- 
trothed in the preceding year, while Agricola 
was consul. In the reign of Domitian, and in 
88, Tacitus was praetor, and he assisted as one 
of the quindecimviri at the solemnity of the 
Ludi Seculares which were celebrated in that 
year (Ann. xi. 11). Agricola died at Rome in 
93, but neither Tacitus nor the daughter of 
Agricola was then with him. It is not known 
where Tacitus was during the last illness of 
Agricola, but he may have been, as some think, 
praetorian legate in Germany, or propraetor of 
Belgica. In the reign of Nerva, 97, Tacitus 
was appointed consul suffectus, in the place of 
T. Virginius Rufus, who had died in that year, 
and whose funeral oration he delivered. We 
know that Tacitus had attained oratorical dis- 
tinction when the younger Pliny was beginning 
his career. He and Tacitus were appointed 
in the reign of Trajan (99) to conduct the 
prosecution of Marius, proconsul of Africa. 
Tacitus and Pliny were most intimate friends. 
In the collection of the letters of Pliny, there 
are eleven letters addressed to Tacitus. The 
time of the death of Tacitus is unknown, but 
he appears to have survived Trajan, who died in 
117. Nothing is recorded of any children of his, 
though the emperor Tacitus claimed a descent 
from the historian, and ordered his works to be 
placed in all (public) libraries. As a historian 
Tacitus wrote undoubtedly with a bias from his 
i intense political sympathies with the senate of 
the older period as against the imperial consti- 
tution. His interest, too, was concentrated 
upon Italy somewhat to the exclusion of the 
provinces, which prevented him from allowing 
that the imperial rule was necessary for the 
provincial government. But for acuteness of 
thought, for insight into character, he is among 
the greatest of historians ; and for power of 
description in a few telling words he is un- 
rivalled. The following are the extant books of 
Tacitus in the order in which they were writ- 
ten : (1) Dialogus de Oratoribus an essay, to 
show the decay of oratory under the empire, 
written in the form of a dialogue, the speakers 
being literary men of Vespasian's reign, Curia- 
tius Maternus, M. Aper, Julius Secundus, and 
Vipstanus Messalla. This was written early in 
the life of Tacitus, when he was chiefly influ- 
enced in style by Cicero's rhetorical works. 
It is probable that the time when the dialogue 
was supposed to take place was A.p. 74 (Dial. 
17), when Tacitus was about twenty (cf. Dial. 
1), and that it was written and published about 
a.d. 84, at the period of Domitian's reign when 
freedom of speech was more possible (cf. Suet. 
Dom. 9). The difference in diction between 
this and his later works has caused many to 
deny that it is a genuine work of Tacitus, 
but there is no good ground for this denial. 
The date accounts for the style : in acuteness of 
| thought it is Taciteari, and there is no one else of 



TACITUS 



TAGUS 



S13 



this period who could have written it. It has 
been remarked, too, that a comparison of Plin. 
Ep. ix. 10, 2 with Tac. Vial. 12, shows that Pliny 
wrote to Tacitus as the author of the Dialogue 
(see also Plin. Ep. i. 6, 2 ; Tac. Dial. 9). Sepa- 
rate editions by Biihreus, Leips. 1881 ; Peterson, 
Oxford, 1893— (2) Vita Agr'icolae, the Life of 
Agricola, which was written, as we may prob- 
ably conclude from the introduction, after Tra- 
jan's accession, i.e. after 98. This Life is justly 
admired as a specimen of biography. It is a 
monument to the memory of a good man and 
an able commander and administrator, by an 
affectionate son-in-law, who has portrayed in 
his peculiar manner and with many masterly 
touches, the virtues of one of the most illus- 
trious of the Romans. It is written on the 
model of one of Sallust's monographs. Sepa- 
rate edition by Haverfield (announced), or with 
Germ, by Frost, Lond. 1861; Schoene, Berl. 
1889; Church and Brodripp, Lond. 1889. — (3) 
Germania, or De Moribus et Populis Ger- 
maniae, a treatise describing the Germanic 
nations, also written early in Trajan's reign. 
The main matter is the description of the 
political institutions, the religion, and the 
habits, of the various tribes included under the 
denomination of Germani, of which he had had 
in all probability personal means of judging from 
official employment in the country. Separate 
edition by Haverfield (announced). — (4) Histo- 
riae, which were written after the death of 
Nerva, 98, and before the Annales. They com- 
prehended the period from the second consulship 
of Galba, C8, to the death of Domitian, 96, and 
the author designed to add the reigns of Nerva 
and Trajan. The first four books alone are ex- 
tant in a complete form, and they comprehend 
only the events of about one year. Book v. is 
imperfect, and goes no further than the com- 
mencement of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, 
and the war of Civilis in Germany. It is not 
known how many books of the Histories there 
were, but it must have been a large work if it 
was all written on the same scale as the first 
five books, and probably consisted of twelve or 
fourteen books. Separate editions by Simcox, 
1876; A. Godley, 1887-1890.— (5) A nnales (of 
which the genuine title appears to be Ah ex- 
cessu divi Augusti, though Tacitus himself de- 
scribes it also as annales), which commence with 
the death of Augustus, 14, and comprise the 
period to the death of Nero, 08, a space of fifty- 
four years. The greater part of the fifth book 
is lost; and also the seventh, eighth, ninth, 
tenth, the beginning of the eleventh, and the 
end of the sixteenth, which is the last book. 
These lost parts comprised the whole of Cali- 
gula's reign, the first five years of Claudius, 
and the last two of Nero. Separate editions by 
Orelli-Baiter, Zur. 1859 ; Furneaux, Oxf. 1884 ; 
Allen, Boston, 1890. Editions of the complete 
works with a commentary by Orelli, revised 
by different editors, 1859-1880 ; of the text by 
C. Halra, Leips. 1884. Translation by Church 
and Brodripp. — 2. M. Claudius, Roman em- 
peror from the 25th of September, a.d. 275, 
until April, a.d. 270. He was elected emperor 
by the senate after the death of Aurclian, the 
army having requested the senate to nominate 
a successor to the imperial throne. Tacitus 
was at the time seventy years of age, and was 
with difficulty persuaded to accept the purple. 
The high character which he had borne before 
his elevation to the throne he amply sustained 
during his brief reign. !!<• endeavoured to 
repress the luxury and licentiousness of the 



age by various sumptuary laws, and he himself 

j set an example to all around, by the abstemi- 
ousness, simplicity, and frugality of his own 
habits. The only military achievement of thi3 
reign was the defeat and expulsion from Asia. 

I Minor of a party of Goths, who had carried 
their devastation across the peninsula to the 
confines of Cilicia. He died either at Tarsus 
or at Tyana, about the 9th of April, 276. (Life 
in the Script. Hist. August. ; Eutrop. ix. 10 ; 
Aurel. Vic. Caes. xxxvi. ; Zonar. xii. 28.) 

Taenarum (Taivapou : C. Hatapa n), a pro- 
montory in Laconica, forming the southerly 
point of the Peloponnesus, on which stood a 
celebrated temple of Poseidon, possessing an 
inviolable asylum. A little to the N. of the 
temple and the harbour of Achilleus was a town 

j also called Taenarum or Taenarus, and at a 
later time Caenepolis. It was situated forty 

I stadia from the extreme point of the promon- 
tory, and was said to have been built by Tae- 
narus, a son of Zeus, or Iearius or filatus. 
On this promontory was a cave, one of the 
supposed entrances to the underworld (probably 
so considered because of the stern and gloomy 
character of its rocks), through which Heracles 
is said to have dragged Cerberus to the upper 
world. Here also was a statue of Arion seated 

j on a dolphin, since he is said to have landed 
at this spot after his miraculous preservation 

I by a dolphin. (Hdt. i. 23 ; Thuc. i. 128, 133 ; 
Pind. Pyth. iv. 77; Paus. iii. 25, 4; Strab. p. 
303 ; Verg. Georg. iv. 467.) In the time of the 
Romans there were celebrated marble quarries 
on the promontory (Strab. p. 367). 

Tagae (Tiryat: Dameghan'!), a city men- 
tioned by Polybius as in Parthia, on the border 
towards Hyrcania (Pol. x. 29, 3). 

Tagaste " {Tagilt, Ru.),an inland town of Nu- 
midia, on a tributary of the Bagradas, remark- 
able as the birthplace of St. Augustine. 

Tages, a mysterious Etruscan being, who is 
described as a boy with the wisdom of an old 

j man. Once when an Etruscan, of the name of 
Tarchon, was ploughing in the neighbourhood 
of Tarquinii, there suddenly rose out of the 

j ground Tages, the son of a Genius Jovialis, and 
grandson of Jupiter. When Tages addressed 

I Tarchon, the latter shrieked from fear, where- 
upon other Etruscans hastened to him, and in 
a short time all the people of Etruria were 

j assembled around him. Tages now instructed 

I them in the art of the haruspices, and died 
immediately after. The Etruscans, who had 
listened attentively to his instructions, after- 
wards wrote down all he had said, and thus 
arose the books of Tages, which, according to 
some, were twelve in number. (Cic. Div. ii. 23, 
50; Ov. Met. xv. 588; Fest. s. v. Tages.) 
Traces of a later version of these books of ri tual 
have been found in Serv. ad Aen. i. 42, and in 
Amm. Marc. xvii. 10, 2. It is still a matter of 
uncertainty whether the recently discovered 
Etruscan book will throw further light on the 
subject. 

Tagus (Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tejo, 
English Tagus), one of the chief rivers in 
Spain, rising in the land of the Celtiberians, 
between the mountains Orospeda and Idubcdu, 
and, niter flowing in a westerly direction, falling 
into tli.' Atlantic. The whole course ol' the 
Tagus exceeds 660 English miles. At its 
| mouth stood Olisippo {Lisbon). The ancient 
writers relate that much gold sand and precious 
stone were found in the Tagus. (Strab. pp. 130, 
152, 162 ; Plin. iv. 116 ; Mart. z. 78 ; Catull. 
xx. »0; Ov. Met. ii. 251.) 

3 N 



914 TALABRTGA 

Talabrlga, a town in Lusitania, between 
Aeminium and Lagobriga (Plin. iv. 113). 

Talassio or Talassius (sometimes written 
Talasius or Thalassius), an old Italian, prob- 
ably Sabine, deity invoked in the Indigitamenta 
[Indigetes] as a god presiding over marriage. 
During the bridal procession in the songs 
which attended it there were cries of ' Talasse,' 
as if calling for his presence [Diet, of Ant. art. 
Matrimonium]. Various explanations^ were 
given. Varro connected his name with rdXapos, 
a wool-basket, as symbolising household work 
(Plut. Q. B. 31). A legend was invented to 
account for the custom : that Talassus or Talus 
was a companion of Romulus in the rape of the 
Sabines. Some modern writers have connected 
him with Consus, from the theory that his 
name = 8a\d(r<Ttos. But he was clearly Latin, 
not Greek, and there is no reason to doubt that 
he was one of the Sabine Indigetes. 

Ta.la.us (TaAaos), son of Bias and Pero, and 
king of Argos. He was married to Lysimache 
(Eurynome, or Lysianassa), and was father of 
Adrastus, Parthenopaeus, Pronax, Mecisteus, 
Aristomachus, and Eriphyle. (Paus. ii. 6, 3 ; 
Apollod. i. 9, 13 ; Pind. Nem. ix. 14.) His name 
occurs among the Argonauts, and his tomb was 
shown at Argos. The patronymic T ala'ionides 
(TaAaiov'iSris) is given to his sons Adrastus and 
Mecisteus. (II. ii. 566, xxiii. 67 ; Pind. 01. vi. 24.) 

Talmis (El-Kalabsheh, Ru.j, a city of the 
Dodecaschoenus — that is, the district of Aethio- 
pia immediately above Egypt — stood on the W. 
bank of the Nile, S. of Philae, and N. of 
Pselcis. Its ruins consist of an ancient rock- 
hewn temple, with splendid sculptures, and of 
a later temple of the Roman period, in the 
midst of which stands the modern village. 
There was a place on the opposite bank called 
Contra-Talmis. 

Talna, Juventius. [Thalna.] 

Talos (TaAcos). 1. Son of Perdix, the sister 
of Daedalus. He is one of those mythical 
persons to whom were ascribed various inven- 
tions or primitive works of art, of which the origin 
was unknown. Talos is said to have invented 
the saw, from observing the teeth of a serpent, 
or (in some accounts) the backbone of a fish. 
He was credited also with the invention of the 
chisel, the compasses, and the potter's wheel. 
Daedalus was, jealous of his skill and threw 
him down from the Acropolis. The place 
where he fell was marked by a tomb, which 
Pausanias visited, on the S. side of the Acro- 
polis just above the Theatre. Some writers 
confused Talos and Perdix. (Paus. i. 21, 4 ; 
Diod. iv. 76; Apollod. hi. 15, 9; Ov. Met. viii. 
241 ; Perdix.) — 2. A man of brass, the work of 
Hephaestus. This wonderful being was given 
to Minos by Zeus or Hephaestus, and watched 
the island of Crete by walking round the island 
thrice every day. Whenever he saw strangers 
approaching, he made himself red hot in fire, 
and then embraced the strangers when they 
landed. In the Argonaut story Talos receives 
the voyagers with a shower of stones. He 
had a vein running down to his foot, where the 
flow of blood was stopped by a nail : Medea 
made this nail fall out by her magic (or, as 
some said, Poeas shot it out with an arrow) and 
Talos Med to death. (Apollod. i. 9, 26 ; Ap. Rh. 
iv. 1638; Zenob. v. 85; [Plat.] Min. p. 320; 
Schol. ad Plat. Bep. p. 425). It will be ob- 
served that the story of Talos burning strangers 
by his embrace may well have arisen from an 
image of Moloch and human sacrifices offered 
to it, 



TAMYRAS 

Talthybius (TaA6v&ios), the herald of Aga- 
memnon at Troy. He was worshipped as a 
hero at Sparta and Argos, where sacrifices also 
were offered to him. 

Tamara. 1. Or Tamaris (Tambre), a small 
river in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the coast 
of Gallaecia, falling into the Atlantic between 
the Minius and the Prom. Nerium (Ptol. ii. 6, 2). 
— 2. (Tamerton, near Plymouth), a town of the 
Damnonii in the S. of Britain, at the mouth of 
the Tamarus (Ptol. ii. 3, 30). 

Tamarici, a people in Gallaecia, on the river 
Tamara. 

Tamaris. [Tamara.] 

Tamarus (Tamar), a river in the S. of Bri- 
tain (Ptol. ii. 3, 4). 

Tamassus or Tarnasus (TaficurcrSs, Tdp.a<ros : 
Tafxacr'iTris, Ta/j.d(rios), probably the same as 
the Homeric Temese (Od. i. 184), a town in the 
middle of Cyprus, NW. of Olympus, and 
twenty-nine miles SE. of Soloe, on the road 
from the latter place to Tremithus, was situated 
in a fertile country and in the neighbourhood 
of extensive copper mines. Near it was a cele- 
brated plain (ager Tamaseus), sacred to Venus. 
(Ov. Met. x. 644 ; Ptol. v. 14, 6.) The site is 
marked by ruins in the district called Tamasia. 

Tambrax (TdpfSpa^), a great city of Hyrca- 
nia, on the N. side of Mt. Coronus, mentioned 
by Polybius (x. 31). It is perhaps the same 
place which Strabo called TaAafipOKr) (p. 508). 

Tamesis or Tamesa (Thames), a river in 
Britain flowing into the sea on the E. coast, on 
which stood Londinium (Caes. B. G. v. 11 ; 
Tac. Ann. xiv. 32). 

Tamna or Thomna (Tdfxva), a city in the SW. 
of Arabia Felix, the capital of the Catabani. 
It maintained a caravan traffic in spices and 
other products of Arabia with Gaza (Strab. p. 
768 ; Plin. vi. 153, xii. 64). 

Tamos (Tafxtis), a native of Memphis in 
Egypt, was lieutenant-governor of Ionia under 
Tissaphernes (Thuc. viii. 31, 87). He after- 
wards attached himself to the service of the 
younger Cyrus, upon whose death, he sailed to 
Egypt, where he hoped to find refuge with 
Psammetichus, on whom he had conferred an 
obligation. Psammetichus, however, put him 
to death, in order to possess himself of his 
money and ships. (Xen. An. i. 2, 21, ii. 1, 3 
Hell.'ul 1, 1; Diod. xiv. 19, 35.) 

TampMlus or Tampilus, Baebius. 1. Cn., 
tribune of the plebs, B.C. 204 ; praetor 199, 
when he was defeated by the Insubrians ; and 
consul 182, when he fought against the Ligu- 
rians with success (Liv. xxix. 37, xxxix. 23, xl. 
25). — 2. M., brother of the last, was praetor 
192, and served in Greece both in this year and 
the following, in the war against Antiochus. 
In 181 he was consul, when he defeated the 
Ligurians (Liv. xl. 35-38). 

Tamynae (Tafxivai: Aliveri), a town in 
Euboea, on Mt, Cotylaeum, in the territory of 
Eretria, with a temple of Apollo, said to have 
been built by Admetus. Here the Athenians 
under Pbocion gained a celebrated victory over 
Callias of Chalcis, B.C. 354. (Hdt. vi. 101 ; Plut. 
Phoc. 12 ; Strab. p. 447.) 

Tamyraca, a town and promontory of Euro- 
pean Sarmatia at the innermost corner of the 
Sinus Carcinites, which was also called from 
this town Sinus Tamyraces (Ptol. iii. 5, 8). 

Tamyras or Damuras (Tanvpas, Aa/xovpas : 
Damur), a little river of Phoenicia, rising on 
Bit. Libanus, and falling into the Mediterranean 
about half way between Sidon and Berytus 
(Strab. p. 756; Pol. v. 68). 



TANAGER 

Tanager (Tanagro), a river of Lucania, 
rising in a north-easterly direction, loses itself 
under the earth near Polla for a space of about 
two miles, emerging from a cleft called La 
Pertusa, and finally falls into the Silarus near 
Forum Popilii. This disappearance is alluded 
to in the epithet siccus (Verg. Georg. iii. 151 ; 
cf. Plin. ii. 225). 

Tanagra (Tavaypa: "Tavaypaios: Grimadha), 
a celebrated town of Boeotia, situated on a 
steep ascent on the left bank of the Asopus, 
130 stadia from Oropus, and 200 stadia from 
Plataeae, in the district Tanagraea, which was 
also called Poemandris (Strab. p. 404 ; Steph. 
Byz. s. v.). Tanagra was by some supposed to 
be "the same town as the Homeric Graea (II. 
ii. 498 ; Lycophr. 644) ; but others identified 
that town with Oropus. The most ancient 
inhabitants are said to have been the Gephy- 
raei, who came with Cadmus from Phoenicia ; 
but it was afterwards taken possession of by 
the Aeolian Boeotians (Hdt. v. 57). It was a 
place of considerable commercial importance, 
and was celebrated, among other things, for its 
breed of fighting cocks. At a later time it 
belonged to the Boeotian confederacy. Being 
near the frontiers of Attica, it was frequently 
exposed to the attacks of the Athenians ; and 
near it the Athenians sustained a great defeat, 
B.C. 457. (Thuc. i. 108 ; Diod. xi. 81.) The 
principal temple at Tanagra was that of 
Dionysus : near it were those of Themis, Aphro- 
dite, Hermes Criophorus, and Hermes Proma- 
chus, which last stood near the theatre (Paus. 
ix. 20). The excavations on the site of Tanagra 
have shown the circuit of walls, and the jjosi- 
tion of more than forty towers, of three gates, 
and of the theatre. But far more important 
was the discovery, in 1878, of the Necropolis from 
which come the numerous terracotta statuettes, 
or ' figurines,' with which the name of Tanagra 
is now chiefly associated [see Diet, of Ant. art. 
Terracotta]. 

Tanais (Tdvais). 1. (Don, i.e. Water), a 
great river, which rises in the N. of Surmatia 
Europaea (about the centre of Itussia), and 
flows to the SE. till it comes near the Volga, 
when it turns to the SW. and falls into the NE. 
angle of the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azov) by 
two principal mouths and several smaller ones. 
It was usually considered the boundary between 
Europe and Asia. The ancients regarded its 
source as doubtful : some even fancied that it 
rose in the W. near the Danube : others in the 
E. near the Caucasus. Strabo rejects these 
theories and correctly makes it flow from the 
N. into the P. Maeotis (Strab. p. 493 ; cf. Hdt. 
iv. 88). Pytheas seems to have mistaken the 
Elbe for a part of the Tanais (Strab. p. 104) ; 
but that is hardly more strange than the belief 
of the Macedonians that the Jaxartes was the 
Tanais (Strab. p. 510; Arr. An. iii. 30, 11).— 2. 
(Ru. near Kassatchei), a city of Sarmatia 
Asiatica, on the N. side of the S. mouth of the 
Tanais, at a little distance from the sea. It 
was founded by a colony from Miletus, and 
became a very flourishing emporium. It re- 
duced to subjection several of the neighbour- 
ing tribes, but in its turn it became subject 
to the kings of Bosporus. It was destroyed 
by Polemon on account of an attempted revolt, 
and, though afterwards restored, it never re- 
gained its former prosperity. (Ptol. iii. 5, 20; 
Strnb. p. 493.) 

Tanaquil. [Tarquinius.] 

Tanarus (Tanaroi, a. river of Liguria, which 
rises in the Maritime Alps, is joined by the 



TANTALUS 



915 



Stura, and flows into the Po a little below 
Valenza (Forum Fulvii). It passes the walls 
of Asti (Plin. iii. 118). 

Tanetum (Tanetanus ; Taneto), a town of 
the Boii in Gallia Cispadana, between Mutina 
and Parma (Pol. iii. 40 ; Liv. xxi. 25). 

Tanis (Td^is: O. T. Zoan: TWttjs: San, 
Ru.), a very ancient city of Lower Egypt, in the 
E. part of the Delta, on the right bank of the 
arm of the Nile which was called after it the 
Tanitic, and on the SW. side of the great lake 
between this and the Pelusiac branch of the 
Nile, which was also called, after the city, 
Tanis [Lake of Menzaleh). It was one of the 
capitals of Lower Egypt in early times, fortified 
by the kings of the twelfth and thirteenth 
dynasties, who raised great buildings there 
(about B.C. 2400). 

Tantalus (Tovto\oi). 1. Son of Zeus and 
Pluto, daughter of Himantes (Paus. ii. 22, 3 ; Hyg. 
Fab. 155i. Hiswifeis calledby someEuryanassa, 
by others Taygete or Dione, and by others 
Clytia or Eupryto. He was the father of 
Pelops, Broteas and Niobe. Tantalus is repre- 
sented as a wealthy king of Lydia, especially of 
the region about the Hermus and Mt. Sipylus. 
He is selected by poets as the type of extreme 
prosperity followed by a sudden and fearful 
downfall. The causes of his punishment after 
death are differently stated by the ancient 
authors. According to the common account 
Zeus invited him to his table, and conununi- 
cated his divine counsels to him. Tantalus 
divulged the 6ecrets thus intrusted to him; 
and he was punished in the lower world by 
being afflicted with a raging thirst, and at the 
same time placed in the midst of a lake, the 
waters of which always receded from him as 
soon as he attempted to drink them. Over his 
head, moreover, hung branches of fruit, which 
receded in like manner when he stretched out 
his hand to reach them. (Od. iv. 77 ; Diod. iv. 
74; Hyg. Fab. 82; Hor. Sat. i. 1, 68 ; Ov. Met. 
iv. 457.1 Another version related that there 
was suspended over his head a huge rock ever 
threatening to crush him (Pind. 01. i. 56, 
Istfvm. vii. 20; Eur. Or. 5; Cic. Fin. i. 18, (iO, 
Tusc. iv. 16, 85). In another story Tantalus, 
wishing to test the gods, cut his son Pelops in 
pieces, boiled them and set them before the 
gods at a repast [PelopsJ. In another, Tanta- 
lus stole nectar and ambrosia from the table of 
the gods and gave them to his friends (Pind. 
Ol. i. 60). Yet another tradition relates the 
following story. Rhea caused the infant Zeus 
and his nurse to be guarded in Crete by a 
golden dog, whom Zeus afterwards appointed 
guardian of his temple in Crete. Pandareus 
Btole this dog, and, carrying him to Mount 
Sipylus in Lydia, gave him to Tantalus to take 
care of. But when Pandareus demanded the 
dog back, Tantalus took an oath that he had 
never received it. Zeus thereupon changed 
Pandareus into a stone, and threw Tantalus 
down from Mount Sipylus, or, in some accounts, 
buried him under the mountain (Ant. Lib. 
86). This story seems to have more connexion 
with the punishment (as in Pindar) of the stono 
ever about to fall upon him. The other punish- 
ment of Tantulus was proverbial in ancient 
times, and from it the English language has 
borrowed the verb ' to tantalize ' — that is, to 
hold out hopes or prospects which cannot bo 
realised. The paintings of Polygnotus at 
Delphi represented both traditions of his 
punishment in Hades (Paus. x. 31, 12). The 
tomb of Tantulus was shown near Mt. Sipylus. 

8 N 2 



916 



TANUS 



TARENTUM 



The patronymic Tantalides is frequently 
given to the descendants of Tantalus. Hence 
we find, not only his son Pelops, but also 
Atreus, Tliyestes, Agamemnon, Menelaus, and 
Orestes called by his name. [For the confirma- 
tion derived from archaeology of those tradi- 
tions which ascribe a Lydian origin to the 
Pelopidae who reigned at Tiryns and Mycenae 
see Pelops, p. 669, b ; Mycenae.] — 2. Son of 
Thyestes, who was killed by Atreus. Others 
call him a son of Broteas. He was married to 
Clytaemnestra before Agamemnon, and is said 
by some to have been killed by Agamemnon 
(Ov. Met. vi. 240; Apollod. iii. 5, 6).— 3. Son 
of Amphion and Niobe (Paus. ii. 18, 2; Hyg. 
Fab. 88). 

Tanus or Tanaus (Tdvos or Ta.va.6s : Karri),* 
river in the district of Thyreatis, on the E. 
coast of Peloponessus, rising in Mt. Parnon, 
and falling into the Thyreatic gulf, after form- 
ing the boundary between Argolis and Cynuria 
(Paus. ii. 38, 7). 

Taoce (Ta<S/c?]), a city on the coast of Persia, 
near the mouth of the river Granis, used 
occasionally as a royal residence. The sur- 
rounding district was called Tao/crjeij. (Strab. 
p. 728 ; Arr. Ind. 39.) 

Taochi (Tdoxoi), a people of Pontus, on the 
borders of Armenia, who are frequently men- 
tioned by Xenophon in the Anabasis (iv. 4, 18, 
v. 15, 17). 

TapMae Insulae, a number of small islands 
in the Ionian sea, lying between the coasts of 
Leucadia and Acarnania. They were also called 
the islands of the Teleboae, and their inhabi- 
tants were in like manner named TapMi 
,(Td<piOL) or Teleboae (TriXefS6ai). The largest 
of these islands was called Taphus (Tdcpos) by 
Homer, but Taphius (Tatpiovs) or Taphiusa 
(Ta<piovira) by later writers (now Megarisi). 
They are mentioned in Homer as the haunts 
of notorious pirates, and are celebrated in 
mythology on account of the war carried on 
between them and Electryon, king of Mycenae. 
(Od. i. 417, xv. 427, xvi. 426 ; Hdt. v. 59 ; Strab. 
p. 459.) 

Taphiassus (Tacpiavcrds : Macrivoro and Bi- 
gani), a mountain in Aetolia and Locris, 
properly only a S.W. continuation of Mts. 
Oeta and Corax. [Oeta.] 

Taphis (Tapa, Eu.), a city of the Dodeca- 
schoenus — that is, the district of Aethiopia 
immediately above Egypt — stood on the W. 
bank of the Nile, S. of Tzitzis, and N. of Talmis. 
It is also called Tadis and Tarn's. There was a 
town on the opposite bank called Contra- Taphis. 
(Ptol. iv. 4, 17.) 

Taphrae or Taphros (Td<ppai or Td<ppos; 
Tdcppios), a town on the isthmus of the Cherso- 
nesus Taurica, so called because a trench or 
ditch was cut across the isthmus at this point 
(Hdt. iv. 3 ; Plin. iv. 85). 

Taphus. [Taphiae.] 

Taposiris (TawSaeipis, Tawoffipis, Tacpdaipis, 
i.e. the tomb of Osiris : Abousir, Ru.), a city of 
Lower Egypt, on the NW. frontier, in the 
Libya Nomos, W. of Alexandria, so called be- 
cause it claimed to be considered the burial- 
place of Osiris (Strab. p. 799 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 34). — 
Mention is also made of a Lesser Taposiris 
(?) /jiLKpa. Tamdaeipis) near it (Strab. p. 800). 

Taprobane (Tairpofidvri : Ceylon), a great 
island of the Indian Ocean, opposite to the S. 
extremity cf India intra Gangem. The Greeks 
first became acquainted with it through the 
researches of Megasthenes and Onesicritus in 
the time of Alexander, and through information 



obtained by residents in India. This early 
information spoke of its elephants, its gold and 
precious stones, but greatly exaggerated its 
distance from India. The Roman geogra- 
phers acquired additional knowledge respect- 
ing the island through an embassy which was 
sent from it to Rome in the reign of Claudius. 
Of the accounts given of it by the ancients it is 
only necessary here to state that all agree in 
describing it as very much larger than it really 
is. Ptolemy, who gives a great deal of correct 
information about the island, also exaggerates 
its size. (Strab. p. 690 ; Ptol. vii. 4 ; Plin. vi. 81 ; 
Met. iii. 77 ; Ovt Pont. i. 5, 80.) 

Tapuri (TdVoupoi or Tawovpol), a powerful 
people, apparently of Scythian origin, who 
dwelt in Media, on the borders of Parthia, S. of 
M. Coronus. They also extended into Mar- 
giana, and probably further N. on theE. side of 
the Caspian, where their original abodes seem 
to have been in the mountains called by their 
names. (Strab. pp. 514, 520, 523 ; Ptol. vi. 10, 2 ; 
Curt. vi. 4, 24.) 

Tapuri Montes {to. Tdirovpa. opt)), a range of 
mountains on the E. of the Caspian sea, in- 
habited by the Taptjbi. 

Taras. [Tabentum.] 

Tarbelli, one of the most important people 
in Gallia Aquitanica, between the Ocean (hence 
called Tarbellicum Aequo?- and Tarbellus 
Oceanus) and the Pyrenees (hence called 
Tarbella Pyrene). Their country was sandy 
and unproductive, but contained gold and. 
mineral springs. Their chief town was Aquae 
Tarbellicae or Augustae, on the Aturus (Dax 
on the Adour). (Caes. B. G. iii. 27 ; Strab. 
p. 190 ; Lucan, i. 421.) 

Tarchon, son of Tyrrhenus, who is said to 
have built the town of Tarquinii. [Tabquinii.] 

Tarentinus Sinus (Tapevrwos k6\ttos : (?. of 
Tarentum), a great gulf in the S. of Italy, 
between Bruttium, Lueania, and Calabria, 
beginning W. near the Prom. Lacinium, and 
ending E. near the Prom. Iapygium, and 
named after the town of Tarentum. According 
to Strabo, it is 1920 stadia in circuit, and the 
entrance to it is 700 stadia wide, which is a 
fair approximation. (Strab. pp. 261, 262.) 

Tarentum, called Taras by the Greeks 
(Tdpas, -avros: Tapzvrwos, Tarentinus: Ta- 
ranto), an important Greek city in Italy, 
situated on the W. coast of the peninsula of 
Calabria, and on a bay of the sea about 100 
stadia in circuit, forming an excellent harbour,, 
and being a portion of the great Gulf of Taren- 
tum. The city stood in the midst of a beautiful 
and fertile country, S. of Mt. Aulon and W. of 
the mouth of the Galaesus. According to some 
traditions, to which no great xveight is attached, 
it was originally built by the Iapygians, who 
are said to have been joined by some Cretan 
colonists from the neighbouring town of Uria, 
and it derived its name from the mythical 
Taras, a son of Poseidon (Paus. x. 10, 6). The 
greatness of Tarentum (and probably its real 
origin) date from b.c. 708, when the town was 
built or taken possession of by a strong body of 
Lacedaemonian Partheniae under the guidance 
of Phalanthus [Phalanthus]. It soon became 
the most powerful and flourishing city in the 
whole of Magna Graecia, and exercised a kind 
of supremacy over the other Greek cities in 
Italy. It carried on an extensive commerce, 
possessed a considerable fleet of ships of war, 
and was able to bring into the field, with the 
assistance of its allies, an army of 30,000 foot and 
3000 horse. The city itself in its most flourish- 



TARENTUM 

ing period contained 22,000 men capable of 
bearing arms. The government of Tarentum 
was different at various periods. In the time 
of Darius Hystapis, Herodotus speaks of a king 
(i.e. a tyrant) of Tarentum; but at a later 
period the government was a democracy. Archy- 
tas, who was born at Tarentum, and who lived 
about B.C. 400, drew up a code of laws for his 
native city. "With the increase of wealth the 
citizens became luxurious and effeminate, and 
being hard pressed by the Lucanians and other 
barbarians in the neighbourhood, they were 
obliged to apply for aid to the mother-country. 
Archidamus, son of Agesilaus, was the first 
who came to their assistance, in b.c. 338 ; and 
he fell in battle fighting on their behalf (Diod. 
xvi. 83, 88). The next prince whom they in- 
vited to succour them was Alexander, king of 
Epirus, and uncle to Alexander the Great. At 
first he met with considerable success, but was 
eventually defeated and slain by the Bruttii in 
326 near Pandosia on the banks of the Acheron. 
Shortly afterwards the Tarentines had to en- 
counter a still more formidable enemy. Having 
attacked some Roman ships, and then grossly 
insulted the Roman ambassadors who had been 
sent to demand reparation, they became in- 
volved in war with the powerful republic. The 
Tarentines were saved for a time by Pyrrhus, 




Coin of Tarentum. 3rd cent. B.C. 
06c, bead of Heracles, in lion-skin: tvc. KIKA TAPAN'- 
T1NQN* : TaraB. with trident, driving a biga. 

king of Epirus, who came to their help in 281 : 
but two years after the defeat of this monarch 
and his withdrawal from Italy, the city was 
taken by the Romans (272). "[Pvkrhus.] In 
the second Punic war Tarentum revolted from 
Rome to Hannibal (212) ; but it was retaken 
by the Romans in 207, and was treated by 
them with great severity. From this time 
Tarentum declined in prosperity and wealth. 
It was subsequently made a Roman colony, 
and it still continued to be a place of consider- 
able importance in the time of Augustus. (App. 
B.C. ii. 40, v. 93 ; Tac. Ann. i. 10.) Its inhabi- 
tants retained their love of luxury and ease, 
and it is described by Horace as molle Taren- 
tum and imbelle Tarentum. Even after the 
downfall of the Western Empire the Greek 
language was still spoken at Tarentum ; and it 
was long one of the chief strongholds of the By- 
zantine empire in the south of Italy. The town 
of Tarentum consisted of two parts : the town on 
the peninsula at the entrance of the harbour was 
connected with the town on the mainland by a 
very low isthmus. On the NW. corner of the 
peninsula, close to the entrance of the harbour, 
was the citadel ; the principal part of the town 
was situated SW. of the isthmus. The prin- 
cipal gate on the E. side of the city was called 
the Temenid gate. (Strab. p. 278 ; Pol. viii. 80.) 
The entrance to the inner harbour was closed 
by a bridge. The modern town is confined to 
the island or peninsula on which the citadel 
stood. The neighbourhood of Tarentum pro- 
duced the best wool in all Italy, and was also 
celebrated for its excellent wine, figs, pears, 
and other fruits. Its purple dye was also much 



TARQTJESm 917 

j valued in antiquitv. I Pol. x. 1; Flor. i. 18, 3; 

[ Strab. p. 278 ; Scymn. p. 332.) Some part of 
the district close to Tarentum was called 
Saturium (Strab. p. 279; Steph. Byz. s.v. 

j "Zarvpiov). Hence Virgil applies this word as 

| an epithet of Tarentum, and Horace uses it to 

; describe the Tarentine breed of horses fVerg. 

; Georg. ii. 197 ; Hor. i. 6, 59). [Satubiom.] 
The remains of the ancient town are important 
in archaeology. The line of walls is visible in 
many places, built of large blocks ; there are 
remains of a Doric temple within the ancient 
acropolis, of a porticus and of a Roman amphi- 

, theatre, which stood on the neck of the isthmus, 
probably on the site of the old theatre, famous 
for the outbreak of hostilities with Rome. Of 
special interest is the rich find of terracotta 

, statuettes, many of them connected with the 
worship of the Chthonic Dionysus and Perse- 
phone. 

Tarichea or -eae (Tapi'xeict, -ecu, -cucu : El- 
Eereh, Ru.l, a town of Galilee, at the S. end of 
the lake of Tiberias, strongly fortified, and with 

! a turbulent population, who gave the Romans 
much trouble during the Jewish war. It 
obtained its name from the quantities of the 
fish of the neighbouring lakes which were 
salted here. (Strab. p. 764 ; Jos. B.J. iii. 10. L) 
Tarne [Tdprt]), a city of Lydia, on SL Tmolus, 
mentioned by Homer. Pliny mentions simply 
a fountain of the name. (II. v. 44 ; Strab. p. 

I 413; Plin. v. 110. 1 

Tarpa, Sp. Maecius, was engaged by Pom- 

i peius to select the plays that were acted at his 

; games exhibited in B.C. 55. Tarpa was likewise 
employed by Augustus as a censor {perhaps as 

| Magister Collegiii at the public readings of the 

' poets in the Collegium Poetarum. (Cic. ad 

< Fam. vii. 1 ; Hor. Sat. i. 10, 38, A.P. 287.) 
Tarpeia, daughter of Sp. Tarpeius, the go- 

I vernor of the Roman citadel on the Saturnian 
hill, afterwards called the Capitoline, was 
tempted by the gold on the Sabine bracelets 
and collars to open a gate of the fortress to T. 
Tatius and his Sabines. As they entered, they 
threw upon her their shields, and thus crushed 
her to death. She was buried on the hill, and 
her memory was preserved by the name of the 

j Tarpeian rock, which was given to a part of the 
Capitoline (Liv. i. 11). Dionysius (ii. 40) speaks 

I of a custom of offering annual libations to her, 
which suggests the probability that Tarpeia 

1 was originally some local deity worshipped at 
that spot from whom the Tarpeian rock was 
named, but whose identity had been obscured 
and confused in later stories. There are similar 
stories of the betrayal of a fortress and its 
punishment in other places. One very like it is 
still told on the site of Gergoviain Auvergne. A 
legend still exists at Rome which relates that 
the fair Tarpeia ever sits in the heart of the 
hill, covered with gold and jewels, and bound 
by a spell. 

Tarphe iTdtxpr) . a town in Locris on Mt. 
Oeta, mentioned by Homer, and subsequently 
I called Pharygae {A ii. 533; Strab. p. 426). 

Tarquiriia. [TiBQDZMZOS.1 

Tarquinii iTarquiniensis : Turchina, nr. Cor- 
neto), a city of Etruria, situated on a hill und 
on the river Marta, SE. of Cosa and on a road 
I leading from the latter town to Rome. It was 
one of the twelve Etruscan cities, and was prob- 
ably regarded as the metropolis of the Con- 
federation. It is said to have been founded by 
Tarchon, the son or brother of Tyrrhenus, who 
was the leader of the Lydian colony from Asia 
to Italy (Strab. p. 219 ; Serv. ad Acn. x. 179, 



918 TARQI 
198). It was in the neighbourhood of Tarquinii 
that the seer Tages appeared, from whom the 
Etruscans learnt their civil and religious polity. 
[Tages.] There can be no doubt that Tarquinii 
■was an original Etruscan city, and that Tarchon 
is merely a personification of the race of the 
Tyrrhenians. It was at Tarquinii that Demara- 
tus, the father of Tarquinius Priscus, is said to 
have settled. After the expulsion of Tarquinius 
Superbus from Rome, the Tarquinienses, in 
conjunction with the Veientes, are said to have 
espoused his cause, but to have been defeated 
by the Romans (Liv. ii. 6 ; Dionys. v. 14). 
From this time the Ta.rquinienses were fre- 
quently engaged in war with the Romans ; but 
they were at length obliged to submit to Rome 
about B.C. 310 (Liv. ix. 32-41). Tarquinii was 
subsequently made a Roman colony and a 
municipium (App. B.C. i. 49), but it gradually 
declined in importance ; and in the eighth or 
ninth century of the Christian era it was de- 
serted by its inhabitants, who founded Corneto 
on the opposite hill. There are few remains 
of the ancient city itself ; but the cemetery of 
Tarquinii, consisting of a vast number of sub- 
terraneous caves in the hill on which Corneto 
stands, is still in a state of excellent preserva- 
tion, and contains numerous Etruscan paint- 
ings : here some of the most interesting remains 
of Etruscan art have been discovered in modern 
times. 

Tarquinius, the name of a family in early 
Roman history to which the fifth and seventh 
kings of Rome belonged. The legend of the 
Tarquins ran as follows. Demaratus, their 
ancestor, belonged to the noble family of the 
Bacchiadae at Corinth, and fled from his native 
city when the power of his order was over- 
thrown by Cypselus. He settled at Tarquinii 
in Etruria, where he had mercantile con- 
nexions. He married an Etruscan wife, by 
whom he had two sons, Lucumo and Aruns. 
The latter died in the lifetime of his father, leav- 
ing his wife pregnant ; but as Demaratus was 
ignorant of this circumstance, he bequeathed 
all his property to Lucumo, and died himself 
shortly afterwards. But, although Lucumo was 
thus one of the most wealthy persons at Tar- 
quinii, and had married Tanaquil, who belonged 
to a family of the highest rank, he was excluded, 
as a stranger, from all power and influence in 
the state. Discontented with this inferior posi- 
tion, and urged on by his wife, he resolved to 
leave Tarquinii, and remove to Rome. He 
accordingly set out for Rome, driving in a 
chariot with his wife, and accompanied by a 
large train of followers. When they had reached 
the Janiculum an eagle seized his cap, and 
after carrying it away to a great height placed 
it again upon his head. Tanaquil, who was 
skilled in the Etruscan science of augury, bade 
her husband hope for the highest honour from 
this omen. Her predictions were soon verified. 
The stranger was received with welcome, and 
he and his followers were admitted to the rights 
of Roman citizens. He took the name of L. 
Tarquinius, to which Livy adds Priscus. His 
wealth, his courage and his wisdom gained 
him the love both of Ancus Marcius and of 
the people. The former appointed him guar- 
dian of his children ; and, when he died, the 
senate and the people unanimously elected Tar- 
quinius to the vacant throne. The reign of 
Tarquinius was distinguished by great exploits 
in war, and by great works in peace. He de- 
feated the Latins and Sabines ; and the latter 
people ceded to him the town of Collatia, where 



he placed a garrison under the command of 
Egerius, the son of his deceased brother, Aruns, 
who took the surname of Collatinus. Some 
traditions relate that Tarquinius defeated the 
Etruscans likewise. Among the important 
works which Tarquinius executed in peace, the 
most celebrated are the vast sewers by which 
the lower parts of the city were drained, and 
which still remain [see p. 816, a]. He is also 
said in some traditions to have laid out the 
Circus Maximus in the valley which had been 
drained by the sewers, and also to have insti- 
tuted the Great or Roman Games, which were 
henceforth performed in the Circus. The 
Forum, with its porticoes and rows of shops, 
was also his work, and he hkewise began to 
surround the city with a stone wall, a work 
which was finished by his successor, Servius 
Tullius. The building of the Capitoline temple 
is moreover attributed to the elder Tarquinius, 
though most traditions ascribe this work to his 
son, and only the vow to the father. Tarquinius 
also made some changes in the constitution of 
the state. He added 100 new members to 
the senate who were called patres minorum 
gentium, to distinguish them from the old 
senators, who were now called patres majorum 
gentium. He wished to add other tribes to 
the three established by Romulus, and to call 
them after himself and two of his friends. 
His plan was opposed by the augur Attus 
Navius, who gave a convincing proof tbat the 
gods were opposed to his purpose. [Navius.] 
Accordingly, he gave up his design of estab- 
lishing new tribes, but with each of the three 
he associated another under the same name, so 
that henceforth there were the first and second 
Ramnes, Tities and Luceres. Tarquinius was 
murdered, after a reign of thirty-eight years, at 
the instigation of the sons of Ancus Marcius. 
But they did not secure the reward of their 
crime, for Servius Tullius, with the assistance 
of Tanaquil, succeeded to the vacant throne. 
(Liv. i. 34-41 ; Dionys. iii. 46-73, iv. 1 ; Cic. de 
Rep. iii. 20.) Tarquinius left two sons and two 
daughters. His two sons, L. Tarquinius and 
Aruns, were subsequently married to the two 
daughters of Servius Tullius. One of his 
daughters was married to Servius Tullius, and 
the other to M. Brutus, by whom she became 
the mother of the celebrated L. Brutus, the 
first consul at Rome. Servius Tullius, whose 
Life is given under Tullius, was murdered 
after a reign of forty-four years, by his son-in- 
law, L. Tarquinius, who ascended the vacant 
throne. — L. Tarquinius Superbus began his 
reign without any of the forms of election. 
One of the first acts of his reign was to abolish 
the rights which had been conferred upon the 
plebeians by Servius ; and at the same time all 
the senators and patricians whom he mistrusted, 
or whose wealth he coveted, were put to death 
or driven into exile. He surrounded himself 
by a body-guard, by means of which he was 
enabled to do what he liked. His cruelty and 
tyranny obtained for him the surname of Super- 
bus. But, although a tyrant at home, he raised 
Rome to great influence and power among the 
surrounding nations. He gave his daughter in 
marriage to Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum, 
the most powerful of the Latin chiefs ; and 
under his sway Rome became the head of the 
Latin Confederacy. He defeated the Volscians, 
and took the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia, 
with the spoils of which he commenced the 
erection of the Capitol, which his father had 
vowed. In the vaults of this temple he de- 



TARQUINIUS 



TAERACO 



919 



posited the Sibylline books, which the king 
purchased from a Sibyl or prophetess. She had 
offered to sell him nine books for 300 pieces of 
gold. The king refused the offer with scorn. 
Thereupon she went away, and burned three, 
and then demanded the same price for the six. 
The king still refused. She again went away 
and burnt three more, and still demanded the 
same price for the remaining three. The king 
now purchased the three books, and the Sibyl 
disappeared. He next engaged in war with 
Gabii, one of the Latin cities which refused to 
enter into the League. Unable to take the city 
by force of arms, Tarquinius had recourse to 
stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending to be 
ill-treated by his father, and covered with the 
bloody marks of stripes, fled to Gabii. The 
infatuated inhabitants intrusted him with the 
command of their troops : whereupon he sent 
a messenger to his father to inquire how he 
should deliver the city into his hands. The 
king, who was walking in his garden when the 
messenger arrived, made no reply, but kept 
striking off the heads of the tallest poppies 
with his stick. Sextus took the hint. He put 
to death or banished all the leading men of the 
place, and then had no difficulty in compelling 
it to submit to his father (cf. Ov. Fast. ii. 686- 
710). In the midst of his prosperity, Tar- 
quinius fell through a shameful outrage com- 
mitted by one of his sons. Tarquinius and his 
sons were engaged in besieging Ardea, a city of 
the Rutulians. Here, as the king's sons, and 
their cousin, Tarquinius Collatinus, the son of 
Egerius, were feasting together, a dispute arose 
about the virtue of their wives. To settle the 
matter they mounted their horses, and first 
went to Rome, where they surprised the king's 
daughters at a splendid banquet ; then to I 
Collatia, where, though it was late in the night, 
they found Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, 
spinning amid her handmaids. The beauty and 
virtue of Lucretia had fired the evil passions of 
Sextus. A few days afterwards he returned to 
Collatia, where he was hospitably received by 
Lucretia as her husband's kinsman. In the 
dead of night he entered her chamber with a 
drawn sword : by threatening to lay a slave 
with his throat cut beside her, whom he would 
pretend to have killed in order to avenge her 
husband's honour, he forced her to yield to 
his wishes. As soon as Sextus had departed, 
Lucretia sent for her husband and her father. 
Collatinus came, accompanied by L. Brutus ; 
Lucretius, with P. Valerius, who afterwards I 
gained the surname of Publicola. They found 
her in an agony of sorrow. She told them what 
had happened, enjoined them to avenge her 
dishonour, and then stabbed herself to death 
(cf. Ov. Fast. ii. 725-882). They all swore to 
avenge her. Brutus threw off his assumed 
stupidity, and placed himself at their head. 
They carried the corpse to Rome. Brutus, who 
was Tribunus Celerum, summoned the people, ! 
and related the deed of shame. All classes were i 
inflamed with indignation. A decree was passed 
deposing the king, and banishing him and his 
family from the city. The army encamped 
before Ardea likewise renounced their alle- 
giance to the tyrant. Tarquinius, with his two 
sons, Titus and Aruns, took refuge at Caere in : 
Etruria. Sextus repaired to Gabii, His own 
principality, where he was shortly after mur- 
dered by the friends of those whom he had 
put to death. Tarquinius reigned twenty-four 
years. He was banished B.C. 510. The people 
of Tarquinii and Veii espoused the cause <>< the 



exiled tyrant, and marched against Rome. The 
two consuls advanced to meet them. A bloody 
battle was fought, in which Brutus and Aruns, 
the son of Tarquinius, slew each other. Tar- 
quinius next repaired to Lars Porsena or Por- 
senna, the powerful king of Clusium, who 
marched against Rome at the head of a vast 
army. [See under PoBSBNA.] Next Tarquinius 
took refuge with his son-in-law, Mamilius Octa- 
vius of Tusculum, and the Latin states declared 
war against Rome. The contest was decided 
by the celebrated battle of the lake Regillus, 
in which the Romans gained the victory by the 
help of Castor and Pollux. Tarquinius himself 
was wounded, but escaped with his life ; his 
son Sextus is said to have fallen in this battle, 
though, according to another tradition, as we 
have already seen, he was slain by the inhabi- 
tants of Gabii. Tarquinius Superbus had now 
no other state to which he could apply for 
assistance. He had already survived all his 
family, and he now fled to Aristobulus at 
Cumae, where he died a wretched and childless 
old man. (Liv. ii. 1-21 ; Dionys. v. 1-vi. 21.) 
Such is the story of the Tarquins according to 
the ancient writers ; but this story must not be 
received as a real history. It is the attempt to 
assign a definite origin to certain Roman insti- 
tutions, to some features in the military organi- 
sation, and to some ancient public works in the 
city, of which the history had been obscured by 
lapse of time. There can be little doubt that 
it indicates as the time when these things were 
carried out a period during which a family of 
Etruscan origin held the chief power at Rome ; 
and there is at least great probability (though 
this is denied by some writers of great autho- 
rity) that this rule was imposed upon Rome by 
the dominant power of the Etruscans. 

Tarraclna iTarracinensis : Terracina), also 
called Anxur (Anxurates), an ancient town of 
Latium situated fifty-eight miles SE. of Rome 
on the Via Appia and upon the coast, with a 
strongly fortified citadel upon a high hill, on 
which stood the temple of Jupiter Anxurus 
(Liv. iv. 49 ; Yerg.Aen. vii. 799; Hor. Sat. i. 5, 
26; Lucan, iii. 84 ; JIart.v. 1, 6). It originally 
belonged to the Volsci, by whom it was called 
Anxur. It was conquered by the Romans, who 
gave it the name of Tarraciua, and it was made 
a Roman colony, B.C. 329 (Liv. viii. 21 ; Veil. 
Pat. i. 14). Three miles W. of the town stood the 
grove of Feronia, with a temple of this goddess. 
The ancient walls of the citadel of Turracina 
are still visible on the slope of Montecchio. 

Tarraco (Tarraconensis : Tarragona), an 
ancient town on the coast of Spain situated on 
a rock 760 feet high, between the river Iberus 
and the Pyrenees, on the river Tulcis. It was 
founded by the Jlassilians, and was made the 
head-quarters of the brothers P. and Cn. Scipio, 
in their campaigns against the Carthaginians 
in the second Punic war (Liv. xxi. 61 ; Pol. x. 
84). It subsequently became a populous and 
flourishing town ; and Augustus, who wintered 
here (b.c. 26) after his Cantabrian campaign, 
made it the capital of one of the three Spanish 
provinces (Uispania Tarraconensis) and also 
a Roman colony. Hence we find it called 
Colonia Tarraconensis, also Col. Victrix To- 
gata and Col. Julia Victrix Tarracotiensis. 
(Strab. p. 159; Plin. iii. 18; Tac. Ann. i. 78; 
Mart. x. 104, xiii. 118.) The modern town of 
Tarragona is built to a great extent with the 
remains of the ancient city, and Roman in- 
scriptions may frequently be seen embedded 
in the walla of the houses. The ancient Roman 



920 TARRUNTENUS 



TAUCHIEA 



aqueduct, having been repaired in modern 
times, still supplies the city with water ; and at 
a short distance to the NW. of Tarragona, along 
the sea coast, is a Soman sepulchre called the 
Tower of the Scipios, although the real place of 
the burial of the Scipios is quite unknown. 

Tarruntenus Paternus. [Pateenus.] 

Tarsia (Tap<ri7j : Has Bostana), a promontory 
of Carmania, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, 
near the frontier of Persia. The neighbouring 
part of the coast of Carmania was called Tar- 
siana (Arr. Ind. 37). 

Tarsms (o Tdptrios : Karadere), a river of 
Mysia, rising in M. Temnus, and flowing NE., 
through the Miletopolites Lacus, into the 
Macestus (Strab. p. 587). 

Tarsus, Tarsos (Tap<r6s, Tapuo'i, TepaSs, Qap- 
cr6s : Tapcevs, Tarsensis : Tersus, Ru.), the chief 
city of Cilicia, stood near the centre of Cilicia 
Campestris, on the river Cydnus, about twelve 
miles above its mouth, in a very large and 
fertile plain at the foot of M. Taurus, the chief 
pass through which (Pylae Ciliciae) led down 
to Tarsus. Its position gave it the full benefit 
of the natural advantages of a fertile country, 
and the command of an important highway of 
commerce. It had also an excellent harbour, 
twelve miles from the city, formed by a lagoon 
into which the Cydnus flows, but this has now 
been filled up with sand. The city was of 
unknown antiquity. Some ascribed its founda- 
tion to the Assyrian king Sardanapalus ; others 
to Perseus, in connexion with whose legend 
the name of the city is fancifully derived from 
a hoof (rapcrds) which the winged horse Pegasus 
lost here ; and others to the Argive chieftain 
Triptolemus, whose effigy appears on the coins 
of the city (Strab. p. 673 ; Staph. Byz. s.v.). 
All that can be determined with certainty 
seems to be that it was a very ancient city of 
the Syrians, who were the earliest known in- 
habitants of this part of Asia Minor, and that 
it received Greek settlers at an early period. 
In the time of Xenophon, who gives us the 
first historical notice of Tarsus, it was the 
capital of the Cilician prince Syennesis, and 
was taken by Cyrus (Xen. An. i. 2, 23). [Comp. 
Cilicia.] At the time of the Macedonian in- 
vasion, it was held by the Persian troops, who 
were about to burn it, when they were pre- 
vented by Alexander's arrival (Arr. An. ii. 4 ; 
Curt. iii. 5). After playing an important part 
as a military post in the wars of the successors 
of Alexander, and under the Syrian kings, it 
became, by the peace between the Romans and 
Antiochus the Great, the frontier city of the 
Syrian kingdom on the NW. At the time of 
the Mithridatic war, it suffered, on the one 
hand, from Tigranes, who overran Cilicia, and, 
on the other, from the pirates, who had their 
strongholds in the mountains of Cilicia Aspera, 
and made frequent incursions into the level 
country. From both these enemies it was 
rescued by Pompey, who made it the capital of 
the new Roman province of Cilicia, B.C. 66. 
In the Civil war, it took part with Caesar, and 
assumed, in his honour, the name of Juliopolis 
(Bell. Alex. 66; Dio Cass, xlvii. 24). For this 
the inhabitants were punished by Cassius, but 
were recompensed by Antony, who made Tarsus 
a free city. Under Augustus, the city obtained 
immunity from taxes, through the influence of 
the emperor's tutor, the Stoic Athenodorus, 
who was a native of the place. It was the 
scene of important events in the wars with the 
Persians, the Arabs, and the Turks, and also in 
the Crusades. The people of Tarsus were 



celebrated for their mental power, their readi- 
ness in repartee, and their fondness for the 
study of philosophy. Among the most dis- 
tinguished natives ' of the place were : the 
Stoics Antipater, Archedemus, Heraclides, 
Nestor, Zeno, and the two Athenodori ; the 
Academic Nestor; the Epicureans Diogenes 
(celebrated for his powers of improvising), Lysias 
(who was for a time tyrant of the city), and 
Plutiades ; the tragic poets Dionysides and 
Bion ; the grammarian Artemidorus ; the his- 
torian Hermogenes ; the physicians Herodotus 
and Philo ; and, above all, the apostle Paul, 
who belonged to one of several families of 
Jews who had settled at Tarsus in considerable 
numbers, under the Persian and Syrian kings. 

Tartarus (Tdprapos), son of Aether and Ge, 
and by his mother Ge the father of the Gigantes 
Typhoeus and Echidna (Hes. Th. 821 ; Apollod. 
ii. 1, 2 ; Hyg. Fab. 152). [For Tartarus in the 
underworld, see Hades, p. 376.] 

Tartarus (Tartaro), a river of Venetia be- 
tween the Athesis (Adige) and the Po. Its 
waters now pass by canals into these rivers. 
In ancient times it had an exit, partly artificial, 
to the sea, and in part of its course formed 
wide marshes (Tac. Hist. iii. 9 ; Plin. iii. 121). 

Tartessus (TapTrjo-tros : Taprrfcrfftos), a dis- 
trict in the S. of Spain colonised, or occupied 
for trading purposes, by the Phoenicians. It 
extended on both sides of the Baetis (Guadal- 
quivir) in the lower part of its course, and that 
river itself was sometimes called Tartessus 
(Stesich. ap. Strab. p. 148 ; Avien. Or. Mar. i. 
224). The country was rich in metals, iron, 
tin, lead, silver, and (to some extent) gold ; and 
it is probably (though some writers deny it) the 
Tarshish of Scripture. It is likely that a town 
or port called Tartessus stood at the mouth of 
the Baetis and was a trading station of the 
Phoenicians. But it disappeared in early times, 
possibly because it was superseded by Gades, 
which belonged to the same district. (Hdt. i. 
163, iv. 152 ; Strab. pp. 148, 151 ; Plin. iii. 7 ; 
Mel. ii. 6.) " By some writers it was (probably 
erroneously) taken to have been the ancient 
name of one or other town of the district, such 
as Gades or Carteia (Hdt. i. 163, iv. 152 ; Strab. 
pp. 148, 151 ; Plin. iii. 7 ; Mel. ii. 6). 

Taruscon or Tarascon (Tarusconienses : 
Tarascon), a town of the Salyes in Gaul, on 
the E. bank of the Rhone, N. of Arelate, and 
E. of Nemausus. 

Tarvisium (Tarvisanus : Treviso), a town of 
Venetia in the N. of Italy, on the river Silis, 
which became the seat of a bishopric, and a 
place of importance in the middle ages. 

Tatianus (Tartavds), a Christian writer of the 
second century. [Diet, of Christ. Biogr.'] 

T. Tatius, king of the Sabines. [Romulus.] 

Tatta (f) TarTa: Tuz-Gol), a great salt lake 
in the centre of Asia Minor, on the Phrygian 
table-land, on the confines of Phrygia, Galatia, 
Cappadocia, and Lycaonia. It supplies the 
whole surrounding country with salt, as it 
doubtless did in ancient times (Strab. p. 568; 
Plin. xxxi. 84). 

Tauchira or Teuchira (Tavx^ipa, Tevx^ipa : 
Taukra, Ru.), a colony of Cyrene, on the NW. 
coast of Cyrenai'ca, in N. Africa. Under the 
Ptolemies, it was called Arsinoe, and was one 
of the five cities of the Libyan Pentapolis. It 
became a Roman colony, and was fortified by 
Justinian. It was a chief seat of the worship 
of Cybele, who had here a great temple and an 
annual festival. (Hdt. iv. 171 ; Strab. p. 836 ; 
Procop. de Aed. vi. 3.) 



TAULANTTI 

Taulantli (Tau\di/Tioi), a people of Illyria, in 
the neighbourhood of Epidamnus, frequently 
mentioned by the Greek and Roman writers. 
One of their most powerful kings was Glaucias, 
a contemporary of Alexander the Great, who 
fought against the latter monarch, and at a 
later period afforded an asylum to the infant 
Pyrrhus, and refused to surrender him to Cas- 
sander. (Thuc. i. 24 ; Arr. An. i. 5 ; Liv. xlv. 26.) 

Taunus (Taunus), a range of mountains in 
Germany, at no great distance from the conflu- 
ence of the Moenus (Haiti ) and the Rhine i Tac. 
Ann. i. 56, xii. 58 ; Mel. iii. 3). 

Taurasia. 1. An ancient city of Samnium, in 
the country of the Hirpini, on the right bank of 
the Calor. It is mentioned among the towns 
taken by Scipio Barbatus. — 2. [Taurixi.] 

Tauri, the inhabitants of the Chersonesus 
Taurica (Crimea), the remnant of a people, per- 
haps the Cimmerians, who had retreated before 
the Scythians. They were divided into tribes 
of whom some were nomad, others agricultural. 
(Hdt. iv. 11, 12 ; Strab. p. 311.) They are de- 
scribed as a rude and savage people, addicted 
to piracy (Hdt. iv. 103 ; Strab. p. 308 ; Tac. Ann. 
xii. 17). In particular their religious rites were 
cruel, according to which they offered human 
sacrifices to their goddess, whom the Greeks 
identified with Artemis [see p. 128]. Especi- 
ally, shipwrecked sailors were thus sacrificed 
(Eur. I. T. ; Diod. iv. 44 ; Hdt. iv. 103 ; Ov. 
Pont. iii. 2, 57). [Chersonesus.] 

Taurianum (Traviano), a town of Bruttium, 
on the Via Popilia, twenty-three miles SE. of 
Vibo. 

Taurlni, a people of Liguria dwelling on the 
upper course of the Po, at the foot of the Alps. 
Their chief town was Taurasia, afterwards 
colonised by Augustus, and called Augusta 
Taurinorum (Turin). (Pol. ii. 17, iii. 60 ; Liv. 
xxi. 38 ; App. Annib. 5 ; Strab. p. 204.) 

Tauris (Torcola), a small island off the coast 
of Hlyria, between Pharus and Corcyra (Bell. 
Alex. 47). 

Taurisci, a Celtic people in Noricum, and 
probably the old Celtic name of the entire popu- 
lation of the country. They were subsequently 
called Norici by the Romans after their capital 
Noreia. [Noricum.] 

TauroiB, Tauroentium iTavpdets, Tavpoiv- 
riov), a colony of th : Massaliots between Mas- 
silia and Telo Martius (Toulon). Its site is 
marked by the modern Tarente. (Caes. B.C. ii. 
4 ; Strab. pp. 180, 184.) 

Tauronienlum (Tavpo/ieviov : Tcuipontvlrns, 
Tauromenitanus : Taormina), a city on the E. 



TAURUS 



921 




Coin of Taoromenlam. Rrd cent. B.C. 
Ode, head of Apollo, and star ; rev., taypomenitan ; 
tripod. 

coast of Sicily, situated on the hill Taurus, 
from which it derived its name, between Mes- 
sana and Catana, and founded B.C. 358 by 
Andromachua with the remains of the inhabi- 
tant-, of Naxos, whose town had been destroyed 
by Dionysius nearly fifty years before. [Naxos, 
No. 2.] Tauromenium soon became a large and 
flourishing city ; but in consequence of its 
espousing the side of Sex. Pompey against 



Augustus, most of its inhabitants were expelled 
from the city, and their place supplied by a 
colony of veterans : hence we find, the town 
called Col. Augusta Tauromenitana. From 
this time Tauromenium became a place of 
secondary importance. (Diod. xiv. 58, 96 ; Strab. 
p. 267 ; App. B.C. v. 103-111 ; Juv. v. 93.) The 
hills in the neighbourhood produced excellent 
wine. There are still remains of the ancient 
town, of which the most important is a splendid 
theatre cut out of the rock, and capable of 
holding from 30,000 to 40,000 spectators, from 
which we may form some idea of the populous- 
ness of Tauromenium. 

Tauroscythae. [Scythotauri.] 

Taurunum (Seiyilin), a strongly fortified town 
in Pannouia at the confluence of the Savus and 
the Danube (Ptol. ii. 16, 4). 

Taurus, Statilius, a distinguished general of 
Octavian. At the battle of Actium, B.C. 31, he 
commanded the land-forces of Octavian, which 
were drawn up on the shore. In 29 he defeated 
the Cantabri, Vaccaei, and Astures. He was 
consul in 26 ; and in 16, when the emperor went 
to Gaul, the government of the city and of 
Italy was left to Taurus, with the title of prae- 
fectua urbi. (App. B.C. v. 97-118 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 
11 ; Dio Cass. xlix. 14, li. 20, liv. 19.) In the 
fourth consulship of Augustus, 30, Taurus built 
an amphitheatre of stone at his own expense. 
[Roma, p. 811, a.] 

Taurus id Taipos, from the Aramaean Tur, a 
high mountain: Taurus, Ala-Dagh, and other 
special names), a great mountain chain of Asia. 
In its widest extent the name was applied by 
the later geographers to the whole of the great 
chain which runs through Asia from W. to E., 
forming the S. margin of the great table-land 
of Central Asia, which it divides from the 
Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor, from Syria 
and the Tigris and Euphrates valley, from tho 
low lands on the N. shore of the Indian Ocean, 
and from the two great peninsulas of India 
(Strab. pp. 490, 689j. But in its usual signifi- 
cance, it denotes the mountain chain in the S. 
of Asia Minor which begins at the Sacrum or 
Chelidonium Prom, at the SE. angle of Lycia, 
surrounds the gulf of Pamphylia, passing 
through the middle of Pisidia ; then along the 
S. frontier of Lyeaonia and Cappadocia, which 
it divides from Cilicia and Commagene ; thence, 
after being broken tlirough by the Euphrates, 
it proceeds almost due E. tlirough the S. of 
Armenia, forming the water-shed between the 
sources of the Tigris on the S. and the streams 
which feed the upper Euphrates and the Araxes 
on the N. ; thus it continues as far as the S. 
margin of the lake Arsissa, where it ceases to 
bear the name of Taurus, and is continued in 
the chain which, under the names of Niphates, 
ZagroB, &c, forms the NE. margin of the 
Tigris and Euphrates valley. (Strab. pp. 129, 
520, 651, 666; Mel. i. 15; Plin. v. 99.) This 
main chain sends off branches which are nearly 
as important as itself. In the middle of the 
frontier between Cilicia and Cappadocia, E. of 
the Cilician Gates, the AntitaURUS branches 
off to the NE. In the E. of Cilicia, the Ama- 
niis goes off to the SW. and S. Immediately 
E. of the Euphrates, a branch proceeds to the 
SE., forming, under the name of Masius, the 
frontier between Armenia and Mesopotamia, 
and dividing the valley of the Upper Tigris 
from the waters which flow through Meso- 
potamia into the Euphrates. The Taurus is of 
moderate height, for the most part steep, and 
wooded to the summit. Its general character 



922 



TAVIUM 



TEGEA 



greatly resembles the mountains of central 
Germany. 

Tavium (Taoviov, Tctvtov), the capital of the 
Trocmi, in Galatia, stood on the E. side of the 
Halys, but at some distance from the river, and 
formed the centre of meeting for roads leading 
to all parts of Asia Minor (Strab. p. 567 ; Plin. 
v. 146 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.). It was therefore 
a place of considerable commercial importance. 
It had a temple and bronze colossus of Zeus. 
The position of the city has been much dis- 
puted, but it seems to have been proved by the 
discovery of a milestone marking the caput 
viae at the modern Nefez Kent, that this was 
the site of Tavium. 

Taxlla or Taxiala (ra Ta|iAa, Ta£iaA.a), an 
important city of India intra Gangem, stood in 
a large and fertile plain between the Indus 
and the Hydaspes, and was the capital of the 
Indian king Taxiles, in the time of Alexander 
(Arr. An. v. 8 ; Ptol. vii. 1, 45 ; Strab. pp. 698- 
714). Its position was probably at Shah Dheri, 
about forty miles from the Indus, where there 
are extensive ruins. 

Taxiles (Ta£i'A.7?s). 1. An Indian prince or 
king, who reigned over the tract between the 
Indus and the Hydaspes, at the period of the 
expedition of Alexander, B.C. 327. His real 
name was Mophis, or Omphis, and the Greeks 
appear to have called him Taxiles or Taxilas, 
from the name of his capital city of Taxila. 
On the approach of Alexander he hastened to 
meet him with valuable presents, and was in 
consequence confirmed in his kingdom by the 
Macedonian monarch. (Diod. xvii. 86 ; Curt, 
viii. 12, 4 ; Arr. An. iv. 22, v. 3, 8 ; Strab. p. 
698 ; Just. xiii. 4.) — 2. A general in the service 
of Mithridates the Great, and one of those in 
whom he reposed the highest confidence (Plut. 
Sail. 15, Lucull. 17). 

Taygete (TauyeV?)), daughter of Atlas and 
Pleione, one of the Pleiades, from whom Mt. 
Taygetus in Laconia is said to have derived its 
name. By Zeus she became the mother of 
Lacedaemon and of Eurotas. (Apollod. iii. 10, 
1 ; Pans. iii. 1, 2.) 

Taygetus or Taygetum or Taygeta (Taiiye- 
toj, Tavyerov, rd TavyeTa pi.), a lofty range of 
mountains of a wild and savage character, sepa- 
rating Laconica and Messenia, and extending 
from the frontiers of Arcadia down to the Prom. 
Taenarum. Its highest points were called 
Taletus and Evoras, about three miles S. of 
Sparta. [Laconia.] 

Teanum (Teanensis). 1. Apulum (Civitate), 
a town of Apulia on the river Frento and the 
confines of the Prentani, eighteen miles from 
Larinum (Liv. ix. 20 ; Cic. pro Olu. 9 ; Strab. 
p. 285). — 2. Sidicinum (Teano), an important 
town of Campania, and the capital of the 
Sidicini, situated on the N. slope of Mt. 
Massicus and on the Via Praenestina, six miles 
W. of Cales (Liv. xxii. 57 ; Cic. ad Att. viii. 
11 ; Strab. p. 237). It was made a Boman 
colony by Augustus ; and in its neighbourhood 
were some celebrated medicinal springs. There 
are remains of the theatre and of the amphi- 
theatre. 

Tearus (Tdapos) : Teara, Deara, or Dere), a 
river of Thrace, the waters of which were useful 
in curing cutaneous diseases. Herodotus re- 
lates that it rises from thirty-eight fountains, 
all flowing from the same rock, some warm and 
others cold. It falls into the Contadesdus; 
this into the Agrianes ; and the latter again 
into the Hebrus. (Hdt. iv. 90.) 

Teate (Teatinus : Chieti), the capital of the 



Marrueini, situated on a steep hill on the river 
Aternus, and on the road from Aternum to 
Corfinium (Strab. p. 241 ; Sil. Ital. viii. 520). 

Tecmessa (TeK/nrja-a-a), the daughter of the 
Phrygian king Teleutas, whose territory was 
ravaged by the Greeks during a predatory 
excursion from Troy. Tecmessa was taken 
prisoner, and was given to Ajax, the son of 
Telamon, by whom she had a son, Eurysaces. 
[Ajax.] 

Tecmon {t4k/xu>v), a town of the Molossi in 
Epirus (Liv. xlv. 26 ; Steph. Byz. s. v.). 

Tectaeus and Angelion (Tsktcuos Kal 'Ayyt- 
\loiv), early Greek sculptors, who are always 
mentioned together. They were pupils of 
Dipoenus and Scyllis, and instructors of Callon 
of Aegina, and therefore they must have lived 
about b.c. 548. They were authors of a statue 
of Apollo at Delos, holding in his right hand a 
bow, and in his left figures of the three Graces. 
(Paus. ii. 32, 5, ix. 35, 3.) 

Tectosages (TacT<J<ra7«). 1. In Gallia. 
[Volcae.]— 2_. In Asia Minor. [Galatia.] 

Tecum, Tetum or Ticis (TecK), a river in 
Gallia Narbonensis in the territory of the Sar- 
dones, called Illiberis by the Greeks from a 
town of this name upon the river (Mel. ii. 5 ; 
Plin. iii. 32). 

Tedanius, a river in Illyricum, separating 
Iapydia and Liburnia (Ptol. ii. 16, 3). 

Tegea (Teye'a). 1. (TVyeanjj : Piali), an 
important city of Arcadia, and the capital of 
the district Tegeatis (TeyeSris), which was 
bounded on the E. by Argolis and Laconica, on 
the S. by Laconica, on the W. by Maenalia, 
and on the N. by the territory of Mantinea 
(11. ii. 607 ; Paus. viii. 3, 4 ; Strab. p. 337). . It 
was one of the most ancient towns of Arcadia, 
and is said to have been founded by Tegeates, 
the son of Lycaon. It was formed out of nine 
small townships, which were united into one 
city by Aleus, who was thus regarded as the 
real founder of the city. At a later time we 
find Tegea divided into four tribes, each of 
which possessed a statue of Apollo Agyieus, 
who was especially honoured in Tegea. The 
Tegeatae long resisted the supremacy of Sparta ; 
and, according to tradition, it was not till the 
Spartans discovered the bones of Orestes that 
they were enabled to conquer this people. (Hdt. 

i. 65-67 ; Paus. iii. 7, 3, viii. 5, 9, viii. 45-48.) 
The Tegeatae sent 3000 men to the battle of 
Plataea, in which they were distinguished for 
their bravery (Hdt. ix. 26). They remained 
faithful to Sparta in the Peloponnesian war, 
but after the battle of Leuctra they joined the 
rest of the Arcadians in establishing their inde- 
pendence. During the wars of the Achaean 
League Tegea was taken both by Cleomenes, 
king of Sparta, and Antigonus Doson, king of 
Macedonia, and the ally of the Achaeans (Pol. 

ii. 46, 54). It continued to be a place of im- 
portance in the time both of Strabo and of Pau- 
sanias. Its most splendid public building was 
the temple of Athene, which was the largest 
and most magnificent building in the Pelopon- 
nesus. It was erected soon after B.C. 394, in 
place of a more ancient temple of this goddess, 
which was burnt down in this year. The archi- 
tect was Scopas, and the sculpture in the 
pediments were probably by the hand of Scopas 
himself (Paus. viii. 45, 4 ; Scopas). Bemains 
of the city are found at the villages of Piali 
and Haghios Sostis. At the latter a great 
number of statuettes of bronze and terracotta 
were dug up, which seem to have been offerings 
to Demeter and Kore, whose temple must have 



TEGLANUM 



TELEGONUS 



923 



been on this spot. — 2. A town in Crete, said to 
have been founded by Agamemnon (Veil. Pat. 
i.l). 

Tegianum [Diano) a municipal town of Lu- 
cania, situated on the river Tanager (Plin. iii. 
98). 

Telamon. (TeKafuiv), son of Aeaeus and En- 
dei'8, and brother of Peleus. Having assisted 
Peleus in slaying their half-brother, Phocus 
[Peleus], Telamon was expelled from Aegina, 
and came to Salamis. Here he was first mar- 
ried to Glauce, daughter of Cyehreus, king of 
the island, on whose death Telamon became 
king of Salamis (Died. iv. 72). He afterwards 
married Periboea or Eriboea, daughter of Al- 
cathous, by whom he became the father of 
Ajax, who is hence frequently called Tela- 
moniades, and Telamonius heros. [Ajax.] 
Telamon himself was one of the Calydonian 
hunters and one of the Argonauts. He was 
also a friend of Heracles, whom he joined in 
his expedition against Laomedon of Troy, which 
city he was the first to enter. He there erected 
an altar to Heracles Callinicus or Alexicacus. 
(Apollod. ii. 6, 4; Theocr. xiii. 38; Schol. ad 
Ap. Rh. i. 1289.) Heracles, in return, gave to 
him Theanira or Hesione, a daughter of Laome- 
don, by whom he became the father of Teucer 
and Trambelus. On this expedition Telamon 
and Heracles also fought against the Meropes 
in Cos, on account of C'halciope, the beautiful 
daughter of Eurypylus, the king of the Meropes, 
and against the giant Alcioneus, on the isthmus 
of Corinth. Telamon likewise accompanied 
Heracles on his expedition against the Ama- 
zons, and slew Melanippe (Pind. Nem. iii. 65 ; 
Schol. ad loc). 

Telamon (Telamone), a town and harbour of 
Etruria, S. of the river Urnbro, said to have 
been founded by Telamon on his return from 
the Argonautic expedition (Diod. iv. 50), but 
there can be little doubt that it was originally 
an Etruscan town. In its neighbourhood a 
great victory was gained over the Gauls in B.C. 
225 (Pol. i. 27-31). It was here that Marius 
landed on his return from Africa in 87 (Plut. 
Mor. 41). Telamon is mentioned as a port in 
Pliny (iii. 51) and in the Itineraries of the 
fourth century, but since that time there has 
been nothing on the site but a poor village and 
ruins of Roman buildings. 

TelcbJnes (TeAxiVes), a family or tribe of 
mythical beings or demons, analogous in some 
respects to the trolls or goblins of Northern, 
and the genii of Oriental, folk lore. They are 
said to have been the children of Thalassa (for 
which reason a late writer — Eustathius, ad 
Horn. p. 771 — represents them as like mermen, 
with fins instead of feetl. They came from 
Crete to Cyprus and from thence to Rhodes, 
where they founded Camirus, Ialysus, and 
Lindus. Rhodes, which was named after them 
Telchinis, was abandoned by them, because 
they foresaw that the island would be inun- 
dated. They then spread in different directions. 
Lycutt went to Lyeia, where he built the temple 
of the Lycian Apollo. This god had been wor- 
shipped by them at Lindus, and Hera at 
Ialysus and Camirus. There is a further indi- 
cation of their connexion with a sea-going 
people in the Rhodian story that Poseidon was 
intrusted to them by Rhea, and they brought 
him up in conjunction with Capliira, a daughter 
of Oceanus. Poseidon wedded Hulia, the sister 
of the Telchines, who bore six sons and a 
daughter, Rhodos, from whom the island was 
named. The sons drove Aphrodite from the 



I island, and she sent madness upon them, which 
caused Poseidon to bury them beneath the 
earth. In their operation they are represented 
in different aspects : — (1) As sorcerers and mali- 
cious sprites. Their very eyes and aspect are 
said to have been destructive. They had it in 
their power to bring on hail, rain, and snow, 
and to assume any form they pleased ; they 
further mixed Stygian water with sulphur, in 
order thereby to destroy animals and plants. 
One account represents Zeus as destroying 
them with an inundation (Ov. Met. vii. 307) as 
malicious or fidaKavoi : another makes their 
destroyer Apollo in the shape of a wolf (Serv. 
ad Aen. iv. 377). (2) As inventors of agricul- 
ture. (3) As artists and handicraftsmen. They 
are said to have invented useful arts and insti- 
tutions, and to have made images of the gods. 
They worked in brass and iron, made the sickle 
of Cronos and the trident of Poseidon (Diod. 
v. 55 ; Strab. pp. 472, 653 ; Paus. ix. 19, 1 ; 
Tzetz. Chil. vii. 124). The origin of these 
myths seems to be partly the widespread super- 
stition of gnomes or goblins working at metals, 
I or rich in metals, dwelling beneath mountains, 
and acting sometimes in malice, sometimes in 
kindness — but parti}' also the attempt to ex- 
plain the origin of certain works and inventions 
in Rhodes or elsewhere. It is probable that in 
this aspect the Phoenicians were the originals 
of the Telchines, and the myth is really describ- 
ing how Phoenician arts and metal-working 
were introduced by this maritime people from 
the side of Crete, and how the ingenious race 
of artisans migrated from Rhodes to Lycia and 
elsewhere. Of this last event we have no par- 
ticular evidence : but it is not improbable, and 
the Tennilae in Lycia were said to be Cretans. 
[See p. 504, a.] The account of the Telchines 
may be compared with that of the Idaean 
Dactyli. 
Teleboae. [Taphiae.] 

Teleboas (T?jA.e|8<(as), a river of Armenia 
Major, falling into the Euphrates ; probably 
identical with the Arsanias. 

Teleclldes (T7)A.€/cAe(57)s), an Athenian comic 
poet of the Old Comedy, about the same time 
as Crates and Cratinus, and a little earlier than 
Aristophanes. He was an earnest advocate of 
peace, a great admirer of the ancient manners 
of the age of Themistocles, a supporter of 
Nicias, and an assailant of Pericles (Plut. Per. 
3, 16, Nic. 4). Fragments of his plays are in- 
cluded in Meineke's Fragm. Com. Grace. 

Teleclus (T^jAeicAos), king of Sparta, eighth 
of the Agids, and son of Archelaus. He was 
slain by the Messenians, in a temple of Artemis 
Limnatis, on the borders. His death was the 
immediate occasion of the first Messeniun war, 
B.C. 743. (Hdt. vii. 104 ; Paus. iii. 2, 6, iv. 4, 2.) 
Telegonus (Tr)K(yovos), son of Odysseus and 
t Circe. After Odysseus had returned to Ithaca, 
Circe sent out Telegonus in search of his father. 
I A storm cast his ship on the coast of Ithaca, 
and being pressed by hunger he began to plun- 
der the fields. Odysseus and Telemachus being 
informed of the ravages caused by the stranger, 
< went out to fight against him ; but Telegonus 
I ran Odysseus through with a spear which he 
had received from his mother. At the com- 
mand of Athene, Telegonus, accompanied by 
Telemachus and Penelope, went to Circe in 
Aeaea, there buried the body of Odysseus, and 
married Penelope, by whom he became the 
father of Italus. [See Odysskls, p. 618, b.J 
In Italy Telegonus was believed to have been 
the founder of the towns of Tusculum and 



924 



TELEMACHUS 



TEMENUS 



Praeneste. He left a daughter, Mamilia, from 
whom the family of the Mamilii traced their 
descent. 

Telemachus (Ty]\ifj.axos), son of Odysseus 
and Penelope. He was still an infant when the 
Trojan war began, and when his father had 
been absent from home nearly twenty years, 
Telemachus went to Pylos and Sparta to gather 
information concerning him. He was hospit- 
ably received by Nestor, who sent his own son 
to conduct Telemachus to Sparta. Menelaus 
also received him kindly, and communicated 
to him the prophecy of Proteus concerning 
Odysseus. From Sparta Telemachus returned 
home ; and on his arrival there he found his 
father, whom he assisted in slaying the suitors. 
[Odysseus.] According to some accounts, Tele- 
machus became the father of Perseptolis either 
by Polycaste, the daughter of Nestor, or by 
Nausicaa, the daughter of Alcinous (Eustath. 
ad Horn. p. 1796; Diet. Cret. vi. 6). Others 
xelate that he was induced by Athene to marry 
Circe, and became by her the father of La- 
tinus [see p. 618, b] ; or that he married Cassi- 
phone, a daughter of Circe, but in a quarrel 
with his mother-in-law slew her, for which he 
was in his turn killed by Cassiphone (Tzetz. 
ad Lyc. 808). 

Telemus (T^Ae^os), son of Eurymus, and a 
celebrated soothsayer (Od. ix. 509 ; Ov. Met. 
xiii. 771 ; Theocr. vi. 23). 

Telephus (TV/Ae^os), son of Heracles and 
Auge, the daughter of king Aleus of Tegea, and 
priestess of Athene. As soon as he was born 
he was exposed by his grandfather, who was 
angry because his daughter had broken the 
vows of her office. In some accounts she was 
set adrift, like Danae, with her child and cast 
on the Mysian coast. In other versions of the 
story Telephus was reared by a hind (eAa0os), 
and educated by king Corythus in Arcadia. On 
reaching manhood, he consulted the Delphic 
oracle to learn his parentage, and was ordered 
to go to king Teuthras in Mysia. (Apollod. iii. 
9, 1 ; Diod. iv. 33 ; Hyg. Fab. 100.) He there 
found his mother, and succeeded Teuthras on 
the throne of Mysia. He married Laodice or 
Astyoche, a daughter of Priam ; and he at- 
tempted to prevent the Greeks from landing on 
the coast of Mysia. Dionysus, however, caused 
him to stumble over a vine, whereupon he was 
wounded by Achilles. (Pind. 01. ix. 112, Isth. 
v. 52, viii. 109 ; Paus. x. 28 ; Diet. Cret. ii. 3.) 
Being informed by an oracle that the wound 
could only be cured by ' the wounder,' Telephus 
repaired to the Grecian camp ; and as the Greeks 
had likewise learnt from an oracle that without 
the aid of Telephus they could not reach Troy, 
Achilles cured Telephus by means of the rust 
of the spear by winch he had been wounded 
(Diet. Cret. ii. 10 ; Hor. Epod. xvii. 8 ; Ov. Met. 
xii. 112, Bern. Am. 47). Telephus, in return, 
pointed out to the Greeks the road which they 
had to take. According to one story Telephus, 
in order to induce the Greeks to help him, went 
to Argos and snatching Orestes from his cradle 
threatened to kill him unless Agamemnon would 
persuade Achilles to heal the wound. The story 
of Telephus (unknown to the Iliad) formed the 
subject of numerous vase paintings, and of a 
tragedy of Euripides, who was ridiculed because 
he introduced Telephus in so miserable and 
ragged a condition (cf. Hor. A. P. 96). 

Telepte. [Thala.] 

Telesia (Telesinus: Telese), a town in Sam- 
nium in the valley of the Calor, on the road 
from Allifae to Beneventum, taken by Hannibal 



in the second Punic war, and afterwards retaken 
by the Romans. It was colonised by Augustus 
with a body of veterans. It was the birthplace 
of Pontius, who fought against Sulla, and who 
was hence surnamed Telesinus. (Liv. xxii. 13, 
xxiv. 20 ; Strab. p. 250.) The ruins show a 
circuit of walls about one mile and a half in cir- 
cumference with several gates. They belong to 
the Roman, not to the Samnite, town. 

Telesilla (TeAeViAAa), a lyric poetess of Argos, 
about b. c. 510. In the war of Argos against 
Sparta, she not only encouraged her countrymen 
by her lyre and song, but she took up arms at 
the head of a band of her countrywomen, and 
greatly contributed to the victory which they 
gained over the Spartans. In memory of this 
exploit, her statue was erected in the temple' of 
Aphrodite at Argos, with the emblems of a 
poetess and a heroine ; Ares was worshipped in 
that city as a patron deity of women, and the 
prowess of her female associates was comme- 
morated by the annual festival called Hybris- 
tica. The scanty remnants of her poetry are in 
Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Graec. (Plut. de Mul. Virt. 
p. 245 ; Paus. ii. 20, 7 ; cf. Hdt. vi. 77.) 

Telesinus, Pontius, [Pontius.] 

Telestas or Telestes (TeA<=<rTas, TeAecr^s), 
of Selinus, a poet of the later Athenian dithy- 
ramb, about b. c. 398. A few lines of his poetry 
are preserved by Athenaeus (pp. 616, 626, 637). 

Telethrius (TeAeflpios), a mountain in the N. 
of Euboea near Histiaea (Strab. p. 445). 

Teleutias (TeAeim'cts), half-brother of Agesi- 
laus II., was a Spartan admiral, who served in 
the Corinthian war b. c. 393, off the coast of 
Asia b. c. 390-388, and against the Olynthians b. c. 
382 (Xen. Hell. iv. 23-25, v. 1-3 ; Diod. xv. 21.) 

Tellenae, a town in Latium between the 
later Via Ostiensis and the Via Appia, destroyed 
by Ancus Marcius (Dionys. i. 16, iii. 38, 43 ; 
Liv. i. 33). It was, however, partially restored, 
for it existed in Strabo's time (Strab. p. 231). 
Some writers identify with it the ruins at 
Giostra, about ten miles from Rome. 

Tellus. [Gaea.] 

Telmessus or Telmissus (TeA^ <ra6s, TeA- 
(xiaads : Macri), a city of Lycia, near the borders 
of Caria, on a gulf called Telmissicus Sinus, and 
close to the promontory Telmissis (Strab. p. 
665 ; Liv. xxxvii. 16 ; Lucan, viii. 248). There 
are considerable remains on the site, of a theatre, 
porticoes, and rock tombs. 

Telo Martius (Toulon), a port-town of Gallia 
Narbonensis on the Mediterranean, is rarely 
mentioned by the ancient writers, and did not 
become a place of importance till a late period 
of the Roman empire. It may be the town 
mentioned in Sil. It. xiv. 443. 

Telos (TrjAos : Tt)Aios : Telos or Piskopi), a 
small island of the Carpathian sea, one of the 
Sporades, lay off the coast of Caria SW. of the 
mouth of the Sinus Doridis, between Rhodes 
and Nisyrus. It was also called Agathusa. 
(Hdt. vii. 153 ; Strab. p. 488 ; Plin. iv. 69.) At 
the town of Telos there are the remains of 
the walls and a Greek temple converted into a 
church, beside several ancient tombs. 

Telphussa. [Thelpusa.] 

Temenidae. [Temenus.] 

Temenites. [Syeacusae.] 

Temenus (Tr^eeos), son of Aristomachus, was 
one of the Heraclidae who invaded Pelopon- 
nesus. After the conquest of the peninsula, he 
received Argos as his share. His descendants, 
the Temenidae, being expelled from Argos, are 
said to have founded the kingdom of Macedonia, 
whence the kings of Macedonia called them- 



TEMESA 

selves Temenidae. (Hdt. viii. 138 ; Thuc. ii. 99 ; 
Abgos.) 

Temesa or Tempsa iTemesaeus or Tempsa- 
nus : Torre del Piano del Caaale), a town in 
Bruttinm on the Sinus Terinaeus, was one of 
the most ancient Ausonian towns in the S. of 
Italy, and is said to have been afterwards 
colonised by a body of Aetolians under Thoas 
(Strab. p. 225). At a still later time it was suc- 
cessively in the possession of the Locrians, of 
the Bruttians, and finally of the Romans, who 
colonised it in B. c. 19G (Liv. xxxiv. 45). There 
was a sanctuary of Polites near it (Paus. vi. 6, 
7). Temesa was famous for its copper mines 
(Ov. Met. xv. 707; Stat. Silv. i. 1, 42;. 

Temnus. 1. ( T J> Tfi/j.vov opos : Demirdji- 
Dagh), a mountain of Mysia, extending eastward 
from Ida to the borders of Phrygia, and dividing 
Mysia into two parts. It contains the sources 
of the Macestus, Mysius, Caicus, and Evenus. 
(Strab. p. 616.) — 2. (Kayajik), a city of Aeolis, 
in the NW. of Lydia, thirty miles S. of Cyme. 
Its site has been identified with remains of a 
citadel, and was of considerable extent on a hill 
above the station of Emin Aalim, seventeen 
miles down the river from Magnes : that is, 
upon the hill side above the right bank of the 
Hermus a little way above the point where the 
river enters the lower valley of Larissa, and a 
few miles off the road from Smyrna to Cyme. 
It was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in the 
reign of Tiberius, and is not noticed by Pliny. 
Under the Byzantine empire it was called Arch- 
angelos. (Strab. p. 621 ; Xen. Hell. iv. 8, 5 ; 
Hdt i. 149 ; Pol. v. 77 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 47.) 

Tempe (Te/tinj, contr. of Te>7rea), a beautiful 
and romantic valley in the X. of Thessaly, be- 
tween Mts. Olympus and Ossa, through which 
the Peneus escapes into the sea. The scenery 
of this glen is frequently praised by poets ; and 
it was also celebrated as one of the favourite 
haunts of Apollo, who had transplanted his 
laurel from this spot to Delphi. The whole 
valley is rather less than five miles in length, 
and opens gradually to the E. into a wide plain. 
Tempe is also of great importance in history, as 
it is the only pass through which an army can I 
invade Thessaly from the X. In some parts the 
rocks on each side of the Peneus approach so 
close to each other as only to leave room be- 
tween them for the stream, and the road 
is cut out of the rock in the narrowest 
point. Tempe is the only channel through 
which the waters of the Thessalian plain de- 
scend into the sea ; and it was the common 
opinion in antiquity that -these waters had once 
covered the country with a vast lake, till an 
outlet was formed for them by some great con- 
vulsion in nature which rent the rocks of Tempe ! 
asunder. (Hdt. vii. 129 ; Strab. p. 430 ; Caes. 
B.C. iii. 34 ; Catull. lxiv. 285 ; Ov. Met. i. 568; : 
Verg. Georg. ii. 469 ; Hor. Od. iii. 1, 24.) So 
celebrated was the scenery of Tempe that its 
name was given to any beautiful valley. Cicero 
so calls a valley in the land of the Sabines near 
Reate, through which the river Velinus flowed 
(Cic. ad Att. iv. 15) ; and there was a Tempe in 
Sicily, through whicli the river Helorus flowed, 
hence called by Ovid Tempe Heloria (Fast. iv. 
477). 

Tempyra, a town in Thrace at the foot of a 
narrow mountain pass between Mt. Rhodope 
and the coast (Ov. Trist. i. 10, 21 ; Liv. xxxviii. 
41.) 

Tencteri or Tenchten, a people of Germany 
dwelling on the Rhine between the Ruhr und 
the Sieg, S. of the Usipetes, in conjunction with i 



TENES 925 
whom their name usually occurs. They crossed 
the Rhine together with the Usipetes, with the 
intention of settling in Gaul; but they were 
defeated by Caesar with great slaughter, and 
those who escaped took refuge in the territories 
of their S. neighbours, the SuGAMBBI. The 
Tencteri afterwards belonged to the League of 
the Cherusci, and at a still later period they 
are mentioned as a portion of the confederacy 
of the Franks. (Caes. B.G. iv. 1,4-16; Tac. 
Germ. 32, Ann. xiii. 56, Hist. iv. 77.) 

Tenea (Tevea), a town in Corinthia. about 
eight miles S. of Corinth (Paus. ii. 5, 4; Strab. 
p. 380 ; Cic. ad Att. vi. 2, 3). 

Tenedos or Tenedus (TeVeSos : TWSios), a 
small island of the Aegaean sea, off the coast of 
Troas, of an importance very disproportionate 
to its size, on account of its position near the 
mouth of the Hellespont, from which it is about 
twelve miles distant. Its distance from the 
coast of the Troad was forty stadia (four geog. 
miles), and from Lesbos fifty-six stadia: itscircuit 
was eighty stadia. It was called, in early times, 
by the names of Calydna, Leucophrys, Phoenice, 
and Lyrnessus. It had an ancient temple of 
Apollo (17. i. 38, 452). The mythical derivation 
of its usual name is from Tenes, son of Cycnus 
(Strab. p. 380 ; Diod. v. 83). It had an Aeolian 




Coin of Tenedos, of '2nd cent. B.C. 
Obv., double head, male and female, explained by some as 
Bacchus dimorphus : rev., texeaiqn : double axe, owl 
and grapes, suggesting a combined worship of Athene 
and Dionysus. .Steph. B]iz. s.r. Tcv«5o f , cites Aristotle as 
referring this type of the double axe to a decree of a 
king of Tenedos that adulterers should be beheaded. It 
Is rightly objected that this would be a very unlikely 
theme to introduce on a coin ; more probably it refers 
to a local myth Imperfectly understood : cf. Paus. x. 14.] 

city of the same name, with two harbours. Its 
name appears in several proverbs, such as 
TeWSioj tt4\(Kvs, T. av6pumos, T. avKrirris, T. 
kok6v. It appears in the legend of the Trojan 
war as the station to which the Greeks withdrew 
their fleet in order to induce the Trojans to 
think that they had departed, and to receive 
the wooden horse (Verg. Aen. ii. 21). In the 
Persian war it was used by Xerxes as a naval 
station (Hdt. vi. 31). It afterwards became a 
tributary ally of Athens, and adhered to her 
during the whole of the Peloponnesian war, and 
down to the peace of Antalcidas, by which it 
was surrendered to the Persians (Thuc. ii. 2 ; 
Xen. Hell. v. 1, 6 ; Demosth. c. Polycl. p. 1223.) 
At the Macedonian conquest the Tenedians re- 
gained their liberty (Arr. An. ii. 2). In the war 
against Philip III., Attalus and the Romans 
used Tenedos as a naval station, and in the 
Mithridutic war Lucullus gained a naval victory 
over Mithridates off the island (Plut. Lucull. 
3). About this time the Tenedians placed them- 
selves under the protection of Alexandria Troas 
(Paus. x. 14, 4). The island was celebrated for 
the beauty of its women (Atheu. p. 009). 

Tenea or Tennes (TVji'njt), son of Cycnus and 
Proclea, and brother of Hemithea. Cycnus was 
king of Colonae in Troas. His second wife was 
Philonome, who fell in love with her stepson ; 



926 



TENOS 



TEBENTIUS 



but as be repulsed her advances, she accused 
him to his father, who threw both his son and 
daughter in a chest into the sea. But the chest 
was driven on the coast of the island of Leuco- 
phrys, of which the inhabitants elected him 
king, and which he called Tenedos, after his own 
name. Cycnus at length heard of the inno- 
cence of his son, killed Philonome, and went to 
his children in Tenedos. Here both Cycnus and 
Tenes were slain by Achilles. Tenes was after- 
wards worshipped as a hero in Tenedos. (Paus. 
x. 14, 2 ; Diod. v. 83 ; Strab. p. 640.) 

Tenos (Ttjvos : Ti]uios : Tino), a small island 
in the Aegaean sea, SE. of Andros and N. of 
Delos. It is about fifteen miles in length. It 
was originally called Hydrussa ('TSpovcraa) be- 
cause it was well watered, and Ophiussa 
('0(pwv<Tcra) because it abounded in snakes. 
(Plin. iv. 66 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.) It possessed a 




Coin of Tenos, of 4th cent. B.C. 
Obv., head of Zeus Ammon ; rev., th ; Poseidon with 
trident and fish. 



town of the same name on the site of the modem 
S. Nicolo. It had also a celebrated temple of 
Poseidon, which is mentioned in the time of the 
emperor Tiberius. (Hdt. viii. 82 ; Thuc. vii. 57 ; 
Strab. p. 487 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 63.) The wine of 
Tenos was celebrated in antiquity and is still 
valued at the present day. 

Tentyra (ts Tevrvpa : TecTupiVrjs, Tentyrites : 
Dernier ah, Bu.), a city of Upper Egypt, on the 
W. bank of the Nile, between Abydos and 
Coptos, with celebrated temples of Hathor — the 
Queen of Heaven ( = Aphrodite), who was spe- 
cially worshipped there — of Isis, and of Typhon 
(Strab. p. 814 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 6). Its people were 
distinguished for their hatred of the crocodile ; 
and upon this and the contrary propensities of 
the people of Ombi, Juvenal founds his fifteenth 
Satire. [Ombi.] There are still magnificent re- 
mains of the temples of Hathor and Isis. 

Teos [r\ Tews : Trji'os, Telus : Sighajik), one of 
the Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor, re- 
nowned as the birthplace of the lyric poet Ana- 
cbeon. It stood on the S. side of the isthmus 
which connects the peninsula of M. Mimas with 
the mainland of Lydia, at the bottom of the bay 
between the promontories of Coryceum and 
Myonnesus (Strab. p. 663; Hdt. i. 142). It was 




Coin of Teos in Ionia, of 5th cent. B.C. 
Oil)., griffin (symbol of Asiatic Dionysus ; rev., ArNON 
THinN : in incuse square. 

a flourishing seaport, until, to free themselves 
from the Persian yoke, most of its inhabitants 
retired to Abdera (Hdt. i. 168). It was still, 
however, a place of importance in the time of 
the Boman emperors (Mel. i. 17 ; Ptol. v. 2, 6 ; 



Plin. v. 138). It had two harbours, and a cele- 
brated temple of Dionysus, of which, as well as 
of the theatre, there are fine remains. 

Teredon (Tep-qSdv : prob. Dorah), a city of 
Babylonia, on the W. side of the Tigris, below 
its junction with the Euphrates, and not far 
from its mouth. It was a great emporium for 
the traffic with Arabia. It is no doubt the 
Diridotis (AipiSarts) of Arrian. 

Terentia. 1. Wife of M. Cicero, the orator, 
to whom she bore two children, a son and a 
daughter. She was a woman of sound sense 
and great firmness of character. After Cicero's 
banishment in B.C. 58, Terentia by her letters 
endeavoured to keep up his fainting spirits, and 
exerted herself on his behalf among his friends 
in Italy. During the Civil war, however, Cicero 
was offended with her conduct in money matters, 
and divorced her in 46 {ad Ati. xi. 16, 24 ; 
Plut. Cic. 41). Shortly afterwards he married 
Publilia, a young girl of whose property he had 
the management. Terentia could not have been 
less than fifty at the time of her divorce, and it 
is not probable that she married again. It is 
related, indeed, by Jerome that she married 
Sallustthe historian, and subsequently Messalla 
Corvinus (Hieron. in Jovin. i. p. 52) ; but these 
marriages are not mentioned by any other 
writer, and may be rejected. Terentia is 
said to have attained the age of 103. — 2. Also 
called Terentilla, the wife of Maecenas and 
believed to be the mistress of Augustus. The 
intrigue between Augustus and Terentia is 
said to have disturbed the good understanding 
which subsisted between the emperor and his 
minister. [Maecenas.] 

Terentianus Maurus, a Boman poet, prob- 
ably lived near the end of the second century 
of our era, and was a native of Africa, as his 
surname, Maurus, indicates. There is still 
extant a poem of Terentianus, entitled De 
Literis, Syllabis, Pedibus, Metris, which treats 
of prosody and the different kinds of metre 
with much elegance and skill. The work is 
edited by Santen and Van Lennep, Traj. ad 
Bhen. 1825, and by Lachmann, Berol. 1836. 

P. Terentius Afer, usually called Terence, 
the celebrated comic poet, was born at Carthage 
probably about 190 B.C., and at an early age 
came to Borne, where he became the slave of 
P. Terentius Lucanus, a Boman senator. A 
handsome person and promising talents recom- 
mended Terence to his master, who afforded 
him the best education of the age, and finally 
manumitted him. On his manumission, ac- 
cording to the usual practice, Terence assumed 
his patron's nomen, Terentius, having been 
previously called Publius or Publipor. His 
Life in Suetonius de Po'etis, is the chief 
authority. The Andria was the first play 
offered by Terence for representation. The 
curule aediles referred the piece to Caecilius, 
then one of the most popular play-writers at 
Bome. Unknown and meanly clad, Terence 
began to read from a low stool his opening 
scene. A few verses showed the elder poet 
that no ordinary writer was before him, and the 
young aspirant, then in his twenty-seventh 
year, was invited to share the couch and supper 
of his judge. This reading of the Andria, 
however, must have preceded its performance 
nearly two years, for Caecilius died in 168, and 
it was not acted till 166, Meanwhile, copies 
were in circulation, envy was awakened, and 
Luscius Lavinius, a veteran and not very 
successful play-writer, began his unwearied 
attacks on the dramatic and personal character 



TEBENTIUS 



TEEIDATES 



927 



of the author. The Andria was successful, 
and, aided by the accomplishments and good 
address of Terence himself, was the means of 
introducing him to the most refined and in- 
tellectual circles of Eome. His chief patrons 
were Laelius and the younger Scipio, both of 
whom treated him as an equal, and are said 
even to have assisted him in the composition 
of his plays. (Suet. I.e. ; cf. Cic. ad Att. vii. 
3, 10 ; Quint, x. 1, 99.j After living some 
years at Eome, Terence went to Greece, and 
while there he translated 108 of Menander's 
comedies. He never returned to Italy, and 
we have various accounts of his death. Accord- 
ing to one story, after embarking at Bruudu- 
sium, he was never heard of more ; according 
to others, he died at Stymphalus in Arcadia 
(Av.son.Epnt. xviii. 16), in Leucadia, or atPatrae 
in Achaia. One of his biographers said he was 
drowned, with all the fruits of his sojourn in 
Greece, on his home-passage (see Suet. I.e.). 
But the prevailing report was, that his trans- 
lations of Menander were lost at sea, and that 
grief for their loss caused his death. He died 
in the thirty-sixth year of his age, in 159 or in 
the year following. He left a daughter, but 
nothing is known of his family. Six comedies 
are all that remain to us ; and they are prob- 
ably all that Terence produced. His later 
versions of Menander were, in all likelihood, 
from their number and the short time in which 
they were made, merely studies for future 
dramas of his own. They were brought for- 
ward at the following seasons : (1) Andria, ' the 
woman of Andros,' so-called from the birth- 
place of Glycerium, its heroine, was first repre- 
sented at the Megalesian Games, on the 4th of 
April, 166. It was an adaptation of Menander's 
'AvSpia with some of the TlepivOia of Menander 
incorporated in it (ed. Freeman and Sloman, 
1886). (2) Hecyra, ' the Stepmother,' produced 
at the Megalesian Games, in 165. (8) Heauton- 
timoroumenos, ' the Self-Tormentor,' performed 
at the Megalesian Games, 163, adapted from 
the 'Eavrbv Tifiupov/xevos of Menander (ed. 
Shuckburgh, Lond. 1878). (4) Eiuiuchus, 'the 
Eunuch,' played at the Megalesian Games, 161. 
It was at the time the most popular of Terence's 
comedies. It was adapted from the Eivovxos 
and the K6\a£ of Menander (ed. by Papillon, 
1870). (5) Phormio, was performed in the 
same year as the preceding, at the Eoman 
Games on the 1st of October. It was adapted 
from the 'E7n5i/«z<r<J/ue»'OS of Apollodorus (ed. 
Bond and Walpole, Lond. 1879; Dziatzko, 
Leips. 1885). (6) Adelphi, ' the Brothers,' was 
acted for the first time at the funeral games of 
L. Aemilius Paullus, 160. It was adapted from 
the 'AS(\<poi of Menander with one scene 
from the 2vvairo6vri<rKovT(s of Diphilus (ed. 
Ashmore, 1893). — The comedies of Terence 
have been translated into most of the languages 
of modern Europe, and in conjunction with those 
of Plautus were, on the revival of the drama, the 
models of playwriters. The ancient critics are 
unanimous in ascribing to Terence purity and 
elegance of language, and nearly so in denying 
him vis comica. But it should be recollected 
that four of Terence's six plays are more or less 
sentimental comedies — in which vis comica 
is not a primary element. Moreover, Terence 
is generally contrasted with Plautus, with 
whom he had very little in common. Granting 
to the elder poet the highest genius for exciting 
laughter, and a natural force which his rival 
wanted, there will remain in Terence greater 
consistency of plot and character, closer ob- 



servation of generic and individual distinctions, 
deeper pathos, subtler wit, more skill and 
variety in metre and in rhythm, and a wider 
command of the middle region between sport 
and earnest. It may be objected that Terence's 
superiority in these points arises from his copy- 

i ing his Greek originals. But no servile copy 

I is an animated copy, and we have corresponding 
fragments enough of Menander to prove that 
Terence retouched and sometimes improved 
his model. In summing up his merits we ought 
not to omit the praise which has been univer- 
sally accorded him — that, although a foreigner 
and a freedmau, he divides with Cicero and 
Caesar the palm of pure Latinity. — Editions of 
the complete works by Bentley, 1726 ; Pleck- 
eisen, Leips. 1857 ; Wagner, Lond. 1869 ; 
Dziatzko, Leips. 1884. 
Terentlus Culleo. "Culleo.] 
Terentlus Varro. [Vabro.1 
Teres (Tr,pvs). 1- King of "the Odrysae and 
father of Sitalces, was the founder of the 
great Odrysian monarchy (Hdt. iv. 80, vii. 137 ; 
Thuc. ii. 29). — 2. King of a portion of Thrace 
in the time of Philip of Macedon (Diod. xvi. 71). 

Tereus iTrjpfvs), son of Ares, king of the 
Thracians in Daulis, afterwards Phocis I Thuc. 

i ii. 29). Pandion, king of Attica, who had two 
daughters, Philomela and Procne, called in the 
assistance of Tereus against some enemy, and 

, gave him his daughter Procne in marriage. 
Tereus became by her the father of Itys, and 
then concealed her in the country, that he 
might dishonour her sister Philomela, whom he 
deceived by saying that Procne was dead. At 

j the same time he deprived Philomela of her 
tongue. [Ovid (Met. vi. 5651 reverses the story 
by stating that Tereus told Procne that her 
sister Philomela was dead. Philomela, how- 
ever, soon learned the truth, and made it known 
to her sister by a few words which she wove 
into a peplus. Procne thereupon killed her 
own son Itys, and served up the flesh of tl:e 
child in a dish before Tereus. She then fled 
with her sister. Tereus pursued them with an 
axe, and when the sisters were overtaken they 
prayed to the gods to change them into birds. 
Procne, accordingly, became a nightingale, 
Philomela a swallow, and Tereus a hoopoo. 
(Apollod. iii. 14, 8 ; Tzetz. Chil. vii. 142, 459 ; 

; Ov. Met. vi. 424-675; Serv. ad Eel. vi. 78.) 
According to some, Procne became a swallow, 
Philomela a nightingale, and Tereus a hawk 

1 (Hyg. Fab. 45). It is clear that this story is a 

j development of the older myth about Aedon, 
daughter of Pandareus (Od. xix. 58; Aedon), 
and that the plaintive 6ong of the nightingale 
had much to do with its origin, as even Pausa- 
nias admits (i. 41, 8). 

Tergeste (Tergestinus: Trieste), a town of 

! Istria, on a bay in the N.E. of the Adriatic gulf, 

' called after it Tergestinus Sinus. It was at 
first an insignificant place, with which the 
Eomans becume acquainted in their wars with 

[ the Iapydes ; but under the Eoman dominion 
it became a town of considerable commercial 
importance. It was made a Eoman colony by 
Vespasian. iStrab. pp. 215, 311 ; Plin. iii. 127 ; 
Cacs. Ii. G. viii. 24 ; App. Illyr, 18.) 

Teria iT^pfiTjs upos alirv, Horn.), a mountain 
of Mysia, probably in the neighbourhood of 
Cyzicus. Some identified it with a hill near 
Lampsacus, on which was a temple of Cybele. 
(//. ii. 829 ; Strab. pp. 565, 569.) 

Terias UP. di S. Lionardo), a river in Sicily 
near Leontini (Thuc. vi. 50, 96; Diod. xiv. 14). 
Teridates. [Tiridai i s 



928 



TEKINA 



TEUCEE 



Terina (Terinaeus : 8. JSufemia), a town on 
the "W. coast of Bruttium, from which the Sinus 
Terinaeus derived its name (Thuc. vi. 104 ; 
Plin. iii. 72). It was a Greek city founded by 
Croton, and was originally a place of some im- 
portance ; but it was destroyed by Hannibal in 
the second Punic war (Diod. xvi. 15 ; Liv. viii. 
24 ; Strab. p. 256). 

Terniantia, Termes, or Termesus (Termesti- 
nus : Tiermes), a town of the Arevaci in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, originally situated on a 
steep hill, the inhabitants of which frequently 
resisted the Romans, who compelled them in 
consequence to abandon the town, and build a 
new one on the plain, B.C. 98 (Apx^. Sisp.yi. 76, 
99 ; Tac. Ann. iv. 45). 

Termera (to; Tep/u.epa : Assarlik), a Dorian 
city in Caria, on the promontory of Termerium 
(Tep/j.epiov), the NW. headland of the Sinus 
Ceramicus. Under the Eomans, it was a free 
oity. (Hdt. v. 37 ; Strab. p. 657.) 

Termes. [Termantia.] 

Termessus (Tep,u?j<r<r(Ss : Termessenses), a 
city of Pisidia, high up on the Taurus, in the 
pass through which the river Catarrhactes 
flowed. It was almost impregnable by nature 
and art, so that even Alexander did not attempt 
to take it. (Strab. pp. 630, 666 ; Pol. xxii. 18 ; 
Liv. xxxviii. 15.) In later times its full title 
was Termessus Jovia et Eudocias. Termessus 
was recognised as a free city by the Lex An- 
tonia de Termessensibus (C.I.L. i. 204 ; Diet, of 
Ant. art. Lex Antonia.) 

Terminus, a Roman divinity presiding over 
boundaries and frontiers. His worship is said 
to have been instituted by Numa, who ordered 
that everyone should mark the boundaries of his 
landed property by stones consecrated to Jupiter, 
and at these boundary-stones every year sacri- 
fices should be offered at the festival of the Ter- 
minalia (Dionys. ii. 74 ; Plut. Num. 16). The 
Terminus of the Roman state originally stood 
between the fifth and sixth milestones on the 
road towards Laurentum, near a place called 
Festi. Another public Terminus stood in the 
temple of Jupiter in the Capitol. It is said 
that when this temple was to be founded, all 
the gods gave way to Jupiter and Juno, with 
the exception of Terminus and Juventas, 
whose sanctuaries the auguries would not allow 
to be removed. This legend refers to his 
steadfastness of position and also to the fact 
that he was identified in his functions with Jupi- 
ter Terminalis (Liv. i. 55 ; Varro, L.L. v. 74). It 
was taken as an omen that the Roman state 
would remain ever undiminished and young, 
and the chapels of the two divinities were in- 
closed within the walls of the new temple. 
The statue of Terminus was merely a stone or 
post placed at boundaries. This stone was 
consecrated by a sacrifice ; the blood of the 
victim was poured into a trench with the body 
of the victim and offerings of fruits : the 
whole was consumed by a fire of pine-branches, 
and the stone set upon the bed of ashes. 
Periodical festivals were held, when the owners 
of the adjacent properties crowned the stone 
with garlands and offered a lamb or a pig, corn, 
honey and wine. (Ov. Fast. 639 ; Hor. Epod. 
ii. 59 ; Diet, of Ant. art. Terminalia.) 

Terpander (Te'pTrafSpos), the father of Greek 
music, and through it of lyric poetry. He was 
a native of Antissa in Lesbos, and flourished 
between B.C. 700 and 650 (Pind. ap. Athen. p. 
635 ; Plut. de Mas. 30, p. 1141). He removed 
from Lesbos to Sparta, and there introduced 
his new system of music, and established the 



first musical school or system that existed in 
Greece. He added three strings to the lyre, 
which before bis time had only four strings, 
thus making it seven-stringed. But other 
accounts seem to show that he only raised the 
scale to the compass of an octave, without 
altering the number of strings. [See Diet, of 
Ant. art. Lijra.] His music produced a 
powerful effect upon the Spartans, and he was 
held in high honour by them, during his life 
and after his death. He was the first who 
obtained a victory in the musical contests at 
the festival of the Carnea (676) (Athen. p. 635). 
We have only three or four fragments of the 
remains of his poetry (Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Graec). 

Terpsichore (Tep»|/ix<fpa), one of the nine 
Muses, presided over the choral song and 
dancing. [Musab.] 

Terra. [Gaea.] 

Terracma, more usually written Tarracma. 
[Taeeacina.] 

Tertullianus, Q. Septlmius Florens, usually 
called Tertullian, the Christian Apologist, a.d. 
160-240. [See Diet, of Christ. Biogr.] 

Testa, C. Trebatius, a Roman jurist, and a 
contemporary and friend of Cicero. He was 
recommended by Cicero to Julius Caesar during 
his proconsulship of Gaul, and he followed 
Caesar's party after the Civil war broke out 
(Cic. ad Fam. xii. 5-18). Cicero dedicated to 
Trebatius his book of Topica, which he wrote 
to explain to him this book of Aristotle. Tre- 
batius enjoyed considerable reputation under 
Augustus as a lawyer. In politics he advocated 
moderate and conciliatory measures both to 
Caesar and to Augustus (Justin. Inst. ii. 25). 
Horace addressed to him the first Satire of the 
second Book. Trebatius was a pupil of Q. Cor- 
nelius Maximus, and master of Labeo. He 
wrote some books De Jure Oivili, and De Be- 
ligionibus (Gell. vii. 12 ; Macrob. iii. 7, 8). 

Tethys (Tridvs), daughter of Uranus and 
Gaea, and wife of Oceanus, by whom she be- 
came the mother of the Oceanides and of the 
numerous river-gods (Hes. Th. 136, 337 ; Apollod. 
i. 1, 3 ; Ov. Fast. v. 81 ; Verg. Georg. i. 31). 

Tetrica (perh. the Gran Sasso), a mountain 
on the frontiers of Pisenum and the land of the 
Sabines, belonging to the great chain of the 
Apennines (Verg. Aen. vii. 713 ; Sil. It. viii. 
417 ; Varro, B.B. ii. 1, 5). 

Tetrlcus, C. Pesuvius, one of the Thirty 
Tyrants, and the last of the pretenders who 
ruled Gaul during its separation from the em- 
pire under Gallienus and his successor. He 
reigned in Gaul from a.d. 267 to 274, and was 
defeated by Aurelian in 274, at the battle of 
Chalons, on which occasion he was believed to 
have betrayed his army to the emperor. It is 
certain that although Tetricus, along with his 
son, graced the triumph of the conqueror, he 
was immediately afterwards treated with the 
greatest distinction by Aurelian. (Trebell. Poll. 
Trig. Tyr. 23 ; Eutrop. ix. 9 ; Zonar. xii. 27.) 

Teucer (Teikpos). 1. Son of the river-god. 
Seaman der, by the Nymph Idaea, was the first 
king of Troy, whence the Trojans are sometimes 
called Teucri. Dardanus of Samothrace came 
to Teucer, received his daughter Batea or Arisbe 
in marriage, and became his successor in the 
kingdom. According to another account, Dar- 
danus was a native prince of Troy, and Sca- 
mander and Teucer immigrated into Troas from 
Crete, bringing with them the worship of 
Apollo Smintheus. (Hdt. vii. 122 ; Apollod. iii. 
12, 1 ; Strab. p. 604 ; Dardanus.)— 2. Son of 
Telamon and Hesione, was a stepbrother of 



TEUCRI 

Ajax, and the best archer among the Greeks at 
Troy. (17. viii. 281, xiii. 170; Soph. Ajax.) 
On his return from the Trojan war, Telamon 
refused to receive him in Salamis, because he 
had not avenged the death of his brother Ajax. 
Teucer thereupon sailed away in search of a 
new home, which he found in the island of 
Cyprus, which was given to him by Belus, king 
of Sidon. He there founded the town of 
Salamis, and married Eune, the daughter of 
Cyprus, by whom he became the father of Aste- 
ria. (Pind. Nem. iv. 60 ; Aesch. Pers. 890 ; Paus. 
ii. 29, 4; Hor. Od. i. 7, 21; cf. Ajax; Salamis.) 

Teucri. [Mysia; Troas.] 

Teumessus iTmfi-rtatrds), a mountain and vil- 
lage in Boeotia, near Hypatus, and close to 
Thebes, on the road from the latter place to 
Chalcis. It was from this mountain that 
Dionysus, enraged with the Thebans, sent the 
fox which committed such devastations in their 
territory. (Paus. ix. 19, 1 ; Ant. Lib. 41.) 

Teuta (TeuTa), wife of Agron, king of the 
Illyrians, assumed the sovereign power on the 
death of her husband, B.C. 231. In consequence 
of the injuries inflicted by the piratical expedi- 
tions of her subjects upon the Italian merchants, 
the Romans sent C. and L. C'oruncanius to 
demand satisfaction, but she not only refused 
to comply with their demands, but caused the 
younger of the two brothers to be assassinated 
on his way home. (Pol. ii. 4-8 ; Zonar. viii. 19.) 
War was now declared against her by the 
Romans. The greater part of her territory was 
soon conquered, and she was obliged to sue for 
peace, which was granted to her (B.C. 228), on 
condition of her giving up the greater part of 
her dominions. (Pol. ii. 9-12 ; App. Illyr. 7.) 

Teuthrania. "Mysia.] 

Teuthras (Tevdpas), an ancient king of Mysia, 
who married (or, according to other accounts, 
adopted as his daughter) Auge, the daughter of 
Aleus (Paus. viii. 4 ; Strab. p. 571). He also 
received with hospitality her son Telephus. 
when the latter came to Asia in search of his 
mother. He was succeeded in the kingdom of 
Mysia by Telephus. [Telephus.] 

Teuthras (TevBpas), a mountain in the Mysian 
district of Teuthrania, a SW. branch of Tem- 
nus. [Tejrjus.I 

Teutoburgiensis Saltus, a range of hills in 
Germany covered with wood, extending N. of 
the Lippe, from Osnabriick to Paderborn, and 
known in the present day by the name of the 
Teutoburt/er Wald or Lippische Wald. It is 
celebrated on account of the defeat and de- 
struction of Varus and three Roman legions by 
the Germans under Arminius, a.d. 9. (Tac. 
Ann. i. 60 ; cf. Dio Cass. lvi. 20, 21.) [Varus. ] 

Teutones or Teutoni, a powerful people in 
Germany, who invaded Gaul and the Roman 
dominions along with the Cimbri, at the end 
of the second century B.C. The history of 
their invasion is given under Cimbri. The 
name Teutones is not a collective name of the 
whole people of Germany, but only of one par- 
ticular tribe, who probably dwelt on the coast 
of the Bnltic, near the Cimbri. 

Thabor, Tabor, or Atabyrlum Vhra&vpiov. 
LXX : 'lrafivpiov, Joseph. : Jebcl Tur), an 
isolated mountain at the E. end of the plain of 
Esdraelon in Galilee, between 1700 and 1800 
feet high. Its summit was occupied by a forti- 
fied town, under the Maccabees and the Ro- 
mans. [Cf. Diet, of the Bible ] 

Thabraca or Tabraca fedffpaxa, TdfSpaita : 
Tabnrca), a city of Nnmidia, at the mouth of 
the river Tusca, and on the frontier towards 



THALES 



929 



Zeugitana in a well-wooded district (Ptol. vi. 
3, 5 ; Juv. x. 194; Claud. Laud. Stil. i. 359). . 

Thais (0aij), a celebrated Athenian cour- 
tesan, who accompanied Alexander the Great 
on his expedition into Asia. Her name is best 
known from the story of her having stimulated 
the conqueror during a great festival at Per- 
sepolis, to set fire to the palace of the Persian 
kings ; but this anecdote, immortalised as it has 
been by Dryden's famous ode, is in all proba- 
bility a mere fable. (Athen. p. 576 ; Diod. 
xvii. 72 ; Plut. Alex. 38 ; Curt. v. 7, 3.) After 
the death of Alexander, Thai's attached herself 
to Ptolemy Lagi, by whom she became the 
mother of two sons, Leontiscus and Lagus, and 
of a daughter, Irene (Athen. /. c). 

Thala (ei\a : Thala), a great city of Nu- 
midia, NE. of Theveste, and seventy-one Roman 
miles XW. of Capsa (Sail. Jug. 75, 77, 80, 89; 
Tac. Ann. iii. 21). 

Thalamae (0aAa//oi), a fortified town in Elis, 
situated in the mountains above Pylos {Xen. 
Hell. iv. 4,26; Pol. iv. 75). 

Thaiassius. [Talassius.] 

Thales (0aA.i}s), the Ionic philosopher, a con- 
temporary of Solon and Croesus, and one of the 
Seven Sages, was born at Miletus about B.C. 
636, and died about 546, at the age of ninety, 
though the exact date neither of his birth nor of 
his death is known. He is said to have pre- 
dicted the eclipse of the sun which happened in 
the reign of the Lydian king Alyattes ; to have 
diverted the course of the Halys in the time of 
Croesus ; and later, in order to unite the 
Ionians when threatened by the Persians, to 
have instituted a federal council in Teos. Ari- 
stotle preserves a story of his knowledge of 
meteorology which was turned to a practical use 
(Pol. i. 11, p. 1259). In the lists of the; Seven 
Sages his name seems to have stood at the 
head ; and he displayed his wisdom both by 
political sagacity, and by prudence in acquiring 
wealth. He was also one of the founders in 
Greece of the study of philosophy and mathe- 
matics. In the latter science, indeed, we fiild 
attributed to him only proofs of propositions 
which belong to the first elements of geometry, 
and which could not possibly have enabled him 
to calculate the eclipses of the sun and the 
course of the heavenly bodies. He may, how- 
ever, have obtained his knowledge of the higher 
branches of mathematics from Egypt, which 
country he is said to have visited. He may be 
regarded as the founder of Greek philosophy, as 
being the first who looked for a physical brigin 
of the world instead of resting upon mythology. 
Thales maintained that water is the origin of 
things, meaning thereby that it is water out of 
which everything arises, and into winch every- 
thing resolves itself, and that the earth floated 
upon the water. Thales left no works behind 
him. (Hdt. i. 74, 170; Diog. Laert. i. 20; 
Aristot. Metaph. i. 3, p. 983.) 

Thales or Thaletas (OaAfjs, ©aA^roj), a 
musician and lyric poet, was a native of Gor- 
tyna in Crete. On the invitation of the Spar- 
tans he removed to Sparta, where, by the 
influence of his music, he appeased the wrath 
of Apollo (who had visited the city with a plague) 
and composed the factions of the citizens, who 
were at enmity with each other. He founded 
the second of the musical schools which 
flourished at Sparta, the first having been 
established by Terpander. (I'lut. de Mus. 9, 
p. 1135; Paus. i. 14, 4.) The date of Thaletas 
is uncertain, but he may probably be placed 
shortly after Terpander. [Teri-andeh.J 

a O 



930 



THALIA 



Thalia (©aAeia, &a\ia). 1. The Muse of 
Comedy. [Musae.] — 2. One of the Nereides. — 

3. One of the Charites or Graces. 
Thallo. [Hobae.] 

Thalna or Talna, M\ Ju venting, was tribune 
of the plebs B.C. 170; praetor 167 ; and consul 
163, when he subdued the Corsicans. The 
senate voted him the honour of a thanksgiving ; 
and he was so overcome with joy at the intelli- 
gence, which he received as he was offering a 
sacrifice, that he dropped down dead on the 
spot. (Liv. xliii. 8, xlv. 16, 21.) 

Thambes (@d/x0ris, ©a^-ns, ©apjj), a moun- 
tain in the E. of Numidia, containing the source 
of the river Rubricatus (Ptol. iv. 3, 16). 

Thamydeni or Thamyditae (®a/iu$r)voi, 
QafivSirai), a people of Arabia Feiix, on the 
Sinus Arabicus (Diod. iii. 44). 

Thamyris or Thamyras (®dfivpis), an ancient 
Thracian bard, was a son of Philammon and 
the nymph Argiope. In his presumption he 
challenged the Muses to a trial of skill, and 
being overcome in the contest, was deprived by 
them of his sight and of the power of singing. 
He was represented with a broken lyre in his 
hand. (II. ii. 595 ; Apollod. 1,3, 3 ; Paus. iv. 
33, 4, ix. 30, 2, x. 7, 2 ; Eur. Bhes. 925.) 

Thanatos. [Mobs.] 

Thapsa, a city of N. Africa, probably identical 
with Ru SIC AD A. 

Thapsacus (®d\paicos: O. T. Tiphsah: an 
Aramean word meaning a ford : ®w\iaKt)vos : 
Ru. at Dibsi), a city of Syria, in the province of 
Chalybonitis, on the left bank of the Euphrates, 
2000 stadia S. of Zeugma, and fifteen parasangs 
from the mouth of the river Chaboras (the 
Araxes of Xenophon). At this place was the 
usual, and for a long time the only, ford of 
the Euphrates, by which a passage was made 
between Upper and Lower Asia. (Xen. An. i. 

4, 11 ; Arr. An. ii. 13 ; Strab. pp. 77, 81, 746.) 
Thapsus (®d\f/os : ©ctyios). 1. A city on the E. 

coast of Sicily, on a peninsula of the same name 
(Isold degli Magnisi), founded by Dorian 
colonists from Megara, who soon abandoned it 
in order to found Megara Hybla. — 2. (Demas, 
Ru.), a city on the E. coast of Byzacena, in 
Africa Propria, where Caesar finally defeated 
the Pompeian army, and finished the Civil war, 
B.C. 46 (Ptol. iv. 3, 10 ; Strab. p. 831 ; Bell. 
Afr. 28). There are remarkable ruins of its 
fortifications [see Diet, of Ant. art. Mums]. 

Thasos or Thasus (®d<ros : ®daios : Thaso or 
Tasso), an island in the N. of the Aegaean sea, 
off the coast of Thrace and opposite the mouth 
of the river Nestus. It was at a very early 
period taken possession of by the Phoenicians, 
on account of its valuable gold mines. Accord- 
ing to tradition, the Phoenicians were led by 
Thasus, son of Poseidon, or Agenor, who came 
from the East in search of Europa, and from 
whom the island derived its name (Hdt. ii. 44, 
vi. 47 ; Paus. v. 25, 12). Thasos was afterwards 
colonised by the Parians, B.C. 708, and among the 
colonists was the poet Archilochus(Thuc.iv. 104 ; 
Strab. p. 487). Besides the gold mines in Thasos 
itself, the Thasians possessed still more valu- 
able gold mines at Scapte Hyle on the opposite 
coast of Thrace. The mines in the island had 
been most extensively worked by the Phoe- 
nicians, but even in the time of Herodotus 
they were still productive. The clear surplus 
revenue of the Thasians before the Persian 
conquest amounted to 200, and sometimes even 
to 300, talents (46,000Z., 66,000Z.), of which sum 
the mines in Scapte Hyle produced eighty 
talents, and those in the island somewhat less 



THEANO 

(Hdt. vi. 46 ; Thuc. iv. 107). They possessed 
at this time a considerable territory on the 
coast of Thrace, and were one of the richest 
and most powerful peoples in the N. of the 
Aegaean. They were subdued by the Persians 
under Mardonius, and subsequently became 
part of the Athenian maritime empire. They 
revolted, however, from Athens in B.C. 465, and 
after sustaining a siege of three years, were 
subdued by Cimon in 463 (Thuc. i. 100 ; Diod. 
xi. 70). They were obliged to surrender to the 
Athenians all their possessions in Thrace, to 
destroy their fortifications, to give up their 
ships, and to pay a large tribute for the future. 
They again revolted from Athens in 411, and 
called in the Spartans, but the island was again 
restored to the Athenians by Thrasybulus' in 
407 (Thuc. viii. 64; Xen. Sell. i. 1, 12). In 
addition to its gold mines, Thasos was cele- 
brated for its marble and its wine. The soil, 
however, is otherwise barren, and merits even 
at the present day the description applied to it 
by the poet Archilochus, ' an ass's backbone, 
overspread with wild wood' (Fr. 17). The 
principal town in the island, also called Thasos, 
was situated on the N. coast upon three emi- 
nences. There are still a few remains of the 




Coin of Thasos, about 400 B.O. 
Obv., head of Dionysus, bearded, with ivy wreath ; rev., 
6A2I0N : Heracles shooting. 

ancient town. The site of the Agora has been 
excavated, and there is a triumphal arch, ap- 
parently in honour of Caracalla. 

Thaumas (Qaifias), son of Pontus and Ge, 
and by the Oceanid Electra the father of Iris 
and the Harpies. Hence Lis is called Thau- 
mantias, Thaumantis, and Thaumantea, virgo 
(Hes. Th. 237 ; Ov. Met. iv. 479). 

Theaetetus (®6cut7)tos), an Athenian, the son 
of Euphronius of Sunium, is introduced as one 
of the speakers in Plato's Theaetetus and So- 
phistes, in which dialogues he is spoken of as a 
noble and well-disposed youth, and ardent in the 
pursuit of knowledge, especially in the study 
of geometry. 

Theagenes (Qeaywris). 1. Tyrant of Megara, 
obtained his power about B.C. 630, having es- 
poused the part of the commonalty against the 
nobles. He was driven out before his death. 
He gave his daughter in marriage to Cylon. 
[Cylon.] — 2. A Thasian, the son of Timo- 
sthenes, renowned for his extraordinary strength 
and swiftness. He gained numerous victories 
at the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isth- 
mian games, and is said to have won 1400 
crowns. He lived about b.c. 480. (Paus. vi. 6, 
5, vi. 11, 2.) 

Theano (®eavw), daughter of Cisseus, wife of 
Antenor, and priestess of Athene at Lion (II. v. 
70, xi. 224). 

Thea.no (®eavd), the most celebrated of the 
female philosophers of the Pythagorean school, 
appears to have been the wife of Pythagoras, 
and the mother by him of Telauges, Mnesarchus, 
Myia, and Arignote (Diog. Laert. viii. 42; Suid. 
s.v.). Several letters are extant under her 
name ; and, though they are not genuine, they 



THEBAE 



931 



are valuable remains of a period of considerable 
antiquity (ed. Hercher, 1873). 

Thebae {Orjficu), in the poets sometimes Thebe 
(&nf}T), Dor. &fi0a), aft. Diospolis Magna 
(AiO(T7roXis fieydXiq, i.e. Great City of Zeus), in 
O.T. No or No Amnion, which represents its 
sacred name Nu-Amun or Amon (the city of 
Amun), was the capital of Thebais, or Upper 
Egypt, and, for a long time, of the whole country. 
It stood in about the centre of the Thebai'd, on 
both banks of the Nile, above Coptos, and in 
the Nomos Coptites. The Greek historians 
had exaggerated ideas of its relative antiquity 
(in relation, that is, to other Egyptian cities), 
and by ascribing its foundation to Menes placed 
it on a level, as regards date, with far older 
cities, such as Memphis and Xhinis (Diod. i. 50, 
xv. 45). Thebes was made their capital by the 
kings of the eleventh dynasty (between 3030 
and 2500 B.C.). The great temple of Ammon 
(the Egyptian Amun or Amen), who was speci- 
ally worshipped at Thebes [Ammon], was 
founded by Amenenhat I., of the twelfth dyn- 
asty, about 2460 B.C. Thebes was the capital 
of the dynasties 11, 12, 13, 18, 19 and 20. Its 
time of greatest splendour was probably in the 
nineteenth dynasty, especially in the reign of 
Ramses EL (1330 B.C.), who was a great builder 
as well as a great conqueror. Though the 
capital dignity was transferred after 1100 B.C. 
to other cities, Bubastis, Tanis and Sais, 
Thebes still retained its grandeur and much of 
its importance. It suffered from the sack by 
the Assyrian Assurbanipal [Sardaxapalus], 
about 0G0 B.C. The sources of its wealth still I 
remained : for these consisted in the position 
of the city, which stood on the banks of the 
Nile as a highway for trade N. and S. and at a 
junction of trade routes eastward to Myoshormos ' 
on the Red Sea and westward to the Oases. 
All these advantages combined to make Thebes 
a centre of commerce until Alexandria became 
the successful rival. Thebes was in great ; 
measure destroyed and left in ruins by Ptolemy 
Lathyrus B.C. 86 (Paus. i. 9, 3). The fame of 
its grandeur had reached the Greeks as early 
as the time of Homer, who describes it as 
having a hundred gates, from each of which it 
could send out 200 war chariots fully armed 
(II. ix. 381). It may be noted that in the time 
of the Trojan war (according to the most prob- 
able theory as to that date), Thebes was still 
the capital of the Egyptian kings ; but before 
the probable date of the Odyssey the capital 
was in Lower Egypt [cf. Homerus]. Homer's 
epithet of 'Hundred-Gated' (e«oT<i/iiruA.oi) is 
repeatedly applied to the city by later writers. 
Its real extent was calculated by the Greek 
writers at 140 stadia (14 geogr. miles I in cir- 
cuit ; and in Strabo's time, when the transfer- 
ence of the seat of power and commerce to 
Lower Egypt had caused it to decline greatly, 
it still had a circuit of eighty stadia (Diod. I.e. ; 
Strab. pp. 805, 815). That these computations 
are not exaggerated is proved by the existing 
ruins, which extend from side to side of the 
Nile valley, here about six miles wide ; while 
the rocks which bound the valley are perforated 
with tombs. These ruins, which are perhaps 
the most magnificent in the world, enclose 
within their site the four modern villages of 
Karnak, Luxor, Medinct Habou, and Gur- 
nah : the two former on the E, and the two 
latter on the VV. side of the river. 

Thebae, in Europe. 1. (0fj/8oi : in poetry 
&fl&tj : 07)/3aios, Thebanus : Thion), the chief j 
city in Boeotia, was situated in a plain SE. of | 



the lake Hylice and NE. of Plataeae. Its 
acropolis, which was an oval eminence of no 
great height, was called Cadmea (Kafifida), be- 
cause it was said to have been founded by 
Cadmus, the leader of a Phoenician colony. 
On each side of this acropolis is a small valley, 
running up from the Theban plain into the low 
ridge of hills by which it is separated from that 
of Plataeae. Of these valleys, the one to the 
W. is watered by the Dirce ; and the one to the 
E. by the Ismenus; both of which, however, 
are insignificant streamlets, though so cele- 
brated in ancient history. The greater part of 
the city stood in these valleys, and was built 
some time after the acropolis. Theban legends 
said that the fortifications of the lower city 
were constructed by Amphion and his brother 
Zethus ; and that when Amphion played his 
lyre the stones moved of their own accord and 
I formed the wall. [Amthiox.] The territory of 
Thebes was called Thebais (0ij^ats), and ex- 
tended eastwards as far as the Euboean sea. 
No city is more celebrated in the mythical ages 
of Greece than Thebes. It was here that the 
use of letters was first introduced from Phoe- 
nicia into W. Europe. [Cadmus.] It was the 
reputed birthplace of the two great divinities 
Dionysus and Heracles. It was also the 
native city of the mythical seer Tiresias, as 
well as of the mythical musician Amphion 
It was the scene of the tragic fate of Oedipus, 
and of one of the most celebrated wars in the 
mythical annals of Greece. Polynices, who 
had been expelled from Thebes by his brother, 
Eteocles, induced six other heroes to espouse 
his cause, and marched against the city ; but 
they were all defeated and slain by the Thebans, 
with the exception of Adrastus — Polynices and 
Eteocles falling by each other's hands. This 
is usually called the war of the ' Seven against 
Thebes.' [Adrastus.] A few years afterwards 
the ' Epigoni,' or descendants of the seven 
heroes, marched against Thebes to revenge 
their fathers' death ; they took the city and 
razed it to the ground. It is probable that in 
these stories of the foundation and early his- 
tory of Thebes there are elements of truth. It 
is likely enough that the Phoenicians at an 
early period established a trading station at 
Thebes a few miles inland, with the fortified 
citadel ascribed to the Phoenician Cadmus. In 
the movement of tribes about the time of the 
Dorian migrations, the Aeolian Arnaeans or 
Boeotians were pushed southwards from Thes- 
saly, and drove out the Cadmeans from Thebes. 
li there is any chronological order in the wars 
of the Seven and of the Epigoni, the former 
(which is before the Trojan war : XL iv. 378) 
may represent an attack by Achaean Argives 
on the Cadmeans ; the story of the latter may 
be based on traditions about the capture of 
Thebes by the Boeotians. It is remarked that 
the number seven of the gates of Thebes is a 
sacred Semitic number ; which agrees with 
their traditional Phoenician origin. Thebes is 
not mentioned by Homer in the catalogue of 
the Greek cities which fought against Troy, 
and this may point to the fact that in the 
Homeric traditions of the period before the 
Dorian migration Thebes was still Cadmean, or 
mainly Phoenician, and did not cast in its lot 
with the Greeks. In the Iliad the Thebans 
are in fact called Cadmeans (//. iv. 888, v. 807, 
xxiii. 08 ; cf. 0(1. xi. 270 ; Thuc. i. 12). Its 
government, after the abolition of monarchy, 
was an aristocracy, or rather an olignrchy, 
which continued to be the prevailing form of 

8 o 2 



932 



THEBAE 



THELPUSA 



government for a long time, although exchanged 
for that of a democracy in the period of ten 
years between the Athenian success at Tanagra, 
in 457 B.C., and the battle of Coronea, in 447. 
Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, 
however, the oligarchy finally disappears ; and 
Thebes appears under a democratical form of 
government from this time till it becomes with 
the rest of Greece subject to the Eomans. 
The Thebans were from an early period in- 
veterate enemies of their neighbours, the Athe- 
nians. Their hatred of the latter people was 
probably one of the reasons which induced 
them to desert the cause of Grecian liberty in 
the great struggle against the Persian power. 
In the Peloponnesian war the Thebans natu- 
rally espoused the Spartan side, and contributed 
not a little to the downfall of Athens. But, in 
common with the other Greek states, they soon 
became disgusted with the Spartan supremacy, 
and joined the confederacy formed against 
Sparta in B.C. 394. The peace of Antalcidas, in 
387, put an end to hostilities in Greece ; but the 
treacherous seizure of the Cadmea by the Lace- 
daemonian general Phoebidas in 382, and its 
recovery by the Theban exiles in 379, led to a 
war between Thebes and Sparta, in which the 
former not only recovered its independence, 
but for ever destroyed the Lacedaemonian 
supremacy. This was the most glorious period 
in the Theban annals ; and the decisive defeat 
of the Spartans at the battle of Leuctra, in 371, 




Coin ot Boeotian Thebes (first halt oi 5th cent. B.C.). 
Obv., Boeotian shield ; rev., eEBAiOi : Heracles stringing 
his bow. 



made Thebes the first power in Greece. Her 
greatness, however, was mainly due to the pre- 
eminent abilities of her citizens Epaminondas 
and Pelopidas ; and with the death of the for- 
mer at the battle of Mantinea, in 362, she lost 
the supremacy which she had so recently gained. 
[Epaminonb-as.] Soon afterwards Philip of 
Macedon began to exercise a paramount in- 
fluence over the greater part of Greece. The 
Thebans were induced, by the eloquence of 
Demosthenes, to forget their old animosities 
against the Athenians, and to join the latter in 
protecting the liberties of Greece ; but their 
united forces were defeated by Philip, at the 
battle of Chaeronea, in 338. Soon after the 
death of Philip and the accession of Alexander, 
the Thebans made a last attempt to recover 
their liberty, but were cruelly punished by the 
young king. The city was taken by Alexander 
in 336, and was entirely destroyed, with the 
exception of the temples, and the house of the 
poet Pindar ; 6000 inhabitants were slain, and 
30,000 sold as slaves. [Alexandeb.] In 316 
the city was rebuilt by Cassander, with the 
assistance of the Athenians. In 290 it was 
taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and again 
suffered greatly. Dicaearchus, who flourished 
about this time, has left us an interesting 
account of the city. He describes it as about 
seventy stadia (about eight miles) in circum- 
ference), in form nearly circular, and in appear- 



ance somewhat gloomy. He says that it is 
plentifully provided with water, and contains 
better gardens than any other city in Greece ; 
that it is most agreeable in summer, on account 
of its plentiful supply of cool and fresh water, 
and its large gardens ; but that in winter it is 
very unpleasant, being destitute of fuel, ex- 
posed to floods and cold winds, and frequently 
visited by heavy falls of snow. He further 
represents the people as proud and insolent, 
and always ready to settle disputes by fighting, 
rather than by the ordinary course of justice. 
It is supposed that the population of the city 
at this time may have been between 50,000 and. 
60,000 souls. After the Macedonian period 
Thebes rapidly declined in importance ; and it 
received its last blow from Sulla, who gavehalf 
of its territory to the Delphians. Strabo 
describes it as only a village in his time ; and 
Pausanias, who visited it in the second century 
of the Christian era, says that the Cadmea 
alone was then inhabited. The ground on 
which Thebes stood rises generally 150 feet 
above the plain. This space is bounded on the 
E. and W. by the two small rivers Ismenus and 
Dirce (united a little below the city), between 
which flowed a smaller stream, probably the 
Strophia (Callim. Hymn, in Del. 76), dividing 
the city into two parts. In the western half, 
and probably on the rising ground at the S. of 
it, was the Cadmea. Of the seven gates three 
are fairly described by Pausanias. The Elec- 
trae was the gate by which the road from 
Plataeae entered the city : i.e. it was in the 
centre at the S. of the city, probably where the 
present Plataean road comes in (Paus. ix. 8, 6) ; 
the road to Chalcis went out by the Proetides 
(Paus. ix. 18, 1) : i.e. that gate was at the NE. 
of the city ; the Ne'itae was opposite on the 
N~W., since it led to Onchestus across the Dirce 
(Paus. ix. 25, 1, ix. 26, 5). There is not evidence 
enough to determine the positions of the other 
four gates, called Ogygiae, Hypsistae, Crenaeae 
or Oncas, and Homoloides (Aesch. Sept. 360 ; 
Eur. Phoen. 1120 ; Paus. ix. 8 ; Apollod. iii. 
6, 6 ; Stat. Theb. viii. 353 ; cf. Nonn. Dionys. 

v. 69.) — 2. Surnamed Phthioticae (0rj/3ai at 
<p0ia>Ti5es), an important city of Thessaly in the 
district Phthiotis, at a short distance from the 
coast, and with a good harbour (Pol. v. 99 : 
Liv. xxxii. 33 ; Strab. p. 433 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.) 

Thebals. [A.egyptus.] 

Thebe (Qr^-q 'tiroirXaidri), a city of Mysia, 
on the wooded slope of M. Placus, destroyed by 
Achilles. It was said to have been the birth- 
place of Andromache and Chrysei's (II. i. 366, 

vi. 397, xxii. 479). It existed in the historical 
period, but by the time of Strabo it had fallen 
into ruin, and by that of Pliny it had vanished. 
Its site was near the head of the Gulf of 
Adramyttium, where a beautiful tract of coun- 
try was named, after it, rb &r]f3r)s weSlov. (Hdt. 

vii. 42 ; Xen. An. vii. 8, 7 ; Strab. pp. 584-588 ; 
Liv. xxxvii. 19.) 

Theisoa (@ei<roa: Lavda). 1. A town of 
Arcadia, on the N. slope of Mt. Lycaeus, in the 
district of Cynuria (Paus. viii. 38, 3). — 2. A 
town of Arcadia, in the district of Orchomenus 
(Paus. viii. 27, 7). Perhaps the modern Kar- 
kalon. 

Thelepte or Telepte (&e\€Trrri, TeAe7rr»} : 
Medinet-Kedima), a fortified town of Numidia, 
lying S. of Thala on the borders of the desert 
country. Prom it ran the road to Tacape or 
Syrtis Minor. (Procop. Aed. vi. 6.) 

Thelpusa or Telphussa (®4x-Kov<ra, Te'A.- 
<t>ovo-<ra: TtKQovcrios : nr. Vanena, Ru.), a town 



THEMIS 



THEMISTOCLES 



933 



in Arcadia on the river Ladon. It was famous \ 
for the worship of Demeter-Erinnys [p. 324, b], 
and possessed also another temple of Demeter, 
Persephone, and Dionysus. The former was ' 
below the city ; the latter above. Temples of 
Asclepius and of Apollo Oncestes are also men- 
tioned. (Paus. viii. 25, 2 ; Steph. Byz. s.v. 
"OyKeiov.) 

Themis (Oefxis), daughter of Uranus and Ge, 
was married to Zeus, by whom she became the 
mother of the Horae, Eunornia, Dike (Astraea), 
Irene, and of the Moerae (Hes. Th. 135, 901 ; 
Apollod. i. 3, 1). In the Homeric poems, 
Themis is the personification of the order of 
things established by law, custom and equity : 
whence she is described as reigning in the 
assemblies of men, and as convening, by the 
command of Zeus, the assembly of the gods. 
She dwells in Olympus, and is on friendly terms 
with Hera (II. xv. 87, xx. 4, Oil. ii. 68). As the 
divine exponent of law and order Themis is 
said to have been in possession of the Delphic 
oracle after Ge and before Apollo (Aesch. Earn. 
2 ; Paus. x. 3, 5 ; Ov. Met. i. 321). Her con- I 
nexion with Zeus and with the lawful ordering 
of the world is indicated by her sharing a 
temple with Zeus and the Fates at Thebes, 
Zeus and the Horae at Olympia (Paus. v. 14, 8, ' 
ix. 25, 4). Her worship at Aegina, Athens, and 
Troezen is particularly mentioned (Pind. 01. 
viii. 20 ; Paus. i. 22, 1, "ii. 31, 8). She is repre- ! 
sented on coins with a figure like that of , 
Athene, holding a cornucopia and a pair of 
scales. 

Themiscyra (Qtfua-Kvpa: Terme), a city and 
a plain on the coast of Pontus, extending E. of 
the river Iris beyond the Thermodon, celebrated 
in ancient myths as the country of the Ama- ' 
zons. [Ajiazones.] It was well watered, and 
rich in pasture. The town Themiscyra stood 
near the mouth of the Thermodon on the road 
from Amisus to Oenoe. (Hdt. iv. 86 ; Paus. i. 
2, 2.) 

Thennson (0e^tiVaie), a celebrated Greek 
physician, and the founder of the medical sect I 
of the Methodic-]', was a native of Laodicea in 
Syria, and lived in the first century B.C. He ■ 
wrote several medical works, but of these only 
the titles and a few fragments remain. The 
physician mentioned by Juvenal was probably 
a contemporary of the poet, and consequently 
a different person from the founder of the 
Methodici (Juv. x. 221). 

Themis t i us IGe^itrTioj), a philosopher and 
rhetorician, was a Paphlagonian, and lived first 
at Constantinople and afterwards at Rome, 
in the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, 
Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius. After hold- 
ing various public offices, and being employed 
on many important embassies, he was made 
prefect of Constantinople by Theodosius, a.d. 
384, and tutor to Arcadius. Gregory of Nazian- 
zus, his friend and correspondent, in an epistle 
still extant, calls him the ' king of arguments ' 
(Greg. Naz. Ep. 140). The orations (ttoAitikoi 
\6yot) of Themistius, extant in the time of 
Photius, were thirty-six in number, of which 
thirty-four have conn- down to us in the original 
Greek, and one in a Latin version. — Edited by 
Dindorf, Lips. 1832, 8vo. 

Themistocles l0t;u((TToicAT)s), the celebrated 
Athenian, was the son of Neoeles and Abro- I 
touon, a Thracian woman, and was born about 
B.C. 514. In his youth lie had an impetuous i 
character; lie displayed great intellectual power 
combined with a lofty ambition and desire of 
politicnl distinction. He obtained the archon- I 



ship in 493 B.C., and, convinced by the war with 
Aegina of the importance of a strong navy, he 
persuaded the Athenians to fortify Peiraeus as a 
naval arsenal (Dionys. vi. 34 ; cf. Thuc. i. 93) ; 
some modern writers doubt this earlier archon- 
ship. The fame which Miltiades acquired by his 
generalship at Marathon made a deep im- 
pression on Themistocles ; and he said that the 
trophy of Miltiades would not let him sleep. 
His rival Aristides was ostracised in 483, to 
which event Themistocles contributed ; and 
from this time he was the political leader in 
ithens. In 482 he was Archon Eponymus. It 
was about this time that he persuaded the 
Athenians to employ the produce of the silver 
mines of Laurium in building ships, instead of 
distributing it among the Athenian citizens. 
(Hdt. vii. 144; Aristot. 'A8. Tlo\. 22; Plut. 
Them. 4.) His great object was to draw the 
Athenians to the sea, as he was convinced that 
it was only by her fleet that Athens could 
repel the Persians and obtain the supremacy in 
Greece. Upon the invasion of Greece by 
Xerxes, Themistocles was appointed to the 
command of the Athenian fleet; and to his 
energy, prudence, foresight, and courage the 
Greeks mainly owed their salvation from the 
Persian dominion. Upon the approach of 
Xerxes, the Athenians, on the advice of Themi- 
stocles, deserted their city, and removed their 
women, children, and infirm persons to Salamis, 
Aegina, and Troezen ; but as soon as the 
Persians took possession of Athens, the Pelo- 
ponnesians were anxious to retire to the Corin- 
thian isthmus. Themistocles used all his 
influence in inducing the Greeks to remain and 
fight with the Persians at Salamis, and with 
the greatest difficulty and by means of bribes 
persuaded the Spartan commander, Eurybiades, 
to stay at Salamis. (Plut. Them. 7, 10; Hdt. 
viii. 5 ; cf. Aristot. 'Ad. UoK. 23.) But as soon 
as the fleet of Xerxes made its appearance, the 
Peloponnesians were again anxious to sail away ; 
and when Themistocles saw that he should be 
unable to persuade them to remain, he sent a 
faithful slave to the Persian commanders, 
informing them that the Greeks intended to 
make their escape, and that the Persians had 
now the opportunity of accomplishing a great 
enterprise, if they would only cut off the retreat 
of the Greeks. The Persians believed what 
they were told, and in the night their fleet 
occupied the whole of the channel between 
Salamis and the mainland. The Greeks were 
thus compelled to fight, and the result was the 
glorious victory in which the greater part of 
the fleet of Xerxes was destroyed. Looking to 
the character of Themistocles, it is difficult to 
avoid the conclusion that in this struggle he 
was securing himself for either event. If it 
resulted in a Greek victory, as he doubtless 
expected, he would be the saviour of his 
country ; but if the battle favoured the Persians, 
In- would win the gratitude of Xerxes^-How-erei 
that may be, this victory, a'S~i5emg due to 
Tlicniistocli's, established his reputation among 
the Greeks. ' On his visiting Sparta, he was 
received with extraordinary honours by the 
Spartans, who gave Eurybiades the palm of 
bravery, and to Themistocles the palm of wis- 
dom and skill, with a crown of olive, and the 
best chariot that Sparta possessed. (Hdt. viii. 
124 ; Plut. Them. 17.) The Athenians began 
to restore their ruined city after the bar- 
bariuns had left the Country, and Themistocles 
advised them to rebuild the walls, and to maku 
them stronger than before. The Spartans sent 



934 THEMISTOCLES 



THEOCRITUS 



an embassy to Athens to dissuade them from 
fortifying their city, for which we can assign no 
motive except a miserable jealousy. Themi- 
stocles, who was at that time Ylpoararrts rov 
S^/j-ov (i.e. one of the leaders of the popular 
party : Aristot. 'Ad. Vlok. 23), went on an em- 
bassy to Sparta, where he amused the Spartans 
with lies, till the walls were far enough advanced 
to be in a state of defence. It was upon his 
advice also that the Athenians fortified the 
port of Peiraeus. The influence of Themistocles 
does not appear to have survived the expulsion 
of the Persians from Greece and the fortification 
of the ports. He was probably justly accused 
of enriching himself by unfair means, for he had 
no scruples about the way of accomplishing an 
end. A story is told that, after the retreat of 
the fleet of Xerxes, when the Greek fleet was 
wintering at Pagasae, Themistocles told the 
Athenians in the public assembly that he had a 
scheme to propose which was beneficial to the 
state, but could not be divulged. Aristides 
was named to receive the secret, and to 
report upon it. His report was that nothing 
could be more profitable than the scheme of 
Themistocles, but nothing more unjust : the 
Athenians were guided by the report of Aristides. 
It is difficult, if not impossible, to reconcile the 
statement in Arist. 'A6. YloK. 25, that The- 
mistocles intrigued for the overthrow of 
Areopagus, with the date of his exile from 
Athens. The attack upon the Areopagus was 
in 463 ; but in 471, in consequence of the 
political strife between Themistocles and Ari- 
stides, the former was ostracised from Athens, 
and retired to Argos. After the discovery of 
the treasonable correspondence of Pausanias 
with the Persian king, the Lacedaemonians 
sent to Athens to accuse Themistocles of being 
privy to the design of Pausanias. Thereupon 
the Athenians sent off persons with the Lace- 
daemonians with instructions to arrest The- 
mistocles (466). Themistocles, hearing of what 
was designed against him, first fled from Argos 
to Corcyra, and then to Epirus, where he took 
refuge in the house of Admetus, king of the 
Molossi, who happened to be from home. Ad- 
metus was no friend to Themistocles, but his 
wife told the fugitive that he would be protected 
if he would take their child in his arms, and sit 
on 'the hearth. The king soon came in, and 
respecting his -suppliant attitude, raised him up, 
and refused to surrender him to the Lace- 
daemonian and Athenian agents. Themistocles 
finally reached the coast of Asia in safety. 
Xerxes was now dead (465), and Artaxerxes was 
on the throne. (Thuc. i. 235 ; Plut. Them. 23 ; 
Nep. Them. 4.) Themistocles went up to visit 
the king at his royal residence ; and on his 
arrival he sent the king a letter, in which he 
promised to do the king a good service, and 
prayed that he might be allowed to wait a year 
and then to explain personally what brought 
him there. In a year he made himself master 
of the Persian language and the Persian usages, 
and, being presented to the king, he obtained 
the greatest influence over him, and such as no 
Greek ever before enjoyed — partly owing to his 
high reputation and the hopes that he gave to 
the king of subjecting the Greeks to the Per- 
sians. The king gave him a handsome allow- 
ance, after the Persian fashion ; Magnesia 
supplied him with bread nominally, but paid 
him annually fifty talents. Lampsacus supplied 
wine, and Myus the other provisions. Before 
he could accomplish anything he died ; some 
say that he poisoned himself, finding that he 



could not perform his promise to the king. A 
monument was erected to his memory in the 
Agora of Magnesia, which place was within his 
government. It is said that his bones were 
secretly taken to Attica by his relations, and 
privately interred there. — Themistocles un- 
doubtedly possessed great talents as a states- 
man, great political sagacity, a ready wit, and 
excellent j udgment : (but he was not an honest 
man ; and, like many other clever men with 
little morality, he ended his career unhappily 
and ingloriously. Twenty-one letters attributed 
to Themistocles are spurious. 

Themist6gen.es (Qe/xia-Toyevris), of Syracuse, 
is said by Xenophon (Hell. iii. 1, § 2) to have 
written a work on the Anabasis of Cyrus. 
Some have supposed that Xenophon really 
refers to his own work under the name of 
Themistogenes (cf. Plut. de Glor. Ath. p. 361). 
The name, however, of Themistogenes is men- 
tioned by Suidas (s.v.). [Xenophon.] 

Theocles (®eoK\Tjs), son of Hegylus, was a 
Lacedaemonian sculptor, and a pupil of Dipoe- 
nus and Scyllis, about B.C. 550. His father was 
also a sculptor. (Paus. v. 17, 1.) 

Theoclymenus (&-:oK\v/j.evos), son of Poly- 
phides by Hyperasia, and a descendant of Me- 
lampus, was a soothsayer, and in consequence 
of a murder was obliged to take to flight, and 
came with Telemachus to Ithaca (Od. xv. 256> 
507, xx. 350). 

Theocosmus (®e6KO<rnos), of Megara, a sculp- 
tor contemporary with Phidias (Paus. i. 40, 3). 

Theocritus (@z6kpitos), the great bucolic 
poet, was a native of Syracuse, and the son 
of Praxagoras and Philinna. He visited 
Alexandria towards the end of the reign of 
Ptolemy Soter, where he received the instruc- 
tion of Philetas and Asclepiades, and began to 
distinguish himself as a poet. Other accounts 
make him a native of Cos, which would bring 
him more directly into connexion with Philetas 
(Suidas, s.v. QcSkpitos). His first efforts ob- 
tained for him the patronage of Ptolemy Phil- 
adelphus, who was associated in the kingdom 
with his father, Ptolemy Soter, in B.C. 285, and 
in whose praise, therefore, the poet wrote the 
fourteenth, fifteenth, and seventeenth Idyls. 
At Alexandria he became acquainted with the 
poet Aratus, to whom he addressed his sixth 
Idyl. Theocritus afterwards returned to Syra- 
cuse, and lived there under Hiero II. It ap- 
pears from the sixteenth Idyl that Theocritus 
was dissatisfied, both with the want of liberality 
on the part of Hiero in rewarding him for his 
poems, and with the political state of his native 
country. It may therefore be supposed that 
he devoted the latter part of his life almost 
entirely to the contemplation of those scenes 
of nature and of country life on his represen- 
tations of which his fame chiefly rests. Theo- 
critus was the creator of bucolic poetry in 
Greek, and, through imitators, such as Virgil, 
in Roman literature. The bucolic Idyls of 
Theocritus are of a dramatic and mimetic 
character. They axe pictures of the ordinary life 
of the common people of Sicily ; whence their 
name, etdrj, eiSvWia. The pastoral poems and 
romances of later times are a totally different 
sort of composition from the bucolics of Theo- 
critus, who knows nothing of the affected 
sentiment which has been ascribed to the 
imaginary shepherds of a fictitious Arcadia. 
He merely exhibits simple and faithful pictures 
of the common life of the Sicilian people, in a 
thoroughly objective, although truly poetical 
spirit. Dramatic simplicity and truth are im- 



THEODECTES 



THE ODOR US 



985 



pressed upon the scenes exhibited in his 
poems, into the colouring of which he has 
thrown much of the natural comedy which is 
always seen in the common life of a free people. 
In his dramatic dialogue he is influenced by 
the mimes of Sophron, as may be seen especi- 
ally in the fifteenth Idyl {Adoniazusae). [So- 
phrox.) The poems of Theocritus of this class 
may be compared with those of Heroxdas, who 
belonged, like Theocritus, to the literary school 
of Philetas at Cos. In genius, however, Theo- 
critus was greatly the superior. The collection 
which has come down to us under the name of 
Theocritus consists of thirty poems, called by 
the general title of Idyls, a fragment of a few 
lines from a poem entitled Berenice, and 
twenty-two epigrams in the Greek Anthology. 
But these Idyls are not all bucolic, and were 
not all written by Theocritus. Those Idyls of 
which the genuineness is the most doubtful 
are the twelfth, twenty-third, twenty-sixtli, 
twenty-seventh and twenty-ninth ; and Idyls 
xiii., xvi., xvii., xxii.,xxiv. and xxvi. are in Epic 
style, and have more of Epic dialect, especially 
Idyll xvi. It is likely that these poems on Epic 
subjects were written early in the poet's life, and, 
as court poems, had some of the artificial and 
imitative character of the Alexandrians. In 
general the dialect of Theocritus is Doric, but 
two of the Idylls (xxviii. and xxix.) are in the 
Aeolic. — Editions of Theocritus by Wiistemann, 
Gothae, 1830; Fritzsche, Leips. 1869; Palev, 
1803 ; Kynaston, 1873. 

Theodectes (0€o5e'/(-T?;s), of Phaselis, in Pam- 
phylia, was a rhetorician and tragic poet in the 
tune of Philip of Macedon. He was the son of 
Aristander, and a pupil of Isocrates and Ari- 
stotle. The greater part of his life was spent 
at Athens, where he died at the age of forty- 
one. The people of his native city honoured 
the memory of Theodectes with a statue in their 
agora, which Alexander, when he stopped at 
Phaselis on his march towards Persia, crowned 
with garlands, to show his respect for the 
memory of a man who had been associated with 
himself by means of Aristotle and philosophy 
(Suid. s.v. ; Pint. Alex. 17 ; Paus. i. 37, 3). The 
passages of Aristotle in which Theodectes is 
mentioned show the strong regard and high 
esteem in which he was held by the philosopher 
(Arist. Bhet. ii. 23, 13). None of the works of 
Theodectes have come down to us. 

Theodoretus I @eo5wpr)TOi), bishop of Cyrus, 
on the Euplirates, in the fifth century. [See 
Diet, of Christ. Biogr.] 

Theodorias. [Vacca.1 

Theodoricus or Theoderlcus. 1. I., king of 
the Visigoths from a.d. 418 to 451, was the suc- 
cessor of Wallia, but appears to have been the 
son of the great Alaric. He fell fighting on 
the side of Aetius and the Romans at the 
great battle of Chalons, in which Attila was 
defeated 45] (Jordan, de Beb. Goth. 34-41).— 2. 
II., king of the Visigoths a.d. 452-400, second 
son of Theodoric £ He succeeded to the 
throne by the murder of his brother Thoris- 
mond. He ruled over the greater part of Gaul 
and Spain. He was assassinated in 400 by His 
brother Euric, who succeeded him on the throne. 
Theodoric II. was a patron of letters and 
learned men. The poet Sidonius Apollinaris 
lived for some time at his court. (Jordan, de 
Beb. Get. 48, 44 ; Sidon. Paneg. Avit.) — 3. 
Surnumed the Great, king of the Ostrogoths 
(who appears in the Hiehelungen Lied as Die- 
trich of Bern, i.e. of Verona), succeeded his 
father Theodemir, in 475. He was at first an ; 



ally of Zeno, the emperor of Constantinople, 
but was afterwards involved in hostilities with 
the emperor. In order to get rid of Theodoric, 
Zeno gave him permission to invade Italy, and 
expel the usurper Odoacer from the country. 
Theodoric entered Italy in 489, and after de- 
feating Odoacer in three great battles, laid 
siege to Ravenna, in which Odoacer took refuge. 
After a siege of three years Odoacer capitulated 
on condition that he and Theodoric should rule 
jointly over Italy ; but Odoacer was soon after- 
wards murdered by his more fortunate rival 
(493). Theodoric thus became master of Italy, 
which he ruled thirty-three years, till his death 
in 526. His long reign was prosperous and 
beneficent, and under his sway Italr recovered 
from the ravages to which it had been exposed 
for so many years. Theodoric was also a patron 
of literature ; and among his ministers were 
Cassiodobus and Boethtus, the two last 
writers who can claim a place in the literature 
of ancient Rome. But prosperous as had been 
the reign of Theodoric, his last days were 
darkened by disputes with the Catholics, and 
by the condemnation and execution of Boe'thius 
and Symmachus, whom he accused of a con- 
spiracy to overthrow the Gothic dominion in 
Italy. His death is said to have been hastened 
by remorse. It is related that one evening, 
when a large fish was served on the table, he 
fancied that he beheld the head of Symmachus, 
and was so terrified that he took to his bed, 
and died three days afterwards. Theodoric 
was buried at Ravenna, and a monument was 
erected to his memory by his daughter, Amala- 
suntha. His ashes were deposited in a por- 
phyry urn which is still to be seen at Ravenna, 
i Jordan, de Beb. Get. ; Procop. de Bell. Goth. ; 
Cassiodor. Chron. ; Ennod. Panegyr. Theod.) 

Theodorldas (QeoSuptSas). of Syracuse, a lyric 
and epigrammatic poet, who lived about B.C. 
235. He had a place in the Garland of Me- 
leager. There are eighteen of his epigrams in 
the Greek Anthology. 

Theodorus (QeuSwpos). 1. Of Byzantium, a 
rhetorician, and a contemporary of Plato, who 
speaks of him somewhat contemptuously as a 
tricky logician iPhaedr. p. 200). Cicero de- 
scribes him as excelling rather in the theory 
than the practice of his art (Brut. 12,48). — 2. A 
philosopher of the Cyrenaic school to one 
branch of which he gave the name of ' Theodo- 
rians,' ©eoStopeioi. He is usually designated by 
ancient writers as the Atheist. He was a disciple 
of the younger Aristippus, and was banished 
from Cyrene, but on what occasion is not 
stated. He then went to Athens, and only 
escaped being cited before the Areopagus, by 
the influence of Demetrius Phalereus. He was 
afterwards banished from Athens, probably 
with Demetrius (307), and went to Alexandria, 
where he was employed in the service of 
Ptolemy, son of Lagus, king of the Macedonian 
dynasty in Egypt; it is not unlikely that he 
shared the overthrow and exile of Demetrius. 
While in the service of Ptolemy, Theodorus 
was sent on an embassy to Lysimachus, whom 
lie offended by the freedom of his remarks. 
One answer which he made to a threat of 
..rue ifixir n win; h I. simachus had used has 
been celebrated by many ancient writers : 
' Employ such threats to those courtiers of 
yours ; for it matters not to Theodore whether 
he rots on the ground or in the air.' He 
returned at length to Cyrene, where he appears 
to have ended his days. (Diog. Ijiiert. ii. 97-103, 
110; Plut. de ExsiL p. 391 ; de An. Tranq. p. 



936 THEODOSIOPOLIS 



THEODOSIUS 



829 ; Suid. s.v.). — 3. A rhetorician of the age 
of Augustus, was a native of Gadara, in the 
country east of the Jordan. He settled at 
Bhodes, where Tiberius, afterwards emperor, 
during his retirement (b.c. 6-a.d. 2) to that 
island, was one of his hearers (Suet. Tib. 57 ; 
Quintil. iii. 1, 17). He also taught at Borne ; 
but whether his settlement at Borne preceded 
that at Bhodes is uncertain. Theodorus was the 
founder of a school of rhetoricians, called 
' Theodorei,' as distinguished from the ' Apollo- 
dorei,' or followers of Apollodorus of Pergamum, 
who had been the tutor of Augustus Caesar at 
Apollonia (Juv. vii. 177 ; Strab. p. 625).— 4. A 
Greek monk, surnamed Prodromus, who lived 
in the first half of the twelfth century. Several 
of his works have come down to us, of which 
the following may be mentioned : (1) A metrical 
romance in nine books, on the loves of Bhod- 
anthe and Dosicles, written in iambic metre, 
and exhibiting very little ability. (2) A poem 
entitled Galeomyomachia, in iambic verse, on 
' the battle of the mice and cats ' in imitation of 
the Homeric Batrachomyomachia, — Edited by 
Hercher, Leips. 1873.— 5. Sculptors. (1) Of 
Samos, the son of Bhoecus, and brother of 
Teleeles, flourished about B.C. 600, and was an 
architect and sculptor (Diog. Laert. ii. 103; 
Diod. i. 98). He wrote a work on the Heraeum 
at Samos, in the erection of which he was prob- 
ably engaged as well as his father. He was 
also engaged with his father in the erection of 
the labyrinth of Lemnos, and he prepared the 
foundation of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus. 
(Plin. xxxiv. 83). In conjunction with his 
brother, Teleeles, he made the wooden statue of 
Apollo Pythius for the Samians, according to 
the fixed rules of the hieratic style (Paus. x. 
38, 3). He built also the Skias at Sparta 
(Paus. iii. 12, 20). (2) The son of Teleeles, 
nephew of the elder Theodorus, and grandson 
of Bhoecus, flourished about 560, in the times 
of Croesus and Polycrates, and renowned in 
sculpture and also in the arts of engraving 
metals and of gem-engraving ; his works in those 
departments being celebrated gold and silver 
craters, and the ring of Polycrates (Hdt. i. 51, 
iii. 41, vii. 27). Many writers believe that the 
author of all the above-mentioned works was 
one and the same Theodorus, of the earlier 
date ; and that is possible if we suppose the 
works of art by. his hand to have been made 
some time before they came into the possession 
of Croesus and Polycrates. 

Theodosiopolis (QeoSomoviroXi', : Erzeroum), 
a city of Armenia Major, near the sources of 
the Araxes and the Euphrates ; built by Theo- 
dosius II. as a mountain fortress : enlarged and 
strengthened by Anastasius and Justinian. 
Its position made it a place of commercial im- 
portance. (Procop. Aed. iii. 5.) 

Theodosius. I, surnamed the Great, Bo- 
man emperor of the East, a.d. 378-395, was the 
son of the general Theodosius who restored 
Britain to the empire and was beheaded at 
Carthage in the reign of Valens, 376. The 
future emperor was born in Spain about 346. 
He learned the art of war under his father, 
whom he accompanied in his British campaigns. 
During his father's lifetime he was raised to 
the rank of Duke (dux) of Moesia, where he 
defeated the Sarmatians (374) and saved the 
province. On the death of his father he 
retired before court intrigues to his native 
country. He acquired a considerable military 
reputation in the lifetime of his father ; and 
after the death of Valens, who fell in battle 



against the Goths, he was proclaimed emperor 
of the East by Gratian, who felt himself unable 
to sustain the burden of the empire. The 
Boman empire in the East was then in a 
critical position ; for the Bomans were disheart- 
ened by the defeat which they had sustained. 
Thodosius, however, showed himself equal to 
the position in which he was placed ; he gained 
two signal victories over the Goths, and con- 
cluded a peace with the barbarians in 382. In 
the following year (383) Maximus assumed the 
imperial purple in Britain, and invaded Gaul 
with a powerful army. In the war which 
followed Gratian was slain ; and Theodosms, 
who did not consider it prudent to enter into a 
contest with Maximus, acknowledged him as 
emperor of the countries of Spain, Gaul, and 
Britain, but secured to Valentinian, the brother 
of Gratian, Italy, Africa, and western Illyricum. 
But when Valentinian was expelled from Italy 
by Maximus in 387, Theodosius espoused his 
cause and marched into the W. at the head of 
a powerful army. After defeating Maximus in 
Pannonia, Theodosius pursued him across the 
Alps to Aquileia. Here Maximus was surren- 
dered by his own soldiers and was put to death. 
Theodosius spent the winter at Milan, and in 
the following year (389) he entered Rome in 
triumph, accompanied by Valentinian and his 
own son Honorius. Two events in the life of 
Theodosius about this time may be mentioned 
as evidence of his uncertain character and his 
savage temper. In 387 a riot took place at 
Antioch, in which the statues of the emperor, of 
his father, and of his wife were thrown down ; 
but these idle demonstrations were quickly 
suppressed by an armed force. When Theodo- 
sius heard of these riots, he degraded Antioch 
from the rank of a city, stripped it of its posses- 
sions and privileges, and reduced it to the 
condition of a village dependent on Laodicea. 
But in consequence of the intercession of 
the senate of Constantinople, he pardoned the 
city, and all who had taken part in the 
riot. The other event is a grave blot on 
the fame of Theodosius. In 390, while the 
emperor was at Milan, a serious riot broke out 
at Thessalonica, in which the imperial officer 
and several of his troops were murdered. 
Theodosius resolved to take the most signal 
vengeance upon the whole city. An army of 
barbarians was sent to Thessalonica ; the 
people were invited to the games of the Circus, 
and as soon as the place was full, the soldiers 
received the signal for a massacre. For three 
hours the spectators were indiscriminately ex- 
posed to the fury of the soldiers, and 7000 of 
them, or, as some accounts say, more than 
twice that number, paid the penalty of the 
insurrection. St. Ambrose, the archbishop of 
Milan, represented to Theodosius his crime in 
a letter, and told him that penitence alone 
could efface his guilt. Accordingly, when the 
emperor proceeded to perform his devotions in 
the usual manner in the great church of Milan, 
the archbishop stopped him at the door, and 
demanded an acknowledgment of his guilt. 
The conscience-struck Theodosius humbled 
himself before the Church, which has recorded 
his penance as one of its greatest victories. He 
laid aside the insignia of imperial power, and in 
the posture of a suppliant in the church of 
Milan entreated pardon for his great sin before 
all the congregation. After eight months, the 
emperor was restored to communion with the 
Church. Theodosius spent three years in Italy, 
during which he established Valentinian II. on 



THEODOSIUS 

the throne of the "West. He returned to 
Constantinople towards the end of 391. 
Valentinian was slain in 392 by Arbogastes, 
who raised Eugenius to the empire of the 
West. This involved Theodosius in a new 
war ; but it ended in the defeat and death both 
of Eugenius and Arbogastes in 394. Theodo- 
sius died at Milan four months after the defeat 
of Eugenius, on the 17th of January, 395. His 
two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, had already 
been elevated to the rank of Augusti, and it 
was arranged that the empire should be divided 
between them, Arcadius having the East, and 
Honorius the West. Theodosius was a firm 
Catholic, and a fierce opponent and persecutor 
of the Arians and all heretics. It was in his 
reign also that the formal destruction of 
paganism took place ; and we still possess a 
large number of the laws of Theodosius, prohi- 
biting the exercise of the pagan religion, and 
forbidding the heathen worship under severe 
penalties, in some cases extending to death. — 
II., Roman emperor of the East, a.d. 408-450, 
was born in 401, and was only seven years of 
age at the death of his father Arcadius, whom 
he succeeded. Theodosius was a weak prince ; 
and his sister, Pulcheria, who became his 
guardian in 414, possessed the virtual govern- 
ment of the empire during the remainder of his 
long reign. The principal external events in 
the reign of Theodosius were the war with the 
Persians, which only lasted a short time 
(421-422), and was terminated by a peace for 
100 years, and the war witli the Huns, who 
repeatedly defeated the armies of the emperor, 
and compelled him at length to conclude a dis- 
graceful peace with them in 447 or 448. Theo- 
dosius died in 450, and was succeeded by his 
sister, Pulcheria, who prudently took for her 
colleague in the empire the senator Martian, 
and made him her husband. Theodosius had 
been married in 421 to the accomplished 
Athenais, the daughter of the sophist Leontius, 
who received at her baptism the name of 
Eudocia. Their daughter Eudoxia was married 
to Valentinian III., the emperor of the West. 
In the reign of Theodosius, and that of Valen- 
tinian III., was made the compilation called 
the Codex Theodosianus. It was published in 
488. It consists of sixteen books, which are 
divided into titles, with appropriate rubricae or 
headings; and the constitutions belonging to 
each title are arranged under it in chronological 
order. The first five books comprise the 
greater part of the constitution which relates to 
Jus Privatum; the sixth, seventh, and eighth 
books contain the law that relates to the con- 
stitution and administration ; the ninth book 
treats of criminal law ; the tenth and eleventh 
treat of the public revenue and some matters 
relating to procedure; the twelfth, thirteenth, 
fourteenth, and fifteenth books treat of the 
constitution and the administration of towns 
And other corporations ; and the sixteenth 
contains the law relating to ecclesiastical 
matters [Diet, of Antiq. s.v.]. Edited by J. 
Gothofredus, Lyons, 1065, and Leipzig, 
mii-174;-.; and by Ha.iiel, Bonn, 1842.— III. 
Literary. 1. Of Bithynia, a mathematician, 
mentioned by Strabo and l>y Vitravius, the 
latter of whom speaks of him as the inventor 
of a universal sun-dial (Strab. p. 5(>fl ; Vitruv. 
ix. 9, 8). — 2. Of Tripolis, a mathematician and 
astronomer of some distinction, who appears to 
have flourished later than the reign of Trajan. 
He wrote several works, of which the three 
following are extant, and have been edited by 



THEON 



987 



Nizze, Berol. 1852 : (1) Scpcupiicd, a treatise on 
the properties of the sphere, and of the circles 
described on its surface, (2) riepi rifitpwv ko.1 
vvktuv. (3) ITepl olK7\<Teaiv. (Suid. s. V.) 

Theodota (QeoSoT-q), an Athenian courtesan, 
and one of the most celebrated persons of that 
class in Greece, is introduced as a speaker in 
Xenophon's Memorabilia (iii. 11). She at last 
attached herself to Alcibiades, and, after his 
murder, she performed his funeral rites (Athen. 
pp. 220, 574). 

Theognis (@4oyvis). 1. Of Megara, an an- 
cient elegiac and gnomic poet, is said to have 
flourished B.C. 548 or 544. He may have been 
born about 570, and would therefore have been 
eighty at the commencement of the Persian 
wars, 490. at which time we know from his own 
writings that he was alive. Theognis belonged 
to the oligarchical party in his native city, and 
in its fates he shared. He was a noble by 
I birth, and all his sympathies were with the 
I nobles. They are, in his poems, the a.-ya8o'i and 
| 4a6\oi, and the commons the Kaitoi and SciAoi, 
! terms which, in fact, at that period, were regu- 
larly used in this political signification, and not 
' in their later ethical meaning. He was banished 
j with the leaders of the oligarchical party, hav- 
' ing previously been deprived of all his property ; 
and most of his poems were composed while he 
was an exile. Most of his political verses are 
addressed to a certain Cyrnus, the son of 
Polypas. The other fragments of his poetry 
; are of a social, most of them of a festive, 
character. They place us in the midst of a 
circle of friends who formed a kind of convivial 
society ; all the members of this society be- 
longed to the class whom the poet calls 'the 
good.' The collection of gnomic poetry which 
has come down to us under the name of Theo- 
gnis contains, however, many additions from 
later poets. The genuine fragments of Theo- 
gnis, with some passages which are poetical in 
thought, have much that helps us to understand 
his times. — The best editions are by Bekkcr, 
| Lips. 1615 and 1827; byOrellius, Turic. 1840, and 
by Bergk, 18litj. — 2. A tragic poet, contemporary 
with Aristophanes, by whom he is satirised. 
Theon ie>eW). 1. The name of two mathe- 
! maticians who are often confounded together. 
The first is Theon the elder, of Smyrna, best 
known as an arithmetician, who lived in the 
time of Hadrian. The second is Theon the 
younger, of Alexandria, the father of Hypatia, 
best known as an astronomer and geometer, 
who lived in the time of Theodosius the elder. 
Both were pagans, a fact which the date of the 
second makes it desirable to state ; and each 
held the Platonism of his period. Of Theon of 
Smyrna all that we have left is a portion of a 
work entitled Tuv Kara /uathmaTi/f7)i/ xptfailtuv 
(It rr)v toC XWarwvoi avayvutrtv. The portion 
which now exists is in two books, one on arith- 
metic, and one on music; there was a third, on 
astronomy, and a fourth, Yltp'i rrjs iv x&ayLif 
appoviat. Edited by Hiller, Leips. 1878. Of 
Theon of Alexandria the following works have 
come down to us: (1) Scholia on Aratus; (2) 
Edition of Euclid ; (3) Commentary on the 
Almagest of Ptolemy, addressed to his son 
Epinhanius ; (4) Commentary on the Tables 
of Ptolemy. Edited by Halma, Paris, 1822. 
— 2. Aeliu8 Theon, of Alexandria, a sophist 
and rhetorician of uncertain date, wrote several 
works, of which one entitled Progj/mnustncUa 
I Y\pc*yvuvQ.(T ficLTd \ is still extant. It is a useful 
treatise on the proper system of preparation 
for the profession of an orator, according to the 



938 



THEONOE 



THEOPHRASTUS 



rules laid down by Hermogenes and Aphtlionius. 
Edited by Finckli, Stuttgart, 1834.— 3. Of 
Samoa, a painter who flourished from the time 
of Philip onwards to that of the successors of 
Alexander. The peculiar merit of Theon was 
his prolific fancy. (Quint, xii. 10, 6 ; Ael. V.H. 
ii. 44 ; Plin. xxxv. 140.) 

The5n6e (Qsovon), daughter of Proteus and 
Psammmathe, also called Idothea. [Idothea.] 

Theophanes (&eocp&vr)s). 1. Cn. Pompeius 
Theophanes, of Mytilene in Lesbos, a learned 
Greek, and one of the most intimate friends of 
Pompey (Caes. B. G. iii. 18; Strab. p. 617). 
Pompey appears to have made his acquaint- 
ance during the Mithridatic war, and soon be- 
came so much attached to him that he presented 
to him the Roman franchise in the presence of 
his army. This occurred about B.C. 6'2 ; and in 
the course of the same year Theophanes ob- 
tained from Pompey the privileges of a free 
state for his native city, although it had 
espoused the cause of Mithridates. (Val. Max. 
viii. 14, 3 ; Cic. pro Arch. 10.) Theophanes 
came to Rome with Pompey ; and on the 
breaking out of the Civil war he accompanied 
his patron to Greece. Pompey appointed him 
commander of the Pabri, and chiefly consulted 
him and Lucceius on all important matters in 
the war, much to the indignation of the Roman 
nobles. After the battle of Pharsalia Theo- 
phanes fled with Pompey from Greece, and it 
was owing to his advice that Pompey went to 
Egypt. After the death of his patron, Theo- 
phanes took refuge in Italy, and was pardoned 
by Caesar. (Plut. Pomp. 76, 78 ; Cic. ad Att. 
xv. 19.) After his death the Lesbians paid 
divine honours to his memory (Tac. Ann. vi. 
18). Theophanes wrote the history of Pom- 
pey's campaigns, in which he represented the 
exploits of his patron in the most favourable 
light. — 2. M. Pompeius Theophanes, son of 
the preceding, was sent to Asia by Augustus, 
in the capacity of procurator, and was at the 
time that Strabo wrote one of the friends of 
Tiberius. The latter emperor, however, put 
his descendants to death towards the end of 
his reign, A.D. 33, because their ancestor had 
been one of Pompey's friends, and had received 
after his death divine honours (Strab. p. 617 ; 
Tac. Ann. vi. 18). — 3. A Byzantine historian, 
flourished most probably in the latter part of 
the sixth century of our era. He wrote, in ten 
books, the history of the Eastern Empire dur- 
ing the Persian war under Justin II., from a.d. 
567 to 581. The work itself is lost, but some 
extracts from it are preserved by Photius. — i. 
Surnained Isaurus, also a Byzantine historian, 
lived during the second half of the eighth cen- 
tury, and the early part of the ninth. In con- 
sequence of his supporting the cause of image 
worship, he was banished by Leo the Armenian 
to the island of Samothrace, where he died, in 
818. Theophanes wrote a Chronicon, which is 
still extant, beginning at the accession of Dio- 
cletian, in 277, and coming down to 811. It 
consists, like the Chronica of Eusebius and of 
Syncellus, of two parts, a History arranged 
according to years, and a Chronological Table, 
of which the former is very superior to the 
latter. It is published in the Collections of 
the Byzantine writers, Paris, 1655, fol., Venet 
1729, fol., and by De Boor, Lips. 1883. 

Theophilus (0eo'<piAos). 1. An Athenian 
comic poet, most probably of the Middle 
Comedy (Pollux, ix. 15 ; Suid. s.v.). — 2. A his- 
torian and geographer, quoted by Josephus, 
Plutarch, and Ptolemy (Jos. c. Ap. i. 23 ; Plut. 



p. 309; Ptol. i. 9, 3).— 3. One of the lawyers of 
Constantinople who were employed by Justinian 
on his first Code, on the Digest, and on the 
composition of the Institutes. [Justinianus.] 
Theophilus is the author of the Greek transla- 
tion or paraphrase of the Institutes of Justi- 
nian, which has come down to us. It is entitled 
'IvariTOvTa ©eoepiAou 'AvTiKevtrapos, Instituta 
Theophili Anticensoris. It became the text 
for the Institutes in the East, where the Latin 
language was little known, and entirely dis- 
placed the Latin text. Edited by Reitz, Haag. 
1751, 2 vols. 4to. — i. Theophilus Protospa- 
iharius, the author of several Greek medical 
works, which are still extant. Protospatharius 
was originally a military title given to the 
colonel of the body-guards of the emperor of 
Constantinople (Spatharii), but afterwards be- 
came also a high civil dignity. Theophilus 
probably lived in the seventh century after 
Christ. Of his works the two most important 
are : (1) riepl rfjs rod avOpiinov KaraiTKfvrjs, 
De Corporis Humani Fabrica, an anatomical 
and physiological treatise in five books. The 
best edition is by Greenhill, Oxon. 1842, 8vo. 
(2) nepi ovpav, De TJrinis, of which the best 
edition is by Guidot, Lugd. Bat. 1703 (and 
1731), 8vo. — 5. Bishop of Antioch in the second 
century. — 6. Bishop of Alexandria in the fourth 
century. [Diet, of Christ. Biogr.] 

Theophrastus (&e6<ppacrros), the Greek phi- 
losopher, was a native of Eresus in Lesbos, and 
studied philosophy at Athens, first under Plato, 
and afterwards under Aristotle. He became 
the favourite pupil of Aristotle, who is said to 
have changed his original name of Tyrtamus to 
Theophrastus (or the Divine Speaker), to indi- 
cate the fluent and graceful address of his pupil ; 
but this tale is scarcely credible. Aristotle 
named Theophrastus his successor in the presi- 
dency of the Lyceum, and in his will bequeathed 
to him his library and the originals of his own 
writings. Theophrastus was a worthy successor 
of his great master, and nobly sustained the 
character of the school. He is said to have had 
2000 disciples, and among them such men as 
the comic poet Menander. He was highly 
esteemed by the kings Philippus, Cassander, 
and Ptolemy, and was not the less the object of 
the regard of the Athenian people, as was 
decisively shown when he was impeached of 
impiety ; for he was not only acquitted, but his 
accuser would have fallen a victim to his 
calumny had not Theophrastus generously 
interfered to save him. Nevertheless, when the 
philosophers were banished from Athens, in 
b.c. 305, according to the law of Sophocles, Theo- 
phrastus also left the city, until Philo, a disciple 
of Aristotle, in the very next year, brought 
Sophocles to punishment, and procured the 
repeal of the law. From this time Theophrastus 
continued to teach at Athens without any fur- 
ther molestation till his death. He died in 
278, having presided over the Academy about 
thirty-five years. His age is differently stated. 
According to some accounts he lived eighty-five 
years ; according to others, 107 years. (Diog. 
Lae'rt. v. 36-70 ; Strab. p. 618 ; Gell. xiii. 5.) 
He is said to have closed his life with the com- 
plaint respecting the short duration of human 
existence, that it ended just when the insight 
into its problems was beginning. The whole 
population of Athens took part in his funeral 
obsequies. He bequeathed his library to Neleus 
of Scepsis. — Theophrastus exerted himself to 
carry out the philosophical system of Aristotle, 
to throw light upon the difficulties contained in. 



THEOPHYLACTTJS 

his books, and to fill up the gaps in them. With 
this view he wrote a great number of works, the 
great object of which was the development of the 
Aristotelian philosophy. Unfortunately, most 
of these works have perished. The following 1 
are alone extant: (1) Characteres ('H0iko! 
XapoKTijpes), in thirty chapters, containing brief, 
but exceedingly clear and graphic, descriptions of 
various types of human weakness, which are 
generally as easy of personal application now as 
they were in the third century b.c. Various 
theories are held about this book: fa) that it 
was composed as it stands by Theophrastus ; j 
(6) that it is a set of extracts from two treatises 
which he wrote on Moral Philosophy ('HfliKa and 
ITep! T)0£>v) ; (c) that it is a collection of fugitive 
sketches which had been circulated by him 
among his friends and were gathered by them 
after his death. On the whole it seems most 
probable that it was formed partly according to 
(6) and partly according to (c). (2) A treatise on 
Sensuous Perception and its Objects (n pi aiadri- 
(T€ois [icol ala-6r)Twv] ). (3) A fragment of a 
work on Metaphysics (T&v fiera ra ipvaiKa). 

(4) On the History of Plants (Ilepi (pvruv 
ItTTOp'ms), in ten books, one of the earliest works 
on botany which have come down to us, and 
entitle him to be considered the real founder of 
botanical science. It was largely used by Pliny. 

(5) On the Causes of Plants (Uepl <pvruv airiwv), 
originally in eight books, of which six are still 
extant. (6) Of Stones iU(pl \i@wv).— The best 
editions of the complete works of Theophrastus 
are by Schneider, Lips. 1818-21, five vols., and 
by Wimmer, Vratislaviae, 1842-62. The best 
separate edition of the Characteres is by 
Jebb, Lond. 1870. The works on Plants are 
edited separately by Stackhouse, Oxf. 1814, and 
by Schneider, Leips. 1821. 

Theophylactus (Qeo<pvhaKTOs), surnamed 
Simocatta, a Byzantine historian, lived at Con- 
stantinople, where he held some public offices 
under Heraclius, about a.d. 610-629. His chief 
work is a history of the reign of the emperor 
Maurice, in eight books, from the death of Ti- 
berius II. and the accession of Maurice, in 582, 
down to the murder of Maurice and his children 
by Phocas in C02. Ed. by Bekker, Bonn, 1831. 
There is also extant another work of Theo- 
phylactus, entitled Quaestiones Physirde. Ed. 
by Boissonade, Paris, 1835 ; De Boor, 188G. 

Theopompus (0e<57ro/inros). 1. King of Sparta, 
reigned about B.C. 770-720. He is said to have 
established the ephoralty, and to have been 
mainly instrumental in bringing the first Mes- 
senian war to a successful issue. (Paus. iii. 7, i 
5, iv. 7, 7 ; Plut. Lyc. 7 ; Ariut. Pol. v. 11.)— ' 
2. Of Chios, the Greek historian, was the son of 
Damasistratus and the brother of Caucalus, the 
rhetorician. He was bom about B.C. 378. He 
accompanied his father, who was exiled on 
account of his espousing the interests of the 
Lacedaemonians, but he was restored to his | 
native country in the forty-fifth year of his age ! 
(888), in consequence of the letters of Alexander 
the Great, in which he exhorted the Ghi&na to 
recall their exiles. Before he left his native 
country, he attended the school of rhetoric 
which Isocrates opened at Chios. Ephorus the 
historian was a fellow-student with him, but was 
of a very different character, and Isocrates used 
to say of them, that Theopompus needed the 
bit and Ephorus the spur. (Cic. Brut. 66, nil \ 
Att. vi. 1, 12.) By the advice of Isocrates, 
Theopompus did not devote his oratorical 
powers to the pleading of causes, but gave his 
chief attention to the study and composition of | 



THERA 



939 



history. Like his master, however, he composed 
many laudatory speeches on set subjects. Thus 
in 352 he contended at Halicarnassus with 
Naucrates and his master Isocrates for the 
prize for oratory given by Artemisia in honour 
of her husband, and gained the victory. (Gell. 
x. 18; Plut. Yit. X. Orat. p. 838.) On his re- 
turn to Chios in 333, Theopompus, who was a 
man of great wealth as well as learning, took 
an important position in the state ; but his 
vehement temper, and his support of the aristo- 
cratical party, soon raised against him a host 
of enemies. Of these one of the most formid- 
able was the sophist Theocritus (Strab. p. 645). 
As long as Alexander lived, his. enemies dared 
not take an} - open proceedings against Theo 
pompus, and even after the death of the 
Macedonian monarch, he appears to have 
enjoyed for some years the protection of the 
royal house; but he was eventually expelled 
from Chios as a disturber of the public peace, 
and fled to Egypt to Ptolemy, about 305, being 
at the time seventy-five years of age. Of his 
further fate we have no particulars. — None of 
the works of Theopompus have come down to 
us, but the following were his chief works : 
(1) 'EAA.Tji'iKai IdTOp'tai or 2iWa|is 'EWrjviKav, 
A History of Greece, in twelve books, which 
was a continuation of the History of Thucydides. 
Starting from B.C. 411, where the History of 
Thucydides breaks off, it embraced a period of 
seventeen years down to the battle of Cnidus, in 
394 (Diod. xiii. 42, xiv. 84 1. (2) *iA(7r7ri/co, also 
called 'larop'iat (kot' efoxV), The History of 
Philip, father of Alexander the Great, in fifty- 
eight books, from B.C. 3C0 to 336. This work 
contained so many digressions that Philip V., 
king of Macedonia, was able, by retaining only 
what belonged to the proper subject, to reduce 
the work from fifty-eight books to sixteen. 
Fifty-three of the fifty-eight books of "the 
original work were extant in the ninth century" 
of the Christian era, and were read by Photius, 
who has preserved an abstract of the twelfth 
book. (3) Orationes, which were chiefly Pane- 
gyrics, and what the Greeks called 2v/j.0ov- 
hevrucol Koyoi. Of the latter kind one of the 
most celebrated was addressed to Alexander on 
the state of Chios. Theopompus is praised by 
ancient writers for his diligence and accuracy. 
In his descriptions of battles, it is true, he sacri- 
ficed exactness to ornamental writing, so that 
his topography is sometimes impossible to follow. 
He is said to have taken more pleasure in 
blaming than in commending ; but the charge 
of malignity brought against him (Nep. Alcib. 
11 ; Plut. Lys. 30 ; Pol. viii. 12) was probably 
undeserved ; and it would be fairer to say that 
his judgment of politicians was severe (cf. 
Dionys. Ep. ad Cn. Pomp. 6). The style of 
Theopompus was formed on the model of Iso- 
crates, and possessed the characteristic merits 
and defects of his master. It was pure, clear, 
and elegant, but deficient in vigour, loaded with 
ornament, and in general too artificial. Theo- 
pompus is noticed by Pliny as the earliest 
Greek writer who made any definite mention of 
Rome : he spoke of the capture of the city by 
the Gauls (Plin. iii. 57). — The best collections 
of the fragments of Theopompus are by Wichers, 
Lugd. Bat. 182'J, and by C. and Theod. Miiller 
in the Fragmenla Historicorum Graecorum, 
Paris, 1841. — 3. An Athenian comic poet, of the 
Old, and also of the Middle Comedy, was the 
son of Theodectes or Theodorus, or Tisanieuuc, 
and wrote as late as B.C. 380. 

Th era (0?'jpa: <dr)jcuos : Sanlorin, but now 



940 



THERAMBO 



again called Thera or Phera), an island in the 
Aegaean sea, and the chief of the Sporades, 
distant from Crete 700 stadia, and twenty-five 
Roman miles S. of the island of Ios. Thera is 
of volcanic origin, and the ancients themselves 
seem to have been aware that it had not always 
existed there. It is said to have been formed 
by a clod of earth thrown from the ship Argo, 
and to have received the name of Calliste, when 
it first emerged from the sea (Ap. Rhod. iv. 
1762). Its earlier name is mentioned by Hero- 
dotus (iv. 147; cf. Strab. p. 484; Plin. iv. 71). 
Thera is said to have been originally inhabited 
by Phoenicians, but was afterwards colonised 
by Lacedaemonians and Minyans of Lemnos 
under the guidance of the Spartan Theras, who 
gave his name to the island (Hdt. I. c). Cyrene 
was a colony from Thera, founded in B.C. 631. 
[Cyrene.] Thera remained faithful to the 
Spartans, and was one of the few islands which 
espoused the Spartan cause at the commence- 
ment of the Peloponnesian war (Thuc. ii. 31). 
Thera, the largest of a group of volcanic islands, 
has been likened in form to a horse-shoe ; but a 
crescent with its two points elongated towards 
the west would be a more exact description. 
The distance round the inner curve is twelve 
miles, and round the outer eighteen, making 
the coast-line of the whole island thirty 
miles : its breadth is in no part more than 
three miles. Opposite to Thera westward 
is Therasia, which still bears the same 
name. (Strab. pp. 57, 484 ; Steph. Byz. s. v. 
®T)pa<xla; Plin. iv. 70.) Its circuit is 7^ miles, 
its length from N. to S. about 1h miles, and its 
breadth a mile. About If mile S. of Therasia, 
lies Aspronisi, or White Island, only a mile in 
circuit, and so called from being capped with a 
deep layer of pozzolana: the name of this 
island is not mentioned by the ancient writers. 
These three islands, Thera, Therasia, and 
Asjpronisi, enclose an expanse of water nearly 
eighteen miles in circumference, which is in re- 
ality the crater of a great volcano. The islands 
were originally united, and were subsequently 
separated by the eruption of the crater. In the 
centre of this basin three volcanic mountains 
rise, known by the name of Kammeni or the 
Burnt (Kafj-ixivr), i. e. Ka.viJ.4vr) instead of kckuv- 
fxevri), and distinguished as the Palaea or Old, 
the Nea or New, and the Mikra or Little. The 
only fertility of the island consists in its vines, 
which, like those of other volcanic districts, are 
highly productive. The volcano has been active 
periodically from prehistoric times to the 
present day ; for, though Herodotus does not 
mention the phenomenon, there are evidences of 
eruptions long before his time. On the SW. 
promontory of Thera (C. AJcroteri) remains of 
houses were recently found below the layers 
of pumice, containing iron implements and 
pottery, apparently of the date of Hissarlik 
pottery ; and on Therasia dwellings were exca- 
vated belonging to a still earlier period, buried 
beneath pumice, and themselves built partly of 
volcanic stone. The most remarkable eruptions 
recorded in ancient times were those of B.C. 198, 
when the oldest of the three volcanic islets 
(Palaea Kammeni) rose from the sea (Strab. 
p. 57 ; Just, xxx. 4 ; Euseb, Glivon. p. 144) — 
the Rhodians occupied it and built on it a 
temple to Poseidon Asphalius — and of 50-60 a.d. 
(Sen. Q. N. ii. 26, vi. 4 ; Dio Cass, lx, 29 ; Georg. 
Cedren. i. p. 197). 

Therambo (&epd/u,f}a>, also ®pd/x&os), a town 
of Macedonia, on the peninsula Pallene (Hdt. 
vii. 123). 



THERICLES 

Theramenes (©Tjpa/xe'crjs), an Athenian, son 
of Hagnon, was a leading member of the olig- 
archical government of the 400 at Athens in 
B.C. 411. In this, however, he does not appear 
to have occupied as eminent a station as he 
had hoped to fill, while at. the same time the 
declaration of Alcibiades and of the army at 
Samos against the oligarchy made it evident to 
him that its days were numbered. Accordingly 
he withdrew from the more violent aristocrats 
and began to cabal against them ; and he sub- 
sequently took not only a prominent part in 
the deposition of the 400, but came forward as 
the accuser of Antiphon and Archeptolemus, 
who had been his intimate friends, but whose 
death he was now procuring. At the battle of 
Arginusae, in 406, Theramenes held a sub- 
ordinate command in the Athenian fleet, and he 
was one of those who, after the victory, were 
commissioned by the generals (according to 
their own story) to repair to the scene of action 
and save as many as possible of the disabled 
galleys and their crews. A storm, it is said, 
rendered the execution of the order impracti- 
cable ; yet, instead of trusting to this ground 
of defence, Theramenes thought it safer to 
divert the popular anger from himself to 
others, and took a leading part in bringing 
them to trial. After the capture of Athens by 
Lysander, Theramenes was chosen one of the 
Thirty Tyrants (404). He endeavoured to 
check the tyrannical proceedings of his col- 
leagues, foreseeing that their violence would be 
fatal to the permanence of their power. His 
opposition, however, had no effect in restrain- 
ing them, but only induced the desire to rid 
themselves of so troublesome an associate, 
whose former conduct, moreover, had shown 
that no political party could depend on him, 
and who had earned, by his trimming, the nick- 
name of 1 Turncoat ' (K66opvos — a boot which 
might be worn on either foot). He was there- 
fore accused by Critias before the council as a 
traitor, and when his nominal judges, favour- 
ably impressed by his able defence, exhibited 
an evident disposition to acquit him, Critias 
introduced into the chamber a number of men 
armed with daggers, and declared that, as all 
who were not included in the privileged Three 
Thousand might be put to death by the sole 
! authority of the Thirty, he struck the name of 
| Theramenes out of that list, and condemned 
him with the consent of all his colleagues. The- 
ramenes then rushed to the altar, which stood 
in the council-chamber, but was dragged from 
it and carried off to execution. When he had 
drunk the hemlock, he dashed out the last 
drops from the cup, exclaiming, ' This to the 
health of the handsome Critias ! ' (Xen. Hell. 
ii. 3, 2 ; Diod. xiv. 5 ; cf. Cie. Tusc. i. 40.) 

Therapnae (©epcnrecu, also Qepdwvr], Dor. 
Qepdirva: Sepantvatos. 1. A town in Laconica, 
on the left bank of the Eurotas, and a little 
above Sparta. It received its name from 
Therapne, daughter of Lelex, and is celebrated 
in mythology as the birthplace of Castor and 
Pollux, and contained temples of these divini- 
ties as well as temples of Menelaus and Helen, 
both of whom were said to be buried here 
(Pausanias, iii. 19, 9 ; Dioscuri). — 2. A town in 
Boeotia, on the road from Thebes to the 
Asopus. 

Theras. [Theba.J 

Therasia. [Thera.] 

Therlcles (®npiK\fis), a Corinthian potter, 
: whose works obtained such celebrity that they 
i became known throughout Greece bv the name 



THERMA 



THESEUS 



941 



of OripiKKeia (sc. iror-hpia) or KvAiKes ©^pi/cAeia: 
(or -01), and these names were applied not only 
to cups of earthenware, but also to those of 
wood, glass, gold, and silver (Athen. pp. 
470-472 ; Plin. xvi. 205). 

Therma (@ep/j.-q : Oeficuos), a town in Mace- 
donia, afterwards called ThessalonTca, situated 
at the NE. extremity of a great gulf of the 
Aegaean sea, lying between Thessaly and the 
peninsula Chalcidice, and called Thermaicus 
or Thermaeus Sinus lOepfidios ko\ttos), from 
the town at its head. This gulf was also called 
Macedonicus Sinus : its modern name is Gulf 
of Saloniki. [Thessalonica.] 

Thermae (Qepfiai), a town in Sicily, built by 
the inhabitants of Himera, after the destruction 
of the latter city by the Carthaginians. For I 
details see Himera. 

Thermaicus Sinus. [Therma.] 

Thermodon i&epfjMiZuv : Thermeh), a river of 
Pontus, in the district of Themiscyra, the re- 
puted country of the Amazons, rises in a 
mountain called Aniazonius M. (and still Mason \ 
Dagh), near Phanaroea, and falls into the sea 
about thirty miles E. of the mouth of the Iris, i 
after a short course, but with so large a body 
of water that its breadth, according to Xeno- 
phon, was three plethra (above 300 feet), and 
it was navigable. (Xen. An. v. 6, 9, vi. 2, 1 ; 
Amazoxes.) At its mouth was the city of 
Themiscyra. 

Thermopylae, often called simply Pylae 
(&ep/j.oirvKai, UvKai), that is, the Hot Gates or | 
the Gates, a celebrated pass leading from 
Thessaly into Locris. It lay between Mt. 
Callidromus, a part of the ridge of Mt. Oeta, 
and an inaccessible morass, forming the edge of 
the Malic Gulf. At one end of the pass, close 
to Anthela, the mountain approached so close 
to the morass as to leave room for only a single 
carriage between ; this narrow entrance formed 
the W. gate of Thermopylae. About a mile to 
the E. the mountain again approached close to 
the sea, near the Locrian town of Alpeni, thus 
forming the E. gate of Thermopylae. The | 
space between these two gates was wider and | 
more open, and was distinguished by its abund- 
ant flow of hot springs, which were sacred to 1 
Heracles : hence the name of the place. Ther- 
mopylae was the only pass by which an enemy i 
can penetrate from northern into southern 
Greece; whence its great importance in Grecian 
history. It is especially celebrated on account 
of the heroic defence of Leonidas and the 300 
Spartans against the mighty host of Xerxes. 
They only fell because the Persians had dis- 
covered a path over the mountains, and were 
enabled to attack them in the rear. This 
mountain path began near Tritely-, ascended 
the gorge of the river Asopus and the hill 
called Anopaea, then crossed the crest of Oeta, 
and descended in the rear of Thermopylae 
near the town of Alpeni. In 279 B.C. the Greeks 
held the pass for some time against the Gauls, 
till they were taken in the rear, as Leonidas 
had been. (Hdt. vii. 207-228 ; cf. Strab. p. 428 ; . 
Liv. xxxvi. 15 ; Pans. iv. 35, 9, x. 19-22 ; Pol. 
x. 41.) 

Thermum or Therma i&4p^oi/ or to Htp.ua), a 
town of the Aetolians n*ar Stratus, with warm 
mineral springs, was regarded for some time as 
the capital of the country, since it was the place 
of meeting of the Aetolian Confederacy (Strab. 
p. 403 ; Pol. v. 7). 

Thermus, Minucius. 1. Q., served under 
Scipio as tribumis milituin in the war against 
Hannibal in Africa in B.C. 202 ; wus tribune of 



the plebs 201 ; curule aedile 197 ; and praetor 
196, when he earned on war with great success 
in Nearer Spain. He was consul in 193, and 
carried on war against the Ligurians in this and 
the two following years. On his return to 
Rome in 190, a triumph was refused him, 
through the influence of M. Cato, who delivered 
on the occasion his two orations entitled De 
decent Honrinibus and De falsis Pugnis 
(Gell. x. 3, xiii. 24). Thermus was killed in 
188, while fighting under Cn. Manlius Vulso 
against the Thracians. (Pol. xxii. 26 ; Liv. 
xxxviii. 41, 46 ; App. Syr. 39.) — 2. M., proprae- 
tor in 81, accompanied L. Murena, Sulla's 
legate, into Asia. Thermus was engaged in the 
siege of Mytilene, and it was under him that 
Julius Caesar served his first campaign and 
gained his first laurels (Suet. Jtd. 2.) — 3. Q , 
propraetor 51 and 50 in Asia, where he received 
many letters from Cicero, who praises his ad- 
ministration of the province. On the breaking 
out of the Civil war he espoused the side of 
Poinpey. (Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 53-57; Caes. B.C. 

1. 12 ; App. B.C. v. 139.) 
Theron (Q-rjpav), tyrant of Agrigentum in 

Sicily, was the son of Aenesidemus, and de- 
scended from one of the most illustrious fami- 
lies in his native city. He obtained the supreme 
power about B.C. 488, and retained it till his 
death in 472. He conquered Himera in 482, 
and united this powerful city to his own domi- 
nions. He was in close alliance with Gelo, 
ruler of Syracuse and Gela, to whom he had 
given his daughter Demarete in marriage ; and 
he shared with Gelo in the great victory gained 
over the Carthaginians in 480. On the death 
of Gelo in 478, Theron espoused the cause of 
Polyzelus, who had been driven into exile by 
his brother Hiero. Theron raised an army for 
the purpose of reinstating him, but hostilities 
were prevented, and a peace concluded between 
the two sovereigns. (Diod. xi. 20-25,48, 53; 
Pind. 01. ii., iii. ; Hdt. vii. 165 ; Gelo.) 

Thersander (Qcptrai/Spos), son of Polyniees 
and Argia, and one of the Epigoni, was married 
to Demonassa, by whom he became the father 
of Tisamenus. He went with Agamemnon to 
Troy, and was slain in that expedition by Tele- 
phus. His tomb was shown at Elaea in Mysia, 
I where sacrifices were offered to him. (Hdt. 
iv. 147 ; Paus. iii. 15, 4, vii. 3, 1, ix. 3, 7, x. 10, 

2. ) Virgil (Aen. ii. 261) enumerates Thersander 
among the Greeksconcealed in the wooden horse. 

Thersites (0epo"iT7)s), son of Agrius, the 
ugliest man and the most impudent talker 
among the Greeks at Troy (II. ii. 212). Accord- 
ing to the later poets, he was killed by Achilles, 
because he had ridiculed him for lamenting (he 
death of Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons 
(Tzetz. ad Lyc. 999 ; Quint. Smym. i. 800). 

Theseus i0ri<Tevs), the great legendary hero 
of Attica, was the son of Aegeus, king of 
Athens, and of Aethra, the daughter of Pit- 
theus, king of Troezen. This, however, was 
the Attic tradition, which aimed at making 
. Theseus a prince of Athenian descent. The 
older legend of Troezen itself made Theseus 
the son of Poseidon (Paus. i. 17,8; Diod. iv. 
59; Plut. Tlies. 6 ; Eur. Hipp.881). Plutarch 
in his Theseus has gathered into a connected 
story various legends, some of Athenian origin, 
some from other countries : (1) his journey from 
i Troezen to Athens, an Attic glorification of 
their hero ; (2) the Cretan story of the Minotaur 
' adapted to the Attic legends; (3) his later ad ven- 
tures, some of which are of Spartan origin. 
Put the story may be related consecutively as 



942 



THESEUS 



Plutarch has given it. He was brought up at 
Troezen, and when he reached maturity, he took, 
by his mother's directions, the sword and san- 
dals, the tokens which had been left by Aegeus, 
and proceeded to Athens. Eager to emulate 
Heracles, he went by land, displaying his 
prowess by destroying the robbers and monsters 
that infested the country. Periphetes, Sinis, 
Phaea the Crommyonian sow, Sciron, Cercyon, 
and Procrustes fell before him. At Athens he 
was immediately recognised by Medea, who 
laid a plot for poisoning him at a banquet to 
which he was invited. By means of the sword 
which he carried, Theseus was recognised by 
Aegeus, acknowledged as his son, and declared 
lis successor. The sons of Pallas, thus disap- 
pointed in their hopes of succeeding to the 
throne, attempted to secure the succession by 
violence, and declared war, but, being betrayed 
T>y the herald Leos, were destroyed. The cap- 
ture of the Marathonian bull (cf. the story of 
Heracles and the Cretan bull), which had long 
laid waste the surrounding country, was the 
next exploit of Theseus. After this Theseus 
went of his own accord as one of the seven 
youths whom the Athenians were obliged to 
send every year, with seven maidens, to Crete, 
to be devoured by the Minotaur. When 
they arrived at Crete, Ariadne, the daughter 
of Minos, became enamoured of Theseus, and 
provided him with a sword with which he 
slew the Minotaur, and a clue of thread by 
which he found his way out of the labyrinth. 
Having effected his object, Theseus sailed away, 
carrying off Ariadne. There were various 
accounts about Ariadne ; but according to the 
general account Theseus abandoned her in the 
island of Naxos on his way home. [Ariadne.] 
He was generally believed to have had by her 
two sons, Oenopion and Staphylus ; yet this 
does not agree with the account in the Odyssey, 
-which represents her as dying before her wed- 
ding with Theseus was brought about, and 
apparently after her union with Dionysus (Od. 
xi. 320). As the vessel in which Theseus sailed 
approached Attica, he neglected to hoist the 
white sail which was to have been the signal 
of the success of the expedition ; whereupon 
Aegeus, thinking that his son had perished, 
threw himself into the sea. [Aegeus.] The- 
seus thus became king of Athens. Other ad- 
ventures followed, again repeating those of 
Heracles. Theseus is said to have assailed the 
Amazons before they had recovered from the 
attack of Heracles, and to have carried off their 
queen Antiope. The Amazons in their turn 
invaded Attica, and penetrated into Athens 
itself ; and the final battle in which Theseus 
overcame them was fought in the very midst 
of the city. [Amazones.] By Antiope The- 
seus was said to have had a son named Hippo- 
lytus or Demophoon, and after her death to 
have married Phaedra [Hippolytus ; Phaedba]. 
Theseus again was one of the Argonauts (the 
anachronism of the attempt of Medea to poison 
him does not seem to have been noticed) ; he 
joined in other famous expeditions (as in the 
Calydonian hunt), and he aided Adrastus in 
recovering the bodies of those slain before 
Thebes. He contracted a close friendship with 
Pirithous, and aided him and the Lapithae 
against the Centaurs. With the assistance of 
Pirithous he carried off Helen from Sparta 
while she was quite a girl, and placed her at 
Aphidnae, under the care of Aethra. It should 
be noted that this is one of that group of 
legends which appear to have started from the 



Peloponnesus and represent Theseus in the 
character of a marauding chief with little of 
the hero about him : but it was incorporated 
in the Athenian story. After this he helped 
Pirithous in his attempt to carry off Perse- 
phone from the lower world. Pirithous perished 
in the enterprise, and Theseus was kept in 
durance until he was delivered by Heracles. 
Meanwhile Castor and Pollux invaded Attica, 
and carried off Helen and Aethra, Academus 
having informed the brothers where they were to 
be found. [For the Troezenian story of Hippo- 
lytus and its adoption in Attic legends see 
Hippolytus.] Menestheus incited the people 
against Theseus, who on his return found him- 
self unable to re-establish his authority, and 
j retired to Scyros, where he met with a 
; treacherous death at the hands of Lycomedes. 
The departed hero was believed to have re- 
appeared to aid the Athenians at the battle of 
Marathon. In 469 the bones of Theseus were 
discovered by Cimon in Scyros, and brought to 
Athens, where they were deposited in a temple 
(the Theseum) erected in honour of the hero. 
[This is not the temple now standing which is 
often called the Theseum : see p. 143, b.] A 
festival in honour of Theseus was celebrated on 
the eighth day of each month, especially on the 
8th of Pyanepsion. — There can be no doubt 
that Theseus is a purely legendary personage. 
Nevertheless, in later times the Athenians 
came to regard him as the author of a very 
important political revolution in Attica. Before 
his time Attica had been broken up into twelve 
petty independent states or townships, acknow- 
ledging no head, and connected only by a fede- 
ral union. Theseus abolished the separate 
governments, and erected Athens into the 
capital of a single commonwealth. The festi- 
val of the Panathenaea was instituted to com- 
memorate this important revolution. Theseus 
is said to have established a constitutional 
government, retaining in his own hands only 
certain definite powers and functions. He is 
further said to have distributed the Athenian 
citizens into the three classes of Eupatridae, 
Geomori, and Demiurgi. It would be a vain 
task to attempt to decide whether there is any 
historical basis for the legends about Theseus, 
and still more so to endeavour to separate the 
historical from the legendary in what has been 
preserved. The Theseus of the Athenians was 
a hero who fought the Amazons, and slew the 
Minotaur, and carried off Helen. A personage 
who should be nothing more than a wise king, 
consolidating the Athenian commonwealth, 
however possible his existence might be, would 
have no historical reality ; rather it should be 
said that Theseus was invented to account for 
the growth of institutions whose history was 
lost; or that a local divinity round whom many 
legends had gathered was transformed into a 
national hero and further credited with the 
changes in the state which had actually taken 
place. The connexion of Theseus with Posei- 
don, the national deity of the Ionic tribes, his 
coming from the Ionic town Troezen, forcing 
his way through the Isthmus into Attica, and 
establishing the Isthmia as an Ionic Panegyris, 
rather suggest that Theseus is, at least in part, 
the mythological representative of an Ionian 
immigration into Attica, which, adding perhaps 
to the strength and importance of Ionian 
settlers already in the country, might easily 
have led to that political aggregation of the dis- 
jointed elements of the state which is assigned 
to Theseus. 



THESMIA . 

Thesmia, Thesmophoros. [Demeter.] 

Thespiae or Thespia (Qeamial, Qetrmod, 0eV- 
ireia, Qeairia: Beairievs, QecrmdSris, Thespien- 
sis : Eremo or JRimokastro), an ancient town in 
Boeotia on the SE. slope of Mt. Helicon, at no 
great distance from the Crissaean Gulf, on 
which stood its harbour Creusis (II. ii. 498 ; 
Hdt. viii. 50 ; Paus. ix. 26, 6). Its inhabitants 
did not follow the example of the other Boeotian 
towns in submitting to Xerxes, and a number 
of them bravely fought under Leonidas at 
Thermopylae, and perished with the Spartans. 
Their city was burnt to the ground by the 
Persians, but was subsequently rebuilt. (Hdt. 
vii. 132, 200, 222, viii. 50.) In the Peloponne- 
sian war the Thebans made themselves masters 
of the town and destroyed its walls (Thuc. iv. 
133, vi. 95). The inhabitants were expelled 
altogether from the city after the battle of 
Leuctra (Paus. ix. 14, 2) ; but the city was 
afterwards rebuilt and occupied (Pol. xxviii. 1 ; 
Liv. xlii. 43 ; Strab. p. 410). At Thespiae was 
preserved the celebrated marble statue of Eros 
by Praxiteles, who had given it to Phryne, by 
whom it was presented to her native town. 
[Praxiteles.] From the vicinity of the town 
to Mt. Helicon the Muses are called Thespiades, 
and a valley close to Thespiae was sacred to 
them. Helicon itself is named the Thespia 
rapes (Ov. Met. v. 310 ; Varr. L.L. vii. 2). There 
are considerable remains of the walls of the 
town. Remains of an Ionic temple and of a 
theatre with a well-preserved proscenium have 
been excavated in the Valley of the Muses. 

Thespis (©e'enm), the father of Greek Tragedy, 
was a contemporary of Pisistratus, and a native 
of Icarus, one of the demi in Attica, where 
the worship of Dionysus had long prevailed. 
The alteration made by Thespis, which gave 
to the old Tragedy a new and dramatic cha- 
racter, was very simple but very important. 
Before his time the leader of the Chorus had 
recited the adventures of Dionysus and had 
been answered by the Chorus. Thespis in- 
troduced an actor (jiroKpirris, or 'answerer') 
to reply to the leader of the Chorus. It is 
clear that, though the performance still re- 
mained, as far as can be gathered, chiefly 
lyrical, and the dialogue was of comparatively 
small account, yet a decided step towards the 
drama had been made. [See Diet, of Ant. art. 
Tragoedia.] There is no reason to believe 
Horace's statement that Thespis went about in 
a waggon as a strolling player (A .P. 276). It 
is suggested that the expressions for the free- 
dom of jesting at the festival of the Lenaca (ret 
4£ afia^a/v, ^{ oyao^rjs ujSpi'ftip) may have given 
rise to the story. 

Thespiua (©f'oTrios), son of Erechtheus, who, 
according to some, founded the town of Thespiae 
in Boeotia (Paus. ix. 26, 4). 

Thresproti (Qtairpwro'i), a people of Epirus, 
inhabiting the district called after them Thes- 
protia (0€<nrpaiTi'al or Thesprotis (0f<r7rpa>Ti'sl, 
which extended along the coast from the Am- 
bracian gulf northwards as far as the river 
Thyamis, and inland as far.as the territory of 
the Molossi. The SE. part of the country on 
the coast, from the river Acheron to the Am- 
bracian gulf, was railed Cassopaea from the 
town Cassope, and is sometimes reckoned as a 
distinct district. The Thesproti were the most 
ancient inhabitants of Epirus, and are said to 
have derived their name from Thesprotus, the 
son of Lycaon. Here was the oracle of Dodona, 
the great centre of the lVlasgic worship. (Do- 
dona ; Pelasgi.] From Thesprotia issued the 



THESSALIA 



943 



I Thessalians, who took possession of the country 
afterwards called Thessaly. In the historical 
period the Thesprotians were a people of 
small importance, having become subject to the 
I kings of the Molossians. (Hdt. vii. 176, viii. 47 ; 
Thuc. i. 46, iv. 35, v. 22 ; Strab. p. 256 ; Molossi.) 
Thessalia (QtaaaXla. or ©eTTaAi'a : ®e<r<ra\6s 

• or 06ttoAo's), the largest division of Greece, 
I was bounded on the N. by the Cambunian 

mountains, which separated it from Macedonia ; 
on the W. by Mt. Pmdus, which separated it 
from Epirus ; on the E. by the Aegaean sea ; 
and on the S. by the Maliac gulf and Mt. Oeta, 
which separated it from Locris, Phocis and 
Aetolia. Thessaly Proper is a large plain lying 
between the Cambunian mountains on the N. 
and Mt. Othrys on the S., Bit. Pindus on the W., 
and Mts. Ossa and Pelion on the E. It is thus 
shut in on every side by mountain barriers, 
broken only at the NE. corner by the valley 
: and defile of Tempe, which separates Ossa from 
Olympus, and is the only road through which 
an invader can enter Thessaly from the N. 
j This plain is drained by the river Peneus and 
its affluents, and is said to have been originally 
a vast lake, the waters of which were after- 
wards carried off through the vale of Tempe 
by some sudden convulsion, which rent the 
rocks of this valley asunder. [Peneus; Tempe.] 
The lake of Nessonis at the foot of Mt. Ossa, 
: and that of Boebeis at the foot of Mt. Pelion, 
I are supposed to have been remains of this vast 
lake. In addition to the plain already described 
there were two otherdistricts included under the 
! general name of Thessaly : one called Magnesia, 

• being a long narrow strip of country, extending 
along the coast of the Aegaean sea from Tempe 

, to the Pagasaean gulf, and bounded on the W. 
j by Mts. Ossa and Olympus ; and the other, 
called Malis, being a long narrow vale at the 
extreme S. of the country, lying between Bits. 
Othrys and Oeta, and drained by the river 
1 Spercheus. Thessaly is said to have been 
originally known by the names of Pyrrlia, 
Aemonia and Aeolis (Hdt. vii. 1 7(> I . The two 
former appellations belong to mythology 
[Pyhkha] ; the latter refers to the period when 
the country was inhabited by Aeolians, who 
were afterwards expelled from the country by 
the Thessalians about sixty years after the 
Trojan war. The Thessalians are said to have 
come from Thesprotia, but at what period their 
name became the name of the country cannot 
be determined. It does not occur in Homer, 
who only mentions the several principalities of 
which it was composed (//. ii. 683, 749, 7561, and 
does not give any general appellation to the 
country. Thessaly was divided in very early 
times into four districts or tetrarchies, a division 
which we still find subsisting in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war. These districts were Hesti- 
aeotis, Pelasgiotis, Thessaliotis and Phthiatis. 
They comprised, however, only the great Tlu s- 
salian plain ; and besides them, we find mention 
of four other districts, viz. Magnesia, Dolopia, 
Oetaea, and Malis, which was less probably 
included in Thessaly. Perrhaebia was, properly 
speaking, not a district, since Perrhaebi was 
the name of a Pelasgic people settled in 
Hestiaeotis and Pelasgiotis. [PERBHAF.ni.] 1. 
Hestiaeotifl I' Eo-Tiai ojtis or 'EirridiTis), inhabited 
by the Hcstiaeotae ('E<7Tiaia>Tai or 'Efl"nan-ai| 
the NW. part of Thessaly, bounded on the N 
by Macedonia, on the W. by Epirus, on the E. 
! by Pelasgiotis and on the S. by Thessaliotis : 
the Peneus may be said in general to have 
, formed its S. limit.— 2. Pelasgiotis (n»Aa<r 



944 



THESSALIA 



ytwTis), the E. part of the Thessalian plain, 
was bounded on the N. by Macedonia, on the 
W. by Hestiaeotis, on the E. by Magnesia, and 
on the S. by the Sinus Pagasaeus and Phthiotis. 
The name shows that it was originally inhabited 
by people who had been settled there in prehis- 
toric times, and one of the chief towns in the 
district was Larissa, which ia regarded as a, 
specially ' Pelasgian ' name. [Pelasgi.] — 3. 
Thessaliotis {&e<rcra.\iuTis), the SW. part of 
the Thessalian plain, so called because it was 
first occupied by the Thessalians who came 
across Mt. Pindus from Thesprotia. It was 
bounded on the N. by Hestiaeotis, on the W. by 
Epirus, on the E. by Pelasgiotis, and on the 
S. by Dolopia and Phthiotis. — 4. Phthiotis 
(4>0i(£t!s), inhabited by the Phthiotae (Qdicorai), 
the SE. of Thessaly, bounded on the N. by 
Thessaliotis, on the W. by Dolopia, on the S. 
by the Sinus Maliacus, and on the E. by the 
Pagasaean gulf. Its inhabitants were Achaeans, 
and are frequently called the Achaean Phthiotae. 
It is in this district that Homer places Phthia 
and Hellas proper, and the dominions of Achilles. 
The other districts which were reckoned less pro- 
perly as part of Thessaly were : Magnesia [Mag- 
nesia]. — Dolopia (AoXoirla), inhabited by the 
Dolopes (A6\oire s), a small district bounded on 
the E. by Phthiotis, on the N. by Thessaliotis, 
on the W. by Athamania, and on the S. by 
Oetaea. They were an ancient people, for they i 
are not only mentioned by Homer as fighting | 
before Troy, but they also sent deputies to the 
Amphictyonic assembly. — Oetaea (Ohala), in- 
habited by the Oetaei (Olrauoi) and Aenianes | 
(AiViSces), a district in the upper valley of the i 
Spercheus, lying between Mts. Othrys and Oeta, 
and bounded on the N. by Dolopia, on the S. by 
Phocis, and on the E. by Malis. — Malis [Malis]. 
— History of Thessaly. [For the important 
legendary history of Thessaly, see Centaubi ; 
Lapithae ; Abgonautae.J The Thessalians, as 
was said above, were a Thesprotian tribe. 
Under the guidance of leaders said to be 
descendants of Heracles, they invaded the W. 
part of the country, afterwards called Thessa- 
liotis, and drove out or reduced to the con- 
dition of Penestae or bondsmen the ancient 
Aeolian inhabitants. The Thessalians after- 
wards spread over the other parts of the 
country, compelling the Perrhaebi, Magnetes, 
Achaean Phthiotae, <fcc, to submit to their au- 
thority and pay them tribute. The population 
of Thessaly, therefore, consisted, like that of 
Laconica, of three distinct classes : (1) the 
Penestae, whose condition was nearly the same 
as that of the Helots [see Diet, of Ant. art. 
Penestae] ; (2) the subject people, corre- 
sponding to the Perioeci of Laconica ; (3) the 
Thessalian conquerors, who alone had any share 
in the public administration, and whose lands 
were cultivated by the Penestae. For some 
time after the conquest, perhaps down to the 
time of the Persian wars (cf. Hdt. v. 63, vii. 6) 
and even to 454 B.C. (cf. Thuc. i. Ill), Thessaly 
was governed by kings said to be of the race of 
Heracles. When the kingly power was abo- 
lished, the government in the separate cities 
became oligarchical, the power being chiefly in 
the hands of a few great families descended 
from the ancient kings. Of these two of the 
most powerful were the Aleuadae and the Sco- 
padae, the former of whom ruled at Larissa, 
and the latter at Cranon or Crannon. These 
nobles, who are compared to the feudal lords 
of the middle ages, had vast estates cultivated 
by the Penestae ; they were celebrated for their 



hospitality and princely mode of life, and they 
attracted to their courts many of the poets and 
artists of southern Greece. Chief among the 
national sports of the Thessalians, as an 
equestrian people, was the Taureia or bull-hunt- 
ing, in which the mounted pursuers leapt upon 
the bull when he was exhausted by running 
and pulled him to the ground. At an early 
period the Thessalians were united into a con- 
federate body. Each of the four districts into 
which the country was divided probably regu- 
lated its affairs by some kind of provincial 
council ; and when occasion required, a chief 
magistrate was elected under the name of Tagus 
(Tay6s), whose commands were obeyed by all the 
four districts. His command was of a military 
rather .than of a civil nature, and he seems'to 
have been appointed only in case of war. This 
confederacy, however, was not of much practical 
benefit to the Thessalian people, and appears 
to have been used only by the Thessalian nobles 
as a means of cementing and maintaining 
their power. The Thessalians never became of 
mucin mportance in Grecian history. They 
submitted to the Persians on their invasion 
of Greece, and they exercised little influence 
on Grecian affairs till after the end of the 
Peloponnesian war. About this time the power 
of the aristocratical families began to decline, 
and Lycophron, who had established himself as 
tyrant at Pherae, offered a formidable opposi- 
tion to the great aristocratical families, and en- 
deavoured to extend his power over all Thessaly. 
His ambitious schemes were realised by Jason, 
the successor, and probably the son, of Lyco- 




Coin of Thessalia, of the period of the Thessalian 

Confederacy. 

Obv., head of Zeus ; rev., Athene Itonis ; sessaaqn noA. 



phron, who caused himself to be elected Tagus 
about B.C. 374. While he lived the whole of 
Thessaly was united as one political power, and 
he began to aim at making himself master of 
all Greece, when he was assassinated, in 370, 
[See more fully in Diet, of Ant. art. Tagus.] 
The office of Tagus became a tyranny under 
his successors, Polydorus, Polyphron, Alexan- 
der, Tisiphon and Lycophron ; but at length 
the old aristocratical families called in the as- 
sistance of Philip of Macedonia, who deprived 
Lycophron of his power in 353, restored the 
ancient government in the different towns, and 
reorganised the country in tetrarchies and dec- 
archies. The country, however, only changed 
masters ; for a few years later (344) Philip 
made it completely subject to Macedonia, by 
placing at the head of the four divisions of the 
country governors devoted to his interests, and 
probably members of the ancient noble families, 
who had now become little better than his 
vassals. From this time Thessaly remained in 
a state of dependence upon the Macedonian 
kings, till the victory of T. Flamininus at Cynos- 
cephalae, in 197, again gave them a semblance 
of independence under the protection of the 
Romans. Thessaly was incorporated in the 
province of Achaia in 27 B.C. (Pharsalus remain- 



THESSALONICA 



THEVESTE 



945 



ing a free town), but in the second century of 
our era it formed part of Macedonia. The 
Thessalians were, however, allowed indepen- 
dence in their civic administration, for which a 
diet was held at Larissa. 

Thessalonica (@eo-<ra\oy'iKa.) daughter of 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, by 
his wife or concubine, Nicesipolis of Pherae. 
She was taken prisoner by Cassander along 
with Olympias on the capture of Pydna, in B.C. 
317 ; and Cassander embraced the opportunity 
to connect himself with the ancient royal house 
of Macedonia by marrying her. By Cassander 
she became the mother of tliree sons, Philip, 
Antipater, and Alexander; and her husband 
paid her the honour of conferring her name 
upon the city of Thessalonica, which he founded 
on the site of the ancient Therma. [See below.] 
After the death of Cassander, Thessalonica 
was put to death by her son Antipater (295). 
(Paus. ix. 7, 3 ; Diod. xix. 35, 52.) 

Thessalonica (Qeo~<ra\ov'iKri, also QtaaaKovi- 
Keta : &e<r<raKoviKevs : Salonica), more anciently 
Therma f0epM1 : @tpfMtos), an ancient city in 
Macedonia, situated at the NE. extremity of 
the Sinus Thermaicus. Under the name of 
Therma it was not a place of much importance. 
It was taken and occupied by the Athenians a 
short time before the Peloponnesian war (b.c. 
432) but was soon after restored by them to 
Perdiccas. It was made an important city 
by Cassander, who collected in this place the 
inhabitants of several adjacent towns (about 
B.C. 315), and who gave it the name of Thessa- 
lonica, in honour of his wife, the daughter of 
Philip and sister of Alexander the Great. 
(Strab. p. 330.) From this time it became a 
large and flourishing city. Its harbour was 
well situated for commercial intercourse with 
the Hellespont and the Aegaean ; and under 
the Romans it had the additional advantage of 
lying on the Via Egnatia, which led from the 
W. shores of Greece to Byzantium and the 
East. It was visited by the Apostle Paul 
about a.d. 53 ; and about two years afterwards 
lie addressed from Corinth two epistles to his 
converts in the city. Thessalonica continued 
to be, under the empire, one of the most impor- 
tant cities of Macedonia ; and at a later time 
it became the residence of the prefect, and the 
capital, of the Illyrian provinces. It is cele- 
brated at this period on account of the fearful 
massacre of its inhabitants by order of Theo- 
dosius, in consequence of a riot in which some 
of the Roman officers had been assassinated by 
the populace. [Theodosius.] 

Thessalus (0e<r<raA<ij.) 1. A Greek physi- 
cian, son of Hippocrates, p issed some of his 
time at the court of Archelaus, king of Mace- 
donia, who reigned B.C. 413-399. He was one 
of the founders of the sect of the Dogmatici, 
and is several times highly praised by Galen, 
who calls him the most eminent of the sons of 
Hippocrates. He was supposed by some of 
the ancient writers to be the author of several 
of the works that form part of the Hippocratic 
Collection, which he might have compiled from 
notes left by his father. — 2. Also a Greek 
physician, was a native of Tralles in Lydia, and 
one of the founders of the medical sect of the 
Methodici. He lived at Rome in the reign of 
the emperor Nero, a.d. 64-68, to whom he ad- 
dressed one of his works; and here he died and 
was buried, and his tomb was to be seen in 
Pliny's time on the Via Appia. He considered 
himself superior to all his predecessors. He 
is frequently mentioned by Galen, but always 



' in terms of contempt and ridicule. None of 
Ins works are extant. — 3. Son of Pisistratus 
(Thuc. i. 20). In Arist. 'A 8. ttoA. 18 he is said 
to be the same as Hegesistratus, and plays the 
part assigned to Hipparchus in the events which 
led to Aristogeiton's conspiracy. 

Thestias (0e'<7Tios,) son of Ares and Demo- 
nice or Androdice : in other accounts, son of 

, Agenor and grandson of Pleuron, the king of 
Aetolia. He was the father of Iphiclus, Eu- 

i ippus, Plexippus, Eurypylus, Leda, Althaea, 

i and Hypermnestra. His wife is not the same 

j in all traditions, some calling her Lycippe or 

J Laophonte, a daughter of Pleuron, and others 

1 Deidamia. (Apollod. i. 7, 7 ; Paus. iii. 13, 5.) 
The patronymic Thesti&des is given to his 
grandson Meleager, as well as to his sons, and 

j the female patronymic Thestias to his daughter 
Althaea, the mother of Meleager. 

Thestor (0€<rTO)p),son ofldmonand Laothoe, 
and father of Calchas, Theoclynienus, Leucippe. 
and Theonoe (H. i. 69 ; Hyg. Fab. 128). The 
patronymic Thestorides is frequently giveu tc- 
his son Calchas. 

Thetis i06Tis),one of the daughters of Nereus 
and Doris, was the wife of Peleus, by whom she 
became the mother of Achilles (II. i. 538, xviii. 
35 ; Hes. Th. 244). As a goddess of the sea 
she dwelt, like her sisters the Nereids, below 
the waves with her father Nereus (II. i. 357, 
xx. 207). She there received Dionysus on his 
flight from Lycurgus, and the god, in his grati- 
tude, presented her with a golden urn (II. vi. 
135 ; OA. xxiv. 75). When Hephaestus was 
thrown down from heaven, he was likewise 
received by Thetis. She had been brought up 
by Hera, and when she reached the age of 
maturity, Zeus and Hera gave her, against her 

j will, in marriage to Peleus. Such was the 
Homeric story (II. xviii. 85, 432) ; but later 

! accounts add that Poseidon and Zeus himself 
first sued for her hand ; but when Themis de- 

| clared that the son of Thetis would be stronger 
than his father, both gods desisted from their 
suit, and desired her marriage with a mortal 
(Pind. Inthm. viii. 58 ; Aesch. Pr. 707 ; Ov. Met. 
xi. 225, 350). Chiron informed his friend 
Peleus how he might gain possession of her, 

I even if she should metamorphose herself : 
for Thetis, like Proteus, had the power of 
assuming any form she pleased ; and she had 
recourse to this means of escaping from Peleus, 
who, instructed by Chiron, held the goddess 
fast till she again assumed her proper form, and 
promised to marry him (Pind. Nem. iii, 00 ; 
Apollod. iii. 13, 5; Paus. viii. 18, 1). This story, 
which appears first in Pindar, was a favourite 
subject in vase-painting of an early date. The 
wedding of Peleus was honoured with the 

I presence of all the gods, with the exception of 
Eris or Discord, who was not invited, and who 

! avenged herself by throwing among the as- 
sembled gods the apple which was the sourcj; 
of so much misery. [Paws.] For the action 
of Thetis in the story of her son see Achilles. 

Theuprosopon 1 8e ov T\p6<rwnov, i.e. the face of 
a god: Ras-asfi-Shutceh), a lofty, rugged pro- 
montory on the coast of Phoenice, between 
Tripolis and Byblus, formed by a spur of 

i Lebanon, and running far out to sea. Some 
travellers have fancied that they can trace in 
its side-view that resemblance to a human pro- 
file which its name implies. (Strab. 754, 755.) 

Theveste (0fou/<rT7) : TehcHsa, Ru.), a con- 
siderable city of N. Africa, on the frontier of 
X um idia and Byzacena, at the: centre of Several 
roads, and the station of a legion from the time 

8P 



946 



THIA 



THRACTA 



of Augustus. It was of comparatively late origin, 
and a Roman colony. Among its recently dis- 
covered ruins are a fine triumphal arch, and 
the old walls of the city, the circuit of which 
was large enough to have contained 40,000 in- 
habitants. (Ptol. iv. 3, 30.) 

Thia (Qeia), daughter of Uranus and Ge, one 
of the female Titans, became by Hyperion the 
mother of Helios, Eos, and Selene — that is, 
Hyperion and Theia formed the pair of divinities 
from whom light proceeded (Pind. Isthm. iv. 1 ; 
Hes. Th. 135, 171 ; Catull. lxvi. 44). 

Thibron or Thimbron (®ippwv, ®i^pwv). 
1. A Lacedaemonian, sent with 3000 men, B.C. 
399, to aid the Ionians against Tissaphernes. 
He did his work badly, and was superseded by 
Dercyllidas. In 392 he was sent again to oppose 
Struthos, but was defeated and slain (Xen. An. 
viii. 6, 1, Hell. iii. 1, 4, iv. 8, V , Diod. xiv. 36). 
— 2. An officer of Harpalus, satrap of Babylon, 
after whose death, in 324 (he is said by some to 
have murdered him), he set out on a filibustering 
expedition against Cyrene, but was eventually 
put to death by an officer of Ptolemy Lagi 
(Diod. xvii. 108, xviii. 19). 

Thilsaphata (prob. Tell Afad, between 
Mosul and Sinjar), a town of Mesopotamia, 
near the Tigris (Amm. Marc. xxv. 8). 

Thilutha (Tilbeh), a fort in the S. of Meso- 
potamia, on an island in the Euphrates (Amm. 
Marc. xxiv. 2). 

Thlliae or TMna (®?vai, &iya), a chief city of 
the Sinae, and a great emporium for the silk 
and wool trade of the extreme E. In the 
Periplus it is not imagined so far to the E. 
as it is placed by Ptolemy. (Peripl. Mar. 
Erythr. p. 36; Ptol. vii. 3, 6 ; Sinae.) 

Thirds or This (®'ts: Qivfaris), a great city of 
Upper Egypt, capital of the Thinites Nomos. 
It was the Egyptain Tini, and was situated 
near Abydos. It was one of the most ancient 
cities in Egypt, and the capital of the first two 
dynasties (b.c. 4400-4000), but its importance 
was merged in that of Abydos, of which it 
became a separate quarter. 

Thiodamas (®etoddp.as), father of Hylas, and 
king of the Dryopes (Apollod. ii. 7, 7). 

Thisbe (0(V/8r)), a beautiful Babylonian 
maiden, beloved by Pyramus. The lovers 
living in adjoining houses, often secretly con- 
versed with each other through an opening in 
the wall, as their parents would not sanction 
their marriage. Once they agreed to meet 
at the tomb of Ninus. Thisbe arrived first, 
and while she was waiting for Pyramus, she 
perceived a lioness which had just torn to 
pieces an ox, and took to flight. In her haste 
she dropped her garment, which the lioness 
soiled with blood. In the mean time Pyra- 
mus arrived, and finding her garment covered 
with blood, he imagined that she had been 
murdered, and made away with himself under 
a mulberry tree, the fruit of which henceforth 
was as red as blood. Thisbe, who afterwards 
found the body of her lover, likewise killed her- 
self. (Ov. Met. iv. 55-465.) 

Thisbe, afterwards Thisbae (0iV^7j, 0iV/3ai : 
Surficuos, ©«r/3eus : Kahosia), a town of Boeotia, 
on the borders of Phocis, and between Mt. 
Helicon and the Corinthian gulf. It was famed 
even in the time of Homer for its wild pigeons, 
which are still found in abundance in the 
neighbourhood of Kakosia. (II. ii. 502 ; Strab. 
p. 411 ; Xen. Hell . vi. 4, 3 ; Ov. Met. xi. 330 ; 
Stat. Theb. vii. 261.) Its ruins are chiefly of 
the date of Alexander. 
Thisoa. [Theisoa.] 



Thmuis (®/xovls : Tmaie, Ru., near Man- 

sourah), a city of Lower Egypt, on a canal on 
the E. side of the Mendesian mouth of the 
Nile. It was a chief seat of the worship of the 
god Mendes (the Egyptian Pan), under the 
symbol of a goat. It was the chief city of the 
Nomos Thmultes, which was afterwards united 
with the Mendesian Nomos. (Hdt. ii. 166 ; Ptol. 
iv. 5, 51.) 

Thoas (®6as). 1. Son of Andraemon and 
Gorge, was king of Calydon and Pleuron, in 
Aetolia, and sailed with forty ships against 
Troy (II. ii. 638, iv. 529, xv. 281 ; Paus. v. 3, 5). 
— 2. Son of Dionysus and Ariadne, was king of 
Lemnos, and married to Myrina, by whom he 
became the father of Hypsipyle and Sicinus 
(II. xiv. 230 ; Diod. v. 79). When the Lemnian 
women killed all the men in the island, Hyp- 
sipyle saved her father, Thoas, and concealed 
him. Afterwards, however, he was discovered 
by the other women, and killed ; or, according 
to other accounts, he escaped to Taurus, or to 
the island of Oenoe near Euboea, which was 
henceforth called Sicinus. The patronymic 
Thoantras is given to Hypsipyle, as the 
daughter of Thoas. (Apollod. i. 9, 17, iii. 6, 4.)— 
3. Son of Borysthenes, and king of Tauris, into 
whose dominions Iphigenia was carried by 
Artemis, when she was to have been sacrificed 
(Ant. Lib. 27; Eur. Iphig. in Taur.).—^. 
An Aetolian who was praetor of the League in 
B.C. 193, and urged the war against the Romans. 
After the defeat of Antiochus, the Romans 
made the surrender of Thoas a condition of 
peace, but set him at liberty. In 169 he was 
killed in a popular tumult. (Liv. xxxv. 37-45, 
xxxviii. 38 ; Pol. xxviii. 4.) 

Thomas Magister, a rhetorician and gram- 
marian, about a.d. 1310. He was a native of 
Thessalonica, and lived at the court of the 
emperor Andronicus Palaeologus I., where 
he held the offices of marshal (Magister 
Officiorum) and keeper of the archives 
(Chartophylax) ; but he afterwards retired to 
a monastery, where he assumed the name of 
Theodulus, and devoted himself to the study of 
the ancient Greek authors. His chief work, 
which has come down to us, is a Lexicon of 
Attic Words (Kara aA<pdf)riTOV bvoixdrwv 
'ATTiKav iicAoyai), compiled from the works 
of the elder grammarians, such as Phrynichus, 
Ammonius, Herodian, and Moeris. — Edited by 
Ritschl, Halis Sax. 1831. 

Thorrcus (&6piKos or ©opticSs : ©opiKios, 
®optK€vs : Theriko), one of the twelve ancient 
towns in Attica, and subsequently a demus 
belonging to the tribe Acamantis, was situated 
on the SE. coast a little above Sunium, and 
was fortified by the Athenians towards the close 
of the Peloponnesian war (Strab. p. 397 ; Xen. 
Hell. i.-2, 1). It was from Thoricus that Eos 
caught up Cephalus (Apollod. ii. 4, 7), with 
which some suppose the idea of Soph. O. C. 
1595 to be associated. There are important 
remains, especially of the theatre. 

Thornax (®6pva^ : Pavlaika), a mountain in 
Laconica, NE. of Sparta, on which stood a 
celebrated temple of Apollo (Paus. ii. 36, 1). 

Thospites Lacus (©cooti-itis \ifivi] : Van- 
gol), a lake in Armenia Major, through which 
the Tigris flows. The lake, and the surround- 
ing district, also called Thospltis, were both 
named from a city Thospia (@w<rma) at the N. 
end of the lake (Ptol. v. 13, 18). 

Thraela (©pa/o), Ion. QprjKT}, ©prj'i/ci), ©pTjiVcnj : 
®pa|, pi. ©pa/ess, Ion. 0p?;£ and ©prjij, pi. 
©pyKes, ®pi]'iKes : Thrax, pi'. Thraces), was in 



THRACIA 



947 



earlier times the name of the vast space of 
country bounded on the N. by the Danube, on 
the S. by the Propontis and the Aegaean, on 
the E. by the Pontus Euxinus, and on the W. 
by the river Strymon and the easternmost of 
the Illyrian tribes. It was divided into two 
parts by Mt. Haemus (the Balkan), running 
from W. to E., and separating the plain of the 
lower Danube from the rivers which fall into 
the Aegaean. Two extensive mountain ranges 
branch off from the S. side of Jit. Haemus ; one 
running SE. towards Constantinople ; and the 
other, called Ehodope, E. of the preceding one, 
and also running in a south-easterly direction 
near the river Nestus. Between these two ranges 
there are many plains, which are drained by 
the Hebrus, the largest river in Thrace. At a 
later time the name Thrace was applied to a 
more limited extent of country. The district 
between the Strymon and the Nestus was added 
to Macedonia by Philip, and was usually 
called Macedonia Adjecta. [Macedonia.] 
Under Augustus the part of the country N. of 
the Haemus was made a separate Roman pro- 
vince under the name of Moesia [Moesia] ; but 
the district between the Strymon and the 
Nestus had been previously restored to Thrace 
by the Romans. The Roman province of 
Thrace was accordingly bounded on the W. by 
the river Nestus, which separated it from 
Macedonia; on the N. by Mt. Haemus, which 
divided it from Moesia ; on the E. by the 
Euxine, and on the S. by the Propontis and 
Aegean. — Thrace, in its widest extent, was 
peopled in the times of Herodotus and Thucy- 
dides by a vast number of different tribes ; but 
their customs and characters were marked by 
great uniformity. Herodotus says that, next to 
the Indians, the Thracians were the most 
numerous of all races, and if united under one 
head would have been irresistible. He describes 
them as a savage, cruel, and rapacious people, 
delighting in blood, but brave and warlike. 
According to his account, which is confirmed 
by other writers, the Thracian chiefs sold their 
children for exportation to foreign merchants ; 
they purchased their wives ; they punctured 
or tattooed their bodies and those of the women 
belonging to them, as a sign of noble birth ; they 
despised agriculture, and considered it most 
honourable to live by war and robbery. (Hilt, 
v. 8-G ; cf. Strab. pp. 816-818 ; Liv. xxvi. 25 ; 
Tac. Ann. ii. 64 ; Thuc. vii. 27.J Deep drinking 
prevailed among them extensively, and their 
quarrels over their wine cups were notorious 
even in the time of Augustus (Hor. Od. i. 27j. 
They worshiped deities whom the Greeks iden- 
tified with Ares, Dionysus, and Artemis : the 
great sanctuary and oracle of their god 
Dionysus was in one of the loftiest summits of 
Mt. Rhodope. [Dionysus.] The tribes on the 
S. coast attained to some degree of civilisation, 
owing to the numerous Greek colonies which 
were founded in their vicinity ; but the tribes 
in the interior seem to have retained their 
savage habits, with little mitigation, down to 
the time of the Roman empire. There is a 
remarkable difference in the account of the 
Thracians derived from the poems of Homer 
and from early traditions. They are a civilised 
people, with finely wrought armour, cultivators 
of the vine (IV. vi. 182, x. 4;J<>, xxiii. 5(>0|. among 
whom were born the earliest Greek poets, 
Orpheus, Linus and Musaeus. Euruolpus, like- 
wise who founded the Eleusinian mysteries in 
Attica, is said to have hern a Thracian, and to 
have fought against Erechtheus, king of Athens. 



It may be, as some hold, that this was really a 
case of civilisation receding and that the older 
Thracians gained from the Phoenicians arts and 
culture which they afterwards lost ; but it is 
not an impossible explanation that the Homeric 
idea of Thracians was derived from the Asiatic 
branch, who were identified with the skilful and 
musical Phrygians. [For the Thracian emigra- 
tion into Asia see Phbygia.] But if without 
refinements of civilisation, their history shows 
them to have been a brave and spirited people, 
with a remarkable strain of religious enthusiasm, 
— The principal Greek colonies along the coast, 
beginning at the Strymon and going eastwards, 
were : Amphipolis, at the mouth of the Stry- 
mon ; Abdeba, a little to the W. of the Nestus ; 
Dicaea or Dicacpolis, a settlement of Maronea ; 
Maronea itself, colonised by the Chians ; 
Stryjie, a colony of theThasians; Mesembria, 
founded by the Samothracians ; and Aenos, a 
Lesbian colony at the mouth of the Hebrus. 
The Thracian Chersonesus was probably colo- 
nised by the Greeks at an early period, but it 
did not contain any important Greek settle- 
ment till the migration of the first Miitiades 
to the country, during the reign of Pisistratus 
at Athens. [Chersonesus.] On the Propontis 
the two chief Greek settlements were those of 
Perinthus and Selymbria ; and on the Thra- 
cian Bosporus was the important town of 
Byzantium. There were only a few Greek 
settlements on the SAV. coast of the Euxine ; 
the most important were those of Apollonia, 
Odessus, Callatis, Toin, renowned as the 
place of Ovid's banishment, and Istria, near 
the S. mouth of the Danube. — The Thracians 
are said to have been conquered by Sesostris, 
king of Egypt, but that is a pure fiction 
[Sesostris], nor can much faith be placed in 
the account of their conquest by Teucrians and 
Mysians (Hdt. vii. 20). The first really histori- 
cal fact respecting them (apart from the 
foundations of colonies in Thrace mentioned 
above) is their subjugation by Megabazus, the 
general of Darius (Hdt. v. 1-10). After the 
Persians had been driven out of Europe by the 
Greeks, the Thracians recovered their indepen- 
dence; and at the beginning of the Pelopon- 
nesian war, almost all the Thracian tribes were 
united under the dominion of Sitalces, king of 
the Odrysae, whose kingdom extended from 
Abdera to the Euxine and the mouth of the 
Danube. In the third year of the Peloponm sian 
war (b.c. 429), Sitalces, who had entered into 
an alliance with the Athenians, invaded Mace 
donia with a vast army of 150,000 men, but 
was compelled by the failure of provisions to re- 
turn home, after remaining in Macedonia thirty 
days (Thuc. ii. 29, 95). Sitalces fell in battle 
against the Triballi in 421, and was succeeded 

\ by his nephew, Seuthes, who during a long 
reign raised his kingdom to a height of power 

j and prosperity which it had never previously 
attained, so that his regular revenues amounted 
to the annual sum of 400 talents, in addition to 
contributions of gold and silver in the form of 

I presents, to a nearly equal amount. After the 
death of Seuthes, which appears to have hap- 
pened a little before the close of the Pelopon- 

; nesian war, we find his powerful kingdom split 

\ up into different parts; and when Xenophon, 
with the remains of the 10,000 Greeks, arrived 
on the opposite coast of Asia, another Seuthes 
applied to him for assistance to reinstate him 
in his dominions (Xen. An. vii.). Philip, Che 
father of Alexander the Great, reduced tho 
greater part of Thrace ; and after the death 

3 p 2 



THEASEA 



THRASYMACHUS 



of Alexander the country fell to the share of 
Lysimachus. It subsequently formed a part of 
the Macedonian dominions, but it continued to 
be governed by its native princes, and was only 
nominally subject to the Macedonian monarchs. 
Even under the Romans Thrace was for a long 
time governed by its own chiefs. At the time 
of the Moesian campaign (b.c. 29) the Thracian 
Odrysae were involved in a religious war with 
the Bessi for possession of the shrine of Diony- 
sus and its sacred grove. Crassus conferred the 
custody upon the Odrysae, to whose princes he 
left the rule over all the Thracian tribes S. of 
the Haemus as vassal kings under the suzer- 
ainty of Rome. The position of the vassal king 
Rhoemetalces and his descendants, who from 
the latter part of Augustus's reign till the time 
of Claudius held this power, has been compared, 
not inaptly, to that of the Herods in Pales- 
tine. There were interruptions to this arrange- 
ment : in B.C. 11 Piso had, not without diffi- 
culty, to repress disturbances. Cotys reigned 
after the death of Rhoemetalces, but was mur- 
dered by his uncle, Rhascuporis, who had 
previously ruled part of Thrace. The Romans 
interfered, Rhascuporis was put to death, and 
Tiberius appointed a guardian of the young 
Rhoemetalces, son of Rhascuporis (19 a.d.). Not 
long after, when the Thracians resisted con- 
scription, he placed the control practically in 
the hands of this guardian. Caligula restored 
the principality to Rhoemetalces II. ; but in 
a.d. 46 Claudius constituted Thrace a province 
under a procurator. Trajan raised it to a 
higher rank as a province under a legatus 
Augusti pro praetore. 

P. Thrasea Paetus, a distinguished Roman 
senator and Stoic philosopher, in the reign of 
Nero, was a native of Patavium, and was prob- 
ably born soon after the death of Augustus. 
He appears at an early period of his life to 
have made the younger Cato his model, of 
whose life he wrote an account. He married 
Arria, the daughter of the heroic Arria, who 
showed her husband Caecina how to die ; and 
his wife was worthy of her mother and her 
husband. At a later period he gave his own 
daughter in marriage to Helvidius Priscus, who 
trod closely in the footsteps of his father-in- 
law. Thrasea and Helvidius showed their spirit 
of conservative republicanism by a custom of 
celebrating the birthdays of Brutus and 
Cassius ; Thrasea would not attend the Ne- 
ronian games or the funeral of Poppaea, nor 
would he sacrifice to the Genius of the emperor. 
This roused the jealousy of Nero, and Thrasea 
was condemned to death by the senate by com- 
mand of the emperor, a.d. 66. By his execu- 
tion and that of his friend Barea Soranus, 
Nero, says Tacitus, resolved to murder Virtue 
herself. The panegyric of Thrasea was written 
by Arulenus Rusticus, who was in consequence 
put to death by Domitian. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 49, 
xiv. 12, 48, xv. 20-22, xvi. 21-35, Hist. ii. 91, iv. 
5, Agr. 2 ; Dio Cass. lxi. 15, lxii. 26 ; Juv. v. 36 ; 
Mart. i. 9.) 

Thrasybulus (®pcurij3ov\os). 1. Tyrant of 
Miletus, was a contemporary of Periander and 
Alyattes, the king of Lydia (Hdt. i. 22, vi. 92 ; 
Ar. Pol. iii. 13, v. 10). The story of the mode 
in which Thrasybulus gave his advice to Peri- 
ander as to the best means of securing his 
power is given under Pebiander. — 2. A cele- 
brated Athenian, son of Lycus. He was 
zealously attached to the Athenian democracy, 
and took an active part in overthrowing the 
oligarchical government of the 400 in B.C. 411 



(Thuc. viii. 73). He was appointed as one of 
the generals at Samos, when those who fa- 
voured the oligarchy were deposed, and from 
this time he took a prominent part in the con- 
duct of the war, especially at the battle of 
Cyzicus, B.C. 410 (Thuc. viii. 75-105 ; Xen. Hell. 
i. 1, 12). On the establishment of the Thirty 
at Athens he was banished, and was living in 
exile at Thebes when the rulers of Athens were 
perpetrating their excesses of tyranny. Being 
aided by the Thebans with arms and money, 
he collected a small band, crossed the frontier, 
and seized the deserted fortress of Phyle. He 
repelled the troops sent against him from 
Athens, and, taking the offensive, marched upon 
the Peiraeus, which fell into his hands. From 
this place he carried on war for several months 
against the Ten, who had succeeded to the 
government, and eventually, upon the inter- 
vention of Pausanias, the democracy was re- 
stored in the autumn of 403 B.C. In 390 
Thrasybulus commanded the Athenian fleet in 
the Aegaean, and was slain by the inhabitants of 
Aspendus, upon whom he was levying a forced 
contribution. (Diod. xiv. 94, 99 ; Xen. Hell. iv. 
8, 25 ; Dem. Lept. p. 475.)— 3. Brother of Gelo 
and Hiero, tyrants of Syracuse. He succeeded 
Hiero in the government, B.C. 467, and was 
soon afterwards expelled by the Syracusans, 
whom he had provoked by his rapacity and 
cruelty. He withdrew to Locri, in -Italy, and 
there ended his days. (Diod. xi. 67.) 

Thrasydaeus (®pa<rv8a7os), tyrant of Agri- 
gentum, was the son and successor of Theron, 
B.C. 472. Shortly after his accession he was 
defeated by Hiero of Syracuse ; and the Agri- 
gentines took advantage of this disaster to 
expel him from their city. He escaped to 
Greece, but was arrested at Megara, and exe- 
cuted. (Diod. xi. 53.) 

Thrasyllus or Thrasylus (QpdtrvWos, ®pd- 
avAos). 1. An Athenian, who actively assisted 
Thrasybulus in opposing the oligarchical revo- 
lution in B.C. 411, and, like him, was appointed 
as one of the generals at Samos. [Thbasybu- 
lus.] He was one of the commanders at the 
battle of Arginusae, and was among the six 
generals who returned to Athens and were put 
to death, 406. [Arginusae.] — 2. An astrologer 
at Rhodes, with whom Tiberius became ac- 
quainted during his residence in that island, 
and whom he ever after held in the highest 
honour. In the scenes between him and the 
emperor, as described by Tacitus, Suetonius, and 
Dio, Thrasyllus is the prototype for Scott (in 
Quentin Durward) of Martius Galeotti, the 
astrologer of Louis XI. He confirmed the 
faith of Tiberius in his skill by casting his 
own horoscope as well as that of his master, 
and saying that he himself had reached a 
great crisis of danger, having suspected, as 
was the truth, that Tiberius was on the point 
of having him throwD over a precipice. This 
proof of prophetic power saved his life. He 
died in a.d. 36, the year before Tiberius, and 
is said to have saved the lives of many per- 
sons whom Tiberius would otherwise have 
put to death, by falsely predicting for this 
very purpose that the emperor would live a 
certain period longer than his intended victims. 
The son of this Thrasyllus succeeded to his 
father's skill, and he is said to have predicted 
the empire to Nero. (Tac. Ann. vi. 20-22 ; 
Suet. Aug. 98, Tib. 14, 62, Gal. 19 ; Dio Cass. 
Iv. 11, lvii. 15, lviii. 27.) 

Thrasymachus {Qpcurvfiaxos), a native of 
Chalcedon, was a sophist, and one of the 



THKASYMEDES 



THUCYDIDES 



049 



«arliest cultivators of the art of rhetoric. He | 
was a contemporary of Gorgias. He is intro- 
duced by Plato as one of the interlocutors in 
the Republic, and is referred to several times in 
the Phaedrus (cf. Cic. Orat. 12, 52, de Orat. 
iii. 82, 128 ; Quint, iii. 1, 10 ; Athen. p. 416). 

Thrasyrnedes (Qpa<rv/j.ri5ris). 1. Son of the 
Pylian Nestor and Anaxibia, accompanied his 
father on the expedition against Troy, and re- 
turned with him to Pylos ill. ix. 81, xvii. 378, 
705 ; Od. iii. 442 ; Paus. ii. 18, 7).— 2. A sculp- 
tor of Paros, contemporary with Phidias, whose 
assistant he seems to have been. He was 
author of the statue of Asclepius at Epidaurus 
(Paus. ii. 27, 2). 

Thrasymenus. [Trasimenus.] 

Thronium i&poviov : Qpovios, Qpovievs), the 
chief town of the Locri Epicnemidii, on the 
river Boagrius, at a short distance from the 
6ea, with a harbour upon the coast [II. ii. 533 ; 
Thuc. ii. 26 ; Strab. p. 436). It was destroyed 
by Onomarchus in the Sacred war, and its in- 
habitants were sold into slavery. Its ruins 
(called Palaeocastro) are at the modem Pik- 
raki. 

Thucydides (QoukvSIStis)- 1- An Athenian 
statesman, of the demus Alopece, son of Mele- 
eias. After the death of Cimon (with whom he 
was connected by marriage), in B.C. 449, Thucy- 
dides became the leader of the aristocratic 
party, which he concentrated and more tho- 
roughly organised in opposition to Pericles. 
He was ostracised in 443, thus leaving the un- 
disputed political ascendency to Pericles. He 
left two sons, Melesias and Stephanus ; and a 
son of the former of these, named Thucydides 
after his grandfather, was a pupil of Socrates. 
(Arist. 'A6. Tlo\. 28; Plut. Per. 6-16; Plat. 
Men. p. 94 ; Athen. p. 234.)— 2. The great Athe- 
nian historian, of the demus Halimus, was the 
eon of Olorus or Orolus and Hegesipyle. He 
is said to have been connected with the family 
of Cimon ; and we know that Miltiades, the 
conqueror of Marathon, married Hegesipyle, 
the daughter of a Thracian king called Olorus. 
by whom she became the mother of Cimon ; 
and it lias been conjectured that the mother of 
Thucydides was a granddaughter of Miltiades 
and Hegesipyle. Others suppose that his father, 
Olorus, was connected with Olorus king of 
Thrace ; but a direct Thracian descent on the 
father's side can hardly be possible. The fact 
of the relationship of the other Thucydides to 
Cimon may suggest the possibility of a confu- 
sion. According to a statement of Pamphila 
[Pamphila], Thucydides was forty years of age 
at the commencement of the Peloponnesian 
war, or B.C. 431, and accordingly he was born in 
471. There is a story in Lucian of Herodotus 
having read his History at the Olympic games 
to the assembled Greeks ; and Snidas adds that 
Thucydides, then a boy, was present, and shed 
tears of emotion : a presage of his own future 
historical distinction. . The story as it stands is 
impossible, but it is quite possible that Thucy- 
dides in his youth may have heard Herodotus 
recite some parts of his History at Athens [see 
Herodotus, p. 410, a]. Thucydides is said to 
have been instructed in oratory by Antiphon, 
and in philosophy by Anaxagoras. He informs 
us (iv. 105) that he possessed gold mini s in that 
part of Thrace which is opposite to the island 
of Thasos, and that he had influence in that 
part of Thrace. This property, according to 
some accounts, he had from his ancestors ; ac- 
cording toother accounts, he married an heiress 
of that neighbourhood. Thucydides (ii. 48) 



was one of those who suffered from the great 
plague of Athens, and one of the few who re- 
covered. "We have no trustworthy evidence of 
Thucydides having distinguished himself as an 
orator, though it is not unlikely that he did, for 
his oratorical talent is shown by the speeches 
that he has inserted in his History. He was, 
however, employed in a military capacity, and 
he was in command of an Athenian squadron 
of seven ships, at Thasus, B.C. 424, when Eucles, 
who commanded in Amphipolis, sent for his 
assistance against Brasidas. That general, 
fearing the arrival of a superior force, offered 
favourable terms to Amphipolis, which were 
readily accepted. Thucydides arrived at Eion, 
at the mouth of the Strjmon, on the evening 
of the same day on which Amphipolis surren- 
dered ; and though he was too late to save 
Amphipolis, he prevented Eion froni falling 
into the hands of the enemy. In consequence 
of this failure, Thucydides became an exile, 
probably to avoid a severer punishment ; for 
Cleon, who was at this time in great favour 
with the Athenians, appears to have excited 
popular suspicion against him. His own words 
certainly imply that, during his exile, he spent 
much of his time either in the Peloponnesus 
or in places which were under Peloponnesian 
influence (v. 26), and his work was the result 
of his own experience and observations. His 
minute description of Syracuse and the neigh- 
bourhood leads to the probable conclusion that 
he was personally acquainted with the localities : 
and if he visited Sicily, it is probable that he 
also saw some parts of southern Italy. Thucy- 
dides says that he lived twenty years in exile 
(v. 26), and as his exile began in 423, he may have 
returned to Athens in 403, about the time when 
Thrasybulus liberated Athens. Thucydides is 
said to have been assassinated at Athens soon 
after his return ; but other accounts say that 
he was killed by a robber in Thrace. The time 
of his death is quite uncertain. In iii. 116 he 
mentions eruptions of Aetna, but does not 
know of the eruption of B.C. 396 (Diod. xiv. 
59). It is therefore probable that he died 
before that year, though possible that he lived 
on without revising the passage in question. 
The time when he composed his work has been 
a matter of dispute. He informs us himself 
that he was busy in collecting materials all 
through the war from the beginning to the end 
(i. 22), and of course he would register them as 
he got them. Plutarch says that he wrote the 
work in Thrace ; but the work in the shape in 
which we have it was certainly not finished 
until after the close of the war, and he was 
probably engaged upon it at the time of his 
death. A needless question has been raised as 
to the authorship of the eighth and last book 
of Thucydides, which breaks off in the middle 
of the twenty-first year of the war (411). It 
differs from all the other books in containing 
no speeches, and was less systematically com- 
posed. Accordingly, several ancient critics 
supposed that the eighth book was not by 
Thucydides : some attributed it to his daughter, 
and some to Xenophon or Theopompus, because 
both of them continued the history. This is 
an absurd story, not merely because nothing 
can be less like the style of Xenophon and of 
Theopompus. It may be regarded as certain 
i that Thucydides wrote the book, and the dif- 
ferences alluded to (the differences of style are 
imaginary) are accounted for by the fact that it 
was an unfinished work, in which he would 
I probably have inserted speeches. — The work of 



950 THUCYDIDES 



THURII 



Thucydides, from the commencement of the 
second book, is chronologically divided into 
winters and summers, and each summer and 
winter make a year (ii. 1). His summer com- 
prises the time from the vernal to the autumnal 
equinox, and the winter comprises the period 
from the autumnal to the vernal equinox. The 
division into books and chapters was probably 
made by the Alexandrine critics. The history 
of the Peloponnesian war opens the second 
book of Thucydides, and the first is introduc- 
tory to the history. He begins his first book 
by observing that the Peloponnesian war was 
the most important event in Grecian history, 
which he shows by a rapid review of the history 
of the Greeks from the earliest period to the 
commencement of the war (i. 1-21). After his 
introductory chapters he proceeds to explain 
the alleged grounds and causes of the war : 
the real cause was, he says, the Spartan 
jealousy of the Athenian power. His narrative 
is interrupted (c. 89-118), after he has come to 
the time when the Lacedaemonians resolved 
on war, by a digression on the rise and progress 
of the power of Athens ; a period which had 
been either omitted by other writers, or treated 
imperfectly, and with little regard to chrono- 
logy, as by Hellanicus in his Attic History (c. 
97). He resumes his narrative (c. 119) with 
the negotiations that preceded the war ; but 
this leads to another digression of some length 
on the treason of Pausanias (c. 128-134), and 
the exile of Themistocles (c. 135-138). He 
concludes the book with the speech of Pericles, 
who advised the Athenians to refuse the de- 
mands of the Peloponnesians ; and his subject, 
as already observed, begins with the second 
book. — The work of Thucydides shows the most 
scrupulous care and diligence in ascertaining 
facts ; his strict attention to chronology, and 
the importance that he attaches to it, are addi- 
tional proof of his historical accuracy. His 
narrative is brief and concise to a degree which 
makes the thought, or the crowd of thoughts, 
concentrated in a short and involved sentence 
often hard to understand ; it generally con- 
tains bare facts expressed in the fewest possible 
words, but this stern and apparently passion- 
less brevity is able to produce a pathos un- 
surpassed by any prose writer. This is seen 
most notably in his account of the Athenian 
catastrophe at Syracuse. Few could read it 
(and there are other passages almost as moving 
in the history) without agreeing with the opinion 
of Gray and Macaulay (both masters of S tyle, 
especially the former), that nothing finer has 
been written in prose. But it is still more 
important to notice that Thucydides is the 
founder of philosophical history. He first 
showed that a great historian should not merely 
narrate events accurately, should not even con- 
tent himself with a critical examination of his 
authorities, but should also try to trace the 
causes of events, and their consequences, their 
teaching in politics, and the light which they 
throw upon character. Many of his speeches 
are political essays, or materials for them ; 
they are not mere imaginations of his own for 
rhetorical effect ; they contain in many cases 
the general sense of what was actually delivered 
as nearly as he could ascertain, and in many 
instances he had good opportunities of knowing 
what was said, for he heard some speeches 
delivered (i. 22) ; but they are employed to 
show the motives and sentiments of the speakers 
and of their partisans or countrymen. — Edi- 
tions of Thucydides by Poppo, Leips. 1821, 



[ 1869 (now being re-edited by Stahl) ; Arnold, 
Oxf. 1857 ; Classen, Berl. 1878 (now being re- 
vised by Steup) ; the first two books by Shil- 
leto ; Book ii. by Marchant, 1891, iii. by Bryans, 
iv. and v. by Graves, iv. by Rutherford, vi. by 
Frost, vii. by Holden, 1890, and by Marchant, 
1893, viii. by Goodhart, 1893. Translation by 
Jowett. 

Thule (0oi5A.7j), an island in the N. part of 
the German Ocean, regarded by the ancients as 
the most northerly point in the whole earth. 
It is first mentioned by Pytheas, the celebrated 
Greek navigator of Massilia, who undertook a 
voyage to Britain, of which he gave a descrip- 
tion in his work on the Ocean. [Pytheas.] It 
is not definitely stated by those who mention 
Pytheas's account, whether he claimed to have 
actually visited the island, or whether he only 
derived his information from those whom he 
met in Britain. (Strab. pp. 63, 104, 114, 201 ; 
Plin. ii. 187.) According to Pytheas, as cited by 
these writers, Thule was a six days' sail from 
Britain, and the day and night there were each 
six months long, i.e. the solstitial day was 
twenty-four hours long. He further stated that 
in Thule and those distant parts the air was 
heavy and the sea thick and gelatinous, impene- 
trable to rowing. The astronomical observation, 
which is accepted as true by Hipparchus, 
Eratosthenes, Mela and Pliny (Strab. ll.c. ; 
Plin. iv. 104 ; Mel. iii. 6), implies that Thule lay 
within the Arctic circle. It is tolerably certain 
that Pytheas did not sail so far north ; but if he 
took his account from others he may very well 
have heard of the very much greater length of 
the day in summer and its shortness in winter — 
tales even may have reached him from places as 
far north as the North Cape. The thickened 
sea is possibly a confused account of a frozen 
ocean in the north, but may only be based on 
some stories of banks of sea- weed. It is curious 
that when Agricola's expedition came in sight 
of the Shetlands, which they took to be Thule, 
they imagined the conventional thickness of the 
water (Tac. Agr. 10). On the whole it is 
useless to speculate whether Pytheas's account 
referred to the Shetlands, Iceland, or Norway. 
It is pretty clear that Ptolemy (ii. 6, 32) placed 
Thule at the Shetlands : and in literature Thule 
was universally accepted as the most distant 
and most northerly part of the world (Verg. 
Georg. i. 30). 

Thuria (®ovp'ia), a town of Messenia on the 
river Aris, ten miles from Pharae (Paus. iv. 
31, 1 ; Thuc. i. 101 ; Pol. xxv. 1). Its ruins are 
near the modern Veisaga, six miles from Kala- 
mata. 

Thurii, more rarely Thurium (Bovpioi, ®ov- 
piou : Qovpios, Sovpievs, Thurius, Thurinus : 
Terra Nuova), a Greek city in Lucania, founded 
b.c. 443, near the site of the ancient Sybaris, 
which had been destroyed more than sixty 
years before. [Sybaris.] It was built by the 
remains of the population of Sybaris, who had 
failed in their first attempt of 452, and in their 
successful enterprise were assisted by colonists 
from all parts of Greece, but especially from 
Athens. Among these colonists were the his- 
torian Herodotus and the orator Lysias, the 
latter of whom, however, was only a youth at 
the time, and subsequently returned to Athens. 
(Diod. xii. 10; Strab. p. 263; Plut. Per. 11.) 
The new city, from which the remains of the 
Sybarites were soon expelled, rapidly attained 
great power and prosperity, and became one of 
the most, important Greek towns in the S. of 
Italy. Thus we are told that the Thurians 



THY AMIS 



TIBERIAS 



951 



Its site is near the modem 



were able to bring 14,000 foot soldiers and 1000 j as Hadrianopolis. 
horse into the field against the Lucanians , Doyhan Hissar. 
(Diod. xiv. 101). In the Samnite wars Thurii j Thymbrius (Qvfifipios : Thimbrek), a river of 
received a Roman garrison ; but it revolted to the Troad, falling into the Scamander. At the 
Hannibal in the second Punic war. The Car- present day, it flows direct into the Hellespont ; 
tha<*inian general, however, at a later time, not and, on this and other grounds, some doubt 
trusting the Thurians, plundered the town, and whether the Thimbrek is the ancient river, 
removed 3500 of its inhabitants to Croton (App. j Thymele, an actress in the reign of Domitian 
Ann. 57). The Romans subsequently sent a ! (Juv. i. 35, viii. 197). 

Latin colony to Thurii, and changed its name Thymoetes (@vfj.o'ir-qs), one of the elders of 
into Copiae ; but it continued to retain its 1 Troy. A soothsayer had predicted that on a 
original name, under which it is mentioned by certain day a boy should be born, by whom Troy 

should be destroyed. On that day Paris was 
born to Priam, and Munippus to Thymoetes. 
Priam ordered Munippus and his mother Cylla 
to be killed (II. iii. 14(5). Hence Virgil (Aen. ii. 
31) represents Aeneas saying that it was doubt- 
ful whether Thymoetes advised the Trojans to 
draw the wooden horse into the city in order to 
revenge himself. 

Thyni (Qvvol), a Thracian people, whose 
original abodes were near Sahnydessus, but who 
afterwards passed over into Bithynia". 

Thynla (@wla). 1. The land of the Thyni 
in Thrace. — 2. Another name for Bithynia. — 
Coin of Thurii, of 4th cent. B.C. g [THYNIAS 1 

m., head of PaU | s : Y fl^ i VaU S and a n°h her ' ' Thynias or Thynla (Qvvias, Qvvia). 1. (J«- 

ada), a promontory on the coast of Thrace, 

Caesar in the Civil war as a municipium. (Liv. NW. of Salmydessus, with a town of the same 

xxxiv. 53 ; Strab.p. 263; Caes. B. C. iii. 21.) _ name (Strab. p. 319). — 2. (Eirpe), a small 

Thyamis iQvapus: Kalama), a river in | islet of the Euxine, on the coast of Bithynia, 

Epirus, flowing into the sea near a promontory near the Prom. Calpe, also called Apollonia and 

of the same name (Thuc. i. 46; Strab. p. 324). Daphnusa (Ap. Rh. ii. 177). 

Thyades. [Thyia.] Thyone. [Dionysus, p. 294, b ; Semele.] 

Thyanvus (Qva/Ms : Pietala), a mountain in Thyrea (Qvpea), the chief town in Cynuria, 

Acarnania, south of Argos Amphilochicum the district on the borders of Laconia and Ar- 

(Thuc. iii. 106). golis, was situated upon a height 2000 feet 

Thyatira (ra Qudreipa: Ak-kissar), a city in above the sea-level, on the bay of the sea called 

the N. of Lydia, on the river Lycus. It was Sinus Thyreates (Qvpedrris k6\ttos). It was 




formerly called Pelopeia, and received its new 
name in the Macedonian period. (Strab. p. 
646 ; Steph. Byz. s. v. ; Liv. xxxvii. 44.) 

Thyestes l 0ueerTr)s),sonof Pelops and Hippc- 
damia, was the brother of Atreus and the father 
of Aegisthus. See Atreus and Aeoisthus. 

Thyia (Quia), a daughter of Castalius or Ce- 
phisseus, became by Apollo the mother of Del- 
phus. She is said to have been the first to 
sacrifice to Dionysus, and to have celebrated or- 
gies in his honour. (Hdt. vii. 178 ; Paus. x. 6, 2.) 
It was believed that from her the Attic women, 



for the possession of Thyrea that the celebrated 
battle was fought between the 300 Spartans and 
300 Argi ves. The territory of Thyrea was called 
Thyreatis (QuptaTts). (Strab. p. 376 ; Hdt. i. 
82 ; Thuc. v. 41 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 663 ; Othkyades.) 
Its ruins, known as Hcllcniko or Tichio, show 
the position of the walls and towers. 

Thyreum or Thyrrheum (Qvpeou, Qvppeiov: 
Vasilios), a town in N. Acarnania, between 
Anactorium and Limnaea, close to the Sinus 
Ambracius (Pol. iv. 25; Cic. ad Fam. xvi. 5). 
Thysdrus, Tisdrus, or Tusdrus (@vo-8p6s : 



who went yearly to Mt. Parnassus to celebrate El-Jemm, Ru.), a large fortified city of Byza- 

the Dionysiac orgies with the Delphian Thy- cena, NW. of the promontory Brachodes (Bas 

iades, received themselves the name of Thyiades Kapoudiah ). Under the Romans it was a free 

or Thy if There is little doubt that her city. It was here that the emperor Gordian 

story was simply an attempt to explain this assumed the purple. (Ptol. iv. 3, 39 ; Herodian, 

name, which is probably connected with 0vu vii. 4.) 

and 1ms the same meaning as Muenades. Thyssagetae (Quo-o-ayeraiK a people of Sar- 

Thyillu8 (&vt\\os), a Greek poet, living at matia Asiatica, on the E. shores of the Pulus 

Rome about B.C. 67, and a friend of Cicero. He Maeotis (Hdt. iv. 22 ; Mel. i. 19). 



seems to have been engaged on a poem about 
the Eleusinian rites (Cic. ad AU.\. 9, 12, 16). 
Some editions write is name Chilius. 
Thymbra ItovfifSpT]), a city of the Troad, N. of 



Thyssus Wvacros or Ovtrrrds), a town of Mace- 
donia on the peninsula of Acte (licit, vii. 22; 
Thuc. iv. 109 ; Strab.p. 331). 
Tiarantus, a river of Scythia and a tributary 



Ilium Vetus, on a hill by tin- side of the river of the Danube libit, iv. 48). 
Thymbkius, with a celebrated temple of Apollo, Tibareni, or Tibari (TijSapTji'ui, Tiffapoi), a 
who derived from this place the epithet Thym- quiet agricultural people on the N. coast of 
braeus (//. x. 130, xx. 53, 151 ; Strab. p. 598; Pontus, E. of the river Iris (Hdt. iii. 94 ; Xen. 
cf. [Eur. i Hli.-x. -22 Ii. An. v. 5, 2 ; Strab. p. 527). 

Thymbria i(-)vu/Vai. u place in Curia, on the Tiberias. 1. (Ti/8opias : Ti/Sepifus), a city of 
Maeander, four stadia E. of Myus, with a Cha- 1 Galilee, on the S\V. shore of the Lake of Tihe- 
ronium — that is, a cave containing mephitic rius, built by Herod Antipas in honour of tl.o 
vapour (Strab. p. 686). i emperor Tiberius. After the destruction of 

Thymbrium i (-)u^t/3piov : Thyinbriani), a small Jerusalem, it became the seat of the Jewish 
town of Phrygia, a little S. of I'hilomelium, on Sanhedrim. Near it were the warm baths of 
the road to Iconium, with the so-called Fountain EinmuUH. (Ptol. viii. 211. 16; Jos. Ant. xviii. 8, 
of Midas (Xen. Anub. i. 2). It was re-founded i li.J. ii. 21.) — 2. Gennesaret, also the Sea of 



952 



TIBEEINUS 



TIBEBIUS 



Galilee, in the O. T. Chinnereth (Bahr Tuba- 
riyeh), the second of the three lakes in Pales- 
tine, formed by the course of the Jordan. 
[Jordanes.] Its length is eleven or twelve 
geographical miles, and its breadth from five to 
six. It lies deep among fertile hills. Its surface 
is 750 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. 
(Paus. v. 7, 4 ; Ptol. v. 16, 4 ; Jos. B.J. iv. 26.) 
Tiberinus. [Tibebis.] 

Tiberinus, the deified personification of the 
river Tiber, to whom various myths attached, 
some stories making him a king of Veii, others 
a king of Alba who was drowned in the Tiber, 
others again representing him as the son of 
Janus [see p. 157, b]. The*river-god Tiberinus 
was addressed in solemn invocations (Cic. N.D. 
iii. 20, 52 ; Serv. ad Aen. i. 273), and a festival 
was held in his honour on the Island of the Ti- 
ber, where he seems to have had a shrine. In 
his worship he was connected, or perhaps some- 
times identified, with Portunus. 

Tiberiopolis (TifcpioviroKis : near the modern 
Amed.), a city of Great Phrygia, near Eumenia, 
where a worship of Tiberius and Livia was 
established (Ptol. v. 2, 25). 

Tiberis also Tibris, Tybris, Thybris, Amnis 
Tiberinus or simply Tiberinus [Tiber or Te- 
vere), the chief river in central Italy, on which 
stood the city of Rome. It is said to have been 
originally called Albula, and to have received 
the name of Tiberis in consequence of Tiberi- 
nus, king of Alba, having been drowned in it. 
It has been supposed that Albula was the Latin 
and Tiberis the Etruscan name of the river. 
The Tiber rises from two springs of limpid 
water in the Apennines, near Tifernum, and 
flows in a south-westerly direction, separating 
Etruria from Umbria, the land of the Sabines, 
and Latium. After flowing about 110 miles it 
receives the Nar (Nera), and from its confluence 
with this river its regular navigation begins. 
Three miles above Rome, at the distance of 
nearly seventy miles from the Nar, it receives 
the Anio (Teverone), and from this point be- 
comes a river of considerable importance. 
Within the walls of Rome, the Tiber is about 
300 feet wide and from twelve to eighteen feet 
deep. After heavy rains the river in ancient 
times, as at the present day, frequently over- 
flowed its banks, and did considerable mischief 
to the lower parts of the city. (Liv. xxiv. 9, 
xxx. 38, xxxv. 9, 21, xxxviii. 28 ; Dio Cass, xxxix. 
61, liii. 20 ; cf. Cic. ad Q. Fr. iii. 7 ; Hor. Od. i. 
•2, 13.) To guard against these dangers Augus- 
tus instituted the Curatores alvei Tiberis (Suet. 
Aug. 37). At Rome the maritime navigation 
of the river begins ; and at eighteen miles from 
the city, and about four miles from the coast, 
it divides into two arms, forming an island, 
■which was sacred to Venus and called Insula 
Sacra (Isola Sagra). The left branch of the 
river runs into the sea by Ostia, which was the 
ancient harbour of Rome ; but in consequence 
of the accumulation of sand at the mouth of 
the left branch, the right branch was widened 
by Trajan, and was made the regular harbour 
of the city under the name of Portus Rom anus, 
Tortus Augusti, or simply Portus. [Ostia.] 
The whole length of the Tiber, with its windings, 
is about 200 miles. The waters of the river 
are muddy and yellowish, whence it is frequently 
called by the Roman poets flavus Tiberis. 
The poets also give it the epithets of Tyrrhe- 
nus, because it flowed past Etruria during the 
whole of its course, and of Lydius, because the 
Etruscans are said to have been of Lydian 
origin. 



Tiberius. 1. Emperor of Rome, A.D. 14-37. 
His full name was Tiberius Claudius Nero 
Caesar. He was the son of T. Claudius Nero 
and of Livia, and was born on the 16th of Nov- 
ember, B.C. 42, before his mother married 
Augustus. Tiberius was tall and strongly made, 
and his health was very good. His face was 
handsome, and his eyes were large. He was 
carefully educated, and became well acquainted 
with Greek and Latin literature. His master 
in rhetoric was Theodoras of Gadara. Though 
not without military courage, as his life shows, 
he had a great timidity of character, and was 
of a jealous and suspicious temper ; and these 
qualities rendered him cruel after he had ac- 
quired power. There can be little doubt that 
his morose reserve and his dissimulation had 
been increased, if not created, by his relations 
to Augustus. As emperor the difficulties of his 
position, and the influence of Livia and still 
more of Sejanus, increased his tendency to 
jealousy and suspicion of all who seemed rivals 
or dangerous from their popularity. The sys- 
tem of espionage and delation once begun could 
only increase with each act of tyranny and 
cruelty till his rule became a veritable reign of 
terror. Yet in reading his history, especially 
the tales of his monstrous and incredible licen- 
tiousness it must be recollected that Tacitus 
and Suetonius both wrote with a strong bias 
against him and his rule, and were ready to 
accept as true the worst scandals which were 
handed down. If Velleius was prejudiced in 
the other direetion it is at least right to adopt 
some part of his less unfavourable portrait and to 
imagine that the old age of Tiberius was not 
so absolutely contradictory of his youth as it is 
sometimes made to appear. The cruelty of his 
rule applied only to Rome. The testimony of 
Josephus and Philo shows that his provincial 
government was just and lenient. — In B.C. 11, 
Augustus compelled Tiberius, much against his 
will, to divorce his wife Vipsania Agrippina, 
and to marry Julia, the widow of Agrippa, and 
the emperor's daughter, with whom Tiberius, 
however, did not long live in harmony. Tiberius 
was thus brought into still closer contact 
with the imperial family; but as C. and L. 
Caesar, the grandsons of Augustus, were still 
living, the prospect of Tiberius succeeding to 
the imperial power seemed very remote. He 
was employed on various military services. 
In 20 he was sent by Augustus to restore 
Tigranes to the throne of Armenia. It was 
during this campaign that Horace addressed 
one of his Epistles to Julius Florus (i. 12), who 
was serving under Tiberius. In 15, Drusus and 
his brother Tiberius were engaged in warfare 
with the Raeti, and the exploits of the two 
brothers were sung by Horace (Od. iv. 4, 14). 
[Raetia.] In 13, Tiberius was consul with P. 
Quintilius Varus. In 11, while his brother, 
Drusus, was fighting against the Germans, Ti- 
berius conducted the war against the Dalmatians 
and against the Pannonians. Drusus died in 
9, owing to a fall from his horse. On the news 
of the accident, Tiberius was sent by Augustus 
to Drusus, whom he found just alive. Tiberius 
returned to the war in Germany, and crossed 
the Rhine. In 7 he was consul a second time. 
In 6 he obtained the tribunitia potestas for five 
years, but during this year he retired with the 
emperor's permission to Rhodes, where he spent 
the next seven years. Tacitus says that his 
chief reason for leaving Rome was to get away 
from his wife, who treated him with contempt, 
and whose licentious life was no secret to her 



TIBERIUS 

husband ; probably, too, he was unwilling to 
stay at Rome when the grandsons of Augustus 
were attaining years of maturity, for there was 
mutual jealousy between them and Tiberius. 
He returned to Rome a.d. 2. He was relieved 
from one trouble during his absence, for his wife, 
Julia, was banished to the island of Pandataria 
(B.C. 2), and he never saw her again. After the 
deaths of L. Caesar (a.d. 2) and C. Caesar 
(a.d. 4), Augustus adopted Tiberius, with the 
view of leaving to him the imperial power ; and 
at the same time he required Tiberius to adopt 
Germanicus, the son of his brother Drusus, 
though Tiberius had a son Drusus by his wife 
Vipsania. From the year of his adoption to 
the death of Augustus, Tiberius was in com- 
mand of the Roman armies, though he visited 
Rome several times. He was sent into Ger- 
many a.d. 4. He reduced all Ulyricum to sub- 
jection a.d. 9 ; and in a.d. 12 he had the honour 
of a triumph at Rome for his German and 
Dalmatian victories. On the death of Augustus 
at Nola, on the 19th of August, a.d. 14, Tiberius, 
who was on his way to Ulyricum, was immedi- 
ately summoned home by his mother, Livia. 
He took the imperial power without any oppo- 
sition, affecting all the while a great reluctance. 
He began his reign by putting to death Postu- 
mus Agrippa, the 
surviving grandson 
of Augustus, and he 
alleged that it was 
done pursuant to the 
command of the late 
emperor. When he 
felt himself sure in 
his place, he began 
to strengthen the 
principate. He took 
from the popular as- 
sembly the election 
of the magistrates, 
and transferred it to 
the senate. The 
news of the death of 
Augustus roused a 
mutiny among the 
legions in Pannonia, which was quelled by 
Drusus, the son of Tiberius. The armies on 
the Rhine under Germanicus showed a dispo- 
sition to reject Tiberius, and if Germanicus had 
been inclined to try the fortune of a campaign, 
he might have had the assistance of the Ger- 
man armies against his uncle. But Germanicus 
restored discipli ne to the army by his firmness, 
and maintained his fidelity to the new emperor. 
The first year of Ins reign was marked by the 
death of Julia, whom Augustus had removed 
from Pandataria to Rhegium. The death of 
Germanicus in the East, in a.d. 19, relieved Ti- 
berius from all fear of a rival claimant to the 
throne ; and it was believed by many that Ger- 
manicus had been poisoned by order of Tiberius. 
From this time Tiberius began to indulge with 
less restraint in his love of tyranny, and many 
distinguished senators were soon put to death 
on the charge of treason against the emperor 
(laesa majestas). Notwithstanding his sus- 
picious nature, Tiberius gave his complete confi- 
dence to Sejanus, who for many years possessed 
the real government of the state. This am- 
bitious man aimed at the imperial power. In 
28 Drusus, the son of Tiberius, was poisoned by 
the contrivance of Sejanus. Three years after- 
wards (26) Tiberius left Rome, and withdrew 
into Campania. He never returned to the city. 
He left on the pretext of dedicating temples in 



TIBILIS 



953 




Head of Tiberias. fFrom a 
6tatue in the Vatican.) 



Campania, but the real cause was probably his 
dislike to Rome, where he knew that he was 
unpopular ; and Sejanus was only too anxious 
to encourage any feeling which would keep the 
emperor at a distance from the city. That 
Tiberius went because he wished to hide his 
licentiousness in this place of retirement may 
be set down as a silly invention. Rome was 
not a place were licentiousness was scouted. 
He took up his residence (27) in the island of 
Capreae, at a short distance from the Campa- 
nian coast. The death of Livia (29), the em- 
peror's mother, released Tiberius from one 
cause of anxiety. He had long been tired of 
her, because she wished to exercise authority, 
and one object in leaving Rome was to be out 
of her way. Livia's death gave Sejanus and 
Tiberius free scope, for Tiberius never entirely 
i released himself from a kind of subjection to 
his mother, and Sejanus did not venture to 
attempt the overthrow of Livia's influence. 
The destruction of Agrippina and her children 
was now the chief purpose of Sejanus : he finally 
got from the tyrant (31) the reward that was his 
! just desert, an ignominious death. [Sejanus.] 
j The death of Sejanus was followed by the exe- 
cution of his friends ; and for the remainder 
of the reign of Tiberius, Rome continued to be 
the scene of tragic occurrences. Tiberius died 
on the 16th of March, 37, at the villa of Lueul- 
lus, in Misenum. He was seventy-eight years 
of age, and had reigned twenty-two years. He 
was succeeded by Gaius (Caligula), the son of 
Germanicus, but, according to Tacitus, he had 
himself appointed no successor (Tac. Ann. vi. 
46), though he had appointed Gaius the heir 
of his private property (Suet. Tib. 76) in con- 
junction with Tiberius Gemellus, whom Gaius 
afterwards put to death. On the other hand, 
Josephus has a story of Tiberius committing 
the empire to Gaius {.int. xviii. 6, 9). Tiberius 
did not die a natural death. It was known 
that his end was rapidly approacliing, and 
having had a fainting fit, he was supposed to 
be dead. Thereupon Gaius came forth and 
| was saluted as emperor ; but he was alarmed 
j by the intelligence that Tiberius had recovered 
; and called for something to eat. Gaius was so 
| frightened that he did not know what to do ; 
J but Macro, the prefect of the praetorians, with 
I more presence of mind, gave orders that a 
1 quantity of clothes should be thrown on Ti- 
berius, and that he should be left alone. (Tac. 
Ann. v. 50 ; Dio Cass, lviii. 28.) Suetonius 
mentions a suspicion that Tiberius was poisoned 
: at the last by Gaius (Suet. Tib. 73, Cal. 12). 
Tiberius wrote a brief commentary of his own 
life, the only book that the emperor Domitian 
studied (Suet. Tib. V>l,Doin. 20), and also Greek 
i poems, and a lyric poem on the death of L. 
Caesar (Suet. Tib. 10).— 2. Tiberius Gemellus, 
son of Drusus junior (Dnrsus, No. 5), twin with 
another son, who died early. He was therefore 
grandson of Tiberius and regarded as a danger- 
, ous rival by Caligula, who put him to death 
soon after his accession. (Suet. Tib. 54, Cal. 
14, 23). It is said that Tiberius doubted his 
legitimacy. This and his youth may have been 
' reasons against his being named successor to 
the empire (Snet. Tib. 62 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 46).— 3. 
A philosopher and sophist, of unknown time, 
the author of numerous works on grammar and 
rhetoric. One of his works, on the figures in 
the orations of Demosthenes (Ilfpl twv vapa 
A-qfioaBtvti <rx»n«' T '«"' l > ' 3 B ''" extant. — Ed. 
Spengel, 1856.) 
Tibilis. 1. A town of Nuinidia, in N. Africa, 



954 



TIBISCUM 



TIBUR 



on the road from Cirta to Cartilage, with warm 
springs, called Aquae Tibilitanae. — 2. {Tiflis), 
a town on the Cyrus in the Asiatic Iberia. 

Tibiscum, a town of Dacia and a Roman 
municipium on the river Tibiscus (Ptol. iii. 8, 
10). 

Tibiscus or Tiviscus (T ernes), a river of 
Dacia, which rises in the district of Sarmize- 
getusa and joins the Danube a little below 
Singidunum (Belgrade). 

Tibullus, Albius, the Roman poet, was of 
equestrian family. The date of his birth is un- 
certain ; but he died young, soon after Virgil. 
His birth is therefore placed by conjecture 
B.C. 54, and his death B.C. 18. Of his youth 
and education absolutely nothing is known. 
The estate belonging to the equestrian ances- 
tors of Tibullus was at Pedum, between Tibur 
and Praeneste. This property, like that of the 
other great poets of the day, Virgil and Horace, 
had been either entirely or partially confiscated 
during the civil wars ; yet Tibullus retained 
or recovered part of it, perhaps through Mes- 
salla, and spent there the better portion of his 
short, but peaceful and happy, life (Tib. i. 1, 
19 ; cf. Hor. Ep. i. 4, 7). When his friend and 
patron, Messalla, was going to his prefecture 
in Asia, B.C. 30, Tibullus, after first refusing, 
eventually agreed to accompany him, but fell 
ill on the way at Corcyra and returned thence 
to Rome (Tib. i. 1, i. 3). Afterwards, in 28, he 
went to Aquitania with Messalla, who had been 
sent by Augustus to suppress a formidable in- 
surrection which had broken out in this pro- 
vince. Part of the glory of the Aquitanian 
campaign, which Tibullus celebrates in language 
of unwonted loftiness, redounds, according to 
the poet, to his own fame. He was present at 
the battle of Atax (Aude in Languedoc), which 
broke the Aquitanian rebellion (Tib. i. 7). So 
ceased the active life of Tibullus ; his life is 
now the chronicle of his poetry and of the loves 
which inspired it. The first object of his 
attachment is celebrated under the poetic name 
of Delia : according to Apuleius (Apol. 10) her 
real name was Plania. To Delia are addressed 
the first six Elegies of the first book. The 
poet's attachment to Delia had begun before 
he left Rome for Aquitania. But Delia seems 
to have been faithless during his absence from 
Rome. On his return from Corcyra he found 
her ill, and attended her with affectionate 
solicitude (Eleg: i. 5), and hoped to induce her 
to retire with him into the country. But first 
a richer lover appears to have supplanted him 
with the inconstant Delia, and afterwards 
there appears a husband in his way. The 
second book of Elegies is chiefly devoted to a 
new mistress named Nemesis (cf. Ov. Am. iii. 
9, 32 ; Mart. viii. 73, 7). It is probable, though 
not certain, that this Nemesis is the same as 
the Glycera mentioned only by Horace (Od. i. 
33, 2), who reproves him for dwelling so long in 
his plaintive elegies on the ' pitiless Glycera.' — 
The poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibul- 
lus as a gentle and singularly amiable man. 
To Horace especially he was an object of warm 
attachment. Besides the ode which alludes to 
his passion for Glycera (Hor. Od. i. 33), the 
Epistle of Horace to Tibullus gives the most 
full and pleasing view of his poetical retreat, 
and of his character : it is written by a kindred 
spirit. Horace does homage to that perfect 
purity of taste which distinguishes the poetry 
of Tibullus : he takes pride in the candid but 
favourable judgment of his own Satires. The 
time of Tibullus he supposes to be shared 



between the finishing his exquisite small poems,, 
which were to surpass even those of Cassius of 
Parma, up to that time the models of that kind 
of composition, and the enjoyment of the 
country. Tibullus possessed, according to his 
friend's notions, all the blessings of life — a. 
competent fortune, favour with the great, fame, 
health; and he seemed to know how to enjoy 
all those blessings. — The first two books alone 
of the Elegies under the name of Tibullus are 
of undoubted authenticity. The third is the 
work of another, a very inferior poet, whether 
Lygdamus be a real or fictitious name. This 
poet was much younger than Tibullus, for he 
was born in the year of the battle of Mutina, 
43. It is probable that he was a less gifted 
member of Messalla's literary circle : this con- 
nexion with the patron of Tibullus might 
account for his Elegies being confused with the 
genuine poems of Tibullus. The hexameter 
poem on Messalla, which opens the fourth 
book, is so bad that, although a successful 
elegiac poet may have failed when he attempted 
epic verse, it cannot readily be ascribed to a 
writer of the exquisite taste of Tibullus. If it 
is his, it must be supposed that it was an early 
poem written in an imitative manner, when he 
was under the full influence of the Alexandrian 
school. The smaller Elegies of the fourth book 
have all the inimitable grace and simplicity of 
Tibullus. With the exception of the thirteenth 
(of which some lines are hardly surpassed by 
Tibullus himself) these poems relate to the love 
of a certain Sulpicia, a woman of noble birth, 
for Cerinthus, the real or fictitious name of a 
beautiful youth. Nor is there any improbability 
in supposing that Tibullus may have written 
Elegies in the name or by the desire of Sul- 
picia. If Sulpicia was herself the poetess, she 
approached nearer to Tibullus than any other 
writer of Elegies. — The first book of Elegies 
alone seems to have been published during the 
author's life, probably soon after the triumph 
of Messalla (27). The second book probably 
did not appear till after the death of Tibullus. 
With it may have been published the Elegies of 
his imitator, perhaps his friend and associate 
in the society of Messalla, Lygdamus (if that 
be a real name), i.e. the third book ; and like- 
wise the fourth, made up of poems belonging, 
as it were, to this intimate society of Messalla : 
the Panegyric by some nameless author, which, 
feeble as it is , seems to be of that age ; the 
poems in the name of Sulpicia, with the con- 
cluding one, the thirteenth, a fragment of 
Tibullus himself. — Editions of Tibullus by 
Lachmann,Berol. 1829;Dissen, Gbttingen, 1835 ; 
Biihrens, Leips. 1878 ; Hiller, Leips. 1885 ; 
selections by Ramsay. 

Tibur (Tiburs, pi. Tiburtes, Tiburtlnus : 
Tivoli), one of the most ancient towns of La- 
tium, sixteen miles NE. of Rome, situated on 
the slope of a hill (hence called by Horace 
supimim Tibur), on the left bank of the Anio, 
which here forms a magnificent waterfall 
(Strab. p. 238 ; Hor. Od. i. 17, 13). It is said 
to have been originally built by the Siculi 
(Dionys. i. 16), i.e. by the very early inhabitants 
of Italy who were driven southwards into Sicily 
[Sicilia]. Accordingto one tradition these earlier 
occupants were expelled from their city by 
Tiburtus (who renamed it), Coras, and Catillus 
or Catilus, the three sons of a Catillufi who 
was himself a son of Amphiaraus, and migrated 
to Italy before the time of the Trojan war 
(Hor. Od. i. 18, 2; Verg. Aen. vii. 670; Ov. 
Fast. iv. 71, Am. iii. 6, 45 ; Stat. Silv. i. 3, 74 1 



TICHIS 



TIGRANES 



955 



Sil. It. iv. 225). In some accounts Catillus 
accompanied. Evander. But it is probable 
that this theory of a colonisation by Greeks 
had no foundation, and arose merely from a 
tendency at a particular time to look for a 
Greek origin of Italian towns which were really 
of a Latin foundation. It was afterwards one 
of the chief towns of the Latin League, and was 
reduced to submission in 335 (Liv. vii. 19), 
but was left independent, though deprived of 
territory. Hence Roman exiles could go there 
(Pol. vi. 14), which explains the story in Ovid 
{Fast. vi. 665 ; cf. Liv. ix. 30 ; App. B. C. i. 65 ; 
Ov. Pont. i. 3, 81). Tibur remained in the posi- 
tion of being a civitas foederata until after the 
Social war (B.C. 90) when it received the fran- 
chise [cf. Pbaeneste]. Tibur continued to be 
a large and'flourishing town, since the salubrity 
and beautiful scenery of the place led many of 
the most distinguished Roman nobles to build 
here magnificent villas. Of these the most 
splendid was the villa of the emperor Hadrian, 
in the extensive remains of which many valua- 
ble specimens of ancient art have been dis- 
covered. Here also Zenobia lived after adorning 
the triumph of her conqueror, Aurelian. Horace 
had a country house in the neighbourhood of 
Tibur, which he preferred to all his other resi- 
dences. [Hobatius.J The deity chiefly wor- 
shipped at Tibur was Hercules : and in the 
neighbourhood were the grove and temple of 
the Sibyl Albunea, whose oracles were con- 
sulted from the most ancient times. [Albi:xea.j 
The beautiful round temple which remains, in 
fair preservation, is generally called the temple 
of the Sibyl ; but it may be more correct to 
regard it aa the temple of Vesta (who is known 
to have had a temple at Tibur), and to regard 
the neighbouring temple (now the church of 
S. Giorgio) as the temple of the Sibyl. The 
more important temple of Hercules Victor, the 
presiding deity of Tibur, probably stood on 
the site of the present cathedral. 

Tichis or Tecum. [Tecum.] 

Tichiussa (T€ix">Ccr<ra), a fortress in the 
territory of Miletus (Time. viii. 26, 28). 

Ticinum (Ticinensis: Pavia), a town of the 
Laevi, or, according to some, of the Insubros, 
in Gallia Cisalpina, on the left bank of the 
Ticinus. It was subsequently a Roman muni- 
cipium ; but it owed its greatness to the 
Lombard kings, who made it the capital of 
their dominions. The Lombards gave it the 
name of Papia, which it still retains under the 
slightly changed form of Pavia. (Strab. p. 217 ; 
Tac. Ann. iii. 5 ; Procop. B. G. ii. 12, 25, iv. 32.) 

Ticinus (Teasino) an important river in 
Gallia Cisalpina, rises in Mons Adulu, find 
after flowing through Lacus Verbanus [Logo 
Maggiore), falls into the Po near Ticinum. 
It was upon the bank of this river Mint Iliinuihul 
gained his first victory over the Romans, by 
the defeat of P. Scipio, B.C. 218. (Strab. pp. 
209, 217 ; Liv. xxi. 45 ; Pol. iii. 66.) 

Tifata, a mountain in Campania, E. of Capun, 
near whicli the Samnites defeated the Cam- 
paniuns, and where at a later time Sulla gained 
a victory over the proconsul Norbanus I l,r. . \ hi. 
29, xxiii. 86-48; Veil. Pat. ii. 25). On this 
mountain there was a temple of Diana [p. 285, a], 
and also one of Jupiter, who (like Zeus Lycaeus) 
was worshipped in oak groves) on hill-tops, as 
is implied in the titles Jupiter Apcniiiucngis, 
Jupiter Culminalis, &c. [Jupiteb.] 

Tifernum. 1. Tiberinum iTifematesTiberini, 
pi. : Cittil <li Castello), a town of Umbria, near 
the sources of the river Tiber, whence its sur- 



I name, and upon the confines of Etruria. Near 
' this town the younger Pliny had a villa. (Plin. 
Ej>. v. 6). — 2. Metauren.se (Tifernates Me- 
j taurenses : S. Angelo in Vado),'& town in 
Umbria, E. of the preceding, on the river Metau- 
rus, whence its surname. 

Tifernus (Biferno), a river of Samnium, 
rising in the Apennines, and flowing through 
the country of the Frentani into the Adriatic 
(Liv. x. 30 ; Mel. ii. 4, 6). 

Tigellinus Sophonlus, the son of a native of 
Agrigentum, owed his rise from poverty and 
obscurity to his handsome person and his un- 
scrupulous character. He was banished to 
Scyllaceuni in Bruttii (a.d. 39-40) for an in- 
I trigue with Agrippina and Julia Livilla, sisters 
' of Caligula. (Dio Cass. lix. 23.) He was prob- 
ably among the exiles restored by Agrippina, 
: after she became empress, since early in Nero's 
reign he was again in favour at court, and at 
t the death of Burrus (63) was appointed prae- 
torian prefect jointly with Fenius Rufus (Tac. 
I Ami. xiv. 58). Tigellinus ministered to Nero's 
worst passions, and of all his favourites was 
| the most obnoxious to the Roman people (Tac. 
Ann. xv. 59, Hist. i. 72; Dio Cass. lxii. 13). 
He inflamed his jealous} - or his avarice against 
the noblest members of the senate and the 
most pliant dependants of the court. In 65, 
Tigellinus entertained Nero in his Aemilian 
gardens, with a sumptuous profligacy unsur- 
passed even in that age, and in the same year 
. shared with him the odium of burning Rome, 
since the conflagration had broken out on the 
j scene of the banquet. iTac. Ann. xv. 37 ; Dio 
■ Cass. lxii. 15.) It was certain death, according 
\ to Juvenal, to describe him as he was (Juv. i. 
j 155) ; and of this proof was given in the murder 
of Thermus, who had spoken against Tigellinus 
(Tac. Arm. xvi. 20), and the narrow escape of 
, the outspoken Apollonius of Tyana, who was 
spared only from a superstitious dread of his 
prophetic powers (Philostr. Ap. iv. 42). On 
| Nero's fall he joined with Nymphidius Sabinus, 
; who had succeeded Fenius Rufus as praetorian 
; prefect, in transferring the allegiance of the 
: soldiers to Galba. The people clamorously 
I demanded his death. During the brief reign 
; of Galba his life was spared; but on the acces- 
sion of Otho, he was compelled to put an end 
to his own life. (Suet. Galb. 15 ; Tac. Hist. i. 72.) 
TIgelllus Hermogenes. [Hermogenes.] 
Tigranes iTiypdvrisi, kings of Armenia. 1. 
Reigned B.C. 96-56. He united under his sway 
Armenia, Atropatene, and Gordyene, and thus 
j raised himself to a degree of power superior to 
I that of his predecessors. He assumed the title 
of King of Kings, and appeared in public accom- 
panied by tributary princes as attendants. 
(Strab. p. 532 ; Plut. Lucull. 21 ; App. Sgr. 48.) 
His power was strengthened by his alliance 
with Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, 
! whose daughter Cleopatra he had married at an 
early period of his reign. In consequence of 
the dissensions in the royal family of Syria, 
Tigranes was enabled in 83 to make himself 
master of the whole Syrian monarchy from the 
Euphrates to the sea. He was now at the 
summit of his power, and continued in the un- 
disputed possession of these dominions for 
nearly fourteen years. At the instigation of 
his sen in-law.. Mithndatir. he iinr..l-l < appa- 
docia in 74, and is said to have carried olT into 
captivity no less than 300,000 of the inhabitants, 
u large portion of whom lie settled in his newly 
founded capital of Tigranocerta. [Tigrano- 
ci'.rta.] In other respects he appears to have 



956 



TIGRANOCERTA 



furnished little support to Mithridates in his 
war against the Romans ; but when the Romans 
haughtily demanded from him the surrender of 
Mithridates, who had taken refuge in his domi- 
nions, he returned a peremptory refusal, accom- 
panied with an express declaration of war. 
Lucullus invaded Armenia in 69, defeated the 
mighty host which Tigranes led against him, 
and followed up his victory by the capture of 
Tigranocerta. In the following year (68) the 
united forces of Tigranes and Mithridates were 
again defeated by Lucullus (Plut. Lucull. 22- 
28 ; App. Mithr. 84-86) ; but the mutinous 
disposition of the Roman troops prevented Lu- 
cullus from gaining any further advantages o ver 
the Armenian king, and enabled the latter, not 
only to regain his dominions, but also to invade 
Cappadocia (Plut. Lite. 34; Dio Cass. xxxv. 15). 
The arrival of Pompey (66) soon changed the 
face of events. Mithridates, after his final 
defeat by Pompey, once more threw himself 
upon the support of his son-in-law ; but Ti- 
granes, who suspected him of abetting the 
designs of his son Tigranes, who had rebelled 
against his father, refused to receive him, while 
he himself hastened to make overtures of sub- 
mission to Pompey. That general had already 
advanced into the heart of Armenia under the 
guidance of the young Tigranes, when the old 
king repaired in person to the Roman camp, 
and presenting himself as a suppliant before 
Pompey, laid his tiara at his feet. By this act 




Coin of Tigranes, King of Armenia, B.C. 9G-56. 
Obv., Tigranes, wearing the tiara; rev. figure of the city of 
Antioch, holding a palm-branch : at her feet the river 
Orontes, represented as a swimmer. 

of humiliation he at once conciliated the favour 
of the conqueror, who treated him in a friendly 
manner, and left him in possession of Armenia 
Proper with the title of king, depriving him 
only of the provinces of Sophene and Gordyene, 
which he erected into a separate kingdom for 
his son Tigranes. (Plut. Pomp. 32, 33 ; Dio Cass, 
xxxvi. 33-36; App. Mithr. 105.) The elder 
monarch was so overjoyed at obtaining these 
unexpectedly favourable terms, that he not only 
paid the sum of 6000 talents demanded by 
Pompey, but added a large sum as a donation 
to his army, and continued ever after the 
steadfast friend of the Roman general. He 
died in 56 or 55, and was succeeded by his son 
Artavasdes. (Dio Cass. xl. 16). — 2. Son of 
Artavasdes, and grandson of the preceding. 
He was living an exile at Rome when a party 
of his countrymen, discontented with the rule 
of his elder brother, Artaxias, sent to request 
that he should be placed on the throne. To 
this Augustus assented, and Tiberius was 
charged with the duty of accomplishing it, a 
task which he effected apparently without op- 
position (b.c. 20). (Tac. Ann. ii. 3 ; Dio Cass, 
liv. 9 ; Suet. Til. 9.) 

Tigranocerta (to. TiypavdKtpra and ^Ti'7p., 
i. e., in Armenian, the City of Tigranes : Sert, 
Ru.), the later capital of Armenia, built by Ti- 
granes, on a height by the river Nicephorius, in 



TIMAEUS 

the valley between M. Masius and Niphates. It 
was strongly fortified, and peopled chiefly with 
Macedonians and Greeks forcibly removed from 
Cappadocia and Cilicia ; but, after the defeat of 
Tigranes by Lucullus under its walls, these 
people were permitted to return to their homes. 
The city was at the same time partially de- 
stroyed ; but it still remained a considerable 
place. (Strab. pp. 522, 532, 539, 747; App. 
Mithr. 67 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 50, xiv. 24.) Its site 
is placed by some modern geographers at Tell 
Ermen. 

Tigris, gen. -idos and -is (o Tiypis, gen. Ti'- 
ypiSos and Tiypws, also Tlypys, gen. T'lypriros ■ 

Tigris), a great river of W. Asia, rises from 
several sources on the S. side of that part of the 
Taurus chain called Niphates, in Armenia, and 
flows SE., first through the narrow valley be- 
tween M. Masius and the prolongation of M. 
Niphates, and then through the great plain 
which is bounded on the E. by the last-named 
chain, till it falls into the head of the Persian 
Gulf, after receiving the Euphrates from the W. 
[Comp. Euphrates.] Its other chief tributaries, 
all falling into its E. side, were the Nicephoeius 
or Centbites, the Lycus, the Capkus, the Phys- 
cus, the Goegus, Sillas or Delas, the Gyn- 
des, and the Choaspes. It divided Assyria 
and Susiana on the E. from Mesopotamia and 
Babylonia, and (at its mouth) Arabia, on the 
W. (Hdt. vi. 20; Xen. An. iv. 1, 3; Arr. An. 
vii. 7 ; Strab. pp. 79, 529, 728 ; Verg. Eel. i. 63.) 
The name is sometimes applied to the Pasi- 
tigeis. 

Tigurini, a tribe of the Helvetii, who joined 
the Cimbri in invading the country of the Allo- 
broges in Gaul, where they defeated the consul 
L. Cassius Longinus, B.C. 107. They formed in 
the time of Caesar the most important of the 
four cantons (pagi) into which the Helvetii 
were divided. [Helvetii.] 

Tiliaventus (Tagliamento), a river of Ve- 
netia which falls into the Adriatic between 
Aquileia and Concordia (Plin. iii. 126). 

TilpMsium {TiKcpovawv), a town in Boeotia, 
situated upon a mountain of the same name, S. 
of lake Copais, and between Coronea and Hali- 
artus. It derived its name from the fountain 
Tilphvisa, which was sacred to Apollo, and 
where Tiresias is said to have been buried 
(Paus. ix. 33, 1). 

Timaeus (Tifiaios). 1. The historian, was 
the son of Andromachus, tyrant of Tauro- 
menium, in Sicily. Timaeus attained the age 
of 96 ; and though we do not know the exact 
date either of his birth or death, we cannot be 
far wrong in placing his birth in B.C. 352, and 
his death in 256. Timaeus received instruction 
from Philiscus, the Milesian, a disciple of Iso- 
crates (Suid. s. v.) ; but we have no further par- 
ticulars of his life, except that he was banished 
from Sicily by Agathocles, and passed his exile 
at Athens, where he had lived fifty years when 
he wrote the thirty-fourth book of his History 
The great work of Timaeus was a History of 
Sicily from the earliest times to 264, in which 
year Polybius commences the introduction to 
his work (Pol. i. 5). This History was one of 
great extent. We have a quotation from the 
thirty-eighth book, and there were probably 
many books after this (Suid. s. vv. $ rb 
Upbv Trvp). The value and authority of Timaeus 
as a historian have been most vehemently 
attacked by Polybius in many parts of his work 
(Pol. ii. 16, xii. 3, 5). Most of the charges of 
Polybius appear to have been well founded ; 
yet he has not only omitted to mention some of 



TIMAGENES 

the peculiar excellencies of Timaeus, but has 
even regarded some good points as deserving 
the severest censure. Thus it was one of the 
great merits of Timaeus, for which he is loudly 
denounced by Polybius, that he attempted to 
give the myths in their simplest and most 
genuine form, as related by the most ancient 
writers. Timaeus also collected the materials 
of his history with the greatest diligence and 
care, a fact which even Polybius is obliged to 
admit, and he is praised for his learning and 
general information by Cicero (de Orut. ii. 14). 
He likewise paid very great attention to chro- 
nology, and was the first writer who introduced 
the practice of recording events by Olympiads, 
which was adopted by almost all subsequent 
writers of Greek history. The fragments of 
Timaeus have been collected by Go'ller, in his 
De Situ et Oriqine Syracnsarum, Lips. 1818, 
and by Car. and Theod. Miiller, in the Frag- 
vienta Historic. Grace. Paris, 1841. — 2. Of 
Locri, in Italy, a Pythagorean philosopher, is 
said to have been a teacher of Plato (Cic. de 
Fin. v. 29, de Re]), i. 10). There is an extant 
work, bearing his name, written in the Doric 
dialect, and entitled riepi xpvxas kov/xov ko! 
(pvtrios : but its genuineness is very doubtful, 
and it is in all probability nothing more than 
an abridgment of Plato's dialogue of Timaeus. 
Ed. by Gelder, Leyden, 183(>.— 3. The Sophist, 
wrote a Lexicon to Plato, addressed to a certain 
Gentianus, which is still extant. The time at 
which he lived is quite uncertain. He is usually 
placed in the third century of the Christian era, 
which produced so many ardent admirers of the 
Platonic philosophy, such as Porphyry, Longi- 
nus, Plotinus, ifcc. The Lexicon bears the title 

TlfJLO.lOV <T0<pL(TT0V 7T6pl TU>V irapa YlKa.TUVl 

It is very brief, but is of value for its expla- 
nations of words. It has been edited by Ruhn- 
ken, Leyden, 1754, and again, Leyden, 1789 ; 
and by Koch, Leipzig, 1828, and 1833. 

Timagenes [Tifiayevris), a rhetorician and a 
historian, was a nati\e of Alexandria, from 
which place he was carried as a prisoner to 
Rome, where he was first employed as a slave 
in menial offices, but being liberated by Faustus 
Sulla, the son of the dictator, he opened a school 
of rhetoric, in wlrich he taught with great suc- 
cess. (Comp. Hor. Ep. i. 19, 15.) The emperor 
Augustus induced him to write a History of his 
exploits, but having offended Augustus by 
sarcastic remarks upon his family, lie was 
forbidden the palace ; whereupon he burnt his 
historical works, gave up his rhetorical school, 
and retired from Rome to the house of his 
friend Asinius Pollio at Tusculum. He after- 
wards went to the East, and died at Dabanum 
in Mesopotamia. (Sen. de Ira, iii. 23 ; Plut. 
de Adul. p. 08 ; Quint, x. 1 ; Suid. «. v. Ti/m- 
yf'vris.) 

Timanthes (Tinave-rfi), a Creek painter at 
Sicyon, contemporary with Zeuxis and Par- 
rhasius, about B.C. 400. The masterpiece of 
Timanthes was his picture of the sacrifice of 
Iphigenia, in which Agamemnon was painted 
with his face hidden in his mantle. The an- 
cient critics tell us that the picture showed 
Iphigenia, standing by the altar, surrounded, 
among the assistants, by . Culclias, whose pro- 
phetic voice had demanded her sacrifice, and 
whose hand was about to complete it ; Odysseus, 
who had brought her from her home, and Mrnc- 
laus, her father's brother, all manifesting 
different degrees of grief, so that, when the 
artist had painted the sorrow of Cnlchas, and 
the deeper sorrow of Odysseus, and had added all 



TIMOLEON 



957 



I his powers to express the woe of Menelaus, his 
resources were exhausted, and, unable to give 
a powerful expression to the agony of the 
father, he covered his head with a veil. (Plin. 
xxxv. 73 ; Cic. Orat. 22 ; Quint, ii. 13.) But 
this is clearly not the reason why Timanthes 
hid the face of Agamemnon. Timanthes prob- 

' ably expressed by his painting exactly what 

I Tennyson, in describing the same scene, ex- 
presses by the words ' My father held his hand 

I upon his face' — the abhorrence of Agamemnon 
from the sacrifice which he cannot prevent (cf. 

( Tijioleon ; Plut. Tim. 4). It is likely that the 
composition of this, undoubtedly one of the most 
famous and probably one of the most powerful of 
ancient pictures, set the conventional method of 
representing the scene, and that in the Pom- 
peian picture of the sacrifice of Iphigenia (Mvs. 

' Borb. iv. 3) we have the attitude of the Aga- 
memnon of Timanthes preserved. 

Timavus i Timavo), a small river in the X. of 
Italy, forming the boundary between Istria and 

1 Venetia, and falling into the Sinus Tergestinus 
in the Adriatic, between Tergeste and Aquileia. 
It formed sometimes a pool or basin near its 

I issue to the sea, which Livy calls the Lake of 
Timavus (Liv. xli. 1). This river is frequently 

| celebrated by the poets and other ancient 
writers, who speak of its numerous sources, its 
lake, and its subterraneous passage. This is to 
some extent confirmed by the nature of the 

I river, which bursts in several streams of con- 
siderable volume from the foot of a rock, and 
has a course of little over a mile before it 

I reaches the sea. It is believed in the country 

I to be the outflow of a stream which disappears 

j near S. Canzian about thirteen miles from the 
reappearance, and this does not differ much 

j from an estimate as old as Posidonius, who says 

j that its subterranean course is 130 stadia 
(Strab. p. 215). That the number of mouths by 
which it issued from the rock varied at different 
times is likely enough. Nine, seven, six, and 

I four are mentioned. (Verg. Aen. i. 245 ; Strab. 

\l. c. ; Mart. iv. 25, 6.) 

Timocles (Touo/cA.7js), an Athenian comic poet 
of the Middle Comedy, who lived at a period 

! when the revival .of political energy, in conse- 
quence of the encroachments of Philip, restored 
to the Middle Comedy much of the vigour and 
real aim of the Old. He is conspicuous for the 
freedom with which he discussed public men 
and measures (Athen. pp. 224, 341). He lived 
till after B.C. 324 (Suid. s. v.). Fragments in 

' Meineke. Fr. Com. Graec. 

Timocreon (Ti/j.oKp(<vv), of Rhodes, a lyric 
poet, celebrated for the bitter and pugnacious 
spirit of his works, especially for his attacks on 
Themistocles and Simonides, and also for his 
great bodily strength. He was a native of 

j Ialysus in Rhodes, whence he was banished on 
the then common charge of an inclination 

j towards Persia (ft7)5io>u$i) ; and in this banish- 

' ment he waB left neglected by Themistocles, who 
had formerly been his friend and was connected 
with him by the ties of hospitality. Timocreon 

, was still living after B.C. 471, since one of 
his poem-., of which we have a fragment, was 
an attack upon Themistocles after his exile, 
i Athen. pp. 115, 416; Plat. Gory. p. 493; Plut. 
Them. 21.1 

Timoleon ittnoKioiv), son of Timodemus or 
Timaenetus and Demariste, belonged to one of 
the noblest families at Corinth. His early life 
was stained by a deed of blood. We arc told 
that when his brother, Timophanes, whose life 
he had previously saved in battle at the risk of 



958 



TIMOLEON 



TIMON 



his own (Plut. Tim. 4), endeavoured to make 
himself tyrant of their native city, Timoleon 
murdered him rather than allow him to destroy 
the liberty of the state. It is related that he 
visited him with two friends, who first joined 
Timoleon in urging him to lay down his power, 
and, failing in this, stabbed him, Timoleon 
meanwhile standing aside with his face veiled 
(Plut. Tim. 4, Reipubl. Gerend. Praecept. p. 
808 ; Nep. Tim. 1). The murder was perpe- 
trated just before an embassy arrived from 
several of the Greek cities of Sicily, begging 
the Corinthians to send assistance to the island, 
which was distracted by internal dissensions, 
and was expecting an invasion of the Carthagi- 
nians. It is said that the Corinthians were at 
the very moment of the arrival of the Sicilians 
deliberating respecting Timoleon's act, and had 
not come to any decision respecting it ; and 
that they avoided the difficulty of a decision by 
appointing him to the command of the Sicilian 
expedition, with the singular provision, that if 
he conducted himself justly in the command, 
they would regard him as a tyrannicide, and 
honour him accordingly ; but if otherwise, they 
would punish him as a fratricide. To whatever 
causes Timoleon owed his appointment, his 
extraordinary success justified the confidence 
which had been reposed in him. His history 
reads like a romance ; and yet of the main 
facts of the narrative we cannot entertain any 
reasonable doubt. Although the Corinthians 
had readily assented to the request of the 
Sicilians in the appointment of a commander, 
they were not prepared to make many sacrifices 
in their favour ; and accordingly it was only 
with ten triremes and 700 mercenaries that 
Timoleon sailed from Corinth to repel the 
Carthaginians, and restore order to the Sici- 
lian cities. He reached Sicily in B.C. 344, and 
straightway marched against Syracuse, of two 
quarters of which he obtained possession. In 
the following spring (343) Dionysius, despairing 
of success, surrendered the citadel to Timoleon, 
on condition of his being allowed to depart in 
safety to Corinth. [Dionysius.] Timoleon 
soon afterwards obtained possession of the 
whole of Syracuse. He destroyed the citadel, 
which had been for so many years the seat and 
bulwark of the power of the tyrants, and 
restored the democratic form of government. 
He then proceeded to expel the tyrants from 
the other Greek cities of Sicily, but was inter- 
rupted in this undertaking by a formidable 
invasion of the Carthaginians, who landed at 
Lilybaeum in 339, with an army, under the 
command of Hasdrubal and Hamilcar, consist- 
ing of 70,000 foot and 10,000 horse. Such an 
overwhelming force struck the Greeks with 
consternation and dismay. So great was their 
alarm that Timoleon could only induce 12,000 
men to march with him against the Carthagi- 
nians. But with this small force he gained a 
brilliant victory over the Carthaginians on the 
river Crimissus (339). It is said that on his 
march to meet the enemy Timoleon met some 
mules laden with parsley, which, since parsley 
was used for wreaths placed on tombstones, 
struck the soldiers as a bad omen ; but Timo- 
leon, placing a wreath of it on his head, ex- 
claimed : ' This is an omen of victory ; for at 
Corinth it crowns the victors in the Isthmian 
games.' (Plut. Tim. 26; Diod. xvi. 79.) The 
terrible storm which beat in the face of the 
Carthaginians and contributed to their defeat 
was regarded by his troops and by others as a 
mark of divine favour to Timoleon. This 



victory justly ranks as one of the greatest 
gained by Greeks over barbarians. The booty 
which Timoleon acquired was prodigious ; and 
some of the richest of the spoils he sent to 
Corinth and other cities in Greece, thus spread- 
ing the glory of his victory throughout the 
mother country. Timoleon now resolved to 
carry into execution his project of expelling all 
the tyrants from Sicily. Of these, two of the 
most powerful, Hicetas of Leontini, and 
Mamercus of Catana, had recourse to the 
Carthaginians for assistance, who sent Gisco to 
Sicily with a fleet of seventy ships and a body 
of Greek mercenaries. Although Gisco gained 
a few successes at first, the war was upon the 
whole favourable to Timoleon, with whom the 
Carthaginians were glad to conclude a treaty in 
338, fixing the river Halycus as the boundary 
of the Carthaginian and Greek dominions in 
Sicily. During the war with Gisco Hicetas fell 
into the hands of Timoleon, and was slain 
by his order. His wife and daughters were 
carried to Syracuse, where they were executed 
by the people, as a satisfaction to the manes of 
Dion, whose wife Arete and sister Aristomache 
had both been put to death by Hicetas. This 
is one of the greatest stains upon Timoleon's 
character, as he might easily have saved these 
unfortunate women if he had chosen. After 
the treaty between the Carthaginians and 
Timoleon, Mamercus, being unable to maintain 
himself in Catana, fled to Messana, where he 
took refuge with Hippon, tyrant of. that city. 
Timoleon quickly followed, and besieged Mes- 
sana so vigorously by sea and land that 
Hippon, despairing of holding out, attempted 
to escape by sea, but was taken and put to 
death in the public theatre. Mamercus now 
surrendered, stipulating only for a public trial 
before the Syracusans, with the condition that 
Timoleon should not appear as his accuser. 
But as soon as he was brought into the 
assembly at Syracuse, the people refused to 
hear him, and unanimously condemned him to 
death. Thus almost all the tyrants were 
expelled from the Greek cities in Sicily, and a 
democratic form of government established in 
their place. Timoleon, however, was in reality 
the ruler of Sicily, for all the states consulted 
him on every matter of importance ; and the 
wisdom of his rule is attested by the flourish- 
ing condition of the island for several years 
even after his death. He did not assume any 
title or office, but lived as a private citizen 
among the Syracusans. Timoleon died in 337, 
having become blind a short time before his 
death. He was buried at the public expense in 
the market-place at Syracuse, where his monu- 
ment was afterwards surrounded with porticoes 
and a gymnasium, which was called after him 
the Timoleonteum. Annual games were also 
instituted in his honour. (Life of Tim. by 
Plutarch and by Nepos ; cf. Diod. xvi. 65-90 ; 
Polyaen. v. 3, 8.) 

Timomachus (TifxSfiaxos), a distinguished 
painter, of Byzantium, lived (according to Pliny) 
in the time of Julius Caesar, who purchased 
two of his pictures, the Ajax and Medea, for 
the immense sum of eighty Attic talents, and 
dedicated them in the temple of Venus Geni- 
trix (Plin. vii. 126, xxxv. 136 ; cf . Anth. Pal. 
ii. p. 667). It is held by most critics that 
Timomachus belonged to the Alexandrine 
period of Greek art, and that Pliny was mis- 
taken in supposing that the pictures which 
Caesar bought were painted in Caesar's time. 

Timon (Ti/xwi>). 1. The son of Timarchus of 



TIMOPHAXES 



TIRESIAS 



959 



Phlius, a philosopher of the sect of the Scep- 
tics, flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Phil- 
adelphus, about B.C. 279, and onwards. He first 
studied philosophy at Megara, under Stilpon, 
and then returned home and married. He next 
went to Elis with his wife, and heard Pyrrho, 
whose tenets he adopted. Driven from Elis by 
straitened circumstances, he spent some time 
on the Hellespont and the Propontis, and 
taught at Chalcedon as a sophist with such 
success that he realised a fortune. He then 
removed to Athens, where he passed the 
remainder of his life, with the exception of a 
short residence at Thebes. He died at the age 
of almost 90. — Timon appears to have been en- 
dowed by nature with a powerful and active 
mind, and with that quick perception of the 
follies of men which betrays its possessor into a 
spirit of universal distrust both of men and 
truths, so as to make him a sceptic in philo- 
sophy and a satirist in everything. His 
agnosticism (to use a modern term) is shown by 
his saying that man need only know three 
things : viz. what is the nature of things, how 
we are related to them, and what we can gain 
from them : but, as our knowledge of things 
must always be subjective and unreal, we can 
only live in a state of suspended judgment. He 
wrote numerous works both in prose and 
poetry. The most celebrated of his poems 
were the satiric compositions called Silli 
(criWoi), a word of somewhat doubtful etymo- 
logy, but which undoubtedly describes metrical 
compositions of a character at once ludicrous 
and sarcastic. The invention of tliis species of 
poetry is ascribed to Xenophanes of Colophon. 
[Xenophanes.] The Silli of Timon were in 
three books, in the first of which he spoke in 
his own person, and the other two are in the 
form of a dialogue between the author and 
Xenophanes of Colophon, in which Timon pro- 
posed questions, to which Xenophanes replied 
at length. The subject was a sarcastic account 
of the tenets of all philosophers, living and 
dead : an unbounded field for scepticism and 
satire. They were in hexameter verse, and 
from the way in which they are mentioned by 
the ancient writers, as well as from the few 
fragments of them which have come down to 
us, it is evident that they were very admirable 
productions of their kind. (Diog. Lab'rt. ix. 12, 
109-115; Euseb. Pracp. Ev. xiv. p. 701.)— The 
fragments of his poems are collected by Wolke, 
De Graecorum Syllis, Varsav. 1820; and by 
Paul, Dissertatio de Sillis, Berol. 1821.— 2. 
The Misanthrope l<5 fiiaav8pwTTos), lived in the 
time of the Peloponnesian war. He was an 
Athenian, of the demos of Colyttuj--, and his 
father's name was Echecratides. In conse- 
quence of the ingratitude he experienced, and 
the disappointments he suffered, from his early 
friends and companions, he secladed himself 
entirely from the world, admitting no one to 
his society except Alcibiades, in whose reckless 
and variable disposition he probably found 
pleasure in tracing and studying an image of 
the world he had abandoned ; and at last he is 
said to have died in consequence of refusing to 
suffer a surgeon to come to him to set a broken 
limb. One of Lucian's pieces bears his name. 
(Aristoph. A v. 1548, Lijs. 809; Plut. Ant. It); 
Luciiin, Timon ; Snid. ». v.) 

Timophanes. Ttmoleon.] 

Timotheus (Ti/i69fos). 1. Son of Conon, the 
famous general, was himself a distinguished 
Athenian general. He was first appointed to a 
public command in B.C. 378 ; and from this 



time his name frequently occurs as one of the 
Athenian generals down to 356. In this year 
he was associated with Iphicrates, Menestheus, 
and Chares in the command of the Athenian 
fleet. In consequence of his failure to relieve 
Samos he was arraigned in 351, and condemned 
to the crushing fine of 100 talents (more than 
24,000?.). Being unable to pay the fine, he 
withdrew to Chalcis in Euboea, where he died 
shortly after. The Athenians subsequently re- 
mitted nine-tenths of the penalty, and allowed 

, his son Conon to expend the remainder on the 
repair of the walls, which the famous Conon 
had restored. (Life of Timoth. in Nepos; Diod. 
xv. 81, xvi. 7, 21 ; Iphickates.) — 2. Son of 
Clearchus, the tyrant of Heraclea on the 
Euxine, whom he succeeded in the sovereignty, 
B.C. 353 (Diod. xvi. 36). There is extant a 
letter addressed to him by Isocrates. — 3. A 
celebrated musician and poet of the later 
Athenian dithyramb, was a native of Miletus, 
and the son of Thersander. He was bom B.C. 

| 446, and died in 357, in the ninetieth year of his 
age. Of the details of his life we have very 

j little information. He was at first unfortunate 
in his professional efforts. Even the Athenians, 
fond as they were of novelty, were offended at 
the bold innovations of Timotheus, and hissed 
off his performance. On this occasion it is said 
that Euripides encouraged Timotheus by the 
prediction that he would soon have the theatres 
at his feet. This prediction appears to have 
been accomplished in the vast popularity which 
Timotheus afterwards enjoyed. The Ephesians 
rewarded him for his dedicatory hymn to 
Artemis with the sum of 1000 pieces of gold ; 
and the last accomplishment by which the 
education of the Arcadian youth was finished 
was learning the nomes of Timotheus and 
Philoxenus. (Pol. iv. 20; Athen. pp. G26, 630; 
Suid. s. v.} Timotheus is said to have died in 
Macedonia. He delighted in the most artificial 
and intricate forms of musical expression : the 
most important of his innovations, as the means 
of introducing all the others, was his addition 
to the number of the strings of the cithara. 

. [See Diet, of Ant. art. Lyra? — 4. A sculptor, 
whose country is not mentioned, but who 
belonged to the later Attic school of the time of 
Scopas and Praxiteles. He was one of the 

1 artists who executed the bas-reliefs which 
adorned the frieze of the Mausoleum. He is 
also mentioned as the author of a statue of 
Asclepius at Troezen and one of Artemis which 

! was at Rome. (Paus. ii. 32, 3; Plin. xxxvi. 32; 
cf. Bhyaxis ; Leochab.es.) 

Tingis (7; T1771S : Tangier), a city of Maure- 
tania, on the S. coast of the Fretum Gaditanum 

, (Straits of Gibraltar), was a place of very 
great antiquity. It was made by Augustus a 
free city, and by Claudius a colony, and the 
capital of Mauretania Tingitana. (Strab. pp. 
1 10, 827; Dio Cass, xlviii. 45; Plin. v. 2.) 

TInIa (Timia), a small river in Umbria, 
rising near Spoletium, and falling into the 
Tiber, after receiving the Clitumnus (Strab. p. 
227 ; Sil. It. viii. 452). 

Tiresias (Taptalas), one of the mythical 
types of prophecy from augury, among whom 
were Melampus and Calchas ; but Tiresias was 
the most widely celebrated soothsayer of all. 
He was represented as a Theban, son of Everes 
and Charielo : hence Theocritus call* him Eue- 
rides (Id. xxiv. 70). He was blind from his 
seventh year, but lived to a very old ago. 
Various stories are told about the origin of his 
blindness, each probably a local legend, but it 



960 



TIRIBAZUS 



TIEYNS 



is difficult to say which is the oldest, or where 
each was started. One story was that his 
blindness was occasioned by his having revealed 
to men things which they ought not to have 
known. Another that he had seen Athene 
while she was bathing, wherefore the goddess 
deprived him of sight by sprinkling water upon 
his face. Chariclo prayed to Athene to restore 
his sight, but as the goddess was unable to do 
this, she conferred upon him the power of 
understanding the voices of birds, and gave 
him a staff, with the help of which he could 
walk as safely as if he had his eyesight. (Apol- 
lod. iii. 6, 7 ; Callim. Lav. Pall. 75.) Another 
tradition accounts for his blindness in" the fol- 
fowing manner. Once, when on Mount Cithae- 
ron (others say Cyllene), he saw a male and a 
female serpent together ; he struck at them 
with his staff, and as he happened to kill the 
female, he himself was metamorphosed into a 
woman. Seven years later he again saw two 
serpents, and now killing the male, he again 
became a man. It was for this reason that 
Zeus and Hera, when disputing whether a man 
or a woman had more enjoyments, referred the 
matter to Tiresias, who declared that women 
enjoyed more pleasure than men. Hera, in- 
dignant at the answer, deprived him of sight, 
but Zeus gave him the power of prophecy, and 
granted him a life which was to last for seven 
or nine generations. This story is said to have 
been related by Hesiod. (Tzetz. ad Lyc. 682 ; 
cf. Apollod. I.e. ; Ov. Met. iii. 320 ; Hyg. Fab. 
75.) It seems to belong to an early date, when 
serpents were symbols of prophetic and oracu- 
lar power, and it probably grew out of a primi- 
tive Boeotian superstition. In the war of the 
Seven against Thebes, he declared that Thebes 
would be victorious if Menoeceus would sacri- 
fice himself ; and during the war of the Epigoni, 
when the Thebans had been defeated, he ad- 
vised them to commence negotiations of peace, 
and to avail themselves of the opportunity that 
would thus be afforded them to take to flight. 
He himself fled with them (or, according to 
others, he was carried to Delphi as a captive), 
but on his way he drank from the well of Til- 
phossa and died. (Diod. iv. 66 ; Paus. ix. 33, 1 ; 
Apollod. iii. 7, 3.) His daughter, Manto (or 
Daphne), was sent by the victorious Argives to 
Delphi, as a servant to Apollo. Even in the 
lower world Tiresias was believed to retain the 
powers of perception, while the souls of other 
mortals were mere shades, and there also he 
continued to use his golden staff (Od. x. 492, 
xi. 90). His tomb was shown in the neighbour- 
hood of the Tilphusian well near Thebes, and 
in Macedonia likewise: The place near Thebes 
where he had observed the birds was pointed 
out as a remarkable spot even in later times. 
(Paus. ix. 16, 1 ; cf. Soph. 0. T. 493.) The 
blind seer Tiresias acts so prominent a part in 
the mythical history of Greece that there is 
scarcely any event with which he is not con- 
nected in some way or other ; and this intro- 
duction of the seer in so many occurrences 
separated by long intervals of time was facili- 
tated by the belief in his long life. In Pindar 
(Nem. 60) he prophesies to the parents of 
Heracles ; in Sophocles, as a very old man, to 
Oedipus ; and, in the stories of the Epigoni, to 
the grandsons of Oedipus. 

Tiribazus {Tipl/3a(os) y satrap of Armenia in 
401, hung on the retreat of the 10,000, but 
without success (Xen. An. iv. 4, vii. 8 ; Diod. 
xiv. 27). He succeeded Tithraustes as satrap 
of W. Asia, and favoured the views of Antal- 



cidas. In 386 he commanded the expedition 
against Evagoras. Some time afterwards he 
conspired against Artaxerxes II., and was put 
to death (Plut. Artax. 29). 

Tiridates or Teridates (T-qpiSaTris). 1. The 
second king of Parthia. [Arsaces II.] — 2. 
[See Arsaces XXIII.]. —3. Tiridates III. 
[Sassanidae.] 

Tiro, M. Tullius, the freedman of Cicero, to 
whom he was an object of tender affection. 
He appears to have been a man of very amiable 
disposition, and highly cultivated intellect. (Cic. 
ad Fam. xvi. 4, ad. Att. vii. 5 ; Gell. vi. 3.) 
He was not only the amanuensis of the orator,, 
and his assistant in literary labour, but was 
himself an author of no mean reputation, and 
notices of several works from his pen have 
been preserved by ancient writers. Among 
them were a biography of Cicero, vindicating his 
character from detraction (Plut. Cic. 41, 49 ; 
Tac. Dial. 17 ; Gell. iv. 10, xv. 16), a treatise on 
grammar (Gell. xiii. 9), and some poetry (Cic. 
ad Fam. xvi. 18). Tiro was the chief agent in 
bringing together and arranging the works of 
his illustrious patron, and in preserving his 
correspondence from being dispersed and lost. 
After the death of Cicero, Tiro purchased a 
farm in the neighbourhood of Puteoli, where he 
lived until he reached his 100th year. Tiro 
was the inventor or improver of the art of 
shorthand writing among the Romans, and 
hence abbreviations of this description, which 
are common in MSS. from the sixth century 
downwards, have very generally been designated 
as Notae Tironianae. [See Diet, of Ant. art. 
Notae.] 

Tiryns [Tlpvus, -vvQos : TipvvBios), an ancient 
town in Argolis, SE. of Argos, and one of the 
most ancient in all Greece, is said to have been 
founded by Proetus, the brother of Acrisius,who v 
having returned from Lycia [Peoetus], built 
the massive walls of the city with the help of the 
Cyclopes. [For the legendary connexion with 
Heracles, see that article.] Tiryns was built 
on a low flat-topped rock, which rises about 
sixty feet above the plain of Argolis \\ mile 
from the sea-coast, Mycenae being 9J miles 
further inland. The legends point to the first 
foundation of Tiryns (as a strong citadel at any 
rate) by a dynasty of immigrants from Asia 
Minor. Such is the natural construction of the 
story of Proetus. The story of Heracles the 
Tirynthian serving the Mycenaean Eurytheus 
points to the fact that Tiryns, the more ancient 
city, fell under the dominion of Mycenae, a 
later foundation. [For the reason why it should 
do so, though apparently more favourably 
situated for commerce, see Mycenae.] In the 
Persian wars the Tirynthians served at Plataea 
(Hdt. ix. 28), and it is said that this dissociation 
from Argos was one cause of the jealousy which . 
led the Argives to destroy Tiryns and Mycenae 
(Paus. ii. 25, 8) ; after which time it remained 
uninhabited, or at any rate unrestored. These 
traditions are in many particulars confirmed by 
the excavations undertaken by Dr. Schliemann 
and Dr. Diirpfeld in 1876-1884. As regards 
the relative antiquity, the walls of Tiryns ap- 
pear to be older than the oldest parts of My- 
cenae ; they are described as 1 colossal roughly 
hewn blocks, showing no vestige of later restora- 
tion,' and, though some have thought the style 
of work to be Phoenician, the most probable view, 
as at present appears, is that they should 
rather be compared to remains found in Lydia. 
The excavations have laid bare the whole 
palace, with its gates and walls, its courts and 



TIRYNS 



961 



its apartments for men and women. How 
interesting and valuable this is for the illustra- 
tion of the Homeric poems as regards life in 
the palace of an Achaean prince may easily be 
understood [see Diet, of Ant. art. Domus}. 
This palace and fortress is built on a platform 
of rock 328 yards by 109, with three terraces, 
on which stand the upper, middle, and lower 
citadels. On the upper, to the S., is the palace ; 
on the middle are smaller houses, and others, 
only partially excavated, on the lowest and 
smallest platform ; but it is probable that the 



they had been cemented with a clay mortar, of 
which the yellow dust remains. The walls 
round the lower citadel were from twenty-three 
to twenty-six feet thick, and twenty-four feet 
high : those round the upper citadel were even 
thicker. The wall is made more defensible by 
projecting and re-entering angles with towers, 
galleries, and chambers, and a long corridor, or 
arched gallery, with arched doors. These were 
at first supposed to be sallyports, whence sol- 
diers came out to defend the platform ; but 
they have been found to communicate with 




Plan of I'ppcr Citadel of Tiryns. (From Gardner s .NVir Clmptert on Greek Hiitory.) 



main city lay, as at Troy, beneath the citadel- 
hill. The walls of the palace are still in some 
places three feet high : the outer wall of the 
citadel is built solely of very large stones 
(limestone, quarried near Tiryns), bearing out 
the legend of Proetus employing Cyclopean 
builders : many of the stones are from six to 
ten feet long, and three feet in breadth and 
thickness; they are not, however, absolutely 
unhewn, for many are roughly dressed with the 
pick-hammer : they are arranged to some extent 
in layers, and (contrary to the ideas entertained 
before the later explorations) it was found that 



chambers which were probably store-rooms. 
Remarkable skill and ingenuity have been 
shown in bringing the approaches, alike the 
main entrance and the small rock staircase, by 
a circuitous route commanded throughout by 
the walls and galleries [see plan]. The forti- 
fications of Tiryns are noticed in II. ii. 559. 
As regards the gain to archaeology, not only 
has it been made possible to realise thoroughly 
the arru ngement of the Homeric palace as was 
said above, but the system of decoration, the 
painted ceilings (in Egyptian patterns), and 
the vases which have been found have supple- 

3 Q 



962 



TISAMENUS 



TITANES 



merited the richer discoveries of Mycenae. As 
regards the history, although there are striking 
analogies to Phoenician architecture in the 
walls (e.g. to the walls of Carthage), yet it is 
probable that those are right who regard the 
remains as proving a Lydian origin for the 
dynasty, so-called, of Proetus and Perseus [see 
Mycenae]. Again, though some argue that 
the ruins testify to a much earlier destruction, 
it does not yet appear that anything has dis- 
proved the statement of Pausanias, that the 
destruction was in the fifth century B.C. In- 
deed, there are remains of a small Doric temple 
of the seventh century B.C. The report of its 
deserted state which Pausanias gives is cer- 
tainly borne out by the excavations, which seem 
to show that the site was hardly, if at all, 
occupied for many centuries, until the date of 
Byzantine tombs and a Byzantine church. 




Gallery at Tiryns. 



Tisamenus (Tuja.ij.iv6s). 1. Son of Orestes 
and Hermione, was king of Argos, but was 
deprived of his kingdom when the Heraclidae 
invaded Peloponnesus. He was slain in a battle 
against the Heraclidae, and his tomb was after- 
wards shown at Helice, from which place his 
remains were subsequently removed to Sparta 
by command of an oracle. (Paus. ii. 18, 5, vii. 1, 
3 ; Apollod. ii. 8, 2.) — 2. Son of Thersander and 
Demonassa, was king of Thebes, and the father 
of Autesion (Hdt. iv. 147 ; Paus. iii. 15, 4).— 3. 
An Elean soothsayer, of the family of the Cly- 
tiadae. He was assured by the Delphic oracle 
that he should be successful in five great con- 
flicts. Supposing this to be a promise of dis- 
tinction as an athlete, he devoted himself to 
gymnastic exercises ; but the Spartans, under- 
standing the oracle to refer, not to gymnastic, 
but to military victories, made great offers to 
Tisamenus to induce him to take with their 
kings the joint command of their armies. This 
he refused to do on any terms short of receiving 
the full franchise of their city, which the Spar- 
tans eventually granted. He was present with 
the Spartans at the battle of Plataea, B.C. 379, 
which was the first of the five conflicts referred 
to by the oracle. The second was with the 
Argives and Tegeans at Tegea ; the third, with 
the Arcadians at Dipaea; the fourth was the 
third Messenian war (465-455) ; and the last 
was the battle of Tanagra, with the Athenians 
andtheir allies, in 457. (Hdt. ix. 33-36.) 

Tisia (Tisiates, pi.). 1. A town in Bruttium 
in the Sila Silva, of uncertain site (App. An. 
44). — 2. (Theiss), a river of Dacia and Sarmatia, 
which rises in the Montes Bastarnici, and flows 
into the Danube. It was also called PatisuS. 

Tisicrates, an eminent Greek sculptor, of 
the school of Lysippus, whose works those of 
Tisicrates closely imitated (Plin. xxxiv. 67). 

Tisiphone. [Eumenidae.] 

Tissa (Tissiensis, Tissinensis), a town in 



j Sicily, N. of Mt. Aetna (Cic. Verr. iii. 38 ; Ptol. 
iii. 4, 12). 

Tissaphernes {Tiff<ra<p4pvris), a famous Per- 
sian, who was appointed satrap of Lower Asia 
in B.C. 414. He espoused the cause of the 
Spartans in the Peloponnesian war, but he did 
j not give them any effectual assistance, since 
his policy was not to allow either Spartans or 
Athenians to gain the supremacy, but to ex- 
haust the strength of both parties by the con- 
tinuance of the war. His plans, however, were 
thwarted by the arrival of Cyrus in Asia Minor 
in 407. This prince supplied the Lacedaemo- 
nians with effectual assistance. Tissaphernes 
and Cyrus were not on good terms ; and after 
the death of Darius, they were engaged in con- 
tinual disputes about the cities in the satrapy 
of the latter, over which Cyrus claimed do- 
minion. The ambitious views of Cyrus towards 
the throne at length became manifest to Tissa- 
phernes, who lost no time in repairing to the 
king with information of the danger. At the 
battle of Cunaxa, in 401, he was one of the four 
generals who commanded the army of Arta- 
xerxes, and his troops were the only portion of 
the left wing that was not put to flight by the 
Greeks. "When the 10,000 had begun their 
retreat, Tissaphernes professed his great anxiety 
to serve them, and promised to conduct them 
home in safety. In the course of the march he 
treacherously arrested Clearchus and four of 
the other generals, who were put to death. 
After this, Tissaphernes annoyed and harassed 
the Greeks in their march, without, however, 
seriously impeding it, till they reached the 
Carduchian Mountains, at which point he gave 
up the pursuit. Not long after, Tissaphernes, 
as a reward for his great services, was invested 
by the king, in addition to his own satrapy, 
with all the authority which Cyrus had enjoyed 
in Western Asia. On his arrival he claimed 
dominion over the Ionian cities, which applied 
to Sparta for aid. Their request was granted, 
and the Spartans carried on war against Tissa- 
phernes with success for some years under the 
command successively of Thimbron, Dercylli- 
das, and Agesilaus (400-395). The continued 
want of success on the part of Tissaphernes led 
to grievous complaints against him, and the 
charges were transmitted to court, where they 
were backed by all the influence of Parysatis, 
eager for revenge on the enemy of Cyrus, her 
favourite son. The result was that Tithraustes 
was commissioned by the king to put Tissa- 
phernes to death and to succeed him in his 
government, which was accordingly done (395). 
(Thuc. viii. ; Xen. Hell. i. 1, 2, 5, iii. 1, 2, 4, 
Anabasis ; Diod. xiii. 46, xiv. 23-27, 80.) 

Titane (TtToivq), a town of Sicyonia, between 
Sicyon and Phlius (Paus. ii. 11, 3, ii. 27, 1 ; 
Steph. Byz. s.v.). 

Tltanes (Tirades, sing. TiraV, Ion. TiTTjees i 
fern. TtraviSts, sing. Tnavis). 1. The sons 
and daughters of Uranus and Ge or Gaea 
(the Earth), originally dwelt in heaven, 
whence they are called Ovpauloives or Ovpav- 
iSai. They were twelve or thirteen in 
number, who fall generally into pairs, viz. : 
Oceanus and Tethys = the sea ; Hyperion and 
Theia = sun and moon ; Coeus and Phoebe = 
light or star deities ; Creios and Eurybia = 
deities of strength ; Cronus and Rhea = heaven 
and earth ; Themis and Mnemosyne, and Iape- 
tus, who is to produce mankind (Hes. Th. 133 ; 
Apollod. i. 1, 3). It is said that Uranus, the 
first ruler of the world, threw his sons, the 
Hecatoncheires (Hundred-Handed) — Briareus, 



TITARESIUS 



TITUS 



963 



Cottys, Gyes — and the Cyclopes — Arges, Ste- j 
ropes, and Brontes — into Tartarus. Gaea, in- 
dignant at this, produced iron, persuaded the j 
Titans to rise against their father, and gave to 1 
Cronus an iron sickle. They did as their 
mother bade them, with the exception of 
Oceanus. Cronus, with his sickle, mutilated 
his father. [For this myth, see Ubanus.] From 
the drops of his blood there arose the Erinnyes, 
Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megaera. The Titans 
then deposed Uranus, liberated their brothers 
who had been cast into Tartarns, and raised , 
Cronus to the throne. But Cronus hurled the 
Cyclopes back into Tartarus, and married his 
sister Rhea. Having been warned by Gaea 
and Uranus that he should be dethroned by 
one of his own children, he swallowed succes- 
sively his children Hestia, Demeter, Hera, 
Pluto, and Poseidon. Bhea therefore, when 
she was pregnant with Zeus, went to Crete, 
and gave birth to the child in the Dictaean 
Cave, where he was brought up by the Curetes. 
"When Zeus had grown up he availed himself 
of the assistance of Thetis, the daughter of 
Oceanus, who gave to Cronus a potion which 
caused him to bring up the stone and the chil- 
dren he had swallowed. [Zeus ; Cronus.] 
United with his brothers and sisters, Zeus now 
began the contest against Cronus and the ruling 
Titans. This contest (usually called the Titano- 
machia) was carried on in Thessaly, Cronus 
and the Titans occupying Mount Othrys, and 
the sons of Cronus Mount Olympus. It lasted 
ten years, till at length Gaea promised victory 
to Zeus if he would deliver the Cyclopes and 
Heeatoncheires from Tartarus. Zeus accord- 
ingly slew Campe, who guarded the Cyclopes, 
and the latter furnished him with thunder and 
lightning. The Titans then were overcome, 
and hurled down into a cavity below Tartarus, 
and the Heeatoncheires were set to guard them. 
(Hes. Th. 617, 697, 851 ; Apollod. i. 2, 1 ; Paus. viii. 
37, 3 ; cf . II. xi v. 279. ) It must be observed that 
the fight of the Titans is sometimes confounded 
by ancient writers with the fight of the Gigantes. 
[Gig antes.] — This myth of the Titans grew 
out of an attempt to reconcile the Greek re- 
ligion with those of other non-Greek nations 
who had occupied the Greek lands before them. 
Hence many of its features (especially the 
account of the wounding of Uranus) are not of 
a Greek character, and are ignored by Homer, 
but preserved by Hesiod [see pp. 412, b, 425, a]. 
The Titan dynasties represent primitive alien 
supreme dei.ties who have been brought into 
connexion with the supreme Zeus of the Greeks 
and the other Olympian deities. In the Greek 
conception of the story the Titans express the 
more terrible forces of nature, and also the 
struggle against the will of Zeus, i.e. against 
the lawful and orderly course of things (cf. II. 
viii. 478, xiv. 200, xv. 224 ; Plat. Leg. iii. p. 
701). — 2. The name Titans is also given to 
those divine or semi-divine beings who were 
descended from the Titans, such as Prometheus, 
Hecate, Latona, Pyrrha, and especially Helios 
(the Sun) and Selene (the Moon), as the chil- 
dren of Hyperion and Thia, and even the de- 
scendants of Helios, such as Circe. 

Titareslus (Ttrapfiirtos : Xera/jhi), a river of 
Thessaly, also called Europus, rising in Mt. 
Titarus, flowing through the country of the 
Pmrhaebi, and falling into the Peneus, SE. of 
Plialanna. Its waters were impregnated with 
an oily substance, whence it was said to be a 
branch of the infernal Styx. (Strab. pp. 329, 
421 ; II. ii. 751. 



Tithonus (TtBoiuos), son of Laomedon and 
Strymo, and brother of Priam (II. xx. 237). 
By the prayers of Eos (Aurora), who loved him, 
he obtained from the gods immortality, but not 
eternal youth, in consequence of which he 
became withered and shrunken in his old age ; 
whence an old decrepit man was proverbially 
called Tithonus. As he could not die, Eos 
changed him into a cicada. (Hes. Th. 984 ; 
E-ijmn. ad Yen. 219 ; Apollod. iii. 12, 4; Tzetz. 
ad Lyc. 18; Hor. Od. i. 28, 8; Ov. Fast. i. 461.) 
[For the meaning of this and kindred myths 
about the Dawn, see Eos.] 

Tithorea. [Neon.] 

Tithraustes (Ti0pau<mjs), a Persian, who suc- 
ceeded Tissaphemes in his satrapy, and put 
him to death by order of Artaxerxes Mnemon, 
B.C. 395. Being unable to make peace with 
Agesilaus, he sent Timocrates, the Rhodian, 
into Greece with fifty talents, to distribute 
among the leading men in the several states, in 
order to induce them to excite a war against 
Sparta at home. (Xen. Hell. iii. 4, 25 ; Diod. 
xiv. 80.) 

Titianus, Julius, a Roman writer, was the 
father of the rhetorician Titianus, who taught 
the younger Maximinus. The elder Titianus 
may therefore be placed in the reigns of Com- 
modus, Pcrtinax, and Severus. He was called 
the ape of his age, because he had imitated 
everything. All his works are lost. (Sidon. 
En. i. 1 ; Capitol. Maximin. 27, 5.) 

Titinius, a Roman dramatist whose produc- 
tions belonged to the department of the Conu 
oedia Togata, is commended byVarro on account 
of the skill with which he developed the charac- 
ters of the personages whom he brought upon 
the stage. It appears that he was younger 
than Caecilius, but older than Terence, and 
flourished about B.C. 170. (Varro, ap. Charis. 
i. 241.) The names of upwards of fourteen 
plays, together with a considerable number of 
short fragments, have been preserved by the 
grammarians. — Published in Ribbeck, Cum.Lat. 

Titius Septimius. [Septimus.] 

Titus Flavins Sabinus Vespasilnus, Roman 
emperor, a.d. 79-81, commonly called by his 
praenomen Titus (also, with Imperator as a cog- 
nomen, Titus Caesar Imperator Yespasianus), 
was the son of the emperor Vespasianus and 
his wife Flavia Domitilla. He was born on the 
30th of December, a.d. 40. When a young man 
he served as tiibunus milituni in Britain and 
in Germany, with great credit. After haying 
been quaestor, he had the command of a legion, 
and served under his father in the Jewish wars. 
Vespasian returned to Italy after he had been 
proclaimed emperor on the 1st of July, a.d. 69 ; 
but Titus remained in Palestine to prosecute 
the siege of Jerusalem, during which he showed 
the talents of a general and the daring of a 
soldier. The siege of Jerusalem was concluded 
by the capture of the place, on the 8th of Sep- 
tember, 70. Titus returned to Italy in the fol- 
lowing year (71), and triumphed at Rome with 
his father. He also received the title of Caesar, 
and became the associate of Vespasian in the 
government. Titus became attached to Be- 
renice, the sister of Agrippa II., when he was 
in Judaea, and after the capture of Jerusalem 
she followed him to Rome witli her brother, 
Agrippa. This attachment caused so much 
scandal and dissatisfaction among the Romans — 
not indeed from a sense of morality, but bo 
cause they disliked her nationality and feared 
leHt she should prevail upon Titus to marry 
her— that Titus yielded to the popular feeling 



064 



TITUS 



and sent Berenice away from Rome after he 
became emperor. (Suet. Tit. 7 ; Dio Cass. lxvi. 
15, 18). Titus succeeded his father in 79, and 
his government proved an agreeable surprise 
to those who had anticipated a return of the 
times of Nero. He was idolised by his army 
(Tac. Hist. v. 1), but he had a reputation for 
severity, and even cruelty, and for licentious- 
ness, which made the Romans regard him as 
unpromising. But Titus exerted himself in 
every way to win the affection of the people. 
He could control his passions, as he showed by 
his dismissal of Berenice, and he gave proofs 
of clemency by pardoning his brother, Domitian, 
who intrigued against him, and in a still more 
welcome and popular manner by checking de- 
lation : the informer was punished by scourging 
and exile (Suet. Tit. 8). He assumed the office 
of Pontifex Maximus after the death of his 
father, and with the purpose, as he declared, of 
keeping his hands free from blood (Suet. Tit. 9). 
It was recorded by his admirers that at the end 
of a day on which he had benefited no one by 
any gift, he exclaimed: 'I have lost a day' 




Bust of Titus. (From British Museum.) 

(Suet. Tit. 8). It must be admitted that this 
often quoted saying, as well as another of his, 
' No one should leave his prince's presence dis- 
satisfied,' however conducive to popularity, 
points rather to lavish extravagance than to 
discretion. The first year of his reign is 
memorable for the great eruption of Vesuvius, 
which desolated a large part of the adjacent 
country, and buried with lava and ashes the 
towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Titus 
endeavoured to repair the ravages of this great 
eruption : he sent two ccnsulars with money to 
restore the ruined towns, and he applied to this 
purpose the property of those who had been de- 
stroyed and had left no next of kin. At the 
beginning of the following year (80) there was a 
great fire at Rome, which lasted three days and 
three nights, and destroyed the Capitol, the 
library of Augustus, the theatre of Pompeius, 
and other public buildings, besides many 
houses. The emperor declared that he should 
consider all the loss as his own, and he set 
about repairing it with great activity : he took 
even the decorations of the imperial residences 
and sold them to raise money. The eruption of 



TLOS 

Vesuvius was followed by a dreadful pestilence, 
which the emperor sought all possible means to* 
mitigate. His magnificence, too, was an im- 
portant element in his popularity. In the same 
year (80) he completed the great amphitheatre 
called the Amphitheatrum Flavianum (in a later 
age named the Colosseum : see p. 811), which 
had been begun by his father; and also the 
baths called the Baths of Titus. The dedication 
of these buildings was celebrated by spectacles 
which lasted 100 days ; by a naval battle in the 
old naumachia, and fights of gladiators : on 
one day alone 5000 wild animals are said to 
have been exhibited, a number which we may 
reasonably suspect to be exaggerated. He died, 
of a fever, on the 13th day of September, 81, 
after a reign of two years and two months an J d 
twenty days. He was in the forty-first year of 
his age, and in the height of his popularity, 
called by Suetonius ' the darling of the whole 
world ' (' amor et deliciae humani generis ' : 
Suet. Tit. 1 ; cf. Butrop. vi. 14). It is possible 
that, had he lived on, this popularity might have 
waned : for he was spending lavishly, and 
probably unwisely, the treasures which the 
parsimony of Vespasian had gathered, and 
could not have continued either his display or his 
donations through a long life. Hence Auso- 
nius says that he was 1 felix imperii brevitate ' ; 
but there is no reason, in spite of an ill-natured 
suggestion of Dio (that his supposed virtue was 
only luck : lxvi. 18), to doubt the truth of his cha- 
racter for gentleness and clemency, to which both 
Suetonius and Tacitus bear testimony. (Suet. 
Titus ; Tac. Hist. iv. 8b.) To his popularity, as 
was natural, a single exception was furnished 
by the Jews, who recorded in their Talmud that 
his early death was a divine judgment, and 
added an absurd tradition of its cause. Titus 
left a daughter, Julia Sabina, married to Blavius 
Sabinus, a nephew of Vespasian. 

Tityus (Tiruds), son of Gaea, or of Zeus and 
Elara, the daughter of Orchomenus, was a giant 
in Euboea, and a type of incontinent passion. 
Instigated by Hera, he attempted to offer 
violence to Leto or Artemis (Latona), when she 
passed through Panopaeus to Pytho, but he was 
killed by the arrows of Artemis or Apollo ; 
according to other accounts, Zeus destroyed him 
with a flash of lightning. He was cast into 
Tartarus, and there he lay outstretched on the 
ground, covering nine acres, with two vultures 
devouring his liver. (Od. vii. 324, xi. 576; 
Apollod. i. 4, 1 ; Hyg. Fab. 55 ; Paus. iii. 18, 9 ; 
Hor. Od. iii. 4, 77, iv. 6, 2.) His destruction by 
the arrows of Artemis and Apollo was repre- 
sented on the throne of Apollo at Amyclae 
(Paus. x. 11, 1). 

Tius or Tium (Tioj, Tiov), a seaport town of 
Bithynia, on the river Billaeus ; a colony from 
Miletus, and the native place of Philetaerus, the 
founder of the Pergamene kingdom (Memn. 
17 ; Mel. i. 19 ; Arr. Peripl. P. E. p. 14). 

Tlepolemus {Th.riTr6kefj.os), son of Heracles 
by Astyoche, daughter of Phylas, or by 
Astydamia, daughter of Amyntor. He was 
king of Argos, but, after slaying his uncle 
Licymnius, he was obliged to take to flight, 
and, in conformity with the command of an 
oracle, he settled in Rhodes, where he built the 
towns of Lindos, Ialysus, and Camirus. He 
joined the Greeks in the Trojan war with nine 
ships, but was slain by Sarpedon. (II. ii. 658, 
v. 627 ; Diod. iv. 58, v. 59 ; Apollod. ii. 8, 2.) 

Tlos (TAws, gen. TAcS : Tkuevs, TAcoiTrjs : Ru. 
near Driver), a considerable city, in the interior 
of Lycia, about 1\ miles E. of the river Xanthus,, 



TMARUS 

on the road leading over M. Massicytus to 
Cibyra (Strab. p. 665; Ptol. v. 3, 5 ; Steph. 
Byz. s. v.). 
Tmarus. [Tomakus.] 

Tinolus ITfuoAos), god of Mt. Tmolus in Lydia, 
is described as the husband of Pinto (the 
daughter of Himantes) or of Ornphale, and 
father of Tantalus, and is said to have decided 
the musical contest between Apollo and Pan 
(Apollod. ii. 6, 3; Ov. Met. ix. 157). 

Tmolus or Timolus (T/kuAos: Boz-Dagh), a 
celebrated mountain of Asia Minor, running E. 
and W. through the centre of Lydia, and 
dividing the plain of the Hermus, on the N., 
from that of the Cayster, on the S. At its E. 
end it joins M. Messogis, thus entirely enclosing 
the valley of the Cayster. On the W., after 
throwing out the XW. branch called Sipylus, it 
runs far out into the Aegaean, forming, under 
the name of Mimas, the great Ionian peninsula, 
beyond which it is still further prolonged in 
the island of Chios. On its X. side are the 
sources of the Pactolns and the Cogamus; on 
its S. side those of the Cayster. It produced 
wine, saffron, zinc, and gold. (17. ii. 373 ; Strab. 
p. 591 ; Aesch. Pers. 50 ; Hdt. i. 84 ; Verg. Georg. 
ii. 97.) 

Togata, Gallia. [Gallia.] 

Tolbiacum {Zulpich), a town of Gallia Bel- 
gica, on the road from Colonia Agrippina to 
Treviri (Tac. Hist. iv. 79). 

Toleatinum (Tolinas, -atis: Tolentind), a 
town of Picenum, on a height on the river 
Flusor (Chie7iti). (Plin. iii. 111.) 

Tolerium, an ancient town of Latium, prob- 
ably near Labicum. It was destroyed at an 
early period. (Dionys v. 61, viii. 17 ; Plut. 
Cor. 28.) 

Tolenus or Telonlus (Turano), a river in the 
land of the Sabines, rising in the country of the 
Marsi and Aequi, and falling into the Velinus 
(Ov. Fast. vi. 565; Oros. v. 18). 

Tole turn ( Toledo), the capital of the Carpe- 
tani in Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on the 
river Tagus, which nearly encompasses the 
town, and upon seven hills. A tradition of the 
middle ages that it was founded by Jewish 
fugitives from Nebuchadnezzar may possibly , 
point to an older popular belief in a Phoenician 
foundation. It was taken by the Romans under 
the proconsul M. Fulvius, B.C. 192, when it is 
described as a small but fortified town. It v as 
celebrated in ancient as well as in modern 
times for the manufactory of swords; but it 
owed its greatness to the Gothic kingB, who 
made it the capital of their dominions. (Liv. 
xxxv. 7, xxxix. 30; Ptol. ii. 6,57; Plin. iii. 25.) 
II still contains many Roman remains. 

Tolistobogi, Tolistoboji. [Galatia.] 

Tolmides (ToA/ii'Srjs), an Athenian comman- 
der, who cruised round the Peloponnesus in 
n.C. 455, took Naupactus from the Locrians, 
and settled the Messenians there. In 447 he 
was slain at Coroneia. (Thuc. i. 103, 108, 113 ; 
Diod. xi. 84, xii. 6 ; Paus. i. 27.) 

Tolophon (To\o(piiv : To\o<pdi/tos), a town of 
Locris, on the Corinthian gulf (Thuc. iii. 101 ; 
Steph. Byz. s. v.). 

Toldsa (Toulouse), a town of Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, and the capital of the Tectosages, was 
situated on the Garunina, near the frontiers of 
Aquitania (Caes. B. G. i. 10, iii. 20). It was 
subsequently made a Roman colony, and was 
surnamed Palladia. It was a large and 
wealthy town, and contained a celebrated 
temple, in which great riches were deposited. 
In this temple there is said to have been pre- 



TORQUATTJS 965 

served a great part of the booty taken by 
Brennus from the temple at Delphi (Strab. p, 
188 ; cf . Just, xxxii. 3), which may have been 
brought back (if the story is true) by the Tecto- 
sages, who served in the army pf Brennus. The 
town and temple were plundered by the consul Q. 
Servilius Caepio, in B.C. 106 ; but the subsequent 
destruction of his army and his own unhappy 
fate were regarded as a divine punishment for 
his sacrilegious act. Hence arose the proverb, 
Aurum Tolosanum habet. (Liv. Ep. 67; 
Oros. v. 15, Gell. iii. 19 ; cf. Cic. N. D. iii. 30.) 
There are the ruins of a small amphitheatre 
and some other Roman remains at the modem 
town. 

Tolnmnms, Lar, king of the Veientes, to 
whom Fidenae revolted in B.C. 438, and at whose 
instigation the inhabitants of Fidenae slew the 
four Roman ambassadors who had been sent 
to Fidenae to inquire into the reasons of their 
recent conduct. Statues of these ambassadors 
were placed on the Rostra at Rome, where they 
continued till a late time. In the war which 
followed, Tolumnius was slain in single combat 
by Cornelius Cossus, who dedicated his spoils 
in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius, the second 
of the three instances in which the spolia opima 
were won. (Liv. iv. 17-19 ; Cic. Phil. ix. 2.) 

Torn! or Tomis (To/xoi, T6/j.is : To/xevs, To- 
mita : Kostendje), a town of Thrace (subse- 
quently Moesia), situated on the W. shore of the 
Euxine, and at a later time the capital of 
Scythia Minor. According to tradition (derived 
partially from the name of the town) it was 
called Tomi (from t4/jlvo>, ' cut '), because Medea 
here cut to pieces the body of her brother 
Absyrtus. It is said to have been a colony of 
the Milesians. It is renowned as the place of 
Ovid's banishment. (Ov. Trist. iii. 9, 33; 
Apollod. i. 9, 25 ; Hyg. Fab. 13 ; Strab. p. 319.) 

Tomorus or Tmarus (TS/topos, Tudpos : To- 
maro), a mountain in Epirus, in the district 
Molossia, between the lake Pambotis and the 
river Arachthus, nearDodona. [Dodona.] 

Tomyris (To/uipis), a queen of the Massagetae, 
who dwelt south of the Araxes (Jaxartes), by 
whom Cyrus was slain in battle, B.C. 529 (Hdt 
i. 205-214 ; Cybus). 

Torone (Topavr\ : Topwvaios), a town of Mace 
donia, in the district C'halcidice, and on the 
SW. side of the peninsula Sithonia, from which 
the gulf between the peninsulas Sithonia and 
Pallene was called Sinus Toronaicus (Hdt. 
vii. 122; Thuc. iv. 110; Liv. xliv. 12; Tac. Ann. 
v. 10). 

TorquatUS, the name of a patrician family of 
the Manlia Gens. 1. T. Manlius Imperiosus 
Torquatus, the son of L. Manlius Capitolinus 
Imperiosus, dictator B.C. 803, was a favourite 
hero of Roman legendary story. Manlius is 
said to have been dull of mind in his youth, and 
was brought up by his father in the closest 
retirement in the country. When the tribune 
M. Pomponius accused the elder Manlius in 
B.C. 862, on account of the cruelties he had 
practised in his dictatorship, he endeavoured to 
excite an odium against him by representing 
him at the same time as a cruel father. As soon 
as the younger Manlius heard of this, he hurried 
to Rome, obtained wlmission to Pomponius 
early in the morning, and compelled the tribune, 
by threatening him with instant death if he did 
not take the oath, to swear that he would drop 
the accusation against his father. In 861 Man- 
lius served under the dictator T. Quintius 
Pennus in the waragainst the Gauls, and in this 
campaign earned immortal glory by slaying in 



966 TOEQUATUS 



TRAGIA 



single combat a gigantic Gaul. From the dead 
body of the barbarian he took the chain (torques) 
which had adorned him, and placed it around 
his own neck, and from this circumstance he 
obtained the surname of Torquatus. He was 
dictator in 353, and again in 349. He was also 
three times consul : namely, in 347, 344, and in 
340. In the last of these years Torquatus and 
his colleague, P. Decius Mus, gained the great 
victory over the Latins at the foot of Vesuvius 
which established for ever the supremacy of 
Borne over Latium. [Decius.] Shortly after 
the battle, when the two armies were encamped 
opposite to one another, the consuls published 
a proclamation that no Eoman should engage 
in single combat with a Latin on pain of death. 
Notwithstanding this proclamation, the young 
Manlius, the son of the consul, provoked by the 
insults of a Tusculan noble, Mettius Geminus, 
accepted his challenge, slew his adversary, and 
bore the spoils in triumph to his father. The 
consul would not overlook this breach of disci- 
pline, and the unhappy youth was executed in 
presence of the assembled army. This severe 
sentence rendered Torquatus an object of 
detestation among the Roman youths as long as 
he lived, and the recollection of his severity 
was preserved by the expression Manliana im- 
pend. (Liv. iv. 5, 19-28, viii. 3-12 ; Cic. Off. 
iii. 31, Fin. i. 7, ii. 19, Tusc. iv. 22; Gell. i. 13.) 
— 2. T. Manlius Torquatus, consul b.c. 235, 
when he conquered the Sardinians ; censor 231 ; 
and consul a second time in 224. He possessed 
the hereditary sternness and severity of his 
family ; and we accordingly find him opposing 
in the senate the ransom of those Romans who 
had been taken prisoners at the battle of 
Cannae. In 217 he was sent into Sardinia, 
where he carried on the war with success 
against the Carthaginians and the Sardinians. 
He was dictator in 210. (Liv. xxii. 60, xxiii. 40, 
xxvi. 22, xxvii. 33, xxx. 39.)— 3. T. Manlius 
Torquatus, consul 165 with Cn. Octavius. He 
also inherited the severity of his ancestors ; of 
which an instance is related in the condemna- 
tion of his son, who had been adopted by D. 
Junius Silanus. [Silanus, No. 2.] — 4. L. Man- 
lius Torquatus, consul B.C. 65 with L. Aurelius 
Cotta. Torquatus and Cotta obtained the con- 
sulship in consequence of the condemnation, on 
account of bribery, of P. Cornelius Sulla and 
P. Autronius Paetus, who had been already 
elected consuls. After his consulship Torquatus 
obtained the province of Macedonia. He took 
an active part in suppressing the Catilinarian 
conspiracy in 63 ; and he also supported Cicero 
when he was banished in 58. (Sail. Cat. 18 ; 
Liv. Ep. 101 ; Dio Cass, xxxvi. 27 ; Cic. pro 
Bull. 4, 10, 12, 29.)— 5. L. Manlius Torquatus, 
son of No. 4, accused of bribery (in 66) the con- 
suls elect, P. Cornelius Sulla and P. Autronius 
Paetus, and thus secured the consulship for bis 
father. He was closely connected with Cicero 
during the praetorship (65) and consulship (63) 
of the latter. In 62 he brought a second accu- 
sation against P. Sulla, whom he now charged 
with having been a party to both of Catiline's 
conspiracies. Sulla was defended by Hor- 
tensius and by Cicero in a speech which is still 
extant. Torquatus, like his father, belonged to 
the aristocratical party, and accordingly op- 
posed Caesar on the breaking out of the Civil 
war in 49. He was praetor in that year, and 
was stationed at Alba with six cohorts. He 
subsequently joined Pompey in Greece, and in 
the following year (48) he had the command of 
Oricum intrusted to him, but was obliged to 



surrender both himself and the town to Caesar,, 
who, however, dismissed Torquatus uninjured. 
After the battle of Pharsalia Torquatus went ta. 
Africa, and upon the defeat of his party in that 
country in 46 he attempted to escape to Spain 
along with Scipio and others, but was taken 
prisoner by P. Sittius at Hippo Regius and slain 
together with his companions. (Cic. pro Sull. 
1, 8-12, ad Att. iv. 16, vii. 12, ix. 8 ; Caes. B. C. 
i. 24, iii. 11 ; Bell. Afr. 93.) Torquatus was well 
acquainted with Greek literature, and is praised 
by Cicero as a man well trained in every kind 
of learning. He belonged to the Epicurean 
school of philosophy, and is introduced by 
Cicero as the advocate of that school in his 
dialogue De Finibus, the first book of which is 
called Torquatus in Cicero's letters to Atticus. 
— 6. Torquatus, addressed by Horace (Od. iv. 
7, Ep. i. 5), is conjectured with some probability 
to be the C. Nonius Asprenas who assumed 
the name Torquatus when Augustus presented 
him with a golden torques on the occasion of his 
taking part in a ' Ludus Trojae ' and meeting 
with an accident (Suet. Aug. 43, 56). Another 
theory is that he is the A. Torquatus mentioned 
in the Atticus of Nepos as having taken part 
in the campaign of Brutus and Cassius. 
Torquatus Silanus. [Silanus.] 
Toxandri or Texuandri, a people in Gallia 
Belgica, between the Menapii and Morini, on 
the right bank of the Scaldis (Plin. iv. 106; 
Amm. Marc. xvii. 8). 

Trabea, Q., a Roman comic dramatist who 
occupies the eighth place in the Canon of Vol- 
catius Sedigitus [Sedigitus]. The period when 
he flourished is uncertain, but he has been 
placed about b.c. 130. No portion of his works 
has been preserved with the exception of half 
a dozen lines quoted by Cicero. (Varr. ap. 
Charis. i. 241 ; Cic. Tusc. iv. 31, 67.) 

Trachalus, Galerius, consul a.d. 68 with 
Silius Italicus, is frequently mentioned by his 
contemporary Quintilian, as one of the most 
distinguished orators of his age (Quint, x, 119 ; 
Tac. Hist. i. 88, 90, ii. 60). 

Trachis or Trachin (Tpax'ts, Ion. Tp-qx'^, 
Tpax'iv : Tpax'fios). 1. Also called Heraclea 
Trachiniae, or Heraclea Phthiotidis, or 
simply Heraclea ('HpcucAeia 7] iv Toaxwous, or 
'H. ?; iv Tpaxwi), a town of Thessaly in the 
district Malis, celebrated as the residence of 
Heracles for a time. Heraclea was taken by 
Glabrio in B.C. 191. (Hdt. vii. 176; Strab. p. 
428; Thuc. iii. 92; Diod. xii. 177; cf. II. ii. 
682 ; Soph. Trachiniae, Liv. xxxvi. 24.) — 

2. A town of Phocis, on the frontiers of Boeotia, 
and on the slope of Mt. Helicon in the neigh- 
bourhood of Lebadea (Strab. p. 423; Paus. x. 

3, 2). 

Trachonitis or Trachon (Tpax&wn-is-, Tpd- 
X<vv), the N. district of Palestine beyond the 
Jordan, lay between Antilibanus and the moun- 
tains of Arabia, and was bounded on the N. by 
the territory of Damascus, on the E. by Aurani- 
tis, on the S. by Ituraea, and on the W. by 
Gaulanitis. It was for the most part a sandy 
desert, intersected by two ranges of rocky 
mountains, called Trachones (Tpax^iv^s), the 
caves in which gave refuge to numerous 
bands of robbers. For its political relations 
under the Asmonaean and Idumaean princes,, 
see Palaestina. 

Traens, or Trais (Trionto), a river of Brut- 
tium, on which the Sybarites were defeated by 
the Crotoniates about 510 b.c [Sybaris.] 

Tragla, Tragiae, or Tragias (Tpayia, Tpa- 
ylai, Tpaylas), a small island (or more than 



TRAGTJRTUM 

one) in the Aegaean sea, near Samos, probably 
between it and Pharmacussa, where Pericles 
gained a naval victory over the Samians, B.C. 
439 (Thuc. i. 116 ; Plut. Per. 95 ; Strab. p. 635). 

Tragurlum (Trau or Troghie), a town of 
Dahnatia, in Illyricum, celebrated for its 
marble, and situated on an island connected 
with the mainland by means of a mole (Pol. 
xxxii. 18 ; Strab. pp. 124, 315). 

Trajanopolis. 1. (Orichovo), a town in the 
interior of Thrace, on the Hebrus, founded 
by Trajan (Ptol. iii. 11, 13 ; Procop. Aed. iv. 
11).— 2. A town of Cilicia. [Selixus.]— 3. A 
town in Mysia, on the borders of Phrygia (Ptol. 
v. 2, 14). It was a city of the Grimenothyritae, 
and was refounded and renamed by Trajan in 
119 a.d. Its site is fixed by Ramsay at Giaour 
Euren = ' Infidel Ruins,' six miles E. of Ushak. 

Trajanus, M. Ulpius, Roman emperor a.d. 
98-117, was born at Italiea, near Seville, Sep- 
tember 18, 52 or 53 a.d. He was trained to 
arms, and, after ten years' service as military 
tribune, rose through the lower offices to the 
rank of praetor in 85, served with distinction in 
the East and in Germany, to which country he 
was sent from Spain by Domitian on the 
occasion of the revolt of Antonius Saturninus, 
legatus with the Spanish legion Adjutrix 
under his command. He was consul in 91, and 
at the close of 97 he was adopted by the 
emperor Nerva, who gave him the rank of 
Caesar and the names of Nerva and Germanicus, 
and shortly after the title of Imperator, and the 
tribunitia potestas. His style and title after 
his elevation to the imperial dignity were 
Imperator Caesar Nerva Trajanus Augustus. 
He was the first emperor who was born out of 
Italy. Nerva died in January 98, and was 
succeeded by Trajan, who was then at Cologne. 
His accession was hailed with joy, and he did 
not disappoint the expectations of the people. 
He was a great soldier both in the field and in 
military organisation : and he was scarcely less 
great as an administrator. His finances were 
prosperous, partly from hisgood economy, though 
partly also from the good fortune of Dacian 
mining operations. Personally, he was strong 
and healthy, of a majestic appearance, laborious, 
and inured to fatigue. Though not a man of 
letters, he had good sense, a knowledge of the 
world, and a sound judgment. His mode of 
living was very simple, and in his campaigns 
he shared all the sufferings and privations of 
the soldiers, by whom he was both loved and 
feared. He was a friend to justice, and he had 
a sincere desire for the happiness of the people. 
Trajan did not return to Rome for some months, 
being employed in settling the frontiers on the 
Rhine and the Danube. Especially, he com- 
pleted the fortifications of the Rhine and of the 
Agri Decumates, founded a new military station, 
Colonia Trajana, near Vetera, and constructed 
new roads by the Rhine and by the Danube, the 
latter work in preparation for the Dacian war. 
In 99 he proceeded to Rome, which he entered 
on foot, accompanied by his wife, Pompeia 
Plotina. In March 101 a.d. Trajan left Rome 
for his campaign against the Daci. Decebalus, 
king of the Daci, had compelled Domitian to 
purchase peace by an annual payment of 
money ; and Trajan determined on hostilities, 
which should settle matters so as to secure the 
peace of the frontier. This war employed 
Trajan between two and three years, but it 
ended with the defeat of Decebalus, who sued 
for peace at the feet of the Roman emperor. 
Trajan assumed the name of Dacius, and 



TRAJANUS 



96? 



entered Rome in triumph (103). In the follow- 
ing year (104) Trajan commenced his second 
Dacian war against Decebalus, who had ac- 
cepted the Roman terms merely to gain time, 
and now showed his intentions by building 
forts, collecting war material, and welcoming 
Roman deserters. Decebalus was completely 
defeated, and put an end to his life (106). In 
the course of this war Trajan built (105) a 
permanent bridge across the Danube at the 
modem Turn Severin. The piers were of 
stone and of an enormous size, but the arches 
were of wood. After the death of Decebalus 
Dacia was reduced to the form of a Roman 
province, strong forts were built in various 
places, and Roman colonies were planted. 
[Dacia.] The Column of Trajan at Rome was 
erected to commemorate his Dacian victories. 
In its sculptured illustration of the campaign it 
has a historical value which has been well 
compared to that of the Bayeux tapestry. On 
his return Trajan had a triumph, and he ex- 
hibited games to the people for 123 days. It is 
said that 11,000 animals were slaughtered during 




Trajan. (From the bust In the British Museum.) 

these amusements, and that 10,000 gladiators 
fought in the arena. — About this time Arabia 
Petraea was subjected to the empire by A. 
Cornelius Palma, the governor of Syria, and an 
Indian embassy came to Rome. [Arabia.] The 
dominions of Agrippa II., who died a.d. 100, were 
also added to the province of Syria. In 114 
Trajan left Rome to make war on the Armenians 
and the Parthians, the cause of the war being 
that the Parthian king, Chosroes, had deposed 
from the throne of Armenia Axidares, the Roman 
nominee. Trajan spent the winter of 114 at 
Antioch, and in the following year he invaded 
the Parthian dominions. The most striking 
and brilliant success attended his arms. In the 
course of two campaigns (115-116), he con- 
quered the greater part of the Parthian empire, 
and took the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. In 
116 he descended the Tigris and entered the 
Erythraean Sea (the Persian Gulf). While he 
whs thus engaged tin- Purthiuns rose against 
the Romans, but were again subdued by the 
generals of Trajan, Erucius Clarus, who re- 
duced Babylonia and burnt Seleucia, and Lusias 
Quietus, who reduced Mesopotamia. On his 



968 TRAJANI PORTUS 



TREBONIUS 



return to Ctesiphon, Trajan determined to give 
the Partliians a king, and placed the diadem 
on the head of Parthamaspates, son of Chosroes. 
In 117 Trajan fell ill, and as his complaint 
grew worse he set out for Italy. He lived to 
reach Selinus in Cilieia, afterwards called 
Trajanopolis, where he died in August, 117, 
after a reign of nineteen years, six months, and 
fifteen days. [For his death in this city, and 
not, as Eutropius says, at Seleucia, see G. I. L. 
vi. 1884.] His ashes were taken to Rome in a 
golden urn, carried in triumphal procession, 
and deposited under the column which bears 
his name. He left no children, and he was 
succeeded by Hadrian. [Hadbianus.] Trajan 
constructed several great roads in the provinces 
and in Italy : among them was the road across 
the Pomptine Marshes, which he constructed 
with magnificent bridges over the streams. At 
Ostia he built a large new basin. At Rome 
he constructed the aqueduct called by his 
name, built a theatre in the Campus Martius 
and, above all, made the Forum Trajanum, with 
its basilicas and libraries, and his column in the 
centre. 

Trajani Portus. [Centum Cellae.] 

Trajectum {Utrecht), a town of the Batavi 
on the Rhine, called at a later time Trajectus 
Rheni, or Traj. ad Rhenum. 

Tralles or trallis (cu TpaWeis, 7) TpdWts : 
TpaWiavSs, Trallianus : Ghiuzel-BLisar, Ru., 
neax Aidiri), a flourishing commercial city of Ly- 
dia, in Asia Minor. It stood on a plateau at the 
S. foot of Mt. Messogis (with a citadel on a higher 
point), on the banks of the little river Budon, a 
N. tributary of the Maeander, from which the 
city was distant 80 stadia (8 geogr. miles). It 
was said to have been founded by Argives and 
Thracian settlers on the site of an older town 
called Anthea. (Strab. p. 648 ; Diod. xvii. 65 ; 
Steph. Byz. s.v.) Under the Seleucidae it bore 
the names of Seleucia and Antiochia. 

Tranquillus, Suetonius. [Suetonius.] 

Transcellensis Hffons, a mountain of Maure- 
tania Caesariensis, between Caesarea and the 
river Chinalaph (Amm. Marc. xxix. 5), 

Trapezopolis {TpaTre(oviroMs), a town of 
Phrygia, on the S. slope of Mt. Cadmus. Its site 
was near the modern Assar and Kadi Keni. 

TrapezuS (Tpaire&vs : Tpawe^ovvrios and 
-ovaios). 1. (Near Mavria). a city of Arcadia, 
on the Alpheus, the name of which was mythi- 
cally derived from the Tpcurefa, or altar, on 
which Lycaon was said to have offered human 
sacrifices to Jove. At the time of the building 
of Megalopolis, the inhabitants of Trapezus, as 
was alleged, rather than be transferred to the 
new city, migrated to the shores of the Euxine, 
and their city fell to ruin. (Paus. viii. 3, 2 ; 
Apollod. iii. 8, 1 ; Hdt. vi. 127.)— 2. Tarabosan, 
Trabezun, or Trebizond), a colony of Sinope, 
at almost the extreme E. of the N. shore of 
Asia Minor. The city derived its name either 
from the table-like plateau on which it was built, 
or because emigrants from the Arcadian Trape- 
zus took some part in its settlement (Paus. xiii. 
27, 4). The former is the more likely state- 
ment, since there is no reason why the main 
body of colonists from Sinope should have 
given it the name of another town. After 
Sinope lost her independence, Trapezus be- 
longed, first to Armenia Minor, and afterwards 
to the kingdom of Pontus. Under the Romans, 
it was made a free city, probably by Pompey, 
and, by Trajan, the capital of Pontus Cappa- 
docius. Hadrian constructed a new harbour ; 
and the city became a place of first-rate com- 



mercial importance. It was also strongly forti- 
fied (Tac. Ann. xiii. 39, Hist. iii. 47 ; Strab. pp. 
309, 320, 499, 548). It was taken by the Goths 
in the reign of Valerian ; but it had recovered, 
and was in a flourishing state at the time of 
Justinian, who repaired its fortifications (Zosim. 

i. 33 ; Procop. Aed. iii. 7). In the middle ages 
it was for some time the seat of a fragment of 
the Greek empire, called the empire of Tre- 
bizond. 

Trasimenus Lacus (Lago di Perugia, or L. 
Trasimeno), sometimes, but not correctly, writ- 
ten Thrasy menus, a lake in Etruria, between 
Clusiurn and Perusia, memorable for the victory 
gained by Hannibal over the Romans under 
Flaminius, B.C. 217, at a point where the hills 
from Cortona extend to the margin of the lake 
(Liv. xxij. 4; Strab. p. 226; Ov. Fast. vi. 770). 
Trausi (Tpavaoi), a Thracian people who 
! dwelt on the SE. of Mt. Rhodope (Hdt. v. 3, 4 ; 
Liv. xxxviii. 41). 

Treba (Trebanus : Trevi), a town in Latium 
i near the sources of the Anio, NE. of Anagnia. 
(Plin. iii. 64 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 62). 
Trebatius Testa. [Testa.] 
Trebellius Polllo. [Sckiptoees Histobiae 
Augustae.] 

Trebia (Trebbia), a small river in Gallia 
Cisalpina, falling into the Po near Placentia. 
It is memorable for the victory which Hannibal 
gained over the Romans, b.c. 218. This river 
j is generally dry in summer, but is filled with a 
rapid stream in winter, which was the season 
when Hannibal defeated the Romans. (Pol. iii. 
66-74; Liv. xxi. 52-56; Strab. p. 217; Lucan, 

ii. 46 ; Eutrop. iii. 9 ; Flor. ii. 6, 12.) 
Trebonius, C, played rather a prominent 

part in the last days of the republic. He com- 
menced public life as a supporter of the aristo- 
cratical party, and in his quaestorship (b.c. 60) he 
attempted to prevent the adoption of P. Clodius 
into a plebeian family. (Cic. ad Fam. xv. 21.) 
He changed sides soon afterwards, and in his 
tribunate of the plebs (55) he was the instru- 
ment of the triumvirs in proposing that Pom- 
pey should have the two Spains, Crassus Syria, 
and Caesar the Gauls and Illyricum for another 
period of five years. This proposal received 
the approbation of the comitia, and is known 
by the name of the Lex Trebonia. For this 
service he was rewarded by being appointed one 
of Caesar's legates in Gaul, where he remained 
till the breaking out of the Civil war in 49. 
In the course of the same year he was intrusted 
by Caesar with the command of the land forces 
engaged in the siege of Massilia. (Caes. B.G. v. 
24, vi. 40, B.C. i. 36, ii. 1 ; Dio Cass. xli. 19.) 
In 48 Trebonius was city-praetor, and in the 
discharge of his duties resisted the seditious 
attempts of his colleague, M. Caelius Rufus, to 
obtain by force the repeal of Caesar's law re- 
specting the payment of debts. Towards the 
end of 47, Trebonius, as propraetor, succeeded 
Q. Cassius Longinus in the government of 
Further Spain, but was expelled from the pro- 
vince by a mutiny of the soldiers who espoused 
the Pompeian party. Caesar raised him to the 
consulship in October, 45, and promised him 
the province of Asia. (Dio Cass, xliii. 29, 46.) 
In return for all these honours and favours, 
Trebonius was one of the prime movers in the 
conspiracy to assassinate Caesar, and after the 
murder of his patron (44) he went as proconsul 
to the province of Asia. In the following year 
(43) Dolabella, who had received from Antonius 
the province of Syria, surprised the town of 
Smyrna, where Trebonius was then living, and 



TEEBULA 
slew him in his bed. (Dio Cass, xlvii. 21-29 ; 
Plut. Brut. 19; App. B.C. ii. 113, 117, iii. 2, 
26.) 

Trebula (Trebulanus). 1. (Treglia), a town 
of Campania, N. of the Volturnus, in the moun- 
tain tract which extends from Calatia (Cajazzo) 
to the Via Latina. It received the Roman 
franchise in 303 B.C. (Liv. x. i.i — 2. Mutusca, 
a town of the Sabines, called by Virgil simply 
Mutuscae (Verg. Aen. vii. 711 ; Plin. iii. 108). 
Its site is at Monte Leone, on the right of the 
Via Salaria. — 3. Suffenas, also a town of the 
Sabines, of uncertain site. 

Trerus (Sacco), a river in Latium, and a tri- 
butary of the Liris. 

Tres Tabernae. 1. A station on the Via 
Appia in Latium, between Aricia and Forum 
Appii (Cic. ad Att. ii. 12).— 2. (Borghetto), a 
station in Gallia Cisalpina, on the road from 
Placentia to Mediolanum. 

Tretum (Tpr\Tov : C. Bugiaroni, or lias Seba 
Sous, i.e. Seven Capes), a great promontory on 
the coast of Numidia, forming the W. headland 
of the Sinus Olcachites (Bay of Storah). 

Treviri or Treveri, a powerful people in 
Gallia Belgica, who were faithful allies of the 
Romans, and whose cavalry was the best in all 
Gaul (Caes. B.G. iii. 11, iv. 10, vi. 32; Tac. 
Germ. 281. The river Mosella flowed through 
their territory, which extended westward from 
the Rhine as far as the Remi. Their chief 
town was made a Roman colony by Augustus, 
and was called Augusta Treviroruin I Trier or 
Treves). It stood on the right bank of the 
Mosella, and became under the later empire 
one of the most flourishing Roman cities N. of 
the Alps. It was the capital of Belgica Prima ; 
and after the division of the Roman world by 
Diocletian (a.d. 292) into four districts, it be- 
came the residence of the Caesar who had the 
government of Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Here 
dwelt Constantius Chlorus and his son Con- 
stantino the Great, as well as several of the 
subsequent emperors. The modern city still 
contains many interesting Roman remains. 
The most important of these remains is the 
Porta Nigra or Black Gate, a large and 
massive building in an excellent state of pre- 
servation. [Diet, of Ant. art. Portae.] In 
addition to this, there are extensive remains 
of the Roman baths, of the amphitheatre, and 
of the palace of Constantine. The piers of the 
bridge over the Moselle are likewise Roman. 

Triarius, Valerius. 1. I., quaestor urbanus 
B.C. 81 ; and propraetor in Sardinia 77, when he 
repulsed Lepidus, who had tied into that island 
after his unsuccessful attempt to repeal the 
laws of Sulla. Triarius served under Lucullus 
as one of his legates in the war against Mithri- 
dates, and at first gained considerable distinc- 
tion by his zeal and activity. In 68 Triarius 
was despatched to the assistance of Fabius, 
who had been intrusted with the defence of 
Pontus while Lucullus invaded Armenia, and 
who was now attacked by Mithridates with 
overwhelming numbers. Triarius compelled 
Mithridates to assume the defensive, and early 
in the following year he commenced active 
operations against the Pontic king. Anxious 
to gain the victory over Mithridates before the 
arrival of Lucullus, Triarius allowed himself 
to bo attacked at a disadvantage, and was de- 
feated with great slaughter near Zelu. (App. 
Mithr.HS, 112, 120 ; Pint. Pomp.:',:,; Dio Cass, 
xxxv. 10-12.) — 2. P., son of the preceding, ac 
cused M. Aemilius Scaums, in !>•!, first of rrpe- 
tundae and next of ambitus. Scaurus was 



TRICORYTHUS 



969 



1 defended on both occasions by Cicero (Cic. pro 
Scaur. 1, 2, ad Att. iv. 16, 17).— 3. C, a friend 
of Cicero, who introduces him as one of the 
speakers in his dialogue De Finibus, and praises 
his oratory in his Brutus. He fought on 
Pompey's side at the battle of Pharsalia. Tri- 
arius perished in the civil wars, probably in 
Africa, for Cicero speaks in 45 of his death, and 
adds that Triarius had left him the guardian of 
his children (Caes. B.C. iii. 5, 92 ; Cic. ad Att. 
xii. 28). 

Triballi, a powerful people in Thrace, 
a branch of the Getae dwelling along the 
Danube, who were defeated by Alexander the 
Great, B.C. 335, and obliged to sue for peace 
(Hdt. iv. 49 ; Thuc. iv. 101 ; Arr. An. 1, 2 ; 
Strab. p. 317). 

Tribocci, a German people, settled in Gallia 
Belgica, between M. Vogesus and the Rhine, in 
' the neighbourhood of Strasburg (Caes. B. G. 
i. 51, iv. 10 ; Strab. p. 193 ; Ptol. ii. 9, 17). 

Tribonianus, a jurist, commissioned by 
Justinianus, with sixteen others, to compile the 
Digest or Pandect. For details see Justinianus. 

Tricala. [Triocala.] 

Tricaranon [TptKapavoy. Tpixapavtvs), a for- 
tress in Phliasia, SE. of Phlius, on a mountain 
of the same name. 

Tricasses, Tricasii, Tricassini, a people in 
Gallia Lugdunensis, E. of the Senones, whose 
chief town was Augustobona, afterwards Tri- 
cassae (Troyes). (Plin. iv. 107 ; Ptol. ii. 8, 13.) 

Tricastiiii, a people in Gallia Xarbonensis, 
between the Cavares and Vocontii, inhabiting 
a narrow slip of country between the Drome 
and the Isere, on the banks of the Isere. They 
were to the N. of the Vocontii, and Hannibal, 
in his march from the ' Island ' near Valence 
to the place where he crossed the Alps (as was 
said above, either the M. Genevre or the Col 

1 d'Argentiere : probably the former ; see Alpes, 
Haxnib.al), passed first through the country of 

, the Tricastini, then through that of the 
Vocontii, then through that of the Tricorii 

i (Liv. xxi. 34 ; Ptol. ii. 10, 13). Their chief town 
was Augusta Tricastinorura, or simply Augusta 
(Aoitste). 

Tricca, subsequently Tricala (TpiVxr;, 
Tpi'/caAo: Trikkala), an ancient town of 
Thessaly in the district Hestiaeotis, situated 
on the Lethaeus, N. of the Peneus. Homer 
represents it as governed by the sons of 
Asclepius, and it contained in later times a 
celebrated temple of this god. (II. ii. 729, iv. 
202 ; Strab. p. 437 ; Liv. xxxii. 13.) 

Trichonis (Tpix«ei's : Vrakhori), a large lake 
in Aetolia, E. of Stratos and N. of Mt. Ara- 
eynthus. 

Trichonium [ip t x<i)viov: Tpixaivuvs), a town 
in Aetolia, E. of lake Trichonis (Strab. p. 430 ; 
Pol. iv. 3 ; PaUB. ii. 87, 8). 

Triciptinus, Lucretius. [Lucretia Gens.] 

Tricoloni (Tpic^Aaieoi : TptKoKuvtvs), a town 
of Arcadia, a little N. of Megalopolis, of which 
a temple of Poseidon alone remained in the 
time of Pausanias (Paus. viii. 3, 4, viii. 27, 3). 

Tricomia iTpiKoi/i/o: Kaimaz), a town of the 
Trocnades (possibly a union of three villages) 
| in Phrygia (but afterwards assigned to Galatia 
Salutaris), between Midaion and Pessinus 
(Ptol. v. 2, 22). 

Tricorii, a people who dwelt on the river 
l)rac, and whose chief town was probably the 
modern St. Bonnet, on the N. side of the Col 
Bayard, which leads to Gap (Vapincum). They 
dwell S. of the Vocontii [see TkicastimJ. 

Tricorythus (Tpiic6pv6os : Tpmopiaios), a 



970 



TRICRANA 



TRIPTOLEMUS 



demus in Attica, belonging to the tribe Aiantis, 
between Marathon and Rhamnus. 

Tricrana (TpUpava : Trikhiri), an island off 
the coast of Argolis, near Hermione (Paus. ii. 
34, 8). 

Tridentum (Trent, in Italian Trento), the 
capital of the Tridentlni, and the chief town 
of Raetia, situated on the river Athesis (Adige), 
and on the pass of the Alps leading to Verona 
(Plin. iii. 130 ; Just. xx. 5). Its greatness dates 
from the middle ages, and it is chiefly cele- 
brated on account of the ecclesiastical council 
which assembled within its walls, A.D. 1545. 

Trieres or Trieris (TpL-fiprjs : Enfeh), a small 
fortress on the coast of Phoenicia, between 
Tripolis and the Prom. Theuprosopon (Pol v 
68; Strab. p. 754). 

Trifanum, a town in Latium, between Min- 
turnae and Sinuessa (Liv. viii. 11). 

Trinacria. [Sicilia.] 

Trinemeis or Trinemia (Tpiue/j.z?s, Tpiv<s/j.eta : 
Tptveftevs), a demus in Attica, belonging to the 
tribe Cecropis, on Mt. Parnes. 

Trinobantes, one of the most powerful people 
of Britain, inhabiting the modern Essex. They 
are mentioned in Caesar's invasion of Britain, 
and they offered a formidable resistance to the 
invading force sent into the island by the 
emperor Claudius. (Caes. B. G. v. 20 ; Tac. 
Ann. xiv. 31.) 

Triocala or Tricala (TpiSKaAa, Tpf/caAa: Tpi- 
KaXlvos, Tricallnus: nr. Calata Bellota), a 
mountain fortress in the interior of Sioily, near 
the Crimissus, was in the Servile war the head- 
quarters of the slaves, and the residence of 
their leader Tryphon (Diod. xxxvi. 7 ; Cic. Verr. 
v. 4 ; Ptol. iii. 4, 14). 

Triopas (Tp«frras or Tplotp), son of Poseidon 
and Canace, a daughter of Aeolus, or of Helios 
and Rhodos, and the father of Iphimedia and 
Erysichthon. Hence, his son Erysichthon is 
called Triopehis, and his granddaughter Mestra 
or Metra, the daughter of Erysichthon, Triopeis. 
Triopas expelled the Pelasgians, or original in- 
habitants, from the district of Dotium (Dotius 
Campus), S. of Ossa in Thessaly, but was himself 
obliged to emigrate, and went to Caria, where 
he founded Cnidus on the Triopian promontory. 
(Hdt. i. 174 ; Diod. v. 56 ; Apollod. i. 7, 4 ; Ov. 
Met. viii. 751.) His son Erysichthon was pun- 
ished by Demeter with insatiable hunger, 
because he had . violated her sacred grove ; but 
the same story is also told of Triopas himself. 
[Erysichthon.] 

Triopia or Triopion, an early name of 
Cnidus. 

Triopium (Tpi6mov. G. Krio), the promontory 
which terminates the peninsula of Cnidus, 
forming the SW. headland of Caria and of Asia 
Minor. Upon it was a temple of Apollo, sur- 
named Triopius, which was the centre of 
union for the states of Doris. Hence it was 
also called the Sacred Promontory. (Thuc. 
viii. 35, 60 ; Mel. i. 16 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.) 

Triphylia (Tp«puAi'a : TpupvXios), the S. por- 
tion of Elis, lying between the Alpheus and 
the Neda, is said to have derived its name from 
the three different tribes by which it was 
peopled. [Elis.] Its chief town was Pylos. 

Tripodiscus (TpmoUeicos : TpiiroS'urKios : nr. 
Derweni, Ru.), a town in the interior of Megaris, 
NW. of Megara, and at the foot of Mt. Geraneia 
(Thuc. iv. 70 ; Strab. p. 394 ; Paus. i. 43, 8). 

Tripolis (TpiVoAis : Tp(7roAi'T7js) is properly 
the name of a confederacy composed of three 
cities, or a district containing three cities, but 
it is also applied to single cities which had 



some such relation to others as to make the- 
name appropriate. 1. In Arcadia, comprising 
the three cities of Callia, Dipoena, and Non- 
acris : its name is preserved in the modern 
town of Tripolitza. [Arcadia.] — 2. T. Pela- 
gonia, in Thessaly, comprising the three 
towns of Azorus, Doliche, and Pythium (Liv. 
xlii. 53). — 3. In Rhodes, comprising the three 
Dorian cities, Lindus, Ialysus, and Camirus. 
[Rhodus.] — 4. (Derebol), a city of Lydia, on 
the Maeander, twelve miles W. of Hierapolis, 
on the road from Sardis to Laodicea (Ptol. 
v. 2, 18; Hierocl. p. 669).— 5. (Tireboli), a. 
fortress on the coast of Pontus, on a river of the 
same name (Tireboli Su), ninety stadia E. of 
the Prom. Zephyrium (G. Zefreh). — 6. (Tri- 
poli, Tarabulus), on the coast of Phoenicia, 
consisted of three distinct cities, one stadium 
(600 feet) apart, each having its own walls, but 
all united in a common constitution, having one 
place of assembly, and forming in reality one 
city. They were colonies of Tyre, Sidon, and 
Aradus respectively. Tripolis stood about 
thirty miles S. of Aradus, and about the same 
distance N. of Byblus, on a bold headland 
formed by a spur of Mt. Lebanon. It had a 
fine harbour, and a flourishing commerce. 
(Ptol. v. 15, 4 ; Strab. p. 754 ; Diod. xvi. 41.)— 
7. The district on the N. coast of Africa, 
between the two Syrtes, comprising the three 
cities of Sabrata (or Abrotonum), Oea, and 
Leptis Magna, and also called Tripolitana 
Regio. [Syrtica.] Its name is preserved in 
that of the regency of Tripoli, the W. part of 
which answers to it, and in that of the city of 
Tripoli, probably the ancient Oea. 

Tripolitana Regio. [Syrtica: Tripolis, 
No. 7.] 

Triptolemus (TpnrT 6\e[j.os) , a local hero of 
Eleusis (in which character he appears in the 
Homeric Hymn to Demeter), and worshipped 
there as a deity connected with the sowing 
of corn. He is described in the Attic story 
as son of Celeus, king of Eleusis, and Metanira. 
Other legends describe him as son of king 
Eleusis by Cothonea, or of Oceanus and Gaea, 
or of Trochilus by an Eleusinian woman ; 
or his father is Rarus (cf. the Rarian plain) 
or Dysaules. (Paus. i. 14, 2 ; Hymn, in Ger. 
153; Apollod. i. 5, 2 ; Hyg. Fcib. 147; Serv. 
ad Georg. i. 19.) By the Latin poets he is 
commonly regarded as the inventor of the 
plough (Verg. Georg. i. 19) ; but it is doubtful 
if this was the original conception of him. 
According to the most familiar Attic legend, 
Celeus, the father of Triptolemus, Eubulus, 
Diocles, and Demophon or Demophoon, hos- 
pitably received Demeter at Eleusis, when she 
was wandering in search of her daughter. The 
goddess, in return, wished to make his son 
Demophon immortal, and placed him in the 
fire in order to destroy his mortal parts ; but 
Metanira screamed out at the sight, and the 
child was consumed by the flames. As a com- 
pensation for this bereavement, the goddess 
gave to Triptolemus a chariot with winged 
dragons and seeds of wheat. In this chariot 
Triptolemus was borne over the earth, making 
man acquainted with the blessings of agricul- 
ture (Ov. Met. v. 646 ; Paus. i. 38, 6, vii. 18, 2, 
viii. 4, 1), and hence of laws and civilisation. 
[Diet, of Ant. art. Thesmophoria.~\ On his 
return to Attica, Celeus endeavoured to kill 
him, but by the command of Demeter he was 
obliged to give up his country to Triptolemus, 
who now established the worship of Demeter, 
and instituted the Thesmophoria (Apollod. I.e.). 



TRITAEA 

This is not the version of the Homeric 'Hymn to ' 
Demeter (123, 47 4), which, as was said above, 
describes him as one of the heroic chiefs or 
princes of Eleusis, instructed by Demeter in her 
sacred rites : the legend which makes him son 
of Eleusis points to his local worship as hero 
or deity being ancient in that district. The 
period and reason of the introduction of Demo- 
phon and of the strengthening by fire are not 
very clear, nor why Triptolemus entirely took 
the place of Demophon as son of Celeus and 
favourite of Demeter; but the most natural 
inference is that the belief in Triptolemus as 
god of corn-sowing was a very old one, and that 
his story was altered when the worship of 
Demeter became supreme and he was fitted 
into the myth. In the vases of the fifth and 
fourth centuries B.C. Triptolemus is constantly 
represented in his winged chariot, sometimes 
drawn by serpents (symbols of the powers of 
the earth) ; and there is little doubt that the 
myth of Triptolemus primarily signified the 
introduction of corn-growing and its communi- 
cation from one country to another. It has 
been suggested, with some probability, that the 
idea of Triptolemus as especially the god of 
ploughing arose from a confusion of him with 
Osiris, the god of ploughing, and a vase now at 
St. Petersburg is noticed which represents 
Triptolemus in his serpent-chariot starting 
from Egypt. In this view he becomes the 
ploughing god in the Alexandrian period (cf. 
Serv. ad Georg. i. 19). Whether his name 
should be connected in derivation with triple 
ploughing Irpls, iroKtiv) is doubtful : there were 
certainly three sacred ploughings recognised by 
the Athenians corresponding to the three actual 
ploughings for certain crops ; but, if the con- 
jecture is right that be was not primarily the 
god of the plough, the connexion of sound may 
be accidental. On the other hand, it is quite 
possible that, though primarily the distributor 
of seed, he may in very early times have been 
the god of the culture which followed it, and 
have been named accordingly. He is repre- 
sented on earlier vases in his chariot as a full- 
grown man with ears of corn in his hand, or 
like a king, with a sceptre ; but in later art he 
is often a youth or a boy (as in Latin poets), an 
idea which perhaps was borrowed from that of 
Iacchus in the mysteries. 

Tritaea ITpirata: Tptraievs). 1. A town of 
Phocis, NW. of Cleonae, on the left bank of the 
Cephissua and on the frontiers of Locris (Thuc. 
iii. 101). — 2. (Kastritza), one of the twelve- 
cities of Achaia, 120 stadia E. of Pharae and 
near the frontiers of Arcadia. Augustus made 
it dependent upon Patrae. (Hdt. i. 145 ; Pol. 
ii. 41 ; Strab. p. 88G ; Paus. vii. 226.) 

Trito or Tritogenia. [Athene.] 

Triton (Tp'truv), son of Poseidon and Amphi- 
trite (or Celaeno), who dwelt with his father 
and mother in a golden palace in the bottom of 
the sea, or, according to Homer, at Aegae 
(Hes. Th. 930; Apollod. i. 4, G). Later writers 
describe him as riding over the sea on horses 
or other sea-monsters. Sometimes we find 
mention of Tritons in the plural. Their appear- 
ance is differently described ; though they are 
always conceived as having the human figure 
in the upper part of their bodies, and that of a 
fish in the lower part. The chief characteristic 
of Tritons in poetry as well as in works of art 
is a trumpet made out of a shell (concha), which 
the Tritons blow as they follow in the train of 
Poseidon (Ov. Met. i. 833). It is probable 
that Triton was once an independent sea-deity 



TEOEZEN 



971 



or impersonation of the sea, represented like 
the Phoenician fish-deities ; and became a son 
and attendant of Poseidon when the worship 
of that deity prevailed everywhere as the 
supreme god of the sea. 

Triton Fl., Tritonis, or Triton! tis Pains (Tpt- 
raiv, Throw's, TpnwviTis), a river and lake on 
the Mediterranean coast of Libya, which are 
mentioned in several old Greek legends, 
especially in the mythology of Athene, whom 
one account represented as bom on the lake 
Tritonis, and as the daughter of the nymph of 
the same name and of Poseidon : hence her 
surname of Tpiroyeveia [see p. 138, b]. When 
the Greeks first became acquainted geographi- 
cally with the N. coast of Africa, they identified 
the gulf afterwards called the Lesser Syktis 
with the lake Tritonis. This seems to be the 
notion of Herodotus, in the story he relates of 
Jason (iv. 178, 179 ; Argonautae). A more 
exact knowledge of the coast showed them a 
great lake beyond the inmost recess of the 
Lesser Syrtis, to which the name Tritonis was 
then applied. This lake had an opening to the 
sea, as well as a river flowing into it, and ac- 
cordingly the geographers represented the 
river Triton as rising m a mountain, called 
Zuchabari, and forming the lake Tritonis on its 
course to the Lesser Syrtis, into which it fell. 
The lake is undoubtedly the great salt lake, in 
the S. of Tunis, now in great part dried up, 
called Sebhhat-Farun. Lucan (ix. 34G) ap- 
pears to make Tritonis the lake or the estuary 
of the river Lathon or Lethon in Cyrenaica. 
[Lathon.] 

Trivicum (Trivico), a small town in Samnium, 
situated among the mountains separating Sam- 
nium from Apulia, in the country of the Hir- 
pini (Hor. Sat. i. 5, 79). 

Troas (ij Tpwds, sc. x^P°-> the fem. of the adj. 
Tpcus : TpwaSevs : Chan), the territory of Ilium 
or Troy, formed the NW. part of Mysia. It 
was bounded on the W. by the Aegaean sea, 
from Pr. Lectum to Pr. Sigeum at the entrance 
of the Hellespont ; on the NW. by the Helles- 
pont, as far as the river Rhodius, below Abydus ; 
on the NE. and E. by the mountains which 
border the valley of the Rhodius, and extend 
from its sources southwards to the main ridge 
of if. Ida, and on the S. by the N. coast of the 
Gulf of Adramyttium along the S. foot of Ida ; 
but on the NE. and E. the boundary is some- 
times extended so far as to include the whole 
coast of the Hellespont and part of the Pro- 
pontis, and the country as far as the river 
Granicus, thus embracing the district of Dar- 
dania, and somewhat more. Strabo extends 
the boundary still further E., to the river 
Aesepus, and also S. to the Caicus ; but this 
clearly results from his including in the terri- 
tory of Troy that of her neighbouring allies. 
(II. ix. 321, xxiv. 544 ; Hdt. vii. 42; Strab. pp. 
581-G1G.) The Troad is for the most part 
mountainous, being intersected by M. Ida and 
its branches : the largest plain is that in which 
Troy stood. The chief rivers were the Satnois 
on the S., the Rhodius on the N., and the 
Scamander (Mendere) with its affluent the 
Siniois (Dombrek) in the centre. The last two, 
whose connexion with scenes in the Iliad gives 
them an importance beyond their size, are 
discussed more particularly under Tkoja. 

Trocmi or -ii. [Galatia.] 

Troes. [Tkoas.I 

Troczen (Tpoi^vv, more rarely Tpoif^vTj : 
TpoifTji/ios : JDliamala), the capital of Troezenia 
(Tpotfavia), a district in the SE. of Argolis on 



972 



TROGILIAE 



TROJA 



the Saronic gulf, and opposite the island of 
Aegina. The town was situated at some little 
distance from the coast, on which it possessed 
a harbour called Pogon (Udiycoy), opposite the 
island of Calauria. Troezen was a very ancient 
city, and is said to have been originally called 
Poseidonia, on account of its worship of Posei- 
don. [Calaubia.] The legend of a contest 
between Poseidon and Athene for the protec- 
torship of Troezen, which ended in their agree- 
ing to share it (hence both appear on the coins) 
probably arose from the fact that the worship 
of Athene was accepted side by side with the 
older worship of Poseidon. (Paus. ii. 30, 5.) 
Traditionally it received the name of Troezen 
from Troezen, one of the sons of Pelops ; and it 
is celebrated in mythology as the place where 
Pittheus, the maternal grandfather of Theseus, 
lived, and where Theseus himself was born. 
In the Homeric age Troezen was for a long 
time dependent upon the kings of Argos (II. 
ii. 56), and this dependence seems to have 
continued after the Dorian conquest of both 
towns (Paus. ii. 30, 9), but in the historical 
period it appears as an independent state. It 
was a city of some importance, for we read that 
the Troezenians sent five ships of war to 
Salamis and 1000 heavy-armed men to Plataea. 
When the Persians entered Attica the Troeze- 
nians distinguished themselves by the kindness 
with which they received the Athenians, who 
were obliged to abandon their city (Hdt. viii. 
41 ; Plut. Them. 10.) The friendship continued 
till the Peloponnesian war, when the Troeze- 
nians allied themselves with Sparta (Thuc. 
ii. 56). 

Trogiliae, three small islands, named Psilon, 
Argennon, and Sandalion, lying off the promon- 
tory of Trogilium. [Mycale.] 

Trogrtis Lacus. [Pisidia.] 

Troglodytae (TpwyA.o8uTai, i.e. dwellers in 
caves), the name applied by the Greek geogra- 
phers to various uncivilised people, who had no 
abodes but caves', especially to the inhabitants 
of the W. coast of the Red Sea, along the 
shores of Upper Egypt and Aethiopia (Hdt. 
iv. 183 ; Peripl. 2-7). The whole of this coast 
was called Troglodytlce (TpoiyAoSvTtKT]). (Agath- 
arch. 61-63 ; Diod. iii. 32, 33.) There were 
also Troglodytae in Moesia, on the banks of the 
Danube. The Troglodytes of the W. coast of 
the Red Sea are described by Agatharchides as 
a barbarous people, who wore little clothing, 
had wives in common, and put to death the 
aged and infirm. They lived on the produce of 
their flocks and herds. In the Periplus the 
Ethiopian Troglodytes are described as of a 
wild appearance and swifter than horses. This 
swiftness of foot is noticed also by Herodotus 
as characterising the Ethiopian Troglodytes, 
and is said to be still a characteristic of the 
cave-dwellers in the same district. Herodotus 
adds that their language was like the twittering 
of bats, and that their food consisted of lizards 
and other reptiles. 

Trogus, Pompeius. [Justinus.] 

Troilium. [Teosstjlum.] 

Troilus (Tpcoi'Aos), son of Priam and Hecuba. 
He fell by the hand of Achilles. (II. xxiv. 
257 ; Verg. Aen. i. 474 ; Hor. Oct ii. 9, 16.) 

Troja or Ilium (Tpoia, "IAiov : Troy, Ruins at 
Hissarlik) ; also called Pergama (n4pya.fj.os, 
Tltpyafiov or Yl4pya.ua : Tpcus, Tpoids, fern. Tpwds, 
Trojanus ; also Tros and Trolus), a name pro- 
perly applied only to the fortress or citadel of the 
town : the chief city of the Troad in the Homeric 
age, and the capital of the dominion ruled over 



by Priam. The site of Troy has been disputed 
from the time of Demetrius of Scepsis, in the 
second century B.C., who denied that the then 
existing Ilium stood on the site of the Homeric 
city, chiefly on the ground that the plain near 
Ilium Novum, required as a battle-ground, was a 
recent alluvial deposit. Modem geologists have 
shown that it is an error to regard this forma- 
tion of land (to any important extent) as more 
recent than the Homeric age. Demetrius placed 
the site at 'IAiecoy Ku>/j.-q (the village of the Ilians) 
three or four miles further up the Scamander. 
His views did not meet with general acceptance, 
and the Romans especially continued to look 
upon Ilium Novum as occupying the site of 
their supposed mother city. At the end of the 
last century, partly because Le Chevalier dis- 
covered a hot and cold spring near Bunarbashi 
which seemed to correspond to the springs 
mentioned in II. xxii. 147, the hill called Bali 
Dagh was fixed upon as the hill of Troy, and 
this view is still maintained by some scholars 
of great authority. Few disputed it at all till 
the excavations of Dr. Schliemann in 1871- 
1879 at Hissarlik, continued (latterly in con- 
junction with Dr. Db'rpfeld) in 1882-1886, led 
him to revert to the oldest belief — that the 
site of Ilium Vetus, or the Homeric Troy, was 
the same as that of Ilium Novum. The ques- 
tion is not even now one upon which it is wise 
to pronounce dogmatically. The supporters of 
both views have in some cases pressed points 
of correspondence or divergence too far, but the 
objections to accepting the site at Bali Dagh, 
near Bunarbashi, are much more serious than 
those which have been alleged against Hissar- 
lik ; and if it is admitted that the Homeric 
descriptions were written with considerable 
knowledge of the local features derived from 
tradition or from personal knowledge (and 
there is nothing to discuss if this is not 
admitted), but yet were written, not by a 
topographer, but by a poet with some poetical 
licence of exaggeration of scale, and of re- 
moving or creating some natural obstacles, the 
claim of Hissarlik to be regarded as the hill of 
Troy is fairly established. The map of the 
district given on p. 973 is taken from one con- 
structed by Sir C. Wilson. The main features 
of the Homeric Troy and its neighbourhood are 
that the town, or its Acropolis, was situated on 
a hill near the Hellespont and looking to the 
island of Tenedos (II. xiii. 33) ; the Greek 
camp was on the shores of the Hellespont, near 
the mouth of the Scamander or Xanthos (i.e. 
W. of Cape Rhoeteum), and with the river Sca- 
mander between it and the city of Troy (xiv. 
31, xxiv. 350, 692); further, Troy was not a 
great distance from this shore, since the 
fighting goes on near the city and near the 
camp, backwards and forwards over the plain 
on the same day ; Idaeus goes early in the 
morning to the camp and gets back to the 
assembly at Troy just after sunrise (vii. 381, 
413) , Priam drives in the night, eats and 
sleeps in Achilles' tent, and gets back to Troy 
at sunrise (xxiv. 366-695) ; the Simois joins the 
Scamander, and apparently on the N. side of 
the city (v. 774) : that this plain reaches up to 
the neighbourhood of the citadel is clear from 
the description of the battle rolling up to the 
walls. There are other details of topography 
which do not affect the narrative and may be 
imaginary, though they have an appearance of 
local colouring about them. Such are the 
Scaean gates leading into the plain towards the 
Greek camp, and the two springs, one hot and 



TEOJA 



973 



the other cold, which break out near it (xxii. 
147), and a rising ground or ' swelling of the 
plain ' (dpucTfibs neSioio) between the city and 
the camp (x. 160, xi. 56). [It must be confessed 
that this last detail is more likely to be 
imagined than to be carefully taken from 
nature.] As regards the sites mentioned, the 
'WUoiv ndifiT) of Demetrius has nothing to 
recommend it. It is too distant from the sea, 
it stands near the swamps, and it has no 
ruins. It seems to have been chosen because 



date than can belong to the Homeric poems. 
The principal objections urged against Hissar- 
lik were : (1) that it was not high enough to be 
the ' windy ' Troy ; (2) the plain is on the wrong 
side of the Scamander. As regards (1), the hill 
of Hissarlik rises from the plain to a height of 
50-65 feet : now it must be recollected that the 
plain about it is destitute of high ground, and 
this isolated height might well be called ' lofty,' 
' wind}',' &c. ; and it is just the sort of place 
which in those days was chosen for a citadel — 




the false tbeory of the coast having greatly 
advanced seemed to necessitate a nite further 
inland, and the name was seized upon as 
evidence. Bali Dagh,no doubt, is a command- 
ing height, and well suited for a fortress, but it 
stands on hilly ground witli no plain coming up 
to it : moreover it is about twelve miles from 
the Greek camp, which alone is a strong objec- 
tion, however much it may be argued that poets 
can disregard distance and time: lastly, the 
only remains here and at Eski Hissarlik close 
by are walls which are of a much more recent 



near the sea and yet safe from pirates [cf. 
Tirvns]. As regards (2), it has been discovered 
that the old bed of the Mewlere (Scamander) 
ran further to the E. and through the E. side 
of the plain, instead of, as now, to the W. His- 
sarlik is S\ miles from the Aegaean and 83 
miles from the Hellespont — a distance which 
agrees with the Homeric narrative. The Dom- 
hrek-Su, which joins the Scamander N. of 
Hissarlik, will answer to the ancient Simois. 
Dr. Schliemann claim a to have found the 
springs and washing-troughs 'in an ancient 



974 



TBOJA 



rock channel' at the foot of Hissarlik. This 
may be so, but it is unwise to press it as an 
essential point. As far as the springs are con- 
cerned, Bunarbashi has the better evidence ; 
but it is by no means unlikely that if the 
natural phenomenon of hot and cold springs 
was well known further up the Scamander it 
may have been transferred in the poem to the 
neighbourhood of the city ; nor again is it 
much worth considering whether the swelling 
of the ground which Dr. Schliemann fixed upon 
will answer to the 6paicTfj.bs ireSi'oio. In the 
arguments for or against it is well to remember 
the remark of Grote, that it is a mistake ' to 
apply to Homer and to the Homeric siege of 
Troy criticisms which would be perfectly just 
if brought to bear on the Athenian siege of 
Syracuse as described by Thucydides.' The 
excavations on Hissarlik have revealed a suc- 
cession of cities with strata, sometimes includ- 
ing burnt debris between them. The uppermost 
is the Ilium Novum, the Greek city of historical 
times ; the lowest, upon the actual rock, is small 
and of very rude and primitive character in its 
building, its pottery, in the great rarity of metal, 
and in the use of stone hatchets. Above the 
ruins of this was built on a larger scale what 
Schliemann calls the Homeric Troy. Here were 
found walls partly of stone, partly of brick, 
with three gates inclosing (among other build- 
ings somewhat of the Homeric type with a 
courtyard) megara and women's apartments ; 
further, a quantity of pottery and a considerable 
find of golden vessels and ornaments. The 
citadel and palace are small, the space occupied 
by the walls being only 330 feet in diameter, 
and it is necessary to admit the glorification of 
the palace and its surroundings by poetry. 
There is, however, no objection to the theory 
that there was a lower city below the Acropolis 
and enclosed by a wall, just as was the case at 
Tiryns. The objects found belong to a stage of 
art distinctly inferior to the Blycenaean art, 
and archaeologists of authority are disposed to 
say that this city appears to belong to a date 
anterior to either Tiryns or Mycenae. It is, 
however, possible either that the Trojans were 
less advanced in civilisation than the Greeks 
who besieged them, or that there was an interval 
after the fall of Troy and before the Dorian 
invasion during which the art of Mycenae 
advanced to the stage which is evidenced by the 
Mycenaean discoveries. On the other hand, 
the more recent explorations of Dr. Db'rpfeld in 
1893 seem likely, when they are completed and 
fully described, to give a clearer insight into 
the matter. Dr. Dorpfeld has now distinguished 
five ' pre-Mycenaean ' or pre-Homeric strata of 
remains on the mound of Hissarlik, and that 
which he reckons as the second of these he 
dates earlier than 2000 B.C. In the sixth stra- 
tum (i.e. separated by three unimportant settle- 
ments from the above) he recognises the 
Homeric citadel, about as large as that of Tiryns, 
and containing pottery of what is called the 
Mycenaean period. It has remains of seven 
large buildings like the pe-yapa of Homer, walls 
of the Mycenaean type, and a tower at the NE. 
angle. If the matured report should eventually 
result in ascribing to the Homeric Troy a 
different stratum of remains from that upon 
which Schliemann fixed, it will in any case 
tend to confirm his opinion that the Homeric 
city really stood on Hissarlik, and will throw 
much more light on its date. For the nationality 
of the Trojans, see Phrygia. — The mythical ac- 
count of the kingdom of Troy is briefly as 



follows. Teucer, the first king, had a daughter, 
who married Dardanus, the chieftain of the 
country NE. of the Troad. [Dardania.] Dar- 
danus had two sons, Ilus and Ericthonius, and 
the latter was the father of Tros, from whom 
the country and people derived the names of 
Troas and Troes. Tros was the father of Ilus, 
who founded the city, which was called after 
him Ilium, and also, after his father, Troja. 
The next king was Laomedon, and after him 
Priam. [Priamus.] In his reign the city was 
taken and destroyed by the confederated 
Greeks, after a ten years' siege. [For details 
see Helena, Paeis, Agamemnon, Achilles, 
Hector, Ajax, Odysseus, Neoptolemus, 
Aeneas.] As to the historical facts which may 
be regarded as established, there is evidence of 
a considerable city having been sacked and 
burnt at a period which archaeologists put not 
later than the twelfth century B.C. That this 
invasion may have been an enterprise of the 
Achaeans at that time is neither impossible nor 
unlikely. If the interpretation of recent Egyp- 
tian discoveries is right which makes Achaeans 
appear as assailants of Egypt in the reign of 
Bamses III., it would follow that the Achaeans 
of the twelfth or thirteenth centuries had power 
and spirit enough for such an enterprise [see p. 
424] : but in any case the history of Tibyns and 
Mycenae, as attested by their ruins, is evidence 




Coin of Ilium, during its autonomy, after B.C. 189. 
Obv., head of Athene; rev., A6HNA2 iaiaaos : magistrate's 
name (Menephron, son of Menephron) ; Athene, "with 
spear and spindle. 

to the existence of their power at that time. 
There is therefore no reason why the traditions 
upon which the Iliad is based should not be regar- 
ded as true in their main outlines. It is probable 
enough that to avenge an act of piracy (which 
is a common and simple explanation of the rape 
of Helen) the Greeks of the ' Achaean ' period 
besieged and sacked Troy and thence returned 
to hold their own possessions undisturbed until 
the Dorian invasion. That there was no Greek 
settlement upon the site of Troy until a much 
later period is deduced from the remains of towns 
of a low state of civilisation and of small im- 
portance which have been discovered above the 
ruins of the second city (assumed to be Priam's). 
The later towns (if Dr. Schliemann is right in 
distinguishing three or four) between the Home- 
ric city and the Greek 1 New Ilium ' were poor 
settlements with no history and no importance. 
The last, an Aetolian foundation which lasted 
on through the Hellenistic and Boman periods, 
was visited by Xerxes and by Alexander the 
Great ; and has yielded some fine pieces of 
sculpture from a Greek temple of Athene, and 
inscriptions from the fourth century B.C. to late 
Boman times. (Cf. Hdt. vii. 42 ; Strab. pp. 
593, 601 ; Arr. An. i. 11, 7.) It was established 
by Alexander, Lysimachus, and Julius Caesar, 
who, as well as Sulla, enabled the town to 
recover the damage inflicted in the Mithridatic 
war by Fimbria (Strab. p. 594 ; App. Mithr. 53), 



TEOPHOXIUS 



TTJDER 



975 



•and it was made a free city, exempt from taxes, time, the kingdom devolved upon Athenion 
(Strab. p. 595 ; Suet. Claud. 25 ; Tac. Ann. who was not subdued till 101. (Diod. xxxvi 
xii. 58.) Commercially its importance was Fragm.; Flor. iii. 19.) 

■eclipsed by that of Alexandria Tboas. Tryphoninus. Claudius, a Roman jurist, 

Trophonius (Tpo(pilivios), son of Erginus, wrote under the reigns of Septimius Severus 
king of Orchomenus, and brother of Agamedes. and Caracalla. 

He and his brother built the temple at Delphi Tubantes, a people of Germany, allies of the 
and the treasury of king Hyrieus in Boeotia. Cherusci, originally dwelt between the Rhine 
For details see Agamedes. Trophonius after and the Yssel ; in the time of Germanicus on 
his death was worshipped as a hero, and had a the S. bank of the Lippe, between Paderborn, 
celebrated oracle in a cave in Boeotia. (See Hamm, and the Amsberger "VTald; and at a 
Diet, of Antiq. art. Oraculum.) still later time in the neighbourhood of the 

Tros (Tpds), son of Erichthonius and Astyo- Thiiringer Wald between the Fulda and the 
che, and grandson of Dardanus. He was mar- "Werra. (Tac. Ann. i. 51, xiii. 55, Germ. 36 ; Ptol. 
ried to Callirrhoe, by whom he became the ii. 11, 23.) Subsequently they are mentioned as 
father of Bus, Assaracus, and Ganymedes, and a part of the great league of the Franci. 
was king of Phrygia. (II. xx. 230.) The country Tubero, Aelius. 1. Q., son-in-law of L. Ae- 
and people of Troy were supposed to have milius Paulus, served under the latter in his 
derived their name from him. He gave up his war against Perseus, king of Macedonia. This 
son Ganymedes to Zeus for a present of horses. ' Tubero, like the rest of his family, was so poor 
Ganymedes.] that he had not an ounce of silver plate, till 

Trossulum (Trossulanus : Trosso), a town in his father-in-law gave him five pounds of plate 
Etruria, nine miles from Volsinii, which is said from the spoils of the Macedonian monarch, 
to have been taken by some Roman equites (Liv. xlv. 7, 8 ; Val. Max. iv. 4, 9 ; Pint. Aetn. 
without the aid of foot-soldiers; whence (ac- Paul. 2«.i — 2. Q., son of the preceding, was a 
cording to Roman etymologists) the equites pupil of Panaetius, and is called the Stoic. He 
obtained the name of Trossuli (Plin. xxxiii. 9 ; had a reputation for talent and legal know- 
Fest. s.v. Trossuli). ledge. He was praetor in 123, and consul 

Truentttm, a town of Picenum, on the river suffectus in 118. He was an opponent of Tib. 
Truentus or Truentinus (Tronto). (Strab. p. Gracchus, as well as of C. Gracchus, and 
241 ; Mel. ii. 4, 6.) ; delivered some speeches against the latter, 123. 

Trutulensis Portus, a harbour on the NE. (Cic. Off. iii. 15; Tac. Ann. xvi. 22; Gell. i. 22.) 
coast of Britain, perhaps near the estuary Taus Tubero is one of the speakers in Cicero's dia- 
(Tay). Theexact site is unknown. CLac.Agr. 38.) logue de Hepublica. — 3. L., an intimate friend 

TrypModorus (Tpv(pi68wpos), a Greek gram- of Cicero. He was a relation and a school- 
marian and poet, was a native of Egypt ; but fellow of the orator, had served with him in the 
nothing is known of his personal history. He Marsic war, and had afterwards served under 
lived probably early in the sixth century of his brother Quintus as legate in Asia. On the 
the Christian era. Of his grammatical labours ] breaking out of the Civil war, Tubero, who had 
we have no record ; but one of his poems has i espoused the Pompeian party, received from 
come down to us, entitled 'IAi'ou ciAaxns, the | the senate the province of Africa ; but as Atius 
Capture of Ilium, consisting of 691 lines, of j Varus and Q. Ligarius, who likewise belonged 
small merit. It contains a description of the to the aristocratical party, would not surrender 
warriors in the wooden horse (whom Helen is ' it to him, he passed over to Pompey in Greece, 
about to betray, but she is prevented by Athene), j He was afterwards pardoned by Caesar, and 
and of the scenes of the sack of the city, returned with his son Quintus to Bome. (Cic. 
Editions are by Northmore, London, 1804, and pro Lig. 4, 7, 8, ad Q. Fr. i. 1.) Tubero culti- 
by KiJchly, Zurich, 1850. | vated literature and philosophy. He wrote a 

Tryphon (Tpv<poiv). 1. Dioddtus. a usurper History, and the philosopher Aenesidemus dedi- 
of the throne of Syria during the reign of De- cated to him his work on the sceptical 
metrius H. Nicator. After the death of Alex- I philosophy of Pyrrhon. — 4. Q., son of the pre- 
ander Balas in B.C. 146, Tryphon first set up ceding. In 46 he made a speech before C. 
Antiochus, the infant son of Balas, as a pre- i Julius Caesar against Q. Ligarius, who was 
tender against Demetrius, but in 142 he defended by Cicero in a speech which is extant 
murdered Antiochus and reigned as king him- (pro Q. Ligario). Tubero obtained consider- 
self. Tryphon was defeated and put to death i able reputation as a jurist. He had a great 
by Antiochus Sidetes, the brother of Demetrius, 'knowledge both of Jus Publicum and of Jus 
in 139, after a reign of tliree years. [See De- , Privatum, and he wrote several works on both 
metrius II.] — 2. Salvias, one of the leaders of these divisions of law. He married a daughter 
the revolted slaves in Sicily, was supposed to of Servius Sulpicius, and the daughter of Tubero 
have a knowledge of divination, for which reason was the mother of the jurist C. Cassius Lon- 
he was elected king by the slaves in 103. He ginus. (Quint, x. 1, 23 ; Gell. vii. 19, xiv. 2.) 
displayed considerable abilities, and in a short Like his father, Q. Tubero wrote a History, 
time collected an army of 20,000 foot and 2000 (Liv. iv. 23; Suet. Jul. 83.) Tubero the jurist 
horse, with which he defeated the propraetor P. who is often cited in the Digest is this Tubero ; 
Licinius Nerva. After this victory Salvius but there is no excerpt from his writings, 
assumed all the pomp of royalty, and took the I Tucca. Plotius, a friend of Horace and 
surname of Tryphon, probably because it had Virgil. The latter poet made Tucca one of 
been borne by Diodotus, the usurper of the i his heirs, and bequeathed his unfinished writ- 
Syrian throne. He chose the strong fortress ings to him and Varius, who afterwards pub- 
of Triocala as the seat of his new kingdom, j lished the Aeneid by order of Augustus (Hor. 
Tryphon was defeated by L. Lucullus in 102, Sat. i. 5, 40, i. 10, 81). 

and was obliged to take refuge in Triocala. j Tudor (Tuders, -tis : Todi), an ancient town 
But Lucullus failed to take the pine-, and of Umbria, situated on a hill near the Tiber, 
returned to Home without effecting anything and on the road from Mcvania to Rome. (Plut. 
more. Lucullus was succeeded by C. Servilius ; Mar.\l, Crass. ; Strab. p. 227 ; Plin. iii. 113.) 
and on the death of Tryphon, about the same It was subsequently made a Boman colony. 



976 



TUDITANUS 



TULLIUS 



There are still remains of the polygonal walls 
of the ancient town. 

Tuditanus, Sempronius. 1. M., consul b.c. 
240, and censor 230 (Gell. xvii. 21).— 2. P., tri- 
bune of the soldiers at the battle of Cannae in 
216, and one of the few Eoman officers who 
survived that fatal day. In 214 he was curule 
aedile ; in 213 praetor, with Ariminum as his 
province, and was continued in the command 
for the two following years (212, 211). He was 
censor in 209 with M. Cornelius Cethegus, 
although neither he nor his colleague had yet 
held the consulship. In 205 he was sent into 
Greece with the title of proconsul, for the pur- 
pose of opposing Philip, with whom, however, 
he concluded a treaty, which was ratified by the 
Romans. Tuditanus was consul in 204, and 
received Bruttii as his province. He was at 
first defeated by Hannibal, but shortly after- 
wards he gained a decisive victory over the 
Carthaginian general. (Liv. xxii. 50, 60, xxiv. 
43-47, xxvii. 11, xxix. 11-13, xxxi. 2 ; App. 
Annib. 26.) — 3. C, plebeian aedile 198, and 
praetor 197, when he obtained Nearer Spain as 
his province. He was defeated by the Spaniards 
with great loss, and died shortly afterwards of 
a wound which he had received in the battle. 
(Liv. xxxii. 27, xxxiii. 42 ; App. Hisp. 39.) — 
4. M., tribune of the pJebs 193; praetor 189, 
when he obtained Sicily as his province ; and 
consul 185. In his consulship he carried on 
war in Liguria, and defeated the Apuani, while 
his colleague was equally successful against the 
Ingauni. He was carried off by the great I 
pestilence which devastated Rome in 174. (Liv. 
xxxix. 40, 46, xli. 21.)— 5. C, praetor 132, and j 
consul 129. In his consulship he carried on j 
war against the Iapydes in Illyricum, over I 
whom he gained a victory chiefly through the , 
military skill of his legate, D. Junius Brutus. 
Tuditanus was an orator and a historian, and j 
in both obtained considerable distinction. 
(Veil. Pat. ii. 4 ; App. B. C. i. 19, Illyr. 10 ; 
Cic. Brut. 25; Dionys. i. 11.) 

Tulcis, a river on the E. coast of Spain, near 
Tarraco (Mel. ii. 6). 

Tulingi, a people of Gaul of no great import- 
ance, who dwelt on the Rhine between the Rau- 
raci and the Helvetii. 

TulHa, the name of the two daughters of 
Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome. 
[Tullius.] 

Tullia, frequently called by the diminutive 
Tulliola, was the daughter of M. Cicero and 
Terentia, and was probably born B.C. 79 or 78. 
She was betrothed in 67 to C. Calpurnius Piso 
Frugi, whom she married in 63 during the 
consulship of her father. During Cicero's 
banishment Tullia lost her first husband. She 
was married again in 56 to Furius Crassipes, a 
young man of rank and large property; but 
she did not live with him long, though the time 
and the reason of her divorce are alike unkown. 
In 50 she was married to her third husband, P. 
Cornelius Dolabella, who was a thorough pro- 
fligate. The marriage took place during 
Cicero's absence in Cilicia, and, as might have 
laeen anticipated, was not a happy one. On the 
breaking out of the Civil war in 49, the husband 
and the father of Tullia espoused opposite 
sides. While Dolabella fought for Caesar, and 
Cicero took refuge in the camp of Pompey, 
Tullia remained in Italy. On the 19th of May, 
49, she was delivered of a seven months' child, 
which died soon afterwards. After the battle 
of Pharsalia, Dolabella returned to Rome ; but 
he continued to lead a dissolute and profligate 



life, and at length (46) a diyorce took place by 
mutual consent. At the beginning of 45 Tullia 
was delivered of a son. As soon as she was 
sufficiently recovered to bear the fatigues of a 
journey, she accompanied her father to Tuscu- 
lum, but she died there in February. Her loss 
was a severe blow to Cicero. (See Index to 
Cicero.) Among the many consolatory letters 
which he received on the occasion is the well- 
known one from the celebrated jurist Serv. 
Sulpicius (ad Fam. iv. 5). To dissipate his 
grief, Cicero drew up a treatise on Consolation. 

Tullia Gens, patrician and plebeian. The 
patrician Tullii were one of the Alban houses 
which were transplanted to Rome in the reign 
of Tullus Hostilius. The patrician branch of 
the gens appears to have become extinct at an 
early period, for after the early times of the 
republic no one of the name occurs for some 
centuries, and the Tullii of a later age are not 
only plebeians, but, with the exception of their 
bearing the same name, cannot be regarded as 
having any connexion with the ancient gens. 
The first plebeian Tullius who rose to the 
honours of the state was M. Tullius Decula, 
consul B.C. 81, and the next was the celebrated 
orator M. Tullius Cicero. [Cicebo.] 

Tullianum. [Roma, p. 814.] 

Tullius Servius, according to the legends, 
the sixth king of Rome. The stories about his 
reign merely express the popular idea of the 
original growth of the constitution, and as he 
embodies a great part of this growth, the 
history of which was lost, he is represented as a 
king with a peaceful reign, devoted to legisla- 
tion and to public works in the city, but also to 
military organisation. The legendary account 
states that his mother, Ocrisia, was one of 
the captives taken at Corniculum, and became 
a slave of Tanaquil, the wife of Tarquinius 
Priscus (Dionys. iv. 2 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 625). He 
was born in the king's palace, and notwith- 
standing his servile origin was brought up as 
the king's son, since Tanaquil by her powers of 
divination had foreseen the greatness of the 
child; and Tarquinius gave him his daughter 
in marriage, and entrusted him with the govern- 
ment. His rule was mild and beneficent, and 
so popular did he become that the sons of 
Ancus Marcius, fearing lest they should be 
deprived of their inheritance, procured the 
assassination of Tarquinius. [Tarquinius.] 
They did not, however, reap the fruit of their 
crime, for Tanaquil, pretending that the king's 
wound was not mortal, told the people that Tar- 
quinius had commanded Servius meantime to 
discharge the duties of the kingly office. Servius 
began to act as king ; and when the death of 
Tarquinius could no longer be concealed, he 
was already in firm possession of the royal 
power. The great deeds of Servius were deeds 
of peace, and he was regarded by posterity as 
the author of all their civil rights and institu- 
tions, just as Numa was of their religious rites 
and ordinances. Three important events are as- 
signed to Servius by tradition. First, he gave 
a new constitution to the Roman state. The 
two main objects of this constitution were to 
give the plebs political independence, and to 
assign to property that influence in the state 
which had previously belonged to birth exclu- 
sively. In order to carry his purpose into 
effect, Servius made a twofold division of the 
Roman people, one territorial, and the other 
according to property. For details, see Diet, of 
Antiq. art. Comitia. Secondly, he was credited 
with the extension of the pomerium, or boun- 



TULLIUS 



TURN US 



977 



clary of Rome, and with the completion of the 
' Servian ' city by incorporating with it the 
Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills and its 
fortification. [Roma, p. 798.] Thirdly, he estab- 
lished an important alliance with the Latins, 
by which Rome and the cities of Latium 
became the members of one great league. 
By his new constitution Servius incurred the 
hostility of the patricians, who conspired against 
him with L. Tarquinius. Servius, soon after 
his succession, had given his two daughters 
in marriage to the two sons of Tarquinius 
Priscus. L. Tarquinius the elder was mar- 
ried to a gentle wife ; Aruns, the younger, 
to an aspiring and ambitious woman. On 
the other hand, Lucius was proud and haughty, 
but Aruns unambitious and quiet. The wife 
of Aruns, fearing that her husband would 
tamely resign the sovereignty to his elder 
brother, resolved to destroy both her father 
and her husband. She persuaded Lucius to 
murder his wife, and she murdered her own 
husband ; and the survivors straightway married. 
Tullia now urged her husband to murder her 
father. A conspiracy was formed with the discon- 
tented patricians, and Tarquinius having entered 
the senate-house arrayed in the kingly robes, 
ordered the senators to be summoned to him as 
their king. At the first news of the commo- 
tion, Servius hastened to the senate-house, and, 
standing at the doorway, ordered! Tarquinius to 
come down from the throne. Tarquinius 
sprang forward, seized the old man, and Hung 
him down the steps. The king sought refuge 
in his house, but before he reached it, he was 
overtaken by the servants of Tarquinius, and 
murdered. Tullia drove to the senate-house, 
and greeted her husband as king ; and as she 
was returning, her charioteer pulled up, and 
showed her the corpse of her father lying across 
the road. She commanded him to drive on : 
the blood of her father spirted over the 
carriage and on her dress; and from that day 
forward the street bore the name of the Vicus 
Sceleratus, or Wicked Street. Servius had 
reigned forty-four years. (Liv. i. 42-40 ; 
Dionys. iv. 2-12 ; Cic. dc Rep. ii. 21 ; Ov. Fast. 
vi. 581.) 
Tullius Tiro. [Trao.] 

Tullum {Tout), the capital of the Leuci, a 
people in the SE. of Gallia Belgica, between 
the Matrona and Mosella (Ptol. ii. 9, 13). 

Tullus HostillUS, third king of Rome, is said 
to have been the grandson of Hostus Hostilius, 
who fell in battle against the Sabines in the 
reign of Romulus (Liv. i. 12, 22; Plin. xvi. 11). 
His legend ran as follows. Tullus Hostilius 
departed from the peaceful ways of Numa, 
and aspired to the martial renown of Romulus. 
He made Alba acknowledge Rome's supremacy 
in the war wherein the three Roman brothers, 
the Horatii, fought with the three Alban 
brothers, the Curiatii, at the Fossa Cluilia. 
[HoBatta Genb.] Next he warred with Fidenae 
and with Veii, and being Btraitly pressed by 
their joint hosts, he vowed temples to Pallor 
and Pavor — Paleness and Panic. After the 
fight was won, he tore asunder with chariots 
Mettius Fufetius, the king or dictator of Alba, 
because he had desired to betray Rome ; and 
he utterly destroyed Alba, sparing only the 
temples of the gods, and bringing the Alban 
people to Rome, where he gave them the 
Caelian hill to dwell on. Then he turned 
himself to war with tin- Sabine* ; and being 
again straitened in fight in a wood called 
the Wicked Wood, he vowed a yearly festival 



j to Saturn and Ops, and to double the number 
! of the Salii, or priests of Mamers. And when, 
by their help, he had vanquished the Sabines, 
j he performed his vow, and its records were the 
i feasts Saturnalia and Opalia. In his old age, 
; Tullus grew weary of warring ; and when a 
! pestilence struck him and his people, and a 
shower of burning stones fell from heaven on 
! Mt. Alba, and a voice as of the Alban gods came 
forth from the solitary temple of Jupiter on its 
summit, he remembered the peaceful and happy 
days of Numa, and sought to win the favour of 
the gods, as Numa had done, by prayer and divi- 
nation. But the gods heeded neither his prayers 
nor his charms, and when he would inquire of 
Jupiter Elicius, Jupiter was wroth, and smote 
Tullus and his whole house with fire. — It has 
been remarked that Tullus Hostilius is in the 
legends a sort of double of Romulus. Each adds 
another people to Rome, one the Sabines, the 
] other the Albans ; each has a war with a Jlettius. 
j His story seems to have grown out of a double 
set of legends, explaining the origin of certain 
! names, and the growth of the city. But 
another reign was imagined to fill up a gap 
in the chronology and Hostus Hostilius, the 
' general of the Romulus legend, reappears as the 
king Tullus Hostilius, who is represented as his 
grandson. 

Tunes, or Tunis (Tvvris, Twis : Twriadlos : 
Tunis), a strongly fortified city of N. Africa, 
stood at the bottom of the Carthaginian gulf, 
1 ten miles SW. of Carthage, at the mouth of the 
little river Catada. At the time of Augustus it 
l had greatly declined. (Strab. p. 834 ; Pol. xiv. 
10 ; Liv. xxx. 9.) 

Tungri, a German people who crossed the 
Rhine, and settled in Gaul in the country 
formerly occupied by the Aduatici and the 
Eburones. Their chief town was called Adua- 
taca or Atuataca Tungrorum I Tongem), on 
the road from Castellum Morinorum to Colonia 
Agrippina. (Tac. Germ. 2, Hist. iv. 55, 79.) 
Turba. [Bigerriones.] 

Turdetani, the most numerous people in His- 
pania Baetica, dwelt in the S. of the province 
on both banks of the Baetis as far as Lusitania. 
They were regarded as the most civilised people 
| in all Spain, having a written code of laws. 
' Their country was called Turdetania. (Strab. 
pp. 186, 139, 151 ; Pol. xxxiv. 9 ; Diod. v. 83.) 

Tuxduli, a people in Hispania Baetica, situ- 
ated to the E. and S. of the Turdetani (Strab. 
I p. 139; Pol. xxxiv. 9). 

Turia or Turium {Guadalaviar), a river on 
the E. coast of Spain, flowing into the sea at 
j Valentia, memorable for the battle fought on 
its banks between Pompey and Sertorius 
(Hut. Pomp. 18, Sert. 19; Plin. iii. 20). 

Turiasso iTuriassonensis : Tarrazona), a 
town of the Celtiberi in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
on the road from CaesaraugUHta to Numantia. 
j It possessed a fountain the water of which was 
! said to be very excellent for hardening iron. 
(Plin. iii. 24, xxxiv. 114.) 

Turnus (Tvpvos). 1. Son of Daunus and 
Vi nilia, and king of the Rutuli at the time of 
the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. He was a 
brother of Juturna, and related to Amata, the 
| wife of king Latinus ; and he fought against 
Aeneas, because Latinus had given to the 
Trojan hero his daughter Lavinia, who had 
I been previously promised to Turnus. He ap- 
pear* in the Aeneid as a brave- warrior; but in 
tli. end he fell by the hand of Aeneas. (Verg. 
Aen. vii. 40H, x. 76, xii. 408, 92(5; Liv. i. 2.) The 
name of Turnus is nut improbably connected 

8 R 



978 



TURNUS 



TYLE 



with Tyrrhenus, and in the legends he is allied 
with the Etruscan Mezentius. It is likely that 
the story of his battles represents the struggle 
of the Latin Confederation against an Etruscan 
power which was at that period settled at 
Ardea and Terracina. — 2. A Roman satiric 
poet, was a native of Aurunca, and lived under 
Vespasian and Domitian. (Mart. vii. 97, xi. 
10 ; Sidon. ix. 216 ; Schol. ad Juv. i. 20.) The 
thirty hexameters about Nero's reign which 
have been ascribed to Turnus are a forgery of 
the seventeenth century. 
Turnus Herdonius. [Hebdonius.] 
Turones, Turoni or Turonii, a people in the 
interior of Gallia Lugdunensis, between the 
Aulerci, Andes and Pictones. Their chief town 
was Caesarodunum, subsequently Turoni 
(■Tours) on the Liger (Loire). (Gaes. B. G. ii. 
35, vii. 4, 75, viii. 46 ; Tac. Ann. iii. 41 ;< Ptol. 
ii. 8, 14.)' 

Turpilianus, P. Petronins, triumvir of the 
mint under Augustus. His name occurs- on 
several coins. 

TurpiHus, Sextus, a Roman dramatist, who 
rendered Greek plays of the New Comedy in 
Latin. The titles of thirteen or fourteen of his 
plays have been preserved, together with a few 
fragments (ed. Ribbeck, Com. Lat.). He died, 
when very old, at Sinuessa in B.C. 101 (Hieron. 
ad Euseb. Chron. 1914). 

Turpio, L. Ambivius, a celebrated actor in 
the time of Terence, in most of whose plays he 
acted (Cic. de Sen. 14 ; Tac. Dial. 14). 

Turris Hannibalis (Bourj Salehtah, Ru.), a 
castle on the coast of Byzacena, between Thap- 
sus and Acholla, belonging to Hannibal, who 
embarked here when he fled to Antiochus the 
Great (Liv. xxxiii. 48 ; Just. xxxi. 2). 

Turris Stratonis. [Caesabea, No. 8.] 

Tuscania (Tuscaniensis : Toscanella), a town 
of Etruria, on the river Marta, rarely mentioned 
by ancient writers (Plin. iii. 52), but celebrated 
in modern times on account of the great number 
of Etruscan antiquities which have been dis- 
covered in its tombs. Among these are the in- 
scribed dice upon which some of the arguments 
about the origin of the Etruscan language have 
been based 

Tusci, Tuscia. [Eteueia.] 

Tusculum (Tusculanus : nr. Frascati, Ru.), 
an ancient town of Latium, situated about ten 
miles SE.of Rome, on a lofty summit of the 
mountains, which are called after the town 
Tusculani Montes, and which are a continu- 
ation of Mons Albanus. Tusculum was one of 
the most strongly fortified places in all Italy, 
both by nature and by art. It is said to have 
been founded by Telegonus, the son of Odysseus 
(Dionys. iv. 45 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 91, iv. 71 ; Pro- 
pert, iii. 30, 4 ; Hor. Od. iii. 29, 8, Fpod. i. 30) ; 
and it was always one of the most important of 
the Latin towns. 'Its importance in the time 
of the Roman kings is shown in the legends by 
Tarquinius Superbus giving his daughter in 
marriage to Octavius Mamilius, the chief of 
Tusculum (Liv. i. 49), and it was his place of 
refuge after his expulsion from Rome (Liv. ii. 
15, 18). The Tusculans are represented as 
friendly to Rome after this war (Liv. iii. 7, 18, 
iv. 45) until the Latin war. After the Latin 
war it became a Roman municipium, and was 
the birthplace of several distinguished Roman 
families. Cato the Censor was a native of Tus- 
culum. Its proximity to Rome, its salubrity, 
and the beauty of its situation made it a 
favourite residence of the Roman nobles during 
the summer (Strab. p. 239). Cicero, among 



others, had a favourite villa at this place, which 
he frequently mentions under the name of 
Tusculanum, probably on the W. side, near La 
Rurinella. The ruins of ancient Tusculum are 
situated on the summit of the mountain about 
two miles above Frascati, on the ridge, which is 
really the rim of an ancient crater. The site of 
the citadel is a platform 2700 feet in circum- 
ference, and 200 feet above the rest of the 
ridge. The town itself lay W. of the citadel, 
where remains of a theatre and other buildings 
exist. There are remains of an amphitheatre 
between this spot and Frascati. Frascati itself 
stands on the supposed site of the villa of 
Lucullus. It was occupied as a settlement 
by the surviving inhabitants of Tusculum after 
that city was sacked and destroyed by tjie 
Romans in 1191 a.d. 

'Tuticanus, a Roman poet and a friend of 
Ovid, who had translated into Latin verse a 
portion of the Odyssey relating to Phaeacia 
(Ov. Pont. iv. 12 ; cf. iv. 16, 27). 

Tyana (Tvava : Tvavsvs : Kiz Hisar, Ru.), a 
city of Asia Minor, stood in the S. of Cappa- 
docia, at the N. foot of M. Taurus, on the high 
road to the Cilician Gates, 300 stadia from Cy- 
bistra, and 400 from Mazaca, in a position of 
great natural strength, which was improved by 
fortifications (Strab. pp. 537, 587 ; Ptol. v. 6, 
18). Under Caracalla it was made a Roman 
colony. In B.C. 272 it was taken by Aurelian, 
in the war with Zenobia, to whose territory it 
then belonged. Valens made it the chief city 
of Cappadocia Secunda. (Vopisc. Aurel. 22 ; 
Hierocl. p. 700.) In its neighbourhood was a 
great temple of Jupiter, by the side of a lake in 
a swampy plain ; and near the temple was a 
remarkable effervescing spring called Asma- 
baeon (Philostr. Apoll. i. 4; Amm. Marc, 
xxiii. 6). Tyana was the native place of Apol- 
lonius, the supposed worker of miracles. 
[Apollonius.] The S. district of Cappadocia, 
in which the city stood, was called Tyanltis. 

Tyche. [Fobtuna.] 

Tyche. [Sykacusae.] 

Tydeus (TvSevs), son of Oeneus, king of Caly- 
don, and Periboea. He was obliged to leave 
Calydon in consequence of some murder which 
he had committed. Some say that he killed 
his father's brother, Melas, Lycopeus, or Alca- 
thous ; others that he slew Thoas or Aphareus, 
his mother's brother; others that he slew his 
brother Olenias ; and others again that he killed 
the sons of Melas, who had revolted against 
Oeneus. He fled to Adrastus at Argos, who 
purified him from the murder, and gave him his 
daughter, Dei'pyle, in marriage, by whom he 
became the father of Diomedes, who is hence 
frequently called Tydides. He accompanied 
Adrastus in the expedition against Thebes, 
where he was wounded by Melanippus, who, 
however, was slain by him. (II. xiv. 114-132.) A 
strange story is told in later authors that when 
Tydeus lay on the ground wounded, Athene 
appeared to him with a remedy which she had 
received from Zeus, and which was to make 
him immortal. . This, however, was prevented 
by a stratagem of Amphiaraus, who hated Ty- 
deus, for he cut off the head of Melanippus and 
brought it to Tydeus, who divided it and ate 
the brain, or devoured some of the flesh. 
Athene, seeing this, shuddered, and left Tydeus 
to his fate, who consequently died, and was 
buried by Macon. (Apollod. iii. 6, 8 ; Eustath. 
ad Horn. p. 1273.) 

Tyle, or Tylis (TuAtj : Tulovo ?), a town of 
Thrace, on the S. side of the Haemus, where 



TYLOS 

the Celts established a kingdom at the end of 
the 4th cent. B.C. It was occupied and destroyed 
by the Thracians at the time of the second 
Punic war. (Pol. iv. 46 ; Steph. Byz. *. v.) 

Tylos or Tyros (TvXos, Ti/pos : Bahrein), an 
island in the Persian Gulf, off the coast of 
Arabia, celebrated for its pearl fisheries (Strab. 
p. 766; Arr. An. vii. 20; Plin. vi. 148). 

Tymbres or Tembrogius (Pursek), a river of 
Phrygia, rising in M. Dindymene, and flowing 
past C'otyaeum and Dorylaeum into the San- 
garius. It was the boundary between Phrygia ; 
Epictetus and Phrygia Salutaris. (Liv. xxviii. 
18; Plin. vi. l.l 

Tynmes (Tvfivqs), an epigrammatic poet, 
whose epigrams were included in the Garland 
of Meleager, but respecting whose exact date 
we have no further evidence. There are seven 
of his epigrams in the Greek Anthology. 

Tymphaei (Tv/upcuot), a people of Epirus, on 
the borders of Thessaly, so called from Mt. 
Tymphe iTv/x<pri), sometimes, but less correctly, 
written Stymphe (2tu,u07)). Their country was 
called Tymphaea (Tv/upata). (Strab. pp. 325, 
327; Plin. iv. 6; Arr. An. i. 7.) 

Tymphrestus (Tu/«f>pTj(rnJs : Elladha), a 
mountain in Thessaly, in the country of the 
Dryopes, in which the river Spercheus rises. 

[PlNDUS.] 

Tyndareus (TvvSdpews), was son of Perieres 
and Gorgophone, or, according to another ac- 
count, son of Oebalus, by the nymph Batla or by 
Gorgophone. Tyndareus and his brother Icarius 
were expelled by their stepbrother Hippocoon 
and his sons ; whereupon Tyndareus fled to Thes- 
tius in Aetolia, and assisted him in his wars 
against his neighbours. In Aetolia Tyndareus 
married Leda, the daughter of Thestius, and 
was afterwards restored to Sparta by Heracles. 
(Apollod. iii. 10, 4; Paus. iii. 1, 4.) By Leda, 
Tyndareus became the father of Timandra, 
Clytaemnestra, and Philonoe. [For the birth of 
Castor and Pollux, and Helen, see Dioscuri, 
Helena.] The patronymic Tyndaridae is given 
to Castor and Pollux, and the female patronymic 
Tyndaris to Helen and Clytaemnestra. When 
Castor and Pollux had been received among the 
immortals, Tyndareus invited Menelaus to come 
to Sparta, and surrendered his kingdom to him. 

Tyndaris or Tyndarium iTui/Sapis, TvvSd- 
piov : Tyndaritiinus : Tindaro). a town on the 
N. coast of Sicily, with a good harbour, a little 
W. of Messana, near the promontory of the 
same name, founded by the elder Dionysius, 
B.C. 396, which became an important place 
(Diod. xiv. 78, xvi. 69; Pol. i. 25; Cic. Verr. 
iii. 43, iv. 89). It was the headquarters of 
Agrippa, the general of Octavian, in the war 
against Sex. Pompeius. (App. B.C. v. 105, 101), 
116 ; Strab. p. 272.) 

Typaneae (Tuiravfai), a town of Triphylia in 
Elis, which was taken by Philip in the Social 
war (Strab. p. 348 ; Pol. iv. 77). 

Typhon or Typhoeus ITv^duv, TvQaievs, con- 
tracted into Tucpwi), a monster of the primitive 
world, who was the embodiment in myth of 
volcanoes and earthquakes, i.e. of the fire and 
steam ejected from the earth in volcanic 
countries, and of the convulsions and Htorms 
which accompany volcanic disturbances. Hence 
Typhoeus, or Typhon, in represented some- 
times as a fire-breathing giant, sometimes as a 
hurricane. His dwelling, or prison-house, 
though differently placed in different writers 
is always in a region at one time volcanic. 
According to Homer, hr was < oik ruled in 
the earth in the country of the Arimi (tlv 



TYRANNION 



979 



'Apifiois, of which the Latin poets have made 
Inarime), on which Zeus cast lightning (II. 
ii. 782.) In Hesiod, Typhoeus (or Typhaon) 
is the youngest son of Tartarus and Gaea (the 
Earth), and by Echidna he became the father 
of the dog Orthus, Cerberus, the Lernaean 
hydra, and the Chimaera. He is described 
as a monster with 100 heads, fearful eyes, 
and terrible voices ; he aimed at the sove- 
reignty of gods and men, but was subdued, 
after a fearful struggle, by Zeus, with a thun- 
derbolt. He begot also the winds, whence he 
is also called the father of the Harpies : but the 
beneficent winds Notus, Boreas, Argestes, and 
Zephyi-us, were not his sons. (Hes. Th. 306- 
325, 821-880.) Other accounts made him also 
the father of the Sphinx and the Nemean lion 
(Apollod. ii. 3, 1, iii. 5, 8), as though the more 
terrible monsters were born from the Earth and 
the subterranean fires. Aeschylus and Pindar 
describe him as living in a Cilician cave (Pind. 
Ol. iv. 7, Pyth. i. 15, viii. 16; Aesch. Prom. 
351). He is further said to have at one time 
been engaged in a struggle with all the immor- 
tals, and to have been killed by Zeus with a 
flash of lightning ; he was buried in Tartarus 
under Mount Aetna, the workshop of Hephaes- 
tus, winch is hence called by the poets Typhois 
Aetna (Aesch. I.e. ; Pind. Pyth. 15-27; Ov. 
Her. xv. 11, Fast. iv. 491). A myth related in 
Apollod. i. 6, 3, and Schol. ad II. ii. 783 (but 
alluded to in Hymn, ad Apoll. Pyth. 153, and 
Stesich. Fr. 60) represents Typhoeus as born 
from Hera alone, in her wrath with Zeus, or 
from an egg which she placed under the moun- 
tains of the Arimi — a myth which resembles 
the stories of the hatching of dragon's eggs in 
northern legends. Another representation of 
I Typhon comes from Egypt, and identifies him 
with Set, the power of darkness (represented in 
serpent or crocodile form;, who slew Osiris 
i (Hdt. ii. 156, iii. 5). The gods, it is said, unable 
{ to hold out against him, fled to Egypt, where, 
from fear, they metamorphosed themselves 
into animals, with the exception of Zeus and 
I Athene (Ov. Met. v. 321 ; Ant. Lib. 28 ; Apollod. 
! i- 6, 3). 

Tyragetae, Tyrigetae, or Tyrangetae, a 

people in European Sarmatia, probably a 
branch of the Getae, dwelling E. of the river 

! Tyras (Strab. p. 289; Ptol. iii. 5, 25). 

Tyrannion {tvpavviiav). 1. A Greek gram- 
marian, a native of Amisus in Pontus, was 
originally called Theophrastus, but received from 
his instructor the name of Tyrannion on account 
of his domineering behaviour to his fellow-dis- 
ciples. In B.C. 72 he was taken captive by 
Lucullus, who carried him to Rome. He was 

I given by Lucullus to Murena, who manumitted 
him. At Rome Tyrannion occupied himself in 
teaching. He was also employed in arranging 
the library of Apellicon, which Sulla brought 

I to Rome. This library contained the writings 
of Aristotle, upon which Tyrannion bestowed 

[ considerable care and attention. Cicero speaks 
in the highest terms of the learning and ability 
of Tyrannion, and Strabo speaks of having 
attended his lectures, which must have been at 

I Rome when Tyrannion was an old man. Tj - 
rannion amassed considerable wealth, and died 
at a very advanced age of a paralytic stroke. 

d'lut. LueuU. 19, Sum. 28; dead All. ii. 6, iv. 
I, ad Q. Fr. ii. 4 ; Strab. p. 548; Ahistoteles.) 
— 2. A native of Phoenicia, the son of Artemi- 
dorus, and a disciple of the preceding. His 
original name was Diodes. Hs was taken cap- 
tive in the war between Antony and Octavian, 

3 ii 2 



980 



TYRAS 



TYRUS 



and was purchased by Dymas, a freedman of 
the emperor. By him he was presented to 
Terentia, the wife of Cicero, who manumitted 
him. He taught at Rome, and wrote a great 
number of works, which are all lost. (Suid. s.v.). 

Tyras (Tvpas, Tvprjs : Dniester), subsequently 
called Danastris, a river in European Sarma- 
tia, forming in the lower part of its course 
the boundary between Dacia and Sarmatia, and 
falling into the Pontus Euxinus, N. of the 
Danube. At its mouth there was a town of the 
same name, probably on the site of the modern 
Ackjermanii. The town was originally Greek, 
founded by Miletus. It was joined to the pro- 
vince of Moesia by Nero, B.C. 56, but it was 
given up by Maximinus to the Goths in 237, 
under whom it became a centre of piracy. (Hdt. 
iv. 51 ; Ptol. iii. 5, 17 ; Zosim. i. 42 ; Strab. p. 107.) 

Tyriaeum (Tvpiatou : Ilghin), a city of Lyca- 
onia, described by Xenophon (in the Anabasis) 
as twenty parasangs W. of Iconium. It lay 
due W. of Laodicea. (Xen. An, i. 2, 24 ; Strab. 
p. 663.) 

Tyro (Tupco), daughter of Salmoneus and Al- 
cidice. She was wife of Cretheus, and beloved 
by the river-god Enipeus in Thessaly, in whose 
form Poseidon appeared to her, and became by 
her the father of Pelias and Neleus. By Cre- 
theus she was the mother of Aeson, Pheres, and 
Amythaon. (Od. xi. 235 ; Apollod. i. 9, 8.) 

Tyrrheni, Tyrrhenla. [Etbubia.] 

Tyrrhenum Mare. [Et'bueia.] 

Tyrrhenus (Tvpp-qvSs orTvpo-nv6s), son of the 
Lydian king Atys and Callithea, and brother of 
Lydus, is said to have led a Pelasgian colony 
from Lydia into Italy, into the country of the 
Umbrians, and to have given to the colonists 
his name, Tyrrhenians (Hdt. iv. 94 ; Dionys. i. 
27). Other traditions call Tyrrhenus a son of 
Heracles by Omphale, or of Telephus and 
Hiera, and a brother of Tarchon (Dionys. i. 28 ; 
Tzetz. ad Lye. 1242.) 

TyrrheUS, a shepherd of king Latinus. As 
Ascanius was hunting, he killed a tame stag 
belonging to Tyrrheus, whereupon the country 
people took up arms, which was the first con- 
flict in Italy between the natives and the Tro- 
jan settlers. (Verg. Aen. vii. 483, ix. 28.) 

Tyrtaeus (Tvpraios or Tvprcuos), described as 
the son of Archembrotus, of Aphidnae in Attica, 
in the seventh century introduced the Ionic elegy 
into Sparta. According to the older tradition, the 
Spartans during the second Messenian war were 
commanded by an oracle to take a leader from 
among the Athenians, and thus to conquer 
their enemies, whereupon they chose Tyrtaeus 
as their leader. (Plato, de Legg. i. p. 629 ; 
Lycurg. c. Leoch. p. 211 ; Diod. xv. 66.) Later 
writers state that Tyrtaeus was a lame school- 
master, of low family and reputation, whom the 
Athenians, when applied to by the Lacedaemo- 
nians in accordance with the oracle, purposely 
sent as the most inefficient leader they could 
select, being unwilling to assist the Lacedaemo- 
nians in extending their dominion in the Pelo- 
ponnesus, but little thinking that the poetry of 
Tyrtaeus would achieve that victory which his 
physical constitution seemed to forbid his 
aspiring to (Paus. iv. 15, 3 ; Just. iii. 5 ; Themist. 
xv. p. 242 ; Schol. ad Hor. A. P. 402). The 
poems of Tyrtaeus exercised an important 
influence upon the Spartans, quieting their 
dissensions at home, and animating their cou- 
rage in the field. In order to appease their 
civil discords, he composed his celebrated elegy 
entitled Legal Order (Evyofiia : Ar. Pol. v. 7, 
1 ; Paus. iv. 18, 2). But still more celebrated 



were the poems by which he animated the 
courage of the Spartans in their conflict with 
the Messenians. These poems were of two 
kinds : namely, elegies, containing exhortations, 
to constancy and courage, and descriptions of 
the glory of fighting bravely for one's native 
land ; and more spirited compositions, in the 
anapaestic measure, which were intended as 
marching songs, to be performed with the music 
of the flute. (Paus. iv. 14, 1 ; Athen. p. 630 ; 
Plut. Cleom. 2 ; Hor. A. P. 402 ; Suid. s. v.) 
He lived, it is said, to see the success of his 
efforts in the entire conquest of the Messenians, 
and their reduction to the condition of Helots. 
His life therefore lasted down to B.C. 668, which 
was the last year of the second Messenian war. 
It has been observed that Tyrtaeus in a frag- 
ment of the Eunomia seems to speak of him- 
self as a Lacedaemonian, and though this might 
be explained by his having been made a citizen 
of Sparta, yet Hdt. ix. 35 does not include him 
among the few foreigners who became Spartan 
citizens. Hence some (following Strab. p. 36'2) 
have doubted the truth of his Athenian origin. 
On the other hand, there is so strong a consen- 
sus of ancient authorities, including Plato (I.e.), 
for his Athenian origin that it can hardly be 
resisted. — The fragments of his poems are 
edited by Bach, with the remains of the elegiac 
poets Callinus and Asius, Lips. 1831, and in 
Bergk's Poet. Lyr. Graec. 1866. 

Tyrus (Tvpos: Aram. Tura ; O. T. Tsor: 
Tvpios, Tyrlus : Sur, Ru.), one of the greatest 
and most famous cities of the ancient world, 
stood on the coast of Phoenice, about twenty 
miles S. of Sidon. It was a colony of the Sido- 
nians, but gradually eclipsed the mother city, 
and came to be the chief place of all Phoenice 
for wealth, commerce, and colonising activity. 
Respecting its colonies and maritime enter- 
prise, see Phoenice and Cabthago. The 
Assyrian king Shalmaneser laid siege to Tyre 
for five years, but without success. It was 
again besieged for thirteen years by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and there is a tradition that he took it, 
but the matter is not quite certain. At the 
period when the Greeks began to be well ac- 
quainted with the city, its old site had been 
abandoned, and a new city erected on a small 
island about half a mile from the shore and a 
mile in length, and a little N. of the remains of 
the former city, which was now called Old Tyre 
(YlaAairvpos). This island, which Pliny esti- 
mated at 2f miles in circumference, was sepa- 
rated from the mainland by a channel ^ of a 
mile broad (Strab. p. 756), or, according to 
Diodorus and Curtius, 4 stadia (Diod. xvii. 60 ; 
Curt. iv. 2). At present the breadth is only J 
of a mile. With the additional advantage of its 
insular position, this new city soon rose to 
a prosperity scarcely less than that of its 
predecessor ; though, under the Persian kings, 
it seems to have ranked again below Sidon. 
[Sidon.] There were two harbours : one on the 
N. of the island, known as the Sidonian harbour, 
the other on the S. side, known as the Egyptian 
harbour (Arr. An. ii. 20 ; Strab. I.e.), the names 
expressing the direction in which they faced. 
In B.C. 322 the Tyrians refused to open their 
gates to Alexander, who laid siege to the city 
for seven months, and united the island on 
which it stood to the mainland by a mole con- 
structed chiefly of the ruins of Old Tyre. This 
mole has ever since formed a permanent 
connexion between the island and the main- 
land. (Arr. ii. 17-26; Curt. iv. 4-27; Diod. 
xvii. 40-45.) After its capture and sack by 



TZETZES 



ULPIANUS 



981 



Alexander, Tyre never regained its former con- 
sequence, and its commerce was for the most 
part transferred to Alexandria. It was subject 
to the Syrian kings, but became a free city with 
its own coinage in 126 B.C., and till the time of 
Augustus, when it lost its independence (Dio 
Cass. liv. 7). Septimius Severus made it a 
Roman colony. It was the see of a bishop, and 
Jerome calls it the most beautiful city of Phoe- 
nicia. It was a place of considerable importance 
in mediaeval history, especially as one of the last 
points held by the Christians on the coast of 
Syria. The wars of the Crusades completed its 
ruin, and its site is now occupied by a poor vil- 




Coin of Tyre, after 126 B.C., in its period of independence. 
Obc, head of Heracles; rev., typoy iepai km 
asyaoy : eagle on rudder. 



lage ; and even its ruins are for the most part 
covered by the sea. 

Tzetzes (tCct^s). 1. Joannes, a Greek 
grammarian of Constantinople, nourished about 
a.d. 1150. His writings bear evident traces of 
the extent of his learning, and not less of the 
inordinate self-conceit with which they had 
filled him. He wrote a vast number of works, 
of which several are still extant. Of these the 
two following are the most important: (1) 
Iliaca, which consists properly of three poems 
collected into one under the titles To trpb 
'Ofjdipou, ra 'Ofirtpou, koI ra /x(8' "0/J.i]pov. The 
whole amounts to 1C76 lines, and is written in 
hexameter metre. It is a very dull composition. 
Edited by Bekker, Berlin, 1816. (2) Chiliades, 
consisting in its present form of 12,661 lines. 
This name was given to it by the first editor, 
who divided it, without reference to the contents, 
into thirteen divisions of 1000 lines, the last 
being incomplete. Its subject-matter is of the 
most miscellaneous kind, but embraces chiefly 
mythological and historical narratives, arranged 
under separate titles, and without any further 
connexion. The following are a few of them, 
as they occur : Croesus, Midas, Gyges, Codrus, 
.'Ylcmaeon, &c. It is written in bad Greek, and 
in the metre called political verse. Neverthe- 
less his writings are valuable for their informa- 
tion about ancient legends and myths, which he 
derived from works no longer extant. Edited 
by Kiessling, Lips. 1826. — 2. Isaac, brother of 
the preceding, the author of a valuable com- 
mentary on the CnsHii mlra of Lvcnphron. The 
commentary is printed in most of the editions 
of Lycophron. 

Tzitzis orTzutzis (Barambram i, a city in the 
N. of the Dodecoschoenus — that is, the part of 
Aethiopia immediately above Egypt — S. of 
I'hilae, and N. of Taphia. 



U. 

Ubli, a German people, who originally dwelt 
on the right bank of the Rhine, but were trans- 
ported across the river by Agrippa in B.C. 87, at 
their own request, because they wished to 



| escape the hostilities of the Suevi £Caes. B. G. 
i iv. 3, 18, vi. 29 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 27, Hist. iv. 28, 
f Germ. 28 ; Suet. Aug. 21 ; Strab. p. 194). They 
took the name of Agrippenses, from their town 

CoLONIA AGBJPPINA. 

TJcalegon \OvKa\iyau), one of the elders at 
Troy, whose house was burnt at the destruction 
of the city (II. iii. 147; Verg. Aen. ii. 312). 
Hence in ' Proxhnus ardet TJcalegon' Juvenal 
uses Ins name for the neighbour whose house is 
on fire (iii. 199). 

Ucubis, a town in Hispania Baetica, near 
Corduba {Bell. Hisp. 1). 

TJfens (Uffente), a river in Latium, flowing 
from the Volscian hills past Setia, through the 
Pontine JIarshes, with a sluggish stream, into 
the Amasenus (Verg. Aen. vii. 801 ; Sil. It. viii. 
3821. 

Uffugum, a town in Bruttium, between Scyl- 
lacium and Rhegium. 

Ugernum (Beaucaire), a town in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, on the road from Nemausus to Aquae 
Sextiae, where Avitus was proclaimed emperor 
(Strab. p. 178). 

Ulia lMuitte»tuyor),SL Roman municipium in 
Hispania Baetica, situated upon a hill and upon 
the road from Gades to Corduba (Strab. p. 141). 

Uliarus or Olarionensis Insula (Oleron), an 
island off the W. coast of Gaul, in the Aquita- 
nian Gulf (Plin. iv. 109). 

Ulpianus. 1. Domitius TJlpiamis, a cele- 
brated jurist, derived his origin from Tyre in 
Phoenicia, but was probably not a native of 
Tyre himself. The time of his birth is un- 
known. The greater part of his juristical works 
was written during the reign of Caracalla, 
especially the two great works Ad Edictum 
and the Libri ad Sabinum. He was banished 
or deprived of his functions under Elagabalus, 
who became emr>eror in 217 ; but on the accession 
of Alexander Severus, 222, he became the em- 
peror's chief adviser. The emperor conferred 
on Ulpian the office of scriniorum magister, and 
made him a eonsiliarius. He also held the office 
of praefectus annonae, and he was likewise 
made praefectus praetorio. (Lamprid. Elagab. 
16, 4, Alex. Sev. 26, 5.) Ulpian perished in 
the reign of Alexander by the hands of the 
soldiers, who forced their way into the palace at 
night, and killed him in the presence of the 
emperor and his mother (228). (Dio Cass. lxxx. 
2 ; Zosim. i. 11.) His promotion to the office 
of praefectus praetorio was probably an un- 
popular measure. A great part of the numerous 
writings of Ulpian was still extant in the time 
of Justinian, and a much greater quantity is 
excerpted from him by the compilers of the 
Digest than from any other jurist. The num- 
ber of excerpts from Ulpian is said to be 2462 ; 
and many of the excerpts are of great length, 
and altogether they form about one-third of the 
whole body of the Digest. [Diet, of Ant. art. 
Pandectae.] The excerpts from Paulus and 
Ulpian together make about one half of the 
Digest. Ulpian's style is perspicuous, and 
presents fewer difficulties than that of many 
of the Roman jurists who are excerpted in 
the Digest. The great legal knowledge, the 
good sense, and the industry of Ulpian place 
him among the first of the Roman jurists, and 
he has exercised a great influence on the juris- 
prudence of modern Europe, through the 
copious extracts from his writings which have 
been preserved by the compilers of Justinian's 
Digest. We possess a fragment of a work under 
under the title of Dmiiilii l'1/iimii Frngmenta; 
it is an abridgment of Ulpian's Liber Singu- 



982 ULPIUS 

lar is Regular um. Edition by Booking, Bonn, 
1855. Also a small fragment of his Insti- 
tutiones, included in Huschke's Jurisprud. 
Antejust. — 2. Of Antioch, a sophist, lived in 
the time of Constantine the Great, and wrote 
several rhetorical works. 

Ulpius Trajanus. [Trajanus.] 

Ultor, ' the avenger,' a surname of Mars, to 
whom Augustus built a temple at Rome in the 
Forum, after taking vengeance upon the mur- 
derers of Julius Caesar. [Roma, p. 807.] 

Ulubrae (Ulubranus, Ulubrensis), a small 
town in Latium, of uncertain site, but in the 
neighbourhood of the Pontine Marshes. 

Ulysses. [Odysseus.] 

Umbria, called by the Greeks Ombrica (fj 
'OfxfipiKr\), a district of Italy, bounded on the 
N. by Gallia Cisalpina, from which it was 
separated by the river Rubicon ; on the E. by 
the Adriatic sea; on the S. by Picenum, from 
which it was separated by the river Aesis, 
and by the land of the Sabines, from which 
it was separated by the river Nar ; and 
on the W. by Etruria, from which it was 
separated by the Tiber. Under Augustus it 
formed the sixth Regio of Italy. The Apen- 
nines ran through the W. part of the country, 
but it contained many fertile plains on the 
coast. For the origin of its inhabitants, the 
Umbri, see Italia, p. 456, a. The Umbri were 
at a very early period the most powerful people 
in central Italy, and extended across the penin- 
sula from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhene seas. 
Thus they inhabited the country afterwards 
called Etruria, and we are expressly told that 
Crotona, Perusia, Clusium and other Etruscan 
cities were built by the Umbrians. They were 
afterwards deprived of their possessions W. of 
the Tiber by the Etruscans, and confined to 
the country between this river and the Adriatic. 
Their territories were still further diminished 
by the Senones, a Gallic people, who took 
possession of the whole country on the coast, 
from Ariminum to the Aesis. (Dionys. i. 19, ii. 
49 ; Liv. v. 35.) The Umbri were subdued by 
the Romans in B.C. 307 ; and after the conquest 
of the Senones by the Romans in 283, they 
again obtained possession of the country on the 
coast of the Adriatic. This district, however, 
continued to be called Ager Gallicus down to a 
late period. The chief towns of Umbria were 
Ariminum:, Fanum Fobtunae, Mevania, Tudeb, 
Narnia, and Spoletium. 

Umbro (Ombrone), one of the largest rivers 
in Etruria, falling into the Tyrrhene sea, near a 
town of the same name (Plin. iii. 51). 

Ummldius Quadratus. [Quadratus.] 

Unelli, a maritime people on the N. coast of 
Gaul, on a promontory opposite Britain (the 
modern Cotantin), belonging to the Armorici 
(Caes. B. G. ii. 34, iii. 1 ; cf. Veneti). 

Upis (Own-is). 1. A goddess of childbirth 
identified with Artemis, and hence also repre- 
sented as one of her nymphs (Callim. Hymn, 
in Dian. 240; Verg. Aen. xi. 532). 

Ur. [Edessa.] 

Urania. [Musae ; Aphrodite.] 

Uranus (OvpavSs) or Heaven, sometimes 
called a son, and sometimes the husband, of 
Gaea (Earth). By Gaea Uranus became the 
father of Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, 
Iapetus, Thia, Rhia, Themis, Mnemosyne, 
Phoebe, Tethys, Cronos; of the Cyclopes — 
Brontes, Steropes, Arges ; and of the Hecaton- 
cheires— Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes. Cicero 
mentions traditions that Uranus was also the 
father of Hermes by Dia, and of Aphrodite by 



USIPETES 

Hemera (Cic. N. D. iii. 22, 55-58). Uranus 
hated his children, and immediately after their 
birth he confined them in Tartarus, in conse- 
quence of which he was mutilated and dethroned 
by Cronos at the instigation of Gaea. Out of 
the drops of his blood sprang the Gigantes, the 
Erinyes, the Melian nymphs, and according to 
some, Silenus, and from the foam gathering 
around the part which was thrown into the sea 
sprang Aphrodite. (Hes. Th. 126-193 ; Apollod. 

i. 1 ; Serv. ad Aen. v. 801, ad Eel. vi. 18.) It 
has been remarked above [Titanes] that the 
dynasties of gods which Greek mythology 
eventually represented as preceding Zeus are 
really the deities of earlier inhabitants of Greek 
lands whom the Greeks adopted and fitted into 
their own theogony, accounting for the su- 
premacy of Zeus, the great Greek deity, by 
representing the supreme deities of primitive 
barbarous tribes as earlier races of gods. The 
savage myths attached to them are simply 
the savage superstitions of these primitive 
tribes, which, though preserved by Hesiod, are 
unnoticed by Homer, who rejects most of the 
ugly and un-Greek myths. It is suggested that 
the barbarous myth of the mutilation of Uranus 
was a savage representation of the separation 
of earth and sky, which were regarded as having 
been so joined as to cause darkness. It is said 
that the Maoris of New Zealand have a similar 
story. 

Urbigenus Pagus. [Helvetii.] 

Urblnum (Urbinas, -atis). 1. Hortense (TJr- 
bi?io), a town in Umbria and a municipium, 
situated on a steep round rock (Tac. Hist. 
iii. 62 ; Procop. B. G. ii. 29).— 2. Metaurense 
{Urbania), a town in Umbria, on the river Me- 
taurus, and not far from its source (Plin. iii. 
114). 

Urbs Salvia. [Pollentia, No. 2.] 
Urci, a town of the Bastetani in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, on the coast, and on the road 
from Castulo to Malaca (Plin. iii. 26 ; Ptol. 

ii. 6, 14).^ 

Urcinium (Ajaccio), a town on the W. coast 

of Corsica. 

Urgo or Gorgon (Gorgona), an island off the 
coast of Etruria, N. of Ilva. 

Una (Urias : Oria), called Hyria ('Tpnj) by 
Herodotus, a town in Calabria on the road from 
Brundisium to Tarentum, was the ancient 
capital of lapygia, and is said to have been 
founded by the Cretans under Minos (Hdt. vii. 
170 ; _Strab. p, 282). 

Urlum, a small town in Apulia, from which 
the Sinus Urias took its name, being the bay 
on the N. side of Mt. Garganus opposite the 
Diomedean islands. 

Urseius Ferox, one of the most eminent 
jurists in the reign of Vespasian. 

Ur30 (Osuna), a town of Hispania Baetica, 
the last refuge of the Pompeians (Strab. p. 141 ; 
App. Hisp. 16). 

Ursus, a contemporary of Domitian, whom 
he dissuaded from killing his wife, Domitia 
(Dio Cass, lxvii. 3). Statius addressed to him 
a poem of consolation on the death of a favour- 
ite slave (Silv. ii. 6), and he also mentions him 
in the Preface to the second book of his Silvae. 

Uscana, a large town in Illyria, on a tribu- 
tary of the Aous (Liv. xliii. 10). 

Usipetes or Usipli, a German people, who, 
being driven out of their abodes by the Suevi, 
crossed the Rhine and penetrated into Gaul; 
but they were defeated by Caesar, and com- 
pelled to recross the river [cf. Tencteri]. 
They were now received by the Sugambri, and. 



U STIC A 



VALENS 



985 



allowed to dwell on the X. bank of the Lippe ; Vaccaei, a people in the interior of Hispania 
but we afterwards find them S. of the Lippe ; ' Tarraconensis, occupying the modern Toro, 
and at a still later time they become lost under 1 Palencia, Burgos, and Valladolid, E. of the 
the general name of Alemanni. (Caes. B.G. iv. | Astures, S. of the Cantabri. W. of the Celtiberi 
4 ; Tac. Ann. i. 50, xiii. 54, Agr. 27.) | (Liv. xxx. 7 ; Pol. iii. 14 ; Strab. p. 152 ; Diod. 

TJstica, a valley near the Sabine villa of i v. 34 ; Plin. iii. 19). Their chief towns were 
Horace. [Hoeatius.] ; P allan tia and Tntercatia. 

TJtica {ri 'Itukt) or Outi'ktj : 'IrvKaios, Uti- I Vacua, Vagia, or Vacca (Vouga), a river of 
censis : Bou-Shater, Ru.), the greatest city of Lusitania, which flows into the Atlantic a little 
ancient Africa, after Carthage, was a Phoe- S. of the Douro (Plin. iv. 113 ;. Strab. p. 153). 
nician colony, older (and, if the chronologers Vacuna, a Sabine goddess, worshipped es- 
are to be trusted, much older) than Carthage, pecially in a sacied grove near the Lacus Velinus 
Like others of the very ancient Phoenician and Reate (Plin. iii. 109 J ; and also in a temple 
colonies in the territory of Carthage, Utica near Horace's farm (Hor. Ep. i. 10, 49). Va- 
maintained a comparative independence, even | cuna was particularly regarded as the goddess of 
during the height of the Punic power, and was victory, but also as a great national deity of the 
rather the ally of Carthage than her subject. , Sabines (Ov. Fast. vi. 307) ; she also presided 
(Veil. Pat. i. 2 ; Just, xviii. 4 ; Strab. p. 832.) over the works of the garden and field (hence 
It stood on the shore of the N. part of the ; identified both with Venus and with Ceres), and 
Carthaginian Gulf, a little W. of the mouth of over the woods and hunting (hence identified 
the Bagradas, and twenty-seven Roman miles with Diana). Moreover, as goddess of victory in 
NW. of Carthage; but its site is now inland, war she is sometimes confused with Bellona and 
in consequence of the changes effected by the sometimes with Minerva (Dionys. i. 15 ; Sehol. 
Bagradas in the coast-line. [Bagradas.] In ad Hor. I.e.). 

the third Punic war, Utica took part with the Vada. 1. A fortress of the Batavi in Gallia 
Romans against Carthage, and was rewarded Belgica, E. of Batavodurum (Tac. Hist. v. 21). 
with the greatest part of the Carthaginian — 2. Vada Sabbatia ( Vado), a town of Liguria, 
territory. (Ptol. xxxvi. 1 ; App. Pun. 75, 113.) ' on the coast, which was the harbour of Sabbata 
It afterwards became renowned to all future I or Savo (Cic. ad Fam. xi. 10 ; Strab. p. 202). 
time as the scene of the last stand made by the — 3. Vada Volaterrana | Torre di Vado), a small 
Pompeian party against Caesar, and of the | town on the coast of Etruria, in the territory of 
glorious, though mistaken, self-sacrifice of the i Volaterrae. 

younger Cato. [Cato.] Vadicassli, a people in Gallia Belgica, near 

UtlB (Montone), a river of Gallia Cisalpina, the sources of the Sequana (Plin. iv. 107 ; Ptol. 
which rises in the Apennines and flows past ii. 8, 1G). 

Forum Julii (Forli) and Ravenna into the Vadimonis Lacus (Lago di Bassano), a small 
Adriatic (Liv. v. 35). lake of Etruria of a circular form, with sul- 

TJtus (Vid), a river in Moesia and a tributary phureous waters, and renowned for its floating 
of the Danube, falling into the latter river at islands, a minute description of which is given 
the town Utus. : by the younger Pliny (Ep. viii. 20). It is cele- 

TJxama (Ostna), a town of the Arevaci in brated in history for the defeat of the Etruscans 
Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from Astu- in two great battles : first, by the dictator Pa- 
rica to Caesaraugusta, fifty miles W. of Numan- pirius Cursor, in B.C. 309, from the effects of 
tia (Ptol. ii. 6, 56; Flor. iii. 22 ; Sil. It. iii. 384). which the Etruscans never recovered (Liv. ix. 

Uxantis ( Ushant), an island off the XW. 39) ; and again in 283, when the allied forces of 
coast of Gaul the Etruscans and Gauls were routed by the 

UxelloduEum (Issohi), a town of the Cadurci consul Cornelius Dolabella iPol. ii. 20 ; Flor. i. 
in Gallia Aquitanica, situated on a steep hill, 13). The lake has so shrunk in dimensions in 
rising out of the plain, at the foot of which a i modern times as to be only a small stagnant 
river flowed. It was besieged and taken by j pond, almost lost in the tall reeds and bulrushes 
Caesar, and its inhabitants were treated with | which grow in it. 

great barbarity. ([Caes.] B.G. viii. 32—44.) Vagienni, a small tribe in Liguria, whose 

. Uxentum (Uxentinus: Ugento), a town in chief town was Augusta Vagiennorum. Their 
Calabria, KW. of the Iapygian promontory site is uncertain, but they perhaps dwelt near 
(Ptol. iii. 1, 70 ; Plin. iii. 102). : Saluzzo (Plin. iii. 117). 

Uxii (OCfioi), a warlike people, of predatory Vahalis. [Rhenus.] 
habits, who had their strongholds in M. Para- I Valens, emperor of the East a.d. 8G4-878, 
choathras, on the N. border of Persis, in the was born about a.d. 328, and was made emperor 
district called Uxla (Ov^ta), but who also ex- by his brother Valentinian. [ Vai.entiniantis.] 
tended over a considerable tract of country in The greater part of Valens' reign is occupied 
Media (Arr. An. iii. 17 ; Strab. pp. 524, 729). by his wars witli the Goths. At first he gained 

great advantages over the barbarians, and con- 
cluded a peace with them in 370, on the con- 
V. dition that they should not cross the Danube. 

! In 370 the Goths were driven out of their 

Vacca, Vaga. or Vaba (OCaya, Bxya : Bcja), country by the Huns, and were allowed by 
a city of Zeugitana in N*. Africa, on the borders Valens to cross the Danube and settle in Thrace 
of Numidia, on an E. tributary of the river and the country on the borders of the Danube 
Tusca, a good day's journey S. of Utica. It Dissensions soon arose between the Romans 
was a great emporium for the trade between and these dangerous neighbours, and in 877 
Hippo, Utica and Carthage and the interior, the Goths took up arms under Fritigern. Vo- 
lt was destroyed by Metellus in the Jugurthine lens collected a powerful army, and marched 
war, but was restored and colonised by the against the Goths, but he was defeated by 
Romans. Its fortifications were rein-wed by thcin with immense slaughter, near Hadrian- 
Justinian, who named it Tlieodorias in hononr | ople, on the 9th of August, 878. Valens was 
of his wife. (Strab. p. 831 ; Ptol. iv. 8, 28 ; Soil. { never seen after the battle : some say he died 
Jug. 29, 47 ; Procop. Acd. vi. 5.) I on the field ; and others relate that lie was 



984 



VALENS 



VALERIA 



burnt to death in a peasant's house, to which 
he was carried, and which the barbarians set 
fire to without knowing who was in it. (Amm. 
Marc. xxxi. 13.) The reign of Valens is im- 
portant in the history of the empire on account 
of the admission of the Goths into the coun- 
tries S. of the Danube, the commencement of 
the decline of the Roman power. The furious 
contests between the rival creeds of the Catho- 
lics and the Arians also characterise this reign. 

Valens, Aburnius (L. Fulvius Abumius 
Valens), one of the jurists who are excerpted 
in the Digest, belonged to the school of the 
Sabinians. He flourished under Antoninus 
Pius, and is probably the Valens mentioned in 
Capitol. Ant. Pi. 12, 1. 

Valens, Fabius, one of the principal generals 
of the emperor Vitellius in A.D. 69, marched 
into Italy through Gaul, and, after forming a 
junction with the forces of Caecina, defeated 
Otho in the decisive battle of Bedriacum, 
which secured for Vitellius the sovereignty of 
Italy. Vitellius raised Valens and Caecina to 
the consulship, and he left the whole govern- 
ment in their hands. Valens remained faithful 
to Vitellius, when Antonius Primus, the gene- 
ral of Vespasian, marched into Italy ; but as he 
had not sufficient forces to oppose Antonius 
after the capture of Cremona, he resolved to 
sail to Gaul and rouse the Gallic provinces to 
espouse the cause of Vitellius ; but he was 
taken prisoner at the islands of the Stoechades 
(Hyeres), off Massilia, and was shortly after- 
wards put to death at Urbinum (TJrbino). 
(Tac. Hist. i. 7, 52-66, ii. 24-30, 56, 92, 99, hi. 
40, 62 ; Plut. Oth. 6.) 

Valens, Vettius, a physician in the reign of 
Claudius. He was one of the paramours of 
Messallina, and was put to death a.d. 48. (Tac. 
Ami. xi. 31, 35 ; Plin. xxix. 7.) 

Valentia. 1. (Valencia), the chief town of 
the Edetani on the river Turia, three miles 
from the coast, and on the road from Carthago 
Nova to Castulo. It was founded by J unius 
Brutus, who settled here the soldiers of 
Viriathus ; it was destroyed by Pompey, but it 
was soon afterwards rebuilt and made a Roman 
colony. It continued to be an important place 
down to the latest times. (Liv. Ep. 55 ; Plut. 
Pomp. 18 ; Plin. iii. 20 ; Mel. ii. 6 ; Ptol. ii. 6, 
02.) — 2. (Valence), a town in Gallia Narbon- 
ensis on the Rhone, and a Roman colony 
(Plin. iii. 36 ; Ptol. ii. 10, 12).— 3. A town in the 
interior of Sardinia.— 4. Or Valentium, a town 
in Apulia, ten miles from Brundusium, SE. of 
Usellis (Plin. iii. 85).— 5. [Vibo.]— 6. A fifth 
province of Britain, added in 369 to the four of 
the Diocletian arrangement. [Bbitannia.] — 7. 
Or Valentinum. [Forum Fulvii.] 

Valentinianus. I., Roman emperor a.d. 364- 
375, was the son of Gratianus, and was born 
a.d. 321, at Cibalis in Pannonia. His first wife 
was Valeria Severa, by whom he became the 
father of the emperor Gratianus. He held 
important military commands under Julian and 
Jovian ; and on the death of the latter, in 
February 364, Valentinian was elected emperor 
by the troops at Nicaea. A few weeks after his 
elevation Valentinian, by the desire of the 
soldiers, associated in the empire his brother 
Valens, and assigned to him the East, while he 
himself undertook the government of the West. 
Valentinian was a Catholic, though his brother 
Valens was an Arian ; but he did not persecute 
either Arians or heathens. He possessed good 
abilities, prudence, and vigour of character. He 
had a capacity for military matters, and was a 



vigilant, impartial, and laborious administrator. 
The greater part of Valentinian' s reign was 
occupied by the wars against the Alemanni 
and the other barbarians on the Roman fron- 
tiers. His operations were attended with 
success. He not only drove the Alemanni out 
of Gaul, but on more than one occasion crossed 
the Rhine, and carried the war into the enemy's 
country. His usual residence was Treviri 
(Treves). In 375 he went to Carnuntum on 
the Danube, in order to repel the Quadi and 
Sarmatians, who had invaded Pannonia. After 
an indecisive campaign he took up his winter- 
quarters at Bregetio. In this place, while 
giving an audience to the deputies of the 
Quadi, and speaking with great heat, he fell 
down in a fit and expired suddenly, on the 17th 
of November. (Amm. Marc, xxviii.-xxx. ; Zosim. 
iv. 17.) — II., Roman emperor a.d. 375-392, 
younger son of the preceding, was proclaimed 
Augustus by the army after his father's death, 
though he was then only four or five years of 
age. His elder brother Gratianus, who had 
been proclaimed Augustus during the lifetime 
of their father, assented to the choice of the 
army, and a division of the West was made 
between the two brothers. Valentinian had 
Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. Gratian had the 
Gauls, Spain, and Britain. In 383 Gratian was 
defeated and slain by Maximus, who left 
Valentinian a precarious authority out of fear 
for Theodosius, the emperor of the East ; but 
in 387 Valentinian was expelled from Italy by 
Maximus, and fled for refuge to Theodosius. 
In 388 Theodosius defeated Maximus, and 
restored Valentinian to his authority as emperor 
of the West. Theodosius returned to Con- 
stantinople in 391 ; and in the following year 
(392) Valentinian was murdered by the general 
Arbogastes, who raised Eugenius to the throne. 
Valentinian perished on the 15th of May, being 
only a few months above twenty years of age. 
His funeral oration was pronounced by St. 
Ambrose. — III., Roman emperor A.D. 425-455, 
was born 419, and was the son of Constantius III. 
by Placidia, the sister of Honorius and the 
daughter of Theodosius I. He was declared 
Augustus in 425 by Theodosius II., and was 
placed over the West, but as he was only six 
years of age the government was intrusted to 
his mother Placidia. During his long reign 
the empire was repeatedly exposed to the 
invasions of the barbarians ; and it was only 
the military abilities of Aetius which saved the 
empire from ruin. In 429 the Vandals under 
Genseric crossed over into Africa, which they 
conquered, and of which they continued in 
possession till the reign of Justinian. The 
weakness of the empire during this reign was 
shown also by the fact that the Britons (from 
whose country the Roman troops had been 
withdrawn forty years before), finding it vain 
to apply to Rome for aid against the incursions 
of the Picts, invited the Jutes under Hengest 
and Horsa to help them, in 449. The Goths 
likewise established themselves in Gaul; but 
Aetius finally made peace with them (439), and 
with their assistance gained a great victory 
over Attila and the vast army of the Huns at 
Chalons in 451. [Attila.] The power and 
influence of Aetius excited the jealousy and 
fears of Valentinian, who murdered his brave 
and faithful general in 454. [Aetius.] In the 
following year the emperor himself was slain by 
Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had violated. 
He was a feeble and contemptible prince. 
Valeria. 1. Sister of P. Valerius Publicola, 



YALEEIA 



VALERIUS 



985 



advised the Roman matrons to ask Veturia, the 
mother of Coriolanus, to go to the camp of 
Coriolanus in order to deprecate his resent- 
ment. [Coriolanus.] — 2. The last wife of 
Sulla, was the daughter of M. Valerius Messalla, 
and bore a daughter soon after Sulla's death 
(Plut. Popl. 35, 37).— 3. Galena Valeria, 
daughter of Diocletian and Prisca, was, upon 
the reconstruction of the empire in a.d. 292, 
united to G-alerius, one of the new Caesars. 
After the death of her husband, in 311, Valeria 
rejected the proposals of his successor, Maxi- 
minus, who in consequence stripped her of her 
possessions, and banished her along with her 
mother. After the death of Maximinus, Valeria 
and her mother were executed by order of 
Licinius, 315. [Galerius.] — 4. Messallina. 
[Messallina.] 

Valeria Gens, one of the most ancient 
patrician houses at Rome. The Valerii were of 
Sabine origin, and their ancestor, Volesus or 
Volusus, is said to have settled at Rome with 
Titus Tatius. One of the descendants of this 
Volesus, P. Valerius, afterwards surnamed 
Publicola, plays a distinguished part in the 
story of the expulsion of the kings, and was 
elected consul in the first year of the republic, 
B.C. 509. From this time forward down to the 
latest period of the empire, for nearly 1000 
years, the name occurs more or less frequently 
in the Fasti, and it was borne by the emperors 
Maximinus, Maximianus, Maxentius, Diocletian, 
Constantius, Constantine the Great, and others. 
The Valeria gens enjoyed extraordinary honours 
and privileges at Rome. In the Circus a con- 
spicuous place, with a sella curulis (Liv. ii. 81), 
was set apart for them. They were also allowed 
to bury their dead within the walls (Cic. Legg. 
ii. 23, 58; Plut. Popl. 23). The Valerii in early 
times were always foremost in advocating the 
rights of the plebeians, and the laws (especially 
the law of appeal) which they proposed at 
various times were the great charters of the 
liberties of the second order. (See Diet, of 
Antiq. s. v. Leges Valeriae.) The Valeria 
gens was divided into various families under 
the republic, the most important of which bore 
the names of Corvus, Flaccus, Laevinus, 
Messalla, Publicola, and Triarius. 

Valeria, a province in Pannonia formed by 
Galerius, and named in honour of his wife. 
[Pannonia.] 

Valerlanus. 1. Roman emperor a.d. 253- 
260, whose full name was P. Licinius Vale- 
rianus. Valerian was proclaimed emperor by 
the troops whom he was leading against the 
usurper Aemilianus. Valerian proclaimed his 
son Gallienus Augustus, and first carried on 
war against the Goths, whom he defeated (257). 
But though the barbarians still threatened 
the Roman frontiers on the Danube and the 
Rhine, the conquests of the Persians, who had 
crossed the Euphrates and stormed Antioch, 
compelled him to hasten to the East. For a 
time his measures were both vigorous and suc- 
cessful. Antioch was recovered, and the 
Persian king Sapor was compelled to fall back 
behind the Euphrates ; but the emperor, flushed 
by his good fortune, followed too rashly. He 
was surrounded, in the vicinity of Edessa, by 
the countless horsemen of his active foe; he 
was entrapped into a conference, taken prisoner 
(260), and passed the remainder of his life in 
captivity, subjected to every insult which 
Oriental cruelty could devise. After death his 
skin was stuffed and long preserved as a trophy 
in the chief temple of the nation. (Aurel. Vict. 



Caes. 32 ; Eutrop. ix. 6 ; A mm. Marc, xxiii. 5.) 
— 2. Son of the preceding, but not by the same 
mother as Gallienus. He perished along with 
Gallienus at Milan in 268. [Gallienus.] 
Valerius. [Valeria Gens.] 
Valerius, P. Asiaticus. 1. Consul suffectus 
under Caligula, and consul a.d. 46 under 
Claudius. He was wealthy and had beautiful 
gardens, coveted by Messallina, who procured 
an accusation of treason against him which led 
to his death in 47. (Tac. Ann. xi. 1, xiii. 43 ; 
Dio Cass. lix. 30, lx. 27-31.1— 2. Legatus of Gallia 
Belgica at the death of Nero. He was son-in- 
law and supporter of Vitellius. (Tac. Hist. i. 
59, iv. 4, 6.) 

Valerius Volusus Maxlmus, M' (or M. ?). 
1. Was a brother of P. Valerius Publicola. 
He fought at the battle of L. Regillus, and 
was killed (Liv. ii. 16, 20; Dionys. v. 37; Plut. 
Popl, 20).— 2. Dictator in B.C. 494, when the 
dissensions between the burghers and com- 
monalty of Rome de nexis were at the highest. 
Valerius was popular with the plebs, and 
induced them to enlist for the Sabine and 
Aequian wars by promising that when the 
enemy was repulsed the condition of the debtors 
| (next) should be alleviated. He defeated and 
triumphed over the Sabines ; but, unable to 
fulfil his promise to the commons, resigned his 
dictatorship. The plebs, seeing that Valerius 
at least had kept faith with them, escorted him 
honourably home. (Liv. ii. 30, 31.) According 
to Livy, he was son of the Valerius Volusus 
who fought at Regillus, but some have conjec- 
tured that he was the same man, and was only 
wounded, not killed, at Regillus. It is certainly 
strange that the dictator of 494 should have 
had a father active in battle in 497. 

Valerius Maxlmus, is known to us as the 
compiler of a large collection of historical anec- 
| dotes, entitled De Factis Dictisque Memora- 
bilibus Libri IX, arranged under different 
heads, the sayings and doings of Roman 
worthies being, moreover, kept distinct in each 
division from those of foreigners. He lived in 
the reign of the emperor Tiberius, to whom he 
dedicated his work. Of his personal history we 
know nothing, except the solitary circumstance, 
recorded by himself, that he accompanied Sex. 
Pompeius into Asia (ii. 6, 8) — the Sextus Pom- 
peius who was consul a.d. 14, and afterwards 
proconsul of Asia. The subjects treated of in 
the work are miscellaneous, and it seems to 
have been compiled as a collection of historical 
instances for the use of rhetoricians. In some 
books the topics selected for illustration are 
closely allied to each other ; in others no bond 
I of union can be traced. Thus the first book is 
| entirely devoted to matters connected with 
! sacred rites ; the second book relates chiefly to 
certain remarkable civil institutions; the third, 
fourth, fifth, and sixth, to the more prominent 
i social virtues ; but in the seventh the chapters 
' De Strcitcgcmatis, De Hepulsis, are abruptly 
followed by those De Necessitate, De Testa- 
mentis Jiiscissis. 1 te Italia Test 'a mentis ct III- 
sjieratis. The work is by no means without 
value, since it preserves a record of many 
curious events not to be found elsewhere; but. 
I regarded us a history, it is wholly uncritical and 
shallow, so written aB to flatter Tiberius wherever 
! it was possible, and with a violent tirade 
against Sejanus, added, probably, after the fall 
of that minister, though before the first publi- 
cation of the book. He uses as his chief sources, 
but often confusedly, Livy, Cicero, Sallust, anil 
Pompeius Trogus. For the events of his own 



986 



VALERIUS 



VAERO 



time the value of his testimony is impaired by 
his desire to write only what would be likely to 
please Tiberius. The work of Valerius Maxi- 
mus became very popular in the later times of 
the empire and in the middle ages. It was 
frequently abridged, and we still possess an 
abridgment of it made by Julius Paris. — The 
best editions of the original work are by Kempf, 
Leips. 1888, and C. Holm, Leips. 1865. 

Valerius Flaccus. [Flaccus.] 

Valgius Rufus, C, a Roman poet, and a con- 
temporary of Virgil and Horace, the latter of 
whom ranks him, along with Varius, Maecenas, 
and Virgil, among those friends of genius whose 
approbation far more than compensated for the 
annoyance caused by the attacks of his detrac- 
tors (Hor. Sat. i. 10, 82). He was consul suffec- 
tus in B.C. 12. He wrote elegies and epigrams, 
and perhaps some epic poetry (Hor. Oil. ii. 9 ; 
Tib. iv. 1, 180 ; Serv. ad Aen. xi. 457), and books 
on botany (Plin. xxv. 4) and on grammar (Gell. 
xii. 13). 

Vandali, Vandalii, or Vindalii, a confeder- 
acy of German peoples, probably of the great 
Suevic race, to which the Burgundiones, Goth- 
ones, Gepidae, and Rugii belonged. They 
dwelt originally on the N. coast of Germany, 
but were afterwards settled N. of the Marco- 
manni in the Riesengebirge, which are hence 
called Vandalici Montes. (Capitol. M. Ant. 
Phil. 17; Eutrop. viii. 13; Jordan. Get. 22.) 
They subsequently appear for a short time in 
Dacia and Pannonia ; but at the beginning of 
the fifth century (a.d. 409) they traversed Ger- 
many and Gaul, and invaded Spain. In this 
country they subjugated the Alani, and founded 
a powerful kingdom, the name of which is still 
preserved in Andalusia (Vandalusia). In a.d. 
429 they crossed over into Africa, under their 
king Genseric, and conquered all the Roman 
dominions in that country. Genseric subse- 
quently invaded Italy, and took and plundered 
Rome in 455. The Vandals continued masters 
of Africa till 535, when their kingdom was 
destroyed by Belisarius, and annexed to the 
Byzantine empire. [Belisarius.] 

VanglOlies, a German people, dwelling along 
the Rhine, in the neighbourhood of the modern 
Worms (Caes. B. G. i. 51 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 27, 
Germ. 28). 

Vannius, king of the Suevi, recognised by 
the Romans, a.d. 19, after the overthrow of 
Maroboduus. He reigned for thirty years, but 
was dispossessed by his nephews, Sido and 
Vangio, a.d. 50. Claudius did not aid him with 
troops, but gave him a territory in Pannonia. 
(Tac. Ann. ii. 63, xii. 29, 30 ; Plin. iv. 81.) 

Vapincum {Gap), a town in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, S. of Cularo (Grenoble), and not far 
from the Druentia (Durance). It lies just S. of 
the Col Bayard, which was probably ' the first 
ascent to the Alps ' on Hannibal's route (Pol. 
iii. 49), and Vapincum was in all probability 
the town which is mentioned both by Polybius 
and by Livy as the chief town or castellmn of 
the natives who defended that defile (Pol. 1. c. ; 
Liv. xxi. 33), though Livy places it on the wrong 
side of the Druentia [cf . Hannibal]. 

Varagri. [Veragri.] 

Vardanes or Bardanes. [Arsaces XXL] 

Varduli, a people in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
W. of the Vascones, in the modern Guipuzcoa 
and Alava (Strab. p. 162; Ptol. ii. 6, 9; Pin. 
iii. 26). 

Vargunteius, a senator and one of Catiline's 
conspirators, undertook, in conjunction with C. 
Cornelius, to murder Cicero m b.c. 63, but their 



plan was frustrated by information conveyed to 
Cicero through Fulvia. He was afterwards 
brought to trial, but could find no one to defend 
him. JSall. Cat. 17, 47.) 

Varia. 1. (Vicovaro), a town of the Sabines, 
j in the valley of the Anio, about eight miles 
above Tibur, and near Horace's villa (Hor. 
Bp. i. 14, 3 ; Strab. p. 237 ; Horatius, p. 428, a). 
— 2. (Varea), a town of the Berones in His- 
pania Tarraconensis on the Iberus, which was 
navigable from this town (Plin. iii. 21 ; Strab. 
p. 162). 

Varini, a people of Germany, on the right 
bank of the Albis, N. of the Langobardi (Tac. 
Germ. 40). 

Varius. 1. Q. Varius Hybrida, tribune of 
the plebs, B.C. 90, was a native of Sucro in 
Spain, and received the surname of Hybrida 
because his mother was a Spanish woman. In 
his tribuneship he carried a lex de majestate, 
in order to punish all those who had assis- 
ted or advised the Socii to take up arms 
against the Roman people. Under this law 
many distinguished senators were condemned ; 
but in the following year Varius himself was 
condemned under his own law, and was put to 
death. (App. B. C. i. 57 ; Val. Max. viii. 6, 4 ; 
Cic. de Or. i. 25 ; N. T>. iii. 33.)— 2. L. Varius 
Rufus, one of the most distinguished poets of 
the Augustan age, the companion and friend of 
Virgil and Horace. By the latter he is placed 
in the foremost rank among the epic bards, and 
Quintilian has pronounced that his tragedy of 
Thy est es might stand a comparison with any 
production of the Grecian stage. (Quint, x. 1, 
98 ; Tac. Dial. 12.) He enjoyed the friendship 
of Maecenas, and it was to the recommendation 
of Varius in conjunction with that of Virgil, 
that Horace was indebted for an introduction 
to the minister, about B.C. 39. Virgil appointed 
Plotius Tucca and Varius his literary executors, 
and they revised the Aeneid. Hence Varius 
was alive subsequent to B.C. 19, in which year 
Virgil died ; but from Verg. Eel. ix. 35 it may 
be inferred that' Varius was somewhat older 
than Virgil. It has been inferred from Hor. 
Ep. ii. 1, 247, that Varius was dead before the 
second book of the Epistles was written, and 
this is probably right, though the words are not 
conclusive. Besides the tragedy Thy est es 
Varius wrote two epic poems (cf. Hor. Sat. i. 10, 
44), one De Morte on the death of Caesar 
(Macrob. vi. 1, 39, vi. 2, 19), the other a pane- 
gyric of Augustus, from which, according to the 
scholiast, Horace quotes the three lines of Ep. 
i. 16, 27-29, and this poem, which included the 
praises of Agrippa, is alluded to in Hor. Od. i. 6. 
Varro, Atacmus. [See below, Varro, No. 3.] 
Varro, Cingonlus, a Roman senator under 
Nero, supported the claims of Nymphidius to 
i the throne on the death of Nero, and was put to 
death in consequence by Galba, being at the 
time consul designatus (Tac. Ann. xiv. 45 ; 
Hist. i. 6, 37 ; Plut. Galb. 14). 

Varro, Terentius. 1. C, consul b.c. 216 
with L. Aemilius Paulus. Varro is said to have 
' been the son of a butcher, to have carried on 
I business himself as a factor in his early years, 
| and to have risen to eminence by pleading 
! the causes of the lower classes in opposition to 
the opinion of all good men (Liv. xxii. 25 ; 
Val. Max. iii. 4, 4). Notwithstanding the strong 
opposition of the aristocracy, he was raised to 
the consulship by the people, who thought 
that it only needed a man of energy at the head 
of an overwhelming force to bring the war 
against Hannibal to a close, and who, moreover, 



VARRO 



987 



had an unfounded mistrust of the aims and 
motives of the senate. His colleague was L. 
Aemilius Paulus, one of the leaders of the 
aristocratical party. The two consuls were 
defeated by Hannibal at the memorable battle 
of Cannae. [Hannibal.] The battle was fought 
by Varro against the advice of Paulus. The 
Roman army was all but annihilated. Paulus 
and almost all the officers perished. Varro was 
one of the few who escaped and reached Venusia 
in safety, with about seventy horsemen. His 
conduct after the battle seems to have deserved 
praise. He proceeded to Canusium, where the 
remnant of the Roman army had taken refuge, 
and there adopted every precaution which the 
exigencies of the case required. His defeat 
was forgotten in the services he had lately 
rendered. On his return to the city all classes 
went out to meet him, and the senate returned 
him thanks because he had not despaired of the 
commonwealth. This marked the determination 
of patricians and plebeians to work heartily 
together against the foreign enemy. (Liv. xxii. 
35-61; Pol. iii. 106-116; Plut. Fab. 14-18; 
App. Ann. 17-26.) Varro continued to be em- 
ployed in Italy for several successive years in 
important military commands till nearly the 
close of the Punic war (Liv. xxiii. 32, xxvii. 35, 
xxxi. 49). — 2. M. Terentius Varro Reatinus, 
the celebrated writer, whose vast and varied 
erudition in almost every department of litera- 
ture earned for him the title of the ' most 
learned of the Romans' (Quint, x. i. 95; Dionys. 
ii. 21 ; August. C. D. vi. 2 ; cf. Cic. Acad. Pout. 

i. 3, 9) was born at Reate B.C. 116, and was 
trained under L. Aelius Stilo Praeconinus, and 
afterwards by Antiochus, a philosopher of the 
Academy. Varro held a high naval command 
in the wars against the pirates and Jlithridates, 
and afterwards served as the legatus of Pom- 
peius in Spain in the Civil war, but was com- 
pelled to surrender his forces to Caesar. (Flor. 

ii. 13, 29 ; Caes. B. C. i. 38, ii. 17-20.) He then 
passed over into Greece, and shared the for- 
tunes of the Pompeian party till after the 
battle of Pharsalia, when he obtained the 
forgiveness of Caesar, who employed him in 
superintending the collection and arrangement 
of the great library designed for public use. 
(Suet. Jul. 44 ; Isid. Or. vi. 5.) For some years 
after this period Varro remained in literary 
seclusion, passing his time chiefly at his coun- 
try seats near Cumae and Tusculum, occupied 
with study and composition. Caesar had 
forced Antony to restore to Varro an estate 
which he had seized (Cic. Phil. ii. 40, 108), and, 
perhaps in consequence, upon the formation of 
the second triumvirate his name appeared 
upon the list of the proscribed ; but he suc- 
ceeded in making his escape, and, after having 
remained for some time concealed, he obtained 
the protection of Octavian. His life is said to 
have been saved by Fufius Calenus (App. B. C. 
iv. 47), and it is probable that he recovered a 
great portion of his estates; but most of his 
magnificent library had been destroyed (Gell. 

iii. 10). The remainder of his career was passed 
in tranquillity, and he continued to labour in hi* 
favourite studies. His death took place B.C. 28, 
when he was inhiseighty-ninth year. Not only 
was Varro the most learned of Roman scholars, 
but he was likewise the most voluminous of Ro- 
man authors. Gellius (I. c.) states that Varro 
claimed to have written 190 books before he 
was seventy-seven : Ausoiiius gives in round 
numbers 601) as the total number of books 
written by Varro [Prof. Burd. xx. 10) ; and 



this agrees with a list given by Jerome which 
makes out the writings of Varro to oonsist of 
seventy-four different works, containing alto- 
gether 620 books. Hence it would appear that 
130 of the books were written in the last twelve 
years of his life. Of these works only two have 
survived : — (1) De Re Bitstica Libri III, still 
extant, was written when the author was eighty 
years old (B. B. i. 1, 1), and is the most im- 
portant of all the treatises upon ancient agri- 
culture now extant, being far superior to the 
more voluminous production of Columella, with 
which alone it can be compared. Edited by 
Keil, Halle, 1849, and in the Scripiores Bei 
Busticae veteres Latini, by Schneider, Lips. 
1764-1797. (2) De Lingua Latina, a gram- 
matical treatise which extended to twenty-four 
books ; but six only (v.-x.) have been preserved, 
and these are in a mutilated condition. The 
remains of this treatise are particularly valu- 
able, since they have been the means of 
preserving many terms and forms which would 
otherwise have been altogether lost, and much 
curious information is here treasured up con- 
nected with the ancient usages, both civil and 
religious, of the Romans. Editions bv Spengel, 
Berl. 1820 (re-edited 1885), and by 6. Miiller, 
Leips. 1883. The work entitled Antiquitatum 
Libri was divided into two sections : Anti- 
quitates Berum humanarttm, in twenty-five 
j books, and Antiquitates Berum divinarum, in 
' sixteen books. It described the political and 
religious institutions of Rome, and was Varro's 
great work, upon which chiefly his reputation 
for profound learning was based ; but unfor- 
tunately only a few fragments of it have come 
down to us. With the second section of the 
work we are, comparatively speaking, familiar, 
since Augustine drew very largely from this 
source in his De Civitate Dei [cf. Indigita- 
menta, p. 442, b]. VaiTO wrote also a collec- 
tion of biographies called Imagines or Hebdo- 
rnades in fifteen books; Disciplinae in nine 
books, which described the ' liberal arts,' viz. 
grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, geometry, arith- 
metic, astrology, music, medicine, and archi- 
tecture ; and other works on philosophy 
(Logistoriri in seventy-six books), geography, 
i and law. Among his poetical works were the 
Saturac, which were composed in a variety 
of metres, with an admixture of prose 
also. Varro in these pieces copied to a cer- 
tain extent the productions of Menippus 
the Gadarene [Menippus], and hence desig- 
nated them as Saturae Menippcae s. Cynicae. 
They appear to have been a series of dis- 
quisitions on a vast variety of subjects, fre- 
quently, if not uniformly, couched in the shape 
of dialogue, the object proposed being the 
inculcation of moral lessons and serious truths 
in a familiar, playful, and even jocular style. 
The best editions of the fragments of these 
Satwrae are by Riese, Leips. 1865, and 
Blicheler (with Petronius), Berl. 1882. The 
Scntentiae Varronis, a collection of pithy 
sayings, may possibly have been gathered from 
the writings of Varro Reatinus ; but even that 
is uncertain (ed. Devit, Padua, 1848). — 3. P., a 
Latin poet of considerable celebrity, sur- 
ii 1 1 m< '1 Atacinus, from the Alax, a river of 
Gallia Narbonensis, his native province, was 
born B.C. 82. Of his personal history nothing 
further is known. He seems to have written, 
first, an epic on part of Caesar's Gallic wars, 
called Brlliim Srquanicuvt (Prise. Or. Lat. ii. 
497), and Salurar in imitation of Lucilius 
(Hor. Hat. i. 10, 16) ; and at a later time to have 



•988 



VARUS 



VATIA 



imitated the Alexandrian poets in the Argo- 
nautae (borrowed from Ap. Rhod.), and in 
elegiac love-poems. (Quint, x. 1, 87 ; Ov. Am. 
i. 15, 21, Trist. ii. 439 ; Propert. ii. 34, 85 ; Prob. 
ad Verg. Georg. ii. 126.) 

Varus, a cognomen in many Eoman gentes, 
signified a person who had his legs bent inwards, 
and was opposed to Valgius, which signified a 
person having his legs turned outward. 

Varus, P. Alfenus. 1. A Roman jurist, was 
a pupil of Servius Sulpicius, and the only pupil 
of Servius from whom there are any excerpts 
in the Digest (Gell. vii. 5). The scholiast on 
Horace (Sat. i. 3, 130) tells us that the ' Alfenus 
vafer ' of Horace was a lawyer, and that he 
was a native of Cremona, where he carried on 
the trade of a shoemaker ; that he came to 
Rome, where he became a pupil of Servius 
Sulpicius, attained the dignity of the consulship, 
and was honoured with a public funeral. It is 
probable that he is the Varus who attended the 
lectures of Siron at the same time as Virgil 
(Serv. ad Hcl. vi. 13), and whom Virgil men- 
tions in the Eclogues (vi. 13, ix. 27), referring 
±o the time when Alfenus Varus was Octavian's 
legate, and able to help him in preserving his 
property (b.c. 40). — 2. A general of Vitellius, in 
the Civil war in a.d. 69, and perhaps a descend- 
ant of the jurist (Tac. Hist. ii. 29, iii. 55, iv. 11.) 

Varus, Atius. 1. P., a partisan of Pompey 
in the Civil war, was stationed in Picenum on 
the breaking out of the Civil war in B.C. 49. 
He subsequently crossed over into Africa, and 
took possession of the province, which was 
then governed by Q. Ligarius. [Ligarius.] 
Varus, having been propraetor of Africa, was well 
acquainted with the country, and was able to 
raise two legions without difficulty. Meantime, 
L. Aelius Tubero, who had received from the 
senate the province of Africa, arrived to take 
the command ; but Varus would not allow him 
to land. In the course of the same year Varus, 
assisted by king Juba, defeated Curio, Caesar's 
legate, who had crossed over from Sicily to 
Africa. [Cubio.] He fought with the other 
Pompeians in Africa against Caesar in 46 ; but 
after the battle of Thapsus he sailed away to 
Cn. Pompey in Spain, and fell at the battle of 
Munda. His head was carried to Caesar. (Cic. 
ad Att. viii. 13, 15, 20 ; Caes. B.C. i. 12, 13, 31 ; 
App. B.C. ii. 44-46, 105; Dio Cass, xliii. 31; 
Lucan, iv. 713). — 2. Q. Atius Varus, com- 
mander of the cavalry under C. Fabius, one of 
Caesar's legates in Gaul, and probably the same 
as the Q. Varus who commanded the cavalry 
under Domitius, one of Caesar's generals in 
Greece in the war with Pompey (Caes. B.C. 
iii. 37 ; [Caes.] B.G. viii. 28). 

Varus, Quintilius. 1. Sex., quaestoi-B.c. 49, 
belonged to the Pompeian party. He fell into 
Caesar's hands at the capture of Corfinium, but 
was dismissed by Caesar. He afterwards fought 
under Brutus and Cassius against the trium- 
virs ; and after the loss of the battle of Philippi, 
he ordered his freedman to slay him (Caes. B.C. 
i. 23, ii. 28; Veil. Pat. ii. 71).— 2. P., son of the 
preceding, was consul B.C. 13, and was subse- 
quently appointed to the government of Syria, 
where he acquired enormous wealth. Shortly 
after his return from Syria he was made gover- 
nor of Germany (probably about a.d. 7). Dru- 
sus had conquered a great part of central Ger- 
many as far as the Visurgis ( Weser) ; and 
Varus received orders from Augustus to intro- 
duce the Roman jurisdiction into the newly 
conquered country. The Germans, however, 
were not prepared to submit to the Roman yoke, 



and found a leader in Aeminius, who secretly 
organised a general revolt of all the German 
tribes near the Visurgis. "When he had 
matured his plans, he suddenly attacked 
Varus, who was marching with three legions 
and three squadrons of cavalry through a 
pass of the Saltus T eutoburgiensis, a range 
of hills covered with wood, which extends N. 
of the Lippe from Osnabriick to Paderborn. 
Varus had diverged into this difficult country 
instead of following the safer route from his 
summer quarters on the Visurgis (probahly 
near Minclen) to Aliso, because a message had 
arrived that a tribe had revolted in that district, 
and, having no suspicion of Arminius, he thought 
it would be an easy matter to suppress the 
movement on his way. He seems to have 
managed his march with great carelessness and 
to have been taken quite unprepared. The 
battle lasted three days, and ended with the 
destruction of the Roman army. Varus put 
an end to his own life. The scene of the 
disaster is placed by some modern writers in 
the district of Venne, near the sources of the 
Haute. Of the 20,000 men who comprised his 
force only the cavalry and a few stragglers 
escaped. [Cf. Gebmania.] When the news of 
this defeat reached Rome, the whole city was 
thrown into consternation ; and Augustus, who 
was both weak and aged, gave way to the most 
violent grief, tearing his garments and calling 
upon Varus to give him back his legions. (Tac. 
Ann. i. 61. 71 ; Dio Cass. lvi. 18-25 ; Suet. Aug. 
23, Tib. 16 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 117.) 

Varus (Var or Vara), a river in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, forming the boundary between this 
province and Italy, rises in Mt. Cema in the 
Alps, and falls into the Mediterranean sea, be- 
tween Antipolis and Nicaea (Mel. ii. 4 ; Ptol. ii. 
10, 1 ; Lucan, i. 404). 

Vasates, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, on 
the Garumna, whose chief town was Cossium 
(Bazas), on the road from Burdigala to Elusa. 

Vascones, a powerful people on the N. coast 
of Hispania Tarraconensis, between the Iberus 
and the Pyrenees, in the modern Navarre and 
Guipuzcoa (Strab. pp. 116, 155; Ptol. ii. 8, 10!. 
Their chief towns were Pompelon and Cala- 
gtjrris. They fought in battle bare-headed. 
Under the empire they were regarded as skilful 
diviners and prophets (Sil. It. iii. 358). They 
belonged to the old Iberian race. Their name 
is still retained in that of the modern Basques. 

Vasconum Saltus. [Pyrene.] 

VasiO (Vaison), a considerable town of the 
Vocontii in Gallia Narbonensis (Ptol. ii. 10, 
17 ; Mel. ii. 5). 

Vatia Isauricus, P. Servilius. 1, Consul 
in B.C. 79, was sent in the following year as 
proconsul to Cilicia, in order to clear the seas of 
the pirates, whose ravages now spread far and 
wide. He carried on the war with great ability 
and success, and from his conquest of the 
Isauri, he obtained the surname of Isauricus. 
After giving Cilicia the organisation of a Roman 
province, he entered Rome in triumph in 74. 
(Liv. Hp. 90, 93 ; Oros. v. 25 ; Flor. iii. 6 ; Strab. 
pp. 667, 671). After his return Servilius took 
a leading part in public affairs. In 70 he was 
one of the judices at the trial of Verres ; in 66 
he supported the rogation of Manilius for con- 
ferring upon Pompey the command of the war 
against the pirates ; in 63 he was a candidate 
for the dignity of pontifex maximus, but was 
defeated by Julius Caesar ; in the same year 
he spoke in the senate in favour of inflicting 
the last penalty of the law upon the Catili- 



VATINIUS 



VEII 



narian conspirators; in 57 lie joined the other 
nobles in procuring Cicero's recall from banish- 
ment ; in 56 he opposed the restoration of 
Ptolemy to his kingdom ; and in 55 he was 
censor with M. Valerius Messalla Niger. He 
took no part in the civil wars, probably on ac- 
count of his advanced age, and died in 44. 
(Cic. Verr. i. 21, ad Fain. i. 1, xvi. 23, ad Att. 
xii. 21 ; Dio Cass. xiv. 1G ; Val. Max. viii. 5, 6.) 
— 2. Praetor 54, belonged originally to the 
aristocratical party, but espoused Caesar's side 
on the breaking out of the Civil war, and was 
consul with Caesar in 48. In 46 he governed 
the province of Asia as proconsul, during which 
time Cicero wrote to him several letters. After 
the death of Caesar in 44, he supported Cicero 
and the rest of the aristocratical party, in 
opposition to Anton}-. But he soon changed 
sides again, became reconciled to Antony, and 
was made consul a second time in 41. (Caes. 
B.C. iii. 21 ; App. B.C. ii. 48 ; Dio Cass. xli. 
43, xlii. 17, xlviii. 4, 13.) 

Vatinius. 1. P., a political adventurer in 
the last days of the republic, who is described 
by Cicero as one of the greatest scamps and 
villains that ever lived. His personal appear- 
ance was unprepossessing ; his face and neck 
were covered with swellings, to which Cicero 
alludes, calling him the struma civitatis. Va- 
tinius was quaestor B.C. 63, and tribune of the 
plebs 59, when he sold his services to Caesar, 
who was then consul along with Bibulus. It 
was Vatinius who proposed the bill to the 
people by which Caesar received the provinces 
of Cisalpine Gaul and Dlyricom for five years. 
Vatinius continued to take an active part in 
political affairs. In 56 he appeared as a wit- 
ness against Milo and Sestius, two of Cicero's 
friends, in consequence of which the orator 
made a vehement attack upon the character of 
Vatinius, in the speech which has come down to 
us. Vatinius was praetor in 55, and in the 
following year (54) he was accused by C. Li- 
cinius Calvus of having gained the praetorship 
by bribery. He was defended on this occasion 
by Cicero, in order to please Caesar, whom 
Cicero had offended by his former attack upon 
Vatinius. Soon afterwards Vatinius went to 
Gaul, where we find him serving in 51. He 
accompanied Caesar in the Civil war, and was 
made consul suffectus for a few days, at the end 
of December 47. At the beginning of the fol- 
lowing year, he was sent into Illyrieum, where 
he carried on the war with success. After 
Caesar's death he was compelled to surrender 
Dyrrhachium and his army to Brutus, who had 
obtained possession of Macedonia, because his 
troops declared in favour of Brutus. (Cic. in 
Vatin. ; pro Sest. 53, 63, ad Q. Fr. ii. 4, iii. 9, 
ad Att. ii. 6 ; [Caes.] B.G. viii. 46; Caes. B.C. 
iii. 19, 100; App. B.C. iv. 75; Dio Cass, xlvii. 
21.) — 2. Of Beneventum, one of the vilest and 
most hateful creatures in Nero's court, equally 
deformed in body and in mind. He was origin- 
ally a shoemaker's apprentice, next earned his 
living as one of the lowest kinds of scurrae or 
buffoons, and finally obtained great power and 
wealth by accusing the most distinguished men 
in the state. A certain kind of drinking-cups 
having nasi or nozzles, bore the name of Vati- 
nius, probably becuuse they were supposed to 
caricature his profile. (Tac. Ann. xv. 31 ; Juv. 
v. 46; Mart. x. 8, xiv. 96.) 

Vatrenus. [Padi b. 

Vectia or Vecta (lite of Wight), an island off 
the S. coast of Britain and opposite Portus 
Magnus (Porchester, near Portsmouth), with 



1 which the Romans became acquainted before 

1 their conquest of Britain, by means of the 
inhabitants of Massilia, who were accustomed 
to visit this island for the purpose of obtaining 
tin. It is related by Diodorus (v. 22, 38), that 
at low water the space between Vectis and the 
coast of Britain was almost entirely dry, so> 
that the Britons used to bring tin to the island 
in waggons. It was conquered by Vespasian in 
the reign of Claudius (Suet. Vesp. 4 ; Mel. iii. 
6 ; Plin. iv. 103.) Interesting remains of 
Roman villas have been found at Carisbrook 
and Brading. 
Vedius Pollio. (Pollio.] 
Vegetius, Flavius Renatus, the author of 
a treatise, Bei Militaris Instituta, or Epitoma 
Bei Militaris. The exact date is not estab- 
lished, but it was probably composed early in 
the fifth century a.d. It is a question whether 
the dedication to Theodosius is genuine, and 
some writers maintain that it was addressed to 

I Valentinian III. The materials were derived, 
according to the declaration of the writer him- 
self, from Cato the Censor Be Disciplina 
Militari, from Cornelius Celsus, from Fronti- 
nus, from Patemus, and from the imperial 

j constitutions of Augustus, Trajan, and Hadrian. 
The work is divided into four books. The first 
treats of the levying and training of recruits, 
including instructions for the fortification of a 
camp ; the second, of the different classes into 
which soldiers are divided, and especially of the 
organisation of the legion ; the third, of the 
operations of an army in the field ; the fourth, 
of the attack and defence of fortresses, and of 
marine warfare. The value of this work (which 
is a somewhat uncritical compilatiom from dif- 
ferent historians) is much diminished by the 
fact that the usages of periods the most remote 
from each other are mixed together into one 
confused mass, and not unfrequently, we have 
reason to suspect, are blended with arrange- 
ments which never existed except in the fancy 
of the author. Edition by C. Lang, Leips. 
1885. It is probably right to ascribe to the 
same Vegetius the work on veterinary art called 
Mulomedicina (on the treatment of horses and 
mules), though it is written in a more popular 
style, as being intended for the use of less 
refined readers (ed. in Schneider's Script. Bei 
Busticae, Leips. 1797). 

Veiento, Fabricius, was praetor a.d. 55, and 
ran dogs instead of horses in the games. He 

[ was banished a.d. 62, in consequence of his 
having published several libels. He afterwards 
returned to Rome, and became, in the reign of 
Domitian, one of the most infamous informers 
and flatterers of that tyrant. He also enjoyed 
the friendship of Nerva. (Tac. Ann. xiv. 50; 

' Dio Cass. lxi. 6 ; Plin. Bp. iv. 22 ; Juv. iii. 185 ; 
iv. 113.) 

Veii (Veiens, -entis, Veientanus : Isola Far- 
, nese), one of the most ancient and powerful 
i cities of Etruria, situated on the river Cremfira, 
about twelve miles from Rome. It possessed a 
strongly fortified citadel, built on a hill rising 
precipitously from the deep glens which bound 
it, Bave at the single point where a narrow ridge 
unites it to the city. It was one of the twelve 
cities of the Etruscan Confederation, and appa- 
rently the largest of all. As far as we can 
judge from its present remains, it was about 
seven miles in circumference, which agrees with 
the statement of Dionysius, that it was equal 
in size to Athens. Its territory (Ager Veiens) 
was extensive, and appears originally to have 
extended on the S. and E. to the Tiber ; on the 



990 



VEIOVIS 



VENAFBUM 



SW. to tlie sea, embracing the salinae or salt- 
works at the mouth of the river ; and on the 
W. to the territory of Caere. The Ciminian 
forest appears to have been its NW, boundary ; 
on the E. it must have embraced all the district 
S. of Sorr,cte and eastward to the Tiber. The 
cities of Capena and Fidenae were colonies of 
Veii. Veii was a powerful city at the time of 
the foundation of Eome, and the most formid- I 
able and dangerous of her neighbours (Liv. i. 
15 ; Dionys. ii. 54 ; Eutrop. i. 20). The Veientes 
were engaged in almost unceasing hostilities 
with Eome for more than three centuries and a 
half, and we have records of many wars between 
the two peoples (Liv. i. 27, 33, 42, ii. 6, 42, 48, iv. 
17, 31). Veii was at length taken by the dicta- 
tor Camillus, after a siege which is said to 
have lasted ten years, during which period, 
apparently, the emissariwm for draining the 
Alban lake was formed, and by tradition was 
connected with an oracle about the siege. The 
city fell, according to the common story, by 
means of a cuniculus or mine, which was carried 
by Camillus from the Roman camp under the 
city into the citadel of Veii, in the year 396. 
(Liv. v. 8-22; Cic. Div. i. 44, iii. 32; Plut. 
Cam. 5.) So well built and spacious was Veii, 
that the Romans were anxious, after the de- 
struction of their own city by the Gauls in 390, 
to remove to Veii, and are said to have been 
only prevented from carrying their purpose 
into effect by the eloquence of Camillus (Liv. 
v. 49). From this time Veii was abandoned ; 
but after the lapse of ages it was colonised 
afresh by Augustus, and made a Roman muni- 
cipium. The new colony, however, occupied 
scarcely a third of the ancient city, and had 
again sunk into decay in the reign of Hadrian. 
From this time Veii disappears entirely from 
history, and, on the revival of letters, even its 
site was long an object of dispute. It is now 
settled, however, beyond a doubt, that it stood 
in the neighbourhood of the hamlet of Isola 
Farnese, where several remains of the ancient 
city have been discovered. Of these the most 
interesting is its cemetery. 

Veiovis, an old Italian dehty, whose temple 
at Rome stood between the Capitolium and the 
Arx in the ' Asylum,' between the sacred groves 
(' inter duos lucos ' : Ov. Fast. iii. 430 ; Gell. v. 
12). He was said to be represented as a youth- 
ful god armed with arrows, and hence was by 
some identified with Apollo. His origin and 
the meaning of his name have been variously 
explained. It is tolerably certain that the old 
explanation, Veiovis = the little Jupiter (Ov. 
Fast. iii. 445) is wrong. The prefix means 
rather ' separate from,' or ' distinct from.' 
Hence Veiovis or Vediovis is a deity distin- 
guished from Jupiter, and the most natural 
inference would be that he was the Jupiter 
Inferus presiding over the dead, and that the 
arrows are the arrows of death : nor would it 
militate against this view that he seems to have 
been a deity to whom expiatory sacrifices (of a 
goat) were offered. Some modern writers, 
however, regard him rather as the god of the 
spring-sun which was supposed to bring fevers, 
and therefore as the deity who could avert such 
fevers. His festival on the Capitoline hill 
was celebrated in March. He had also a temple 
on the Island of the Tiber, where he was wor- 
shipped in conjunction with Aesculapius in 
January. He had an ancient altar at Bovillae. 

Velabrum. [Roma, p. 805, b.J 

Velauni or Vellavi, a people in Gallia Aqui- 
tanica, in the modern Velay (Plin. iii. 137). 



Veleda, a prophetic virgin, by birth belonged 
to the Bructeri, and was regarded as a divine 
being by most of the nations in central Ger- 
many in the reign of Vespasian. She dwelt in 
a lofty tower in the neighbourhood of the river 
Luppia (Lippe). She encouraged Civilis in his 
revolt against the Romans, but she was after- 
wards taken prisoner and carried to Rome. 
(Tac. Hist. iv. 61, 65, v. 22, 24, Germ. 8 ; Stat. 
Silv. i. 4, 90 ; Dio Cass, lxvii. 5.) 

Velia or Ella, also called Hyele ('EAe'a, 
'TeA?) : CastelV a Mare delta Brucca), a Greek 
town of Lucania, on the W. coast between 
Paestum and Buxentum, was founded by the 
Phocaeans, who had abandoned their native 
city to escape from the Persian sovereignty, 
about b.c. 543 (Hdt. i. 164 ; Strab. p. 254). It 
was situated about three miles E. of the river 
Hales, and possessed a good harbour. It is 
celebrated as the place which gave the name to 
the Eleatic school of philosophy ; for Xeno- 
phanes established himself at Velia, and Par- 
menides and Zeno were born there (Diog. Laert. 
ix. 2, 20). It was noted also for its mild cli- 
mate (Hor. Fp. i. 15, 1). It possessed a cele- 
brated temple of Demeter. 

Velinus (Velino), a river in the territory of 
the Sabines, rising in the central Apennines, 
and falling into the Nar. This river in the 
neighbourhood of Reate overflowed its banks 
and formed several small lakes, the largest of 
which was called Lacus Velinus (Piediluco, 
also Lago dei Mormori). In order to carry 
off these waters, a channel was cut through the 
rocks by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of the 
Sabines, by means of which the waters of the 
Velinus were carried through a narrow gorge to 
a spot where they fall from a height of several 
hundred feet into the river Nar. This fall, 
which is one of the most celebrated in Europe, 
is known at the present day by the name of 
the fall of Terni, or the Cascata dei Mormori. 
(Tac. Ann. i. 79 ; Plin. iii. 17 ; Cic. ad Att. iv. 15.) 

Velltrae (Veliternus : Velletri), an ancient 
town of the Volscians in Latium, but subse- 
quently belonging to the Latin League. It was 
conquered by the Romans, and colonised at an 
early period, but it frequently revolted from 
Rome. It is celebrated as the birthplace of the 
emperor Augustus. (Dionys. v. 61 ; Liv. iii. 41, 
viii. 14 ; Diod. xiv. 34 ; Suet. Aug. 1.) 

Velius Longus, a Latin grammarian, known 
to us from a treatise, De Orthographia, still 
extant, printed in the Grammaticae Latinae 
Auctores Antiqui, of Putschius, 4to, Hanov. 
1605. Velius also wrote a commentary on Vir- 
gil, which is mentioned by Macrobius. He lived 
in the time of Trajan. (Gell. xviii. 9 ; Macrob. 
iii. 6, 8.) 

Vellaunodimum (Beaune), a town of the 
Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis (Caes. B. G. 
vii. 11). 

Vellavi. [Velauni.] 

Velleius Paterculus. [Patekctjlus.] 

Vellocasses, a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, 
NW. of the Parisii, extending along the Se- 
quana as far as the ocean, their chief town was 
Ratomagus (Caes. B. G. ii. 4.) 

Venafrum (Venafranus : Venafri), a town in 
the N. of Samnium, near the river Volturnus, 
and on the confines of Latium, celebrated for 
the excellence of its olives (Hor. Od. ii. 6, 16, 
Sat. ii. 4, 69 ; Juv. v. 86 ; Mart. xiii. 98 ; Varr. 
B.B. i. 2, 6). It stood on a hill rising from the 
right bank of the Volturnus, about sixteen 
miles from Casinum, and on the Via Latina. A 
colony was planted there under Augustus. 



VENANTIUS 



VENTT 



991 



Venantius Fortunatus (in full Venantius 
Jlonorius Clementianus Fortunatus], a poet of 
the sixth century a.d. (585-600). He was born 
at Tarvisium (Treviso), in Venetia, and educated 
at Ravenna, and eventually became a presbyter 
and bishop of Poitiers, having travelled much 
over the Frankish kingdoms, and even to Britain 
(Venant. Fort. iii. 26). He wrote an epic poem 
on the life of St. ilartin and a number of shorter 
poems in eleven books, chiefly in the elegiac 
metre— panegyrics, elegies, and hymns. His 
metre is good, and his writings are useful for a 
description of his time He wrote also some 
prose biographies of Saints. — Editions of his 
prose works by Krusch and of his poems by Leo. 
Berl. 1881-1885. 

Venedi or Venedae, a people in European 
Sarmatia, dwelling on the Baltic E. of the Vis- 
tula, The Sinus Venedicus (Gulf of Riga), 
and the Venedici Montes, a range of moun- 
tains between Poland and East Prussia, were 
called after this people. The name is repre- 
sented by the Sclavonic Wends. (Tac. Germ. 
46 ; Plin. iv. 97.) 
Veneris Portus. [PtbenesPbomontomum.] 
Veneris Prornontorium. [Pyrenes Prom.T 
Venetia. 1. A district in the X. of Italy, was 
originally included under the general name of 
Gallia Cisalpina, but was made by Augustus 
the tenth Regio of Italy. It was bounded on 
the W. by the river Athesis (Adige), which se- 
parated it from Gallia Cisalpina ; on the N. by 
tlie Carnic Alps ; on the E. by the river Tima- 
vus, which separated it from Istria ; and on the 
S. by the Adriatic Gulf. This country was, and 
is, very fertile, and its inhabitants enjoyed 
great prosperity. The chief productions of the 
country were excellent wool, a sweet but much 
prized wine, and race-horses. Dionysius, the 
tyrant of Syracuse, is said to have kept a stud 
of race-horses in this country. (Strab. p. 212.) 
— Its inhabitants, the Veneti, frequently called 
Heneti ('EreroQ by the Greeks, were in Greek 
traditions said to be descendants of the Paph- 
lagonian Heneti, whom Antenor led into the 
country after the Trojan war (17. ii. 85) ; but 
this tale, like so many others, has evidently 
arisen from the mere similarity of the name. 
Others supposed the Veneti to be a branch of 
the Celtic Veneti in Gaul ; but this supposition 
is disproved by the express testimony of Poly- 
bius, that they spoke a language entirely dif- 
ferent from the Celtic : and that they had no 
connexion with the Celts, may be inferred from 
the fact that they were always on hostile terms 
with the Celtic tribes settled in Italy. Hero- 
dotus regards them as an Illyrian race ; and all 
writers are agreed that they did not belong to 
the original population of Italy. (Hdt. i. 196, 
v. 9 ; Pol. ii. 17 ; Liv. i. 1 ; Strab. pp. 543, 608 ; 
Scymn. p. 889; Verg. Aen. i.247.) There is no 
reason to suppose them to be a Sclavonic 
people because their name resembled that of 
the Baltic Venedi, and on the whole the most 
probable view is that they were an Illyrian people 
who had held their own against the Celts, and had 
progressed in trade and civilisation beyond the 
more easterly Illyrians. In consequence of 
their hostility to the Celtic tribes in their neigh- 
bourhood, they formed at an early period an 
alliance with Rome ; and their country was de- 
fended by the Romans against their dangerous 
enemies. On the conquest of the Cisalpine 
Gauls, the Veneti likewise became included 
nnder the Roman dominions, and they were 
almost the only people in Italy who became the 
subjects of Rome without offering any resist- 



] ance, no doubt for the reason that they regarded 
i the Celtic races as their chief enemies (cf. Pol. 
j ii. 23, 24). In the arrangement of Augustus 
i Venetia and Histria formed the tenth Region, 
the limits of which were the Addua on the W., 
the Carnic Alps on the N., the Arsia on the E., 
and the Po and Adriatic on the S. (Plin. iii. 
126-131). The Veneti continued to enjoy great 
prosperity down to the time of the ilarcomannic 
wars, in the reign of the emperor Aurelius ; but 
from this time their country was frequently de- 
vastated by the barbarians who invaded Italy, 
and at length, in the fifth century, many of its 
inhabitants, to escape the ravages of the Huns 
under Attila, took refuge in the islands off their 
i coast, on which now stands the city of Venice, 
i The chief towns of Venetia in ancient times 
were, Patavivm, Altinum, and Aquileia. The 
two latter carried on an extensive commerce, 
and exported, among other things, large quan- 
tities of amber, which was brought from the 
Baltic through the interior of Europe to these 
cities. — 2. A district in the XW. of Gallia Lug- 
dunensis (the W. coast of Brittany) inhabited by 
the Veneti, who were a brave people, and the 
best sailors in all Gaul. Caesar gives an in- 
teresting account of the naval campaign against 
them in B.C. 56. The name is preserved by the 
modern town of Vannes. Off their coast was a 
group of islands called Insulae Veneticae 
[Belle He). 
Venetus Lacus. T^Rigantes-us Laccs.] 
Venilia, a nymph, daughter of Pilumnus, 
sister of Amata (wife of king Latinus) and 
mother of Turnus and Juturna by Daunus. 

Vennones or Venonetes, a people of Raetia, 
and according to Strabo the most savage of the 
Raetian tribes, inhabiting the S. side of the 
Alps near the sources of the Addua (Adda). 
(Strab. pp. 204, 206 ; Plin. iii. 136 ; Ptol. ii. 13, 3.) 

Venta. 1. Belgarum i Winchester), the chief 
town of the Belgae in Britain. The modern 
city contains Roman remains. — 2. Icenorum. 
[Icexi/ — 3. Silurum (Caerwent), a town of the 
Silures in Britain, in Monmouthshire. 

Venti ("Avefwi), the winds. They appear per- 
sonified, even in the Homeric poems, but at the 
same time they are conceived as ordinary phe- 
nomena of nature. The master and ruler of all 
the winds is Aeolus, who resides in the island 
Aeolia [Aeolus] ; but the other gods also, espe- 
cially Zeus, exercise a power over them (II. xii. 
281). Homer mentions by name Boreas (N. 
: wind), Euros (E. wind), Notus (S. wind], and 
Zephyros (\V. wind). Though possibly at one 
j time regarded as personal deities their distinct 
I personality, except in the case of Boreas, seems 
! to have faded away before the time of Homer. 
Boreas appears in 17. xx. 225 as the father of 
a race of horses, and the myths relating to him 
were more clearly developed in the Attic story. 
[Boreas.] Yet relics of divinity ascribed to the 
winds generally are seen in the sacrifices offered 
to them from the time of Homer down to the 
Roman imperial period. When the funeral pile 
of Patroclus could not be made to burn, Achilles 
promised to offer sacrifices to the winds ; and 
Iris accordingly hastened to them, and found 
them feasting in the palace of Zephyrus in 
Thrace. Boreas and Zephyrus thereupon 
straightway crossed the Thracian sea into Asia, 
to cause the fire to blaze. (17. xxiii. 195; cf. 
ii. 145, ix. 5 ; Od. v. 295.) According to Hesiod, 
the beneficial winds, Notus, Boreas, Argestes, 
and Zephyrus, were the sons of Astraeus and 
Eos ; and the destructive ones are said to be the 
sons of Typhoeus (Hes. Th. 378, 869). The 



992 



VENTI 



VENUS 



beneficial nature of Boreas does not, however, 
always appear, and his stormy character, re- 
sembling that of Typhon, seems to be indicated 
by his representation with serpents' feet on the 
chest of Cypselus (Paus. v. 19, 1). Later, espe- 
cially philosophical, writers endeavoured to 
define the winds more accurately, according to 
their places in the compass. Thus Aristotle, 
besides the four principal winds (Boreas or 
Aparctias, Eurus, Notus, and Zephyrus, 
mentions three, the Meses, Kaikias, and Ape- 
liotes, between Boreas and Eurus ; between 
Eurus and Notus he places the Phoenicias ; 




Notus. 

between Notus and Zephyrus he has only the 
Lips ; and between Zephyrus and Boreas he 
places the Argestes (Olympias or Skiron) and 
the Thraskias (Ar. Meteor, ii. 6). — The winds 
were represented by poets and artists in different 
ways ; the latter usually represented them as 
beings with wings at their heads and shoulders. 
The most remarkable monument representing 
the winds is the octagonal tower of Andronicus 
Cyrrhestes at Athens. Each of the eight sides 
of the monument represents one of the eight 
principal winds in a flying attitude. A move- 
able Triton in the centre of the cupola pointed 
with his staff to the wind blowing at the time. 
All these eight figures have wings at their 
shoulders, all are clothed, and the peculiarities 




Lips. 

of the winds are indicated by their bodies and 
various attributes. (1) Boreas wears a thick 
chiton and is blowing on a Triton's horn, to 
signify his power of raising storms at sea [see 
under Boebas]. (2) Kaikias, the NE. wind 
( = Aquilo), has a vessel from which he is dis- 
charging hailstones. (3) Apeliotes ( = Subso- 
lanus), the East wind, being regarded as kindly 
in Greece, carries fruit and flowers in the sinus of 
his robe. (4) Euros ( = Eurus or Volturnus), the 
warm and rainy SE. wind, shapes clouds with 
his robe. (5) Notos ( = Notus or Auster) the 
south wind, pours rain from his jar. (6) Lips 
( = Africus), the S W. wind, which blows mariners 
over the sea to the harbours of Peiraeus, holds 
a ship's aplustre. (7) Zephyrus ( = Zephyrus or 



Favonius) carries spring flowers. (8) Skiren 
( = Corus or Caurus), the NW., a parching wind, 
holds a vessel from which he is supposed to dis- 
charge hot charcoal. Black lambs were offered 
as sacrifices to the destructive winds, and white 
ones to favourable or good winds (Hor. JEpod. 
x. 23 ; Verg. Aen. iii. 120, v. 772 ; Aristoph. 
Ban. 847). Boreas had a temple on the river 
Ilissus in Attica ; and Zephyrus had an altar 
on the sacred road to Eleusis. An altar to the 
winds has been found at Antium ; and there 
is mention of sacrifices offered to winds by 
Boman commanders before an expedition, as 




Z ephyrus. 



by Scipio at Borne and by Octavian at Puteoli. 
(Liv. xxix. 27 ; App. B.C. v. 98.) 

Ventidius Bassus, P., a Boman general, was 
a native of Picenum, and was taken prisoner 
by Pompeius Strabo in the Social war (b.c. 89), 
and carried to Rome. When he grew up to 
man's estate, he got a poor living by undertaking 
to furnish mules and vehicles for those magis- 
trates who went from Rome to administer a 
province. (Dio Cass, xliii. 51 ; Gell. xv. 4 ; Val. 
Max. vi. 919.) He became known to C. Julius 
Caesar, whom he accompanied into Gaul. In 
the Civil war he executed Caesar's orders with 
ability, and became a favourite of his great 
commander. He obtained the rank of tribune 
of the plebs, and was made a praetor for B.C. 43. 
After Caesar's death Ventidius sided with M. 
Antony in the war of Mutina (43), and in the 
same year was made consul suffectus. (Cic. ad 
Fam. x. 33, xi. 10 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 65 ; Dio Cass, 
xlvii. 15, xlviii. 10; App. B.C. v. 81.) In 39 
Antony sent Ventidius into Asia, to oppose La- 
bienus and the Parthians. He conducted this 
war with distinguished ability and success. In 
the first campaign (39) he defeated the Parthians 
and Labienus, the latter of whom was slain in 
his flight after the battle ; and in the second 
campaign (38) Ventidius gained a still more 
brilliant victory over the Parthians, who had 
again invaded Syria. Pacorus, the king's son, 
fell in this battle. (Dio Cass, xlviii. 39, xlix. 21 ; 
Eutrop. vii. 3.) Antony, however, far from 
being pleased with the success of Ventidius, 
showed great jealousy of him, and dismissed 
him from his employment (Plut. Ant. 34). Yet 
his services were too great to be overlooked; 
and he had a triumph in November, 38. Nothing 
more is known of him. Ventidius was often 
cited as an instance of a man who rose from 
the lowest condition to the highest honours 
(Juv. vii. 199) : a captive became a Roman 
consul and enjoyed a triumph ; but this was in 
a period of revolution. 

Venus, an Italian goddess, who, after the 
Greek mythology influenced the Roman, was 
identified with Aphrodite, and in Latin litera- 
ture has the same myths and characteristics 
[see under Aphrodite], Originally the Italian 
Venus was a goddess of gardens and of spring 



VENUS 



VERGILITJS 



993 



flowers, having somewhat the same characteris- sacred to her, both in her old character as 
tics as Flora, Feronia, and Libera. Mer wor- goddess of gardens and in her Greek character as 
ship at Rome was not extremely ancient : that goddess of love and growth, 
is to say, it is not traceable earlier than the s Venusia (Venusinus : Venosa), an ancient 
fourth century B. c. Her name does not occur town of Apulia, S. of the river Aufidus, and 
in the ritual of the Fratres Arvales or in the near Mt. Vultur, situated in a romantic country, 
hymns of the Salii. But she had ancient sane- j and memorable as the birthplace of the poet 
tuaries in other Latin settlements, especially ; Horace. It seems to have been an Apulian 
at Ardea and Lavinium (Strab. p. 532 ; Plin. iii. city which had received an accession of territory 
56), and she seems to have been regarded as the ; from Lucania (Plin. iii. 104; Ptol. iii. 1, 73). It 
deity who promoted union among the members was captured by the Romans B.C. 262, and a 
of the League. Perhaps for this reason, as colony was sent to it (Veil. Pat. i. 14 ; Hor. 
Venus Concordia, or, more probably because Sat. ii. 1, 34). It was a refuge of a remnant of 
both were goddesses of gardens and growth in the army from Cannae, and often a headquarters 
spring, when the Greeks introduced the know- of the army (Liv. xxii. 49, xxvii. 10, 20, 41). It 
ledge of Aphrodite she was identified with was ravaged in the Social war (App. B.C. i. 52), 
Venus. It is likely enough that this influence but recovered its prosperity, which was favoured 
came first from Sicily and that the italianised by its position on the Appian Road (dead Att. 
Aphrodite was first known as Venus Erycina. v. 5, xvi. 5 ; Strab. p. 250). 
This deity was naturalised at Ardea and Lavi- Veragri or Varagri, a people in Gallia 
nium, and there the Greek stories of Aeneas took Belgica, on the Pennine Alps, near the con- 
root. When these were adopted by the Romans fluence of the Dranse and the Rhone (Caes. 
the importance of Venus was increased, for B.C. iii. 1 ; Strab. p. 204 ; Liv. xxi. 38). Their 
she was now regarded as the parent of the territory stretched up the Val de Bagnes and 
Roman race through her son Aeneas. She was the Val d'Entremont as far as the summit of 
Venus Genetrix because she had taken the the pass of the Great St. Bernard. It is not 
characteristics of Aphrodite, the goddess of impossible that their name is preserved in 
creative power (Lueret. i. 1-38), and Venus Yernayaz, at the lower end of the valley. 
Victrix as giving victory to lovers; but both Verbanus Lacus (Lago Maggiore), a lake in 
these names gained a fresh significance when Gallia Cisalpina, and the largest lake in all Italy, 
she was regarded as the mother of the Roman being about forty miles in length from N. to S. ; 
people, who gave victory to their armies. The its greatest breadth is eight miles. It is formed 
three oldest sanctuaries of Venus at Rome were by the river Ticinus and other streams descend- 
supposed to be those of Venus Murcia, Venus ; ing from the Alps, and the river Ticinus issues 
Cloacina, and Venus Libitina. For the last see ! from its southern extremity. (Plin. iii. 131 ; 
Libittna. The name Murcia was corrupted Strab. p. 209.) 

into Myrtea, as though it meant the goddess Vercellae (Vercellensis : Vercelli\, the chief 
to whom the myrtle was sacred : by many it has town of the Libici in Gallia Cisalpina 1 , and sub- 
been derived from mulcere, ' to soften,' and sequently a Roman municipium, and a place of 
Cloacina from a word cloare, ' to purify '; but it considerable importance iStrab. p. 218; Tac. 
is much more probable that both these were Hist. i. 70). For the battle fought near it by 
names from the localities where the temples of Marius, see Campi Raudh. 

the goddess were situated, i.e. near the Circus Vercingetorix, the celebrated chieftain of the 
in the Vallis Murcia, and near the Cloaca Arverni, who carried on war with great ability 
Maxima. Somewhat later, in the same district against Caesar in B.C. 52. The history of this 
of the Circus, Q. Fabius Gurges founded a war occupies the seventh book of Caesar's Corn- 
temple of Venus Obsequens (' the Compliant') militaries on the Gallic War. Vercingetorix, 
B.C. 295, because she had granted his wishes in who had roused the spirit of his countrymen 
the Samnite wars (Liv. x. 31; Serv. ad Aen. i. and had organised their defence with great skill 
720). At the beginning of the second Punic war, and heroic courage, fell into Caesar's hands on 
the worship of Venus Erycina was introduced the capture of Alesia. was subsequently taken 
from Sicily, and a temple was dedicated to her on to Rome, where he adorned the triumph of his 
the Capitol, to which subsequently another was conqueror in 45, and was afterwards put to 
added outside the Colline gate. In the year death. (Dio Cass. xl. 41, xliii. 19; Caesar, 
B.C. 114, a Vestal virgin was killed by lightning ; p. 183.) 

and as the general moral corruption, especially Veretum (Veretinus : Alessano), more 
among the Vestals, was believed to be the cause anciently called Baris, a town in Calabria, on 
of this disaster, the Sibylline books, upon the road from Leuca to Tarentum, and 600 
being consulted, commanded that a temple stadia SE. of the latter city (Strab. p. 281; 
should be built to Venus Verticordia ( = 'Airo- Ptol. iii. i. 76). 

<rrpo<pia, the goddess who turns the hearts of Vergae, a town in the interior of Bruttium. 
men) on the Via Salaria. (Ov. Fast. iv. 157 ; Val. Vergellus, a rivulet in Apulia crossing tho 
Max. viii. 15, 12.) Scipio Africanus the younger plain of Cannae, which is said to have been 
founded the temple of Venus Genetrix, in which choked by the dead bodies of the Romans slain 
he was afterwards followed by Caesar, who in the memorable battle against Hannibal 
added thatof Venus Victrix. Hadrian identified (Flor. ii. 6, 18 ; Val. Max. ix. 2, 2). 
lier with the well-being of the state in building Verglliue orVirgilius Maro, P., the Roman 
the magnificent temple of Venus and Rome, poet, was born on the 15th of October, B.C. 70, 
A. D. 135. Another name borne by Venus at at Andes (Pietola), a small village near Mantua, 
Rome was CalvaC the bald '), which is explained in Cisalpine Gaul. There is no doubt that 
by the story (not unknown in other countries, Vergilius is the more correct spelling : the ar- 
e.g. at Carthage), that in the Gallic siege of Rome guments are as follows : inscriptions where tho 
the women cutoff their hair to make bow-strings name occurs in tho republic and in the earlier 
(Serv. ad Aen. i.720). A less romantic explana- centuries of the empire write Vergilius, never 
tion was that she was prayed to by women to Virgilius, and the Hume is true of the older MSS., 
prevent their hair falling off. The month of as the Medicean : moreover the Greek authors 
April, as the beginning of spring, was peculiarly wriLo Bfpyl\ios or CvfpylAios. In the middle 



994 



VEEGILIUS 



ages the spelling Virgilius became common and 
eventually prevailed, owing to fanciful deriva- 
tions from virgo or virga. The earliest known 
instance of the spelling Virgilius is in the fifth 
century a.d. (C.I.L. vi. 1710). It is therefore 
better to write the Latin name Vergilius ; but 
when it is Anglicised the established form, 
Virgil, may reasonably be retained. — Virgil's 
father probably had a small estate which he 
cultivated, and he is said to have supplemented 
this by keeping bees. His mother's name was 
Magia Polla. He was educated at Cremona 
and Mediolanum (Milan), and he took the toga 
virilis at Cremona on the day on which he 
began his sixteenth year, in 55. It is said that 
he subsequently studied at Neapolis (Naples) 
under Parthenius, a native of Bithynia, from 
whom he learned Greek. He was also in- 
structed by Siron, an Epicurean, whose lectures 
were attended also by Alfenus Varus (Vabus, 
No. 1], at Rome, where he was also taught rhe- 
toric by Epidius at the same time as Octavianus. 
Virgil's writings prove that he received a 
learned education, and traces of Epicurean 
opinions are apparent in them (e.g. Georg. ii. 
490). The health of Virgil was always feeble, 
and there is no evidence of his attempting to 
rise by those means by which a Roman gained 
distinction, oratory and the practice of arms. 
After completing his education, Virgil appears 
to have retired to his paternal farm. After the 
battle of Philippi (42) Octavian assigned to his 
soldiers lands in various parts of Italy. Oc- 
tavius Musa, who was charged with this allot- 
ment in the Cremona district, extended the 
limits so as to include Mantua (cf. Eel. ix. 28), 
and the farm belonging to Virgil's father was as- 
signed to a centurion, whose name is given as 
Arrius. Asinius Pollio, the legatus of Trans- 
pad&ne Gaul, and Cornelius Gallus interested 
themselves in Virgil, who was probably already 
known to them as a poet, and advised him to 
apply to Octavian at Rome. Virgil did so, his 
father's farm was restored, and the first Eclogue 
expresses gratitude to Octavian. But there 
was a second spoliation when, after the war of 
Perusia, Alfenus Varus became legatus in 
Pollio's place. A primipilaris named Milienus 
Toro got possession of the farm and Virgil 
himself was nearly killed by the violence of a 
certain Clodius. Virgil and his father took 
refuge in a country house belonging to Siro 
(Catal. 10), and thence removed to Rome, where 
he wrote the Eclogues. Here Maecenas also 
became interested in Virgil, who was compen- 
sated by Augustus. He did not, indeed, recover 
his paternal estate, but land was given him 
elsewhere — possibly the estate which he had 
near Nola in Campania (Gell. vi. 20). His 
friendship with Maecenas was soon so firmly 
established that he was able to gain the same 
patronage for Horace (Hor. Sat. i. 6, 54). Ho- 
race, in one of his Satires (Sat. i. 5), in which 
he describes the journey from Rome to Brun- 
dusium, mentions Virgil as one of the party, 
and in language which shows that they were 
then in the closest intimacy. The most finished 
work of Virgil, his Georgica, an agricultural 
poem, was undertaken at the suggestion of 
Maecenas (Georg. iii. 41). The concluding 
lines of the Georgica were written at Naples 
(Georg. iv. 559), and the poem was completed 
after the battle of Actium, B.C. 31, while Octavian 
was in the East. (Comp. Georg. iv. 560, and ii. 
171.) Some of his pastoral poetry seems to have 
been written in the country of Tarentum (Prop, 
iii. 24, 67). His Eclogues had all been coni- 



I pleted, and probably before the Georgica were 
begun (Georg. iv. 565). The epic poem of Virgil, 
the Aeneid, was probably long contemplated 
by the poet. While Augustus was in Spain (27), 
he wrote to Virgil to express his wish to have 
some monument of his poetical talent. Virgil 
appears to have begun the Aeneid about 
this time. In 23 died Marcellus, the son of 
Octavia (Caesar's sister) by her first husband ; 
and Virgil introduced into his sixth book of 
the Aeneid (883) the well-known allusion to the 
virtues of this youth, who was cut off by a 
premature death. Octavia is said to have been 
present when the poet was reciting this allusion 
to her son and to have fainted from her emo- 
tions. She rewarded the poet munificently for 
his excusable flattery. As Marcellus did not 
die till 23, these lines were of course written 
after that date, but that does not prove that 
the whole of the sixth book was written so late. 
A passage in the seventh book (606) appears to 
allude to Augustus receiving back the Parthian 
standards, which event belongs to 20. When 
Augustus was returning from Samos, where he 
had spent the winter of 20, he met Virgil at 
Athens. The poet, it is said, had intended to 
make a tour of Greece, but he accompanied 
the emperor to Megara and thence to Italy. 
His health, which had long been declining, was 
now completely broken, and he died soon after 
his arrival at Brundusium, on the 22nd of Sep- 
tember, 19, not having quite completed his 
fifty-first year. His remains were transferred 
to Naples, which had been his favourite resi- 
dence, and on the road from Naples to Puteoli 
(Pozzuoli) a monument is still shown, sup- 
posed to be the tomb of the poet. The inscrip- 
tion said to have been placed on the tomb, 

Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc 
Parthenope. Cecini pascua, rata, duces, 

we cannot suppose to have been written by the 
poet. Virgil named as heredes in his testa- 
ment his half-brother Valerius Proculus, to 
whom he left one half of his property, and also 
Augustus, Maecenas, L. Varius and Plotius 
Tucca. It is said that in his last illness he 
wished to burn the Aeneid, to which he had 
not given the finishing touches, but his friends 
would not allow him. Whatever he may have 
wished to be done with the Aeneid, it was pre- 
served and published by his friends Varius and 
Tucca. The poet had been enriched by the 
liberality of his patrons, and he left behind 
him a considerable property and a house on 
the Esquiline Hill near the gardens of Maece- 
nas. He used his wealth liberally, and it is 
said that he supported his father, who became 
blind, but did not die before his son had attained 
a mature age. In his fortunes and his friends 
Virgil was a happy man. Munificent patronage 
gave him ample means of enjoyment a,nd of 
leisure, and he had the friendship of all the 
most accomplished men of the day, among 
whom Horace entertained a strong affection for 
him. He was an amiable, good-tempered man, 
free from the mean passions of envy and 
jealousy; and in all but health he was prosper- 
ous. His fame, which was established in his 
lifetime, was cherished after his death as an 
inheritance in which every Roman had a share, 
and his works became school-books even before 
the death of Augustus. His poems were con- 
sulted for chance oracles (sortes Vergilianae) 
under the Roman empire (Capit. Albin. 5 ; 
Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 4 ; Spartian. Hadr. 2). 
The learned poems of Virgil soon gave employ- 



YERGILTUS 



995 



rnent to commentators and critics. Aulus 
Gellius has numerous remarks on Virgil, and 
Macrobius, in his Saturnalia, has filled four 
books (iii.-vi.) with his critical remarks on Vir- 
gil's poems. One of the most valuable commen- 
taries on Virgil, in which a great amount of curious 
and instructive matter has been preserved, is 
that of Servius [Servius]. — The chief authority 
for the Life of Virgil, apart from casual notices 
in his own poems or in those of contemporary 
poets, is the biography prefixed to the commen- 
tary on Virgil written by Aelius Donatus in 
the fourth century A.D. This Life was derived 
by Donatus from the biography composed by 
Suetonius in his de Viris IUustribws. [Dona- 
tus.] Suetonius is said to have derived his 
information from accounts by Varius, and by 
Melissus, who was a freedman of Maecenas 
(Gell. xvii. lOj. Another Life of Virgil was 
compiled from the commentary of Valerius 
Probus ; a third, found in Jerome, is also derived 
from Suetonius ; a fourth, of unknown author- 
ship, is prefixed to the commentary of Servius 
on the Aeneid ; and a fifth, also of unknown date, 
is found in the Bemese MS. of Virgil. The 1 
grammarian Phocas, in the fifth century, made | 
a version in hexameters of Donatus's Life of , 
Virgil. Virgil was the great poet of the middle 
ages, too, and Dante owned him for his master 
and his model. — The ten short poems called 
Bucolica were the earliest works of Virgil, and 
probably all written between 41 and 39. These J 
Bucolica are not Bucolica in the same sense as the 
poems of Theocritus, which have the same title. [ 
They have all a pastoral form and colouring, but 
some of them have nothing more. They are also 
called Eclogae or Selections, but there is no rea- 
son to suppose that this name originated with 
the poet. Their merit consists in their versifica- ! 
tion(whichwassmootherandmorepolished than 
the hexameters which the Romans had yet seen), 
and in many natural and simple touches. But 
as an attempt to transfer the Syracusan muse 
into Italy, they bear the stamp of imitations 
and, however graceful and melodious, cannot 
be ranked with the more genuine pastorals of 
Theocritus. ThefourthEclogue,entitledPo//i'o, 
which may have been written in 40, after the 
peace of Brundusium, has nothing of the pas- ' 
toral character about it. It is half allegorical, 
half historical and prophetical — anything, in 1 
fact, but Bucolic. The first Eelogue'is Bucolic in | 
form and in treatment, with a historical basis. 
The second Eclogue, the Alexis, is an amatory 
poem, with a Bucolic colouring. The third, 
the fifth, the seventh, and the ninth, are more 
clearly modelled on the form of the poems of 
his Sicilian prototype ; and the eighth, the 
Pharmuceutria, is a direct imitation of the 
original Greek. The tenth entitled Gallus, 
perhaps written the last of all, is a love poem, , 
which, if written in elegiac verse, would be 
more appropriately culled an Elegy than a Bu- j 
colic. — The Georgica or ' Agricultural Poem ' 
in four books, written (37-30 B.C.), is a didactic i 
poem, which Virgil dedicated to his patron | 
Maecenas. He treats of the cultivation of | 
the soil in the first book, of fruit trees in the 
second, of horses and other cattle in the third, 
and of bees in the fourth. This is generally 
regarded as his masterpiece, and it is unques- 
tionably the most finished and perfect of his 
works, showing wonderful skill in treating the 
more prosaic subjects of practical daily life and , 
embellishing them with magnificent bursts of 
poetry, yet so as to present a complete and : 
harmonious work. Its versificati on is the per. 



fection of the Latin hexameter. Yet, great as 
are these merits, the Aeneid is the greater poem 
of the two ; in grandeur, in poetical matter and, 
to most readers, in interest, it is superior, and 
yields only to the Georgics in artistic complete- 
ness. The Georgics are, no doubt, based on 
the works of Hesiod and Aratus, but are so 
treated as to be rightly regarded as an original 
poem. In the first book he enumerates the 
subjects of Iris poem, among which is the treat- 
ment of bees; yet the management of bees 
seems but meagre material for one fourth of 
the whole poem, and the author accordingly 
completed the fourth book with matter 
somewhat extraneous— the long story of Ari- 
staeus. — The Aeneid, or adventures of Aeneas 
after the fall of Troy, is an epic poem on the 
model of the Homeric poems. It was founded 
upon an old Boman tradition that Aeneas and 
his Trojans settled in Italy, and were the 
founders of the Boman name. In the first 
book we have the story of Aeneas being driven 
by a storm on the coast of Africa, and being 
hospitably received by Dido, queen of Carthage, 
to whom he relates in the episode of the second 
and third books the fall of Troy and his wan- 
derings. In the fourth book the poet has 
elaborated the story of the attachment of Dido 
and Aeneas, the departure of Aeneas in obedi- 
ence to the will of the gods, and the suicide of 
the Carthaginian queen. The fifth book con- 
tains the visit to Sicily, and the sixth the 
landing of Aeneas at Cumae in Italy, and his 
descent to the infernal regions, where he sees 
his father Anchises, and has a prophetic vision 
of the glorious destinies of his race and of the 
future heroes of Borne. In the first six books 
the adventures of Odysseus in the Odgssey are 
the model, and these books contain more va- 
riety of incident and situation than those which 
follow. The last six books, the history of the 
struggles of Aeneas in Italy, are founded on 
the model of the battles of the Iliad. Latinus, 
the king of the Latini, offers the Trojan hero 
his daughter Lavinia in marriage, who had 
been betrothed to Tumus, the warlike king of 
the Butuli. The contest is ended by the death 
of Tumus, who falls by the hand of Aeneas. 
The fortunes of Aeneas and his final settlement 
in Italy are the subject of the Aeneid ; but it is 
the national epic of the Boman people, and its 
real object is to set forth the glories of Rome 
and, less directly, of the Julian house, to which 
Augustus belonged, and to foster in the Romans 
a patriotic feeling and, still more, a religious 
sentiment for the gods and heroes of their an- 
cestors. In the first book the foundation of 
Alba Longa is promised by Jupiter to Venus 
{Aeneid, i. 254), and the transfer of empire 
from Alba to Rome ; from the line of Aeneas 
will descend the ' Trojan Caesar,' whoso empire 
will only be limited by the ocean, and his 
glory by the heavens. The future rivalry be- 
tween Borne and Carthage, and the ultimate 
triumphs of Borne are predicted. The poems 
abound in allusions to tho history of Borne ; 
and tho aim of the poet toconfinn and embellish 
the popular tradition of the Trojan origin of 
the Roman state, and the descent of tho Julii 
from Venus, is apparent throughout. More 
interest is excited by Turnus than by Aeneas. 
It is true (but it might be said of the Iliad that 
the character of Hector wins more admiration 
than that of Achilles ; but the cases ore not 
parallel, since Aeneas is in himself a weak and 
insipid personago, and unsuited to bo tho hero 
of an epic. Virgil imituted other poets besides 

U ■ 9 



99G 



VERGINIUS 



VERRES 



Homer, and he has occasionally borrowed from 
them, especially from Apollonius of Rhodes. 
The historical colouring which pervades it, and 
the great amount of antiquarian learning which 
he has scattered through it make the Aeneid a 
study for the historian of Rome. — The larger 
editions of Virgil contain some short poems, 
which are attributed to him. The Calex or 
Gnat is a kind of Bucolic poem in 413 hexa- 
meters, often very obscure. "Virgil is known to 
have written a poem of this name (Donat. Vit.\ 
Sueton. Vit. Lucan. ; Stat. Silv. ii. 7, 73) ; but 
it is on the whole probable that the poem which 
we have is by an imitator of Virgil. The Ciris, 
or the mythus of Scylla the daughter of Nisus, 
king of Megara, in 541 hexameters, borrows 
from Virgil's forms, but was probably written 
by an imitator of Catullus, belonging to the 
literary circle of Messalla. The Moretum, in 
123 verses, the name of a dish of various ingre- 
dients is a poem in hexameters, on the daily 
labour of a cultivator, but it contains only the de- 
scription of the labours of the first part of the 
day, which consists in preparing the Moretum. 
It is suggested, with probability, that this may be 
a translation or adaptation by Virgil of a Greek 
poem of Parthenius. The Copa, in elegiac 
verse, is an invitation by a female tavern keeper 
or servant attached to a Caupona to passengers 
to come in and enjoy themselves. There is no 
reason against accepting this as Virgil's work. 
There are also fourteen short pieces in various 
metres, classed under the general name of 
Catalepton (sometimes written Catalecta). 
The name is derived from a title {Kara. 
Aeirrbv) which Aratus gave to a set of small 
poems (Strab. p. 486). They were written in 
the period of Virgil and it is probable that many 
are by Virgil — some the work of his earlier 
years. — Editions of Virgil by Heyne, Leips. 
1798; Ribbeck, Leips. 1859; Conington (re- 
vised by Nettleship), 1883 ; Sidgwick, 1890. 

Verginlus. [Vibginius.] 

Vermina, son of Syphax. He sided with the 
Carthaginians, and was attacked and defeated 
by the Romans after the battle of Zama. He 
made his peace with them, but much of his 
territory went to Masinissa. (Liv. xxix. 331, 
xxx. 36, xxxi. 11, 19.) 

Verolamium or Verulamium (Old Verulam, 
near St. Albans), the chief town of the Catuvel- 
launi in Britain, probably the residence of the 
king Cassivellaunus, which was conquered by 
Caesar. It was subsequently made a Roman 
municipium. It was destroyed by the Britons 
under Boudicca or Boadicea, in their insurrec- 
tion against the Romans, but was rebuilt and 
continued to be an important place. 

Veromandui, a people in Gallia Belgica, 
between the Nervii and Suessiones, in the 
modern Vermandois. Their chief town was 
Augusta Veromanduorum (St. Quentin). 
(Caes. B.G. ii. 4 ; Ptol. iii. 9, 11.) 

Verona (Veronensis; Verona), an important 
town in Gallia Cisalpina, on the river Athesis 
(Adige : Sil. It. viii. 595), was originally the 
capital of the Euganei, but subsequently 
belonged to the Cenomani. At a still later 
time it was made a Roman colony, with the 
surname Augusta ; and under the empire it 
was one of the largest and most flourishing 
towns in the N. of Italy. It was the birthplace 
of Catullus. (Ov. Am. iii. 15, 7 ; Mart. x. 103.) 
It is celebrated on account of the victory won 
in its neighbourhood by Theodoric the Great 
over Odoacer (Jordan. Get. 57). Theodoric 
took up his residence in this town, whence it is 



called by the German writers of the middle 
ages Dietrichs Bern, to distinguish it from Bern 
in Switzerland. There are still many Roman 
remains at Verona, and, among others, a mag- 
nificent amphitheatre, and part of the walls 
built by Gallienus a.d. 265. 

Verres, C, was quaestor b.c. 82, to Cn. 
Papirius Carbo, and therefore at that period 
belonged to the Marian party. He, however, 
deserted Carbo, embezzling at the same time 
the state money which he held as quaestor, and 
went over to Sulla, who sent him to Bene- 
ventum, where he was allowed a share of the 
confiscated estates. Verres next appears as 
the legate of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella, praetor 
of Cilicia in 80-79, and one of the most rapacious 
of the provincial governors. On the death of 
the regular quaestor, C. Malleolus, Verres 
became the pro-quaestor of Dolabella. In Verres 
Dolabella found an active and unscrupulous 
agent, and, in return, connived at his excesses. 
But the pro-quaestor proved as faithless to 
Dolabella as he had been to Carbo, and gave 
evidence against him on his prosecution by 
M. Scaurus in 78. Verres was praetor urbanus 
in 74, and afterwards pro-praetor in Sicily, where 
he remained nearly three years (73-71). The 
extortions and exactions of Verres in the island 
have become notorious through the celebrated 
orations of Cicero. No class of the inhabitants 
of Sicily was exempted from his avarice, his 
cruelty, or his insults. The wealthy had money 
or works of art to yield up ; the middle classes 
might be made to pay heavier imposts ; and 
the exports of the vineyards, the arable land 
and the loom he saddled with heavier burdens. 
By capricious changes or violent abrogation of 
their compacts, Verres reduced to beggary both 
the producers and the farmers of the revenue. 
His three years' rule desolated the island more 
effectually than the two recent Servile wars, 
and than the old struggle between Carthage 
and Rome for the possession of the island. So 
diligently did he employ his opportunities that 
he boasted of having amassed enough for a life 
of opulence, even if he were compelled to dis- 
gorge two-thirds of his plunder in stifling 
inquiry or purchasing an acquittal. As soon as 
he left Sicily the inhabitants resolved to bring 
him to trial. They committed the prosecution 
to Cicero, who had been quaestor in Sicily 
in 75, and had promised his good offices to 
the Sicilians whenever they might demand 
| them. Cicero heartily entered into the cause 
of the Sicilians, and spared no pains to secure 
a conviction of the great criminal. Verres was 
defended by Hortensius, and was supported by 
the whole power of the aristocracy. At first 
his partisans attempted to stop the prosecution 
by bribes, flatteries, and menaces ; but finding 
this to be impossible, they endeavoured to sub- 
stitute a sham prosecutor in the place of 
Cicero. Hortensius therefore offered as prose- 
cutor Q. Caecilius Niger, who had been quaestor 
to the defendant, had quarrelled with him, and 
had consequently, it was alleged, the means of 
exposing officially his abuse of the public 
money. But the Sicilians rejected Caecilius 
altogether, not merely as no match for Hor- 
tensius, but as foisted into the cause by the 
defendant or his advocate. By a technical 
process of the Roman law, called Divinatio, 
the judices, without hearing evidence, deter- 
mined from the arguments of counsel alone 
who should be appointed prosecutor. [Diet, of 
Ant. art. Divinatio.] They decided in Cicero's 
favour. The oration which Cicero delivered on 



VERRUGO 

this occasion was the Divinatio in Q. Cae- I 
cilium. The pretensions of Caecilius were 
thus set aside. But hope did not yet forsake j 
Verres and his friends. Evidence for the pro- 
secution was to be collected in Sicily itself. 
Cicero was allowed 110 days for the purpose. 
Verres once again attempted to set up a sham ' 
prosecutor, who undertook to impeach him for 
his former extortions in Achaia, and to gather 
the evidence in 108 days. But the new prose- 
cutor never went even so far as Brundusium in 
quest of evidence, and the design was aban- 
doned. Instead of the 110 days allowed, 
Cicero, assisted by his cousin Lucius, completed 
his researches in fifty, and returned with a 
mass of evidence and a crowd of witnesses 
gathered from all parts of the island. Hortensius 
now grasped at his last chance of an acquittal, 
and it was not an unlikely one. Could the im- ; 
peachment be put off to the next year, Verres j 
was safe. Hortensius himself would then be J 
consul, with Q. Metellus for his colleague, and 
M. Metellus would be praetor urbanus. For 
every firm and honest judex whom the upright 
31. Acilius Glabrio, then praetor urbanus, had 
named, a partial or venal substitute would be 
found. Glabrio himself would give place as 
quaesitor or president of the court to M. 
iletellus, a partisan, if not a kinsman, of the 1 
defendant. It was already the month of July. 
The games to be exhibited by Cn. Pompey were 
fixed for the middle of August, and would 
occupy a fortnight ; the Roman games would 
immediately succeed them, and thus forty days 
intervene between Cicero's charge and the 
reply of Hortensius, who again, by dexterous 
adjournments, would delay the proceedings 
until the games of Victory and the commence- 
ment of the new year. Cicero therefore aban- 
doned all thought of eloquence or display, and, 
merely introducing his case in the first of the 
Verrine orations, rested all his hopes of success 
on the weight of testimony alone. Hortensius 
was quite unprepared with counter-evidence, 
and after the first day he abandoned the cause 
of Verres. Before the nine days occupied in 
hearing evidence were over Verres quitted the 
city in despair, and was condemned in his 
absence. He retired to Marseilles, retaining so 
many of his treasures of art as to cause 
eventually his proscription by M. Antony in 
43. — Of the seven Verrine orations of Cicero, 
two only, the Divinatio and the Actio Prima, 
were spoken, while the remaining five were 
compiled from the depositions after the verdict. 
Cicero's own division of the impeachment is the 
following : 

f 1. In Q. Caecilium or Divinatio. 

1. Preliminary - 2. Prooeminm — Actio Prima — 

( Statement of the Case. 

These alone were spoken. 
. ~ .. i 8. Verres' official life to b.c. 73. 

2. Orat.ons | 4 , Jurisdictio Sici i ien si 8 . 

ounde.l on Frumentaria. 
the Deposi- „ 



VESPASIANTJS 



997 



tions. 



■De Signis. 
■ De Suppliciis. 



These were circulated as documents or mani- 
festoes of the cause after the llight of Verres. 

Verrugo, a town of the Volsci in Latium, of 
uncertain site, perhaps at Colle Ferro, near 
Segni (Liv. iv. 1, 55, v. 28 ; Diod. xiv. llj. 

Verticordia. [Venub. 

Vertumnus <>r Vortumnus is Haid to have 
been an Etruscan divinity whose worship was 
introduced at Rome by an ancient Vulsinian 
colony occupying at first the Coelian hill and 



afterwards the Vicus Tuscus. But he was really 
an Italian deity, worshipped by Latins and 
Sabines, and the only reason for the tradition 
of his Etruscan origin seems to have been that 
his statue stood in the Vicus Tuscus. (V arro, 
L. L. v. 74.) The name is evidently the old 
present participle passive of verto, and belonged 
to him as the god of the ' turning year ' — that 
is, of the seasons, whose various hues and fruits 
at different times are represented by the myth 
of the metamorphoses of Vertumnus ; the god 
being in reality the giver of the seasonable 
produce of the year, connected with the 
transformation of plants and their progress 
from blossom to fruit. (Propert. v. 2, 11 ; 
Tibull. iv. 2, 13; Comm. x. 308.) Hence the 
story that when Vertumnus was in love with 
Pomona he assumed all possible forms, until at 
last he gained his end by changing him- 
self into a handsome youth (Propert. v. 2 ; Ov. 
Met. xiv. 623 ; Pomona). Gardeners accord- 
ingly offered to him the first produce of their 
gardens and garlands of budding flowers. The 
shrine and statue of Vertumnus stood at the 
W. end of the Vicus Tuscus, where remains 
have been found. It was probably from his 
presence in a busy street of traders that he was 
supposed to be connected with trade and sale 
or exchange. Propertius alludes also to a 
tradition that the Tiber had flowed once where 
his shrine stood, and that he was named ' verso 
ab amne ' (v. 2, 10). This story may come 
partly from the name and partly from recollec- 
tion of the ancient draining of that quarter. 

Verulae iVerulanus: Veroli), a town of the 
Hernici in Latium, SE. of Aletrium, and N. of 
Frusino, subsequently a Eoman colony (Liv. 
ix. 42). 

Verulamium. IVeroi.amium.] 

Virus, L. Aurelius, the colleague of M. Aure- 
lius in the empire, a.d. 1G1-1C9. He was born 
in 130, and his original name was L. Ceionius 
Commodus. His father, L. Ceionius Commodus, 
was adopted by Hadrian in 13G ; and, on the 
death of his father in 138, he was, in pursuance 
of the command of Hadrian, adopted, along with 
If. Aurelius, by M. Antoninus. On the death 
of Antoninus, in 161, he succeeded to the 
empire along with M. Aurelius. The history 
of his reign is given under Aurelius. Verus 
died suddenly at Altinum, in the country of the 
Veneti, towards the close of 169. He had been 
married to Lucilla, the daughter of his col- 
league. 

Vescinus Ager. [Suessa Aubvxca.] 
Veseris, a small river of Campania, near 
Vesuvius, on the banks of which the battle 
against the Latins was fought by Manlius 
Torquatus and Decius Mus B.C. 340 (Liv. viii. 8 ; 
Cic. Fin. i. 7 ; Aurel. Vict. Vir. III. 20, 28). 
Vesevus. [Vesuvius. 

Vesontio i Hrsanroni. the chief town of the 
Sequani in Gallia Belgicu, situated on the river 
Dubis (Doubti), which flowed around the town, 
with the exception of a space of 600 feet, on 
which stood a mountain, forming the citadel of 
the town, and connected with the latter by 
means of walls. Vesontio was an important 
place under the Romans, and still contains 
ruins of an aqueduct, a triumphal arch, and 
other Roman remains. (Cues. B. G. i. 38 ; 
Ptol. ii. 9, 21; Dio Cass, xxxviii. 84.) 

Vespasianus, T. Flavlus Sabinus, Roman 
emperor a.d. 70-79, was born in the Sabine 
country on the 17th of November, a.d. 9. His 
father was a man of mean condition, of Re ate, 
in the country of the Sabini. His mother, 



998 VESPASIANUS 



VESTA 



Vespasia Polla, was the daughter of a prae- 
fectus castrorum, and the sister of a Roman 
senator. She was left a widow with two sons 
— Flavius Sabinus and Vespasian. Vespasian 
served as tribunus militum in Thrace, and was 
quaestor in Crete and Cyrene. He was after- 
wards aedile and praetor. About this time he 
took to wife Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of 
a Roman eques, by whom he had two sons, both 
of whom succeeded him. In the reign of 
Claudius he was sent into Germany as legatus 
legionis, and in 43 he held the same command 
in Britain, and reduced the Isle of Wight. He 
was consul in 51, and proconsul of Africa under 
Nero. He was at this time very poor, and was 
accused of getting money by dishonourable 
means. But he had a great military reputation, 
and he was liked by the soldiers. Nero after- 
wards sent him to the East (66), to conduct the 
war against the Jews. His conduct of the 
Jewish war had raised his reputation, when the 
war broke out between Otho and Vitellius after 
the death of Galba. He was proclaimed 
emperor at Alexandria on the 1st of July, 69 




VeBpasian. (From the bust at Naples.) 



and soon after all through the East. Vespasian 
came to Rome in the following year (70), leaving 
his son Titus to continue the war against the 
Jews. Titus took Jerusalem after a siege of 
five months ; and a formidable insurrection of 
the Batavi, headed by Civilis, was put down 
about the same period. Vespasian, on his 
arrival at Rome, worked with great industry to 
restore order in the city and in the empire. He 
disbanded some of the mutinous soldiers of 
Vitellius, and maintained discipline among his 
own. He co-operated in a friendly manner 
with the senate in the public administration. 
The simplicity and frugality of his mode of life 
formed a striking contrast with the profusion 
and luxury of some of his predecessors, and his 
example is said to have done more to reform 
the morals of Rome than all the laws which 
had ever been enacted. He lived more like a 
private person than a man who possessed 
supreme power: he was affable and easy of 
access to all persons. The personal anecdotes 
of such a man are some of the most instructive 
records of his reign. He was never ashamed 
of the meanness of his origin, and ridiculed all 



i attempts to make out for him a distinguished 

' genealogy. When Vologeses, the Parthian 
king, addressed to him a letter commencing in 
these terms, ' Arsaces, king of kings, to Flavius 
Vespasianus,' the answer began, ' Plavius Ves- 
pasianus to Arsaces, king of kings.' If it be 
true, as it is recorded, that he was not annoyed 
at satire or ridicule, he exhibited an elevation 
of character almost unparalleled in one who 
filled so exalted a station. He knew the bad 
character of his son Domitian, and as long as 
he lived he kept him under proper restraint. 
The stories that are told of his avarice and of 
his modes of raising money, if true, detract 
from the dignity of his character ; and it seems 
that he had a taste for little savings and for 
coarse humour. Yet it is admitted that he was 
liberal in all his expenditure for purposes of 
public utility. In 71 Titus returned to Rome, 
and both father and son triumphed together 

| on account of the conquest of the Jews. The 
reign of Vespasian was marked by the conquest 
of North Wales and the island of Anglesey by 
Agricola, who was sent into Britain in 78. 
Vespasian also busied himself in securing the 
German frontier: he fortified the Agri Decu- 
mates and strengthened the defences of the 
Limes Germanicus. [Gebmania.] In Italy he 
reorganised the praetorian guard, forming it of 
nine cohorts levied only from Italians. His 
financial management was marked by great 
economy ; but he was the author of some 
remarkable public works at Rome, the building 
of the magnificent Temple of Peace, and the 
rebuilding of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. 
[Roma, pp. 803, 804.] In the summer of 79 
Vespasian, whose health was failing, went to 
spend some time at his paternal house in the 
mountains of the Sabini, but derived no benefit 
from the treatment. He still attended to busi- 
ness, just as if he had been in perfect health, 
and, on feeling the approach of death, he said 
that an emperor should die standing ; and in 
fact he did die in this attitude, on the 24th of 
June, 79, being sixty-nine years of age. (Tac. 
Hist. ; Suet. Vesp. ; Dio Cass, cxvi.) 

Vesta, an Italian goddess of the hearth and 
more especially of the fire on the hearth, both 
in name and in nature akin to the Greek 
Hestia, but worshipped by the Italian nations, 
particularly by the Latins, from ancient times 
independently of any connexion with Greece. It 
has been well shown, especially by Mr Frazer, 
that the worship of Vesta had its origin in the 
difficulty and the necessity of obtaining fire in 
primitive times. Hence, as even in the present 
time among savage tribes, arose the custom of 

' keeping a fire always alight somewhere for the 
use of the community and of carrying fire thence 
for any new settlement. This custom was pre- 
served by the conservatism of religion among 
civilised Greeks and Romans, after the neces- 
sity had ceased to exist [see Diet, of Ant. art. 
Prytaneum], and the state-hearth was pre- 
served in each Latin state, just as in Greece ; 
and in like fashion an outgoing settlement 
carried its sacred fire from the parent city. 
It was natural that from these observances the 
sacred flame itself should become personified as 
a goddess (Ov. Fast. vi. 291) who presided over 
the hearth of each house, and in the state-hearth 
(or sanctuary of Vesta) over the whole common- 
wealth. Vesta was thus intimately connected 
with the Penates as deities of the household and 
of the state [Penates] ; and the fact that the sa- 
cred fire was brought from the parent city made 
the Romans trace back the origin of the cult to 



VESTINI 

the more ancient Latin settlements, first to 
Lanuvium and Alba, and, after the idea of a 
Trojan origin prevailed, to Troy itself, whence 
it was supposed the sacred fire of Vesta as well 
as the Penates had come (Verg. Aen. ii. 296). 
To this cause belongs the ancient custom at 
Rome that praetors, consuls and dictators, be- 
fore they began their functions, sacrificed at 
Lanuvium, that town having been an ancient 
religious centre of the Latins. At Rome, as in 
other Latin cities, the sacred fire was tended and 
the service of Vesta maintained by a body of 
virgin priestesses, who lived together in a house 
(Atrium Vestae) to the SE. of the Forum, and 
under the NW. side of the Palatine, abutting 
on the Via Nova. This house, as rebuilt under 
Hadrian, was excavated in 1883, and from its 
character and the inscriptions (as late as the 
beginning of the fourth century a.b.) and sculp- 
tures found in it much additional light has been 
thrown on the Vestal service. An account is 
given in Diet, of Ant. art. Vestales : it is 
enough here to notice that in all matters a 
simplicity of life and of the household imple- 
ments was preserved which marks the institu- 
tion as being very ancient, with its peculiar 
characteristics handed down from a primitive 
age. In fact it is no doubt right to assume 
that the Vestals represented the daughters of 
the chief in the primitive tribe, who maintained 
the state-fire in their father's hut. When 
Vesta was recognised as a personal deity it be- 
came necessary that the priestesses should 
dwell in a sort of nunnery, and that the god- 
dess should have a separate temple ; but this 
Aedes Vestae preserved the shape of the primi- 
tive chief's hut, and was a round building [see 
Rojia, p. 810]. The public worship of Vesta 
was maintained in this temple : her private 
worship belonged to every domestic hearth— 
in the earliest Roman houses in the Atrium [see 
Diet, of Ant. art. Domus, and compare Lares ; 
Penates]. In her aspect as a benign goddess 
of fire Vesta seems to have been akin to or 
identical with Stata Mater. 

Vestmi, a Sabellian people in central Italy, 
dwelling between the Apennines and the Adriatic 
sea, and separated from Picenum by the river 
Matrinus, and from the Marrucini by the river 
Aternus. Their country is cut in two by a spur 
of the Apennines through which the Aternus 
finds its way by a narrow passage. They are 
mentioned in connexion with the Marsi, Mar- 
rucini, and Paeligni ; but they subsequently 
separated from these peoples, and joined the 
Samnites in their war against Rome. They 
were conquered by the Romans, B.C. 322, when 
their towns Cutina and Cingilia were taken 
(\Av. viii. 29) ; in 301 they made a treaty with 
Rome (Liv. x. 3), and from that time appear 
as faithful allies until the Social war, when 
they joined the Italian states against Rome, 
and were conquered by Pompeius Strabo in 89. 
(App. B.C. i. 39, 52.) Juvenal speaks of them 
as still retaining their rustic simplicity (xiv. 181 ; 
cf. Sil. It. viii. 513). 

Veaulus (Monte Viso), the loftiest summit of 
the Cottian Alps. It reaches a height of 12.G41 
feet, and from its prominent position, standing 
forward at a bend of the range, it was regarded 
by the ancients as the loftiest peak of the Alps, 
with a further claim to special notice, that it 
contained the sources of the Padus (Plin. iii. 
117; Mel. ii. 411 ; Verg. Aen. x. 70H). 

Vesuvius, also called Vesevus, Vesbius, or 
Vesvlus, the celebrated volcanic mountain in 
Campania, rising out of the plain SE. of Xea- 



VETULONL\ 



999 



polis. There are no records of any eruption 
of Vesuvius before the Christian era, but the 
ancient writers were aware of its volcanic nature 
from the igneous appearance of its rocks (Diod. 
iv. 21 ; Strab. p. 247). The slopes of the moun- 
tain were extremely fertile, but the top was a 
rough and sterile plain, on which Spartacus and 
his gladiators were besieged bv a Roman army 
(Flor. iii. 20, 4 ; Plut. Crass! 9 ; App. B.C. i. 
116 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 30). In a.d. 63 the volcano 
gave the first symptoms of agitation in an 
earthquake, which occasioned considerable dam- 
age to several towns in its vicinity ; and on the 
24th of August, a.d. 79, occurred the first great 
eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the 
cities of Stabiae, Herculaneum, and Pompeii. 
It was in this eruption that the elder Pliny lost 
his life. [Plinivs.] The altered appearance 
of the country is noticed by Tacitus (Ann. iv. 
67; cf. Mart, iv. 44; Sil. It. xvii. 594). The 
next recorded eruption was in a.d. 203 (Dio 
Cass, lxxvi. 2). 

Vetera or Castra Vetera, the chief military 
station of the lower Rhine, held usually by two 
legions. It was not far from the junction of 
the Lippe with the Rhine on the site of the 
modern Birten, near Xanten. (Tac. Ann. i. 48; 
Hist. iv. 22.) 

Vetranio, commanded the legions in Illyria 
andPannonia, at the period ( a.d. 350) when Con- 
stans was treacherously destroyed and his 
throne seized by Magnentius. Vetranio was 
proclaimed emperor by his troops ; but at the 
end of ten months he resigned his pretensions 
in favour of Constantius, by whom he was 
treated with great kindness, and permitted to 
retire to Prusa, in Bithynia, where he passed 
the remaining six years of his life. (Amm. Marc, 
xv. 1, xxi. 8 ; Aurel. Vict. Caes. 41, 42 ; Zosim. 
ii. 43, 44.) 

VettlUS, L., a Roman eques, in the pay of 
Cicero in B.C. 63, to whom he gave some valu. 
able information respecting the Catilinarian 
conspiracy. He again appears in 59, as an in- 
former. In that year he accused Curio, Cicero, 
L. Lucullus, and many other distinguished men, 
of having formed a conspiracy to assassinate 
Pompey. This conspiracy was a sheer inven- 
tion for the purpose of injuring Cicero, Curio, 
and others ; but there is difficulty in determin- 
ing who were the inventors of it. Cicero re- 
garded it as the work of Caesar, who used the 
tribune Vatinius as his instrument. At a later 
period, when Cicero had returned from exile, 
and feared to provoke the triumvir, he threw 
the whole blame upon Vatinius. Vettius gave 
evidence first before the senate and on the next 
day before the assembly of the people ; but his 
statements were regarded with great suspicion, 
and on the following morning he was found 
strangled in the prison to which the senate had 
sent him. It was given out that he had com- 
mitted suicide ; but the marks of violence were 

| visible on his body, and Cicero at a later time 

, charged Vatinius with the murder. (Suet. Jul. 
17, 20 ; Dio Cass, xxxvii. 41, xxxviii. 9 ; Cic. in 
Vatin. 10, 11, ad Att. ii. 24 ; App. B.C. ii. 12.) 

( VettiUS Si it i) [Scato.] 

Vettones or Vectones, a people in the interior 

| of Lusitania, E. of the Lusitani and W. of the 
Carpetani, extending from the Durius to the 
Tagus (Strab. p. 152; Cass. B.C. i. 38). 

Vetulonla, Vetulomum, or Vetulonli, an an- 
cient city of Etruria, and one of the twelve 

| cities of the Etruscan Confederation. From 
this city the Romans are said to have borrowed 

, the insignia of their magistrates — the fasces, 



1000 



VETUEIA 



VIBULANUS 



sella curulis, and toga praetexta — as well as the 
use of the brazen trumpet in war (Dionys. iii. 
51; Strab. p. 220; Flor. i. 5 ; Sil. It. viii. 483). 
After the time of the Roman kings we find no 
further mention of Vetulonia, except in the 
catalogues of Pliny and Ptolemy, both of whom 
place it among the inland colonies of Etruria. 
Pliny also states that there were hot springs in 
its neighbourhood not far from the sea, in which 
fish were found, notwithstanding the warmth 
of the water (Plin. ii. 227). The very site of 
the ancient city was supposed to have been en- 
tirely lost ; but it has been discovered in this 
century near a small village called Magli- 
ano, between the river Osa and the Albegna, 
and about eight miles inland. It appears to have 
had a circuit of at least four and a half miles. 

Veturia Gens, anciently called Vetusia, pa- 
trician and plebeian. The Veturii rarely occur in 
the later times of the republic, and after B.C. 
206, when L. Veturius Philo was consul, their 
name disappears from the Fasti. The most 
distinguished families in the gens bore the 
names Calvinus, Cicurinus, and Philo. 

Veturius Mamurius, was said in old traditions 
to have been the armourer who made the eleven 
ancilia exactly like the one that was sent from 
heaven in the reign of Numa (Plut. Num. 13 ; 
Ov. Fast. iii. 381 ; Dionys. ii. 71). But there is 
good reason to think that this was merely an 
attempt to explain the invocations of Mamurius 
in the hymns of the Salii, and that Blamurius 
Veturius is really = Mars Vetus [see Mars, p. 
529, b]. This ' Old Mars ' was represented by 
a man clothed in skins who was driven out of 
the city (Lyd. iv. 36), to symbolise the old sea- 
son of wintry darkness driven out before the 
new spring year. [See Diet, of Ant. art. Salii}. 
Similar ceremonies to represent the driving 
out of winter have been observed in the folk- 
lore of other countries. 

Vetus, Antistius. 1. Propraetor in Further 
Spain about B.C. 68, under whom Caesar served 
as quaestor (Plut. Caes. 5 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 43). — 
2. C, son of the preceding, quaestor in 61, and 
tribune of the plebs in 57, when he supported 
Cicero in opposition to Clodius. In the Civil 
war he espoused Caesar's party, and we find 
him in Syria in 45, fighting against Q. Caecilius 
Brassus. In 34 Vetus carried on war against 
the Salassi, and in 30 was consul suffectus. 
He accompanied Augustus to Spain in 25, and 
on the illness of the emperor continued the 
war against the Cantabri and Astures, whom 
he reduced to submission. (Cic. ad Q. Fr. ii. 1 ; 
Dio Cass, xlvii. 27, liii. 25 ; Flor. iv. 12, 21.)— 3. 
C, son of No. 2, consul B.C. 6 ; and as he lived 
to see both his sons consuls, he must have been 
alive at least as late as a.d. 28. He was a friend of 
Velleius Paterculus. (Dio Cass. Iv. 9 ; Veil. Pat. 
ii. 43.) — 4. L., grandson of No. 3, and consul 
with the emperor Nero, a.d. 55. In 58 he com- 
manded a Roman army in Germany, and formed 
the project of connecting the Mosella (Moselle) 
and the Arar (Saone) by a canal, and thus 
forming a communication between the Mediter- 
ranean and the Northern Ocean, as troops 
could be conveyed down the Rhone and the 
Saone into the Moselle through the canal, and 
down the Moselle into the Rhine, and so into the 
Ocean. Vetus put an end to his life in 65, in 
order to anticipate his sentence of death, which 
Nero had resolved upon. Vetus was the father- 
in-law of Rubellius Plautus. (Tac. Ann. xiii. 
11, 53, xiv. 57, xvi. 10.) 

Viadus [Oder), a river of Germany, falling 
into the Baltic (Ptol. ii. 11, 2). 



Vibilius, king of the Hermanduri, aided 
Vangio and Sido in expelling Vannius from his 
dominions in the reign of Claudius (Tac. Ann. 
ii. 63, xii. 29 ; Vannius). 

Vibinum, or Vibonium ('lQ<i>i>iov: Bovino), 
a town of Apulia, in the interior, seven miles S. 
of Aecae and fifteen from Luceria (Pol. iii. 88 ; 
Plin. 105). 
Vibius Pansa. [Pansa.] 
Vibius Sequester. [Sequester.] 
Vibo, the Roman name of the Greek town 
HippSnium ('iwmviov : 'lirnwviaTris), situated 
on the SW. coast of Bruttium, and on a gulf 
called after it Sinus Vibonensis or Hippo- 
niates. It is said to have been founded by the 
Locri Epizephyrii (Strab. p. 256 ; Scymn. p. 
308 ; Scyl. iv. 12) ; but it was destroyed by the, 
elder Dionysius, who transplanted its inhabi- 
tants to Syracuse. It was afterwards restored, 
and at a later time it fell into the hands of the 
Bruttii, together with the other Greek cities on 
this coast. (Diod. xiv. 107, xv. 24, xvi. 15.) It 
was taken from the Bruttii by the Romans, 
who colonised it B.C. 194, and called it Vibo 
Valentia (Strab. I.e. ; Liv. xxi. 51 ; Veil. Pat. 
i. 14). Cicero speaks of it as a municipium, 
and in the time of Augustus it was one of the 
most flourishing cities in the S. of Italy (Cic. 
Verr. v. 16 ; Caes. B.C. iii. 101 ; App. B.C. v. 
91, 103). The walls of the ancient fort are 
traceable at Bivona: it is conjectured that 
Vibo itself stood above on the site of the 
modern town Monte Leone. 

Vibulanus, the name of the most ancient 
family of the Fabia Gens. It was so powerful 
in the early times of the republic that three 
brothers of the family held the consulship for 
seven years in succession, B.C. 485-479. The 
last person of the gens who bore this surname 
was Q. Fabius Vibulanus, consul 412. This 
Vibulanus assumed the agnomen of Ambustus, 
and his descendants dropped the name of Vibu- 
lanus and took that of Ambustus in its place. 
In the same way Ambustus was after a time 
supplanted by that of Maximus. — 1. Q. Fabius 
Vibulanus, consul 485, when he carried on war 
with success against the Volsci and Aequi, and 
consul a second time in 482. In 480 he fought 
under his brother Marcus [No. 3] against the 
Etruscans, and was killed in battle. (Liv. ii. 41, 
46 ; Dionys. viii. 77, 90, ix. 11).— 2. K., brother 
of the preceding, was quaestor parricidii in 485, 
and along with his colleague, L. Valerius, 
accused Sp. Cassius Viscellinus, who was in 
consequence condemned by the votes of the 
populus. He was consul in 484, when he took 
an active part in opposing the agrarian law 
which the tribunes of the people attempted to 
bring forward. (Liv. ii. 42 ; Dionys. viii. 82-86.) 
In 481 he was consul a second time, and in 479 
a third time, when he espoused the cause of the 
plebeians, to whom be had become reconciled. 
As his propositions were rejected with scorn by 
the patricians, he and his house resolved to 
quit Rome altogether, where they were re- 
garded as apostates by their own order. They 
determined to found a settlement on the 
banks of the Cremera, a small stream that falls 
into the Tiber a few miles above Rome. Accord- 
i ing to the legend, the consul Kaeso went before 
1 the senate and said that the Fabii were willing 
to carry on the war against the Veientes, alone 
' and at their own cost. Their offer was joyfully 
accepted, for the patricians were glad to see 
them expose themselves voluntarily to such 
! dangers. On the day after Kaeso had made the 
, proposal to the senate, 306 Fabii, all patricians 



VTBULLIUS 



VICTORINUS 



1001 



of one gens, assembled on the Quirinal at the 
house of Kaeso, and from thence marched, with 
the consul at their head, through the Porta Car- 
mentalis [Roma, p. 800, b], which was afterwards 
called Porta Scelerata (Serv. a.&Aen. viii. 337). 
They proceeded straight to the banks of the Cre- 
mera, where they erected a fortress. Here they 
took up their abode along with their families and 
clients, and for two years continued to devas- 
tate the territory of Veii. They were at length 
destroyed by the Veientes in 477. Ovid says 
that the Fabii perished on the Ides of February ; 
but all other authorities state that they were 
destroyed on the day on which in a later year 
the Romans were conquered by the Gauls at 
the Allia — that is, on the 15th before the Ka- 
lends of Sextilis, June the 18th (Liv. vi. 1 ; 
Tac. Hist. ii. 91 ; Plut. Cam. 19). The whole 
Fabia gens perished at the Cremera with the 
exception of one individual, the son of Marcus, 
from whom all the later Fabii were descended. 
(Liv. ii. 48-50 ; Dionys. ix. 14-22 ; Gell. xvii. 
21 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 195 ; Fest. s. v. Scelerata 
Porta.) — 3. M., brother of the two preceding, 
was consul 483, and a second time 480. In the 
latter year he gained a great victory over the 
Etruscans, in which, however, his colleague the 
consul Cincinnatus and his brother Q. Fabius 
were killed. (Liv. ii. 43-47.; — 4. Q.. son of No. 3, 
is said to have been the only one of the Fabii who 
survived the destruction of his gens at the Cre- 
mera, but he could not have been left behind at 
Rome on account of his youth, as the legend 
relates, since he was consul ten years after- 
wards. He was consul in 407, a second time in 
4G5, and a third time in 459. Fabius was a 
member of the second deceinvirate (450), and 
went into exile on the deposition of the decem- 
virs. (Liv. iii. 1, 9, 41, 58.) 

Vibullius Rufus, L., a senator and a fri£nd 
of Pompey, who made him praefectus fabrum 
in the Civil war. He was taken prisoner by 
Caesar at Corfinium (49), and a second time in 
Spain later in the year. When Caesar lauded 
in Greece in 48, he despatched Vibullius to 
Pompey with offers of peace. Vibullius made 
the greatest haste to reach Pompey, in order to 
give him the earliest intelligence of the arrival 
of his enemy in Greece. (Cic. ad Q. Fr. iii. 1, 
ad Att. vii. 24, viii. 1, 2, 11, 15 ; Caes. B. C. i. 
15, 23, 38, iii. 10, 11.) 

Vica Pota. TXike.J 

Vicentia or Vicetla, less correctly Vincentia 
(Vicentinus : Vicenza), a town in Venetia, in 
the N. of Italy, on the river Togisonus, between 
Verona and Patavium. It was a Roman muni- 
cipium. (Cic. ad Fam.xi. 19 ; Plin. Ep. v. 4, 11.) 

Victor, Sex. Aurelius, a Latin writer, 
flourished in the middle of the fourth century 
under the emperor Constantius and his suc- 
cessors. He was bom of humble parents, but 
rose to distinction by his zeal in the cultivation 
of literature. Having attracted the attention 
of Julian when at Sirmium, he was appointed 
by that prince governor of one division of Pan- 
nonia lAinm. Mare. xxi. 10, Cn. At a subsequent 
period he was made city prefect by Theodo- 
sius, and he is perhaps the same as the Sex. 
Aurelius Victor who was consul with Valen- 
tinian in a.d. 373. The following works, which 
present in a very compressed forma continuous 
record of Roman affairs, from tins fabulous 
ageB down to the death of the emperor Theodo- 
sius, have all been ascribed to this writer ; but 
evidence upon which the determination of 
authorship depends is very slender, and in all 
probability the third alone belongs to the Sex. 



: Aurelius Victor whom we have noticed above. 

I (1) Origo Gentis Romanae, in twenty-three 

! chapters, containing the annals of the Roman 
race, from Janus and Saturnus down to the era 
of Romulus. It is probably a production of 

I some of the later grammarians who were desi- 

I rous of prefixing a suitable introduction to the 
series. (2) De Viris IUustribus Vrbis Bomae. 

' in eighty-six chapters, commencing with the 
birth of Romulus and Remus, and concluding 
with the death of Cleopatra, a work of merit, 
though of unknown authorship. (3) De Caesa- 
ribus, in forty-two chapters, exhibiting short 
biographies of the emperors, from Augustus to 
Constantius. There is no reason to doubt 
that this was a genuine work of Aurelius Victor. 
He uses Suetonius to a great extent in the 
earlier Lives. (4) Epitome de Caesaribus, in 

I forty-eight chapters, beginning with Augustus 
and concluding with Theodosius. — Editions of 

1 these four pieces are by Arntzenius, Amst. et 
Traj. Bat. 1733, and by Schroter, Leips. 1831. 
The Origo is edited separately by Sepp, Munich, 

[ 1879, and the de Vir. Illustr. by Keil, Bresl. 

( 1872. 

Victor, Publius, the name prefixed to an 
; enumeration of the principal buildings and 
monuments of ancient Rome, distributed ac- 
cording to the Regions of Augustus. The true 
account of this work appears to be that two 
lists of the fourteen Regions of Rome were 
derived from a document of the time of Con- 
stantine : the first was the Kotitia, the later 
recension, supposed to have been made in the 
latter half of the fourth century, was called the 
Curiosum Urb. Bom. Begionum. A sort of 
guide-book was made up out of the Curiosum, 
with additions from other sources by writers of 
the fifteenth century, and was represented as 
an old work by a P. Victor. 

Victoria. [Nike.] 

Victoria or Victorina, the mother of Victo- 
rinus, after whose death she was hailed as the 
mother of camps (Mater Castrorum), and coins 
were struck bearing her effigy. Feeling her- 
self unequal to the weight of empire, she trans- 

' ferred her power to Marius, and then to Tetri- 
cus, by whom some say that she was slain, 

[ while others affirm that she died a natural 
death. (Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. 4, 6, 30 ; Aurel. 

I Vict. Caes. 33.) 

Victorinus. 1. One of the Thirty Tyrants, 
was third of the usurpers who in succession 
ruled Gaul during the reign of Gallienus. He 
was assassinated at Agrippina l>y one of his 
officers in a.d. 208, after reigning somewhat 
more than a year. (Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. 5 ; 
Aurel. Vict. Caes. — 2. C. Marius Victori- 
nus, sunnimed Afrr from the country of his 
birth, taught rhetoric at Rome in the middle of 
the fourth century, with so much reputation 
that his statue was erected in the Forum of 
Trajan. In his old age he embraced Chris- 
tianity ; and when the edict of Julian, prohibit- 
ing Christians from giving instruction in polite 
literature, was promulgated, Victorinus chose 
to shut up his school rather than deny his reli- 
gion. Resides his commentaries on the Scrip- 
tures, and other theological works, many of 

'which ore extant, Victorinus wrote : — Com- 
mintariiis s. Expositio in Ciceronis Libros de 
Inrentionr, the best edition ol winch is in the 
fifth volume of Orelli's edition of Cicero. 2. 
Ars Grnmmaticu de Orthographia et Uatione 
Mr tmriim, a complete and voluminous treatise 
upon metres, in four books, printed in the 

, Grammalicae Latinac Auctores Antiijui of 



1002 



VICTRIX 



Putschius, Hannov. 1605. The fame enjoyed by 
Victorinus as a public instructor does not gain 
any accession from his works. The exposition 
of the De Inventione is more difficult to com- 
prehend than the text which it professes to 
explain. — 4. Maximus Victorinus. We possess 
three short tracts — (1) De Be Grammatica ; 
(2) De Carmine Heroico ; (3) De Batione Me- 
trorum — all apparently the work of the same 
author, and usually ascribed in MSS. to a 
Maximus Victorinus ; but whether we ought to 
consider him the same with the rhetorician who 
flourished under Constantius, or as an inde- 
pendent personage, it is impossible to decide. 
They were printed in the collection of Puts- 
chius, Hannov. 1605, and in that of Lindemann, 
Leips. 1831. 
Victrix. [Venus.] 

Viducasses, a tribe of the Armorici in Gallia 
Lugdunensis, S. of the modem Caen (Ptol. ii. 
8, 5 ; Plin. iv. 107). 

Vienna (Viennensis : Vienne), the chief town 
of the Allobroges in Gallia Lugdunensis, 
situated on the Rhone, S. of Lugdunum. It 
was subsequently a Roman colony, and a 
wealthy and flourishing town. Under the later 
emperors it was the capital of the province 
called after it Gallia Viennensis. (Caes. B.C. 
vii. 9 ; Tac. Hist. i. 65, 66 ; Mart. vii. 88.) The 
modern town contains several Roman remains, 
of which the most impoi-tant is a temple, sup- 
posed to have been dedicated to Augustus, and 
now converted into a museum. 

VilHus Annalis. [Annalis.] 

Viminalis. [Roma.] 
_ Vindalum, a town of the Cavares in Gallia 
Narbonensis, situated at the confluence of the 
Sulgas (Sorgue) and the Rhone (Strab. p. 185). 

Vindelieia, the country of the Vindelici, a 
Celtic people, whose territory stretched along 
the N. of Raetia, being bounded on the N. by 
the Danube, which separated it from Germany, 
on the W. by the territory of the Helvetii in 
Gaul, and on the E. by the river Oenus (Inn), 
which separated it from Noricum, thus cor- j 
responding to the NE. part of Switzerland (the 
country about the NW. end of the Lake of ! 
Constance), the SE. of Baden, and the S. of 
Wiirtemberg and Bavaria. The Vindelici were 
subdued by Tiberius, who defeated them both 
by land in the country S. of the Danube, and 
in a naval battle on the Lake of Constance 
(Tac. Ann. ii. 17; Suet. Aug. 21 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 
39 ; Strab. pp. 193, 207, 293, 313 ; Hor. Od. iv. 
4, 18). It was made part of the Raetian pro- 
vince [Raetia]. In the fourth cent, a.d., when 
Raetia was divided, the northern province, 
called Raetia Secunda, corresponding mainly 
to the old territory of the Vindelici, had as its 
chief town Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg). 

Vindex, C. Julius, propraetor of Gallia 
Lugdunensis in the reign of Nero, was the first 
of the Roman governors who disowned the 
authority of Nero (a.d. 68). He did not, how- 
ever, aspire to the empire himself, but offered 
it to Galba, intending, probably, to make Gaul 
a separate and independent kingdom, freed 
from the Roman yoke, and governed by himself, 
as a vassal prince under Galba. Virginius 
Rufus, the governor of Upper Germany, 
marched with his army against Vindex. The 
two generals had a conference before Vesontio 
(Besangon), in which they appear to have come 
to some agreement ; but as Vindex was going 
to enter the town, he was attacked by the 
soldiers of Virginius, and put an end to his 
own life. (Dio Cass. Ixiii. 22-26 ; Tac. Ann. xx. 



VIRBIUS 

71, Hist. i. 6, 8, 51, iv. 17, 57 ; Plut. Galb. 4 ; 
Suet. Ner. 40, 45, Galb. 9, 11.) 

Vindicius, a slave, who is said to have given 
information to the consuls of the conspiracy 
which was formed for the restoration of the 
Tarquins, and who was rewarded in consequence 
with liberty and the Roman franchise. He is 
said to have been the first slave manumitted by 
the Vindicta, the name of which was derived 
by some persons from that of the slave ; but it 
is unnecessary to point out the absurdity of this 
etymology. (Liv. ii. 5 ; cf. Diet, of Antiq. art. 
Manumissio.) 

Vindili. [Vandili.] 

Vindilis (Belle Isle), one of the islands of the 
Veneti off the NW. coast of Gaul. 

Vindius or Vinnius, a mountain in the j 
NW. of Hispania Tai-raconensis, forming the 
boundary between the Cantabri and Astures 
(Ptol. ii. 6, 21). 

Vindobona (Vienna, Engl. ; Wien, Germ.), a 
town in Pannonia, on the Danube, was originally 
a Celtic settlement, and subsequently a Roman 
municipium. Under the Romans it became a 
town of importance ; it was the chief station of 
the Roman fleet on the Danube, and the head- 
quarters of a Roman legion. It was taken and 
plundered by Attila, but continued to be a 
flourishing town under the Lombards. It was 
here that the emperor M. Aurelius died, a.d. 
180. (Ptol. ii. 15, 3; Aurel. Vict. Caes. 16; 
Jordan. Get. 50.) 

Vindonissa (Windisch), a town in Gallia 
Belgica, on the triangular tongue of land 
between the Aar and Reuss, was an important 
Roman fortress in the country of the Helvetii 
(Tac. Hist. iv. 61, 70). It was used as a chief 
military station in Upper Germany. Several 
Roman remains have been discovered on the 
site of the ancient town, and the foundations 
of walls, the traces of an amphitheatre, and a 
subterranean aqueduct, are still to be seen. 

Vinicius, M., was consul a.d. 30, and in 33 
married Julia Livilla, the daughter of Ger- 
manicus. He was consul again in 45, and was 
put to death in 46 at the instigation of Messal- 
lina. He was a patron of Velleius Paterculus. 
(Tac. Ann. vi. 15, 45; Dio Cass. lx. 25, 27.) 

Vinius, T., consul in a.d. 69 with the emperor 
Galba, and one of the chief advisers of the 
latter during his brief reign. He recommended 
Galba to choose Otho as his successor, but he 
was notwithstanding killed by Otho's soldiers, 
after the death of Galba. (Tac. Hist. i. 6, 11, 
37, 42, 48 ; Suet. Galb. 14, Vitell. 7.) 

Vipsania Agrippiua. 1. Daughter of M. 
Vipsanius Agrippa by his first wife, Pomponia, 
the daughter of T. Pomponius Atticus, the 
friend of Cicero. Augustus gave her in mar- 
riage to his stepson Tiberius, by whom she was 
much beloved ; but after she had borne him a 
son, Drusus, Tiberius was compelled to divorce 
her by the command of the emperor, in order 
to marry Julia, the daughter of the latter. 
Vipsania afterwards married Asinius Gallus. 
She died in a.d. 20. (Tac. Ann. i. 12, iii. 19 ; 
Dio Cass. liv. 31, lvii. 2.)— 2. Daughter of M. 
Vipsanius Agrippa by his second wife, Julia, 
better known by the name of Agrippina. 
[Agbippina.] 

Vipsanius Agrippa, M. [Agbippa.] 

Virbius, a Latin divinity worshipped with 
Diana in the grove at Aricia, at the foot of the 
Alban Mt. [p. 284, a; cf. Diet, of Ant. art. Bex 
Nemorensis]. When the Italian myths were 
affected by those of Greece, and Diana was 
identified with Artemis, Virbius was said to 



VIRDO 



VIRTUS 



1003 



be the same as Hippolytus, who was restored 
to life by Asclepius at the request of Artemis. 
It was alleged that Hippolytus was placed by 
this goddess under the care of the nymph 
Aricia, and received the name of Virbius. By 
this nymph he became the father of a son, who 
was also called Virbius, and whom his mother 
sent to the assistance of Turnus against Aeneas 
(Verg. Aen. vii. 761 ; Serv. ad loc. ; Ov. Met. 
xv. 545). This was clearly a transference to 
Italy of the story of Hippolj-tus being devoted 
to the service of Artemis. It is suggested with 
great probability that Virbius was originally a 
a tree spirit of the sacred grove, to whom horses 
(as representatives of the spirit) were sacrificed. 
Hence they were in time represented as hostile 
to the deity Virbius, and therefore excluded 
from the grove. This ' taboo ' was accounted 
for by making Virbius the same as Hippolytus, 
whose death was caused by his horses running 
away. 
Virdo. [Vindelicia.] 
Virdumarus. [Viridomabus.] 
Virgilius. [Vergilius.] 
Virginia, daughter of L. Virginius, a ' 
centurion, was a beautiful and innocent girl, I 
betrothed to L. Icilius. Her beauty excited 
the passion of the decemvir Appius Claudius, 
who got oue of his clients to seize the damsel 
and claim her as his slave. The case was 
brought before the decemvir for decision ; her 
friends begged him to postpone his judgment 
till her father could be fetched from the camp, 
and offered to give security for the appearance 
of the maiden. Appius, fearing a riot, agreed 
to let the cause stand over till the nest day ; 
but on the following morning he pronounced 
sentence, assigning Virginia to his freedman. 
Her father, who had come from the camp, I 
seeing that all hope was gone, prayed the I 
decemvir to be allowed to speak one word to 
the nurse in his daughter's hearing, in order to 
ascertain whether she was really his daughter. ' 
The request was granted ; Virginius drew them | 
both aside, and, snatching up a butcher's knife 
from one of the stalls, plunged it in his 
daughter's breast, exclaiming, ' There is no way 
but this to keep thee free.' In vain did Appius 
call out to stop him. The crowd made way for 
him, and, holding his bloody knife on high, he 
rushed to the gate of the city, and hastened to 
the Roman camp. Both camp and city rose 
against the decemvirs, who were deprived of 
their power, and the old form of government 
was restored. L. Virginius was the first who 
was elected tribune, and he hastened to take 
revenge upon his cruel enemy. By his orders 
Appius was dragged to prison to await his trial, 
and he there put an end to his own life in order 
to avoid a more ignominious death. (Liv. iii. 
44-58; Dionys. xi. 28-4G; Cic. Fin. ii. 20, De 
Rep. ii. 37.) 

Virginia or Verginia Gens, patrician and 
plebeian. The patrician Virginii frequently J 
filled the highest honours of the state during 
the early years of the republic. They all bore 
the cognomen of Tricostus, but none of them 
are of sufficient importance to require a separate ' 
notice. 

Virginius, L., father of Virginia, whose 
tragic fate occasioned the downfall of the 
decemvirs, B.C. 449. [Vikoinia.] 

Virginius Rufua, consul a.d. 63, and governor 
of Upper Germany at the time of the revolt of 
Julius Vindex in Ciaul (08). The soldiers of 
Virginius wished to raise him to the empire; 
but he refused the honour, and inarched against 



| Vindex, who perished before Vesontio. [Vindex.] 
After the death of Nero, Virginius supported 
the claims of Galba, and accompanied him to 
Rome. After Otho's death, the soldiers again 
1 attempted to proclaim Virginius emperor, and 
in consequence of his refusal of the honour he 
narrowly escaped with his life. Virginius died 
in the reign of Nerva, in his third consulship, 
', a.d. 97, at eighty-three years of age. He was 
honoured with a public funeral, and his pane- 
! gyric was pronounced by the historian Tacitus, 
who was then consul. His epitaph, composed 
by himself, notices his refusal of empire : 

Hie situs est Rums, pulso qui Vindice quondam 
Iniperium adseruit non sibi sed patriae. 

The younger Pliny, of whom Virginius had 
been the tutor or guardian, also mentions him 
with praise. (Tac. Hist. i. 8, 77, ii. 49, 68 ; 
Plut. Galb. 4, 6, 10; Dio Cass, lxiii. 24-27, 
lxiv. 4, lxviii. 2 ; Plin. Ep. ii. 1, v. 3, vi. 10, ix. 
19.) 

Vmathus, a celebrated Lusitanian, is de- 
scribed by the Romans as originally a shepherd 
or huntsman, and afterwards a robber, or, as he 
would be called in Spain in the present day, a 
guerilla chief. His character is drawn very 
favourably by many of the ancient writers, who 
celebrate his justice and equity, which was 
particularly shown in the fair division of the 
spoils he obtained from the enemy. Viriathus 
was one of the Lusitanians who escaped the 
treacherous and savage massacre of the people 
by the proconsul Galba in B.C. 150. [Galea, 
No. 2.J He was destined to be the avenger of 
his country's wrongs. He collected a formid- 
able force, and for several successive years he 
defeated one Roman army after another. At 
length, in 141, the proconsul Fabius Servilianus 
concluded a peace with Viriathus, in order to 
save his army, which had been enclosed by the 
Lusitanians in a mountain pass, much in the 
same way as their ancestors had been by the 
Samnites at the Caudine Forks. The treaty 
was ratified by the senate ; but Servilius Caepio, 
who had succeeded to the command of Further 
Spain in 140, renewed the war, and shortly 
afterwards procured the assassination of Viri- 
athus bv bribing three of his friends. (App. 
Hisp. 60-75 ; Eutrop. iv. 16 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 1 ; 
Val. Max, ix. 6, 4 ; [Aurel. Vict.] Vir. Illustr. 71 ; 
Frontin. Strat. ii. 5, iii. 10, 11, iv. 5.) 
Viriplaca. [Indigetes, p. 443, a.] 
Viridomarus. 1. Or Britomartus, the leader 
of the Gauls, slain by Marcellus. [Marcellus, 
No. 1.] — 2. Or Virdumarus, a chieftain of the 
Aedui, whom Caesar had raised from a low 
rank to the highest honour, but who afterwards 
joined the Gauls in their great revolt in B.C. 02 
fCaes. B. G. vii. 88, 54. 63). 

Viroconium or TJrioconium (Wroxeter), a 
town in Britain on the roads from Deva (Chester) 
to Londinum and to Glevum (Gloucester). It 
stood at the confluence of the Terne with tho 
Severn, and here Ostorius Scapula fortified a 
camp for the 14th Legion as a defence of the 
Welsh border (Tac. Aim. xii. 31 ; cf. Ptol. ii. 3, 
19). 

Virtus, the Roman personification of manly 
valour. She was represented with a short 
tunic, her right breast uncovered, a helmet on 
her head, a spear in her left hand, a sword in 
tho right, and standing with her right foot on a 
helmet, while Honos has the laurel crown. 
[See coin on p. 426.] A temple of Virtus was 
built by Marcellus close to one of Honos. 
[Honob.\ 



1004 



V1RUNUM 



VITRUVIUS 



Virunum (Mariasaal), a town in Noricum, 
S. of Noreia, and a Roman colony (Plin. iii. 
146; Ptol. ii. 14, 3; Steph. Byz. s.v.). 

Viscellinus, Sp. Cassius. [Cassius, No. 1.] 

Vistula {Vistula, Engl.; Weichsel, Germ.), 
an important river of Germany, forming the 
boundary between Germany and Sarmatia, 
rising in the Hercynia Silva and falling into 
the Mare Suevicum or the Baltic (Ptol. viii. 
10, 2 ; Mel. iii. 4 ; Plin. iv. 100). It was first 
described in the map of Agrippa (Plin. iv. 81). 

Visurgis (Wese?'), an important river of 
Germany, falling into the German Ocean. 
Ptolemy makes it rise in M. Meliboeus. (Mel. 
iii. 4 ; Plin. iv. 100 ; Tac. Ann. i. 70, ii. 9 ; 
Strab. p. 291 ; Ptol. ii. 11, 1.) 

Vitellia, a town of Latium, on the frontiers 
of the Aequi, which disappears from history 
after the time of the Gallic invasion (Liv. ii. 39, 
v. 29 ; Dionys. v. 61). 

Vitelllus. 1. L., father of the emperor, was 
a consummate flatterer, and by his arts he 
gained promotion. After being consul in A.n. 34, 
he had been appointed governor of Syria, and 
had made favourable terms of peace with 
Artabanus. But all this only excited Caligula's 
jealousy, and he sent for Vitellius to put him 
to death. The governor saved himself by his 
abject humiliation and the gross flattery which 
pleased and softened the savage tyrant. He 
paid the like attention to Claudius and Messal- 
lina, and was rewarded by being twice consul 
with Claudius, and censor. (Dio Cass. lix. 27 ; 
Tac. Ann. xi. 1-3, xii. 42.)— 2. I., son of the 
preceding, and brother of the emperor, was 
consul in 48. He was put to death by the I 
party of Vespasian on his brother's fall. (Tac. j 
Hist. iv. 2 ; Dio Cass. lxv. 22.)— 3. A., Roman 
emperor from January 2nd to December 22nd, 
a.d. 69, was the son of No. 1. He was consul 
during the first six months of 48, and his brother 
Lucius during the six following months. He 
had some knowledge of letters and some elo- 
quence. His vices made him a favourite of 
Tiberius, Caius Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, 
who loaded him with favours. People were 
much surprised when Galba chose such a man 
to command the legions in Lower Germany, 
for he had little military talent. Both Upper 
and Lower Germany had been attached to 
Virginius Rufus, and disliked the rule of Galba ; | 
the two legions at Moguntiacum had not taken 
the oath of allegiance to him. Accordingly, 
they had already been disposed to find a 
nominee of their own, and when the news of 
Galba's death arrived the legions of both Ger- 
manies combined to acknowledge Vitellius as 
Imperator, and he was proclaimed at Colonia 
Agrippinensis (Cologne) on the 2nd of January, 
69. His generals Fabius Valens and Caecina 
marched into Italy, defeated Otho's troops at 
the decisive battle of Betriaeum, or Bedriacum, 
and thus secured for Vitellius the undisputed 
command of Italy. The soldiers of Otho, after 
his death, took the oath of fidelity to Vitellius. 
[Otho.] Vitellius reached Rome in July. He 
did not disturb any person in the enjoyment of 
what had been given by Nero, Galba, and Otho, 
nor did he confiscate any person's property. 
Though some of Otho's adherents were put to 
death, he let the next of kin take their property. 
But though he showed moderation in this part 
of his conduct, he showed none in his expenses. 
He was a glutton and an epicure, and his chief 
amusement was the table, on which he spent 
■enormous sums of money. Meantime Ves- 
pasian, who had at first taken the oath of i 



allegiance to Vitellius, was proclaimed emperor 
at Alexandria on the 1st of July. Vespasian 
was speedily recognised by all the East ; and 
the legions of Illyricum under Antonius Primus 
entered the N. of Italy and declared for Ves- 
pasian. Vitellius despatched Caecina with a 
powerful force to oppose Primus ; but Caecina 
was not faithful to his master. Primus de- 
feated the Vitellians in two battles, and after- 
wards took and pillaged the city of Cre- 
mona. Primus then marched upon Rome, 
and forced his way into the city, after much 
fighting. Vitellius was seized in the palace, 
led through the streets with every circumstance 
of ignominy, and dragged to the Gemoniae 
Scalae, where he was killed with repeated blows. 
His head was carried about Rome, and his body 
was thrown into the Tiber ; but it was after- 
wards buried by his wife, Galeria Fundana. 
A few days before the death of Vitellius, the 
Capitol had been burnt in the assault made by 
his soldiers upon this building, where Flavius 
Sabinus, the brother of the emperor Vespasian, 
had taken refuge. (Tac. Hist, ii., iii. ; Suet. 
Vitell. ; Dio Cass, lxv.) 

Victricium (Verrez), a town of the Salassi 
on the road from Eporedia (Ivrea) to Augusta 
Praetoria (Aosta). 

Vitruvius PolHo, M., the author of the cele- 
brated treatise on Architecture, of whom we 
know nothing except a few facts contained in 
scattered passages of his own work. He ap- 
pears to have served as a military engineer 
| under Julius Caesar, in the African war, B.C. 46, 
and he was broken down with age when he com- 
[ posed his work, which is dedicated to the em- 
peror Augustus. Though he usually speaks of 
the emperor as Imperator or Caesar, he employs 
also the title Augustus, which was adopted in 
B.C. 27, and he mentions (iii. 2, 7) the temple of 
Quirinus, which was built B.C. 16 ; but he knows 
only one stone theatre at Rome (iii. 2, 2) : whence 
it is inferred that the work was completed between 
B.C. 16 and B.C. 13, in which year two more stone 
theatres were built. He professes his intention 
to furnish the emperor with a standard by which 
to judge of the buildings he had already erected, 
as well as of those which he might afterwards 
erect; which can have no meaning, unless he 
wished to protest against the style of architec- 
l tare which prevailed in the buildings already 
erected. That this was really his intention ap- 
pears from several other arguments, and espe- 
cially from his frequent references to the un- 
worthy means by which architects obtained 
wealth and favour, with which he contrasts his 
own moderation and contentment in his more 
obscure position. In a word, having apparently 
few great buildings of his own to point to as 
embodying his views (the basilica at Fanum is 
the only work of his which is mentioned), he 
desired to lay before the world in writing his 
principles of architecture. His work is a valu- 
able compendium of those written by numerous 
Greek architects, whom he mentions chiefly in 
the preface to his seventh book, and by some 
Roman writers on architecture. Its chief defects 
are its brevity, of which Vitruvius himself 
boasts, and which he often carries so far as to 
be unintelligible, and the obscurity of the style, 
arising in part from the natural difficulty of 
technical language, but in part also from the 
author's want of skill in writing, and sometimes 
from his imperfect comprehension of his Greek 
authorities. His work is entitled De Architec- 
tural Libri X. In the first book, after the 
dedication to the emperor, and a general descrip- 



YTVTSCUS 



VOLCANUS 



1005 



tioii of the science of arcliitecture and an ac- 
count of the proper education of an architect, 
he treats of the choice of a proper site for a city, 
the disposition of its plan, its fortifications, and 
the several buildings within it. The second 
book is on the materials used in building. The 
third and fourth books are devoted to temples 
and the four orders of architecture employed in 
them : namely, the Ionic, Corinthian, Doric, 
and Tuscan. The fifth book relates to public 
buildings, the sixth to private houses, and the 
seventh to interior decorations. The eighth 
is on the subject of water: the mode of finding 
it ; its different kinds ; and the various modes 
of conveying it for the supply of cities. The 
ninth book treats of various kinds of sun-dials 
and other instruments for measuring time ; and 
the tenth of the machines used in building, 
and of military engines. Each book has a pre- 
face, upon some matter more or less connected 
with the subject ; and these prefaces are the 
source of most of our information about the 
author. — The best editions of Vitruvius are those 
by Schneider, 3 vols., Lips. 1807, 180H, 8vo ; of 
Stratico, 4 vols., TJdine, 1825-30, with plates 
and a Lexicon Vitruvianum ; by Marini, i 
vols. Rom. 1836, which has recently been re- 
vised by Lorentzen ; and by Rose and Miiller- 
Striibing, Leips. 1867 ; translation and commen- 
tary by Reber, Stuttg. 1864. 

ViviSCUS (Vevey), a town on the E. shore of 
the L. Lemanus (L. of Geneva), on the road 
from Aventicum (Avenclies) to Octodurus 
(Martigny). 

Vocates, a people in Gallia Aquitanica, 
dwelling in the neighbourhood of the Tarusates, 
Sossiates, and Elusates, S. of Bordeaux. 

VocetlUB (Bbzberg), a mountain in Gallia 
Belgica, an eastern branch of the Jura (Tac. 
Hist. i. 68). 

Voconius Saza. [Saxa." 

Vocontii, a powerful and important people in 
Gallia Narbonensis, inhabiting parts of Dau- 
phine and of Provence. They dwelt between the 
Tricastini to the N. and the Tricorii to the S. 
and their territory extended from YiziUe (Vigi- 
liae) on the J)rac to the river Drome, and far 
enough S. to include Vasio I Vaison, in the de- 
partment of Vaucluse), which is mentioned as 
one of their chief towns. Livy speaks of Han- 
nibal passing through the edge of the Vocontian 
territory between the Tricastini and the Tricorii. 
This 'extrema ora Vocontiorum' was probably 
the district between Vizille and Corps, about 
which point he entered the territory of the 
Tricorii. (Liv. xxi.31 ; Caes. B. G. i. 10; Ptol. 
ii. 10, 17 ; Plin. iii. 87.) 

Vogesus. [Vosauus.] 

VcTandum, a strong fortress in Armenia 
Major, some days' journey W. of Artaxata, men- 
tioned by Tacitus [Ann, xiii. 39). 

Volaterrae (Volaterranus : Volaterra), called 
by the Etruscans Velathri, one of the twelve 
cities of the Etruscan Confederation, was built 
on a lofty hill, about 1800 English feet above 
the level of the sea, rising from a deep valley, 
and precipitous on every side (Strab. p. 2231. 
The city was about four or five miles in circuit. 
It was the most northerly city of the Confede- 
ration, and possessed nn extensive territory. 
Its dominions extended eastward as far as the 
territory of Arretium, which was fifty miles dis- 
tant; westward us far as the Mediterranean, 
which was more than twenty miles off; and 
southward at least as far us Populonin, which 
was either a colony or an ucc|uisition of Vola- 
terrae. In consequence of possessing the two 



great ports of Luna and Populonia, Volaterrae, 
though so far inland, was reckoned as one of the 
powerful maritime cities of Etruria. Vola- 
terrae is mentioned as one of the five cities 
which, acting independently of the rest of 
Etruria, determined to aid the Latins against 
Tarquinius Priscus (Dionys. iii. 51); but its 
name is rarely mentioned in connexion with the 
Romans, and we have no record of its conquest. 
Volaterrae, like most of the Etruscan cities, 
espoused the Marian party against Sulla ; and 
such was the strength of its fortifications that 
it was not till after a siege of two years that the 
city fell into Sulla's hands. Cicero speaks of 
Volaterrae as a municipium, and a military 
colony was founded in it under the triumvirate. 
(Strab. I. c. ; Liv. Ep. 89 ; Cic. pro Bosc. Am. 
7, 20, ^ro Caecin. 7, 18, ad Fam. xiii. 4.) It 
continued to be a place of importance even after 
the fall of the Western Empire, and it was for 
a time the residence of the Lombard kings, who 
fixed their court here on account of the natural 
strength of the site. The modem town covers 
but a small portion of the area occupied by the 
ancient city. It contains, however, several in- 
teresting Etruscan remains. Of these the most 
impprtant are the massive ancient walls in which 
is a double gatewaj-, nearly thirty feet deep, 
known as Borta all' Arco, and the family tomb 
of the Caecinae. 
Volatorrana Vada. [Vada, No. 3.] 
Volcae, a powerful Celtic people in Gallia 
Narbonensis, divided into the two tribes of the 
Volcae Tectosages and Volcae Arecomici, ex- 
tending from the Pyrenees and the frontiers of 
Aquitania along the coast as far as the Rhone. 
They lived under their own laws, without being 
subject to the Roman governor of the province, 
and they also possessed the Jus Latii. The 
Tectosages inhabited the western part of the 
country from the Pyrenees as far as Narbo, and 
Arecomici the E. part from Narbo to the Rhone, 
and even beyond the Rhone (Liv. xxi. 26 ; Strab. 
p. 203). The chief town of the Tectosages was 
Tolosa. A portion of the Tectosages left their 
native country under Brennus, and were one of 
the tliree great tribes into which the Galatians 
in Asia Minor were divided. [Galatia.] 

Volcanus or Vulcanus (which is the later 
form of the word), was the Italian god of fire. 
Volcanus differed originally from Vesta in being 
the god rather of destructive fire than of the 
kindly hearth-fire; and it is probable that the 
Volcanal as one of the central sanctuaries in 
an Italian town (e.g. the altar and Area Volcani 
in the Comitiuni at Rome) was originally a place 
for propitiatory offerings against destructive 
fire. In this way Volcanus was connected with 
the goddess who stayed conflagrations [Stata 
Mater]. That, however, in some places he was 
at one time also regarded as a god of the hearth- 
fire is indicuted by the story of his son Caecui.us, 
nnd perhaps by that of Servius Tullius. But 
another primitive characteristic was his benign 
influence also as a god of summer heat, which 
led to his being paired with Mnia, the goddess 
of spring or summer crops fostered by the sun 
iGcll. xiii. 23 ; Macrob. i. 12 ; Varr. L. L. v. 84) ; 
and in this aspect he may huve been connected 
with the Italian Venus even before the Greek 
influence introduced this association from the 
analogy of Hephaestus and Aphrodite. As 
regards the connexion of the Italiun Vulcan 
with the smith's works of forging and melting, 
there is no clear evidence. It is asserted that 
Mulciber, a synonym of Volcunus (and possibly 
once t'le name of another deity amalgamated 



1006 



VOLCATIUS 



VULSO 



or identified with him), represents this function 
of Vulcan, and is derived from mulcere, to soften 
metals ; but this is by no means certain, and it 
is possible that the connexion of Volcanus (or 
Mulciber) with metal-work and the smithy is 
merely part of the transference to him of all the 
attributes of Hephaestus, with whom he is en- 
tirely identified in literature. For all the myths 
thus transferred to Volcanus, see Hephaestus. 
Volcatius Gallicanus. [Scriptobes His- 

TOBIAE AUGUSTAE.] 

Volcatius Sedigitus. [Sedigitus.] 

Volci or Vulci. 1. (Volcientes, pi. : Vulci), 
an inland city of Etruria, about eighteen miles 
NW, of Tarquinii, was about two miles in cir- 
cuit, and was situated upon a hill of no great 
elevation. Of the history of this city we know 
nothing. It is only mentioned in the cata- 
logues of the geographers and in the Fasti Capi- 
tolini, from which we learn that its citizens, in 
conjunction with the Volsinienses, were defeated 
by the consul Tib. Coruncanius, B.C. 280. But 
its extensive sepulchres, and the vast treasures 
of ancient art which they contain, prove that 
Vulci must at one time have been a powerful 
and flourishing city. These tombs were dis- 
covered in 1828, and have yielded a greater 
number of works of art than have been dis- 
covered in any other parts of Etruria. — 2. (Vol- 
centes, Volcentani, pi. : Vallo), a town in 
Lucania, thirty-six miles SE. of Paestum, on 
the road to Buxentum (Liv. xxvii. 15 ; Plin. iii. 
.98 ; Ptol. iii. 1, 70). 

Volero Publilius. [Publilius.] 

Vologeses, the name of five kings of Parthia. 
[Absaces XXIIL, XXVII., XXVIII., XXIX., 
XXX.] 

Volsci, an ancient people in Latium, but 
originally distinct from the Latins, dwelt on 
both sides of the river Liris, and extended down 
to the Tyrrhene sea. Their language was 
nearly allied to the Umbrian. They were from 
an early period engaged in almost unceasing 
hostilities with the Romans. About 400 B.C. 
they had established their power as far N. as 
Antium and Velitrae, but their decline is marked 
by the establishment of a Roman colony greatly 
to the S. of this line, at Circeii, B.C. 393. They 
were not completely subdued till B.C. 338, from 
which time they were merged in the Roman 
people, a great part being included in the 
Pomptine tribe. (Liv. i. 53, ii. 33, iv. 26, viii. 14 ; 
Strab. pp. 228, 231.) 

Volsinii or Vulsinii (Volsiniensis : Bolsena), 
called Velsina or Velsuna by the Etruscans, 
one of the most ancient and most powerful of 
the twelve cities of the Etruscan Confederation 
(Liv. x. 37 ; Val. Max. ix. 1, 2), was situated on 
a lofty hill on the NE. extremity of the lake 
called after it, Lacus Volsiniensis and Vul- 
siniensis (Lago di Bolsena). Volsinii is first 
mentioned in B.C. 392, when its inhabitants 
invaded the Roman territory, but were easily 
defeated by the Romans, and were glad to pur- 
chase a twenty years' truce on humiliating 
terms (Liv. v. 32). The Volsinienses also carried 
on war with the Romans in 311, 294, and 280, 
but were on each occasion defeated, and in the 
last of these years appear to have been finally 
subdued (Liv. ix. 32-37). On their final sub- 
jugation their city was rased to the ground by 
the Romans, and its inhabitants were com- 
pelled to settle on a less defensible site in the 
plain (Zonar. viii. 7). The new city, on the site 
of which stands the modern Bolsena, also became 
a place of importance. It was the birthplace of 
Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius (Tac. Ann. 



iv. 1 ; cf. Juv. x. 74). Of the ancient city there 
are scarcely any remains. It occupied the 
summit of the highest hill, NE. of Bolsena, 
above the remains of a Roman amphitheatre. 
From the Lacus Volsiniensis the river Marts 
issues ; and the lake contains two islands. 

Voltacilius, L. Pilutus or Plotus, was the 
freedman of a Voltacilius who opened a school 
as a rhetorician. Pompey was among his 
I pupils, and he followed the Pompeian party, 
supporting their cause in his historical writings 
! or pamphlets. He is identified by some with 
J the Voltacilius Pitholaus of Macrob. ii. 2, 13, 
and with the Pitholaus of Suet. Jul. 75 (Suet. 
Gramm. 27). 

Volturcius, Vulturcius, T., of Crotona, one 
of Catiline's conspirators, was sent by Lentulus 
to accompany the ambassadors of the Allo- 
broges to Catiline. Arrested along with the 
ambassadors on the Mulvian bridge, and brought 
before the senate by Cicero, Volturcius turned 
informer upon obtaining the promise of pardon. 
(Sail. Cat. 44-50 ; Cic. Cat. iii. 2, 4, iv. 3 ; App. 
B.C. ii. 4.)_ 

Volumnia, wife of Coriolanus. [Coriolanus.] 
Volupia, or Voluptas, the personification of 
sensual pleasure among the Romans, who was 
honoured with a temple near the Porta 
Roman ula. 

Volusianus, son of the emperor Trebonianus 
Gallus, upon whom his father conferred the 
title of Caesar in a.d. 251, and of Augustus in 
252. He was slain along with his father in 254. 

[G-allus.] 

L. Voluslus Maecianus, a jurist, was in the 
consilium of Antoninus Pius, and was one of 
the teachers of M. Aurelius. Maecianus wrote 
several works ; and there are forty-two excerpts 
from his writings in the Digest. A treatise 
Be Asse et Ponderibas is attributed to him, 
but there is some doubt about the authorship. 
It is edited by Booking, Bonn, 1831. 

Volusus or Vdlesus, the reputed ancestor of 
the Valeria gens, who is said to have settled at 
Rome with Titus Tatius. [Valeria Gens.] 

Vomanus (Vomano), a small river in Pice- 
num. 

Vonones, the name of two kings of Parthia. 
[Arsaces XVIIL, XXII.] 

Vopiscus, a Roman praenomen, signified a 
twin-child who was born alive, while the other 
twin died before birth (Plin. vii. 47 ; Solin. 1). 
Like many other ancient Roman praenomens, 
it was afterwards used as a cognomen. 

Vopiscus, Flavius. [Scriptobes Histobiae 

AUGUSTAE.] 

Vosagus, Vosegus, or Vogesus (Vosges), the 
range of mountains which extend from the 
Dubis (Doubs) to the Saravus (Saar), more or 
less parallel to the course of the Rhine, and 
contains the sources of the Sa6ne, Moselle, and 
Saar (Caes. B. G. iv. 10 ; Lucan, Phars. i. 397). 
A Celtic deity, Vosagus, was worshipped on its 
heights. Plinv praises the fir woods of the range 
(xvi. 197). 

Votienus Montanus. [Montanus.] 

Vulcaniae Insulae. [Aeoliae Insulae.] 

Vulcanus. [Volcanus.] 

Vulci. [Volci.] 

Vulgientes, an Alpine people in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, whose chief town was Apta Julia 
(Apt). 

Vulsinii. [Volsinii.] 

Vulso, Manlius. 1. L., consul b.c. 256 with 
M. Atilius Regulus. He invaded Africa along 
with his colleague. [For details see Regulus, 
No. 3.] Vulso returned to Italy at the fall of 



VTJLTUR 

the year with half of the army, and obtained 
the honour of a triumph. In 250 Vulso was 
consul a second time with T. Atilius Kegulus 
Serranus, and with his colleague commenced 
the siege of Lilybaeum. (Pol. i. 39-48 ; Zonar. 
viii. 15.) — 2. Cn., curule aedile 197, praetor 
with Sicily as his province 195, and consul 189. 
He was sent into Asia in order to conclude the 
peace which Scipio Asiaticus had made with 
Antiochus, and to arrange the affairs of Asia. 
He attacked and conquered the Gallograeci or 
Galatians in Asia Minor without waiting for 
any formal instructions from the senate. His 
march, which is important in the discussion of 
the topography of Asia Minor, and has been 
carefully traced by Professor Ramsay, was from 
Ephesus by Magnesia, Hiera Kome, Antiocheia, 
Gordiu Teichos, Tabae, Eriza, Thabusion, Sinda, 
Mandropolis, Lagoe, Isinda, the river Taurus, 
Cormasa, and Aporidos Kome to Rhocrini Fon- 
tes ; and thence to Synnada, Beudus Vetus, 
Anabura, Mandri Fontes, Abbassus, Lalandum 
Flumen, Amorion, Alyattus, and Cuballum to 
the Sangarius, which he crossed, to Ancyra, in 
the country of the Tectosages. and as far as the 
banks of the Halys (Liv. xxxviii. 12-27 ; Pol. 
xxii. 16). He set out on his return to Italy in 
188, but in his inarch tlirough Thrace he 
suffered much from the attacks of the Thra- 
cians, and lost a considerable part of the booty 
he had obtained in Asia. He reached Rome in 
187. His triumph was a brilliant one, but his 
campaign in Asia had a pernicious influence 
upon the morals of his countrymen. He had 
allowed his army every kind of licence, and his 
soldiers introduced into the city the luxuries of 
the East. (Liv. xxxviii. 37-50 ; xxxix. 6 ; Pol. 
xxii. 24 ; App. Syr. 42.) 

Vultur, a mountain dividing Apulia and Lu- 
cania near Venusia, is a branch of the Apen- 
nines. It is celebrated by Horace as one of the 
haunts of his youth (Od. iii. 4, 9-16; Lucan, ix. 
185). [Horatius.] It attains an elevation of 
4433 feet above the sea. From it the SE. wind 
was called Vulturnus by the Romans. 

Vulturnum (Castcl di Volturno). a town in 
Campania, at the mouth of the river Vulturnus, 
was originally a fortress erected by the Romans 
in the second Punic war (Liv. xxv. 20, 22). At 
a later time it was made a colony (Liv. xxxiv. 
45 ; Varr. L. L. v. 5). 

Vulturnus (Volturno), the chief river in 
Campania, rising in the Apennines in Samnium, 
and falling into the Tyrrhene sea. It has a 
deep, rapid and turbid stream. Its principal 
affluents are the Calor {Colore), Tamarus 
(Tamaro), and Sabatus {Sabato). (Verg. Aen. 
vii. 729 ; Ov. Met. xv. 714 ; Lucan, ii. 423 ; 
Strab. pp. 238, 249.) 



Xanthippe. [Socrates.] 

Xanthippua (SavBiiriros). 1. Son of Ariphron 
and father of Pericles. In B.C. 490 he im- 
peached Miltiades on his return from his un- 
successful expedition against the island of 
Paros. He succeeded Themistocles as com- 
mander of the Athenian fleet in 479, and com- 
manded the Athenians at the decisive battle of 
Mycale. (Hdt. vi. 131, 136, viii. 181, ix. 114-120 ; 
Plut. Themist. 10.)— 2. The elder of the two 
legitimate sons of Pericles, Paralus being the 
younger. For details, see PaBALUB, — 3. The 
Lacedaemonian, who commanded the Cartha- 



XENARCHUS 



1007 



ginians against Regulus. For details, see 
Regulus. No. 3. Xanthippus appears to have 
left Carthage a short time after his victory over 
Regulus. 

Xanthus (BdvOos). 1. A lyric poet, older than 
Stesichorus, who mentioned him in one at 
least of his poems, and who borrowed from him 
in some of them. Xanthus may be placed 
about B.C. 650. No fragments of his poetry 
survive. (Athen. p. 513 ; Ael. V. H. iv. 26.) — 2. A 
Lydian historian, older than Herodotus, lived 
about B.C. 480 (Athen. p. 515). The genuine- 
ness of the Four Books of Lydian History 
which the ancients possessed under the name 
of Xanthus, and of which some considerable 
fragments have come down to us, was ques- 
tioned by some of the ancient grammarians 
themselves, and there has been considerable con- 
] troversy respecting it among modern scholars. 
It is certain that much of the matter in the ex- 
tant fragments is spurious, and the probability 
| appears to be that the work from which they 
i are taken is the production of an Alexandrian 
grammarian, founded upon the genuine work 
of Xanthus. (Mailer, Fraym. Hist. Graec.) 

Xanthus (-.dvBos), rivers. 1. [Scamander.] — 
I 2. {Echen Chai), the chief river of Lycia, rises 
' in M. Taurus, on the borders of Pisidia and 
Lycia, and flows S. through Lycia, between M. 
Cragus and M. Massicytus, in a large plain 
called the Plain of Xanthus (t!> IZdvBiov irebiov), 
falling at last into the Mediterranean sea, a 
little W. of Patara. Though not a large river, 
it is navigable for a considerable part of its 
j course. (II. ii. 877, v. 479 ; Strab. p. 665 ; Hdt. 
i. 176 ; Ov. Met. ix. 645.) 

Xanthus (Ha^floj : s.dv8ios, Xanthius : Gunik, 
Ru.), the most famous city of Lycia, stood on the 
W. bank of the river of the same name, sixty or 
seventy stadia from its mouth (Pol. xxvi. 7 ; 
Strab. p. 666 ; Ptol. v. 3, 5 ; Steph. Byz. s.v.). 
Twice in the course of its history it sustained 
1 sieges, which terminated in the self-destruction 
of the inhabitants with their property, first 
against the Persians under Harpagus, and long 
afterwards against the Romans under Brutus 
(Hdt. i. 176; Dio Cass, xlvii. 34; App. B. C. 
iv. 18). The city was never restored after its 
destruction on the latter occasion. Xanthus 
■ was rich in temples and tombs, and other 
monuments of a most interesting character of 
I art. Among its temples the most celebrated 
were those of Sarpedon and of the Lycian 
Apollo ; besides which there was a renowned 
sanctuary of Latona {rb Ai)r£>ov), near the 
river Xanthus, ten stadia from its moUrth, and 
I sixty stadia from the city. (Diod. v. 77 ; Strab. 
I.e.) The splendid ruins of Xanthus were first 
thoroughly explored by Sir C. Fellowes and 
his coadjutors, and several important remains 
of its works of art are now in the British 
Museum. 

Xenarchus (Ef'eapxos). 1. Son of Soplnon, 
and, like his father, a celebrated writer of 
| mimes. He lived during the Rhegian war 
! (B.C. 399-389), at the court of Dionysus. (Suid. 
s.o. 'Prjytvovs ; Arist. Foil. 2.) — 2. An Athenian 
j comic poet of the Middle Comedy, who lived 
I as late as the time of Alexander the Great 
j (Suid. s.v.). Several fragments of his writings 
' are collected in Meineke's Fraym. Com. Grace. 
— 3. Of Seleucia in Cilicia, a Peripatetic philo- 
sopher and grammarian, in the time of Strabo, 
who heard him. He taught first at Alexandria, 
afterwards at Athens, and lastly at Rome, where 
he enjoyed the friendship of Augustus. (Strab. 
I p. 670.) 



1008 



XENIPPA 



XENOPHON 



Xenippa (prob. Uratipp a), a city of Sogdiana, 
mentioned by Curtius (viii. 2, 14). 

Xenocles {EeuoK\fis). 1. An Athenian tragic 
poet, son of Carcinus (who was also a tragic 
poet), and a contemporary of Aristophanes, who 
attacks him on several occasions. His poetry 
seems to have been indifferent (Aristoph. Ban. 
82, Nub. 1259), and to have resembled the 
worse parts of Euripides ; but he obtained a 
victory over Euripides, b.c. 415. There was 
another tragic poet of the name of Xenocles, 
a grandson of the preceding, of whom no par- 
ticulars are recorded. — 2. An Athenian archi- 
tect, of the demos of Cholargos, was one of the 
architects who superintended the erection of 
the temple of Demeter, at Eleusis, in the time 
of Pericles JPlut. Per. 13). 

Xenocrates (EeyoKpixTTjj). 1. The philo- 
sopher, was a native of Ohalcedon. He was 
born B.C. 396, and died 314 at the age of eighty- 
two. He attached himself first to Aeschines, 
the Socratic, and afterwards, while still a youth, 
to Plato, whom he accompanied to Syracuse. 
After the death of Plato he betook himself, 
with Aristotle, to Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus ; 
and, after his return to Athens, he was re- 
peatedly sent on embassies to Philip of Mace- 
donia, and at a later time to Antipater during 
the Lamian war. He is said to have wanted 
quick apprehension and naturfcl grace, but 
these defects were more than compensated by 
persevering industry, pure benevolence, freedom 
from all selfishness, and a moral earnestness 
which obtained for him the esteem and con- 
fidence of the Athenians of his own age. Yet 
he is said to have experienced the fickleness of 
popular favour, and being too poor to pay the 
alien's tax (^toIklov), to have been saved from 
prosecution only by the intervention of the 
orator Lycurgus. (Plut. Flamin. 10, X. Orat. 7.) 
He became president of the Academy even 
before the death of Speusippus, who was bowed 
down by sickness, and he occupied the post for 
twenty-five years. — He seems in his develop- 
ment of Plato's theories to have in some things 
approached (as did his predecessor Speusippus) 
to the tenets of Pythagoras, especially in his 
tracing the origin of things to number, to 
unity and duality, which he symbolically called 
the father and the mother of the gods [cf. 
Pythagobas]. It was, perhaps, a trace of 
Pythagorean influence also that he advised 
his disciples to abstain from meat, lest they 
should thereby take into themselves something 
of the animal nature. Like Speusippus, he 
reckoned Aether among the material elements 
of the world. In ethics he followed Plato, and 
held that virtue is the source of happiness, and 
is alone of value in itself. (Diog. Laert. iv. 
11-16; Arist. de Cael. i. 10, Top. ii. 6; Stob. 
Eel. Phys. i. 62; Cic. Tusc. v. 10, 18.)— 2. A 
physician of Aphrodisias in Cilicia, lived about 
the middle of the first century after Christ. 
Besides some short fragments of his writings 
there is extant a little essay by him entitled 
Tlepl T7)5 airb ra>v ivvSpap Tpo(pr)s, ' De Ali- 
mento ex Aquatilibus, ' which is an interesting 
record of the state of natural history at the 
time in which he lived. Edited by Franz, 1774, 
Lips., and by Coray, 1794, Neap., and 1814, 
Paris. — 3. A sculptor of the school of Lysippus, 
was the pupil either of Tisicrates or of Euthy- 
erates. He also wrote works upon the art. He 
flourished about B.C. 260. 

Xenocritus (Eey&cpiTos), of Locri Epizephyrii, 
in Lower Italy, a musician and lyric poet, was 
one of the leaders of the second school of Dorian 



music, which was founded by Thaletas, and 
was a composer of Paeans (Plut. de Mus. 9, 
p. 1134). 

Xenophan.es (Eevocpdvris) a celebrated philo- 
sopher about 576-480 B.C., was a native of 
Colophon. He was a poet as well as a philo- 
sopher, and considerable fragments have come 
down to us of his elegies, and of a didactic 
poem On Nature. According to the fragments 
of one of his elegies, he had left his native land 
at the age of twenty-five, and had already lived 
sixty-seven years in Hellas, when, at the age of 
ninety- two, he composed that elegy. He quitted 
Colophon as a fugitive or exile, and lived some 
time at Elea (Velia) in Italy, as the founder of 
the Eleatic school of philosophy. He sang in 
one of his poems of the foundation of Velia. . 
(Diog. Laert. ix. 10, 18 ; Plat. Soph. p. 224 ; 
Arist. Bhet. ii. 23.) Xenophanes was regarded 
in antiquity as the originator of the Eleatic 
doctrine of the oneness of the universe. The 
Deity was in his view the animating power of 
the universe, which is expressed by Aristotle 
(Met. p. 986) in the words, that, looking on the 
natural world, Xenophanes said, ' God is the 
One.' He expressly reprobated the anthropo- 
morphic deities of Homer and Hesiod, human 
alike in form and passions, and from their 
imperfections deduced that the supreme Being 
can only be one ; but it is clear that in this he 
did not speak of a single personal god, but of 
an all-pervading influence of unity — that is, he 
was a pantheist rather than a deist. In his 
physical theories of the earth having gradually 
risen from the sea, which he based on the 
observation of shells and fossils in the rocks, 
he approached strangely near to scientific geo- 
logy. The earth itself, as well as man, he held 
to be destined to perish. (Aristot. Xenoph. 
pp. 974-977 ; Sext. Emp. Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 225.) 

Xenophon (s.evo<piov). 1. The Athenian, was 
the son of Gryllus, and a native of the demus 
Erchia. The time of his birth is not known, but 
if the story is true that Xenophon fell from his 
horse in the flight after the battle of Deliura. 
B.C. 424, and was taken up by Socrates, the 
philosopher, on his shoulders and carried a 
distance of several stadia, Xenophon could not 
well have been born after 444. (Diog. Laert. 
Xen. ; Strab. p. 403.) But the authorities for 
this story are late, and it is somewhat dis- 
credited by Plato's mentioning that Socrates 
saved the life of Laches in this battle (Symp. 
p. 221). On the other hand, the words in Xen. 
An. vi. 4, 25 seem to imply that Xenophon was 
not more than thirty in B.C. 401, and was there- 
fore born probably about 430 B.C. Neither is 
the time of his death precisely stated ; but 
Lucian says that Xenophon attained to above 
the age of ninety, and Xenophon himself men- 
tions the assassination of Alexander of Pherae, 
which happened in 357. In his early life he 
was a pupil of Socrates ; but the turning-point 
in his career came when he decided to serve in 
the Greek contingent raised by Cyrus against 
Artaxerxes in 401. Xenophon himself mentions 
(Anab. iii. 1) the circumstances under which 
he joined this army. Proxenus, a friend of 
Xenophon, was already with Cyrus, and he 
invited Xenophon to come to Sardis, and pro- 
mised to introduce him to the Persian prince. 
Xenophon consulted his master, Socrates, who 
advised him to consult the oracle of Delphi, 
for it was rather a hazardous matter for him to 
enter the service of Cyrus, who was considered 
to be the friend of the Lacedaemonians and 
the enemy of Athens. Xenophon went to 



XENOPHON 



1009 



Delphi, but he did not ask the god whether he | 
should go or not : he probably had made up I 
his mind. He merely asked to what gods he 
should sacrifice in order that he might be suc- 
cessful in his intended enterprise. Socrates j 
was not satisfied with his pupil's mode of con- j 
suiting the oracle, but as he had got an answer, j 
he told him to go ; and Xenophon went to 
Sardds, which Cyrus was just about to leave. 
He accompanied Cyrus into Upper Asia. In 
the battle of Cunaxa, Cyrus lost his life, his 
barbarian troops were dispersed, and the Greeks 
were left alone on the wide plains between the ! 
Tigris and the Euphrates. It was after the ' 
treacherous massacre of Clearchus and others of 
the Greek commanders by the Persian satrap | 
Tissaphemes that Xenophon came forward. 
He had held no command in the army of Cyrus, 
nor had he, in fact, served as a soldier. He 
was now elected one of the generals, and took j 
the principal part in conducting the Greeks in 
their memorable retreat along the Tigris over . 
the high table-lands of Armenia to Trapezus 
(Trebizond) on the Black Sea. From Trapezus \ 
the troops were conducted to Chrysopolis, 
which is opposite to Byzantium. The Greeks 
were in great distress, and some of them under 
Xenophon entered the service of Seuthes, king 
of Thrace. As the Lacedaemonians under 
Thimbron, or Thibron, were now at war with 
Tissaphemes and Pharnabazus, Xenophon and 
his troops were invited' to join the army of 
Thimbron, and Xenophon led them back out of 
Asia to join Thimbron (399). Xenophon, who 
was very poor, made an expedition into the 
plain of the Caicus with his troops before they 
joined Thimbron, to plunder the house and 
property of a Persian named Asidates. The 
Persian, with his women, children, and all his 
moveables were seized, and Xenophon, by this 
robbery, replenished his empty pockets (Anab. 
vii. 8, 23). He tells the story himself as if he 
were not ashamed of it. In other ways also 
he showed himself the prototype of an adven- 
turous leader of condottieri, with no ties of 
country or preference of nationality. He formed 
a scheme for establishing a town with the Ten 
Thousand on the shores of the Euxine ; but 
that fell through. He joined the Spartans, as 
has been seen, and he continued in their ser- 
vice even when they were at war with Athens. 
Agesilaus, the Spartan king, was commanding 
the Lacedaemonian forces in Asia against the 
Persians in 390, and Xenophon was with him 
at least during part of the campaign. When 
Agesilaus was recalled (394), Xenophon accom- 
panied him, and he was on the side of the 
Lacedaemonians in the battle which they fought 
at Coronea (394) against the Athenians. As a 
natural consequence a decree of exile was passed 
against him at Athens. It seems that he went to 
Sparta with Agesilaus after the battle of Coronea, 
and soon after he settled at Scillus in Elis,not far 
from Olympia, a spot of which he has given a 
description in the Anabasis (v. 3, 7, &c). Here 
he was joined by his wife, Philesiii, and his chil- 
dren. His children were educated in Sparta. 
Xenophon was now a Lacedaemonian so far qh 
he could become one. His time during his long 
residence at Scillus was employed in hunting, 
writing, and entertaining his friends; and per- 
haps the Anabasis and part of the Hellcnica 
were composed here. The treatise on Hunting 
and that on the Horse were probably also written 
during this time, when amusement and exercise 
of that kind formed part of his occupation. 
On the downfall of the Spartan supremacy, at 



Leuctra in 471, Xenophon was at last expelled 
from his quiet retreat at Scillus by the Eleans, 
after remaining there about twenty years. The 
sentence of banishment from Athens was re- 
pealed on the motion of Eubulus, but it is 
uncertain in what year. There is no evidence 
that Xenophon ever returned to Athens. He 
is said to have retired to Corinth after his ex- 
pulsion from Scillus, and as we know nothing 
more, we assume that he died there. In the 
battle of Mantinea, which was fought in 362, 
the Spartans and the Athenians were opposed 
to the Thebans, and Xenophon's two sons, 
Gryllus and Diodorus, fought on the side of 
the allies. Gryllus fell in the same battle in 
which Epaminondas lost his life. The events 
alluded to in the Epilogus to the Cyropaedia 
(viii. 8, 4) show that the Epilogus at least 
was written after 362. The time of his 
death, for reasons given above, seems to 
have been later than 857. — The following is 
a list of Xenophon's works. (1) The Anabasis 
Chva.Ba.uis) or the History of the Expedition 
of the Younger Cyrus, and of the retreat of 
the Greeks who formed part of his army. 
It is divided into seven books. As regards 
the title it will be noticed that Under the 
name ' The March up ' {i.e. inland from the 
coast of Cumaxa) is included also the much 
longer account of the return march down to 
the Euxine. This work has immortalised 
Xenophon's name. It is a clear and fascinating 
narrative, written in a simple style, free from 
affectation ; and it gives a great deal of curious 
! information on the country which was traversed 
by the retreating Greeks, and on the manners 
[ of the people. It was the first work which 
made the Greeks acquainted with some portions 
of the Persian empire, and it showed the weak- 
ness of that extensive monarchy. The skir- 
mishes of the retreating Greeks with their 
! enemies, and the battles with some of the bar- 
barian tribes, are not such events as elevate the 
work to the character of a military history, nor 
can it as such be compared with Caesar's Com- 
mentaries. Separate editions of the Anabasis 
byKriiger,Leips.l871 ; byCobet (revised), 1873 : 
books i.-iv. by Goodwin and White, 1886; iv. 
by Stone, 1890. There is no weight whatever 
in the argument that, because Xenophon (Hell. 
iii. 1, 2) speaks of the expedition of Cyrus as 
having been related by Themistogenes, there- 
fore the Anabasis is not Xenophon's work. 
The statement can be explained either on the 
theory that Xenophon speaks of his own work 
under a fictitious name (which was possibly the 
case also with the Oeconomicus), or, more 
simply, by supposing that another account was 
actually written by Themistogenes. It is 
known that a separate account was written by 
Sophaenetus, and there may have been others. 
If the latter theory is correct, it would be a 
natural inference that Xenophon's Anabasis 
was written after the third book of the Hel- 
lcnica. (2) The Hellcnica ('EAATjeixa) of 
Xenophon is divided into seven books, and 
comprehends the space of forty-eight years, 
from the time when the History of Thucydides 
ends [Thucydides] to the battle of Mantinea, 
I 862. The Hellcnica is generally a dry narra- 
tive of events, and there is nothing in the 
! treatment of them which gives a special inter- 
est to the work. Some events of importance 
are briefly treated, but a few striking incidents 
are presented with some particularity. The 
Hellcnica was not all written at the same timo. 
Differences arc traced between the first, two 

3T 



1010 



XENOPHON 



and the later books as regards the arrangement, 
which in the earlier books is year by year, 
while in the later events growing out of one 
another are grouped together ; and, as regards 
political sentiment, in the diminished admira- 
tion for Sparta which appears in the last three 
books. It is clear that book vi. was written 
after 357, since it mentions the death of Alex- 
ander of Pherae (vi. 4, 35) ; but the first four 
books were probably written a good deal earlier. 
Editions of the HeUenica by Breitenbaeh, 1873 ; 
by Keller, 1890 ; i.-iv. by Manatt, 1888 ; i. and 
ii. by Dowdall, 1890. (3) The Cyropaedia 
{KvpoTraiSeia) in eight books, is a kind of politi- 
cal romance, the basis of which is the history 
of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy. 
It shows how citizens are to be made virtuous 
and brave ; and Cyrus is the model of a wise 
and good ruler. As a history it has no authority 
at all. Xenophon adopted the current stories 
as to Cyrus and the chief events of his reign, 
without any intention of subjecting them to a 
critical examination ; nor have we any reason 
to suppose that his picture of Persian morals 
and Persian discipline is anything more than a 
fiction. Xenophon's object was to represent 
what a state might be, and he placed the scene 
of his fiction far enough off to give it the 
colour of possibility. His own philosophical 
notions and the usages of Sparta were the real 
materials out of which he constructed his po- 
litical system. The Cyropaedia is evidence 
enough that Xenophon did not like the political 
constitution of his own country, and that a 
well-ordered monarchy or kingdom appeared to 
him preferable to a democracy like Athens. 
Ed. Holden, 1887. (4) The Agesilavs ('Ayria'i- 
Aaoy) is a panegyric on Agesilaus II., king of 
Sparta, the friend of Xenophon. The genuine- 
ness is disputed, not without reason, and a recent 
critic holds it to be the work of a young rhe- 
torician of the school of Isocrates. Ed. Giith- 
ling, 1887. (5) The HipparcTticus ('lTrirapx'- 
k6s) is a treatise on the duties of a commander 
of cavalry, and it contains many military pre- 
cepts. (6) The De He Equestri, a treatise on 
the Horse (^I-mrucr)), was written after the 
Ripparchicus, to which treatise he refers at the 
end of the treatise on the Horse. This essay 
is not limited to horsemanship as regards the 
rider : it shows how a man is to avoid being 
cheated in buying a horse, how a horse is to be 
trained, and the like. (7) The Cynegeticus 
(KvvriyeTiKcis) is a treatise on hunting; and on 
the dog, and the breeding and training of dogs ; 
on the various kinds of game, and the mode of 
taking them. It is a treatise written by a 
genuine sportsman who loved the exercise and 
excitement of the chase, and it may be read vvith 
pleasure by a sportsman of the present day. 
(8, 9) The Mespublica Lacedaemoniorum. and 
Ttespublica AtJieniensium, the two treatises 
on the Spartan and Athenian states (Aa/ceSai- 
fioviaiv iroAtTeia, and 'AByjvalav iroXn^la) were 
both ascribed to Xenophon, but the Mespub- 
liea AtJieniensium is certainly not by his 
hand. It was written by some one of the olig- 
archical party, and possibly it is right to date 
it as early as 420, and therefore to regard it as 
the earliest Attic prose work. On the other 
hand, the most recent critic of Xenophon 
(Hartman) believes it to be by a later writer 
compiling from Xenophon, Aristophanes, and 
other sources of information. The same critic 
denies the genuineness of the Besp. Laced., 
which is more generally accepted. (10) The 
Dc Vcctigalibus, a treatise on the Kevenues of 



Athens (Xl6poi t) irepl irpoo-SScov) is designed to 
show how the public revenue of Athens may 
be improved. (11) The Memorabilia of So- 
crates, in four books (' ATro/j.vr)/Aoi>evfia.Ta 'ScoKpd* 
tcjs), was written by Xenophon to defend the 
memory of his master against the charge of 
irreligion and of corrupting the Athenian youth. 
Socrates is represented as holding a series of 
conversations, in which he develops and incul- 
cates his moral doctrines. It is entirely a 
practical work, such as we might expect from 
the practical nature of Xenophon's mind, and 
it professes to exhibit Socrates as he taught. 
It is true that it may exhibit only one side of 
the Socratic argumentation, and that it does 
not deal in subtleties of philosophy. Xenophon 
was a hearer of Socrates, an admirer of his 
master, and anxious to defend his memory. 
The charges against Socrates for which ho 
suffered were, that 1 Socrates was guilty of not 
believing in the gods which the state believed in, 
and introducing other new daemons (Saip-ivia) : 
he was also guilty of corrupting the youth.' 
Xenophon replies to these two charges specifi- 
cally, and he then goes on to show what 
Socrates' mode of life was. The whole treatise 
is intended to be an answer to the charge for 
which Socrates was executed, and it is there- 
fore, in its nature, not intended to be a com- 
plete exhibition of Socrates. That it is a 
genuine picture of the man is indisputable, 
and its value therefore is very great. Ed. by 
Marshall, 1891. (12) The Apology of Socrates 
(' AiroKoyla ~S.wKpa.Tovs irpbs robs SiKaffrds) is a 
short speech, containing the reasons which in- 
duced Socrates to prefer death to life. It is 
not a first-rate performance, and was probably 
a rhetorical exercise much later than Xenophon. 
(13) The Symposium (~$vp.ir6<riov). or Banquet 
of Philosophers, in which Xenophon delineates 
the character of Socrates. The speakers are 
supposed to meet at the house of Callias, a rich 
Athenian, at the celebration of the great Pan- 
athenaea. Socrates and others are the speakers. 
The piece is interesting as a picture of an 
Athenian drinking party, and of the amuse- 
ment and conversation with which it was di- 
versified. The nature of love and friendship 
is discussed. It is probable that Plato wrote 
his Symposium later, to some extent as a cor- 
rective. (14) The HierD ('Tep&w 1) TvpavviicSs) 
is a dialogue between king Hiero and Simonides, 
in which the king speaks of the dangers and 
difficulties incident to an exalted station, and 
the superior happiness of a private man. The 
poet, on the other hand, enumerates the advan- 
tages which the possession of power gives, and 
the means which it offers of obliging and doing 
services. Ed. Holden, 1885. (15) The Oecono- 
miens (OmovofiiK6s) is an excellent treatise in 
the form of a dialogue between Socrates and 
Critobulus, in which Socrates gives instruction 
in the art called Oeconomic, which relates to 
the administration of a household and of a 
man's property. Ed. Holden, 1888. — In lan- 
guage as well ss in politics Xenophon was a 
cosmopolitan. His long residence in other 
lands resulted in his losing or abandoning pure 
Attic: he admits words from all dialects: hence 
he cannot be adduced as an authority for strict 
Attic usage, and it has been well shown by 
abundant instances that his diction is in many 
respects an anticipation of the common dialect 
of the Macedonian period. — Editions of Xeno- 
phon's complete works by Sauppe, Leips. 1867 : 
Henning, Leips. 1863. — 2. The Ephesian, the 
author of a romance, still extant, entitled 



XERXES 



1011 



Ephesiaca, or the Loves of Anthia and Abro- 
comas ('E<peaiaxa, ra /caret 'AvSiav Kai 'Afipo- 
k6/itiv). The style of the work is simple, and 
the story is conducted without confusion, 
notwithstanding the number of personages in- 
troduced. The adventures are of a very im- 
probable kind. The age when Xenophon lived 
is uncertain. He is probably the oldest of the 
Greek romance writers. Editions of his work 
by Peerlkamp, Haarlem, 1818, and by Passow, 
Lips. 1833. 

Xerxes (Eepjijs)- I. King of Persia b.c. 485- 
465. The name is said by Herodotus (vi. 98) to 
signify ' the warrior,' but it is probably the same 
word as the Zend ksathra and the Sanscrit 
kshatra, ' a king.' Xerxes was the son of Darius 
and Atossa. Darius was married twice. By 
his first wife, the daughter of Gobryas, he had 
three children before he was _aised to the 
throne ; and by his second wife, Atossa, the 
daughter of Cyrus, he had four children after 
he had become king. Artabazanes, the eldest 
son of the former marriage, and Xerxes, the 
eldest son of the latter, each laid claim to the 
succession ; but Darius decided in favour of 
Xerxes, no doubt through the influence of his 
mother, Atossa, who completely ruled Darius. 
Xerxes succeeded his father at the beginning of 
485. Darius had died in the midst of his pre- 
parations against Greece, which had been inter- 
rupted by the revolt of the Egyptians. The 
first care of Xerxes was to reduce the latter 
people to subjection. He accordingly invaded 
Egypt at the beginning of the second year of 
his reign (B.C. 484), compelled the people again 
to submit to the Persian yoke, and then returned 
to Persia, leaving his brother Achaemenes go- 
vernor of Egypt. The next four years were 
devoted to preparations for the invasion of 
Greece. In the spring of 480 he set out from 
Sardis on his memorable expedition against 
Greece. He crossed the Hellespont by a bridge 
of boats, and continued his march through the 
Thracian Chersonese till he reached the plain of 
Doriscus, which is traversed by the river fiebrus. 
Here he resolved to number both his land and 
his naval forces. Herodotus has left us a most 
minute and interesting catalogue of the nations 
comprising this mighty army, with their various 
military equipments and different modes of 
fighting. The land forces contained forty-six 
nations. (Herod, vii. 61, sqq.) In his march 
through Thrace and Macedonia, Xerxes received 
a still further accession of strength ; and when 
he reached Thermopylae the land and sea forces 
amounted to 2,041,610 fighting men. This does 
not include the attendants, the slaves, the crews 
of the provision ships, Sec, which according to 
the supposition of Herodotus were more in 
number than the fighting men ; but supposing 
them to have been equal, the total number of 
male persons who acc ompanied Xerxes to Ther- 
mopylae reaches the astounding figure of 
5,283,220 ! Such a vast number must be dis- 
missed as incredible ; but, considering that this 
army was the result of a maximum of effort 
throughout the empire, and that provisions had 
been collected for three years before along the 
line of march, we may well believe that the 
numbers of the army were greater than were ever 
before assembled, and may not have fallen short 
of a million. After the review nt Doriscus 
Xerxes continued his inarch through Thrace. 
On reaching Acanthus, near the isthmus of 
Athos, Xerxes left his fleet, which received 
orders to sail through the canal that had been 
previously dug across the isthmus -of which 



the remains are still visible TAthos] — and await 
his arrival at Therme, afterwards called Thessa- 
lonica. After joining his fleet at Therme, 
Xerxes marched tlirough Macedonia and Thes- 
saly without meeting with any opposition till he 
reached Thermopylae. Here the Greeks re- 
solved to make a stand. Leonidas, king of 
Sparta, conducted a land force to Thermopylae ; 
and his colleague Eurybiades sailed with the 
Greek fleet to the N. of Euboea, and took up his 
position on the N. coast, which faced Magnesia, 
and was called Artemisium from the temple of 
Artemis belonging to the town of Hestiaea. 
Xerxes arrived in safety with his land forces 
before Thermopylae, but his fleet was overtaken 
by a violent storm and hurricane eff the coast 
of Sepias, in Magnesia, by which at least 400 
ships of war were destroyed, as well as an im- 
mense number of transports. Xerxes attempted 
to force his way through the pass of Thermo- 
pylae, but his troops were repulsed again and 
again by Leonidas, till a Malian, of the name 
of Ephialtes, showed the Persians a pass over 
the mountains of Oeta, and thus enabled them 
to fall on the rear of the Greeks. Leonidas and 
his Spartans disdained to fly, and were all slain. 
[Leonidas.] On the same days on which Leo- 
| nidas was fighting with the land forces of 
Xerxes, the Greek ships at Artemisium attacked 
the Persian fleet. In the first battle, the Greeks 
had the advantage, and in the following night 
the Persian ships suffered still more from a 
violent btorm. Two days afterwards the contest 
was renewed, and both sides fought with the 
greatest courage. Although the Greeks at the 
close still maintained their position, and had 
destroyed a great number of the enemy's ships, 
yet their own loss was considerable, and half 
the Athenian ships were disabled. Under these 
circumstances the Greek commanders aban- 
doned Artemisium and retired to Salamis, 
opposite the SW. coast of Attica. It was now 
\ too late to send an army into Boeotia, and Attica 
; thus lay exposed to the full vengeance of the 
invader. The Athenians removed their women, 
children, and infirm persons to Salamis, Aegina, 
and Troe7.en. Meantime Xerxes marched 
through Phocis and Boeotia, and at length 
reached Athens. About the same time as Xerxes 
entered Athens, his fleet arrived in the bay of 
Phalerum. He now resolved upon an engage- 
ment with the Greek fleet. The history of this 
memorable battle, of the previous dissensions 
among the Greek commanders, and of the 
glorious victory of the Greeks at the last, is re- 
lated elsewhere. [Salamis ; Thkmistocles.] 
Xerxes witnessed the battle from a lofty seat, 
which was erected for him on the shore of the 
mainland on one of the declivities of Mount 
Aegaleos, and thus beheld with his own eyes the 
defeat and dispersion of his mighty armament. 
Xerxes now became alarmed for his own sufcty, 
and resolved to leave Greece immediately. Ho 
was confirmed in his resolution by Mardonins, 
who undertook to complete the conquest with 
800,000 of his troops. Xerxes left Mardonins 
the number of troops whic h he requested, and 
with the remainder set out on his march home- 
wards. He reached the Hellespont in forty -five 
days from the time of his departure from Attica. 
On arriving at the Hellespont, he found the 
bridg." of boats destroyed by a storm, and ho 
crossed over to Asia by ship. lie entered Sardin 
towards the end of the year 480. In the fol- 
lowing year, 479, the war was continued in 
Greece ; but Movdonius was defeated atPlataea 
by the combined forvts of the Greeks, and on 

Si I -i 



1012 



XIPHILINTJS 



ZALEUCUS 



the same day another victory was gained over 
the Persians at Mycale hi Ionia. Next year, 
478, the Persians lost their last possession in 
Europe by the capture of Sestos on the Helles- 
pont (Hdt. vii.-ix.). Thus the struggle was vir- 
tually brought to an end, though the war still 
continued for several years longer. Xerxes was 
murdered in 465, after a reign of twenty years, 
by Artabanus, who aspired to become king of 
Persia. (Diod. xi. 69 ; Just. iii. 1 ; Ctes. Pers. 
29.) He was succeeded by his son Artaxer- 
xes I. — II. The only legitimate son of Artaxer- 
xes L, succeeded his father as king of Persia in 
425, but was murdered after a short reign of 
only two months by his half-brother Sogdianus, 
who thus became king (Diod. xii. 71). 

Xiphilinus (Hi</>iAiVos), of Trapezus, was a 
monk at Constantinople, and made an abridg- 
ment of Dio Cassius from the thirty-sixth to 
the eightieth book at the command of the em- 
peror Michael VII. Ducas, who reigned from 
A.D. 1071 to 1078. The work is executed with 
carelessness, and is only of value as preserving 
the main facts of the original, the greater part 
of which is lost. It is printed along with Dio 
Cassius. 

Xiphonia (=,i<pa)v'ia : Capo di S. Croce), a 
promontory on the E. coast of Sicily, with a 
harbour (Hi(#)wceior \i/x-l]v), between Catana and 
Syracuse (Strab. p. 267 ; Diod. xxiii. 4). 

Xois or Chois (s.6is, Xd'is: Sakkra), an 
ancient city of Lower Egypt, N. of Leontopolis, 
on an island of the Nile, in the Nomos Seben- 
nyticus, the seat of the fourteenth dynasty of 
Egyptian kings. 

Xuthus (SoOOoj), in Attic legends is repre- 
sented as the son of Hellen by the nymph 
Orseis, and a brother of Dorus and Aeolus. He 
was king of Peloponnesus, and the husband of 
Creusa, the daughter of Erechtheus, by whom 
he became the father of Achaeus and Ion. 
(Eurip. Ion; Apollod. i. 7, 3 ; Ion.) Another 
version states that after the death of his father, 
Hellen, Xuthus was expelled from Thessaly by 
his brothers, and went to Athens, where he 
married the daughter of Erechtheus. After 
the death of Erechtheus, Xuthus, being chosen 
arbitrator, adjudged the kingdom to his eldest 
brother-in-law, Cecrops, in consequence of 
which he was expelled by the other sons of 
Erechtheus, and settled in Aegialus in Pelopon- 
nesus (Paus. vii. 1, 2). It has been inferred, 
with some probability, from Paus. i. 81, 2, where 
there is mention of the tomb of Ion at Potamoi 
near Prasiae, that Xuthus was originally a 
local hero of Potamoi, and his son Ion the 
eponymous founder of a family, but when the 
Attic story made Ion the hero of the Ionian 
race it became necessary to give him a divine 
father and a mother who represented this 
Cecropian line : hence Xuthus is brought 
in as the putative, and Apollo as the real, 
father. 

Xyline, a town of Pisidia, between Corbasa 
and Termessus, mentioned by Livy (xxxviii. 

Xynia or Xyniae (Euci'a : Eimsus : Taukli), 
a town of Thessaly in the district Phthiotis, 
E. of the lake of the same name (fi auvlas 
Xifivt]'. Nizero or Dereli). It was plundered 
by the Aetolians B.C. 198. (Liv. xxxii. 13, 
xxxiii. 3.) 

Xypete (Eujt€t?j : aviteraiuiv, EvirtTeoij', 
avrreTaiwvevs, avTrerevs, EinreVios), said to 
have been ancientl called Troja, a dermis of 
Attica belonging to the tribe Cecropis, W. of 
Athens. 



Z 

Zabatus (ZlfSaros). [Lycus, No. 5.] 

Zabe (Zdjirj), a town and district of SE. 
Mauretania, near the borders of Numidia (Pro- 
cop. B. Vand. ii. 20). 

Zacynthus (ZaKuvdos : ZaKvvBios, Zacyn- 
thius : Zante), an island in the Ionian sea, off 
the coast of Elis, about forty miles in circum- 
ference. It contained a large and flourishing 
town of the same name upon the E. coast, the 
citadel of which was called Psophis (Paus. viii. 
24, 3 ; Strab. p. 458 ; Liv. xxvi. 14). There are 
two considerable chains of mountains in the 
island. The ancient writers mention M. Ela- 
tus, which is probably the same as the modem 
Scopo in the SE. of the island, and which rises 
to the height of 1509 feet. Zacynthus was cele- 
brated in antiquity for its pitch wells, which 
were visited by Herodotus, and which still 
supply a large quantity of bitumen (Hdt. iv. 
195). Zacynthus was inhabited by a Greek 
population at an early period. It is said to 
have derived its name from Zacynthus, a son 
of Dardanus, who colonised the island from 
Psophis in Arcadia (Paus. I.e.). Thucydides 
speaks of the Zacynthians as a colony of 
Achaeans from the Peloponnese (ii. 66), and 
according to an ancient tradition, the Zacyn- 
thians founded the town of Saguntum in Spain. 
[Saguntum.] The island is frequently men- 
tioned by Homer, who speaks of it as the 
' woody Zacynthus ' (II. ii. 634, Od. i. 246, ix. 
24 ; Strab. p. 159). It formed part of the 
maritime empire of Athens, and continued 
faithful to the Athenians during the Pelopon- 
nesian war. At a later time it was subject to 
the Macedonian monarchs, and on the conquest 
of Macedonia by the Romans passed into their 
hands. (Pol. v. 102 ; Liv. xxxvi. 32.) 

Zadracarta (Za^paxapTa), one of the capital 
cities and royal residences in Hyrcania, lay at 
the SE. of the Caspian, N. of the chief pass 
through M. Coronus. It was probably on the 
site of Astarabad. 

Zagreus. [Dionysus, p. 296, a.] 

Zagros or -US (d Zdypos and rb Zaypiov 
opos, Mts. of Kurdistan), the general name for 
the range of mountains forming the SE. con- 
tinuation of the Taurus, and the E. margin of 
the Tigris and Euphrates valley, from the SW. 
side of the Lake Arsissa (Van) in Armenia, to 
the NE. side of the head of the Persian Gulf, 
and dividing Media from Assyria and Susiana. 
More specifically, the name Zagros was applied 
to the central part of the chain, the N. part 
being called the mountains of the Cordueni or 
Gordyaei, and the S. part Parachoathras. (Pol. 
v. 44 '; Strab. p. 522 ; Ptol. vi. 2, 4.) 

Zaitha or Zautha (Zavdd), a town of Meso- 
potamia, on the E. bank of the Euphrates, 
twenty Roman miles S. of Circesium (Zosim. 
iii. 14; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 5). 

Zaleucu3 (ZdhevKos), the lawgiver of the 
Epizephyrian Locrians, is said by some to have 
been originally a slave, but is described by 
others as a man of good family. He could not, 
however, have been a disciple of Pythagoras, as 
some writers state, since he lived upwards of 
100 years before Pythagoras. The date of the 
legislation of Zaleucus is assigned to B.C. 660 
(Euseb. Chron. 1356). His code is stated to have 
been the first collection of written laws that 
the Greeks possessed (Strab. pp. 259, 398). The 
general character of his laws was severe, but 
they were observed for a long period by tho 



ZALMOXIS 



ZEXO 



1013 



Locrians, who obtained in consequence a high 
reputation for legal order (Schol. ad Pind. Ul. 
x. 17 ; cf. Arist. Pol. ii. 10). Among other 
enactments we are told that the penalty of 
adultery was the loss of the eyes (Ael. V. H. 
xiii. 24 ; Val. Max. v. 5, 3). There is a cele- 
brated story of the son of Zaleucus having 
become liable to this penalty, and the father 
himself suffering the loss of one eye that his 
son might not be utterly blinded. It is further 
related that among his laws was one forbidding 
any citizen under penalty of death to enter 
the senate house in arms. On one occasion, 
however, on a sudden emergency in time of war, 
Zaleucus transgressed his own law, which was 
remarked to him by one present ; whereupon 
he fell upon his own sword, declaring that he 
would himself vindicate the law (Eustath. ad 
II. p. 62). Other authors tell the same story 
of Charondas, or of Diocles (Diod. xii. 19 ; Val. 
Max. vi. 5, 4). 

Zalmoxis or Zamolxis (Zd\no£is, Za/«>Afis), 
said to have been so called from the bear's skin 
(ZdKfios) in which he was clothed as soon as he 
was born. He was, according to the story cur- 
rent among the Greeks on the Hellespont, a 
Getan, who had been a slave to Pythagoras in 
Samos, but was manumitted, and acquired, not 
only great wealth, but large stores of knowledge 
from Pythagoras, and from the Egyptians; 
whom he visited in the course of his travels. 
He returned among the Getae, introducing the 
civilisation and the religious ideas which he had 
gained, especially regarding the immortality of 
the soul. He was said to have lived in a sub- 
terranean cave for three years, and after that to 
have again made his appearance among the 
Getae. Herodotus inclines to place the age of 
Zalmoxis a long time before Pythagoras, and 
expresses a doubt, not only about the story 
itself, but as to whether Zalmoxis was a man, 
or an indigenous Getan deity. The latter 
appears to have been the real statj of the case. 
The Getae believed that the departed went to 
him, and it is a probable conjecture that Zal- 
moxis was really the same as Sabaz u-;, the 
Thracian Dionysus [Dionysus, p. 295, aj. 
(Porph. Vit. Pyth. 14;Hdt. iv. 95; Strab. p. 2970 

Zama Eegla (Za/uxx: Zamensis: Djwma), a 
strongly fortified city in the interior of Nnmidia, 
on the borders of the Carthaginian territory. 
It was the ordinary residence of King Juba, 
who had here his treasury and his harem. It 
was the scene of one of the most important 
battles in the history of the world, that in 
which Hannibal was defeated by Scipio, and 
the second Punic war was ended, B.C. 202. 
(Pol. xv. 5; Liv. xxx. 29; Bell. Afr. 91.) Strata 
tells us that it was destroyed by the Romans ; 
but if so, it must have been restored, for we 
find it mentioned under the empire as a colony 
and a bishop's see. Vitruvius speaks of a 
fountain in its neighbourhood. (Strab. pp. 829, 
881 ; Vitruv. viii. 3, 24 ; Plin. v.) There were 
unimportant places of the same name in Cappa- 
docia and Mesopotamia. 

Zancle. i.Mkssana.] 

Zaradrus (Hutlej) a river of N. India, the 
S. boundary of the Punjab (Ptol. vii. 1, 27). 
It falls into the Hyphasis (Gharra). 

Zarangae. [Drangiana.] 

Zarax or Zarez iZdpai, Zopijf). 1. The cen- 
tral part of the chain of mountains extending 
along the E. coast of Iiaconica from Mt. Varnon, 
on the frontiers of Argolis, down to the pro- 
montory Malea (Ptol. iii. 15, 10).— Z. (Jenka), 
a town on the E. coast of Laconica, ut the foot 



of the mountain of the same name (Paus. iii. 
24, 1 ; Pol. iv. 36). 
Zariaspe. [Bactka.] 

Zariaspis, an earlier, probably the native, 
name for the river on which Bactra stood, and 
which is usually called Bactrus. [Bactra.] 

Zela or Ziela (to ZfjAa : Zilleh),a city in the 
S. of Pontus, due S. of Amasia, and on the 
road from Tavium to Comana Pontica. It 
stood on an artificial hill, and was strongly 
fortified. Near it was an ancient and famous 
temple of Anaitis and other Persian deities, 
in which great religious festivals were held. 
The surrounding district was called Zeletis or 
ZelTtis. At Zela the Roman general Valerius 
Triarius was defeated by Mithridates ; but the 
city is more celebrated for another great battle, 
that in which Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces, 
and of which he wrote this despatch to Rome : 
Vzxi: Vidi: Vici. (App. Mithr. 89; Plut. 
Caes. 50 ; Dio Cass. xlii. 47 ; Bell. Alex. 73.) 

Zelaslum, a Thessalian town in the district 
Phthiotis, of uncertain site. 

Zelia (Ze'Aeia), an ancient city of Mysia, at 
the foot of Mt. Ida, and on the river Aesepus, 
eighty stadia from its mouth, belonging to the 
territory of Cyzicus. At the time of Alexander's 
invasion the headquarters of the Persian army 
were fixed here. (II. ii. 824; Strab. pp. 565, 
587 i Arr. Alt. i. 13.) 

Zeno, Zenon (Z^tw). 1. The founder of the 
Stoic philosophy, was a native of Citium in 
Cyprus, and the son of Mnaseas. He began at 
an early age to study philosophy through the 
writings of the '-ocratic ph'l-r.ophsrs. which 
his father was accustcmed to bring back from 
Athens when he went thither on trading voyages. 
At the age of twenty-two, or, according to 
others, of thirty years, Zeno was shipwrecked 
in the neighbourhood of Piraeus ; whereupon 
he was led to settle in Athens, and to devote 
himself entirely to the study of philosophy. 
According to some writers he lost all his pro- 
perty in the shipwreck : according to others, 
he still retained a large fortune ; hut whichever 
of these accounts is correct, his moderation 
and contentment became proverbial, and a 
recognition of his virtues shines through even 
the ridicule of the comic poets. The weakness 
of his health is said to have first determined 
him to live rigorously and simply, but his 
desire to make himself independent of all ex- 
ternal circumstances seems to have been an 
additional motive, and to have led him to attach 
himself to the Cynic Crates. In opposition to 
the advice of Crates, he studied under Stilpo 
of the Megaric school (Diog. Laert. vii . 24) ; 
and he subsequently received instruction from 
the two other contemporary Megarics, Diodorns 
Cronus and Philo, and from the Academics 
Xenocrates and Polemo. The period which 
Zeno thus devoted to study is said to have ex- 
tended to twenty years. At its close, and after 
he had developed his peculiar philosophical 
system, he opened his school in the porch 
adorned with the paintings of Polygnotus (Stoa 
I Poecile), which, at an earlier time, had been a 
place in which poets met. (Diog. Laert. vii. 5.) 
From this place his disciples were called Stoics. 
Among the warm admirers of Zeno was Anti- 
gonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia. The 
Athenians likewise placed the greatest confi- 
dence in him, and displayed the greatest esteem 
for him ; for although the well-known story 
that they deposited the keys of the fortress 
with him, as the most trustworthy man, nniy 
be u later invention, there seems no reason for 



1014 



ZENO 



ZENODOTITJM 



doubting the authenticity of the decree of the 
people by which a golden crown and a public 
burial in the Ceramicus were awarded him. 
The Athenian citizenship, however, he is said 
to have declined, that he might not become 
unfaithful to his native land, where in return 
he was highly esteemed. We do not know the 
precise dates of Zeno's birth and death. He is 
said to have presided over his school for fifty- 
eight years, and to have died at the age of 
ninety-eight. He is also said to have been still 
alive in the 130th Olympiad (b.c. 260). Zeno 
wrote numerous works, but the writings of 
Chrysippus and the later Stoics seem to have 
obscured those of Zeno, and even the warm 
adherents of the school seem seldom to have 
gone back to the books of its founder. Hence 
it is difficult to ascertain how much of the later 
Stoic philosophy really belongs to Zeno. — The 
Stoics, like earlier schools of philosophy, re- 
garded logic and physics as the necessary 
foundations for ethics. Zeno (or his followers) 
divided logic into rhetoric and dialectic, but 
the latter, as providing the tests of truth, is the 
more important. Knowledge is attained by 
impressions made through the senses as upon 
a tabula rasa. The mind has a power of 
assent to the presentations which come to the 
mind from a true impression ; and Zeno is said 
to have illustrated the stages by which this 
assent, i.e. the existence of truth, is obtained 
by the gradual progress from the fiat and open 
hand to the fully clenched fist. Rhetoric was 
the open hand, dialectic the clenched. (Cic. 
Orat. 32, 113, Acad. i. 11, 40.) In his theory 
of physics everything that existed was corporeal, 
even the soul itself. In this, as in most of his 
system, he aims at substituting what is material 
and practical for the visionary speculations 
of the Platonic school. The world consists of 
matter and Reason or God : for the god of the 
Stoics is the single, all-pervading soul of the 
world, which is the moving force of matter ; 
but the one cannot be separated from the 
other, so that there is no dualistic tendency 
in the Stoic philosophy. In ethics the chief 
good is virtue : but this is defined as ' living 
according to reason ' or ' according to nature,' 
which is, in other words, the reason of the 
world. This virtue or life according to reason 
could only be attained by the wise man, who 
was to be self-sufficing and independent of 
externals, unmoved, therefore, by pain or plea- 
sure. Virtue is the only good thing, vice the 
only evil, and all else is indifferent. But the 
good and the evil are absolute, so that the 
tendency of the Stoic philosophy was to put 
good deeds together on an equality on one side, 
and bad deeds or crimes on an equality on the 
other. Another tendency of Stoicism, which 
had some political importance, was towards 
cosmopolitanism : that is to say, that, regard- 
ing all the human race as differentiated only 
ioy virtue and vice, wisdom and folly, they were 
inclined to be citizens of the world rather than 
of a particular state. It was a sign, and might 
in some small degree be a cause, of the break- 
ing down of the barriers of the numerous and 
small, but intensely patriotic, Greek states which 
marks the change of the Macedonian period. 
— 2. The Eleatic philosopher, was a native of 
Elea (Velia) in Italy, son of Teleutagoras, and 
the favourite disciple of Parmenides. He was 
born about B.C. 4S8, and at the age of forty 
accompanied Parmenides to Athens'. [Pab- 
MENIDES.] He appears to have resided some 
time at Athens, and is said to have unfolded 



his doctrines to men like Pericles and Callias 
for the price of 100 minae. Zeno is said 
to have taken part in the legislation of Par- 
menides, to the maintenance of which the 
citizens of Elea had pledged themselves every 
year by an oath. His love of freedom is shown 
by the courage with which he exposed his life 
in order to deliver his native country from a 
tyrant. Whether he perished in the attempt 
or survived the fall of the tyrant is a point on 
which the authorities vary. They also state 
the name of the tyrant differently. Zeno 
devoted all his energies to explain and develop 
the philosophical system of Parmenides. [Pah- 
menides.] — 3. An Epicurean philosopher, a 
native of Sidon, was a contemporary of 
Cicero, who heard him when at Athens. He 
was sometimes termed Coryphaeus Epicure- 
orum. He seems to have been noted for the 
disrespectful terms in which he spoke of other 
philosophers. For instance, he called Socrates 
the Attic buffoon. He was a disciple of Apollo- 
dorus, and is described as a clear-headed 
thinker and perspicuous expounder of his views. 

Zenohia, queen of Palmyra. After the death 
of her husband, Odenathus, whom, according 
to some accounts, she assassinated (a.d. 266), she 
assumed the imperial diadem, as regent for her 
sons, and discharged all the active duties of a 
sovereign. But not content with enjoying the 
independence conceded by Gallienus and 
tolerated by Claudius, she sought to include 
all Syria, Asia, and Egypt within the limits of 
her sway, and to make good the title which she 
claimed of Queen of the East. By this rash 
ambition she lost both her kingdom and her 
i liberty. She was defeated by Aurelian, taken 
I prisoner on the capture of Palmyx'a (273), and 
[ carried to Rome, where she adorned the triumph 
of her conqueror (274). Her life was spared by 
Aurelian, and she passed the remainder of her 
years with her sons in the vicinity of Tibur 
{Tivoli). (Trebell. Poll. Trig. Tyr. 31 ; Zonar. 
xii. 27.) Longinus lived at her court, and was 
put to death on the capture of Palmyra. 
[Longinus.] 

Zenobla (Z-rjvo^la : Chelebi or Zelebi), a city 
of Chalybonitis, in Syria, on the W. bank of the 
Euphrates, between Sura and Circesium. It 
was founded by Zenobia. 

Zenobius (Zt]v60ios), lived at Rome in the 
time of Hadrian, and was the author of a collec- 
tion of proverbs in Greek, which have come 
down to us. In this collection the proverbs 
are arranged alphabetically, and divided into 
hundreds. The last division is incomplete, the 
total number collected being 552. It is printed 
in the collection of Schottus (Uapoifiiat 'EA.- 
X-qviKcd, Antwerp, 1612). 

Zenodorus, a Greek artist, who made for 
Nero the colossal statue of that emperor which 
he set up in front of the Golden House and 
which was afterwards dedicated afresh by 
Vespasian as a statue of the Sun. It was 110 
feet in height. Pliny notes that, great as was 
the skill of Zenodorus in modelling and chasing, 
he could not restore the old excellence of casting 
in bronze (Plin. xxxiv. 45). 

Zenodotlum or -ia (Z-qvoSoTiov, ZrivoSorla), a 
fortress in the N. of Mesopotamia, on the small 
tributary of the Euphrates called Bilecha, a 
little above Nicephorium and below Ichnae. 
It was a Macedonian settlement, and the .only 
one of the Greek cities of ^Mesopotamia which 
did not revolt from the Parthians at the 
approach of Crassus. (Dio Cass. xl. 12 ; Plut, 
Crass. 17.) 



ZENODOTUS ZEUS 1015 

Zenodotus (ZtjvoSotos). 1. Of Ephesus, a the Argonautic expedition. They liberated their 
celebrated grammarian, was the first superin- sister and her children, gave the kingdom to the 
tendent of the great library at Alexandria, and latter, and sent the second wife of Phineus to her 
flourished under Ptolemy Philadelphus about j own country, Scythia. (Diod. iv. 44.) Other 
B.C. 208. Zenodotus was employed by Phila- accounts relate that the Boreadae delivered 
delphus, together with his two great contem- ■ Phineus from the Harpies ; for it had been 
poraries, Alexander the Aetolian and Lycophron : foretold that the Harpies might be killed by 
the Chalcidian, to collect and revise all the : the sons of Boreas, but that the sons of Boreas 
Greek poets. Alexander, we are told, undertook must die if they should not be able to overtake 
the task of collecting the tragedies, Lycopliron the Harpies (Apollod. i. 9, 21). Others, again, 
the comedies, and Zenodotus the poems of state that the Boreadae perished in their pur- 
Homer and of the other illustrious poets, suit of the Harpies, or that Heracles killed 
Zenodotus, however, devoted his chief attention them with his arrows near the island of Tenos 
to the Iliad and Odyssey. Hence he is called | (Hyg. Fab. 14 ; Hahpyiae). Their tombs were 
the first Beviser (£iop0o>Tr,s) of Homer, and his i said to be in Tenos, adorned with sepulchral 
recension (Aiupflcixm) of the Iliad and Odyssey I stelae, one of which moved whenever the wind 
obtained the greatest celebrity. The correc- ' blew from the north. Calais is also mentioned 
tions which Zenodotus applied to the text of as the founder of the Campanian town of Cales 
Homer were of three kinds. (1) He expunged (Sil. It. viii. 515). 

verses. (2j He marked them as spurious, but i Zethus (Zijflos), son of Zeus and Antiope, and 
left them in his copy. (3) He introduced new brother of Amphion. For details see Amphion. 
readings or transposed or altered verses. Tiie Zeugis, Zeugitana Regio (?) ZzvyiTavr\ : N. 
great attention which Zenodotus paid to the part of Tunis), the N. district of Africa Propria, 
language of Homer caused a new epoch in the [Africa.] 

grammatical study of the Greek language. The Zeugma (Zevy/xa, i.e. Junction : prob. Bum- 
results of his investigations respecting the ! keleh), a city of Syria, on the borders of Corn- 
meaning and the use of words were contained ; magene and Cyrrhestice, built by Seleucus 
in two works which he published under the Nicator, on the W. bank of the Euphrates, at a 
title of a Glossary (r\<i<r<rai), and a Dictionary point where the river was crossed by a bridge 
of barbarous or foreign phrases. — 2. Of Alex- of boats which had been constructed by Alex- 
andria, a grammarian, lived after Aristarchus, ander the Great : hence the name. Afterwards, 
whose recension of the Homeric poems he ' when the ford of Thapsacus became impassable 
attacked (Suid. s. v.). | for travellers, on account of. the hordes of 

Zephyra. [Halicarnassus.] | Arabs who infested the banks of the Lower 

Zephyrlum {Z«pupiov, sc. aKpwrrpiov, i.e. the i Euphrates, the bridge at Zeugma gave the 
W. promontory), the name of several promon- , only passage over the river. (Strab. p. 746 ; 
tories of the ancient world. The chief of them Pol. v. 43 ; Dio Cass. xl. 17 ; Procop. Aed. ii. 9 ) 
were the following: — I. In Europe. 1. (C di \ Zeus (Zeus), the greatest of the Greek gods, 
Brussano), a promontory in Bruttium, forming was primarily the god of the sky (literally the 
the SE. extremity of the country, from which ' bright sky '), worshipped by the old Greeks on 
the Locri who settled in the neighbourhood are mountain tops, such as would give an uninter- 
said to have obtained the name of Fpizephijrii rupted view of the sky. But the commixture 
(Strab. pp. 259, 270; Plin. iii. 74). — 2. A pro- of the myths and traditions of many different 
montory on the W. coast of Cyprus (Strab. p. national or tribal religions caused a number of 
683). II. In Asia. 1. In Pontus (C. Ze/reh), different stories to be attached to Zeus from 
a headland W. of Thipolis, with a fort and which the Zeus of Greek literature (or the 
harbour of the same name (Ptol. v. 6, 11). — Jupiter in Latin literature, when the Greek 
2. [Caria.] — 3. In Cilicia (prob. C. Cavalierc), stories were adopted) has been formed. Homer 
a far-projecting promontory, W. of Prom. Sar- has these stories, but gives them only partially, 
pedon (Strab. p. 071). III. In Africa iKunser Zeus is the son of Cronos and Rhea, a brother of 
Maarah), a headland on the NE. coast of i Poseidon, Hades (Pluto I, Hestia, Demeter, Hera, 
Cyrenaica, W. of Darnis. and is married to his sister Hera. When Zeus 

ZephyTUS (Z4<pjpos), the personification of and his brothers distributed among themselves 
the W. wind, is described by Hesiod as a son of the government of the world by lot, Poseidon 
Astraeus and Eos (Th. 579). By the Harpy obtained the sea, Hades the lower world, and 
Podarge, Zephyrus became the father of the Zeus the heavens and the upper regions, but 
horses Xanthus and Balius, which belonged to the earth became common to all. According 
Achilles (II. xvi. 150) ; but he was married to to the Homeric account Zeus dwelt on Mt. 
Chloris, whom he had carried off by force, and Olympus in Thessaly, which was believed to 
by whom he had a son, Carpus. (Ov. Fast, penetrate with its lofty summit into heaven 
v. 197.) [Vesti.J ■ itself. He is called the father of gods and 

Zerynthus (Zv')puc0o5 : ZripovOtos), a town of men, the most high and powerful among the 
Thrace, in the territory of Aenos (or, as some say, immortals, whom all others obey. He is the 
in Samothrace), with a temple of Apollo and a 1 supreme ruler, who with his counsel manages 
caveof Hecate, who are hence culled /injnlhius everything; the founder of kingly power, and 
and Zerynthia (Stcph. Byz. s. v. ; Liv. xxxviii. of law and of order, whence Dike, Themis, and 
41; Ov. Trist. i. 10, 19 ; Tzetz. Lye. 449, 958). Nemesis are his assistants. For the same 

Zetes (Z77T775) and Calais IKdXalsl, sons of reason he protects the assembly of the people 
Boreas and Orithyia, frequently called tin- iayopcuos), the meetings of the council (f}ov\- 
Boreadae, are mentioned among the Argonauts, aiot), and as he presides over the whole state, 
and are described as winged beings (Pind. I'i/tli. so also over every house and family (epKfws). 
iv. 825 ; Ap. Rh. i. 219 ; Hyg. Fab. 14). Their ! He also watched over the sanctity of the oath 
sister, Cleopatra, who was married to Phineus, \ Vopxios) and the laws of hospitality lt4vu>$), and 
king of Salmydessus, had been thrown with her protected suppliants (ixdatos). He avenged 
sons into prison by Phineus at the instigation of those who were wronged, and punished those 
his second wife. Here she was found by Zetes who had committed a crime, for he watched the 
and Calais, when they arrived at Salmydessus in doings and sufferings of all men (iirotyws). He 



1016 



ZEUS 



was further the original source of all prophetic 
power, from whom all prophetic signs and 
sounds proceeded (■Kavoptyaios). Everything, 
good as well as bad, comes from Zeus ; accord- 
ing to his own choice he assigns good or evil to 
mortals ; and fate itself was subordinate to him. 
He is armed with thunder and lightning (the 
original attributes of the god of the sky), and 
the shaking of his aegis produces storm and 
tempest ; epithets of Zeus in the Homeric 
poems describe him as repirtKepauvos, ipl- 
ySowiros, mf/i/Spe/ieT?)!, the thunderer,;/f(peA.7j')<e- 
p€TT)s, the gatherer of clouds, and in later 
writers on^ptos or ie'-rio?, the sender of rain. 
Hence Zeirs MeiXi'xios (the placable) was wor- 
shipped at the Attic Diasia, that he might give 
favourable weather for the spring crops, and 
Zeus Mai/MZKTrjs at the approach of winter, that 
he might not send heavy storms. Hesiod has 
adopted the myth which belonged to Crete and 
to Asia Minor and has in literature superseded 
the purer conception of Zeus. In this story 
also Zeus is the son of Cronos and Rhea, and the 
brother of Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and 
Poseidon. Cronos swallowed his children im- 
mediately after their birth, but when Rhea was 
pregnant with Zeus, she applied to Uranus and 
Ge to save the life of the child. Uranus and 




Head of the Olympian Zeus. (From a bust in the 
Vatican.) 

Ge therefore sent Rhea to Lyctos in Crete, 
requesting her. to bring up her child there. 
Rhea accordingly concealed Zeus in a cave of 
Mount Aegaeon, and gave to Cronos a stone 
wrapped in cloth, which he swallowed in the 
belief that it was his son. Cronos, by a cun- 
ning device of Ge or Metis, was made to vomit 
up the children he had swallowed, and first of 
all the stone, which was afterwards set up 
by Zeus at Delphi (Hes. Th. 468-500; cf. 
Paus. x. 24, 5). The infant Zeus was brought 
up in Crete, nursed by Amalthea, and guarded 
by the Curetes, who clashed their cymbals that 
his cries might not be heard by his father 
[Amalthea ; Curetes]. Coming to manhood 
Zeus delivered the Cyclopes from the bonds 
with which they had been fettered by Cronos, 
and they in their gratitude provided him with 
thunder and lightning. On the advice of Ge, 
Zeus also liberated the hundred-armed Gi- 
gantes, Briareus, Cottus and Gyes, that they 
might assist him in his fight against the Titans. 
The Titans were conquered and shut up in 
Tartarus, where they were henceforth guarded 
by the Hecatoncheires. Thereupon Tartarus 
and Ge begot Typhoeus, who began a fearful 
struggle with Zeus, but was conquered. [Cy- 



clopes ; Gig antes ; Titanes ; Typhoeus.] 
Zeus now reigned supreme, and chose Metis 
for his wife. When she was pregnant with 
Athene, he took the child out of her body and 
concealed it in his head, on the advice of Uranus 
and Ge, who told him that thereby he would 
retain the supremacy of the world. For if 
Metis had given birth to a son, this son (so fate 
had ordained it) would have acquired the 
sovereignty. [Athene, p. 188, a.] His position 
as supreme lawgiver is represented in myth by 
his second marriage, with Themis (Justice or 
Law), from which sprang the Fates and the 
Seasons [Horae ; Moerae]. But his marriage 
with Hera was the ' sacred marriage,' the type 
of all marriages [see Hera, p. 393, b]. Twelve 
great Olympian gods were recognised : or rather ' 
six pairs of deities (cf. Hymn, ad Merc. 128). 
It is likely that the list in Liv. xxii. 10, which 
mentions the twelve deities worshipped in Greek 
fashion at lectistemia, represents the twelve 
to whom the altar at Athens was erected (Thuc. 
vi. 54). These were Zeus (the head of them all), 
Poseidon, Apollo, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, 
Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Athene, Artemis and 
Aphrodite. The altars to twelve gods were 
common in Greece, but not always to the same 
twelve, including sometimes deities not usu- 
ally regarded as belonging to the Olympian 
' dynasty.' The altar at Olympia was to the 
following six pairs : Zeus and Poseidon, Hera 
and Athene, Hermes and Apollo, Dionysus and 
the Charites, Artemrs and Alpheus, Cronus and 
Rhea (Schol. ad Pind. 01. v. 5). In the preva- 
lent Greek mythology, though Zeus was always 
rocognised as supreme god, the minister and 
announcer of his will was Apollo. — Such is the 
representation of Zeus in literature, but it 
must not be forgotten that this account, and 
many other legends about him are the outcome 
of a combination of mythologies. The change 
of dynasties from Uranus to Cronus and from 
Cronus to Zeus represents in reality the par- 
tial acceptance of a theology belonging to older 
inhabitants of Greek lands whose supreme 
gods are retained as predecessors of the Greek 
Zeus. Moreover, as has been pointed out 
above, the older Greek Zeus (the Zeus of the 
so-called ' Pelasgians ') was the god of the 
bright sky [cf. Jupiter], worshipped on moun- 
tains such as Olympus (more than one), Ithome, 
Parnes, Cithaeron, Laphystion, Ida and Samo- 
thrace. Many, no doubt, of the myths about 
him refer to the phenomena of the sky : the 
fight with Typhoeus, for instance, is probably 
a myth from the strife of the elements, and 
the story of the Cyclopes supplying him with 
thunderbolts obviously refers to thunderstorms ; 
but it is an error to apply this interpretation 
as universally as some have done. The many 
transformations of Zeus in his amours have 
been rightly explained as no sky-phenomena, 
but as additions gradually made to the story of 
Zeus from the common habit of tracing the 
descent of noble families from the god. Thus 
a number of separate local genealogies of this 
kind gathering round the name of Zeus, from 
whom these local families traced their descent, 
necessitated the belief in a number of unions 
between Zeus and local nymphs or mortal wo- 
men ; and, further, those primitive tribes who 
had totemistic symbols had traditions which 
are preserved in the stories of Zeus taking an 
animal form. It is likely enough that the true 
explanation of Zeus as a bull or Zeus as a 
swan is given by those who say that the descent 
in such tribes became a descent from Zeus = 



ZEUXIDAMTJS 

a bull, or from Zeus = a swan. The early or 
' Pelasgian ' conception of Zeus varied in differ- 
ent localities. The Arcadian Zeus (Zeus 
AvKaios) was born, according to the legends of 
the country, in Arcadia, either on Mt. Parrha- 
sium, or on Sit. Lycaeus. He was brought up 
there by the nymphs Thisoa, Neda, and Hagno. 
Lycaon, son of Pelasgus, erected a temple to 
Zeus Lycaeus on Mt. Lycaeus, and instituted 
the festival of the Lycaea in honour of him 
[Lycaeus ; Lycaon]. In the festival [see Diet, 
of Ant. art. Lycaea] we see Zeus dwelling in 
light on the summit of the mountain where it 
caught the first rays of the sun, and worshipped 
by rites, part of which is a rain charm, part a relic 
of human sacrifice. Those may be right who see 
in this sacrifice ' the cannibal feast of a wolf- 
tribe.' Especially regarded as ' Pelasgian ' was 
the Zeus of Dodona in Epirus called Zeus 
AaSwi/aios or TlsXaayinos, who was worshipped 
originally without image or temple in the sa- 
cred oak-grove — the tree sacred to the chief 
god of Aryan nations — and possessing the 
oldest oracle of Greece [for a full account, see 
Diet, of Ant. art. Oraculuni]. The national 
Hellenic Zeus of the less primitive time was 
worshipped at Olympia in Elis, and the great 
national Panegyris was celebrated once in four 
years. There Zeus was regarded as the father 
and king of gods and men, and as the supreme 
god of the Hellenic nation. His statue at 
Olympia was executed by Phidias, a few years 
before the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war, 
the sublime idea of this great work having 
been suggested to the artist by the words of 
Homer (II. i. 527). [Phidias.}— The Greek and 
Latin poets give to Zeus or Jupiter an immense 
number of epithets and surnames, which are 
derived partly from the places where he was 
worshipped, and partly express the hopes and 
aspirations of those who worshipped him. 
The most familiar and significant, besides 
those mentioned at the beginning of the 
article, are reve'flAios or recj^Toip as the 
father of the nation or the family (Pind. 
Pyth. iv. 167; Attach. Suppl. 196); 'EA.eu0e'pios, 
the giver of freedom, especially as deliverer 
from the Persian yoke (Plut. Aristid. 19 ; cf. 
Pind. 01. xii. 1); Xurrrjp, the protector of 
the race or of the household, to whom the 
third cup of wine at the Greek dinner was 
drunk (the first being to the Olympian gods, 
the second to the heroes: cf. Pind. Isthm.v. 8; 
Plat. Phileb. p. 66) ; ro/iijAios, who gives happy 
and fruitful wedlock; Te'Aeios, who answers 
prayer (Pind. Pyth. i. 67 ; Aesch. Ay. 978). The 
eagle, the oak, and the summits of mountains 
were sacred to him, and his sacrifices generally 
consisted of goats, bulls, and cows. His usual 
attributes are the sceptre, eagle, thunderbolt, 
and a figure of Victory in his hand, and some- 
times also a cornucopia. The Olympian Zeus 
sometimes wears a wreath of olive, and the 
Dodonaean Zeus a wreath of oak leaves. In 
works of art Zeus is generally represented as the 
omnipotent father and king of gods and men, 
according to the idea which was emljodied in 
the statue of the Olympian Zeus by Phidias. 
Respecting the Roman god, Bee Jupiter. 

Zeuxidamus (Ze u^iSaMos). 1. King of Sparta, 
and tenth of the Eurypontidae. He was grand- 
son of Theopompus, and father of Anaxidamus, 
who succeeded him (Paus. iii. 7). — 2. Son of 
Leotychides, king of Sparta. He was also 
named CyniscUH. He died before his father, 
leaving a son, Archidamus II. (Udt. vi. 71 ; 
Thuc. ii. 17.) 



ZEUXIS 



1017 



Zeuxis (Zeu£is), the great Greek painter, who 
excelled all his contemporaries except Parrha- 
sius, was a native of Heraclea (probably of' the 
city of this name on the Euxine), and was born 
between 450 and 410 b. c. He came to Athens 
soon after the beginning of the Peloponnesian 
war, when he had already achieved a great re- 
putation, although a young man. (Plat. Protay. 
p. 318, Gory. p. 453, cf. Aristoph. Ach. 991.) 
He passed some time in Macedonia, at the court 
of Archelaus, for whom he decorated the royal 
palace at Pella with paintings, probably soon 
: after 413 (Ael. V. E. xiv. 17). He must have 
spent some time in Magna Graecia, as we leam 
from the story respecting the picture of Helen, 
which be painted for the city of Croton; and it 
' is also probable that he visited Sicily, as we are 
told that he gave away one of his pictures to 
the Agrigentines. His travels through Greece 
I itself were no doubt extensive. We find him at 
Olympia, where he made an ostentatious dis- 
; play, before the eyes of all Greece, of the wealth 
which his art had brought him, by appearing in 
a robe embroidered with his own name in letters 
of gold (Plin. xxxv. 62). The pallia, however, 
are explained by some as being curtains hung 
in front of his pictures. After acquiring a great 
fortune by the exercise of his art, he adopted 
the custom of giving away his pictures, because 
no adequate price could be set upon them. The 
time of his death is unknown. The masterpiece 
of Zeuxis was his picture of Helen, in painting 
which he had as his models the five most beau- 
tiful maidens of Croton, whom he was allowed 
to select for this purpose. It was painted for 
j the temple of Hera at Croton. This picture 
and its history were celebrated by many poets, 
who preserved the names of the five maidens 
upon whom the choice of Zeuxis fell. (Plin. 
j xxxv. 62 ; Cic. de Invent, ii. 1.) The accurate- 
painting of ' still life ' was a department of the 
art which Zeuxis and his younger rival Parrha- 
i sius appear to have carried almost to perfection. 
! The well-known story of the trial of skill in that 
j species of painting between these two artists, if 
not literally true, indicates the opinion which 
was held in ancient times of their powers of 
imitation. In this contest the picture of Zeuxis 
represented a bunch of grapes, so naturally 
painted that the birds flew at the picture to eat 
the fruit ; upon which the artist, confident in 
this proof of his success, called upon his rival 
no longer to delay to draw aside the curtain 
and show his picture : but the picture of Par- 
rhasius was the curtain itself, which Zeuxis had 
mistaken for real drapery. On discovering his 
error, Zeuxis honourably yielded the palm to 
Parrhasius, sayingthat he himself had deceived 
birds, but Parrhasius had deceived an artist 
(Plin. I.e.). Besides this accuracy of imitation, 
many of the works of Zeuxis displayed great 
dramatic power. This appears to have been 
especially the case with his Infant Heracles 
stranyliny the Serpent, where the chief force of 
the composition consisted in the terror of Alc- 
mena and Amphitryon, as they witnessed the 
struggle. It is thought that this theme is repro- 
duced on a vase now in the British Museum. 
Another picture, in which he showed the same 
dramatic power, applied to a very different 
subject, was his Female Hippocentaur, which 
was lost in a shipwreck off Cape Malea, on its 
way to Rome, whither it had been sent by Sulla 
(Lucian, Zeux. 8). The composition of this 
picture is perhaps preserved in a mosaic from 
the villa of Hadrian [see Diet, of Ant. art. 
i'ictura]. 



3 U 



1018 



ZIOBERIS 



ZYG ANTES 



Zioberis (Jinjemn), a river of Parthia (Curt, 
vi. 4, 4). 

Zoetium or Zoeteum (Zo'itiov, ZoWeiov ; Zoi- 
reiei/s), a town of Arcadia in the district 
Eutresia, N. of Megalopolis. 

Zoilus (ZcdiAos), a grammarian, was a native 
f Amphipolis, and lived in the time of Philip 
of Macedon. He was celebrated for the asperity 
with which he assailed Homer (Suid. s.v. 
'OixripofiiiffTL^). He found fault with him prin- 
cipally for introducing fabulous and incredible 
stories in his poems. From the list that we 
have of his writings it also appears that he 
attacked Plato and Isocrates. His name became 
proverbial for a captious and malignant critic. 
(Ov. Bern. Am. 366 ; Ael. V. if. xi. 10.) 

Zonaras, Joannes ('laxwris d Zaivapas), a 
celebrated Byzantine historian and theologian, 
lived in the twelfth century under the emperors 
Alexius I. Comnenus and Calo- Joannes. Besides 
his theological works there is still extant his 
Annales (XpoviKdv), in eighteen books, from 
the creation of the world to the death of Alexis 
in 1118. It is compiled from various Greek 
authors, whose very words Zonaras frequently 
retains. The earlier part is chiefly taken from 
Josephus ; and in the portion which relates to 
Roman history he has for the most part fol- 1 
lowed Dio Cassius. In consequence of the 
latter circumstance {he Annals of Zonaras are 
of great importance in studying the early his- 
tory of Rome. Of the "first twenty books of 
Dio Cassius we have nothing but the abstract 
of Zonaras; and even of the later books, of 
which Xiphilinus has made a fuller epitome, 
Zonaras has preserved many statements of 
Dio which are entirely omitted by Xiphilinus. — 
Editions by Du Cange, Paris, 1686, fol., and I 
by Dindorf, Leips. 1875. 

Zone (Z&vri : Zwvcuos), a town of Thrace on a ! 
promontory of the same name in the Aegaean, j 
where Orpheus is said to have sung (Hdt. vii. 
59 ; Ap. Rh. i. 29 ; Mel. ii. 2, 8). 

Zopyrus (ZwirupSs). 1. A Persian, son of 
Megabyzns. After Darius Hystaspis had be- 
sieged Babylon for twenty months in vain, 
Zopyrus resolved to gain the place for his master 
by the most extraordinary self-sacrifice. Ac- 
cordingly, one day he appeared before Darius 
with his body mutilated in the most horrible 
manner : both his ears and nose were cut off, 
and his person otherwise disfigured. After 
explaining to Darius his intentions, he fled to 
Babylon as a victim of the cruelty of the Per- 
sian king. The Babylonians gave him their 
confidence, and placed him at the head of their 
troops. He soon found means to betray the 
city to Darius, who severely punished the in- 
habitants for their revolt.- Darius appointed 
Zopyrus satrap of Babylon for life, with the 
enjoyment of its entire revenues. (Hdt. iii. 



153-160.)— 2. The Physiognomist, attributed 
many vices to Socrates in an assembly of his 
disciples, who laughed at him and at his art in 
consequence ; but Socrates admitted that such 
were his natural propensities, but said that 
they had been overcome by philosophy. (Cic. 
Tasc. iv. 37, de Fat. 5.) 

Zoroaster or Zoroastres (Zupoa.<TTpr)i), the 
Zarathustra of the Zendavesta, and the Zer- 
dusht of the Persians, was the reformer of the 
Magian religion. There were extant in the 
later Greek literature several works bearing 
the name of Zoroaster ; but these writings were 
forgeries of a later age, and belong to the same 
class of writings as the works of Hermes Tris- 
megistus, Orpheus, &c. There is still extant a 
collection of oracles ascribed to Zoroaster, which 
are, of course, spurious. They have been pub- 
lished by Morell, Paris, 1595, and by other 
editors. 

Zosimus (ZJxri,uos), a Greek historian, who 
lived in the time of the younger Theodosius. 
He wrote a History of the Roman empire in six 
books, which is still extant. This work must 
have been written after A.K 425, as an event is 
mentioned in it which took place in that year. 
The first book comprises a sketch of the history 
of the early emperors, down to the end of the 
reign of Diocletian (305). The second, third, 
and fourth books are devoted to the history of 
the fourth century, which is treated much less 
concisely. The fifth and sixth books embrace 
the period from 395 to 410, when Attalus was 
deposed. The work of Zosimus is mainly 
(though not altogether) an abridgment or com- 
pilation of the works of previous historians. 
His style is concise,, clear, pure, and not un- 
pleasing. His chief fault as a historical writer 
is his neglect of chronology. Zosimus was a 
pagan, and comments severely upon the faults 
and crimes of the Christian emperors. Hence 
his credibility has been assailed by several 
Christian writers. There are, no doubt, nume- 
rous errors of judgment to be found in the 
work, and sometimes (especially in the case of 
Constantine) an intemperate expression of 
opinion, which sometimes exaggerates, if it 
does not distort the truth. But he does not 
seem fairly chargeable with deliberate inven- 
tion or wilful misrepresentation. — Editions by 
Bekker, 1837, and by Mendelssohn, 1887. 

Zoster (G. of Vari), a promontory on the W. 
of Attica, between Phalerum and Suniuni. It 
was a sacred spot, and contained altars of Leto, 
Artemis, and Apollo (Pans. i. 31, 1). 

Zygantes or Gygantes (Zvyavrts, Tvyavrts), 
a people of Libya, whom Herodotus places on 
the W. side of the lake Triton. Others men- 
tion a city Zygantis and a people Zyges on 
the coast of Marmarica. (Hdt. iv. 194 ; Steph. 
Byz. s.v.) 



APPENDIX 



It is thought that some of those who wish to 
pursue further the subjects (apart from the 
domain of the historians of Greece and Rome; 
which cannot be exhaustively dealt with in a 
book of this size, may be helped by the follow- 
ing list of works. It is not intended to be 
anything approaching a complete bibliography 
on any of the departments included in this 
Dictionary. The object lias been to name the 
more easily procurable books among modem 
authorities which will carry most students as 
far as they need, and will themselves furnish a 
more complete list of writers in all languages 
on their several subjects. To most of the books 
mentioned below the Editor has to acknowledge 
deep obligations for information, suggestions, 
or references. 

A. 

For Mythology: — Rosehc-r'f. Ausfiihrliches 
Lexikon der gricchischen und rbmischen 
Mythologie (which, however, as yet does not 
extend beyond letter K). [This is the best 
and fullest work which has yet appeared, though 
some of its most learned contributors are too 
prone to retain the meteorological explanation 
of myths, to the exclusion of that derived from 
customs and rites traceable in ' folk-lore.'] 
Preller-Plew's Griechische Mythologie and 
Preller-Jordan's Rom. Myth. Great assistance 
and guidance may be obttined from Mann- 
hardt's Mythol. Forschungen and Wald- und 
Feldkulte, and from Lang's Custom, Myth 
and Ritual ; also from Harrison's Mythology 
and Monuments of Athens, Frazer's Golden 
Bough, Dyer's Gods of Greece, and from articles 
in Baumeister's Denhmdler (especially for the 
representation of myths in ancient art). 



For Topography :— Fuller information and 
more references will be found in Smith's Dic- 
tionary of Ancient Geography. See also Bun- 
bury's History of Ancient Geography, Kiepert's 
Lehrbuch der alten Geographic and the Eng- 
lish translation. Among the more recent books 
for particular countries and for the more im- 
portant towns ure Ramsay's Historical Geo- 



graphy of Asia Minor, Tozer's Armenia and 
Asia Minor, Torr's Rhodes in Ancient Times, 
Bent's Cyclades, Tozer's Islands of the Aegean, 
Harrison's Myth, and Mon. of Athens, and 
Lolling's article on Athens, printed in Bau- 
meister's Denkmtiler and in I. Miiller's Hand- 
buch, Tozer's Lectures on Greece, Gardner's 
Netv Chapters in Greek History, Schuchardt's 
account of Schliemann's Excavations (transl. 
by Sellers), Freeman's Sicily, Middleton's Re- 
mains of Ancient Rome, O. Richter's Topo- 
graphic von Rom (in Baumeisterandl. Muller), 
Burn's Rome and the Campagna. A very full 
bibliography for the various countries of Greece 
and of the Roman Empire will be found in the 
treatises of Lolling and Jung in I. Miiller's 
Handbuch, vol. iii. For the divisions and 
arrangement of Roman Provinces see Momm- 
sen's Provinces of the Roman Empire and 
Marquardt's Handbuch, vol. iv. 

C. 

For Philosophers : — Zeller's Philosophic der 
Griechen, and the translations of his works 
Plato and the Older Academy and Outlines of 
Greek Philosophy; Lewes's History of Philo- 
sophy, Grote's Plato and Aristotle. 

D. 

For Artists:— A. S. Murray's History of 
Greek Sculpture and Handbook of Greek 
Archaeology, and Overbeck's Geschichte der 
griechischen Plastik. [See also articles in 
Baumeister's Denkmdler. The most important 
modern authorities are given in the articles 
on Statuaria Ars and Pictura in Smith's 
Dictionary of Antiquities. A Handbook of 
Greek Painters by Cecil Smith is announced.] 



For Greek and Roman Writers -.—Histories 
of Greek Literature by Mahaffy, Bergk, Bern- 
hardy, and Jevons : for the orators, Blass' 
Attischc Deredsamkeit and Jebb's Attic Ora- 
tors ; Teuffel and Schwabe, History of Roman 
Literature (transl. by Warr), which gives a 
very full bibliography, Sellar's Roman Poets of 
the Republic and Poets Oj the Augustan Age. 



nirNTKD iit 
SrOTTMWOOnE AND co., xrw-htreet 9QCAJUC 
LONDON 



